Dictionary of The Bible - O To U - James Hastings

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OABDIUS(1Es9:27)=Ezr10:26,Abdi.
OAK
(1)lh,Gn35:4,Jg6:11,19,2S18:9f.,14,1K13:14,1Ch10:12,Is1:30,Ezk6:13,Hos4:13(Valeof)Elah[RVmterebinth],1S17:2,19,21:9,Is6:13[AVteil
tree]lhelsewherealwaystr.
oak[RVmterebinth]allh,aslightvariant,Jos24:26.
2. lrn,perhapspi.oflh,Is1:29,oaks[RVmterebinths]57:5[AVidols,mg.oaks,RVoaks]61:3trees.ThemeaningoflminEzk31:14isobscure,ifthe
textbecorrect.Thesewords,lh,allh,andlm,allapparentlyrefertotheterebinth(wh.see).
3. alln,cannotbethesameaslh,becauseitoccurswithitinIs6:13,Hos4:13seealsoGn35:8,Is44:14,Am2:9.InIs2:13,Ezk27:8,Zec11:2theallnm(oaks)
ofBashanarementioned.InJos19:33(AV)allnistreatedasapropername.
4. ln,probablymerelyavariationofalln,isinGn12:8,13:18,14:13,18:1,Dt11:30,Jg4:11,9:6,37,1S10:3(AV)tr.plainorplains,butinRVoakoroaks,
mg.terebinthorterebinths.allnandlnapparentlyrefertotheoak.
OakshavealwaysbeenrelativelyplentifulinPalestineEventoday,inspiteofthemostrecklessdestruction,grovesofoakssurviveonCarmel,Tabor,around
Banias,andinancientBashanwhilewholemilesofcountryarecoveredwithshrublikeoaksproducedfromtherootsoftreesdestroyedeveryfewyearsforfuel.
AmongtheninerecognizedvarietiesofoakinSyria,theevergreenQuercuscocciferaorholmoakisthefinestitisoften30to35feethigh.Itspreservationis
usuallyduetoitsbeingsituatedatsomesacredwely.AbrahamsoakatHebronisofthiskind.OthercommonoaksaretheValoniaoak(Q.gilops),whichhas
largeacornswithpricklycups,muchvaluedfordyeingandtheOrientalgalloak(Q.cerris),acomparativelyinsignificanttree,especiallynoticeableforthevariety
ofgallswhichgrowonit.Boththeselatteraredeciduous,theleavesfallingfromlateautumntoearlyspring.Oakwoodisusedfortanningskinbottlesandalsoas
fuel,whiletheacorncupsoftheValoniaoakandthegallsofthevariousoaktreesarebothimportantarticlesofcommerceinN.Syria.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
OAR.SeeS HIPSANDBOATS.
OATHS.HowtheneedofoathsmustfirsthavearisencanbeseeninsuchapassageasEx22:10,11:Ifamandeliveruntohisneighbouranass,oranox,or
asheep,orabeast,tokeepanditdie,orbehurt,ordrivenaway,nomanseeingIt:theoathoftheLordshallbebetweenthemboth,whetherhehathnotputhis
handuntohisneighboursgoodsandtheownerthereofshallacceptit,andheshallnotmakerestitution.Asthereisnowitnesstosubstantiatetheinnocenceor
provetheguiltofthesuspectedpersonnomanseeingitGodiscalledtowitness.Anoathisreallyaconditionalcurse,whichamancallsdownuponhimself
fromGod,inthecaseofhisnotspeakingthetruthornotkeepingapromise.Theuseofoathswasnotrestrictedtojudicialprocedure,butwasalsoconnectedwitha
varietyofeverydaymatterstoswearbythenameofJahwehwasregardedasasignofloyaltytoHim(cf.Is48:1,Jer12:16,Dt6:13).
TherearetwowordsinHebrewforanoath(1)shbah,whichcomesfromthesamerootasthewordforseven(sheba)theHeb.wordfortoswearcomeslikewisefrom
thesameroot,andmeansliterallytocomeundertheinfluenceofseventhings.SevenwasthemostsacrednumberamongtheHebrews(cf.shba,weekofsevendays),and
amongtheSemitesgenerally.AmongtheBabylonians
thesevenplanetseachrepresentedagod.Originally,therefore,theremusthavebeenadirectconnexionbetweenthissacrednumberandtheoath.(2)lah,which,strictlyspeaking,
meansacurse,andwasastrongerformofoath.Thecombinationofbothwordswasusedonespeciallysolemnoccasions,e.g.Nu5:21(cf.Mt26:72ofPetersdenial).
Therewerevariousformsusedintakinganoath,e.g.Goddosotomeandmorealsoif(1K2:23)thepunishmentcalleddowninthecaseoftheoathnot
beingobservedisleftindeterminateinthisformthisistobeexplainedfromthefactthattherewasafearlestthementionofthecurseshouldipsofactobringitto
passitisaremnantofanimisticconceptions(i.e.therewasthefearthatademonmightthinkhisserviceswererequired).Inlatertimes,however,thenatureofthe
curseissometimesmentioned,e.g.saying,TheLordmaketheelikeZedekiahandlikeAhab,whomthekingofBabylonroastedinthefire(Jer29:22cf.Is
65:15,Zec8:13).Anotherformwas:Godiswitnessbetwixtmeandthee(Gn31:50),or,The
Lordbeatrueandfaithfulwitnessamongstus,if(Jer42:5)amorecommonformis:AstheLordliveth(Jg8:19),whichissometimesvariedbytheaddition
ofareferencetothepersontowhomtheoathwasmade:AstheLordliveth,andasthysoulliveth(1S20:3,cf.2S15:21).Anotherformwas:Godjudge
betweenus(Gn31:53).GodHimselfisconceivedofastakingoaths:BymyselfhaveIsworn(Gn22:15).Theusualgestureintakinganoathwastoraisethe
armtowardsheaven(Dt32:40,Dn12:7),themotivebeingtopointtothedwellingplaceofGodtoraisethehandbecameanexpressionfortoswear(Ex6:8,Nu1/16
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armtowardsheaven(Dt32:40,Dn12:7),themotivebeingtopointtothedwellingplaceofGodtoraisethehandbecameanexpressionfortoswear(Ex6:8,Nu
14:30).AnothergestureisreferredtoinGn24:2,47:29,viz.puttingthehandunderthethightheorganofgenerationwasregardedaspeculiarlyholybythe
Hebrews.
WithregardtothebreakingofanoathseeLv6:17andfortheuseofoathsinratifyingacovenantseeGn21:2731,26:28,31:53,Jos9:15,2K11:4.
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
OBADIAHisanameofatypecommonamongtheSemiticpeoplesItoccursfrequentlyintheOT,forthemostpartasthenameofpersonsofwhomlittleor
nothingisknown.IthasalsobeenfoundonanancientHebrewseal.Forthemeaningofthename,servantofJahweh,seeart.S ERVANTOFTHELORD,2.The
differentpersonsthusnamedare1.TheauthoroftheVisionofObadiah:seefollowingarticle.2.Ahabssteward,theprotectorofJahwehsprophetsagainst
Jezebel(1K18:316).Thispersonlivedinthe9thcent.B.C.3.AdescendantofSaul(1Ch8:38),wholived,tojudgefromhispositioninthegenealogy,aboutB.C.
700.OntheprobablegenuinenessofthegenealogyseeG.B.Gray,StudiesinHeb.ProperNames,p.241f.4.AnIssacharite(1Ch7:3).5.AdescendantofDavid
inthe5thcent.B.C.,iftheHebrewtext(1Ch3:21)correctlymakeshimagrandsonofZerubbabel,butinthe4thiftheLXXisrightandhebelongedtothesixth
generationafterZerubbabel.6.TheheadofafamilywhoreturnedwithEzra(Ezra8:9=Abadiasof1Es8:35).7.ApriestlycontemporaryofNehemiah(Neh
10:5).8.
Adoorkeeper(Neh12:25).9.10.11.12.13.VariouspersonsinthegenealogiesorstoriesoftheChronicler(1Ch9:16[=Abda,Neh11:17]12:9,27:19,2Ch
17:7,34:12).OntheChroniclersuseofsuchnames,seeG.B.Gray,op.cit.,pp.170190.
G.B.GRAY.
OBADIAH,BOOKOF.ThequestionsastotheoriginandInterpretationofthis,theshortestbookoftheOT,arenumerousanddifficult.Thetitledescribesthe
bookasavision(cf.Is1:1,Nah1:1)andascribesittoObadiah.ObadiahisoneofthecommonestofHebrewnames,andoccursbothbeforeandaftertheExile:
seeprecedingarticle.Somefruitlessattemptshavebeenmadetoidentifytheauthorofthebookwithoneorotherofthepersonsofthesamenamementionedinthe
OT.
ThebookofObadiahstandsfourthinorder(intheGreekversion,fifth)oftheprophetswhoseworkswerecollectedandeditedin(probably)the3rdcent.B.C.
thecollectionsincethebeginningofthe2ndcent.B.C.hasbeenknownasTheTwelve(seeCANONOFOTcf.MICAH[Bk.OF],adinit.).Bytheplacewhichhe
gavethissmallbookinhiscollectiontheeditorperhapsintendedtoindicatehisbeliefthatitwasofearly,i.e.preexilic,origin.Butthebeliefofaneditorofthe3rd
cent.B.C.isnotgoodevidencethatabookwaswrittenearlierthanthe6thcentury.Therelativeprobabilitiesofthedifferenttheoriesofitsoriginmustbejudgedby
internalevidencethis,unfortunately,isitselfuncertainonaccountofambiguitiesofexpression.
Itwillbeconvenienttostatefirstwhatappearsonthewholethemostprobabletheory,andthentomentionmorebrieflyoneortwoothers.
Thebookcontainstwothemes:(1)apropheticInterpretationofanoverwhelmingdisasterwhichhasalreadybefallenEdom(vv.17,1014,16b)(2)a
predictionofauniversaljudgmentandspecificallyofjudgmentonEdomwhichisnowimminent(vv.8,9,16a,1621).
1.ThepropheticinterpretationofEdomsfall.TheprophetdescribesthecompleteconquestoftheEdomitesandtheirexpulsionfromtheirland(v.7)bya
numberofnations(v.1)oncetheirfriendsandallies(v.7).InthiscalamitythewriterseesJahwehsjudgmentonEdomforgloatingoverthefalloftheJews
describedasEdomsbrother(v.12)andparticipatingwithforeignandalienenemies(v.11)intheinflictionofinjuriesonthem.Thisinterpretationisstatedin
simpleanddirecttermsinvv.10,11,anddramaticallyinvv.1214,wherethewriter,throwinghimselfbacktothetimeoftheEdomitesilltreatmentoftheJews,
adjuresthemnottodothethingstheyactuallydid.ThesectioncloseswiththeeffectiveassertionoftheretributivecharacterofthedisastersthathadbefallenEdom
andstillaffectitAsthouhastdone,isitdoneuntotheethydealingreturnsuponthineownhead(v.15b).
Theversesthussummarizedhavethesepointsincommon:(a)thetensesarehistoricalexceptinv.10(shamedothcoverthee,andthouartcutoffforever)
andv.15b,whichmayberenderedaspresents,andinterpretedasattheendoftheprecedingparagraphand(b)afterv.1,whereEdom,inthepresenttext,is
spokenofinthe3rdperson,Edomisthroughoutaddressedinthe2ndpers.sing.Amongtheseversesarenowinterspersedothers,v.6,whichspeaksofEsau
(=Edom)inthe3rdperson(pl.inclausea,sing,inb)andwhichmaybeanasideinthemidstoftheaddress,butismoreprobablyanInterpolationandvv.8,9
(togetherwiththelastclauseofv.7),whichspeakofEdominthe3rdpersonandunmistakablyregardthedisasterasstillfuture:theseversesarebestregardedasan
additionbyaneditorwhowishedthepropheticinterpretationofpastfacttobereadasapropheticdescriptionofthefuture.
Ifnowvv.17(orvv.15,7)1014,15b,whichareheldtogetherbythecommonfeaturesjustnoticed,beaunitytheprophecyislaterthanB.C.586forv.11
cannotwellbeinterpretedbyanyotherdisasterthanthedestructionofJerusaleminthatyear.Theprophecyalsoappearsinvv.5,7toalludetotheextrusionofthe
EdomitesfromancientEdomowingtothenorthwardmovementofArabspeoplewhohadoftensatisfiedthemselveswithplunderingexpeditions(cf.v.5),but
nowpermanentlyevictedsettledpopulationsfromtheirlands(cf.v.7).Thisnorthwardmovementwasalreadythreateningatthebeginningofthe6thcent.B.C.(Ezk2/16
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nowpermanentlyevictedsettledpopulationsfromtheirlands(cf.v.7).Thisnorthwardmovementwasalreadythreateningatthebeginningofthe6thcent.B.C.(Ezk
25:4,5,10)beforeB.C.312,aswelearnfromDiodorusSiculus,ArabshadoccupiedPetra,theancientcapitalofEdom.Betweenthosetwodates,perhapsinthe
firsthalfofthe5thcent.B.C.(cf.Mal1:25),theprophecyappearstohavebeenwritten.
2.Thepredictionofuniversaljudgment.Incontrastwithvv.17,1014,thetensesinvv.15a,1621,areconsistentlyimperfects(naturallysuggestingthe
future),thepersonsaddressed(2ndpl.)areIsraelites,notEdomites,andEdomisreferredtointhe3rdperson.Theprophecypredictsasimminent:(a)auniversal
judgment(vv.15a,15,inwhichtheannihilationofEdombytheJews(not[nomadic]nationsasinvv.1,5,7)andIsraelitesformsanepisodewhichisspecially
described(v.18),and(b)therestorationoftheexilesalikeoftheNorthernandoftheSouthernKingdom(v.18,cf.v.17),whoaretoreoccupythewholeoftheir
ancientterritorytheNegebintheS.,theShephlahintheW.,EphraimtotheN.,GileadintheE.(v.19,whichaftereliminationofglossesreads,Andtheyshall
possesstheNegebandtheShephlah,andthefieldofEphraimandGilead)inparticular,theIsraeliteswillreoccupyasfarN.asZarephath(nearTyre),andthe
JewsasfarsouthastheNegeb(v.20).TheprophecycloseswiththeannouncementofJahwehsreignfromZion(v.21).
Theprediction(vv.15a,1621)scarcelyappearstobetheoriginalandimmediatecontinuationoftheformerpartofthechapter,butis,likevv.8,9,a
subsequentaddition.Thetheoryoftheoriginandinterpretationofthebookjustdescribedissubstantiallythatof
WellhausenithasbeenadoptedinthemainbyNowackandMartiand,sofarastheseparationofvv.1521(with15b)fromtherestofthechapterisconcerned,
andtheassignmentofthewholetoadateaftertheExile,byCheyne(EBi).
Onefacthasappearedtomanyscholarsaninsuperabledifficultyinthewayofassigningthewholebooktoadateafter586.Itisadmittedbyallthatthe
resemblancesbetweenOb14,5,5,8andJer49:1415,9,10a,7aresocloseastoimplytheliterarydependenceofoneofthetwopassagesontheotheritis
furtheradmittedbymost,andshouldbeadmitted,thatthecommonmatterisinitsmoreoriginalforminObadiah,andthatthereforesomuchatleastofObadiahis
priortoJer49:1416,9,10a,7,andthereforepriortotheyearB.C.604,ifthetheorythatwascommonlyheldwithregardtothedateofJer4649beadmitted.But
ofrecentyearsmanyhavequestionedwhetherJer4649,atleastinitspresentform,istheworkofJeremiahatall,andconsequentlywhetheritwasnecessarily
writtenbefore586.
IftheargumentthatOb1,6,8ispreexilicbeaccepted,itisnecessarytoaccountforwhatarenowgenerallyadmittedtobetheallusionstotheeventsof586in
Ob1014.ThishasbeendonebyassumingthatOb.andJer.alikequotefromapreexilicprophecy,butthatObadiahhimselfprophesiedafterB.C.586.Astothe
amountofmattercitedbyObadiah,scholarsdiffer:
e.g.DriverconsidersthatOb19isderivedfromtheoldprophecyG.A.Smith,thatvv.15,810arequotations,butthatv.7,whichheadmitspresupposeslater
conditions,isbyObadiahhimself.Theweaknessofthesetheoriesliesinthefactthatthedistributionofthepartstothetwoauthorsdoesnotfollowtheconcrete
differencesofstyleindicatedabove,andthatv.7eitherreceivesnoadequateinterpretation,oristornawayfromv.5,withwhichitcertainlyseemsclosely
connected.Astothemoreprecisedateofvv.19(10)orsomuchoftheversesasmaybepreexilic,noagreementhasbeenreachedamongthosewhoholdthem
tobepreexilicnoknowncircumstancesexplaintheallusions.ItisalsoveryuncertainwhetheranyinferencecansafelybedrawnfromtheallusiontoSepharad(
wh.see)inv.20.
Forfurtherdiscussionofmanydetails,someofwhichhaveofnecessitybeenleftunmentionedhere,andforanaccountofothertheoriesaswellasthosedescribedabove,the
EnglishreaderwillbestconsultDriver,LOTG.A.Smith,BookoftheTwelve,ii.163184(withacriticaltranslation)Selbiesart.inHastingsDB,andCheynesinEBi.
G.B.GRAY.
OBAL(Gn10:28).SeeEBAL,No.1.
OBDIA(1Es5:38)=HabaiahEzr2:61,HobaiahNeh7:63.
OBED.1.ThesonofBoazandRuth,thefatherofJesseandgrandfatherofDavid(Ru4:17),andanancestorofourLord(Mt1:5,Lk3:32).2.Adescendant
ofSheshan(1Ch2:37ff.).
3.OneofDavidsheroes(1Ch11:47).4.AsonofShemaiah(1Ch26:7).5.ThefatherofAzariah(2Ch23:1).
OBEDEDOM.1.APhilistine,anativeofGath,wholivedinornearJerusalem.InhishouseDaviddepositedthearkafterthedeathofUzzah,andhereit
remainedthreemonths,bringingablessingbyitspresence(2S6:10f.,1Ch13:14).ItisinallprobabilitythesameO.thatappearsas2.Theeponymofafamily
ofdoorkeepersintheTemple(1Ch15:18,24,16:38,26:4,8,15,2Ch25:24).3.Theeponymofapostexilicfamilyofsingers(1Ch15:21,16:5).
OBEDIENCE.OccasionallythiswordoccursinScripturetoexpressthedutyofonepersontoanother,asinDt21:18,19,2S22:45,2Th3:14,Ph2:12,Eph3/16
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OBEDIENCE.OccasionallythiswordoccursinScripturetoexpressthedutyofonepersontoanother,asinDt21:18,19,2S22:45,2Th3:14,Ph2:12,Eph
6:1,5,1P3:6.MuchmorefrequentlyitexpressesthedutyofmantoGod(1S15:22,Jer11:7,Jn14:15,23).Thespiritofobedienceistheprimaland
indispensablerequirementforacceptancebytheFather.TheSonofGodHimselfwasmadeperfectthroughobedience(He5:8),andonlythus.Itwasthemottoof
Hisearthlylife,Iamcometodothywill,OGod(He10:7).TheonelessonofthelifeofJesusistheonelessonofthewordofGodfromfirsttolastGodmustbe
obeyed.AbsoluteobediencewasessentialtothefulfilmentofHismission.Absoluteobedienceisessentialtoourownsalvation.Havinglearnedobedience,He
becameaSaviourtothosewhoobey(He5:9).ObedienceisasnecessarywithusasitwaswithHim.ObedienceisaspossiblewithusasitwaswithHim.ForHeis
abletoworkinusnowtheverysamemindthatwasinHim,thesamedispositionandspiritHehaduponearth.D.A.HAYES.
OBEISANCE.Obeisanceisobedience(comingintoEng.throughtheFrench).Itoccursonlyinthephrasesdoobeisanceandmakeobeisance,andonlyin
theOT.ThemeaningoftheHeb.sotranslatedistoprostrateoneselfintokenofreverenceorforworship.
OBELISK.SeeP ILLAR,2(c).
OBETH(1Es8:32)=Ebed,Ezr8:6.
OBIL.TheoverseerofDavidscamels(1Ch27:30).
OBLATION.SeeS ACRIFICEANDOFFERING.
OBOTH.AstationofthechildrenofIsrael(Nu21:10,11,33:43f.).Nothingdefiniteisknownastoitsposition.
OBSERVE.Mk6:20HerodfearedJohn,knowingthathewasajustmanandanholy,andobservedhim.ThemeaningoftheEng.wordobservedis
reverenced.Tindalestranslationisgavehimreverence.Cf.Shaks.2HenryIV.IV.iv.30,heisgracious,ifhebeobserved.Butthemoreprobablemeaningof
theGreekisprotectedhim,or,asRV,kepthimsafe.
OCCUPY.TheoccupierofEzk27:27isatrader,andtooccupy(Ezk27:9,Lk19:13)istotrade.TheoriginalmeaningoftheEng.wordistobe
engagedinanything.
OCHIELUS(1Es1:9)=Jeiel,2Ch35:9.
OCHRAN.FatherofPagiel(Nu1:13,2:27,7:72,77,10:26).
OCIDELUS(1Es9:22)=JozabadinEzr10:22.
OCINA.TakingthetownsmentionedinorderasfearingtheadvanceofHolofernes(Jth
2:28),SidonandTyrearewellknown.WithsomecertaintySurmaybeidentifiedwithUmmelAmd,S.ofIskanderna,whichseemstohavebeenformerlycalled
Turn.ThenextsteptakesusnaturallytoAcre,inlatertimesknownasAccon,inwhichwemayfindanechooftheearlierOcina.
W.EWING.
ODED.1.ThefatheroftheprophetAzariah(2Ch15:1).Inv.8OdedofMTisamistake(throughwrongmarginalglossorotherwise)forAzariah.2.A
prophetwhosuccessfullyprotestedagainsttheproposaltoenslaveJudahites(2Ch28:9ff.).
ODOMERA.Achief,slainbyJonathan(1Mac9:66).
OF.Asalreadynoted,underBy,theprep,ofisgenerallyusedinAVfortheagent,asMt2:18Hewasmockedofthewisemen.Butthereareother
obsoleteorarchaicusesofof,whichshouldbecarefullyobserved.Thus(1)itsometimesmeansfrom(thepropermeaningoftheA.S.of),asMk11:8Others
cutdownbranchesofthetrees,Jn15:15AllthingsthatIhaveheardofmyFather,Jn16:13Heshallnotspeakofhimself(2)concerning,asAc5:24They
doubtedofthem,whereuntothiswouldgrow,Mt18:13Herejoicethmoreofthatsheepthanoftheninetyandnine,Jn2:17Thezealofthinehouse(3)with,Ca4/16
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doubtedofthem,whereuntothiswouldgrow,Mt18:13Herejoicethmoreofthatsheepthanoftheninetyandnine,Jn2:17Thezealofthinehouse(3)with,Ca
2:5Iamsickoflove.
OFFENCE.TheGreekwordskandalonisproperlyusedofastickinatraponwhichthebaitisplaced,andwhich,whentouchedbytheanimal,springsup
andshutsthetrap(LiddellandScott).ThewordisusedbyChrist(Mt18:7,Lk17:1)ofoffencesintheformofhindrancestothefaithofbelievers,especiallyof
Christslittleones.Thecontextmakesitclearwhatkindofstumblingblocksarereferredto.InthecorrespondingpassageintheSermonontheMount(Mt5:29,
30cf.Mk9:45,47)therighteyeandrighthandaregivenasinstancesofthekindofoffencesthatmayarise.Themembersherecitedarenotonlyinthemselves
goodandserviceable,butnecessary,thoughtheyarecapable,incertaincircumstances,ofbecomingtheoccasionofsintous.InthesamewaytheChristianmay
findpursuitsandpleasures,whichinthemselvesareinnocent,bringingunexpectedtemptationsandinvolvinghiminsin.Thepossibleapplicationsofthisare
numerous,whetherthewarningbereferredtoartisticgifts(thehandandeye),orabusesofcertainkindsoffoodanddrink,oranyothercircumstanceswhich
mayleadamanfromthehigherlifeordiverthimfromhisaims.Allthesemaybecomparedtothestumblingblockswhichcauseamantofall.Suchthingsmustbe
dispensedwith,forthesakeofenteringtheeternallife,whichistheChristianmansgoal.
T.A.MOXON.
OFFERING.SeeS ACRIFICEANDOFFERING.
OFFICER.BythissomewhatindefiniteexpressionarerenderedsomeeightortendifferentHeb.andGr.words,severalofwhichseemtohavehadanequally
wideapplication.OftheHeb.wordsthecommonestisshtr,fromarootwhichinAssyrianmeanstowrite.Theshtr,accordingly,wasoriginally,itwould
seem,asubordinateofficialattachedtothehighermilitary,civil,andjudicialofficersoftheStateforsecretarialpurposes(seeDriverssummaryoftheirdutiesinhis
Com.onDt1:15).InthenarrativeoftheoppressionoftheHebrewsinEgypt,theofficersaretheHebrewsubordinatesoftheEgyptiantaskmasters(seeEx5:14)
oneoftheirduties,itmaybeassumed,wastokeepaccountofthetaleofbricksmadebyeachoftheircompatriots.
InGn37:36andelsewhereofficeristhetr.oftheusualwordforeunuch(wh.see),but,as39:1shows,theoriginal(srs)mustheresignify,moregenerally,
acourtofficial.Stillanotherword,renderedofficerin1K4:5,7etc.,denotestheheadsofthetwelveadministrativedistrictsintowhichSolomondividedhis
kingdom,correspondingsomewhattothecollectorsinourIndianadministration.
InNTofficeris,withoneexception(Lk12:58),thetr.ofaGr.wordofequallywideapplication.IntheaccountofourLordsbetrayalandcapturetheofficers
aremembersoftheTemplepolice(Jn7:32etc.),asalsointheaccountoftheimprisonmentofPeterandJohn(Ac5:22,26cf.4:1).Thesamewordiselsewhere
renderedminister,eitherinthemoregeneralsenseofattendant(soAc13:6RV),orinthespecialsenseoftheminister(RVattendant)orofficeroftheJewish
synagogue(Lk4:20),forwhomseeS YNAGOGUE.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
OG.ThekingofBashan,who,withhischildrenandpeople,wasdefeatedanddestroyedbytheIsraelitesatEdrei,directlyafterthedefeatofSihon.Hisrule
extendedoversixtycities,ofwhichthetwochiefwereAshtarothandEdrei(Jos12:4).ThewholeofhiskingdomwasassignedtothetribesofReuben,Gad,and
halfManasseh(Dt3:113,Nu32:33seealsoDt1:4,4:47,31:4,Jos2:10,9:10,13:12,30).Theconquestofthispowerfulgiantkinglingeredlonginthe
imaginationoftheIsraelitesasoneofthechiefexploitsoftheconquest(Ps135:11,136:20).TheimpressionofthegiganticstatureofOgiscorroboratedbythe
writerofDt3:11,whospeaksofthehugeironbedstead(orsarcophagus)belongingtohim.Accordingtothemeasurementstheregiven,thissarcophaguswasnine
cubitslongandfourcubitsbroad.Itis,however,impossibletoestimatehisstaturefromthesedimensions,owingtothetendencytobuildtombsunnecessarilylarge
inordertoleaveanimpressionofsuperhumanstature.Theironofwhichthesarcophaguswasmade,probablymeansblackbasalt.Manybasalticsarcophagihave
beenfoundontheeastoftheJordan.
T.A.MOXON.
OHAD.AsonofSimeon(Gn46:10,Ex6:15).
OHEL.AsonofZerubbabel,1Ch3:20[textdoubtful].
OHOLAHANDOHOLIBAH(AVAholah,Aholibah).Twosisterswhowereharlots
(Ezk23).Thewordsappeartomeantentandtentinher,theallusionbeingtothetentsusedforidolatrouspurposes.Thepassageisfigurative,thetwoharlots
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(Ezk23).Thewordsappeartomeantentandtentinher,theallusionbeingtothetentsusedforidolatrouspurposes.Thepassageisfigurative,thetwoharlots
representing,theoneSamariaandtheotherJerusalem.ThoughbothwereweddedtoJehovah,theywereseducedbythegallantofficersoftheEast,Samariabeing
ledastraybyAssyriaandJerusalembyBabylon.Thewholeoftheallegoryisacontinuationofideasalreadyexpoundedinchs.16and20,andisintendedasa
rebukeagainstIsraelforherfondnessforallianceswiththegreatOrientalempires,whichwastheoccasionofnewformsanddevelopmentsofidolatry.Themain
ideaoftheallegoryseemstohavebeenborrowedfromJer3:613.
T.A.MOXON.
OHOLIAB(AVAholiab).ThechiefassistantofBezalel(Ex31:8,35:34,36:1,2,38:23).
OHOLIBAH(AVAholibah).SeeOHOLAH.
OHOLIBAMAH(AVAholibamah).1.OneofEsauswives(Gn36:2,5,14,18,25).2.AnEdomiteduke(Gn36:41).
OIL.Withoneexception(Est2:12oilofmyrrh)alltheScripturereferencestooilaretooliveoil,asitisexpresslytermedinEx27:20,Lv24:2etc.,
accordingtothemorecorrectrenderingofRV.Consideringhowverynumerousthesereferencesaresometwohundredinallitissurprisingthatthereshouldbe
sofewthatthrowlightonthemethodsadoptedinthepreparationofthisindispensableproductoftheolivetree.
1.Preparationofoil.BycombiningthesemeagrereferenceswiththefullerdataoftheMishna,asillustratedbytheactualremainsofoilpresses,eitherstill
abovegroundorrecentlyrecoveredfromthesoilofPalestine,itispossibletofollowwithsomeminutenesstheprincipalmethodsadopted.Theoliveswereeither
shakenfromthetreeorbeatendownbystrikingthebrancheswithalightpole,asillustratedonGreekvases(illust.inVigouroux,Dict.delaBible,art.Huile).The
lattermethodsuppliesIsaiahwithapatheticfigureofIsrael(17:6RVm).
