Algebra 1

Section 4.2

Solving Quadratic Equations

Quadratic Equations

A quadratic polynomial expression is a degree two polynomial. A quadratic equation is an

equation in which at least one side is a quadratic polynomial expression, and the other is not a degree
three or higher polynomial. If a quadratic equation has only one variable, the equation can be solved
for that variable. However, it is important to realize that there may be 1, 2, or no real solutions to a
quadratic equation. For example, consider the following three quadratic equations:

x2 = 0

x2 1 = 0

x2 + 1 = 0

These equations can be solved somewhat simply by getting the x2 term by itself and taking the
square root of both sides. In the first equation, 0 is the only number that when squared equals 0, so
the single solution is 0.

In the second equation, after adding 1 to both sides, realize that both (1)2 = (1)2 = 1, because
the product of two negative numbers is positive. Thus, the second equation has two solutions, 1 and
1. When an equation for x has two solutions, you may see it written as x = {1, 1}.

Finally, when subtracting 1 from both sides, realize that no real number squared equals 1.
However, it has complex solutions. A complex number is
Thus, this equation has no real solutions.
any number that involves i, where i = 1. Complex numbers have a real part (without i) and an
imaginary part (with i) that cannot be combined. Thus, two solutions to the final equation are i and i.

You may care about all solutions to the equation, or only real ones. Be sure to read the problem
carefully to figure out what solutions you are interested in.

Quadratic equations are generally solved by getting one side of the equation to equal 0. When
this is done, the quadratic equation will be of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0. This is called the standard
form of the quadratic equation. The values of x that make a quadratic expression equal to 0 are
called the roots of the quadratic expression. They are also the solutions of the quadratic equation
obtained by setting the expression equal to zero. This section will focus on how to obtain these roots
for quadratic equations and some other polynomial expressions.

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Solving Quadratic Equations by Taking the Square root

If, when a quadratic equation has been written in standard form, the nonzero side of the equation
has only two terms- an x2 term and a constant term (that is b = 0)- simply move the constant term
to the other side of the equation, divide by the coefficient of x2 and then take the square root of both
sides. This method only works when there is no x term, but it is very quick and easy. For an example,
consider the equation and steps below.

2x2 6 = 2

Write the equation in standard form.

2x2 8 = 0
Get x2 alone by adding 8 to both sides.

2x2 = 8

Divide by 2.

x2 = 4
Take the positive and negative square roots, because (2)2 = 22 = 4.

x = {2, 2}

A shorthand way of saying x = {2, 2} is x = 2.

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Solving Quadratic Equations by Factoring

Just as FOILing can take the product of two linear binomials and make a quadratic expression,
factoring takes a quadratic expression and writes it as the product of two linear expressions. In essence,
factoring is reverse-FOILing.

When factoring a quadratic expression, first recognize the form ax2 + bx + c, and determine the
values of a, b, and c. Then, find two integers whose sum is b and whose product is a c. There will
not always be two integers that satisfy these conditions, but most often, there will be.

Once two integers, say d and f , have been found such that d + f = b and d f = a c, then write
the quadratic expression in the form

ax2 + dx + f x + c

Note this is the same expression since d + f = b. Next, write it in the form

ax(x + ad ) + f (x + fc )

d c
This is essentially reversing the distributive property. Note that since df = ac, a = f, so let
g = a = fc . Finally, write the expression in the form
d

(ax + f )(x + g)
d
This process will usually work, but if a is not an integer, then the greatest common factor of d
and a is used. An example is given below.

6x2 5x 4

First realize that (8) + 3 = 5 and (8)3 = 24 = 6(4), so d = 8 and f = 3.

6x2 8x + 3x 4

Then, factor out 2x, the greatest common factor of 6x2 and 8x, from the first two terms.

2x(3x 4) + 3x 4

Next, factor out 1 from the last two terms, because their greatest common factor is 1.

2x(3x 4) + 1(3x 4)

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Note that the terms in the parentheses match, so one can undo the distributive property and arrive at
the factored form:

(2x + 1)(3x 4)

This can be expanded by FOILing to confirm it is equal to the original quadratic.

To realize how factoring can be used to solve quadratic equations, first understand the following
property:

If ab = 0, then a = 0 or b = 0.

This is because the product of any two nonzero numbers is nonzero, so if the product of two
numbers is zero, one of the numbers must be zero.

So, after getting a quadratic equation into standard form, if it is possible to factor the nonzero
side of the equation, one can set the two factors equal to zero and the solutions of the resulting linear
equations are the solutions of the original quadratic equation. For example, consider the problem
below.