Thefinestqualityofoilwasgotbyselectingthebestberriesbeforetheywerefullyripe.Thesewerepoundedinamortar,afterwhichthepulpwaspouredintoa
basketofrushesorwickerwork.Fromthis,asastrainer,theliquidwasallowedtorunoffintoareceivingvessel.Aftertheoilhadfloatedandbeenpurified,it
formedbeatenoil,suchashadtobeprovidedforthelightingoftheTabernacle(Ex27:20,Lv24:2cf.1K5:11RVm).
Inthepreparationoftheoilrequiredforordinarydomesticuse,however,themethodsadoptedcloselyresembledthoseforthemakingofwine.Indeed,itis
evidentthatthesameapparatusservedforthemakingbothofwineandofoil(seeWINEforthenamesoftheparts,andnotethephrase,Jl2:24,thefats[vats]shall
overflowwithwineandoil).Fromevidence,literaryandarchological,itisclearthattherewerevariouskindsofoilpressesinuseindifferentperiods.Avery
common,ifnotquitethesimplest,typeconsistedofashallowtroughhewninthenativerock,fromwhich,asinthesimilar,ifnotidentical,winepress,aconducting
channelcarriedtheexpressedliquidtoaslightlylowertroughoroilvat.Inearlytimesitappearsasifapreliminarypressingwasmadewiththefeetalone(Mic
6:15).
Intheabsenceofasuitablerocksurface,aswouldnaturallybethecasewithinacityofanyantiquity,asolidblockoflimestonecircular,foursided,andeight
sided(Megiddo)aretheshapesrecoveredbyrecentexplorerswashollowedtothedepthofafewinches,arimbeingleftallroundsaveatonecorner.Such
presseswerefoundatTaanach(illust.Sellin,TellTaannek,61,reproducedinBenzingersHeb.Arch.2[1907]144),andelsewhere.Inthesetheoliveswerecrushed
bymeansofalargeroundstone.Theliquidwaseitherallowedtocollectinalargecuphollowinthesurfaceofthetrough,fromwhichitwasbaledoutbyhand
(PEFSt,1903,p.112),oritwasrunoffintoavesselplacedatthecornerabovementioned(seeSellinsillust.,andop.cit.60f.,93).Atalaterperiod,aswelearn
fromtheMishna,astoneintheshapeofthemodernmillstonewasused.Throughthecentreapolewasinserted,bywhichitwasmadetorevolveonitsnarrowside
roundthecirculartroughamethodstillinuseinSyria.
Fromtheoilmill,asthisapparatusmaybetermed,theproductofwhichnaturally,afterpurification,producedthefinersortofoil,thepulpwastransferredtothe
oilpressproperlysocalled.Hereitwasplacedinbasketspiledoneabovetheother.Pressurewasthenappliedfortheextractionofasecondqualityofoil,by
meansofaheavywoodenbeamworkedasaleverbyropesandheavyweights,orbyawindlass.Detailsofthefittingsofthesepresshouses,astheyarenamedin
theMishna,andofanothertypeofpressformedoftwouprightmonolithswithathirdlaidacross,thewholeresemblingtheGr.letterII,havebeencollectedbythe
presentwriterintheart.OilinEBiiii.3467,andmaynowbecontrolledbytheaccountoftheelaborateundergroundpresshousedescribedandillustratedby
BlissandMacalisterinExcavationsinPalestine,p.208f.andplate92(cf.ib.196f.andIndex).
Theexpressedliquid,bothfromtheoilmillandfromtheoilpress,wascollectedeitherinarockcutvatorinseparatejars.Intheseitwasallowedtosettle,
whentheoilrosetothetop,leavingabitter,wateryliquid,theamurcaoftheRomans,andotherrefusebehind.OilinthisfreshstateisdistinguishedinOTfromthe
refinedandpurifiedproducttheformerisyitshr,sofrequentlynamedalongwithnewwineormust(trsh,seeWINE,1)andcornasoneofthechiefproducts
ofCanaanthelatterisalwaysshemen,butthedistinctionisnotobservedinourversions.Thefreshoiloryitshrwasrefinedinthesamemanneraswine,bybeing
pouredfromvesseltovessel,andwasafterwardsstoredinjarsandinskins.Asmallerquantityforimmediateusewaskeptinasmallearthenwarepotthevialof16/16
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pouredfromvesseltovessel,andwasafterwardsstoredinjarsandinskins.Asmallerquantityforimmediateusewaskeptinasmallearthenwarepotthevialof1
S10:1andof2K9:1RV(AVbox)orinahorn(1S16:1,13,1K1:39).
2.Usesofoil.Foremostamongwhatmaybecalledthesecularusesofoilmaybeplaceditsdailyemploymentasacosmetic,alreadydealtwithunder
ANOINTING(seealsoOINTMENT).Thiswastheoilthatmadethefacetoshine(Ps104:15).AsinallEasternlands,oilwaslargelyusedinthepreparationoffood
familiaritywiththisuseofitispresupposedinthecomparisonofthetasteofthestrangemannatothatofthefamiliarcakesbakedwithoil(Nu11:8RVmsee,
further,MEALS,1.end).Oilwasalsoindispensableforthelightingofthehouseafternightfall.Inadditiontotheuniversaloliveoil,theMishna(Shabbath,ii.If.)
namesavarietyofotheroilstheninuse,amongthemoilofsesame,fishoil,castoroil,andnaphtha.ThatusedintheTemple(1Ch9:29)wasnodoubtofthefinest
quality,likethebeatenoilfortheTabernacleabovedescribed.Themedicinalpropertiesofoilwereearlyrecognized(Is1:5RV)theGoodSamaritanmixedhis
withwine(Lk10:34),producinganantisepticmentionedalsoinpostBiblicalJewishwritings.
OilhasaprominentplaceintheritualofthePriestsCode,particularlyinthepreparationofthemealoffering(Lv2:1,4etc.).Italsoappearsinconnexion
withtheleprosyoffering(14:10ff.)andinotherconnexions,butisabsentfromthesinoffering(5:1ff.)andthejealousyoffering(Nu5:11ff.).Forthespecialcaseof
theholyanointingoil(Ex30:2325),see
OINTMENT.
AsmighthavebeenexpectedfromtheextensivecultivationoftheolivebytheHebrews,oilnotonlyformedanimportantarticleofinlandcommerce,butwas
exportedinlargequantitiesbothtotheWest,bywayofTyre(Ezk27:17),andtoEgypt(Hos12:1).
ThisabundanceofoilfurnishedtheHebrewpoetswithafigureformaterialprosperityingeneral,asinDt33:24Heshalldiphisfootinoil.Fromitsbeingin
dailyusetoanointtheheadsofonesguestsatafestivemeal(Ps23:5etc.),oilbecamebyassociationasymbolofjoyandgladness(Ps45:7=He1:9,Is61:3).
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
OILTREE(tsshemen,1K6:23]3133[plur.tsshemen],AVolivetree,mg.treesofoiloroilytrees,RVolivewoodNeh8:15AVpine
branches,RVbranchesofwildoliveIs41:19AVandRVoiltree,RVmoleaster).Wherethereissuchvariationintranslation,itisevidentthatwhatparticular
treeofoilisherereferredtoisfarfromdetermined.TheoliveitselfisimprobablefromNeh8:15,wheretheolivetreeismentionedjustbeforeandthatthe
branchesofwildoliveshouldbespeciallyspecified,wheresolikethoseofthecultivatedvariety,isimprobable.Theoleaster(Eleagnusangustifolia),abeautiful
andcommonshrub,wouldsuit,exceptthatitisdifficulttoseehowitcouldeverhavefurnishedablockofwoodsufficientforthetwocherubimeachtencubits
high(1K6:23)olivewood(asRVsuggests)wouldcertainlyseemmoreappropriate.PerhapsPostssuggestionthatitwassomekindofpinetheoilorfat
beingtheresinisaslikelyasany.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
OINTMENT.Withtwoexceptions,ointmentinourEVistherendering,inOT,oftheordinarywordforoil,andinsomepassagestheointmentmayhave
consistedofoilonly.Inmostofthereferences,however,perfumedoilisundoubtedlymeant.ThetwoaredistinguishedinLk7:46Myheadwithoilthoudidstnot
anointbutshehathanointedmyfeetwithointment(myron).TheextensiveuseofmyroninNTinthesenseofointmentshowsthatmyrrhwasthenthefavourite
perfume.Thedeadbody,aswellasthelivingsubject,wasanointedwiththisointment(Lk23:56).Anotherverycostlyunguentisdescribedasointmentof
spikenard(Mk14:3,Jn12:3),forwhichseeS PIKENARD.Thesemuchprizedunguentswerekeptinpotsofalabaster,asinEgypt,wheretheyaresaidtoretaintheir
fragranceforseveralhundredyears(Wilkinson,Anc.Egyp.i.426,withillust.).
InthePriestsCodethereisrepeatedreferencetoaspeciallyrichunguent,theholyanointingoil,thecompositionofwhichisminutelylaiddowninEx
30:2325.Theingredients,inadditiontoabasisofoliveoil,arerenderedinRVasflowingmyrrh,sweetcinnamon,sweetcalamus,andcassia.Thepenaltyfor
theunauthorizedmanufactureandsacrilegioususeofthissacredchrismwasexcommunication.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
OLAMUS(1Es9:30)=MeshullamofEzr10:29andMosollamusof1Es8:44,9:14.
OLDGATE.SeeJERUSALEM,II.4.
OLDLATINVERSIONS.SeeTEXT(OTandNT).
OLDTESTAMENT.SeeB
http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/o.htm ,C OT,T OT. 7/16
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OLDTESTAMENT.SeeBIBLE,CANONOFOT,TEXTOFOT.
OLIVE(zayith,cf.Arab,zeitoil,andzeitnolivetree).Thistree(Oleaeuropea)isthefirstnamedkingofthetrees(Jg9:8,9),andis,inPalestineatany
rate,byfarthemostimportant.Thescantilycoveredterracedhillsides,thelongrainlesssummerofblazingsunshine,andtheheavynightmoistureoflatesummer,
affordclimaticconditionswhichappearinaveryspecialdegreefavourabletotheolive.Thishasbeensoinallhistory:thechildrenofIsraelweretoinheritolive
yardswhichtheyplantednot(Jos24:13,Dt6:11),andthewidespreadremainsofruinedterracesandolivepressesineverypartofthelandwitnesstotheextentof
oliveculturethatexistedinthepast.Alargeproportionofthefuelconsumedtodayconsistsoftherootsofancientolivetrees.Inrecentyearsthiscultivationhas
beenlargelyrevived,andextensivegrovesofolivesmaybefoundinmanyparts,notablynearBeitJalaontheBethlehemroad,andnearNblus.Thepeculiargrey
greenfoliagewithitssilversheen,andthewonderfultwistedandoftenhollowtrunksofthetree,areverycharacteristicofPalestinescenery.TheOTwritersadmired
thebeautyoftheolive(seeHos14:6,Ps52:8,128:3,Jer11:16).Insomeparts,notablyatNblus,alargeproportionofthetreesareinvadedbyparasiticmistletoe.
Thecultivationoftheoliverequirespatience,andpresupposesacertaindegreeofsettlementandpeace:perhapsforthisreasonitwastheemblemofpeace.
Destructionofaharvestofcerealsisatemporaryloss,
butwhenthevinesand,stillmore,theolivesaredestroyed,thelosstakesmanyyearstomakegood(Rev.6:5,6).
Theolivetree,grownfromasliptakenfrombelowthegraftedbranchesofaselectedfruitfulolive,hastobegraftedwhenthreeyearsold,butitdoesnotbear
fruitforsomethreeorfouryearsmore,andnotplentifullyuntilitisaboutseventeenoreighteenyearsolditmaythen,whenwellcaredfor,continuebearingfor
manyyears.Thesoil,however,mustbecarefullyploughedandmanuredeveryspring,andonthehillsidesthewateroftheearlyrainsmustbeconductedtothe
veryrootsbycarefullyarrangedchannels.When,aftersomeyears,thestembecomestoohollowfromrottingofthewood,andthecropfails,itissometimescut
sharpoffattheroot,andnewshootsareallowedtospringup,which,afterregrafting,becomeafruitfultree.IthasbeenstatedbyProf.Ramsay(Expositor,Jan.
andFeb.1905)thatitisacustominSyriatograftabranchofwildoliveintothestemofacultivatedtree(cf.Ro11:1724).Howthiscanbeofanybenefittothe
treeitisdifficulttosee.Norcanthepresentwriter,aftercarefulinquiriesalloverPalestine,findanyknowledgeofsuchacustom.Cf.art.GRAFTING.
Thewildoliveisakindofreversiontotheprimitiveplantsuchasoccursalsowiththefigandthealmondandittakesplacewheneverthegrowthoftheolive
isneglected.Thusthelittleshootswhichgrowaroundthemaintrunk(perhapstheoriginofPs128:3)areofthewildvariety,andalsothosegrowingfromtheself
sowndrupe.AccordingtothefellahnofGalilee,thedrupegerminatesinthesoilonlyafterpassingthroughthealimentarycanalofthehoodedcrow.
Inmostneglectedolivegrovesnumerouslittlebushesofthewildolivemaybeseen,which,thoughveryunlikethecultivatedtreehavingashorter,smaller,
andgreenerleafandastirrer,morepricklystemareneverthelessderivedfromit.Asarulethewildoliveisbutashrub,butitmaygrowintoatreeandhavesmall
butuselessberries.WheregrovesofwildolivesarefoundinPalestine,theyareprobablyalwaysthedescendantsofcultivatedtreeslongagodestroyed.
Theyoungwildolivetrees,scatteredoverthemountainsinGalilee,aregatheredbythefellahnandsoldforoliveplantations.Suchplantsaregraftedthreeyears
aftertransplantation,andalwaysinthelatespringorearlysummer.
Theoliveberries(Ja3:12AV)ripenintheautumn,andareharvestedinNovemberorDecember.Theyarebeatenfromthetreeswithalongpole(Dt24:20)
andcollectedinbaskets.Olivesareeatenpickledinhrine,eitherwhengreenandunripeorwhensoftandblack.Theyareuniversallyeatenbythefellahnwith
breadsometimestheoiliseateninstead,muchasbutterisusedinourhomelands.Theoilisalsousedextensivelyformakingsoup,forfryingmeat,andfor
illumination.SeeOIL.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
OLIVES,MOUNTOF.TherangeofhillseastofJerusalem,separatedfromtheTemplemountainbytheKidronValley.ItisscarcelymentionedintheOT.
DavidcrosseditwhenfleeingfromAbsalom(2S15:30).HerebrancheswerecuttomakeboothsfortheFeastofTabernacles(Neh8:15).Ezekiel(11:23)and
Zechariah(14:4)makeitthesceneofidealtheophanies:theliteralinterpretationofthelatterprophecyhasgivenrisetomanycuriousandunprofitablespeculations.
Thechiefinterestofthemountain,however,isitsconnexionwiththeclosingyearsofourLordslife.OverthisHerodeonHistriumphalentrytoJerusalemand
weptoverthecityasitcameintoview(Lk19:41)andduringthedayswhenHelodgedinBethanyandvisitedJerusalemHemustnecessarilyhavepassedoverit
daily(Lk21:37).ThefigtreewhichHecursed(Mt21:19)wasmostprobablyonthemountainslopesandinoneofthesedailypilgrimagesHedeliveredtoHis
disciplesthegreateschatologicaldiscourse(Mt24,25).OnthesideofthemountainwasGethsemane,wheretookplacethefirstsceneofthefinaltragedy.
Theridgeisformedofhardcretaceouslimestone,surmountedbysofterdepositsofthesamematerial.Itisdivided,bygentleundulationsandonecomparatively
deepcleft,intoaseriesofsummits.ThereisnoreasontoapplythenameOlivet(Ac1:12,2S15:30[AVonly])exclusivelytoanyoneofthesesummits.The
southernmost,whichisseparatedfromtherestbythecleftjustmentioned,ontheslopeofwhichstandsthevillageofSiloam(Silwn),istraditionallyknown(by
theFranks)astheMountofOffence,andisconsideredtobethesceneofSolomonsidolatry.ThepeaknorthofthisiscommonlycalledOlivetproperitis
unfortunatelyspoiltbyahideousbelltowerandsomeothermodernmonasticbuildings.Thenextpeak,theViriGalili,isthetraditionalsiteoftheAscensionand 8/16
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unfortunatelyspoiltbyahideousbelltowerandsomeothermodernmonasticbuildings.Thenextpeak,theViriGalili,isthetraditionalsiteoftheAscensionand
thenextispopularly,buterroneously,calledScopus.
Ecclesiasticaltraditionhas,asmightheexpected,beenbusywiththeMountofOlives,andtheplacespointedouthavebynomeansremainedunalteredthrough
theChristiancenturies,asbecomesevidentfromastudyofthewritingsofthepilgrims.TodayareshownthetomboftheVirginthegrottooftheAgonythe
GardenofGethsemane(twosites)thechapelofthe
Ascension(amosque,withamarkinthefloorsaidtobethefootprintofChrist)thetombofHuldahthesite(animpossibleone)ofChristsweepingoverthecity
theplacewhereHetaughttheLordsPrayertheplacewheretheApostlesCreedwascomposed,etc.etc.Farmoreinterestingthantheseecclesiasticalinventions
arethenumerousancientJewishandearlyChristiantombs(especiallythetombofNicanorthedonoroftheBeautifulGateoftheTempletheextraordinary
labyrinthcommonlyknownastheTombsoftheProphets)andthefragmentsofmosaicfoundherefromtimetotimewhichtestifytothepiousregardinwhichthe
mountwasnaturallyheldfromearlytimes.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
OLIVET.Seeprecedingarticle.
OLYMPAS.ThenameofamemberoftheRomanChurchgreetedbySt.PaulinRo16:15.
OLYMPIUS.AnepithetofZeusderivedfromMt.OlympusinThessaly,thelegendaryhomeofthegods.AntiochusEpiphanescausedtheTempleat
JerusalemtobededicatedtoZeusOlympiusinB.C.168(2Mac6:2),andthesettingupofhisimageistheabominationofdesolation(Dn9:27).Cf.Jupiter.
A.E.HILLARD.
OMAR(perhaps=eloquent).AgrandsonofEsau(Gn36:11,15,1Ch1:36).
OMEGA.SeeALPHAANDOMEGA.
OMENS.SeeMAGICDIVINATIONANDS ORCERY.
OMER.SeeWEIGHTSANDMEASURES.
OMRI.1.Seefollowingarticle.2.AdescendantofBenjamin(1Ch7:8).3.AJudahite(1Ch9:4).4.AprinceofIssachar(1Ch27:18).
OMRIwasoneofthemostimportantkingsofIsrael,andthefounderofadynasty.HewasoneofthegeneralsofthearmyunderElah,sonofBaasha.Thisking
wasassassinatedbyZimri,anotheroftheofficers.OmriwasatthesiegeofGibbethonatthetime,andhistroopsacclaimedhimkinginsteadofhisrival.Acivilwar
ofsomedurationfollowed,inwhich(apparentlyafterthedeathofZimri)oneTibnitookpart,himselfaspiringtothethrone.Omrifinallyprevailed,andforatime
occupiedtheoldcapitalTirzah(1K16:16ff.).ButhehadtheintelligencetoperceivetheadvantagesofSamariaasasiteforthecapital,andremovedthither,
enlargingandfortifyingthecity.
OmrispoliticalmeasuresincludedanalliancewiththePhnicians,inwhichhehadtheexampleofDavidandSolomon,thoughsubsequentgenerations
condemnedhimforit.ThealliancewascementedbythemarriageofAhabandJezebel,soimportantforthelaterhistory.Omriseemstohavebeenanablesoldier,
andhesubduedMoabtoIsrael.ThisisacknowledgedbytheMoabitekingMeshainaninscriptionwhichhascomedowntous.ThewarswithDamascuswerenot
sosuccessful.TheAssyriansfirstbecameacquaintedwithIsraelinthetimeofOmri,andtheycallthecountrythelandofthehouseofOmrievenafterthe
extinctionofhisdynasty.Thelengthofthiskingsreignisgivenastwelveyears,butsomethinkittohavebeenmore.
H.P.S MITH.
ON.AReubeniteassociatedwithDathanandAbiram(Nu16:1)[textdoubtful].
ON.ThecityofHeliopolis,OnalsoinEgyptian,Gn41:45,50,46:20.ThesamenameinEzk30:17hasbeenintentionallymisvocalizedasAven,i.e.
idolatryinJer43:13itiscalledBethshemesh,meaningHouseoftheSun,likeitsEgyp.sacrednamePR,andtheGr.Heliopolis.Thecitylayontheeast
borderoftheDelta,alittlebelowtheforkoftheriver.AsthecentreofsunworshipinEgypt,itstemplewasofthehighestimportance:itwasfavouredbythekings 9/16
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borderoftheDelta,alittlebelowtheforkoftheriver.AsthecentreofsunworshipinEgypt,itstemplewasofthehighestimportance:itwasfavouredbythekings
andservedbythemostlearnedpriesthoodintheland.TraditionmakesPlatoandotherGreekphilosophersstudyinHeliopolislater,thefoundationofthe
Alexandrianlibrary,ontheonehand,deprivedHeliopolisofthegloryoflearning,and,ontheother,theoldtraditionsofroyaldescentfromtheSungodhadlittle
weightwiththePtolemys.EarlyintheRomanperiodHeliopolisisdescribedbyStraboasalmostdeserted.Besidesenclosurewallsofcrudebrickandmoundsof
rubbish,thesiteofthetempleisnowmarkedbyoneconspicuousmonument,anobelisksetupbySenwosriI.aboutB.C.2000.
F.LL.GRIFFITH.
ONAM.1.TheeponymofaHoriteclan(Gn36:23=1Ch1:40).2.AsonofJerahmeel(1Ch2:26,28).
ONAN.AsonofJudah(Gn38:4,46:12,Nu26:19,1Ch2:3).Afterthedeceaseofhiselderbrother,Er,hewasinstructedbyhisfathertocontractalevirate
marriagewithTamar.ThedevicebywhichheevadedtheobjectofthismarriagewasevilinthesightoftheLORD,andheslewhim(Gn38:810).
ONESIMUS.ThenameoftheslaveinwhosebehalfSt.PaulwrotetheEpistleto
Philemon.AsinhisEpistletotheColossians,St.PaulspeaksofOnesimusasoneofyou(Col4:9),wemayinferthathewasanativeofColoss.Hisnamemeans
profitableorhelpfulnotanuncommonnameforslaves.TheApostleplaysuponthiswordinhislettertoPhilemon:whichintimepastwasunprofitable,but
nowprofitabletotheeandtome(Philem11).Heranawayfromhismaster,probablyafterhavingrobbedhim(v.18).HefledtoRome,thecommonhidingplace
ofcriminals.ThereinsomewayhecameundertheinfluenceofSt.Paul,andwasbyhimconvertedtoChristianity(v.10).Theregrewupadeepaffectionbetween
thetwo(v.12).
TheApostlewouldgladlyhavekepthimtoministertohim(v.13),butwouldnotdosowithouttheconsentofPhilemon,andthereforesendsOnesimusbackwith
thelettertoobtainhismastersforgivenessandhispermissiontoreturntoSt.Paul.
MORLEYS TEVENSON.
ONESIPHORUS.ThenameofaChristianmentionedtwiceinSt.PaulsSecondEpistletoTimothy(2Ti1:1518,and4:19).Fromthefirstreferencewe
learnthatheshowedspecialkindnesstotheApostleduringhisimprisonmentatRome,whenothers,fromwhomhemighthaveexpectedsympathyandhelp,held
alooffromhimfromthesecondweinferthatheandhisfamilylivedatEphesus.FromSt.PaulsexpressionthehouseholdofOnesiphorus,ithasbeeninferred
thatOnesiphorushimselfwasdead,andthistexthasbeenurgedinproofofthelawfulnessofprayersforthedead.Thereismuchprobabilityinthisview,butthe
breathingofsuchapiouswishhasnothingincommonwiththelaterabuseswhichgatheredroundthispractice.
MORLEYS TEVENSON.
ONIAS.Fourhighpriestsborethisname.OniasI.wassonofJadduaandfatherofSimontheJust(Sir50:1,where,however,theHeb.readsJohninplaceof
Onias).InhistimealetterwassaidtohavecomefromtheSpartankingAreusI.claimingkinshipandsuggestingalliance(1Mac12:7f.[RV.Arius]cf.Jos.Ant.
XII.iv.10).OniasII.wassonofSimontheJust.Hisreluctancetopaythetributeof20talentstoEgyptwouldhaveledtogreattroubleifhisshrewdandself
seekingnephewJosephhadnotconciliatedPtolemy(Ant.XII.vi.1).OniasIII.wassonofSimonII.,andenteredonhisofficeaboutB.C.198.Accordingto2
Mac3:14:38,heruledthecitywell.AdisputearosebetweenhimandamannamedSimon.ThelatterpersuadedkingScleucustosendHeliodorus(4Mac4:1
14substitutesApollonius)toseizetheTempletreasury.Heliodorusbeingsupernaturallyrepulsed,OniaswenttoAntiochtodefendhimself.Hewasdeposedfrom
hisoffice.InB.C.175hewasmurdered(Dn9:26).Theesteeminwhichhismemorywasheldappearsfrom2Mac15:1214.HissonOniasIV.fledtoEgyptand
waswelcomedbyPtolemyPhilometor,whogavehimadisusedtempleinLeontopolis,whichherebuiltafterthemodeloftheoneinJerusalem,toserveasacentre
ofunityfortheHellenisticJews(Ant.XIII.iii.1,3,BJI.i.1,VII.x.2).
J.TAYLOR.
ONIONS(btslm,Nu11:5).Theonion(Alliumcepa,Arab.basal)isandalwayshasbeenaprimefavouriteinPalestineandEgypt.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
ONO.ABenjamitecity(1Ch8:12)namedwithLodandHadid(Ezr2:33etc.),towhichhisenemiesinvitedNehemiahtoconference(6:2).Itwasreoccupied
aftertheExile.ItisidentifiedwithKefrn,totheN.ofLudd,theancientLodorLydda.
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W.EWING.
ONUS(1Es5:22)=Ono(wh.see).
ONYCHA(shchleth,Ex30:34).Oneoftheingredientsofthesacredcompositionwhichgaveasweetsmellwhenburned(cf.Sir24:15,whereapparently
thesamesubstanceisreferredtoasonyx).Onychawasobtainedfromtheclawlike[hencethenamefromGr.onyxnail]operculumofsomemolluscofthegenus
strombus.AsimilarproductisstillusedinUpperEgyptforfumigations.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
ONYX.SeeJEWELSANDP RECIOUSS TONES,ONYCHA.

OPHEL.SeeJERUSALEM,II.1,2.
OPHIR.AregionmostprobablyinArabia(asitismentionedbetweenShebaandHavilahinGn10:29),famousfortheexcellenceofitsgold,whichwas
broughttoSolomonbyhisRedSeanavy(1K9:28).Jehoshaphat,essayingtosendtoOphir,losthisships(1K22:48).IthasbeendisputedwhetherSouthorEast
ArabiawasthetrueOphirtheonlydatumisthelengthofthevoyagethitherfromEziongebereighteenmonths,asthedoublevoyagetookthreeyears(1K
10:22).Asthevesselsprobablycoastedfromporttoport,thejourneywouldnaturallyoccupyaconsiderabletime.Itneednotbesupposedthattheotherimports
sandalwood,ivory,apes,andpeacocksallcamefromthesameplace.ThemostcarefulstudythathasbeengiventothesubjectisthatofGlaser(SkizzederGesch.
undGeog.Arabiens,ii.pp.353387),whohasconcludedthatitwasinS.E.Arabia,intheterritoryoftheGulfsofOmanandofPersia.
Othertheorieshavebeenputforwardinplenty.ThemostpopularrecentviewseesinOphircertainpartsofMashonaland.Thistheory,apartfromother
difficultieswhichitpresents,standsorfallswiththeexplanationofcertainruinsatZimbabwe,about200milesfromSofala.LikeStonehengeandtheGreat
Pyramid,theseremainshavebeenmadethecentreofmuchvisionaryspeculation,buttheirtruecharacterseemstohavebeensettledbytherecentresearchesof
RandallMacIvor.whohasshownthattheyarenativestructuresofnogreatantiquity.BesidesS.Africa,variousplacesinIndiahavebeenfixedupon,suchasthe
mouthoftheIndus,SuparainGoa,andMountOphirinJohore.Nothingconvincinghasbeensaidinsupportofanyoftheseviews.Forinstance,wearereminded
thatthepeacocksareconfinedtoIndiaandMalayabutitisnowheresaidthatthepeacockscamefromOphir,andeveniftheydid,theymaywellhavebeen
broughtthitherbyfurtherEasterntradequiteindependentlyofSolomonsPhniciannavigators.
Onthewhole,theviewthatOphirwasinArabia(knowntothePhniciansasauriferous,Ezk27:22)isthesimplestandmostinaccordancewiththescantydata.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
OPHNI.AtownofBenjamin(Jos18:24)unknown.
OPHRAH.1.AtowninBenjamin(Jos18:23)whichwassomewherenearMichmash,andisonlyonceelsewherereferredto,asanindicationofthedirection
ofaPhilistineraid(1S13:17).Thedataforitsidentificationareinsufficient:Jeromestatesthatitwas5RomanmileseastfromBethel.2.Ophrahthatpertaineth
untoJoashtheAbiezritei.e.toamemberofaseptofthetribeofManasseh(Jos17:2),wasthenativevillageofGideon.Itisnotmentionedexceptinconnexion
withthehistoryofhimandofhissonAbimelech(Jg69).Nosatisfactoryidentificationhasbeenproposed.3.AnameinthegenealogyofthetribeofJudah(1Ch
4:14).R.A.S.MACALISTER.ORACLE.SeeMAGIC,etc.,TEMPLE.
ORATOR.ThetermappliedinAc24:1toTertullus,whowastheadvocateforthehighpriestandeldersagainstSt.Paul.Menofthisclassweretobefoundin
mostoftheprovincialtownsoftheRomanEmpire,readytopleadordefendanycause,andgenerallypossessedofacertainamountofglibeloquence,withadue
admixtureofflattery.
MORLEYS TEVENSON.
ORCHARD(pards[aPers.loanword],Ec2:5RVparksCa4:13RVmparadiseNeh2:8AVandRVforest,RVmpark).SeeP ARADISE.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
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ORDEAL.SeeMAGIC,p.569b.
ORDER.SeeP RIEST(inNT),775a.
ORDINANCE.SeeDECREE.
ORDINATION.SeeLAYINGONOFHANDS.
OREBANDZEEB.TwoprincesofMidianintheinvasionofIsrael,mentionedasinferiortothekingsZebahandZalmunna(Jg7:25,8:3,Ps83:11cf.alsoIs
10:26).Themeaningofthenamesisravenandwolf.AssociatedwiththeinvasionputdownbyGideon,thesetwoprinceswerekilledbythemenofEphraim,
whoroseatGideonssuggestionandinterceptedtheprincesandtheirfollowersattheriverJordan.Thattheirdeath,sobrieflynarratedinJudges,wasaccompanied
bygreatslaughtermaybeinferredfromtheincidentalreferencesbythewritersofPs83andIs10.IsaiahcomparesthedestructiontothatoftheEgyptiansinthe
RedSea,whilethePsalmistcomparestheflyingMidianitestothewhirlingdustorchaffdrivenbeforethewind.TherockOrebandthewinepressZeebtooktheir
namesfromthisincident.
T.A.MOXON.
OREN.AsonofJerahmeel(1Ch2:25).
ORGAN.SeeMUSIC,etc.,4(2)(b).
ORION.SeeS TARS.
ORNAMENTS.1.Thecustomofwearingornaments,eitheraspersonaladornmentorasamulets,orforbothpurposescombined,isalmostcoevalwiththe
appearanceofmanhimself.InhistoricaltimesinPalestine,aselsewhere,theseornamentswerechieflyofgold,silver,bronze,andpaste,buttheexcavationshave
shownthatintheneolithicageafavouriteornamentwasastringofseashells.TheHebrews,especiallytheHebrewwomen,sharedtothefulltheOrientalloveof
ornaments,whicharedenotedinOTbytwocomprehensiveterms,kl,generallyrenderedjewels(Gn24:53,Ex3:22andoft.),andad,renderedornaments(Ex
33:4,6,Ezk16:11,etc.).ListsofindividualornamentsarefoundinsuchpassagesasEx35:22,Nu31:50,Is3:18ff.,Ezk16:11,12,Jth10:4,althoughthe
identificationofeacharticleisnotalwayscertain.
2.Earrings,alwaysofgoldorsilverwherethematerialisstated,arefrequentlynamed,fromGn35:4onwards.Inthispassagetheircharacterasamuletsis
clearlyimplied.AmongtheHebrewsearringswereapparentlyconfinedtowomen,andtochildrenofbothsexes(Ex32:2),fortherings,ofJob42:11RVarenot
necessarilyearringsasAV.TheonlymenexpresslymentionedaswearingthemareMidianites(Jg8:24ff.).ForillustrationsofgoldearringsfoundatGezersee
Macalister,BibleSidelightsfromGezer,Fig.32,reproducedinBenzinger,Heb.Arch.2(1907)83.TheearringsofIs3:20AVrightlyappearinRVasamulets
(seeAMULET).ThependantsofJg8:26RV(AVcollars)andIs3:19RV(AVchains),tojudgefromtheetymologyoftheoriginalterm,hadtheformofdropsor
beads,althoughitisunknownwhethertheywerewornintheearsorasanecklace.
ThecustomstillobservedbytheBedouinwomenofwearingaringthroughtherightnostril(Doughty,Arab.Deserta,i.340ii.220,297)wasalsoinvogue
amongtheHebrewwomen.SuchwasthenoseringpresentedtoRebekah,wronglygiveninAVasanearring(Gn24:22,notev.47),asalsothenosejewelsworn
bytheladiesofJerusalem(Is3:21).AlthoughEzk16:12,ascorrectlyrenderedbyRV,cannotbecitedinsupportofwearingornamentsontheforeheadasAV
suggests(ajewelonthyforehead),thispracticeisattestedbythefigureinEx13:16,Dt6:8,11:18,wherethewordrenderedfrontlets(betweentheeyes)really
denotesajeweloramulet(seeHastingsDBiii.872,nowconfirmedbySmendsreadingoftheHeb.textofSir36:3).Forarealfrontlet,see6below.
3.Severalvarietiesofneckornamentoccur,buthereagaintheprecisenatureofeachescapesus.ThechainsofPr1:9,Ca4:9areclearlynecklacesthe
samewordisusedofthechainshungasamuletsaboutthenecksoftheMidianitecamels(Jg8:26).ThestringsofjewelsofCa1:10RVwereprobablyanecklace
ofbeads.Aspecialformofnecklaceorbreastornamentwascomposedofcrescentsofgold(Jg8:26,Is3:8,bothRV).Cf.AMULET,4.andillust.PEFSt,1905,
314,Pl.IV.ThewidespreadcustomofwearingagoldchainofofficeonneckandbreastismetwithinEgypt(Gn41:42)andBabylon(Dn5:7,16,29).
4.LikeotherEasternpeoples,theHebrewswerefondofdeckingthearmsandhandswithornaments.Thetermmostfrequentlyusedforthefingerrings
(tabbaat)properlydenotesasignetring,asinGn41:42RV,Est3:12,forwhichseeart.SEAL.Fromtheuseofanengravedcylinderforthispurposewas
developedaformofringfoundintheexcavations,consistingofasmallcylinderofstoneorpaste,orofmorethanone,fittedintoaringofsilverorgold(seeillust.
PEFSt,1905,314,PI.IV.,andBenzinger,op.cit.83,fromSellinsworkcitedin6).Ordinarily,however,tabbaatdenotesaplainfingerring(Ex35:22,Nu
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developedaformofringfoundintheexcavations,consistingofasmallcylinderofstoneorpaste,orofmorethanone,fittedintoaringofsilverorgold(seeillust.
PEFSt,1905,314,PI.IV.,andBenzinger,op.cit.83,fromSellinsworkcitedin6).Ordinarily,however,tabbaatdenotesaplainfingerring(Ex35:22,Nu
31:50,Is3:21,Lk15:22)suchasthosefoundatTaanach(6).
OfthevarioustermsrenderedbraceletinAV,themostcommonistsmdRebekahsweighed10shekels,andwasofgold(Gn24:22,30,47cf.Nu31:50,Ezk
16:11,23:42).Thebraceletsofis319seemtohavebeenmadeoftwistedstrandsofgoldwire.Thewordbraceletin2S1:10moreprobablydenotesanarmletor
armband,wornontheupperarm.ItisrenderedanklechainsinNu31:50RV,whileacognatewordofthesamemeaningoccursinIs3:20(AVornamentsofthe
legs),andintheemendedtextof2K11:12,wherethecrownandthearmband(EVtestimony)arenamedasinsigniaofroyalty.Similarly,thebraceletworn
upontherightarm(Sir21:21EV)isanarmlet,asisseenfromthelistofJudithsornaments,whodeckedherselfbravelywithherarmlets(EVchains),andher
bracelets,andherrings,andherearrings,andallherornaments(Jth10:4).ThenatureoftheornamentgiveninAVastabletsandinRVasarmlets(Ex35:22,Nu
31:50),isquiteuncertain.RVrightlyfindsankletsinIs3:18thesetheladiesofJerusalemrattledastheywalked(v.16end).
5.Inaseparatecategorymaybeplacedsucharticlesas,inadditiontobeingornamental,servedsomeusefulpurposeinconnexionwithdress.Amongthese
maybereckonedthegoldbroochesofEx35:22RV(AVbracelets,lit.books),andthebuckleofgoldof1Mac10:89etc.ThereseemstobenoreferenceinOT
totheornamentalpinsingold,silver,andbronzewhicharefoundinconsiderablenumbersatGezerandelsewhere.Forillustrationsoftypicalpinsandbrooches
foundatGezer,seeMacalister,op.cit.Fig.34.
6.Thisarticlewouldbeincompletewithoutafullerreferencetothecountlessspecimensofancientjewelry,recoveredfromthesandsofEgyptandthesoilof
Palestine,whichservetoillustratetheornamentsabovementioned.ThejewelryoftheearlyEgyptiangoldsmiths(Ex3:22),asiswellknown,hasneverbeen
surpassedinvarietyanddelicacyofworkmanship.TheexcavationsatGezer,Taanach,andMegiddohaverevealedanunexpectedwealthofgoldandsilver
ornaments.Oneofthemostremarkableoftheserecentfindsisthatdescribedbyitsfortunatediscoverer,Dr.Sellin,inhisNachleseaufdemTellTaannek,1906,12
ff.(cf.PEFSt,1905,176).BeneaththedbrisofaCanaanitehousewerefoundamotherandherfivechildren,andbesidetheformerthefollowingornaments:a
goldbandfortheforehead,8goldrings,ofwhich7weresimplebandsofgoldwire,whiletheeighthwasofseveralstrandsofwire,2silverrings,2largerbronze
rings,perhapsbracelets,2smallcylindersofcrystal,5pearls,ascarabofamethystandanotherofcrystal,andfinallyasilverfastener(allillustratedop.cit.P].IV.
andFig.16).
TheornamentsfoundinstillgreatervarietyinthemoundsofGezeraredescribedandillustratedinthePEFStfrom1902onwards.Aspecialinterestattachesto
certainrecentlydiscoveredgraves,probablyofPhilistineoriginandofadatec.B.C.1000,inwhichaprofusionofjewelryhasbeenfoundsimilarincharacterand
workmanshiptotheornamentsoftheMycenanagefoundinCyprusandCrete.Foradescriptionofthearmlets,bracelets,anklets,rings,etc.,foundinthese
graves,seePEFSt,1905,318ff.andPl.VI.1907,199ff.andPl.I.,240ff.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
ORNAN.SeeARAUNAH.
ORPAH.AMoabitess,sisterofRuthanddaughterinlawofNaomi.Whenthelatterwasreturningtoherowncountry,Orpah,followingNaomisadvice,
electedtogobacktoherownpeopleandtohergod(orgods),whilehersisterwentwithhermotherinlaw(Ru1:414).
ORTHOSIA(1Mac15:37).PlacedbythePeutingerTables12RomanmilesN.ofTripoli,and30S.ofAntaradus.Thenamehasnotbeenrecovered.
OSAIAS(1Es8:48)=Jeshaiah,Ezr8:19.
OSEA(2Es13:40)=kingHoshea(wh.see).
OSEAS=theprophetHosea(wh.see).
OSNAPPAR(sowritteninRVofEzr4:10.AsnapperofAVismorecorrectbutthebestreadingoftheHebrewisAsenappar).Acuriouslydistortedformof
Ashurbanipal,thenameofthelastgreatkingofAssyria(B.C.668626),thesonofEsarhaddon,andgrandsonofSennacherib.Heisdistinguishedchieflyasthe
greatconserveroftheancientBabylonianliterature,whoserichandvariedcollectionshavecometousfromhisownlibraryinNineveh.Hesucceededbygreat
effortsinkeepingtogethertheempireofhisfatherandheaddedtheretothecountryofElaminafiercecampaignwhichendedwiththecaptureofSusa(Shushan),
aboutB.C.645.Itwasafterthiseventthatthedeportation,alludedtoinEzr4:9,10,ofShushanchitesandElamitestoSamariaandthevicinitytookplace.The
waragainstElamwastheconclusionofagreatconflictwithBabylonia,withwhichcountryElamontheeastandmostofthewesternsubjectStates,including
Judah,wereinalliance.AnditwasbeforeAshurbanipal,asvictoriouskingofBabylonia,thattherebelJudahiteManasschwasbroughtinfetterstoBabylonia,as 13/16
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Judah,wereinalliance.AnditwasbeforeAshurbanipal,asvictoriouskingofBabylonia,thattherebelJudahiteManasschwasbroughtinfetterstoBabylonia,as
relatedin2Ch33:11aneventwhosehistoricityhasbeenunnecessarilycalledinquestion.
J.F.MCURDY.
OSPRAY(oznyyh,Lv11:13,Dt14:12).ProbablythefisheatingPandionhaliaetus,whichisstillfoundinthePlainofAcreandattheHuleh.TheHeb.
namemayhaveincludedalsooneormoreofthesmallereagles.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
OSSIFRAGE(peres=thebreaker,Lv11:13,Dt14:12,RVgiereagle).ThisistheLmmergeier(Gypaetusbarbatus),agreatbirdwithaspreadoftenfeet
across,distinguishedfromthetruevulturesbyitsneckbeingcoveredbydirtywhitefeathers.ItoccursintheravinesaroundtheDeadSea,butisapparently
graduallybecomingextinctinPalestine.TheHeb.peresandLatinossifragusarebothduetoitshabitofcarryinglargebones,tortoises,etc.,toagreatheightand
thendroppingthemuponthegroundinorderthatitmaygetaccesstothesoftcontents.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
OSTRICH
1. bathyanh,Lv11:15,Dt14:15,Job30:29,Is13:21,34:13,43:26,Jer50:39,andMic1:8.InallthesereferencesAVhasowl,butRVostrich.Lit.tr.ofHeb.is
daughterofgreed.
2. ynm,ostriches,La4:3.
3. ynnm,Job39:13AVpeacocks,RVostrich.(InsameversechsdhkindlyisinAVmistranslatedostrich.)
Theostrich(Struthiocamelus)stillexistsinthedesertstoE.andS.E.ofSyriaalivespecimenwasbroughtintoJerusalemafewyearsago,andtheireggsare
fromtimetotimeofferedforsalebytheBedouln.
ThepopularviewoftheostrichsneglectofhereggsappearsinJob39:1415,butthefollowingisherrealhabit.Theostrichispolygamous,andagroupof
threeorfourhens,jealouslyguardedbyacock,laysomethirtyorfortyeggsinacommonnestintheground,coveringthemoverwithsand.Duringthedaythe
heatofthesunisasufficientincubator,butatnightthebirdstaketurnsinkeepingtheeggswarm.Afewscatteredeggs,saidtobeusedforfoodfortheyoung
chicks,arelaidafterthenestisclosed,andthesehavegivenrisetothepopularview.Thefeathers(Job39:13),theswiftpace(v.18),andthemournfulcry(Mic1:8)
oftheostrichareallreferredtoinScripture,andinJob30:28itscryisassociatedwiththatothermelancholynightcrythewailingofthejackals.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
OTHNIAsonofShemaiah(1Ch26:7).
OTHNIEL(meaningunknown).AccordingtoJg1:13thesonofKenaz,Calebsyoungerbrother.AsarewardfortakingKiriathsepher,hereceivesAchsah,
thedaughterofCaleb,forhiswife.OthnielisthefirstmentionedamongtheJudgesofIsraelCushanrishathaim,kingofMesopotamia,hadoppressedtheIsraelites
foreightyears,whenJahwehraisedupasaviourinthepersonofOthniel,whofoughtagainsttheoppressorandovercamehim,thusbringingresttotheland.
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
OTHONIAS(1Es9:28)=MattaniahinEzr10:27.
OUCH.ThewordouchisusedinAVforthesettingofajewel,butitisalsousedinOldEng.forthejewelitself.SeeBREASTPLATE(oftheHighPriest).
OVEN.SeeBREAD.
OWL
1. bathyanh,RVostrich(wh.see).
2. yanshph,Lv11:17,Dt14:15,greatowl[yanshph],Is34:11owl,RVmbitterncommonlythoughttobetheibis.
3. ks,Lv11:17,Dt14:16,littleowlPs102:6owl.
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3. ks,Lv11:17,Dt14:16,littleowlPs102:6owl.
4. qippz,Is34:15,AVgreatowl,RVarrowsnake.Thedescriptionmakehernest,andlay,andhatchcertainlyseemstopointtosomebird,butwhatkindis
uncertain
5. tinshemeth,Lv11:18,Dt14:15,AVswan,RVhornedowl.SeeS WAN.
6. llth,Is34:14,AVscreechowl,AVmandRVnightmonster,RVmLilith,thefabulousmonsterwhichisinJewishfolkloresuchanenemyofchildren.
OwlsareveryplentifulinPalestine.Mostcommonofallisthelittlebmeh(Atheneglaux),whosemelancholycrycanbeheardanywhereintheopencountry
whentwilightbegins.Itisageneralfavouriteandverytame.ThegreatEgyptianeagleowl,thenextmostcommonspecies,isalargebird,nearlytwofeetlong,with
longeartufts(seeNo.5).Ithauntsruins,andhasaprolongedanddesolatecry.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
OX.AnancestorofJudith(Jth8:1).
OX,OXEN,HERD,CATTLE
1. shr,Gn32:5,1S22:19etc.Aram.tor(cf.Arabthaur)isusedinEzr6:8,17,7:17andDn4:25,32,33shrisusedcollectivelyandalsoforasinglememberof
thebovinespeciesofanyageandeithersex.
2. lphm(onlyinpl.)ageneraltermforoxen,Dt7:13,28:4,18,51,Ps8:7,Pr14:4,Is30:24.
3. paryounghull,bullockandprhyoungcow.SeeHEIFER.
4. abbr(inplur.)bullsinPs22:12,50:13,Is34:7butstrongonesorhorseselsewhere.
5. te,Dt14:5AVwildox,RVantelopet.Is51:20AVwildbull,RVantelope.
6. dherherdinJl1:18conjoinedwithbqr=herdsofoxenandinsameversawithtsn=herds(EVflocks)ofsmallcattle(sheepandgoats).
7. mignehusuallytr.cattleinGn47:17conjoinedwithbgr=herds(AVandRVmcattleoftheherds.
8. bhmahcattleinGn47:18conjoinedwithmigneh=herdsofcattle.
OxenarespeciallyvaluableinPalestineforploughing(Dt22:19,1K19:19)andforthreshing,i.e.treadingoutthecorn(Dt25:4,Hos10:11).Theywereused
forcarts(Nu7:3)theCircassians,recentlysettledinPalestine,usethemextensivelyinthisway,butnotthefellahn.In1Ch12:40oxenarealsomentionedas
burdenbearers.Theiruseforsacrificeisrepeatedlyreferredto(see1K8:53,2Ch29:33).ThecattleofPalestinearesmallandmostly
lean,owingtopoorfoodandmuchwork.TheyaremostplentifulinGalilee,wherethepasturageisbetterandamuchlargerbreed,thecowsofwhichgive
excellentmilk,flourishesaroundDamascus.InseveralpartsoftheJordanValley,notablyinelBatiha,N.ofLakeofTiberias,andnearLakeHuleh,thebuffaloor
jamus(Bosbubalus)iskeptbytheBedouinityieldsexcellentmilk.
Forthewildox(RVtr.ofrm),seeUNICORN.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
OXGOAD.SeeAGRICULTURE,1.
OZEM1.AnelderbrotherofDavid(1Ch2:15).2.AsonofJerahmeel(1Ch2:25).
OZIAS.1.1Es8:2,2Es1:2,anancestorofEzra.2.1Es5:31=Uzza,Ezr2:49,Neh7:31.
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OZIAS.1.1Es8:2,2Es1:2,anancestorofEzra.2.1Es5:31=Uzza,Ezr2:49,Neh7:31.
3.ThesonofMicah(Jth6:15,7:23,8:18,28,35,10:6).
OZIEL.AnancestorofJudith(Jth8:1).
OZNI.SeeEZBON,1.
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PAARAI.SeeNAARAI.
PACE.SeeWEIGHTSANDMEASURES.
PACHON(month).SeeTIME.
PADDAN,PADDANARAM(theformerinGn48:7only).ThenameusedhyPfortheregion(orapartofit)designatedbyJAramNaharaim(seeARAM):
seeGn28:2,5,7,31:18,
33:18,35:9,26,46:15.PadanuinAssyr.denotesameasureofland(cf.fieldofAraminHos.12:12).
PADDLEoccursonlyinDt23:13,whereitisusedofawoodentoolfordigging,aspade.InearlierEnglishasmallspadeusedforcleaningtheploughshare
wascalledapaddle,whichexplainsthechoiceofthiswordintheGenevaBible,whenceitreachedAVandRV.
PADON.AfamilyofNethinimwhoreturnedwithZeruh.,Ezr2:44=Neh7:47calledin1Es5:29Phaleas.
PAGIEL.ChiefofthetribeofAsher(Nu1:13,2:27,7:72,77,10:26).
PAHATHMOAB.ThenameofaJewishclanwhichconsistedoftwobranches,JeshuaandJoah.PartofitreturnedwithZerubbabel,partwithEzra,andpart
remainedinBabylon.ThewordhasbeenreadtomeangovernorofMoab,andreferredtoadominiononceexercisedoverMoab.Itis,however,moreprobable
thatwehaveacorruptedtext.SeeEzr2:6,8:4,Neh7:11in1Es5:11,8:31PhaathMoab.
W.F.COBB.
PAI.ThecapitalcityofHadad(1Ch.)orHadar(Gn.)(1Ch1:50).Intheparallelpassage,Gn36:39,thenameoccursintheformPau.Thesiteisunknown.
PAINFULNESS.InPs73:18WhenIthoughttoknowthis,itwastoopainfulformeaswellasin2Es7:12,2Mac2:26painfulmeanslaborious:andso
painfulnessin2Co11:27meansIahoriousness.Hookersays,Thesearchofknowledgeisathingpainful,andthepainfulnessofknowledgeisthatwhich
makeththewillsohardlyinclinablethereto.
PAINT,PAINTING.SeeEYE,ART.
PALACE.PrimarilypalacedenotessimplyalargehousesotheEgyptianroyaltitlePharaohorPalace(cf.SublimePorte)meansgreathouseandthe
ordinaryOTtermfor
palace,initsstrictsenseofroyalresidence,isthekingshouseorhishouse,1K7:1,9:10.
TheonlyroyalresidenceofwhichwehaveanydetailsintheBibleisSolomonspalace,1K7:112,whichtookthirteenyearstobuild.ThisincludedtheHouseof
theForestofLehanon,agreathall,100cubitslong,50broad,30high,withfourrowsofpillarsaporchofpillars,50cubitsby30theporchofthethronefora
courtofjusticeadwellinghouseforhimself,andanotherforPharaohsdaughter.Roundaboutthewholewasagreatcourtofhewnstonesandcedarbeams.
InEgyptthepalacewasnotonlytheroyalresidence,butalsotheseatofgovernment.Theroyalapartmentswereinaninner,thehallsofaudienceinanouter,
court.Ifweincludeallthe
buildingsrequiredforcourtiersandofficials,thepalacebecomesnotahouse,butaroyalcity.
Acharacteristicfeaturewasabalconyonwhichthekingwouldshowhimselftohispeople.
TheAssyrianandBabylonianpalaceswerelargeandmagnificent.InBabylonia,thepalaces,likethetemples,werebuiltonthetopofartificialmoundsofcrude
bricksandweregroupsofbuildingsformingagreatfortress.
PALAL.ThesonofUzal(Neh3:25).
PALESTINA.Seenextart.,1.
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PALESTINA.Seenextart.,1.
PALESTINE
1.Situationandname.ThelandofPalestineistheterritorywhichliesbetweentheMediterraneanSeaandtheArabianDesertasE.andW.boundaries,and
whoseN.andS.boundariesmaybeapproximatelystatedat31and3320N.Lat.respectively.Theseboundarieshavenotalwaysbeenclearlyfixedbutthe
conventionisgenerallyagreeduponthatPalestineisseparatedfromEgyptbytheWadyelArshorRiverofEgypt,andfromSyriabytheKasmiyehorLtani
River,theclassicalLeontes.BiblicalwritersfixedthelimitsoftheterritorybythetownsDanandBeersheba,whichareconstantlycoupledwhentheauthordesires
toexpressinapicturesquemannerthatacertaineventaffectedthewholeoftheIsraelitecountry(e.g.Jg20:1).ThenamePalestine[AVinJl3:4inEx15:14,Is
14:29,31PalestinaRVPhilistia],beingderivedfromthatofthePhilistines,properlybelongsonlytothestripofcoastlandsouthofCarmel,whichwastheancient
territoryofthatpeople.ThereisnoancientgeographicaltermcoveringthewholeregionnowknownasPalestine:thedifferentprovincesCanaan,Judah,Israel,
Moab,Edom,etc.areenumeratedseparatelywhennecessary.TheextensionofthewordtoincludetheentireHolyLand,bothwestandeastoftheJordan,is
subsequenttotheintroductionofChristianity.
2.Geologyandgeography.Thegreaterpartofthecountryisofachalkylimestoneformation,whichoverliesalayerofredsandstonethatappearsontheE.
shoreoftheDeadSeaandelsewhere.UndertheredsandstonearethearchangraniticrockswhichformalargepartoftheSinaiPeninsula.Abovethechalkisa
layerofnummuliticlimestone,whichappearsonsomemountains.Volcanicrock,theresultofancienteruptions,appearsintheHauran,Galilee
(especiallyintheneighbourhoodofSafed),andelsewhere.Forfullerinformationonthegeologyofthecountry,seeart.GEOLOGY.Withrespecttothesurface,
Palestinedividesnaturallyintoaseriesofnarrowstripsofcountryrunningfromnorthtosouth,anddifferingmateriallyfromoneanotherincharacter.(a)Thefirst
oftheseistheMaritimePlainrunningalongthecoastoftheMediterraneanfromtheneighbourhoodofSidonandTyresouthward,anddisappearingonlyatthe
promontoryofCarmel.ThisplainwidenssouthwardfromCarmeltoamaximumbreadthofabout20miles,whiletothenorthofthatpromontoryitdevelopsinto
thegreatplainof
Esdraelon,whichintersectsthemountainregionandaffordsthemosteasypassageintotheheartofthecountry.Thisplainiscoveredwithamostfertilealluvialsoil.
(b)ThesecondstripisthemountainousridgeofJudaandSamaria,onthesummitofwhichareHebron,Jerusalem,andotherimportanttownsandvillagesand
which,withthesingleinterruptionofthepiainofEsdraelon,runscontinuouslyfromthesouthborderofthecountrytojointhesystemofthe
Lebanon.(c)ThethirdstripisthedeepdepressionknownastheGhr,downwhichrunstheJordanwithitslakes.(d)Thefourthstripisthegreatplateauof
Bashan,Moab,andEdom,withaloftyandprecipitousfacetowardsthewest,andrunningeastwardtillitislostinthedesert.
3.Watersupply,climats,naturalproducts.ThereisnoconspicuousriverinPalestineexcepttheJordananditseasterntributaries,andthese,beingforthe
greaterpartoftheircourseinadeephollow,areoflittleornoserviceforirrigation.Inconsequence,Palestineisdependentasawholeforitswatersupplyon
springs,oronartificialmeansofstorageofitswinterrains.Countlessexamplesofbothexist,theformerespeciallyinGalilee,partsofwhichareabundantlyfertile
bynature,andwouldprobablyrepaybeyondallexpectationajudiciousexpenditureofcapital.ThecaseofJudaisalittledifferent,forherethereareextensive
tractswhicharenearlyorquitewaterless,andaremoreorlessdesertinconsequence.
TheclimateofPalestineis,onthewhole,thatofthesubtropicalzone,though,owingtotheextraordinaryvariationofaltitudes,thereisprobablyagreaterrange
ofaveragelocaltemperaturethaninanyotherregionofitssizeontheworldssurface.Ontheonehand,thesummitsofHermonandofcertainpeaksofthe
Lebanonarecoveredwithsnowforthegreaterpartoftheyearontheotherhand,thetremendousdepression,inthebottomofwhichliestheDeadSea,is
practicallytropical,bothinclimateandinvegetation.Themeanlocaltemperatureissaidtorangefromabout62F.intheuplanddistricttoalmost100F.inthe
regionofJericho.
Rainfallisconfinedtothewintermonthsoftheyear.UsuallyintheendofOctoberorNovembertherainyseasonisusheredinwithaheavythunderstorm,
whichsoftensthehardbakedsurfaceoftheland.ThispartoftherainyseasonistheformerrainoftheBible(asinJl2:23).Ploughingcommencesimmediately
aftertherainshavethusbegun.Thefollowingmonthshaveheavyshowers,alternatingwithdaysofbeautifulsunshine,tillMarchorApril,whenthelatterrain
fallsandgivesthecropstheirfinalfertilizationbeforethecommencementofthedryseason.Duringthispartoftheyear,exceptbytherarestexception,norainfalls:
itsplaceissuppliedbynightdews,whichinsomeyearsareextraordinarilyheavy.Scantinessoftherainfall,however,isinvariablysucceededbypovertyoreven
destructionofthecrops,andtherainiswatchedforasanxiouslynowasitwasinthetimeofAhab.
Soonafterthecessationoftherains,thewildflowers,whichinearlyspringdecoratePalestinelikeacarpet,becomerapidlyburntup,andthecountryassumes
anappearanceofbarrennessthatgivesnotrueideaofitsactualfertility.Thedrysummerisrenderedfurtherunpleasantbyhoteastwinds,blowingfromoverthe
ArabianDesert,whichhaveadepressingandenervatingeffect.Thesouthwindisalsodry,andthewestwinddamp(cf.1K18:45,Lk12:54).Thenorthwind,
whichblowsfromovertheLebanonsnows,isalwayscold,oftenpiercinglyso.