2x2 3x + 6 = x2 2x

First, convert the equation to standard form by subtracting (x2 2x) from both sides of the equation
so that the right hand side is equal to zero. (Remember, subtracting x2 2x is the same as adding
x2 + 2x).

x2 x + 6 = 0

Realize 2 + (3) = 1 and (3)(2) = 6 = 6(1), so chose 2 and 3 as the numbers used to factor.

x2 3x + 2x + 6 = 0

Factor out x from the first two terms and 2 from the second two terms.

x(x + 3) + 2(x + 3) = 0

Notice the terms in parentheses match so undo the distributive property and factor.

(x + 2)(x + 3) = 0

So from the property above, we know x + 2 = 0 or x + 3 = 0, so solve these equations to find the
solutions of the original quadratic.

x + 2 = 0 so x = 2

x + 3 = 0 so x = 3

So the solution of the original equation is x = {2, 3}.

You can plug these solutions into the original equation to check that they both solve the problem:

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 LEFT HAND SIDE: 2(2)2 3(2) + 6 = 8 6 + 6 = 8

RIGHT HAND SIDE: (2)2 2(2) = 4 4 = 8

The left and right hand side are equal, so the solution x = 2 works.

LEFT HAND SIDE: 2(3)2 3(3) + 6 = 18 + 9 + 6 = 3

RIGHT HAND SIDE: (3)2 2(3) = 9 + 6 = 3

The left and right hand side are equal, so the solution x = 3 works.

When factoring, be sure to remember the identities of FOILing such as the difference of two
squares discussed in 4.1. For example,

x2 9 = 0

There is no x term here so b = 0, but we know from 4.1 that (x + y)(x y) = x2 y 2 , and realize

that 9 = 3, so we can write the problem as

(x + 3)(x 3) = 0

And so (x + 3) = 0 or (x 3) = 0. Solve these two equations to find x = 3 or x = 3, and so the

solution to the quadratic equation is x = 3.

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Completing the Square

The method of completing the square is based on the following identity for two arbitrary values
a and b.

(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2

Thus, if a quadratic expression is in the form a2 + 2ab + b2 , it is said to be a perfect square.

In most quadratic equations, however, there are no perfect squares. It is possible nonetheless to find
the constant value necessary to complete the square depending upon the x2 and x coefficients.

If a quadratic equation is in standard form ax2 + bx + c, the first step to complete the square is
to factor out a from the x2 and the x terms. Then, identify the constant value that will complete the
square. An example is given below.

2x2 4x 3 = 0

Factor out 2 from the first two terms.

2(x2 2x) 3 = 0

Notice that the constant value to complete the square must be the square of half the coefficient of the
x term, because (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 , and in this case we have made sure a = x. Thus, we take
half of 2 and square it. ( 2 2 2
2 ) = (1) = 1, so we add 1. However, we must also subtract 1 so the
equation stays the same.

2(x2 2x + 1) 3 1 = 0

Next, simply realize that the expression in the parenthesis is a perfect square, because (x 1)2 =
x2 + 2(1)(x) + (1)2 = x2 2x + 1. Write the equation in this form and shift the constants to the
other side of the equation.

2(x 1)2 = 4

Finally, divide by 2, take the square root (both positive and negative) of both sides and add 1 to find
the solutions of the equation.

(x 1)2 = 2

(x 1) = 2

x= 2+1

This solution will always work, but if values for a, b, and c are not whole, it may be easier to use
the quadratic formula, discussed below. Also, recognize that you may have to take the square root of
a negative number, which will result in complex solutions.

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The Quadratic Formula

Sometimes a quadratic equation cannot be factored because of the specific values of the coeffi-
cients. Sometimes completing the square isnt simple. Although those methods are preferable when
they can be used because they are straightforward to compute and to understand why certain values
solve a quadratic equation, the quadratic formula must be used at certain times.

The quadratic formula is long, unintuitive, and can give complex solutions. However, it will work
for every quadratic equation. To obtain it, consider an arbitrary quadratic equation in standard form.

ax2 + bx + c = 0

Begin by completing the square for this equation, starting by dividing everything by a.

x2 + ab x + c
a =0

The next step is to complete the square by finding the constant term needed to make the expres-
b 2
sion excluding the constant term a perfect square. This constant value will always be ( 2a ) . (Think
about why. What is the formula for the square of a binomial?) Add this to the left hand side, but
remember that if a value is added, it must be balanced either by subtracting the same value or adding
it to the other side of the equation. In this case, add the value from the right hand side, and move ac
to the right hand side. Then, the equation will have the form

x2 + ab x + ( 2a
b 2 b 2
) = ( 2a ) c
a

Then, recognize that the left hand side is a perfect square, and write it in a condensed form.
Then, expand the terms on the right hand side

b 2 b2 c
(x + 2a ) = 4a2 a

c 4a
We wish to combine the right hand side to a single fraction, so multiply a by 4a , or 1.