Asalreadyhinted,thefloradisplaysanextraordinaryrangeandrichness,owingtothegreatvarietiesoftheclimateatdifferentpoints.TheplantsoftheS.and 2/144
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Asalreadyhinted,thefloradisplaysanextraordinaryrangeandrichness,owingtothegreatvarietiesoftheclimateatdifferentpoints.TheplantsoftheS.and
oftheJordanValleyresemblethosefoundinAbyssiniaorinNubia:thoseoftheupperlevelsofLebanonareofthekindspeculiartosnowcladregions.Wheat,
barley,millet,maize,peas,beans,lentils,olives,figs,mulberries,vines,andotherfruitcotton,nutsofvariousspeciestheordinaryvegetables,andsome(suchas
solanumoreggplant)thatdonot,asarule,findtheirwaytowesternmarketssesame,andtobaccowhichisgrowninsomedistrictsarethemostcharacteristic
cropsproducedbythecountry.Thepricklypearandtheorange,thoughofcomparativelyrecentintroduction,arenowamongitsstapleproducts.Thefauna
includes(amongwildanimals)thebat,hyna,wolf,jackal,wildcat,ibex,gazelle,wildboar,hare,andothersmalleranimals.ThebearisnowconfinedtoHermon,
andpossiblyoneortwoplacesinLebanonthecheetahisrare,andthelion(1S17:34,1K13:24etc.)isextinct.Soalsoisthehippopotamus,bonesofwhichhave
beenfoundinexcavations.Amongwildbirdswemaymentiontheeagle,vulture,stork,andpartridge:thereisagreatvarietyofsmallerbirds.Snakesandlizards
abouod,andcrocodilesareoccasionallytobeseenintheNahrezZerkanearCsarea.Thedomesticatedanimalsarethecamel,cow,buffalo(onlyintheJordan
Valley),sheep,horse,donkey,swine(onlyamongChristians),anddomesticfowl.Thedogcanscarcelybecalleddomesticated:itiskeptbyshepherdsfortheir
flocks,butotherwiseprowlsaboutthestreetsoftownsandvillagesseekingalivingamongtherubbishthrownfromthehouses.
4.History,races,antiquities.TheearliestdawnofhistoryinPalestinehasleftnotraceinthecountryitself,sofaraswecantellfromthelimitedrangeof
excavationshithertocarriedout.Therewas,however,aBabyloniansupremacyoverthecountryinthefourthmillenniumB.C.,ofwhichtherecordsleftbythekings
ofAgadespeak.Theserecordsareasyetonlyimperfectlyknown,andtheirdiscussioninashortarticlelikethepresentwouldbeoutofplace.Averyfullaccount
ofallthatisasyetknownoftheseremotewaifsofhistorywillbefoundinL.B.PatonsexcellentHistoryofSyriaandPalestine.
AboutB.C.3000wefirstreachaperiodwhereexcavationinPalestinehassomeinformationtogive.Itappearsthattheinhabitantswerethenstillintheneolithic
stageofculture,dwellingincaves,naturalorartificial.TheexcavationofGezerhasshownthatthesiteofthatcitywasoccupiedbyanextensivecommunityofthis
race.TheywerenonSemiticbutastheypractisedcremation,thebonesweretoomuchdestroyedtomakeitpossibletoassignthemtotheirproperplaceamongthe
Mediterraneanraces.Furtherdiscoveriesmayultimatelyleadtothisquestionbeingsettled.ItispossiblethattheHoritesofGn14:6andelsewheremayhavebeen
thesurvivorsofthisrace.
AboutB.C.2500thefirstSemiticsettlersseemtohaveestablishedthemselvesinthecountry.ThesewerethepeopleknowntoBiblestudentsasCanaanitesor
Amorites.Thesuccessofattemptsthathavebeenmadetodistinguishthesenames,asindicatingtwoseparatestocksmustbeconsidereddoubtful,anditisperhaps
safertotreatthetwonamesassynonymous.AboutB.C.2000,asappearsbythereferencetoAmraphel,kingofShinar(=Hammurabi),occurredthebattleofthe
fourkingsandfiverecordedinGn14thefirsteventonPalestiniansoilofwhichaPalestinianrecordispreserved.
ThedominionofEgyptoverS.Palestine,oratleasttheinfluenceofEgyptiancivilization,mustearlyhavebeenfelt,thoughnodefiniterecordsofEgyptian
conquestolderthanTabutmesIII.(aboutB.C1500)havecometolight.ButscarabsandotherobjectsreferabletotheUsertesens(aboutB.C.28002500,according
totheopinionsofvariouschronologists)arenotinfrequentlyfoundinexcavations,whichspeakofcloseintercoursebetweentheCanaanitesandthecivilizationof
theNilevalley.OftheCanaanitesveryextensiveremainsyetawaitthespadeoftheexcavatorinthemoundsthatcovertheremainsoftheancientcitiesofPalestine.
ThemodernpeasantryofthecountrycloselyresembletheancientCanaanitesinphysicalcharacter,tojudgefromtheremainsofthelatterthatexcavationhas
revealedindeed,inallprobabilitythesubstratumofthepopulationhasremainedunchangedinracialaffinitiesthroughoutthevicissitudesthatthecountryhas
suffered.BytheconquestsofTahutmesIII.(c.1500),andAmenhotepIII.(c.1450),PalestinebecamevirtuallyanEgyptianprovince,itsurbancommunities
governedbykings(i.e.localsheiks)answerabletothePharaoh,butalwaysquarrellingamongthemselves.TheheretickingAmenhotepIV.wastoobusywithhis
religiousinnovationstopayattentiontohisforeignpossessions,and,citybycity,hisruleinPalestinecrumbledawaybeforetheAramantribes,namedintheTell
elAmarnatabletstheKhabiri.ThisnameisidenticalwiththatoftheBiblicalHebrewsbutithasnotyetbeenpossibletoputtheKhabiriandtheHebrewsintotheir
propermutualrelations.TheHebrewsrepresentthemselvesasescapedslavesfromEgyptwho(aboutthe13thcent.B.C.)wereledasasolidwholeunderasingle
leader(Joshua)tothecompleteconquestofCanaanthisistheaccountoftheBookofJoshua.AccordingtotheoldertraditionpreservedinJg1,theyenteredthe
countrywithoutanindividualleader,asanumberofmoreorlessindependenttribesorclans,andeffectedonlyapartialconquest,beingbaffledbythesuperior
strengthofcertainspecifiedcities.ThisaccountismoreinaccordancewiththeeventsasrelatedbytheTellelAmarnatablets,butfurtherdiscoveriesmustbemade
beforetheveryobscurehistoryoftheIsraeliteimmigrationcanbeclearlymadeout.
TheIsraeliteoccupationwasonlypartial.TheimportantMaritimePlainwasinthehandsofatotallydistinctpeople,thePhilistines.Thefavourite,andmost
probable,moderntheoryregardingthePhilistinesisthattheywereofCretanoriginbuteverythingrespectingthatmysteriousraceisveiledinobscurity.Asabove
mentioned,itisnotlikelythatthechangeofownershipaffectedthepeasantstheGibeoniteswereprobablynottheonlyhewersofwoodanddrawersofwater
(Jos9:21)thatsurvivedoftheolderstock.Andlastly,wecannotdoubtthatanextensiveCanaaniteoccupationremainedinthetownsexpresslymentionedinJg1,
asthosefromwhichthevarioustribesdravenotouttheiroriginalinhabitants.Sofaraswecaninferfromexcavationaninferencethoroughlyconfirmedbya
considerationofthebarbaroushistoryoftheJudgestheeffectoftheIsraeliteentranceintoCanaanwasaretrogressionincivilization,fromwhichthecountrytook
centuriestorecover.
Thehistoryofthedevelopmentoftheseincoherentunitsintoakingdomisoneofeverfreshinterest.ItisrecordedforusintheBooksofJudgesand1Samuel,3/144
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Thehistoryofthedevelopmentoftheseincoherentunitsintoakingdomisoneofeverfreshinterest.ItisrecordedforusintheBooksofJudgesand1Samuel,
andthecourseofeventsbeingknowntoeveryreader,itisunnecessarytorecapitulatethemhere.Itisnotunimportanttonoticethatthesplitoftheshortlivedsingle
kingdomintotwo,afterthedeathofSolomon,wasarupturethathadbeenforeshadowedfromtimetotimeasinthebriefreignofAbimelechoverthenorthern
province(Jg9),andtheattemptofthenorthernerstosetupIshboshethaskingagainstDavid(2S2.3),frustratedbyIshboshethsilltimedinsulttoAbner(2S
3:7):Abnersanswer(v.10)recognizesthedichotomyofJudahandIsraelasalreadyexisting.Thisdivisionmusthavehaditsrootsintheoriginalpeoplingofthe
countrybytheHebrews,whenthechildrenofJudahwentsouthward,andthechildrenofJosephnorthward(Jg1:321,2228).
Spacewillnotpermitustotraceatlengththefortunesoftherivalkingdoms,totheirhighestgloryunderthecontemporarykingsUzziahandJeroboarnII.,and
theirrapiddeclineandfinalextinctionbythegreatMesopotamianempires.Wemay,however,pausetonoticethat,asinthecaseoftheCanaanites,manyremains
oftheIsraelitedominionawaittheexcavatorinsuchtownsaslaywithinIsraeliteterritoryandtheSiloamTunnelepigraph,andoneortwoofminorimportance,
promisethewelcomeadditionofafewinscriptions.Ontheotherhand,theremainsofthepopulationarescantierforitneedhardlybesaidthatthemodernJewish
inhabitantsofPalestineareallmoreorlessrecentimportations.
TheNorthernKingdomfellbeforeAssyria,andwasneverheardofagain.TangibleremainsoftheAssyriandominationwerefoundatGezer,intheshapeofa
coupleofcontracttabletswrittenthereintheAssyrianlanguageandformulaboutB.C.650andthemodernsectofSamaritansisalivingtestimonytothestoryof
theresettlingoftheNorthernKingdomunderAssyrianauspices(2K17:2441).
TheSouthernKingdomhadadifferentfate.ItwasextinguishedbyBabylonabout135yearslater,inB.C.586.In538thecaptiveswerepermittedtoreturnto
theirlandbyCyrus,afterhisconquestofBabylon.TheyrebuiltJerusalemandtheTemple:theBooksofEzraandNehemiaharetherecordofthisworkof
restoration.
InB.C.333SyriafelltoAlexandertheGreatafterthebattleofIssus.Afterhisdeathfollowedadistractingandcomplicatedperiodofconflictbetweenhis
successors,which,sofarasPalestinewasconcerned,hadtheeffectofopeningthecountryforthefirsttimetotheinfluenceofGreekculture,art,andreligion.From
thistimeonwardwefindevidenceofthefoundationofsuchbuildingsastheatres,previouslyquiteunknown,andothernoveltiesofWesternorigin.Althoughmany
oftheJewsadoptedtheGreektongue,therewasastaunchpuritanpartywhorigidlysettheirfacesagainstallsuchGentilecontaminations.Inthistheyfound
themselvesopposedtotheSeleucidprincesofSyria,amongwhomAntiochusEpiphanesespeciallysethimselfdeliberatelytodestroythereligionofJudaism.This
ledtothegreatrevoltheadedbyMattathiasthepriestandhissons,whichsecuredfortheJewsabriefperiodofindependencethatlastedduringthesecondhalfof
the2ndcent.B.C.,underJohnHyrcanus(grandsonofMattathias)andhissuccessors.ThekingdomwasweakenedbyfamilydisputesintheendRomesteppedin,
PompeycapturedJerusaleminB.C.63,andhenceforthPalestinelayunderRomansuzerainty.SeveralimportanttombsnearJerusalem,andelsewhere,andalarge
numberofremainsofcitiesandfortresses,survivefromtheageofthefamilyofMattathias.TheconquestofJoppa,undertheauspicesofSimonMaccabus,sonof
Mattathias(1Mac13:11),wasthefirstcaptureofaseaportinS.PalestinethroughoutthewholeofIsraelitehistory.
TheHasmonandynastygaveplacetotheIdumandynastyoftheHerodsinthemiddleofthe1stcent.B.C.,HerodtheGreatbecomingsolegovernorof
Juda(underRomansuzerainty)inB.C.40.ItwasintothispoliticalsituationthatChristwasbornB.C.4.RemainsofthebuildingactivitiesofHerodarestilltobe
seeninthesubstructuresoftheTemple,theHerodiantowersof
Jerusalem,and(possibly)amagnificenttombnearJerusalemtraditionallycalledtheTombofMariamme.HeroddiedshortlyafterChristsbirth,andhisdominions
weresubdividedintoprovinces,eachunderaseparateruler:butthenativerulersrapidlydeclinedinpower,andtheRomangovernorsasrapidlyadvanced.The
JewsbecamemoreandmoreembitteredagainsttheRomanyoke,andatlastaviolentrebellionbrokeout,whichwasquelledbyTitusinA.D.70,whenJerusalem
wasdestroyedandalargepartoftheJewsslainordispersed.Aremnantremained,whichabout60yearslateragainessayedtorevoltundertheirleaderBarCochba:
thesuppressionofthisrebellionwasthefinaldeathblowtoJewishnationality.AfterthedestructionofJerusalemmanysettledinTiberias,andformedthenucleusof
theimportantGalilan
Rabbinicschools,remainsofwhicharestilltobeseenintheshapeofthesynagoguesofGalilee.
TheseinterestingbuildingsappeartodatefromthesecondcenturyA.D.
AfterthepartitionoftheRomanEmpire,PalestineformedpartoftheEmpireoftheEast,andwithitwasChristianized.Manyancientsettlements,withtombs
andsmallchurchessomeofthemwithbeautifulmosaicpavementssurviveinvariouspartsofthecountry:thesearerelicsoftheByzantineChristiansofthe5th
and6thcenturies.ThenativeChristiansofSyria,whosefamilieswereneverabsorbedintoIslam,aretheirrepresentatives.These,thoughAramanbyrace,now
habituallyspeakArabic,exceptinMalulaandoneortwootherplacesinN.Lebanon,whereaSyriacdialectsurvives.
ThisearlyChristianityreceivedasevereblowin611,whenthecountrywasravagedbyChosrosII.,kingofPersia.Monasticsettlementsweremassacredand
plundered,andthewholecountryreducedtosuchastateofweaknessthatwithoutmuchresistanceitfelltoOmar,thesecondCaliphofIslam.Hebecamemasterof
SyriaandPalestineinthesecondquarteroftheseventhcentury.PalestinethusbecameaMoslemcountry,anditspopulationreceivedtheArabelementwhichisstill
dominantwithinit.ItmaybementionedinpassingthatcoinsofChosrosareoccasionallyfoundinPalestineandthatoftheearlyArabdominationmany
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dominantwithinit.ItmaybementionedinpassingthatcoinsofChosrosareoccasionallyfoundinPalestineandthatoftheearlyArabdominationmany
noteworthybuildingssurvive,chiefofwhichisthegloriousdomethatoccupiesthesiteoftheHebrewTempleatJerusalem.
TheMoslemrulewasatfirstbynomeanstyrannicalbut,asthespiritofintolerancedeveloped,theChristianinhabitantswerecompelledtoundergomany
sufferingsandindignities.This,andthedesiretowresttheholyplacesofChristendomfromthehandsoftheinfidel,weretheostensiblereasonsfortheinvasionsof
thebrigandswhocalledthemselvesCrusaders,andwhoestablishedinJerusalemakingdomonafeudalbasisthatlastedthroughoutthe12thcentury.Aninstitution
soexotic,supportedbymenmorallyandphysicallyunfitforlifeinasubtropicalclimate,couldnotoutlastthefirstenthusiasmwhichcalleditintobeing.Wornout
byimmorality,byleprosyandotherdiseases,andbymutualdissensions,theunworthychampionsoftheCrossdisappearedbeforetheheroicSaladin,leavingas
theirlegacytothecountryascoreorsoofplacenamesaquantityofworthlessecclesiasticaltraditionsanumberofcastlesandchurches,fewofwhichpossessany
specialarchitecturalinterest,andmanyofwhich,byastrangeirony,havebeenconvertedintomosquesand,amongtheArabnatives,anunquenchablehatredof
Christianity.
WemustpassoverthebarbarousMongolianinvasions,thelastofwhichwasunderTimurorTamerlaneattheendofthe14thcentury.Butwemustnotomitto
mentiontheTurkishconquestin1516,whenSyriaobtainedtheplacewhichitstillholdsintheOttomanEmpire.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
PALLU.OneofthesonsofReuben(Gn46:8,Ex6:14,Nu26:5,8,1Ch5:8).ThepatronymicPalluitesoccursinNu26:5.WeshouldprobablyreadPallufor
PelethinNu16:1.
PALMTREE(tmr).Thedatepalm(Phnixdactylifera)isatreeessentialtoexistenceinthedesertsofArabia,andwasthereforeheldsacredamongthe
Semitesfromtheearliesthistorictimes.ItflourishesinEgypt,Mesopotamia,andtheoasesofArabia(Ex15:27,Nu33:9),butitscultivationhasforlongbeenmuch
neglectedinPalestine.ItisstillfoundinconsiderablenumbersintheMaritimePlain,e.g.attheBayofAkkaandatGazaandsmallscatteredgroupsoccurallover
thelandintheneighbourhoodofsprings.InthevalleyseastoftheDeadSea,manysterile,dwarfedpalmsoccur.BothintheOT(Dt34:3,Jg1:16,3:13,2Ch
28:15)andinJosephus(BJIV.viii.23),Jerichoisfamousforitsvastgrovesofpalmstodaytherearebutfew,andthesequitemoderntrees.Notonlyaredatesa
stapledietinArabiaandanimportantarticleofexport,buttheplaitedleavesfurnishmatsandbaskets,thebarkismadeintoropes,andtheseedsaregroundupfor
cattle.Fromthedatesismadeakindofsyrup,datehoneyordibs,avaluablesubstituteforsugar.Themethodoffertilizationofthefemale(pistillate)flowersbythe
pollenfromthemale(staminate)flowerswasknowninveryancienttimes,andnaturewasthen,asnow,assistedbyshakingoutthepollenoverthefemaleflowers.
Thepalmtreeisreferredto(Ps92:12)asasignofprosperityand(Ca7:7,8)ofbeauty.FiguresofpalmtreeswereusedtoornamenttheTemple(1K6)atalater
periodtheyoccuronJewishcoinsandinthesculptureoftheancientJewishsynagogues,notablyintherecentlyexcavatedsynagogueatTellHm(Capernaum).
ThesacrednessofthistreethuspersistedfromtheearlySemitetolateJewishtimes.PalmbrancheswereusedattherejoicingsoftheFeastofTabernacles(Lv23:40,
Neh8:15),astheyareamongthemodernJews,whodaily,duringthisfeast,wavebranchesofpalmsintheirsynagogues.In1Mac13:51wereadofthebearingof
palmbranchesasthesignoftriumphantrejoicinganideaalsoimpliedintheiruseinJn12:13andRev7:9.TodaythesebranchesareusedbytheMoslems
especiallyatfuneralprocessions,andtodecorategraves.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
PALMERWORM.OldEng.forcaterpillar,seeLOCUST.
PALSY.Themodernformofthiswordisparalysis.SeeMEDICINE,p.599a.
PALTI.1.TheBenjamitespy(Nu13:9).2.ThemantowhomMichal,Davidswife,wasgivenbySaul(1S25:44).In2S3:15heiscalledPaltiel.See
followingarticleunderNo.2.
PALTIEL.1.TheprinceofIssachar(Nu34:26).2.2S3:15,thesameasPaltiof1S25:44.
PALTITE,THE.AnativeofBethpeletintheNegebofJudah(Jos15:27,Neh11:26).TothistownbelongedHelez,oneofDavidsthirtyheroes(2S23:26).
Intheparallellists(1Ch11:27,27:10)heisdescribed,probablyincorrectly,asthePelonite.
PAMPHYLIA.ThenameofadistrictontheS.coastofAsiaMinor,lyingbetweenLyciaandCilicia.Strictlyspeaking,itconsistedofaplain80mileslong
and(atitswidestpart)20milesbroad,lyingbetweenMt.Taurusandthesea.AfterA.D.74thenamewasappliedtoaRomanprovincewhichincludedthe
mountainouscountrytotheN.,moreproperlycalledPisidia,butuntilthattimeitwasusedonlyinthenarrowersense.TheplainwasshutinfromallN.winds,but5/144
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mountainouscountrytotheN.,moreproperlycalledPisidia,butuntilthattimeitwasusedonlyinthenarrowersense.TheplainwasshutinfromallN.winds,but
waswellwateredbyspringsfromtheTaurusranges.Throughlackofcultivationithasinmoderntimesbecomeverymalarious,andinancienttimes,thoughbetter
cultivated,thedistrictwasneverfavourabletothedevelopmentofavigorouspopulation.Moreover,itwasveryisolatedexceptbysea,forthemountainstotheN.
hadnogoodroads,andwereinfestedbybrigands.EvenAlexanderhadtofighthiswaythroughthem.
ThenameisprobablyderivedfromthePamphyli,oneofthethreeDoriantribes,anditislikelythatDoriansettlersenteredPamphyliaatthetimeoftheotherDorian
migrations.ButtheGreekelementneverprevailed,andthoughSideandAspendoswerehalfGreekcitiesinthe5thcent. B. C.,theGreekthattheyspokewasverycorruptandwas
writteninacorruptalphabet.SideissaidtohaveearneditsprosperityasthemarketofCilicianpirates.ThetownofAttaliawasfoundedinthe2ndcentury.Butmoreimportantwas
thenativetownofPerga,situatedinlandandhavingapparentlyaportofitsownontheriverCestrusatadistanceof5miles.Itwasareligiouscentre.,whereagoddessArtemisof
Pergawasworshipped,herritescorrespondingtothoseassociatedwithDianaoftheEphesians,andbeingthereforemoreAsiaticthanGreek.Theruinsofthecitydatefromthe
periodoftheSeleucidkingsofSyria.PamphyliawasinturnsubjecttoPersia,Macedonia,Syria,Pergamus,andRome.
PaulandBarnabasontheirfirstmissionaryjourneycrossedfromCyprustoPerga,butseemtohavegonestraightontoAntiochwithoutpreaching.Itwasat
PergathatJohnMarkleftthem(Ac13:13).Onthereturnjourney,beforetakingshipatAttalia,theypreachedatPerga(Ac14:25),butbythistimetheyhad
definitelydeterminedtoturntotheGentiles(cf.13:46).ChristianitywasslowintakingholdofPamphylia,thereisnomentionofitin1P1:1andthiswas
probablyduepartlytotheabsenceofJewishcentres,partlytothebackwardnessofthedistrict.Christianitymadewaymostquicklyinthechiefcentresofthought.
SeeP ERGA.
A.E.HILLARD.
PAN.SeeHOUSE,9.
PANELLED.SeeCIELED.
PANNAG.AwordofdoubtfulgenuinenessoccurringonlyinEzk27:17,inalistofarticleswhichhadaplaceinthecommerceofJudahandIsraelwithTyre.
RVsimplytransliteratestheword,withmarg.note,perhapsakindofconfection.AVhadunderstoodthewordasaplacename,wheatofMinnithandPannag.Of
thesuggestedemendationsmaybementionedCornillswax(dnag),andCheynesgrapesyrup,forwhichseeHONEY.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
PAPER.SeeWRITING,6.
PAPERREEDS.SeeMEADOW,REED.
PAPHOSwasthenameoftwocitiesintheW.ofCyprus,OldPaphosaboutamilefromthesea,NewPaphos(nowBaffo)aboutsevenmilesN.W.ofthis.The
PhnicianoriginoftheformerneednotbedoubtedthelatterwasbytraditionaGreeksettlement,butinboththechiefobjectofworshipwasthePapbian
goddess,undoubtedlyofSyrianorigin,andworshippedundertheformofaconicalstone,thoughidentifiedbytheGreekswithAphrodite.OldPaphoswas
desolateinthetimeofJerome.NewPaphoswasthecentreoftheRomanadministrationinCyprus.ItwasherethatSt.PaulencounteredtheRomanproconsul
SergiusPaulusinhisfirstmissionaryjourneythefirstpresentationofChristianitybeforeRomanauthorities(Ac13:612).
A.B.HILLARD.
PAPYRIANDOSTRACA.Untilalmosttheendofthe19thcent.,themostimportantrecordsofantiquity,apartfromtheauthors,thathadbeenpreservedfor
literaryreasons,weretheinscriptionsonstoneandmetal.Publishedingreatcollections,andutilizedbyscholarsofallcivilizedcountries,theyhavegivennewlife
toallbranchesofthestudyofantiquity,tohistoryinthewidestsenseoftheword,andinparticulartothehistoryofStates,law,economics,language,andreligion.
Theageofmodernepigraphyhasbeenextraordinarilyproductiveofknowledgethatnevercouldhavebeendiscoveredfromtheauthorsalone.Andtheendhasnot
yetcome.TheresearchesandexcavationsofEuropeanandAmericanarchologicalinstitutesandofspecialarchologicalexpeditions,inwhichtheGovernments
ofalmostallcivilizedcountriesandmanywealthyindividualshavetakenpart,bringtolightinnumerableinscribedstoneseveryyear.Thentherearethe
engineeringenterprisesforopeningupthecountriesoftheLevanttotrafficandcommerce.Intheconstructionofrailwaysparticularly,butalsoinothersimilar
undertakings,aquantityofepigraphicalmaterialisdiscoveredandmadeaccessibletoscholars.
Theseepigraphicalrecordswerereinforcedinthelastquarterofthe19thcent.bytwoquitenewgroupsofrecords,bothofwhichhaveusheredinanewepoch6/144
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Theseepigraphicalrecordswerereinforcedinthelastquarterofthe19thcent.bytwoquitenewgroupsofrecords,bothofwhichhaveusheredinanewepoch
inthescienceofantiquity,viz.thePapyriandtheOstraca.Bothhaveledtothedevelopmentofentirelynewbranchesofstudy.Incomparisonwiththeinscriptions
theynotonlyconstituteanenormousquantitativeincreaseofourmaterials,butalsoqualitativelytheyareofquitespecialimportance:theyallowustoseeintothe
privatelifeofthemenofantiquitytheirmostprivatelife,infactmuchdeeperthanwecouldeverhavedonebyaidoftheauthorsandtheinscriptions.
Supposeforamomentthatchanceexcavationsinanabsolutelydrymoundofrubbishweretoleadtothediscoveryofwholebundlesoforiginalprivateletters,
contracts,wills,judicialreports,etc.,relatingtoourownancestorsofthe10thcent.A.D.whatawaveofexcitementwouldrunthroughthewholeofthelearned
world!Howfewarethedocumentsthatwedopossessoftheprivatelifeofthosetimes!Historypreservestheoldinscribedstones,thearchivesofkings,the
chanceriesofthegreatchurchesandmunicipalities,butsuffersthewrittenmemorialsofpeasants,soldiers,women,artizans,todisappearafterafewyearswithouta
trace.Itwasexactlythesameinantiquity.Thetraditionthathadcomedowntouswasonthewholethetraditionpreservedinthehistoryofwhatwasgreatthe
historyofnations,potentates,theintellectualleadersinart,science,andreligionandthatistrueingreatmeasureoftheinscriptions,whichforthemostpartowe
theirorigintoprinces,cities,andwealthyIndividuals.
Onlythoserareinscriptionsthatoriginatedinthemiddleandlowerclassesofancientsocietyhadtosomeextentcounterbalancedtheonesidednessofthe
materialsavailableassources.Thepapyriandostraca,however,haveremediedthedefectinamostunexpectedmanner.Rubbishmoundssuchasthatwhichwejust
nowassumedhypotheticallytobediscoverableinourowncountry,butwhichinreality,owingtothedampnessofourclimate,probablydonotexistanywherein
theWest,occurinlargenumbersinEgypt.Inancienttimesthedumpinggroundsforrubbishandrefusewereontheoutskirtsofthecities,towns,andvillages.
Wholebundlesofdocumentsthatweretoooldtobeworthpreservingwerethrownontheserubbishheapsbytheauthorities,insteadofbeingburnedandprivate
personsdidthesamewhentheywishedtogetridofwrittenmatterthathadaccumulatedandwasconsideredvalueless.Thecenturieshavecoveredtheseancient
rubbishshootswithlayersofdustandsand,andthiscoveringhasunitedwiththegreatdrynessoftheclimatetopreservemostexcellentlytheoldsheetsofpapyrus
andtheinscribedfragmentsofpottery.Ofcoursethesetexts,whenrediscoveredinourownday,throwafloodoflightupontheuppercultivatedclass,butforthe
mostparttheyaredocumentsofthemiddleandlowerclasses.
Ithadlongbeenknownthatpapyruswasinantiquityaverypopularwritingmaterial.Thepithofthepapyrusplant,whichthrivesexcellentlyinthedamplevels
oftheNile,wascutintostrips,andfromthesestrips,laidcrosswise,horizontallyandvertically,uponeachother,thesheetsofpapyrusweremanufacturedby
gummingandpressing.Perishableasthematerialseems,itisinrealityexcellent.WepossessEgyptianpapyriofthetimeofkingAssa(c.B.C.2600accordingto
EduardMeyerschronology)andmostofthepapyrinowinourmuseumshavelainmorethan1500yearsintheearthofEgypt.Itisthereforenotsuchafantastic
planthathaslatelybeensuggestedinItaly,viz.,toreintroducethemanufactureofpapyrusandestablishitasaStatemonopolyinconnexionwiththemakingof
banknotes.Itishopedinthiswaytoobtainamaterialasdurableasitwouldbedifficulttocounterfeit.
ThefirstdiscoverersofwrittenpapyrimusthavebeenEgyptianfellahn,diggingintheoldrubbishmoundsforgoodearthandtreasure.Intheyear1778a
Europeannoticedanumberofpapyrusdocumentsinthehandsofsomeofthesepeasantsheboughtone,andwatchedthemburnsomefiftyothersinorderthat
theymightenjoythearomaticsmoke.TheonedocumentcametoEuropeitistheChartaBorgiana,thedeciphermentofwhichmarksthefirstbeginningof
papyrology.ThoughagoodnumberofotherpapyrireachedtheEuropeanmuseumsinthecourseofthe19thcent.,onlyafewscholarstookanytroubletocultivate
papyrologyfurther,untilin1877,ahundredyearsaftertheacquisitionoftheChartaBorgiana,manythousandsofpapyricametolightfromtherubbishmounds
neartheCityofCrocodilesorCityoftheArsenoites,theoldcapitaloftheprovinceofelFayyuminMiddleEgypt.
Thiswasthebeginningofanewepochthathasledtoagiganticdevelopmentoftheinfantscienceofpapyri.Theperiodofchancediscoveries,theharvestof
whichusedfrommerelyfinancialconsiderationstobescatteredhitherandthither,hasbeensucceededbyaperiodofsystematicexcavationscarriedoutbyhighly
trainedspecialists,whokeeptogetherthedocumentstheydiscoverandpublishthemincollectedform.Britishscholarsparticularlyhaveperformedsignalservices
bydiscoveringandpublishingpapyri.FlindersPetriehasobtainedmagnificentspecimensfrommummywrappingswhichhadbeenmadebystickingpapyri
together.GrenfellandHunthavecarriedoutsplendidexcavationsatOxyrhynchusandotherplaces,andhavepublishedtheirtreasureswitharapidityandaccuracy
thatplacetheminthefrontrankofeditors,astheworldofscholarshipacknowledges.Besidesthesetherearemanyothereditors,andeveryyearaddstothearmyof
workersonthetextsphilologistsandhistorians,lawyersandtheologians,allhavefoundandarefindingabundantwork.Theyoungandhopefulsciencehasfound
acentreintheArchivfrPapyrusforschung,ajournaleditedbytheleadingGermanpapyrologist,UlrichWilcken.
Thepapyrifallintotwogreatclassesaccordingtothenatureoftheircontents,viz.literarytextsandnonliterarytexts.
Literarytextshavecometolightinlargenumbers,thoughgenerallyonlyinfragments.TheycomprisenotonlyveryancientMSSofwellknownauthors,but
alsoalargenumberoflostauthorsandlostwritingsbyknownauthorshavebeenpartiallyrecovered.Thesefindswouldsufficetoshowtheextremeimportanceof
thepapyrusdiscoveries.Andmanyscholarshaveconsideredtheseliteraryfindstobethemostvaluable.
Butforscholarshipasawholethesecondgroup,thenonliterarytexts,isnodoubtthemoreimportant.Asregardstheircontents,theyareasvariedaslifeitself.7/144
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Butforscholarshipasawholethesecondgroup,thenonliterarytexts,isnodoubtthemoreimportant.Asregardstheircontents,theyareasvariedaslifeitself.
Legaldocumentsofthemostvariouskinds,e.g.leases,accountsandreceipts,contractsofmarriageanddivorce,wills,denunciations,notesoftrials,andtaxpapers,
arethereininnumerableexamplesmoreover,therearelettersandnotes,schoolboysexercisebooks,horoscopes,diaries,petitions,etc.Theirvalueliesinthe
inimitablefidelitywithwhichtheyreflecttheactuallifeofancientsociety,especiallyinitsmiddleandlowerstrata.
Theoldestpapyridatefromc.B.C.2600,andareamongthemostpreciousEgyptologicalrecords.Tothe5thcent.B.C.belongtheAramaicpapyrifromAssuan,
publishedbySayceandCowleyin1906,andthosefromElephantine,publishedbySachauin1907documentsthathavefurnishedastonishinginformation
relativetothehistoryofJudaism.Inthe4thcent.B.C.themainstream,asitwere,begins,consistingofGreekpapyri,andextendingfromthetimeofthePtolemys
tillthefirstcenturiesoftheAraboccupation,i.e.overaperiodofmorethan1000years.AssociatedwiththemthereareLatin,Coptic,Arabic,Hebrew,Persian,and
otherpapyrisothat,takenalltogether,theyconferanimmensebenefit,andatthesametimeimposeanimmenseobligation,uponthescienceofantiquity.
WhatistheimportanceofthepapyritoBiblicalscience?Itistwofold.Inthefirstplace,theyincreaseourstockofBiblicalMSSinamostgratifyingmannerand
secondly,theyplacenewsourcesatthedisposalofthephilologicalstudentoftheGreekBible.
BeginningthenwithBiblicalMSS,andfirstofallMSSoftheHebrewBible,wehaveintheNashPapyrusaveryancientcopyoftheTenCommandments.As
regardstheGreekOldTestament,wehavenumerousSeptuagintfragments(e.g.theLeipzigfragmentsofthePsalms,theHeidelbergfragmentsoftheMinor
Prophets),togetherwithisolatedremainsofothertranslations.FortheNewTestamentwepossessanequallyfineseriesofancientfragments.Butbesidesthesewe
haveacquiredquitenewmaterial,inparticularthevariousremainsoflostGospelsandtwopapyrusfragmentsandonevellumfragmentwithsayingsofJesus,some
ofwhicharenottobefoundintheNT.Ofcoursewithsuchfindsastheseitisalwaysaquestionhowfartheycontainancientandgenuinematerialandthe
opinionsofspecialists,e.g.withregardtothesesayingsofJesus,areatvariance.Butinanycase,evenif,asisnotatalllikely,theyshouldprovetobeofquite
secondaryimportanceasregardsthehistoryofJesus,theywouldbevaluabledocumentsinthehistoryofChristianity.Quiteanumberofthepapyrithrowfreshlight
onearlyChristianityasawhole.FragmentsoftheFathers,ApocryphalandGnosticwritings,liturgicaltexts,homileticfragments,remainsofearlyChristianpoetry,
havebeenrecoveredinlargenumbers,bothinGreekandCoptic.Buttothesemustbeaddedthelargenumberofnonliterarydocuments,bothJewishandEarly
Christian,whicharetobereckonedamongtheoldestrelicsofourreligion.FromthetimeofthepersecutionoftheChristiansundertheEmperorDecius,we
possess,forexample,nofewerthanfivelibelliissuedtolibellatici,i.e.officialcertificatesbytheauthoritiesresponsibleforthepagansacrifices,thattheholderof
thepapyrushadperformedtheprescribedsacrifices.TothetimeoftheDiocletianpersecutionbelongsprobablytheletterofPsenosiris,aChristianpresbyterinthe
GreatOasis,relatingtoabanishedChristianwomannamedPolitike.ThencomesalongseriesofotherearlyChristianoriginallettersinGreekandCoptic,fromthe
3rdcent.untillateintheByzantineperiod.CenturiesthathadlongbeensupposedtobeknowableonlyfromthefoliosofFathersoftheChurcharemadetolive
againbytheseoriginaldocumentsdocumentsofwhosecompletenavetandsinglenessofpurposetherecanbenodoubt.
ThedirectvalueofthepapyritoBiblescholarshipandecclesiasticalhistoryisthusveryconsiderable.Lessobvious,however,butnonethelessgreat,isthe
indirectvalueofthepapyri,andchieflythenonliterarydocumentsofprivatelife.
Thisvalueisdiscoverableintwodirections.Thepapyri,assourcesofpopular,nonliteraryLateGreek,haveplacedthelinguisticinvestigationoftheGreek
Bibleonnewfoundationsand,asautographmemorialsofthemenoftheancientworldfromtheageofthegreatreligiousrevolution,theyenableusbetterto
understandthesementhepublictowhomthegreatworldmissionofPrimitiveChristianitywasaddressed.
Asregardsthefirst,thephilologicalvalueofthepapyri,thesenewtextshavecausedmoreandmoretherejectionoftheoldprejudicethattheGreekBible(OT
andNT)representsalinguisticentityclearlydeterminablebyscholarship.Onthecontrary,thehabithasarisenmoreandmoreofbringingBiblicalorNew
TestamentGreekintorelationwithpopularLateGreek,andithascometoberealizedthattheGreekBibleisitselfthegrandestmonumentofthatpopularlanguage.
Theclearestdistinctivefeaturesofalivinglanguagefallwithintheprovinceofphonologyandaccidence.Andinthephonologyandaccidenceweseemost
readilythattheassumptionofaBiblicalGreek,capableofbeingisolatedfromotherGreekforpurposesofstudy,waswrong.
Thehundredsofmorphologicaldetailsthatstrikethephilologistaccustomedonlytoclassical
Attic,whenhebeginstoreadtheGreekBible,arefoundalsointhecontemporaryrecordsoftheprofanepopularlanguage,especiallyinthepapyriandostraca.
TherecentGrammarsoftheNTbyWinerSchmiedel,Blass,andJamesHopeMoulton,havefurnishedanextremelycopiouscollectionofparallelphenomena.
HelbingsGrammaroftheGreekOldTestament(Septuagint)doesthesame.TheSeptuagintwasproducedinEgypt,andnaturallyemployedthelanguageofits
surroundingstheEgyptianpapyriarethereforemagnificentasparalleltexts,especiallyaswepossessagreatabundanceoftextsfromthePtolemaicperiod,i.e.the
timewhentheSeptuagintitselforiginated.ThecorrespondencebetweenthemgoessofarthatMaysersGrammaroftheGreekPapyriofthePtolemaicPeriodmight
inmanyparticularsbeusedasaSeptuagintGrammar.
QuestionsofBiblicalorthography,whichseemunimportanttothelayman,butcausemuchworrytoaneditoroftheBiblicaltext,areofcourseilluminedby
thecontemporarypapyri.Thematterisnotunimportanttothescientificscholar,whomustworkwiththefidelityofthewisesteward.
Inthesamewayproblemsofsyntaxandofstyleareconsiderablyadvancedbythepapyri.Itispossible,forexample,toplacethewholetheoryofthe
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Inthesamewayproblemsofsyntaxandofstyleareconsiderablyadvancedbythepapyri.Itispossible,forexample,toplacethewholetheoryofthe
prepositionsonanewbasis.TheuseoftheprepositionsinLateGreekisveryinteresting.Tomentionbutonesmallpoint,wearenowabletomakemuchmore
exactstatementswithregardtothoseprepositionsintheNTwhichdenoteavicariousrelationandhowimportanttheseareintheApostlespersonalconfessionsof
faith!ThesyntacticalpeculiaritiesoftheNT,whichusedoftentobetracedbacktoSemiticinfluence,canalsoasarulebeparalleledfromthepapyri.Thewhole
questionofSemiticismswillnowbeabletobetreatedafresh.Formerly,whentheNTusedtobeisolatedfartoomuch,thequestionwasgenerallyansweredin
suchawaythattheinfluenceofthesocalledgeniusoftheHebreworAramaiclanguage,especiallyonthePrimitiveChristians,wasgreatlyexaggerated.
LinguisticphenomenathatcouldnotbefoundrecordedintheordinaryGreekGrammarsweredescribedsummarilyasSemiticisms.ItwasforgottenthattheNTand
theSeptuagintareforthemostpartdocumentsofthepopularlanguage,andthatthepopularlanguageinGreekandinSemitichasmuchincommon.Forexample,
thesocalledparatacticstyleofSt.JohnsGospelandSt.JohnsEpistles,whichusedgenerallytobepronouncedstronglySemitic,isinfactsimplypopularstyle,
andhasitsparallelsininscriptionsandpapyriwhichcertainlyarenotunderSemiticinfluence.TheexistenceofSemiticismsintheGreekBibleisofcoursenot
deniedbyrecentBiblicalinvestigatorsinthebookstranslatedfromSemiticoriginalstheyarereallynumerousbutthenumberofSemiticismshasbeen
considerablyreduced,andinproportionastheSemiticcharacteroftheNTrecedes,itspopularcharacterismadetoadvance.
Itislexicography,perhaps,thatderivesmostbenefitfromthenewdocuments.LateGreekisrichinnewwordsandnewmeaningsofoldwords:thevirginsoilof
thelifeofthepeopleisinexhaustible.GrammariansofalateragethesocalledAtticistsluredbyAtticGreekoftheclassicalperiodasbyaphantom,fought
againstthesenewwordsandmeanings,brandedthemasbad,andtriedtorootthemout.Anumberoflittrateurssufferedthemselvestobeboundbytherulesof
theAtticists,asiftheyhadbeenlivinginthe5thcent.B.C.Thisunhistorical,pedantic,anddogmatictendencyleftthemenoftheNTpracticallyuntouched.Menof
thepeoplethemselves,theyspokeasthepeoplespoke,andintheGospels,forexample,theyforthefirsttimeintroducedthelanguageofthepeoplewithvigour
intoliterature.Byreasonofitspopularcharacter,thelanguageofthefirstApostlesispreeminentlyamissionarylanguage,andthislanguageitwasthatreally
enabledChristianitytorisetoaworldreligion.Allthisisconfirmedmostamplybythenewdiscoveries.Wordsthatweusedformerlytoregardasspecifically
BiblicalorNewTestament,wefindnowinthemouthofthepeople.Besidesthepapyritheinscriptionsarealsorichsources.Illustrativequotationsfromthe
papyriareforusparticularlylifelike,becausewecangenerallydatethemeventotheday.TurnoverthepagesofthesecondvolumeofOxyrhynchusPapyri
publishedbyGrenfellandHunt,andyoufindthatthenonliteraryexamplesarealmostexclusivelydocumentsofthe1stcent.A.D.,i.e.theexacttimeinwhichthe
NTgrewup.ItwillbepossiblefromtheseandotherpapyritoenrichverygreatlythefutureLexiconoftheNT.
ThusweseethejustificationofthestatementthatthenewtextsofpopularLateGreekhaveplacedthelinguisticinvestigationoftheGreekBibleonnew
foundations.Inyetanotherdirectiontheyyieldanimportantharvesttotheology.ThemorewerealizethemissionarycharacterofPrimitiveChristianity,themore
clearlywegraspthegreatnessoftheApostlePaulworkingamongtheproletariatofthegreatcentresoftheworldscommerceEphesus,Corinth,etc.themore
weshallfeelthenecessityofstudyingthementowhomthegospelwaspreached,i.e.ofobtaining,wherepossible,insightintotheirlife,notonlyintotheir
economicpositionandtheirfamilylife,butintotheirverysoul.AsregardsEgypt,wenowpossesswonderfuldocumentsamongthepapyri,especiallyinthe
numerousprivateletters,whichwerenotintendedforpublicity,butreflectquitenaivelythemoodofthemoment.Astheyhavemadeclearertousthenatureofthe
nonliterarylettersofSt.PaulandthisaloneconstitutesalargepartofthevalueofthepapyritoNTstudysotheymakeliveagainforusthemenofthemiddle
andlowerclassesoftheageofthePrimitiveChristianmissiontotheworld,especiallyforhimwhohasearstohearthesofternotesbetweenthelines.Butwemay
assumethatthecivilizationoftheImperialagewastolerablyuniformthroughoutthewholerangeoftheMediterraneanlands,andthatifweknowtheEgyptiansof
thetimeofSt.Paul,wearenotfarfromknowingtheCorinthiansandthemenofAsiaMinorofthesameperiod.Andthuswepossessinthepapyri,asalsointhe
inscriptions,excellentmaterialsforthereconstructionofthehistoricalbackgroundofPrimitiveChristianity.
Inconclusion,referencemaybemadeoncemoretothefactthatrecently,inadditiontothepapyri,agreatnumberofsimilarancienttexts,writtenonfragments
ofpottery,havebeendiscoveredinEgypt,viz.theOstraca.Asthepotsherdcostnothing(anybodycouldfetchonefromthenearestrubbishheap),itwasthe
writingmaterialofthepoorman,andrevenueofficialswerefondofusingitintransactionswiththepoor.Theostraca,whicharealsonumberedbythousands,are
onthewholeevenmorevulgarthanthepapyri,butforthatveryreasonvaluabletousinalltherespectsalreadyspecifiedwithregardtothepapyri.Thereal
founderofthestudyofostracaonthegreatscaleisUlrichWilcken,whohascollected,deciphered,andhistoricallyelucidatedtheGreekostraca.NexttohimW.E.
CrumhasrenderedsimilarservicestotheCopticostraca.Toshowthattheostraca,besidestheirindirectimportance,havealsoadirectvalueforthehistoryof
Christianity,wemayrefertothepotsherdsinscribedwithtextsfromtheGospels,ortheearlyChristianlegaldocumentsrecentlydiscoveredatthetownofMenas,
butchieflytotheCopticpotsherdscontainingnumerousChristianlettersandillustratingparticularlytheinnerhistoryofEgyptianChristianity.
Thewholestudyofpapyriandostracaisstillinitsinfancy.Thescholarstillseesbeforehimalargeportionofthefieldofworkuncultivated.Thelaymanalso
wholoveshisBiblemaystillexpectmuchlightfromthewonderfultextsfromtheperiodoftheoriginoftheSeptuagintandtheNT,andthereisnoneedtofearthat
theLightoftheworld(Jn8:12)willpalebeforethenewlightskindledforusbyresearch.ThemorewesettheNTinitsowncontemporaryworld,themoreweshall
realize,ontheonehand,thecontactbetweenitandtheworld,andthemoreweshallfeel,ontheotherhand,thecontrastinwhichitstandswiththeworld,andfor 9/144
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realize,ontheonehand,thecontactbetweenitandtheworld,andthemoreweshallfeel,ontheotherhand,thecontrastinwhichitstandswiththeworld,andfor
thesakeofwhichitwentouttofightwithandtoconquerthatworld.
ADOLFDEISSMANN.
PARABLE(INOT)
1.ThewordrepresentsHeb.mshl,whichisusedwithawiderangeofmeaning,andisveryvariouslytr.bothinLXXandinEV.Therootmeanstobelike,
andOxf.Heb.Lex.refersthewordtothesentencesconstructedinparallelism,whicharecharacteristicofHeb.poetryandgnomicliteraturei.e.itreferstothe
literaryforminwhichthesentenceiscast,andnottoanyexternalcomparisonimpliedinthethought.Suchacomparison,however,isoftenfoundinthemshl,
and,accordingtomanyscholars,isthemainideaunderlyingtheword.WeareconcernedherewiththecaseswheretheEVtr.parableitisimportanttonoticethat
inOTparablehasthevaryingsensesofmshl,andisneverusedinthenarrowtechnicalsenseofthe
NT.InNu23:7etc.itisusedofthefigurativediscourseofBalaam(cf.Is14:4[RV],Mic2:4,
Hab2:3)inJob27:1,29:1ofJobssentencesofethicalwisdom,differinglittlefromtheproverbsof1K4:32,Pr1:1,10:1(thesamewordmshl).SoinLk
4:28(RV)itisusedofaproverb.Pr26:79speaksofaparableinthemouthoffools,whichhaltsandismisapplied.InPs49:4,78:2parableiscoupledwith
darksayingandimpliessomethingofmysterycf.thequotationinMt13:35andJn16:25AVm,RVm,whereitrepresentsaGr.wordusuallytr.proverb.InWis
5:3(AVm,RV),parablemeansbyword,asensewhichmshloftenhas.
InEzk17:2wehavetheparableoftheeagle,reallyanallegory(seebelow)cf.theuseinJn
10:3,He9:9RV,11:19RV,whereitrepresentsafigureorallegory.CloselyconnectedisEzk24:3,theparabolicnarrativeofthecaldrontheactiondescribedwas
probablynotactuallyperformed.SuchmysteriousfiguresarecharacteristicofEzekiel,andheisreproachedasaspeakerofparables(20:49).
2.Themeaningofparableinthetechnicalsense.IfChristdidnotcreatetheparabolictypeofteaching,Heatleastdevelopeditwithhighoriginality,and
gaveitadeeperspiritualimport.Hisparablesstandasatype,anditisconvenienttoattachatechnicalsensetotheword,asdescribingthisspecialtype.As
distinguishedfromfable(wh.see),itmovesonahigherethicalandliteraryplane.Fablesviolateprobabilityinintroducingspeechofanimals,etc.,inanunnatural
way,andtheirmoralisconfinedtolessonsofworldlywisdom.Theallegory,again,ismoreartificial.Itrepresentssomethingotherthanitself(theGr.wordmeans
speakingother),thelanguageofthespirituallifebeingtranslatedintothelanguage,e.g.,ofabattle,orajourney.Thequalitiesandpropertiesofthefirstare
transferredtothelast,andthetwothusblendedtogether,insteadofbeingkeptquitedistinctandplacedsidebyside,asisthecaseintheparable(Trench,On
Parables,ch.1).Henceeachdetailhasitsmeaning,andexistsforthatmeaning,notforthesakeofthestory.Intheparable,particularlyinthoseoftheNT,the
storyisnaturalandselfsufficientasastory,butisseentopointtoadeeperspiritualmeaning.Thedetailsasarulearenottobepressed,butaresimplythe
picturesquesettingofthestory,theirvaluebeingpurelyliterary.Intheallegory,eachfigure,kingorsoldier,servantorchild,issomeoneelsewithout
qualificationeachdetail,swordorshield,roadortree,meanssomethingperfectlydefinite.Itisnotsoinmostoftheparablesthelessonrestsonthetrueanalogy
whichexistsbetweenthenaturalandthespiritualworld.Withoutrequiringanyfictitiouslicence,theparablesimplyassumesthattheDivineworkingineach
spherefollowsthesamelaw.Likeananalogy,itappealstothereasonnolessthantotheimagination.
3.OTparables.TherearefivepassagesintheOTwhicharegenerallyquotedasrepresentingthenearestapproachtoparablesinthetechnicalsense.Itis
noticeablethatinnoneofthemisthewordusedaswehaveseen,wherewehavetheword,wedonotreallyhavethethinginthesameway,wherewehavethe
thing,wedonotfindtheword.Thefirsttwopassages(2S12:14[Nathansparable],14:6[Joabs])areverysimilarwehaveanaturalstorywithanapplication.
ThefirstisexactlyparalleltosuchaparableastheTwoDebtors,butthesecondhasnodeeporspiritualsignificance.Thesameistrueof1K20:39[thewounded
prophet],wherethestoryishelpedoutbyapieceofacting.Inallthreecasestheobjectistoconveytheactualtruthofthestory,andbytheunguardedcommentsof
thelistenertoconvicthimoutofhisownmouth.Themethodhasperhapsinthelasttwocasesasuspicionoftrickery,andwasnotemployedbyourLordthe
applicationoftheparableoftheWickedHusbandmen(Mt21:33)wasobviousfromthefirstinthelightofIs5:18.Thispassageisthefourthofthosereferredto,
andisatrueparable,thoughonlyslightlydeveloped.ItillustrateswelltherelationbetweenaparableandametaphorandacomparisonwithPs80:8showshow
narrowistheborderlinebetweenparableandallegory.ThelastpassageisIs28:2428,wherewehaveacomparisonbetweenthenaturalandthespiritualworld,
butnostory.ItshouldbenotedthatpostBiblicalJewishliteraturemakesawideuseofparable,showingsometimes,alikeinspirit,form,andlanguage,a
remarkableresemblancetotheparablesoftheNT.
C.W.EMMET.
PARABLE(INNT).1.Meaningandform.(1)Theconstantuseofaword,meaningresemblancebothinHebrewandinGreek,makesitevidentthatan
essentialfeatureoftheparablelayinthebringingtogetheroftwodifferentthingssothattheonehelpedtoexplainandtoemphasizetheother.Intheparablesof
Christtheusualformisthatofacompletestoryrunningparalleltothestagesanddivisionsofatotallydifferentsubject.ThusintheparableoftheSower(Mt13:1
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Christtheusualformisthatofacompletestoryrunningparalleltothestagesanddivisionsofatotallydifferentsubject.ThusintheparableoftheSower(Mt13:1
8)thekindsofsoilinthenarrativearerelatedtocertaindistinctionsofcharacterintheinterpretation(13:1928),Theteachingvaluethuscreatedcamefroman
appealtotheuniformityofnature.IntheOrientalthoughtoftheBiblewritersthiscontainedafactororfieldofillustrationoftengrudginglyconcededbythe
materialisticprovincialismofmodernWesternscience.ItwasrecognizedandbelievedbythemthattheLordofallhadtherighttodoasHepleasedwithHisown.
Insteadofbeinganelementofdisruption,thiswastothemtheguaranteeofallothersequences.Hewhogavetothefrailgrassitsformofbeautycouldberelied
uponwithregardtohigherformsoflife.TheattentiongiventothefallofthesparrowwouldnotbewithheldfromthedeathofHissaints.Theconceptiongave
solidaritytoallphenomenalsequences,andforcedintospecialnoticewhateverseemedtobesubjecttootherinfluences.Suchwastheparablevalueofcontrast
betweenthebehaviourofIsraeltowardsGodandthecommonseotimentoffamilyrelationship,andeventhegratefulinstinctsofthebeastsofburden(Is1:2,Is1:3)
.ThusalsoChristspokeofHisownhomelessnessasaprivationunknowntothebirdsandthefoxes(Mt8:20).Thiseffectofcontrastingcouplesformedaliterary
featureinsomeofChristsparableswhereopposingtypesofcharacterwereintroducedsidebyside(Mt21:28,25:2,Lk18:10).
(2)TheuseofthewordparoimiainLXXandintheGospelofJohnindicatesthataproverborparable,beingdrawnfromcommonobjectsandincidents,was
availableandmeantforpublicuse.Whatwasoncesaidinanyparticularcasecouldalwaysberepeatedundersimilarcircumstances.
(3)Occasionallythepublicparablevaluewasreachedbymakinganindividualrepresentallothersofthesameclass.Theparablethenbecameanexamplein
theordinarysenseoftheterm(Lk14:8,12,13).InJn10:18,15:17,thereisnoindependentintroductorynarrativedealingwithshepherdlifeandthecareofthe
vineyard.Certainpointsaremerelyselectedanddweltuponasintheinterpretationofaparablestorypreviouslygiven.Herethereisalltheexplanatoryand
persuasiveefficiencyoftheappealtonatureandcustom,but,asinthiscasethereferenceistoChristHimselfasHeadoftheKingdom,theparablehasnotthe
generalapplicationofthosebelongingtoitscitizenship.Itisneverthelessaparable,thoughtheDoorandtheVineareusuallycalledemblemsorsymbolsof
Christ.
2.AdvantagesandDisadvantages.Intheparabletwodifferentplanesofexperiencewerebroughttogether,onefamiliar,concrete,anddefinite,theotheran
areaofabstractions,conjectures,andpossibilities.Atthepointsofcontactitwaspossibleforthosewhodesiredtodosotopassfromtheknowntotheunknown.
Imaginationwasexercisedandthecriticalfacultyappealedto,andsympathywasenlistedaccordingtothemeritsofthecasepresented.Amoraldecisioncouldthus
beimpartiallyarrivedatwithoutarousingtheinstinctofselfdefence,andwhentheparallelismwasoncerecognized,thehearerhadeithertomakethedesired
applicationoractincontemptofhisownjudgment(2S12:14).InChristsparables,asdistinctfromtheordinaryfablewhichtheyotherwisecompletely
resembledinform,theillustrationswerealwaysdrawnfromoccurrencesthatwerepossible,andwhichmightthereforehavebelongedtotheexperienceofthe
hearer.Whenthemeaningwasperceived,thisfactgavetotheexplanationthepersuasivevalueofsomethingsanctioned,bytheactualitiesoflife.But,ontheother
hand,themeaningmightnotbeunderstood.Itsacceptancewaslimitedbythepowertodiscoverit.Onlyhewhocouldseetheprophetschariotcouldusethe
prophetsmantle.Thetransitionofresponsibilityfromthespeakertothehearerwassometimesindicatedbythewords,Hethathathearstohear,lethimhear(Mt
13:9).Christsmostsolemnutterancesweredirectedtowardstheinsensibilitythattookitsmusicwithoutdancing,andsatsilentwherethewailforthedeadwas
raised(Mt11:17).Hislastacttowardssuchimperviousnesswastoprayforitandtodieforit(Lk23:34,37,Ro5:8).
3.ThespecialneedofParablesinChriststeaching.IftheteachingofChristhadbeendevotedtomattersalreadyunderstoodandacceptedasauthoritative,
suchastheconventionalcommentaryonthelawofMoses,suchapresentationofmoralandspiritualtruth,while
impartingthecharmoffreshnesstothingsfamiliar,wouldnothavebeenactuallynecessary.TheScribesandPhariseesdidnotrequireit.Evenif,passingbeyond
theJewishceremonialobservanceandexternalism,HehadbeencontenttospeakofpersonalsalvationandethicalideasafterthemannersoprevalentintheWestern
Churchoftoday,Hewouldnothaveneededthevehicleofparableinstruction.Butthesubjectwhich,underallcircumstances,privatelyandpublicly,directlyand
indirectly,Hesoughttoexplain,commend,andimpersonate,wasthatofaKingdomthathadforitsdestinytheconquestoftheworld.AlikeinHispreachingandin
Hismiraculousworks,HisconstantpurposewastorevealandglorifytheFather(Jn15:8,16:25)andtounfoldthemysteriesoftheKingdomofheaven(Mt4:23,
13:11,Lk8:10).Thesemysterieswerenotinthemselvesobscureorremote(Mt16:14,Lk17:21,18:16),butitsprinciplesandmotivesandrewardswereso
opposedtoallthathadenteredthemindofman,thatithadtobecharacterizedasaKingdomthatwasnotofthisworld(Jn18:36).ItwasthisKingdomofMessianic
expectationthatunitedChristwiththehistoricpastoftheelectednationtowhichaccordingtothefleshHebelonged.Itsappearancehadbeenthechiefburdenof
prophecy,anditsexpansionandattendantblessingtohumanityhadbeendweltuponastherecompenseforthetravailofZion.TheMessiahwastobethePrinceof
PeaceinthatKingdomofexplodedandexhaustedevil,whereinsymbolthewolfandthelambweretofeedtogether(Is65:25).Theprincesofthepeopleofthe
earthweretobegatheredtogethertobethepeopleoftheGodofAbraham(Gn12:3,Ps47:9).ButthesamemysteriesoftheKingdom,whichconnectedChrist
withthepropheticutterancesanddevelopedhistoryofIsrael,alsobroughtHimintoarelationshipofantagonismtowardsthereligiousteachingofHisowntime.