b 2 b2 4ac b2 4ac
(x + 2a ) = 4a2 4a2 = 4a2

Next, take the square root of both sides, and remember to include the positive and negative
square roots.

q
b b2 4ac b2 4ac
x+ 2a = 4a2 = 2a

b
Finally, get x alone by subtracting 2a from both sides, getting

b b2 4ac
x= 2a

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 Plugging the values for a, b, and c into this formula for any equation will yield solutions, but
they may not always be real solutions. Remember that taking the square root of a negative number
gives an imaginary number, so depending upon the value under the square root, the number of real
solutions will change.

The discriminant of a quadratic equation in the form ax2 + bx + c = 0 is b2 4ac. Notice this is
the expression under the square root in the quadratic formula. This is no coincidence.

If the discriminant is positive, then adding or subtracting the square root of it will make a dif-
ference, so there will be two real solutions to the quadratic equation.

If the discriminant is zero, then adding or subtracting its square root (also zero) will make no
difference, because 5 + 0 = 5 = 5 0, for example. Thus, there will be only one real solution to the
quadratic equation.

If the discriminant is negative, then its square root will be imaginary and so all solutions to the
quadratic equation will be negative. Thus, there will be no real solutions to the quadratic equation.

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Solutions to Other Polynomials and The Fundamental Theorem
of Algebra

The fundamental theorem of algebra states an n-th polynomial equation in standard form, where
one side equals 0, there are exactly n solutions. These solutions could be complex or real, but there
are n solutions. Furthermore, a single solution may be repeated.

If a solution is repeated in a polynomial, we say it has repeated roots.

Complex numbers, as discussed above, have a real and an imaginary part. Thus, they are in
the form a + bi. A conjugate pair of complex numbers are of the form a + bi and a bi. If one
complex number is a solution of a polynomial equation, then so is the complex numbers conjugate pair.

To solve a polynomial equation in standard form with a degree higher than 2, one must factor
the nonzero polynomial expression, and solve the factors equal to zero as though they were individual
equations. The solutions to all these equations make up the solutions of the polynomial equation.

Every polynomial can be factored into real linear or quadratic expressions. A quadratic expres-
sion cannot be factored any more when its discriminant is negative.

Again, the solutions of a polynomial equation in standard form are also the roots of the nonzero
side of the equation.

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Examples

Here are a few examples to test the concepts provided in this section. Answers can be found on
the following pages.

1. Solve the quadratic equation 4x2 + 8x + 3 = 0 by factoring and by the quadratic formula. Make
sure both answers match.

2. What is the conjugate pair of 3 5i

3. How many roots does the polynomial expression 5x2 3x6 + 4x have?

4. Solve the quadratic equation 3x2 12x + 5 = 0 by completing the square.

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Solutions

These are the solutions to the questions on the previous page

1. To factor, notice that 6 + 2 = 8 and 6 2 = 12 = 4 3, so use 6 and 2 to expand the x terms:

4x2 + 6x + 2x + 3 = 0

Then factor out 2x and 1 from the first and last two terms respectively.

2x(2x + 3) + 1(2x + 3) = 0

Notice the terms in the parentheses are the same, so undo the distributive property.

(2x + 1)(2x + 3) = 0

Now solve the two linear expressions equal to 0 to find the solutions of the original quadratic.

2x + 1 = 0 so x = 12

2x + 3 = 0 so x = 23

Thus, the solutions to the quadratic equation are x = { 21 , 32 }

a = 4, b = 8, and c = 3. Plugging this into the quadratic equation yields

8 64443 84
x= 24 = 8 = { 12 4 3 1
8 , 8 }={ 2 , 2 }
So the solutions are the same.

2. Simply flip the sign in between the real and imaginary part, so the complex conjugate is 3 + 5i.

3. This is a 6th degree polynomial expression so it has 6 roots.

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4. First factor out a 3 from the first two terms.

3(x2 4x) + 5 = 0

Then add the square of half of 4, or 4, to the parentheses and subtract it from the same side.

3(x2 4x + 4) + 5 4 = 0

Next, move the constants to the right side and compress the left side into a perfect square.

3(x 2)2 = 1

Finally, divide by 3, take the square root, and add 2.

1
(x 2)2 = 3

3
(x 2) = 13 = 3

3
x= 3 +2

If youre confused why the fraction

was rewritten so that the denominator did not have a root
(by multiplying the fraction by 33 ), it has to do with a convention in math that fractions do not
have roots in their denominators. You will learn more about this later in your math career.

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