ThepeoplerecognizedinHiswordstheauthoritythatbelongedtoMosesseat,buttheysawveryclearlythatanotherthanMoseswasthere.Thepointofdistinction
betweenHimandthePhariseeswasthatinHishandstheLawwasnolongeranendinitself,butbecameaministertowhatwasbeyondandgreaterthanitself.
WhiletheRabbinicalteachingboastedthattheworldhadbeencreatedonlyfortheTorah,HetaughtthattheLawhadbeencreatedfortheworld.Thisradical
oppositionappearedinwhatHesaidabouttheproperuseandobservanceoftheSabbathday,andinHiscondemnationofthosewhowouldneitherenterthe
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oppositionappearedinwhatHesaidabouttheproperuseandobservanceoftheSabbathday,andinHiscondemnationofthosewhowouldneitherenterthe
Kingdomnorallowotherstodoso.TheytaughtwithprideandcomplacencythattheKingdomofGodhadreacheditsfinalconsummationandembodimentintheir
ownexclusivecircle,whereasthemessageofChristwastobeborneovernewareasofprogressandexpansionuntilitreachedandconqueredtheuttermostpartsof
theearth.Itwasapartingatthefountainhead.Oneteachingmeanttheextinctionoftheother.OfthisKingdomanditsmysteriesChristspokeinparables.He
therebyturnedthethoughtsofmenfromtheMosaicsuccessionofRabbinicalprecedentsandtheirartificialmediationoftheLawofGod,anddiscoveredanew
sourceofilluminationand
authorityinthephenomenaoftheseasons,therelationshipsofthefamily,andtheindustriesofvillagelife.Faith,obedience,andlovetooktheplaceoftechnical
knowledgeandofficialposition.TheKingdomofheavenwasathand,andtheKingsinvitationtoenterwasalwayswiderthanthewillingnesstoacceptit.ToHis
disciplesHemoreintimatelyexplainedthatitwasaKingdomofrelationshiptoGod,andofmensrelationship,inconsequence,towardsoneanother.This,along
withthestoryofHisownlifeandministryandresurrection,wastobethegospeltheyweretopreach,bythepoweroftheSpirit,asthemessageofGodssalvation
tothewholeworld.IntheSermonontheMountthosemysteriesoftheKingdomwereindicatedinoutline,andintheparablesthethemewasstillthesame,whether
thestorystartedfromtheinitiativeoftheTeacherinthepresenceofthemultitude,orwassuggestedbysomeincidentofthehour.Inthelongwarfareoftheworlds
kingdomsmenhadgrownfamiliarwiththecry,Woetothevanquished!but,inthatKingdomofwhichHespoke,anewsocialinstinct,createdandnourishedby
itscitizenship,wastoinflictanintolerablepainonthosewhocouldrelievemiseryandupliftthedowntroddenandcheerthedespairing,anddiditnot.Itwastotake
uponitselftheworldsestrangementfromGodandhardnessofheart,andmakeitsowntheChristlessshameofmoraldefeat,andsocialdiscord,andall
unlovelinessoflife.InthecitizenshipofthatKingdomthesorestimpoverishmentwouldnotbeinthehumblebywaysofthelameandtheblind,butinthehomesof
selfishluxuryandprivilegedexemption.ThechiefcrimeoftheKingdom,involvingacompletenegationofdiscipleship,wouldbeanevadedcross.Iwassick,and
inprison,andyevisitedmenot(Mt25:43).Bothfromthenoveltyofthevisionthuspresented,andfromitshostilitytothespiritandauthorityofthereligious
leaders,itisevidentthatteachingbyparablewastheformbestadaptedtoChristspurposeandsubject,andtothecircumstancesofthetime.Itwasanefficientand
illuminatingmethodofinstructiontothosewhowereabletoreceiveit.ThepetitiononcepresentedbytwoofHisdisciplesindicateswhatmighthavebecome
generaliftherewardsoftheKingdomhadbeenannouncedtothosewhohadnotthetruespiritofitsservice(Mt20:21).Byleavingaltogetherthetraditionsand
controversiesoftheexhaustedChurchofthatday,HegaveafreshpositiverestatementofthenatureanddimensionoftheKingdomofGod.
4.ThefollowingselectionfromChristsparablesIndicatessomeofthepointsofrelationshiptotheKingdom.Whateverisstatedgenerallyappliesalsotothe
individual,andthelattershouldnotregardanythingasessentialandvitalwhichhecannotsharewiththewholemembership.Thehumblestserviceisregardedas
donedirectlytotheKing.(1)Theparableofboundaries,theconditionsandenvironmentoftheKingdom:theSowerandtheSeed(Mt13:123)difficultiesand
dangersarisingfrominattention,superficiality,anddividedallegiance.Failureabnormal.
(2)Acceptedcircumstance:WheatandTares(Mt13:2430)malignityprogressivelyrevealedintheadvancingstagesoftheKingdomthepatienceoftheSpirit.(3)
Continuousdevelopmentandadaptation:GrowingSeed(Mk4:2629)unionintheserviceoftheKingdomnotanartificialpatterncommendingitselftoa
particularage,butanewcircleofgrowtharoundtheparentstemwhichmovesonwardsandupwardstowardsflowerandfruit.(4)Theappointedtask:Talents(Mt
25:1430),Pounds(Lk19:1227)faithacceptingpersonalresponsibilitytheservantoftheKingdom,beingrelievedfromthedangersofsuccessandfailure,
labourssothathemaypresenthisaccountwithjoyinthepresenceoftheKing,beingpreparedforthatwhichispreparedforhim.(5)Theparableofoffice:The
HusbandmenintheVineyard(Mt21:3346,Lk12:4246)namesandclaimsintheChurchthatdispossessanddishonourChrist.(6)TheKingsinterest:Lost
Sheep(Lk15:37),LostCoin(15:810),LostSon(15:1132)forfeitedownershipsorrowfullyknowntotheownersocialrelationshiptotheKingdomindicated
bythefactthatthesheepwasoneofahundred,thecoinoneoften,andthesonamemberofafamily.(7)Costandrecompenseofcitizenship:HidTreasure(Mt
13:44),PearlofGreatPrice(13:45)selfiseliminated,butallthingsareyours.(8)Fulfilment:TheGreatSupper(Lk14:1524):theKingspurposemustbe
carriedoutifindividualsandnationsofcivilizedpreeminenceholdback,otherswillbemadeworthyofthehonouroftheservice.(9)Rejectedmembershipand
lostopportunity:RichFool(Lk12:1621),RichManandLazarus(16:1931).(10)Personalityinthe
Kingdom:(a)humility(Mt18:14,Lk18:914)(b)sincerity(Mt7:1527)(c)usefulness(Lk13:38)(d)gratitude(Mt18:2835,Lk7:4143)(e)readinessto
help(Lk10:3037)(f)assuranceoffaith(Lk11:513,18:18)(g)patienthope(Mk13:3437,Lk12:3539).
G.M.MACKIE.
PARACLETE.SeeADVOCATE,P AUL,p.693a.
PARADISE.APersianwordforparkorgarden(seeORCHARD),usedinlaterJewishandChristianthoughttorepresenttheabodeoftheblesseddead.
1.IntheOT.Whilethewordpardsoccursonly3timesintheOT(Ca4:12,Ec2:5,Neh2:3),andthenwithnoreferencetotheGardenofEden,itis
unquestionablethatEdenservesasthebasisforthelaterconception.ThetransitionfromtheusageofGenesistoonelessliteralisto
beseeninEzk31,whichisdoubtlessmodifiedtoaconsiderabledegreebyBabylonianconceptions.These,undoubtedly,arealsotobeseenintheGenesispicture12/144
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beseeninEzk31,whichisdoubtlessmodifiedtoaconsiderabledegreebyBabylonianconceptions.These,undoubtedly,arealsotobeseenintheGenesispicture
ofEden.ThesignificanceofEzekielsconceptionisthatitshowstheanticipationoftheapocalypticconceptionofEth.Enoch(chs.2328)andotherapocalypses
bothJewishandChristian.
2.InJewishapocalypticliteratureandintheNT.Intheapocalypsesthereareelaboratedescriptions(particularlyEth.Enoch,Apoc.Bar4,and2Es8:52)
ofParadiseastheoppositeofGehenna.IntheRabbinicalconceptionoftheuniverse,Paradiseistheabodeoftheblesseddead.Thereisthetreeoflife,andthere
alsotherighteousfeast.GehennaandParadiseare,accordingtotheRabbis,closetogether,beingseparatedonlybyahandbreadth.Thisview,however,isdifficult
toharmonizewithotherconceptions,andtheadjustmentisprobablytobemadebytheotherviewofatwofoldParadise,oneinSheolandtheotherinHeaven.
SuchaviewwouldharmonizewiththeconceptionthattherighteouswouldrisefromthenetherParadisetotheheavenly.ThewordisneverusedbyJesusorSt.
PaulexceptinLk23:43and2Co12:4.Fromsomepointsofviewitwouldbemorenaturaltomakethesetwopassagesrefertothetwo
Paradisesrespectively,butafinalconclusionispreventedbylackofevidence.ThereferenceofPaul(2Co12:4)isundoubtedlytotheupperParadisethatis,the
thirdheaven.Hereagain,however,itisnotsafetoderivedogmafromwhatmaybeamerelyconventionalexpression.
3.InChristiantheologythetermiscommonlyusedasidenticalwithheaven,althoughinsomecasesitisdistinguishedasthetemporaryabodeofthe
saints,eitherinsomeplaceonearthorabovetheearth.Ithasbeenparticularlydevelopedinconnexionwiththespeculationastotheintermediatestateasthe
placewheretherighteouslivebetweentheirdeathandtheParousia.Lackofdata,however,makesitimpossibletoreachcertaintyinthematter,andthemost
moderntheologymaintainsanattitudeofreverentagnosticismregardingthestateofthedead,andusesthetermParadiseasasymbolratherthanwithprecise
definition.
S HAILERMATHEWS.
PARAH.AcityinBenjamin(Jos18:23).NowtheruinFrah,neartheheadoftheValleyofMichmash.
PARALYSIS,PARALYTIC.SeeMEDICINE,p.599a
PARAN.ElPrn,theoakorterebinth(LXX)ofParan(Gn14:6),isprobablyidenticalwithElath,theancientseaportontheGulfofAkabah.Perhapsinthis
regionshouldbesoughtParanofDt33:2,Hab3:3(Driver,Deut.[ICC],392).Palmer(DesertoftheExodus,p.510)identifiesitwithJebelMagrah,c.29miles
S.ofAinKads.IfDt2:8referstoaplaceinMoab,notraceofithasyetbeenfound.Acitymaybeintendedin1K11:13,lyingbetweenEdomandEgypt,which
cannotnowbeidentified.TheexiledIshmaelsettledintheWildernessofParan,evidentlyS.ofBeersheba(Gn21:21).IsraelsfirstmarchfromSinaibrought
themtothiswilderness(Nu10:12).WithinitlayTaberah,Kibrothhattaavah,Mazeroth,Kadesh,andwhatiscalledtheWildernessofZin.Thespieswentfrom
theWildernessofZin(13:21),inwhichlayKadesh(20:1,27:14,cf.33:36),andthisagainisidentifiedwiththeWildernessofParan(13:26).Itcorrespondsto
thegreatlimestoneplateauofetTh,stretchingfromtheS.ofJudahtothemountainsofSinai,havingtheArabahontheE.andthedesertofShurontheW.Hither
DavidfledafterSamuelsdeath(1S25:1.LXXBheregivesMaan=Heb.Man.SeeSmith,Samuel[ICC],220f.).
W.EWING.
PARBAR.Atermidentifiedwithparvrm(AVsuburbs,RVprecincts)of2K23:11andappliedtopartoftheTemplebuildingslyingontheW.,where
twoLeviteswerestationed(1Ch26:18).ThewordissupposedtobeofPersianoriginandtohavebeentakenoverintoHebrewtoindicateacolonnadeorportico
opentothelight.Thepl.formparvrm(2K23:11)describesthesituationofthechamberofNathanmelech,andmightbetranslatedinthecolonnades,butitis
difficulttounderstandhowaPersianwordcouldoccursoearly.Eitherthewordisalateexplanatoryadditiontothetext,orperhapswehaveadifferentword
altogether,describingtheofficeofNathanmelech.Ifwereadbapprdminsteadofbapparvrm,wegetthemeaningwhowasoverthemules.
W.F.BOYD.
PARCHEDCORN(ql,ormorefullybbqluibsh[Lv2:14],Lv23:14,Jos5:11,Ru2:14,1S17:17,25:18,2S17:28)isoftenmadeontheharvest
fieldbyholdingabundleofearsinablazingfireorbyroastingthemoverapieceofmetal.Cf.F OOD,2.
E.W.G.MASTEHMAN.
PARCHMENT.SeeP EROAMUM,WRITING,6.
PARDON.SeeF ORGIVENESS.
PARENTS.SeeF
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PARENTS.SeeF AMILY.
PARLOUR.SeeHOUSE,5.
PARMASHTA.TheseventhofthesonsofHaman,puttodeathbytheJews(Est9:3).
PARMENAS.OneoftheSeven(Ac6:5).
PARNACH.ThefatherofElizaphan(Nu34:25).
PAROSH.Thenameofapostexilicfamily(Ezr2:3=Neh7:8)Ezr8:3,10:25,Neh3:25,10:14.TheGr.formPhorosisadoptedinIEs5:9,8:30,9:26.
PAROUSIA.Theappearance,Advent,orSecondComingofChristattheendofthisageinordertoestablishHisKingdom.
1.Originoftheexpectation.TheMessianicinterpretationgiventoJesusbytheApostleswasessentiallyeschatological.NooneofthemunderstoodHimto
beengagedintheworkofestablishingtheKingdomofGodduringtheperiodculminatinginHisdeath.HewastheChristinthesensethat(a)Hewasanointed
(empowered)byGodtodelivermen(b)HewasgatheringandpreparingmenforHisKingdom(c)HediedandrosetomanifesttheJusticeandloveofGod,and
thussavethosewhoacceptedHimasChrist(d)HewouldreturntoconquerSatan,judgeboththelivingandthedead,andestablishHisKingdomeitherinheaven
oronarenewedearth.HowfarwearetobelievethatthisviewwasheldorcountenancedbyJesusHimselfwillhedeterminedbytheviewtakenastothe
authorshipofMk13andotherapocalypticsectionsoftheSynopticGospels.AtthispointChristainscholarsaredividedintothreegroups:first,thosewhobelieve
thatJesuswasthoroughlyinsympathywiththeeschatologicalviewsofHiscontemporariessecond,thosewhoholdthatHerejectedthoseviews,andthatthe
eschatologicalsayingsattributedtoHimaretheresultofreadingbackintoHiswordtheadmittedeschatologicalexpectationoftheApostlesandtheearlyChurchas
awhole.Thereseemslittlelikelihoodatpresentofagreementbetweenthesetwogroups,forthereasonthatthesecondgroupusesascriticalcriteriadogmaticor
highlysubjectivepresuppositionsconcerningJesus.Thenearestapproachtoacompromiseviewistobefoundinthepositionofthethirdgroup,whoholdthat
JesustosomeextentutilizedtheeschatologyofHisday,butthatHisreferenceshavebeendevelopedandmadespecificbytheEvangelists.Howevertheselarger
questionsmaybeanswered,animpartialcriticismandexegesiscanhardlydenythatJesusreferredtoHisfutureintermswhich,ifinterpretedliterally,wouldmean
Hisreturninjudgment(cf.particularlyMk14:6168,Mt23:3739).AstotheexacttimeatwhichHeexpectedHisreturnwehavenoinformation,exceptsuch
sayingsasMk8:3438[Mt16:2428,Lk9:2327showinfluenceofApostolicinterpretation]andLk17:22.
2.ExpectationintheearlyChurch.TheelementsintheexpectationoftheParousiafoundintheGospelsandintheEpistlescanbeformulatedwithout
seriousdifficulty.Itwasexpectedwithinthelifetimeofthewriters(except2P3:39):1Th4:15,1Co15:51f.orimmediately:Ja5:8,Ph4:5,Ro13:11,1Co7:29,
1P4:7.Theexactdayis,however,notknown(1Th5:2),butwillbeprecededbysorrowsandtheappearanceofAntichrist(2Th2:8)andtheconversionofthe
Jews(Ro11:25,26).TheorderofeventsawaitedisthedescentofJesuswithHisangelsfromtheupperheavenstothelowerthesoundingofthetrumpetandthe
voiceofthearchangelwhichwillsummonthedeadfromSheolthegivingtothesaintsofthebodyoftheresurrectionthecatchingupofthelivingsaints,who
havebeenchangedinthetwinklingofaneye,tomeetJesusandtherisensaintsintheairthegeneraljudgmentofbothlivinganddeadtheestablishmentofthe
MessianicKingdom,which,afteraperiodofstruggle,istobevictoriousoverthekingdomofSatanandfinallythefixingoftheeternalsupremacyofGod.Among
certainChristiansthisviewwasfurtherelaborated,sothattheappearanceofChristintheskywasfollowedbytheresurrectionofthemartyrs,athousandyearsof
peace,duringwhichSatanwastobebound,thentheconquestofSatan,thegeneralresurrection,andtheestablishmentofthefinalconditionsofeternity.Thislatter
view,however,althoughpopularinthe2ndcent.,doesnotappearintheNTexceptinRev20:27(seeMILLENNIUM).Iteasilypassedoverintothesensuous
chiliasticviewswhichwerefinallyrejectedfromthemaincurrentofChristianthoughtlargelythroughtheinfluenceofAugustine,butwhichhavecontinuedtoexist
amongdifferentsectsorgroupsofChristians.
3.VariousidentificationsoftheParousia.(a)WithChristsresurrection.Suchaview,however,disregardsmanyoftheelementsoftheNTexpectation,and
hasneverbeenwidelyaccepted.(b)ThecomingoftheHolySpiritatPentecostaviewcommonlyheldbythosewhorejecttheliteralisticinterpretationofthe
apocalypticelementsoftheNT,andidentifytheinfluenceoftherisenJesusintheworldwiththeHolySpirit.ThisviewmakessuchpassagesasJn14:23and
16:7ff.theexegeticalpointofapproachtotheentirequestion.(c)ThedestructionofJerusalem.Thisisgenerallycombinedwith(b)andsaidtobeforecastinMk13
and14:6163.(d)ThetheoryofthesuccessivecomingsoftheChristinjudgment.Thusvarioushistoricalcrises,suchasthedestructionofJerusalemandthefallof
theRomanEmpire,areregardedasduetotheimmediateinfluenceoftheChristandasapartofthenewdispensationoftheSpirit.(e)Thedeathofthebelievera
viewexegeticallyuntenable.(f)ThehistoricalcriticalviewseesintheexpectationsoftheNTChristianitysurvivalsofJewisheschatology.Suchaviewdoesnot
denyanelementoftruthintheexpectation,butregardsthebeliefasduetotheattachmenttoJesusofJewishexpectations(cf.Eth.Enoch48)nowseentobe
impossibleofrealization.
Theviewprobablymostgenerallyheldatthepresenttimeinvolveselementsfromseveralofthesespecificexplanations,andistotheeffectthat,whilethe
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Theviewprobablymostgenerallyheldatthepresenttimeinvolveselementsfromseveralofthesespecificexplanations,andistotheeffectthat,whilethe
Apostlesdoubtlessexpectedtheeschatologicalcataclysmtooccurintheirday,theysawthefutureinpropheticratherthanhistoricalperspective.Asaconsequence
theSecondComingwithitsattendanteventsisstilltobeexpected.AtdifferenttimesmenhaveendeavouredbytheinterpretationoftheBookofDanielto
determinetheprecisedateatwhichitwilloccurbutamongthosewhostillawaitaliteralappearanceofChristintheairitisusualtoregardtheParousiaaslikelyto
occurimmediately,oratanytimeduringanindefinitefutureperiod.
S HAILERMATHEWS.
PARSHANDATHA.TheeldestofthesonsofHaman,puttodeathbytheJews(Est9:7).
PARTHIANS.ThefoundersofapowerfuldynastyinPersiawhichoverthrewtheyokeoftheSyrianSeleucidB.C.250,andmaintaineditselfagainstall
externalenemiestillA.D.226,defyingeventheRomans.TheycamefromnorthernIran,andtheirlanguageordialectgreatlyaffectedthecultivatedspeechofthe
empire,whichwasknownasPahlaviduringtheirrgime.ButtheexactformofthelanguageoftheJewsorproselyteswhocametoJerusalemfromParthia,referred
toinAc2:9,cannotbeascertained.
J.F.MCURDY.
PARTRIDGE(qr,1S26:20,Jer17:11).TwokindsofpartridgeaboundinPalestine.Thechukarorrockpartridge(Caccabischukar)isthecommonestof
gamebirds.Itscrymaybeheardallovertheland,andlargecoveysmaybeencounteredintheautumn.Itisdistinguishedbyitsredlegs.Itisexcellenteating.
Heyssandpartridge(Ammoperdixheyi)occursinenormousnumbersaroundtheDeadSea.ItisprobablythepartridgereferredtoinIS26:20:itsshortflights
fromplacetoplacewhenhuntedItshiding,trustingtoitsinvisibilityonaccountofitscolourbeingsoliketheenvironmentitsquickrunfromdangerbeforetaking
towinganditsfinalcapturewhentooweariedtoflymustformaverysuitableimageofapoorhumanfugitiveremorselesslypursued.ThereferenceinJer17:11
ishardtounderstanditmayperhapsrefertothefactthatwhendisturbedfromtheirnestssuchbirdssometimesneverreturn.InSir11:30theheartofaproudman
iscomparedtoadecoypartridgeinacage.ItisstillcustomaryinPalestinetohunttheredleggedpartridgebytheaidofsuchdecoys.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
PARUAH.FatherorclanofJehoshaphat,SolomonsprefectinIssachar(1K4:17).
PARVAIM.Aregionwhence,accordingto2Ch3:6,thegoldwasobtainedwhichwasusedforornamentingtheTempleofSolomon.Thenameismost
plausiblyidentifiedwithFarwainYemen,orS.W.Arabia.ItwaspossiblyfromthisplacethatthegoldofSheba(Ps72:15cf.Is60:6)wasinpartderived.
J.F.MCURDY.
PASACH.AnAsherite(1Ch7:33).
PASDAMMIM.SeeEPHESDAMMIM.
PASEAH.1.AdescendantofJudah(1Ch4:12).2.ThefatherofJoiada(Neh3:6).3.TheeponymofafamilyofNethinimwhoreturnedwithZerubbabel
(Ezr2:49=Neh7:51)in1Es5:31Phinoe.
PASHHUR.1.AsonofMalchiah,aprinceofJudainthetimeofJeremiah(Jer21:1),whowasopposedtotheprophet(Jer38:113).Perhapsheisthe
fatherofGedaliah(Jer38:1),andlikelyidenticalwithPashhur,mentionedin1Ch9:12,Neh11:12,astheancestorofAdalah.2.ThesonofImmer,aTemple
officialandpriest,whocausedJeremiahtobebeatenandputinthestocksafterhehadpredictedthefallofJerusalem.Theprophettoldhimhisnamewasnot
Pashhur(probablypeace,lit.stayingoneveryside)butMagormissabib(terror[orperhapswandering]roundabout),andaddedthathewoulddieinBabylon
(Jer20:16).PerhapshewasthefatherofGedaliah(Jer38:1).3.ThefatheroftheGedaliahmentionedinJer38:1,andmaybeeither1or2,orneither.4.Thehead
ofapriestlyfamily,thesonsofPashhurmentionedinEzr2:38,Neh7:41,Ezr10:22,1Es5:25(Phassurus)9:22(Phaisur).5.Apriestwhosignedthecovenant
withNehemiah,probablyidenticalwith4,orusedoftheclanasawhole(Neh10:3).
W.F.BOYO.
PASSION.InAc14:15Wealsoaremenoflikepassionswithyou,passionmeans
feelingoremotion.ButinAc1:3Heshowedhimselfaliveafterhispassion,thewordmeanssuffering,asinWyclifstranslationofHe2:9Ihesusforthe
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feelingoremotion.ButinAc1:3Heshowedhimselfaliveafterhispassion,thewordmeanssuffering,asinWyclifstranslationofHe2:9Ihesusforthe
passiounofdeeth,crownedwithglorieandhonour.
PASSOVERANDFEASTOFUNLEAVENEDBREAD
1.OTreferences
(1)LawandEzekiel.TheallusionsinEx34:25and23:16aresodubiousthattheycanhardlygiveanysuregroundonwhichtobaseaconsiderationofthe
Passoverfestival.ThefirstcertainreferencetothefeastisinEx12:2127.(Thisisprobablyanolderaccountthan12:113,anddiffersfromitindetails.)Wefind
thatthepassoverisassumedasknown,andpossiblyitisthefeastreferredtoinEx3:16,7:16etc.ThecharacteristicfeaturesofthefeastinEx12:2127are:(a)a
lambistobeslainanditsbloodsprinkledonthelintelandsidepostsofthehouses(b)thecauseforthisobservanceisfoundintheslaughteroftheEgyptian
firstborn.
InDt16:18thePassoverisdirectedtobeobservedinthemonthAbib(April),incommemorationoftheExodusfromEgypt.Thesacrificeisnottobeoffered
inprivatedwellings,butintheplacewhichJehovahshallchoosetoplacehisnamethere.WiththePassovermeal,andduringsevendays,noleavenedbreadwas
tobeeaten.Noneofthefleshwastobelefttillmorning.Afterthemealtheworshippersweretogototheirhomestheseventhdaywastobeasolemnassembly,
andthisperiod(v.9)wastreatedasopeningthe7weeksjoyofharvest,commencingfromAbib,whenthecornwouldbecomingintoear.Wemaynoticehere:
(a)thePassoverisregardedaspartoftheFeastofUnleavenedBread(Mazzoth),thetwobeingapparentlyblendedintoone(b)thesacrifice,thoughcomposedof
individualsacrifices,istobeofferedonlyattheTempleinJerusalem(c)theofferingmaybetakenfromflockorherd.
InEzk45:2124thedateispreciselyassignedas14thAbib.Thefeastlasts7days,andunleavenedbreadonlyistobeeaten.Theprinceistoofferabullockas
asinofferingforhimselfandthepeople,andahegoatoneachofthe7days,aswellas7bullocksand7ramsdaily,withotherofferingsofmealandoil.Alltakes
placeatthecentralsanctuarythereisnomentionofalamb,andthePassoverispartoftheUnleavenedBreadfestival.
Lv23:514ordainsthePassoverfortheeveningof14thAbib.TheFeastofUnleavenedBreadistreatedseparatelyitlasts7days,aholyconvocationistobe
heldonthe1stand7thdaysandonthemorrowafterthesabbathasheafofnewcornistobewavedbeforetheLord,ahelambistobeofferedasaburntoffering
withotherofferingsandtillthisisdone,nobreadorparchedcornorgreenearsmaybeeaten.
AccordingtoEx12:113,thecurrentmonthoftheExodusistoberegardedasthe1stmonthoftheyear.Onthe10thdayalamborakidistobetakenforeach
familyorcombinationoffamilies,accordingtotheirsize.Itistobeslainatevenonthe14th,andthelintelistobestainedwithitsblood.Itistoberoastedintact,
andeatenwithunleavenedbreadandbitterherbs.Nothingofitistoremaintillmorning.Itistobeeateninhaste,thepartakerspreparedasforajourneyitisa
signoftheLordspassover.
Ex12:4349forbidsanyforeignerorhiredservantorsojournertoeatthePassoverunlesshefirstsubmitstocircumcision.
Nu9:114dealswithacaserecordedasarisingonthefirstanniversaryoftheExodus.ItisdeclaredthatanybodywhoisuncleanmaycelebratethePassover
onthe14thdayofthe2ndmonth.
InNu28:1525thePassoverisdistinguishedfromtheFeastofUnleavenedBread.The1stand7thdaysofthelatteraretobedaysofholyconvocation.On
eachofthe7daystwobullocks,aram,and7lambs(withspecialofferingsofmealandoil)aretobesacrificed,andagoatforasinoffering.
(2)HistoricalandPropheticalbooks.NocertainreferenceisfoundprevioustothedateofthediscoveryofDeuteronomy.Mostoftheallusionsintheprophets
arequitegeneralinscope(cf.Hos2:11,9:5,12:9,10,Am5:21,8:10).Theobservancein2K23:2123isstatedtohaveconformedtotheregulationsofDt16and
tohavebeennovelincharacter.2Ch30,35:119perhapsreflectsthelaterusagesofthewritersownage.OfpostexilicwitnessesEzr6:1922maybequoted,
wherethepriestsandLevitesplaytheprominentpartinthesacrifice,andtheFeastofUnleavenedBreadisdistinguishedfromthePassover.
ManyofthePassoverritesareundoubtedlyveryancientbutDeuteronomytendstoemphasizethehistoricalconnexionofthefestivalwiththeExodus.The
variousregulationsandallusionsintheOTarenotconsistentwitheachother,anddifferentideaswereprobablyassociatedwiththefeastatdifferentperiodsofthe
nationalhistory.ThusEzk.laysmoststressonitsaimasacollectivepiacularsacrifice.ItislikelythatthefeastwasobservedduringtheExile,andthatits
commemorativesignificancewasthenmademoreemphatic.ThiswouldexplaintheunderlyingconceptionoftheaccountinthePriestlyCode.ButtheChronicler
showspreferencefortheDeuteronomicversion,perhapsowingtothegrowingcentralizationofworshipatonesanctuaryinhistime.
2.Originandprimitivesignificance.ThePassoverwasinallprobabilityaninstitutionalreadyexistingwhentheJewishlegislationwascodified,buttaken
upandtransformedbytheLegislator.(a)Themostwidelyacceptedtheoryisthatitwasinorigintheshepherdsofferingofthefirstfruitsfromhisflocks,the
slaughteroftheEgyptianfirstbornbeingPharaohspunishmentforhinderingthisobservance.Onthistheory,latertraditionwouldthenhavealteredthesequence,
andhaveregardedtheslaughteroftheEgyptiansasthereasonwhytheIsraelitesshouldofferthefirstbornoftheirflocks.And,finally,theconnexionwiththe
pastoralsacrificewouldhavebeenforgotten,andthePassoverwouldbetreatedasinstitutedinordertosavethefirstbornofIsrael.(b)Anothertheoryfindsthe
centralideaofthePassoverinthepiacularnotion.Thesacrificewouldbeofferedasasubstituteforthefirstbornofman,andthisconceptionisacommon
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centralideaofthePassoverinthepiacularnotion.Thesacrificewouldbeofferedasasubstituteforthefirstbornofman,andthisconceptionisacommon
constituentofprimitivespringfestivals.(c)Othertheoriesregardtheobservanceasoriginatingfromdomesticsacrificetoavertharmintimesofpestilence,orfrom
anancientsolemnizationofathresholdcovenant,whenJehovahwaswelcomedintoaprivatedwelling.
Itisquitepossiblethatallthesetheoriesrepresentdifferentpartsofthetruth.ThePassoverappearstodatefromveryearlytimes,andmayhaveamalgamated
featuresfromanentireseriesoffestivals.Thusitcombinesthenotionsofsinoffering(thesprinklingoftheblood),ofburntoffering(thevictimbeingroastedintact),
andofpeaceoffering(thevictimbeingeatenbytheworshippers).Othernoticeablefeaturesare:itsdateatthevernalequinox,thefactthatthesacrificeswere
mostlyorentirelyoffirstborn,andthatanoldtraditionconnecteditwiththeIsraelitesdesireforareligiouspilgrimage,whicheventuallyledtotheExodus(cf.Ex
5:13).ThisvarietyofcharactersuggeststheinferencethatthePassoveristhecomplexamalgamationofdifferentfeasts,inwhichthesedifferentelementsexisted
separately.ItsassociationwiththeFeastofUnleavenedBreadisprobablyaccidental,duetocontiguityintime.Thelatterisplainlyanagriculturalfestival,andfalls
intolinewiththefeastsofPentecostandTabernacles.
3.Postexilicobservances.TheSamaritanscontinuetoobservethedetailedordinancesofEx12.ButtheJewslearnedintimetodisregardsomeofthe
details,asapplicableonlytothefirstorEgyptianPassover.Suchdetailswerethechoiceofthelambonthe10thday,itsslaughterathome,thesprinklingofthe
bloodonthehousedoor,theadmissionoftheunclean,thepostureandattireofthepartakers,etc.Variousalterationsandelaborationswereintroduced.Themonth
Adarwasdevotedtoathoroughpurificationoflandsandhouses,sepulchresbeingwhitened,roadsandbridgesrepaired.Ontheeveningof13thAbiballleaven
wassoughtout.Onthe14ththePassoverwasofferedbyindiscriminatecompaniesof10to20people.ItwasslaininrelaysattheTemple,andthebloodthrown
beforethealtarbythepriests.Thelambswerethendressed,andthefatoffered,whiletheLeviteschantedtheHallel(Pss113118).Thelambsweretakenhome
androastedeachoftheguestsbrought4cupsofredwine,andthemealwaseatenwithbitterherbsandunleavenedcakes.Thepostureatthemealwas
recumbent(asatoken,accordingtothePharisees,oftherestwhichGodhadgiventoHispeople).Ablessingwassaidoverthefirstcup(perhapsimpliedinLk
22:17ff.).Thenfollowedthewashingofhandsandofferingaprayer.Atthesecondcupcamethesonsquestionastothesignificanceofthefeast,andthefathers
explanation.ThiswassucceededbythesingingofPss113and114.Gracewassaidoverthethirdcup,andwiththefourthcamethesingingofPss115118.Large
numbersassembledatJerusalemforthisfeast,andsuchoccasionswerealwayscarefullysupervisedbytheRomansforfearofinsurrection.Henceperhapswould
comethecustomofreleasingaselectedprisonerbutwehavenohintoftheoriginofthecustom.
A.W.F.BLUNT.
PATARA.AgreatseaportonthecoastofLycia,afewmilesE.ofthemouthoftheXanthus.ThevalleyofthisriveristhebestpartofLycia,anddoubtless
fromearlytimesPatarahadalocaltrade,butitsimportancedependedonitsconvenientpositionforthetradebetweentheWestandtheLevant.Theprevailing
windsinthispartoftheMediterraneanarefromthewest(especiallyintheautumn),andshipssailingfromthegeanorfromItalytoPhniciaorEgyptwould
oftenriskthevoyagestraightacrosstheseafromPatara.ThuswefindSt.PaulonhislastjourneytoJerusalem(Ac21:2),aftercoastinginaslowvesselalongthe
gan,takingavesselthatwassailingstraightfromPataratoTyre.Cf.MYRA.
LyciawasneverdefinitelycolonizedbyGreeks,andtheLyciansspokeanonAryanlanguage.ButPatarahadanearlyculture,itscoinsdatefromB.C.440,
andthechiefLyciangodwasidentifiedwithApollo,whosecelebratedoracleatPataragavehimthetitlePatareus(Hor.Od.III.lv.,64).
A.E.HILLARD.
PATHEUS(1Es9:23)=Ezr10:23Pethahiah.
PATHROS(Is11:11,Jer44:1,15,Ezk29:14,30:14).ThenameofUpperEgypt,inEgyptianPteres,theSouthLand,comprisingboththeThebaidand
MiddleEgyptfromsomewhatsouthofMemphistoSyeneattheFirstCataract.MizraimwasgenerallylimitedtoLowerEgypt,i.e.theDeltaandsomedistanceup
thevalleytoincludethehomeofMemphis.ThisdivisionofEgyptwasveryancient,corresponding,atleastroughly,tothetwokingdomsbeforeMenes.While
LowerEgyptwasfamiliartobothGreeksandHebrews,UpperEgyptwascomparativelyunknown,aswitnessHerodotuswoefulIgnoranceofEgyptabovetheFay
yum,andNahumsdescriptionofNoamon(seeNO).YetthereisabundantevidenceinpapyriofanimportantsettlementofJewsatthesouthernmostextremityat
Syenebefore525B.C.(cf.art.S EVENEH)andthepassagesinwhichPathrosismentionedrefertoJewsintheUpperCountrymorethanhalfacenturybeforethat,
afterthedestructionofJerusalem.SoalsoGreekandPhnicianmercenarieshadreachedSyene,andevenAbuSimhel,farsouthinNubia,inthe6thor7thcent.
B.C.soldiersandtradersofmanynationsmusthavepassedfrequentlyupanddowntheNileinthosedays,yetwithoutgivingtotheirfellowcountrymenathome
anyclearideaoftheUpperCountry.InGn10:14thePathrusimarethepeopleofPathros.TheyarerepresentedasbegottenofMizraim.
F.LL.GRIFFITH.PATHRUSIM.SeeP ATHROS.
PATMOS.AnislandW,ofCaria,nowcalledPatino,withanareaof16sq.milesandapopulationofabout4000.IntheMiddleAgesitspalmsgainedforit 17/144
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PATMOS.AnislandW,ofCaria,nowcalledPatino,withanareaof16sq.milesandapopulationofabout4000.IntheMiddleAgesitspalmsgainedforit
thetitleofPalmosa,butitisnolongerfertile.ItsCyclopeanremainsshowthatitwasveryearlyinhabited.ItisthetraditionalplacetowhichSt.Johnwasbanished
byDomitian,andinwhichhewrotetheApocalypse(Rev1:3).TheCaveoftheApocalypseisstillshowninwhichtheApostleissaidtohaveseenthevisions.
ThechiefremaininginterestoftheislandisthemonasteryofSt.John,foundedinthe11thcentury.Itoncecontainedavaluablelibrary,fromwhichwaspurchased
in1814the9thcent.PlatonowintheBodleian.
A.E.HILLARD.
PATRIARCH.Thistermisusuallyappliedto(1)theantediluvianfathersofthehumanrace(2)thethreegreatprogenitorsofIsraelAbraham,Isaac,Jacob
(seesep.artt.)(3)intheNTitisextendedtothesonsofJacob(Ac7:8,9),andtoDavid(Ac2:29).
PATROBAS.ThenameofamemberoftheRomanChurchgreetedbySt.PaulinRo16:14.
PATROCLUS.ThefatherofNicanor(2Mac8:9).
PATTERN.ThiswordisusedtorenderseveralHeb.andGr.termsinOTandNT,someofwhichdenoteamodel,asinEx25:9,40ofthebuildingmodelof
theTabernacleshowntoMosesonthemount(cf.Nu8:4adifferentoriginalandARTSANDCRAFTS,3),othersacopyoftheoriginalmodelasHe8:5RV.See,
forafullexaminationofthedifferentpassages,HastingsDB,s.v.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
PAU.SeeP AI.
PAULTHEAPOSTLE
i.THEAUTHORITIES.BeforediscussingthelifeandteachingofSt.Paul,wemayconsider
whatmaterialwehaveatourdisposalfordeterminingthefacts.Wehaveahistory(theActsoftheApostles)andacollectionofEpistles,whichhavebeenjudgedby
mostorbymanyscholarstobe1stcent.writings,andtobebySt.LukeandSt.Paulrespectively.OftheEpistleswemay,however,setasidetheanonymousoneto
theHebrews,whichtheEasternFathersgenerallyconsideredtobeSt.Pauls,butwhichisnowrecognizedbyalmostallscholarsnottobetheworkofthatApostle
himself.ItisevendeniedbymanythatitbelongstotheimmediatePaulinecircleatall.WemayalsoputasidetheApocryphalActsofPaulandThecla,which,
thoughitmayincludesomegenuine1stcent.information,isclearlyaromanceofalaterage.WehavethusleftthecanonicalActsand13Epistles.Thegenuineness
oftheseisconsideredundertheseparatearticlesinthisDictionary,butwemayherebrieflysummarizetheresultsofcriticalinvestigationwithregardtothem.
1.TheTbingentheory.F.C.Baur,thefounderoftheTbingenSchool(17921860),maintainedthatonlyfour,calledbyhimprincipal,Epistleswere
reallySt.Pauls(Rom.,1and2Cor.,Gal.),andthattherest,asalsoActs,werenotgenuine.FromtheprincipalEpistles,andfromaclueinthe2ndcent.pseudo
Clementineliterature,hegatheredthattherewereoriginallytwobitterlyopposedfactionsintheChurch,JewishandGentile,headedrespectivelybySt.PeterandSt.
Paul.MainlybecausethiscontroversyisnotfoundintheotherEpistles,butalsofromotherminorconsiderations,heheldthattherestofthePaulineliteratureand
Actswerewritingswithapurposeortendency,issuedinthe2ndcent.inordertopromotetheideaofaCatholicChurch,andtoreconcilethecontendingparties.
Baurhasfew,ifany,followersnow.Ithasbeenseenthatitishadcriticismtomakeatheoryoninsecuregrounds,andthentorejectalltheliteraturewhich
contradictsit.
2.TheDutchSchool.Wemaythusnameaschoolofwriterswhichhaslatelyarisen,astheirchiefstrengthisinHolland.Prof.vanManenhaspopularized
theirteachinginEncyc.Bibl.
(e.g.artt.OldChristianLiterature,Paul,Philemon,Philippiansseealsoart.ActsbySchmiedel).Accordingtothisschool,allthe13EpistlesandtheActs
arepseudepigraphic,thoughsomefragmentsof1stcent.works,suchasActsofPaulandActsofPeter,areembeddedinthem.Thereasonsgivenarethatthe
13writingsinquestionarenotreallyepistlesintendedfordefinitereaders,butarebookswrittenintheformofepistlesforedificationthatthereisnotraceofthe
impressionwhich,ifgenuine,theymusthavemadeonthoseaddressedthatSt.PaulwouldnothavewrittentotheRomansasbedidwithoutknowingthem
personallythatthelargeexperienceandwidefieldofvisionshownintheEpistleswereanimpossibilityatsoearlyadatethattimewasrequiredforPaulinism,
whichwasaradicalreformationoftheolderChristianity,tospringupthattheproblemsdiscussed(theLawandtheGospel,
Justification,Election,etc.)didnotbelongtothefirstagethatpersecutionhadalreadyarisen,whereasinSt.Paulslifetime,sofarasweknow,therehadbeen
noneandthatthechaptersRo911presupposeadatelaterthantheFallofJerusalem.Inaword,thehistoricalbackgroundoftheEpistlesissaidtobethatofalater
age,perhapsA.D.125150.ThePaulineliteraturesprangfromthehereticalcirclesofSyriaorAsiaMinor.Marcionwasthefirst(vanManenalleges)tomakean
authoritativegroupofPaulineEpistlesandtheywerenotmuchapprovedbyIrenusorTertullian,who,however,usedthemtovanquishtheGnosticsand
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authoritativegroupofPaulineEpistlesandtheywerenotmuchapprovedbyIrenusorTertullian,who,however,usedthemtovanquishtheGnosticsand
Marcloniteswiththeirownweapons.
Oneistemptedtoask,Was,then,St.Paulamyth?No,itisreplied,hewasahistoricalperson,andthelittlethatweknowabouthimcanbegatheredfromthe
oldermaterial(suchasthewesectionsofActs)whichisincludedinourpresentliterature.Itisenoughtoreplytotheabovereasoningthattheobjectionalready
madetotheTbingentheoryappliesherewithincreasedforcenocriticismcanbemoreunscientificthanthatwhichmakesupitsmindaprioriwhatSt.Paulought
tohavedoneandsaid,andthenjudgesthegenuinenessoftheliteraturebythatstandard.Andsuchadelugeofforgeryorpseudepigraphyinthe2ndcent.(forthe
EpistlesofClement,Ignatius,andPolycarpmustalso,accordingtothisschool,gobytheboard)isabsolutelyincredible.
3.EnglishandGermancriticism.Returningtobetterbalancedviewsabouttheliterature,wemayremarkthatscholarsinthiscountryaremoreandmore
disposedtotreatActsandallthe13Epistlesasgenuine,andthatinGermanythetendencyisinthesamedirection,thoughitdoesnotgoquitesofar.ThusHarnack
(LukethePhysician,1906,Eng.tr.1907)acceptsActsasLukan,andJlicher(Encyc.Bibl.)believesColossianstobeSt.Pauls,thoughheisuncertainabout
Ephesians.ThePastoralEpistlesand2Thessaloniansaregenerally,butnotuniversally,acceptedinthiscountrytheyarelookedonmuchmoredoubtfullyin
Germany,buttheformerareusuallyrecognizedthereascontainingaPaulinenucleus.
4.ThethirteenEpistles.ItappearsthatSt.Paulwroteotherlettersthanthesereferencestolostonesarefound,probably,in2Th3:17and1Co5:9.The
thirteenwhichremainmaybedividedintofourgroups.TheseareallwellattestedbyearlyChristianwriters,and(asvanManenremarks)thePastoralEpistleshave
asgoodexternaltestimonyastherest.Bywayofexample(totakebutafewinstances),itmaybenotedthatIgnatius(c.110A.D.),Polycarp(c.111A.D.),andJustin
(c.150A.D.)use2ThessaloniansClementofRome(c.95A.D.)uses1CorinthiansandprobablyEphesiansIgnatiuscertainlyusesEphesiansPolycarpuses
almostallthethirteen,includingthePastorals.Infacttheexternalevidenceispreciseanditwouldrequireconvincingargumentsindeedfrominternalevidenceto
overthrowit.Marcion(c.140A.D.)includedalltheseEpistlesexceptthePastoralsinhisApostoliconbuthefreelyexcisedwhatbedidnotlikeinthem,as
Tertullian(adv.Marc.,e.g.v.17f.)tellsus.
(a)FirstGroup(1and2Thess.).ThesewerewrittenfromCorinth52or53A.D.theearlydateisseenfromthefactthatthewriterexpectedtheSecondAdvent
tobeinhislifetime(1Th4:1318),andthisisarealsignofauthenticity,foraforgerwouldneverhaveputintoSt.Paulsmouth,afterhisdeath,thewordswethat
arealive(v.15).ApossiblemisconceptionisrectifiedbySt.Paulin2Th2:2f.,forhesaysthatthemanofsinmustbemanifestedbeforetheLordcomes.
(b)SecondGroup,Baursprincipalepistles(Gal.,1and2Cor.,Rom.),markedbythestruggleforGentilelibertyandbytheassertionofSt.Pauls
Apostleship,whichtheJudaizingChristiansdenied.ThecontroversywasevidentlydyingoutwhenRomanswaswritten,forthat
Epistleisacalmandreasonedtreatise,almostmorethanaletter(seeart.GALATIANS[EP.TO
THE],4).TheearlydateofthesefourEpistlesisseenfromtheconsiderationthat,asGentileChurchesspreadandtheconvertsmultiplied,itmusthavebeenfound
impossibletoforcetheyokeoftheLawonthem.ThecontroversyonbothheadswassettledbySt.PaulsevangelisticactivityhisApostleshipwasseenbyits
fruits.
(c)ThirdGroup,theEpistlesofthefirstRomancaptivity(Eph.,Ph.,Col.,Phllem.).NoreallyseriousobjectionshavebeenraisedagainstPhilippiansand
Philemon,foritishardtotakeseriouslyvanManensargumentsinhisarticlesontheseEpistlesinEncyc.Bibl.Andindeeditisimpossiblethataforgercouldhave
conceivedsuchagemasthelatterEpistlethewriterspleadingwithPhilemonfortherunawayslaveOnesimusbearsgenuinenessonitsface.Buttheauthenticityof
thesetwoEpistleshasadecidedbearingonthatofEphesiansandColossians,forallfourhangtogether,especiallyPhilemonandColossians,whichappeartohave
beenwrittenatthesametime.ItisobjectedthatthephraseologyofthisgroupdiffersfromthatofthesecondthatGnosticismdidnotrisetillthe2ndcent.thatthe
ChristologyoftheseEpistlesisderivedfromtheJohanninewritingsandthatEphesiansisamerevapidexpansionofColossians.Theseobjectionsappeartobe
basedontheideathatamanmustbeinterestedinthesamequestionsandcontroversiesallthroughhislife,andmustalwaysusethesamevocabulary.Thereverseis
knowntobecommonlythecase.ThecontroversywithJudaismhavingdiedout,itisamarkofgenuineness,nottheopposite,thatthatquestiondoesnotformone
ofthetopicsdiscussedinthisgroup.St.PaulatRomewouldlearnmuchandacertainchangeinvocabularyisnaturalenough.Yettheliteraryconnexionsbetween
thisgroupandtheearlieronesareveryreal.BishopLightfoothasshownthattheColossianheresyisaveryincipientformofsemiJewishGnosticism,suchaswe
shouldexpectinthe1stcent.(Colossians,p.71ff.).AndtheargumentfromtheChristologyisapurebeggingofthequestion.Notethatthedoctrineisexactlythe
sameinColossians(whichtreatsofthegloriesoftheHeadoftheChurch,whileEphesiansdescribesthoseoftheChurchitself)asinPh2:5ff.
(d)FourthGroup,thePastoralEpistles(1and2Tim.,Tit.),socalledbecausetheyareconcernedmainlywiththedutiesofChristianministers.Theseallhang
together,andfromcoincidencesofstyleandsubjectsarejudgedtobecertainlybyonewriter.Theyarequotedby,orwereknownto,Polycarp,Justin,Hegesippus
(seeSalmon,Introd.toNT 8,p.398),butwererejectedbyMarcion.TatianacceptedTitus,butrejectedtheothertwo,probablybecause1Ti4:3f.,5:14,23offended
hisEncratiteideas.InmoderntimesithasbeenassertedthattheseEpistlesarenotSt.Pauls,becauseofdifferencesofdiction(manyphrasesandwordsbeingfound
inthisgroupwhichdonotoccurelsewhereinSt.Paul)becausethecontroversiesarenotthesameasintheotherEpistles,therebeingnothingabouttheMosaic 19/144
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inthisgroupwhichdonotoccurelsewhereinSt.Paul)becausethecontroversiesarenotthesameasintheotherEpistles,therebeingnothingabouttheMosaic
Lawandjustificationbyfaith,andGnosticismbeingattacked(forthenamegnosis,i.e.knowledge,see1Ti6:20cf.
Col2:3,1Co8:1,12:8),aheresymoreJewishintonethaneventhatwhichappearsin
Colossians(Tit1:14)becausetheministryissaidtobetoofullydevelopedforthelifetimeofSt.Paulbutespeciallybecauseitisimpossibletoreconcilethese
EpistleswithActs.Withthelaststatementalmostallscholarsentirelyagree,thoughtheydonotassenttothedeductionmadefromit.Thisisthereallycrucial
argument,andmaybetreatedfirst.ItisassumedbymostoftheobjectorstotheseEpistles,thattheymustbeplacedsomewhereinthehistoryrelatedinActs,
becausethatbookconcludeswiththeendofSt.Paulsministryand,asitisimpossibletomakethejourneysreferredtointheseEpistlesfitinwithActs,itissaid
thattheformercannotbegenuine.TothisitisansweredthatSt.Paulmayhavebeenacquitted,andthatthejourneysmentionedmayhavetakenplaceafterthe
acquittalbuttheobjectorsreplythattheacquittalisunhistorical.Thetruthisthathistory(outsidetheseEpistles)doesnotexplicitlytelluswhetherSt.Paulwas
acquittedorcondemnedafterthetwoyearsimprisonmentofAc28:30iftheacquittalisunhistorical,soalsoisthecondemnation.Wemay,then,takethese
Epistles,whichhaveexcellentexternalattestation,andthereforeareaprioriworthyofcredit,asnewevidence,andinferfromthemthatSt.Paulwasreleased,made
journeystothescenesofhisoldlabours,andwaslaterrearrestedandimprisoned(2Ti1:8).EveniftheseEpistlesarenotSt.Pauls,theyareevidenceforanearly
beliefthathewasacquittedthefirsttimethisisshownbythefactthatthejourneysdescribedarequiteindependentofActs(cf.also2Ti4:16f.).Further,therewas,
quiteapartfromtheseEpistles,anearlytraditionthatSt.PaulwenttoSpain(MuratorianFragment,c.A.D.180),ortothefarthestboundsoftheWest(Clem.Rom.
Cor.5thisalmostcertainlymeansSpain:seeLightfootsnote),accordingtohispreviousintention(Ro15:24,28).Thisimpliesabeliefinhisacquittalwhetheror
notthejourneytoSpainactuallytookplace(seebelow,ii.12).St.Paulhimselffullyexpectedtobeacquitted(Ph1:23ff.,2:24,Philem22).Thusthedifficultythat
theseEpistlescannotbereconciledwithActsentirelyvanishes.[FortheobjectionfromthepresentimentthatSt.PaulwouldnotrevisittheEphesians(Ac20:25)
seeart.
ACTSOFTHEAPOSTLES,9buteveniftheearlydateofActsbenotaccepted,itisquitepossiblethatSt.PaulneverrevisitedEphesus.Weshouldrathergather
from1Tim.,especiallyfrom1:8,thathehadaninterviewwithTimothyelsewhere,probablyatMiletus,ashewaspassingbyonhiswaynorthseeProf.Findlayin
HastingsDBiii.714b.]Theotherconsiderations,astodictionandsubjectmatter,havelittleweightwhenonceweagreethattheEpistles,ifPauline,musthave
beenwrittenseveralyearsaftertheothersanditisinstructivethatintheserespectstheThirdGroupmakesahalfwayhousebetweentheSecondandtheFourth.
Wemust,moreover,notethattherearemanyindicationsofgenuineness2Timothyhasallthemarksofauthenticity,beingfullofpersonalallusionswhichitwould
bealmostimpossibleforaforgertoinvent.Itisforthisreasongenerallyallowedthat2Ti1:1518,4:922arereallyPauline.Butitisgrosslyimprobablethatreal
epistleswereusedonlyforpatchingforgeriesandthenthrownaway.Itisinpersonalnoticesthataforgerusuallygoeswrongiftheseareauthentic,itisagreat
argumentforthewholewritingbeingauthentic(forfurtherdetailsseeSalmon,Introd.6,pp.397413).ButasallthreeEpistleshangtogether,themarksof
genuinenessin2Timothyareastrongargumentforthegenuinenessofthewholegroup.
WemaybrieflysumupwhathasbeensaidonthedifferenceofsubjectmatterandstyleinthethirteenEpistles.AtthebirthofaGentileChurchthecontroversy
withJudaizingChristianswasthatwhichwasmostlikelytoarise,asweseeintheSecondGroup.QuestionswerethenaskedaboutthePersonofChristandabout
theChurchasawhole,asweseeintheThirdGroup.
Asthecommunitiesgrew,theirorganizationoccupiedmuchattention,asweseeintheFourth
Group.Thespecialinterestofthemomentcoloursthedictionandstyle.SandayHeadlam(Romans,p.liv.ff.)suggest,further,thatvariationsofstylearelargelydue
tothenervoustemperamentoftheApostle,nowcalm,nowfervidandinaconsiderabledegreealsototheemploymentofdifferentamanuenses.St.Pauldidnot
writehislettershimself,butonlyaddedpostscriptsinhisownhand.ProbablyhedictatedhisEpistles,andtheyweretakendowninshorthandadifferenceofscribe
wouldthusmeananappreciabledifferenceofstyle.
Weshall,then,inwhatfollows,withouthesitationusethe13Epistlesasgenuine.Ifwhathasbeenbrieflyarguedabovebenotaccepted,thisarticlemustbe
takenasdescribing,atleast,thelifeandteachingofSt.PaulastheearlyChristiansbelievedthathelivedandtaught.
5.ActsoftheApostles.Forthereasonsstatedinthearticleonthatbook,wemaywithconfidenceuseActsasatrustworthyauthorityforSt.Paulslife.But
wemayhereaskwhatwearetothinkofSt.PaulsspeechesinActs,whethertheyareatruerecordofwhathesaid,andwhetherwemayusethemtodeterminehis
teaching.ItisnoteasytosupposethattheyweretakendownverbatimastheywerespokenandSt.Lukehimselfwasnotpresentatallofthem(e.g.Ac13:16ff.,
14:15ff.,17:22f.).Yetthespeechesagreeverywellwiththecircumstancesinwhichtheyweredelivered,andthedictionandsentimentscoincidelargelywiththe
PaulineEpistles.Lukanphraseshavebeenfoundinsomeofthem,whichisnaturalenoughmoresointhespeechofAc22,whichwasspokeninAramaic,and
thereforeisclearlynottheApostlesipsissimaverba,thanintheAthenianspeech(Ac17:22ff.)whichhasnoLukanelement.Theconclusionmaybethatthe
speecheswerewrittendown,soonaftertheyweredelivered,byahearersometimesthebearerwasSt.Lukehimselfandthenotesthentakenwereafterwards
usedbytheauthorofActs.
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ii.S KETCHOFS T.P AULSLIFE

1.Name.ThefutureApostleisfirstmadeknowntousunderthenameSaul(Ac7:58).BeingofthetribeofBenjamin(Ro11:1,Ph3:5),afactofwhichhe
wasproud,hedoubtlesswasnameddirectlyorindirectlyafterthekingwhomthattribegavetoIsrael.ButwhileSaulwashisJewishname,hemust,asaRoman
citizen,havehadthreeRomannames.Hispraenomenandnomenwedonotknow,buthiscognomenwasPaul.AftertheinterviewwiththeproconsulSergius
PaulusinCyprus(Ac13:6ff.),theauthorofActsusesnoothernamethanthisfromtheoutsetofhismissiontotheRomanEmpireitwasfittingthatheshouldbe
knownbyhisRomanname.WemustatoncedismissboththeconjectureofAugustinethattheApostleonthatoccasionassumedthenamePauloutofcompliment
totheproconsul,andalsothesuggestionthatthenamewaspersonaltohimself,denotingthathewassmallofstature.Theexistenceofalternativenamessideby
side,aJewishandaGreekorRomanname,wasquiteacommonthingamongJewsofthe1stcent.,e.g.JohnMark,JesusJustus.Butherethecaseisdifferentwe
neverreadofSaulPaul.
2.Birthplaceandfamily.St.PaulwasnotonlyanativebutalsoacitizenofTarsus,possessedoffullcivilrightsinthatfamousUniversitytown,thecapital
ofCilicia(Ac9:11,21:39,22:8).HisfamilyhadperhapsbeenplantedtherebyoneoftheSeleucidkings(Ramsay).TheywereprobablyPharisees(Ac23:6cf.2
Ti1:3)andAramaicspeaking(Ph3:5,thoughheretheApostlemaybespeakingofhisteachers).Severalindicationspointtothefactthatthefamilywasofsome
importance,andwasfairlyrich.ItisnotagainstthisviewthattheApostlehimselfwaspoor,andthatheworkedforhislivelihoodasatentmaker,asdidmany
Cilicians(Ac18:3,20:33f.cf.1Co9:15,1Th2:9,2Th3:8)foritisveryprobablethathisfamilycasthimoffbecauseofhisconversion,andespeciallybecause
ofhisattitudetotheGentilesandmoreover,itwasthecustomforallJewishboystobetaughtatrade.TheprosperityofthefamilyisseenfromthefactthatlaterSt.
Paulclearlyhadmoneyathiscommand.Perhapsareconciliationhadbeeneffectedhissisterssonsavedhislife(Ac23:16)andthewholestoryofthe
imprisonmentinPalestineandRomeandofthevoyagetoItalyprovesthathewasaprisonerofdistinction.Thiscouldcomeonlyfromthepossessionofsome
wealthandfromfamilyinfluence.
3.Romancitizenship.OfthispositionSt.Paulwasjustlyproud.HewasnotaRomancitizenmerelybecausehehadthefreedomofTarsus,forTarsuswas
notaRomanColonyprobablyhisfatherorgrandfatherhadrenderedsomeservicetotheState,andhadbeenthusrewarded.InanycaseSt.Paulwasfreeborn(Ac
22:28).Hehadnot,likesomanyunder
Claudius,boughtthecitizenshipthroughtheinfamousfavouritesoftheCourt.HeappealedtohisprivilegetopreventillegaltreatmentatPhilippiandJerusalem(Ac
16:37,22:25).AndmorethanonceintheEpistleshealludestocitizenship,transferringthetermfromtheearthlytotheheavenlysphereanallusionwhichwould
comehomeespeciallytothePhilippians,whoweresoproudoftheircitybeingaColony,andoftheirthereforebeingRomancitizens(Ac16:12,21)seePh1:27
[RVm]3:20,Eph2:19,andSt.PaulsspeechinAc23:1wherethephraseIhavelivedisliterallyIhaveexercisedmycitizenship.Itwasnodoubtthiscitizenship
whichgaveSt.PaulsuchanadvantageastheApostleoftheGentiles,andwhichinspiredhimwithhisgreatplanofutilizingthecivilizationoftheRomanStateto
spreadthegospelalongitslinesofcommunication(seeartt.ACTSOFTHEAPOSTLES,7,andGALATIANS[EP.TOTHE]2).Itisnoteworthythatheseemstohave
laidmuchstressonevangelizingRomanColonieslikeCorinth,PisidianAntioch,Lystra,andPhilippi.
4.Earlylife.St.Paulwaseducated,nodoubt,partlyatTarsus(Ac26:4),wherehewouldbeinfluencedbyStoicteachers(see(iv.),butchieflyat
JerusalemunderthePhariseeGamaliel(Ac22:3,26:4cf.5:34ff.)hedidnot,however,seeourLord(cf.1Co9:1with15:8),thoughhewouldbethereinJesus
lifetimeonearth.ProbablythisperiodofeducationwasoverbeforeourLordsministrybegan.HewasbroughtupastrictPharisee(Ac23:6,26:5,Gal1:14,Ph
3:5),andlongafterhisconversionheretainedacertainprideinhisJewishhirthandagreataffectionforhisownpeople(Ro4:1,9:3,10:1,11:1,2Co11:22).
ThoughbornoutsidePalestine,hewasbroughtup,notasaGreekspeakingJeworHellenist,butasaHebrewforthislasttermdenotesadifferenceoflanguage
andmanners(Ph3:5seeLightfootsnote).AccordinglywefindhimspeakingAramaicfluently(Ac21:40,22:2).
Theresultofthiseducation,inspiteofGamalielsliberalityofthought,wastomakeSt.PaulazealousandbigotedJew,determinedwithalltheardourofyouth
toupholdthetraditionsofhisfathers.WefirstmeetwithhimasayoungmanconsentinguntoStephensdeath,holdingtheclothesofthosewhostonedthefirst
martyr(Ac7:58,8:1),andpersecutingtheChristiansinJerusalem(26:10).ThereafterhesecuredauthorityfromthehighpriesttogotoDamascusinordertoarrest
allthedisciples,andtobringthemboundtoJerusalem(9:1f.).[InthefollowingparagraphsthenumbersinsquarebracketsdenotethedatesA.D.asgivenby
Ramsay.LightfootsdatesaremostlyayearortwolaterHarnacksearlier.Turners(inHastingsDB,art.
ChronologyofNT)nearlyagreewithRamsays,exceptthatheputstheConversionatleasttwoyearslaterbecauseofadifficultyaboutAretas(seeartt.ARETAS,
CHRONOLOGYOFNT),andtheMartyrdomabouttwoyearsearlier].
5.Conversion[33].ThejourneytoDamascuswasthegreatturningpointofSaulslife(Ac9:3ff.),andisoftenreferredtobyhim(Ac22:5ff.,26:12ff.,1Co
9:1,15:8,Ph3:7etc.).
WhenapproachingDamascushesawastronglight,andJesusappearingtohim(soexplicitly1Co9:1),saying,Saul,Saul,whypersecutestthoume?Thevoice
wasunintelligibletohiscompanions(Ac22:9),thoughtheysawthelight(ib.)andheardasound(9:7).SaulwasblindedbythevisionandledintoDamascus,
wherehewasinstructedandbaptizedbyoneAnanias.ImmediatelyheconfessesChristinthesynagoguesatDamascus(9:20),andthenretiresintoArabia(perhaps
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wherehewasinstructedandbaptizedbyoneAnanias.ImmediatelyheconfessesChristinthesynagoguesatDamascus(9:20),andthenretiresintoArabia(perhaps
theSinaiticpeninsula,seeLightfootsGalatians6,p.87ff.),doubtlessforspiritualpreparation(Gal1:17).Heeverrecognizeshisconversionasbeinghiscallto
Apostleship,whichwasneitherofhumanoriginnorreceivedbyhumanmediation,i.e.notthroughtheTwelve(Gal1:1,12,17cf.Ro1:1,5,1Co1:1,4:1,9:1f.,
15:9).TheLordHimselfdesignateshisworkasbeingamongtheGentiles(Ac9:15cf.22:21,26:17,Ro11:13,15:16,Gal2:7,Eph3:8,1Ti2:7,2Ti1:11AV).The
questionarises,therefore,WhatisthemeaningofthelayingonofhandsbytheprophetsandteachersofAntioch(Ac13:1ff.Saulwasoneofthem,13:1)?Thishas
beenregardedbysomeasanordinationbytheChurch,whichthusputanoutwardsealontheinwardcalltoApostleship(Gore,Lightfoot)byothers,asan
appointment,nottotheApostleship,buttothedefiniteworkwhichlayimmediatelybeforeBarnabasandPaul(Ramsay).ReturningfromArabia,Saulcomesto
Damascus(Gal1:17)whilethedeputy(ethnarch)oftheNabatankingAretasholdsthecity(2Co11:32f.),andispersecutedthere,butescapesbynight,beinglet
downinabasketthroughthecitywall(Ac9:23ff.).HemakeshisfirstvisittoJerusalem[35]threeyearsafterhisconversionforthisistheprobablemeaningof
Gal1:18andispresentedbyBarnabastoPeterandJames(ib.andAc9:27).Hereheistold,inavisionintheTemple,toescapebecauseoftheoppositionofthe
Jews(Ac22:17ff.)[unlessthevisionbelongstotheSecondvisit,asRamsaymaintains,St.PaultheTraveller6,p.61f.],andgoestoTarsus(9:30),preachingin
theunitedprovinceSyriaCilicia,inwhichTarsuswassituated(Gal1:21f.).Afterseveralyears,nodoubtofpreparationonSaulspart,BarnabasgoestoTarsusto
bringhimtotheSyrianAntioch[43],wherethediscipleswerefirstcalled
Christians,andtheyspendayearthere(Ac11:26).TheGentileshadalreadybeenaddressedat
AntiochbyCypriotsandCyreniansafterthepersecutionwhicharoseonStephensdeath
(11:19ff.).Henceforwardthisbecameagreatmissionarycentre.FromAntiochPaulmadewithBarnabasthesecondvisittoJerusalem,takingalmsforthose
sufferingfromthefamine(11:30)andifthisisthevisitofGal2:1(seeart.GALATIANS[EP.TOTHE],3),itoriginatedinaDivinerevelation,andTitus,aGentile,
accompaniedthem[45or46].TheyreturnedthencetoAntioch(Ac12:25),takingMarkwiththem[46or47].
6.FirstMissionaryJourney,Ac13:414:26[47to49].SentforthfromAntioch,PaulandBarnabaswithMarksailtoCyprusandpreachthereatSalamis,
thecapital,onthewestsideoftheisland,theyforthefirsttimeaddressaRomangovernor.HenceforwardSaulisalwaysinNTcalledbyhisRomanname.Opposed
bythemagicianElymas(orEtoimas),Paulrebukedhim,andpredictedhisblindnessthemaguswasimmediatelydeprivedofsight,andtheproconsulbelieved.
ThiscanhardlymeanthatheactuallybecameaChristianbut,havingbeenundertheinfluenceofElymas,hiseyesarenowopened,andhelistenstothegospel
messagefavourably.FromCyprustheysailtothemainlandofPamphylia,andreachPerga,whereMarkleavesthemandreturnstoJerusalem.Thereasonofthis
defectionisnotobvious,butitmaybethatSt.PaulnowmadeaplanforthefurtherextensionofChristianityamongtheGentilesoftheinteriorofAsiaMinor,
whichMark,whoseviewhadnotyetbeensufficientlyenlarged,disapproved.ItisnotunlikelythatSt.Paulwasstruckdownwithmalariainthelowlyinglittoralof
Pamphylia,andthatthisfavouredtheideaofajourneytothemountainousinterior,wherehewouldrecoverhishealth.Ramsaytakesmalariatobethethornor
stakeintheflesh(2Co12:7),andthiswouldagreewiththestatementthatSt.PaulfirstvisitedGalatiaowingtoaninfirmityoftheflesh(Gal4:13).OntheS.
Galatiantheory(hereassumedseethediscussioninart.GALATIANS[EP.TOTHE],2)theChurchinGalatiawasnowfoundedthejourneyIncludedvisitstothe
SouthGalatiancitiesofPisidianAntioch(aRomanColony),Iconium(wheretheApostleswerestoned,andwhencetheyfledintotheLycaoniandistrictofGalatia),
Lystra(alsoaRomanColony,wheretheyweretakenforgods,andwherethepeoplespokeLycaonian),and
Derbe.Thencetheyreturned,reversingtheirroute,confirmingsoulsandordainingpresbyters.
PersecutionsinAntioch,Iconium,andLystraarementionedin2Ti3:11.Fromtheportof
AttaliatheysailedtoAntioch,andspentalongtimethere.Inthesejourneysitwasthecustomof
St.PaultopreachtotheJewsfirst(Ac17:2etc.),andwhentheywouldnothear,toturntotheGentiles.AtthistimeperhapsoccurredtheincidentofSt.Peterat
Antioch(Gal2:11ff.).HeatfirstatewiththeGentiles,but,persuadedbyJudaizerswhoprofessedtocomefromJames,hedrewbackandevenBarnabaswas
influencedbythem.ButPaulresistedPetertotheface,andhisexpostulationclearlywassuccessful,asweseefromtheconductofthelatterattheCouncil(Ac
15:7ff.).
7.TheApostolicCouncil,Ac15:129[49or50].AssoonasGentileswereadmittedintotheChurch,thequestionwhethertheymustobeytheMosaiclaw
becameurgent.JudaizershavingcometoAntiochpreachingthenecessityofcircumcision,PaulandBarnabaswithothersweresenttoJerusalemtoconferwiththe
Apostlesandelders.ThisisthethirdvisittoJerusalem.TheCouncildecidedthattheGentilesneednotbesubjecttotheLaw,butenjoinedthemtoabstainfrom
thingssacrificedtoidols,fromblood,fromthingsstrangled,andfromfornication,bywhichmarriagewithintheprohibiteddegreesisperhapsintended.Pauland
Barnabas,withJudasandSilas,weresenttoAntiochwiththedecrees,andthetwolatterprobablythenreturnedtoJerusalem,thoughthereissomedoubtaboutthe
movementsofSilas.
8.SecondMissionaryJourney.Ac15:3618:22[50to53].PaulandBarnabashadadissension,theformerrefusingandthelatterwishingtotakeMark
withthemtheythereforeseparated,andPaultookSilas(sentforfromJerusalem?).ThesetwowentthroughSyriaandCiliciaand(bytheCiliciangates)toDerbe
andLystraanddeliveredtheCouncilsdecrees.AtLystratheyfindTimothy,sonofaGreekfatherandofaJewishmothernamedEunice.Hehadbeencarefully
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andLystraanddeliveredtheCouncilsdecrees.AtLystratheyfindTimothy,sonofaGreekfatherandofaJewishmothernamedEunice.Hehadbeencarefully
broughtupbyhismotherandbyhisgrandmotherLois(2Ti1:5,3:15).St.Paul,wishingtotakehimwithhim,first,forfearofgivingoffencetotheJudaizers(ashe
washalfaJew),causedhimtobecircumcised.TheythengothroughthePhrygoGalaticregionoftheprovinceGalatia(seeart.GALATIANS[EP.TOTHE],2),not
beingallowedbyGodtoevangelizetheprovinceAsia(i.e.thewesternseaboardofAsiaMinor)ortoenterBithynia(thenorthernseaboard),andcometoTroas,
wheretheymeetSt.Luke.[OntheN.GalatiantheorytheymadeaverylongdetourbeforeenteringtheprovinceAsia,toGalatiaproper,foundingChurchesthere
andreturningalmosttothepointinthejourneywhichtheyhadleft.]AtTroas,St.PaulseesinadreamacertainMacedonian,sayingComeoverintoMacedonia
andhelpus(Ac16:9seeart.
ACTSOFTHEAPOSTLES,3).Thisinduceshimtosailovertothatprovince,andtheycometo
Philippi,aRomancolony,wheretheylodgewithoneLydiaofThyatira,asellerofpurple.St.Paulcastsoutaspiritofdivination(ventriloquism?)fromacertain
maid,and,owingtotheoppositionofthegirlsmasters,heandSilasarecastintoprison.Anearthquakeloosestheirbondsandthejailorisconverted.Inthe
morningthemagistratessendtoreleasethem,andthenPaulandSilasasserttheirRomancitizenship.LeavingLukebehindatPhilippi,theypassontoThessalonica
andthismissionseemstobethelimitofwhichtheApostlespeakswhenhesaystotheRomans(Ro15:10)thathehadpreachedfromJerusalemevenuntoIllyricum
[=Dalmatia],theIllyrianfrontierbeingnotfaroff.AtThessalonicatheyspentalongtime(1Th1:9,2:1,9ff.),andhadmuchsuccessmanyofthechiefwomen
wereconverted.Paulworkedforhislivelihood(2Th3:8),butgiftsweretwicesenttohimherefromPhilippi(Ph4:15f.cf.2Co8:1f.,11:9).Themissionaryzeal
oftheThessaloniansiscommendedin1Th1:8.TheoppositionagaincamefromtheJews(cf.2Co11:24),whoaccusedSt.Paulshost,Jason,ofdisloyaltyto
RomeballwastakenfromJason,andtheApostlewasthusinjuredthroughhisfriend.ThisseemstohavebeenthehindranceofSatanwhichpreventedhisreturn
(1Th2:14,18,2Th
1:4).TheythenwenttoBera,wheretheymetwithmuchsuccessbuttheThessalonianJewsstirringuptroublethere,PaulwentontoAthens,leavingSiiasand
Timothybehind,probablytobringnewsastothepossibilityofreturningtoMacedonia.AtAthenstheApostiespentmuchtime,andaddressedtheCourtofthe
Areopagusinaphilosophicstylebutnotmany,saveDionysiustheAreopagiteandDamaris,wereconverted.TimothyreturnedtoAthensandwassentbackagain
toThessalonicaandSilasandTimothylaterjoinedSt.PaulatCorinth(1Th3:1f.,6,Ac18:5).FromCorinthweresent1Thessalonians,and,alittlelater,2
Thessalonians.AtCorinthSt.Paulchangedhismethod,andpreachedtheCross,simply,withoutregardtophilosophy(1Co1:23,2:26,2Co4:5)herehehad
greatsuccess,chieflyinthelowersocialranks(1Co1:26).HerealsohemetAquilaandPriscilla,whohadbeenexpelledfromRomeandtheyallworkedas
tentmakers.TheJewsbeingdeaftohispersuasions,PaulleftthesynagogueandwenttothehouseofTitusJustusclosebyCrispus,therulerofthesynagogue,was
convertedwithallhishouse,aswellasothers,amongwhomwasperhapsSosthenes(Crispussuccessorinthesynagogue?Ac18:17,1Co1:1).Encouragedbya
vision,St.PaulspenteighteenmonthsinCorinththeJewsopposedhim,andbroughthimbeforetheproconsulGallio,who,however,dismissedthecase.Herewe
readoftheApostletakingavow,afterthemannerofhiscountrymen,andshavinghisheadinCenchre.HethensailedwithPrisciliaandAquila,and,leavingthem
atEphesus,landedatCsarea,whencehemadehisfourthvisittoJerusalem[53],andsopassedtotheSyrianAntioch.ItisprobablethatfromEphesusTimothy
wassenttohishomeatLystra,andthathemetSt.PaulagainatAntioch,bringingnewsthattheGalatianswereundertheinfluenceofJudaizers,whotaughtthat
circumcisionwas,ifnotessentialtosalvation,atleastessentialtoperfection[seeart.GALATIANS[EP.TOTHE],4].St.PaulinhastewroteGalatianstoexpostulate,
sendingTimothybackwithit,andintendinghimselftofollowshortly.
[OntheN.Galatiantheory,thisEpistlewaswrittenlater,fromEphesusorfromMacedonia.]
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9.ThirdMissionaryJourney,Ac18:2321:16[53to57].St.Paul,aftersometimeat
Antioch,wentagain,probablybytheCilicianGates,totheGalaticRegionandthePhrygian
Region(seeart.GALATIANS[EP.TOTHE],2),andsocametoEphesusbytheupperroad,notpassingalongthevalleyoftheLycus(Ac19:1seeCol2:1).[Onthe
N.GalatiantheoryanotherlongdigressiontoGalatiaproperisherenecessary.]AtEphesushefoundtwelvepersonswhohadknownonlyJohnsbaptism.St.Paul
causedthemtobebaptizedintothenameoftheLordJesus,andwhenhehadlaidhishandsuponthem,theHolyGhostcameonthem,andtheyspakewith
tonguesandprophesied.AtEphesustheApostlespent21/4yearsandconvertedmanywhohadpractisedmagic.HenceheproposedtogotoMacedonia,Greece,
Jerusalem,Rome(Ac19:21,Ro1:10ff.),andSpain(Ro15:24,28)hesentTimothytoMacedonia,withErastusasacompanionsofar(Ac19:22),andthenonto
Corinth(1Co4:17,16:10),whilehekeptSostheneswithhim(1:1).AfterTimothysdeparture(4:17)hesentoff1Corinthians,whichhewroteafterhehadheard
ofdivisionsatCorinth(1:10ff.),ofthesuccessofApollos(1:12,3:4ff.,16:12),whohadgonetherefromEphesus(Ac18:27f.),ofacaseofincestandabusesin
respecttolitigationandtotheEucharist(1Co5,6,11).ThisletterwasinanswertoonefromCorinthaskingfordirectionsonmarriage,etc.TheApostleannounces
hisintentionofgoingtoCorinthhimselfbywayofMacedoniaafterPentecost(16:5ff.).andLightfootthinksthathedidpaythisvisittoCorinthfromEphesus(cf.2
Co13:1thethirdtime),butRamsayputsthevisitsomewhatlater.In2Co1:16,23St.PaulsaysthathehadIntendedtogobywayofCorinthtoMacedonia,and
backtoCorinthagain,andsotoJuda,butthathehadchangedhisplan.AtEphesusthereweremanypersecutions(2Co1:8cf.4:8,6:4f.),andOnesiphoruswas
veryusefultohimthere(2Ti1:16ff.).ThestayatEphesuswassuddenlybroughttoanendbyariotinstigatedbyDemetrius,amakerofsilvershrinesofArtemis.
St.PaulwenttoMacedoniabyTroas,wherehehadexpectedtomeetTituscomingfromCorinth,thoughhewasdisappointedinthis.AtTroashepreachedwith
successadoorwasopened(2Co2:12).FromMacedoniahewrote2CorinthiansurgingtheforgivenessoftheincestuousCorinthian.[Somemodificationofthe
aboveisrequiredifthisEpistle,asmanythink,isanamalgamationoftwoormoreseparateones.Somethinkthatthepersonreferredtoin2Cor.isnottheoffender
of1Co5atall.]TitusjoinedSt.PaulinMacedonia,andgaveagoodaccountofCorinth(2Co7:8ff.),buttroublesaroseinMacedoniaitself(7:6).Tituswassent
backtoCorinthwithtwoothers(8:6,17f.,22),takingtheletterandannouncingSt.Paulsowncoming(2Co13:1).AllthistimetheApostlewasdevelopinghis
greatschemeofacollectionforthepoorChristiansofJuda,whichwasrespondedtosoliberallyinGalatia,Asia,Macedonia,andAchaia(1Co16:1f.,2Co8:17
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greatschemeofacollectionforthepoorChristiansofJuda,whichwasrespondedtosoliberallyinGalatia,Asia,Macedonia,andAchaia(1Co16:1f.,2Co8:17
,9:2,Ro15:25),andwhichpromptedthatjourneytoJerusalemwhichisthelastrecordedinActs(Ac24:17).Heclaimedtherighttoliveofthegospelhimself(1
Co9:6ff.)yethewouldnotusuallydoso,butinsteadaskedofferingsforthepoorsaints.FromMacedoniahewenttoGreece(Ac20:2),i.e.toCorinth,forthree
months,andherewroteRomans[57],whichhesentbyPhbe,adeaconessatCenchre,theportofCorinth(Ro16:1).AtCorinthheheardofaplotagainsthis
lifehehadintendedtosaildirecttoSyria,andtheplotseemstohavebeentomurderhimontheshiphethereforetookthelandjourneybywayofMacedonia,but
sentonseveralfriendstojoinhimatTroas:SopaterofBera,AristarchusandSecundus(bothofThessalonica),Timothy,TychicusandTrophimus(bothprobably
ofEphesus),andGaiusofDerbe,whowasperhapshishostatCorinth(Ro16:23,1Co1:14ifsohemusthavecometoCorinthtostay.TheMacedonianGaiusof
Ac19:29wasprobablyadifferentman).St.PaulspentthePassoveratPhilippi,andthen,withLuke(Ac20:5f.).setsailforTroas.Here,atanallnightservice
whichendswiththeEucharist,occurstheincidentoftheyoungmanEutychus,whobeingasleepfallsdownfromthethirdstoreyandistakenupdeadbutthe
Apostlerestoreshimalivetohisfriends.FromTroasthepartysailalongthewestcoastofAsiaMinor,callingatMiletus.HereSt.Paulhasavisitfromthe
presbytersofEphesus,forwhomhehadsent,andhidsthemfarewell,sayingthattheywouldseehisfacenomore(seeabovei.4(d)).AtCsarea(inPalestine)
theyland,andstaywithPhiliptheevangelistandhereAgabus,takingPaulsgirdleandbindinghisownfeetandhands,prophesiesthattheJewswilldothesame
totheownerofthegirdle,andwilldeliverhimtotheGentiles.
10.FifthvisittoJerusalem,Ac21:1723:30[57].St.PaulisreceivedatanapparentlyformalcouncilbyJames,theJerusalempresbytersbeingpresentand
hetellsthemofthesuccessofhisministrytotheGentiles.TheyadvisehimtoconciliatetheChristiansofJerusalem,whothoughtthathepersuadedJewsnotto
keeptheLaw,andtoundertaketheTemplechargesforfourmenwhowereunderavow,andtopurifyhimselfwiththem.Thishedoes,showing,asinmanyother
instances,thatheisstillaJew(Ac18:18,20:6,16,27:9).ButhispresenceintheTempleistheoccasionofariot,theJewsbelievingthathehadbroughtwithinthe
precinctsTrophimus,theGentileofEphesus,whomtheyhadseenwithhiminthecity.HeissavedonlybytheinterventionoftheRomansoldiers,whotakehimto
theCastle.Heisallowedtoaddressthepeople,ontheway,inAramaicbutwhenhespeaksofhismissiontotheGentiles,theyaregreatlyincensedandthechief
captain(chiliarch),ClaudiusLysias,hashimbroughtintotheCastleandordershimtobeexaminedbyscourgingbutPaulassertshisRomancitizenship.Nextday
heisbroughtbeforetheJewishSanhedrin,ofwhomsomewerePharisees,someSadducees,andwhenheaffirmshisbeliefinthehopeandresurrectionofthe
dead,theformerfavourhim.InthenightheisencouragedbyavisionoftheLordtellinghimthathemustbearwitnessinRome(Ac23:11).AplotoftheJews
againsthim,revealedbyhisnephew,isthecauseofhisbeingsentdownguardedtoCsareatothegovernorFelix.TheJewsgodowntheretoaccusehim,and
FelixandhiswifeDrusilla,aJewess,hearhimoftenbutheisleftaprisonerfortwoyears,andFelix,whenheisrecalled,doesnotreleasehim,hopingtopleasethe
Jews.HehadexpectedabribefromPaul(24:26).Festus,hissuccessor,isaskedbytheJewstosendPaultoJerusalem,therebeingasecretplottokillhimonthe
roadbutPaulappealstoCsar.WhileheisatCsarea,AgrippaandBernicecomedowntovisitFestus,andPaulnarratestothemhisconversion(Ac25:13
26:32).
11.Romanimprisonment.FromCsareatheApostleissent,withthetwocompanionsallowedtoaccompanyhim(LukeandAristarchus),onavoyageto
Italy[59],underthechargeofJulius,centurionoftheAugustanBandorCohort.Theysailfirst,aftertouchingatZidon,underthelee(totheeast)ofCyprus,the
usualwindsintheLevantinsummerbeingwesterly,andcoastalongAsiaMinor.St.Paulistreatedkindlyandasaprisonerofdistinction,andhisadviceisoften
asked.AtMyratheytranshipandembarkinwhatisapparentlyaGovernmentvesseltakingcornfromEgypttoItaly.SailingsouthofCretetheyreachFairHavens,
andspendatleastsomefewdaystherethen,thoughtheseasonoftheyearislate,theysetsailagain,hopingtoreachItalysafely.Butbeingcaughtinastorm,they
driftformanydays,andfinallyareshipwreckedonthecoastofMalta,wherethepeoplereceivethemkindly.St.Paulhealsthefatherofthefirstman,Publius,of
feveranddysentery.Nextspring[60]theysailforItalybywayofSicily,andlandatPuteoli,whencetheyreachRomebyland.HerePaulisallowedtoliveina
hiredhouse,guardedbyasoldier,andheremainstheretwowholeyears,doingevangelisticwork[60,61].FromRome,whileaprisoner(Ph1:7,13,Col4:3,18,
Eph3:1,4:1,6:20,Philem1),hewrote
Ephssians,probablyacircularlettertotheChurchesofAsia(theEpistlefromLaodiceaofCol
4:16).AtthesametimeheseemstohavesentColossiansandPhilemonbyTychicusandOnesimus.TheColossianshadnotseenPaul(Col2:1),but,havingheard
oferrorsatColoss,hewritestoexhortthemandArchippus(4:17cf.Philem2),whoseemstohavebeentheirchiefminister.TheshortlettertoPhilemonisa
touchingappealfromPaultheaged(v.9)toamastertoreceivebackafugitiveslaveOnesimusthemasterformerly,andnowtheslave,owedtheirChristianityto
St.Paul.AtthistimetheApostlehaswithhimEpaphrasofColoss(whohadcometoRomeandwasafellowprisonerwithPaul,Philem23),Aristarchus,Mark,
Jesus,
Justus,Luke,andDemas.AboutthesamedatePhilippianswaswritten,andsentby
EpaphroditusofPhilippi(Ph2:25ff.),whohadbeensicknightodeath,buthadrecoveredhehadbeensentbythePhilippianswithalmstoRome(Ph4:10,18).St.
Paulexhortshistrueyokefellow(whomLightfoottakestobeEpaphroditus,butwhoismoreprobablythechiefministerofthePhilippianChurch)toappeasea
quarrelbetweentwoChurchworkers,EuodiaandSyntychs(4:2f.)theClementtherementionedseemstohavebeenaPhilippianconvert.St.Paulhopessoonto25/144
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quarrelbetweentwoChurchworkers,EuodiaandSyntychs(4:2f.)theClementtherementionedseemstohavebeenaPhilippianconvert.St.Paulhopessoonto
sendTimothytoPhilippi(2:19),andtobefreetocomesoontothemhimself(2:24cf.Philem22).
12.Laterlife[endof61to67].ThiswecaninpartconstructfromthePastoralEpistlesthosewhorejectthemwilltaketheirownviewoftheaccountwhich
follows.WemayfirstaskwhetherSt.PaulwenttoSpain.Aswehaveseen,hemeanttodoso(Ro15:24,28),andearlytraditionaffirmedthathedidgo(above,1.4
(d)).Thistradition,however,mayhavebeenbasedonlyonhisrecordedintentionanditisadifficultythatnotraceisleftofaSpanishvisit,andthatnoChurchin
Spainclaimstohavebeenfoundedbyhim.JourneystotheEastarebetterattestedhecertainlyintendedtogofromRomeeastwards(Ph2:24).Wereadthathe
wenttoCorinthandleftErastusthere(2Ti4:20)thathesailedalongthewestcoastofAsiaMinor,leaving
TrophimussickatMiletus(ib.),andTimothyatEphesustoruletheChurchthereforatime(1Ti
1:3etc.)thathecalledatTroasandleftsomethingsthere(2Ti4:13)andthathewenttoMacedonia(1Ti1:3).Buttheseeventsneednothavehappenedonthe
samejourney.AtEphesuswereadofvarioushereticsofHymenusandAlexanderwhomPauldelivereduntoSatan(1Ti1:20)Alexanderisperhapsthe
coppersmithwhoopposedPaul,probablyatEphesus,notTroas(2Ti4:14),ofHymenus(perhapsthesameasin1Tim.)andPhiletus,whoexplainedthe
resurrectionofthedeadinafigurativesenseasaneventalreadypast(2Ti2:18),andofPhygelusandHermogenes,who,withallthatareinAsia(1:15),deserted
theApostlebutitisuncertainwhetherthereferencesaretoatimebeforeorafterthefirstimprisonmentatRome.AnotherjourneywastoCrete,whereSt.Paulleft
TitustoruletheChurchforatime(Tit1:5)thereaftertheApostlewenttoNicopolis,onthewestcoastofAchaia,oppositeItaly,whereheIntendedtowinter(Tit
3:12).BeforereachingNicopolishewrote1Timothy(probably)andTitusheaskedTitustocometohimwheneveranothercouldbesenttotakehisplace(3:12).
ThelastsceneoftheApostleslifeisatRome.Heisnowasecondtimeaprisoner(2Ti2:9),consciousthathislifeisnearitsend(4:6f.).Hewrites2Timothyto
hisfaithfuldisciple,whoisapparentlyatEphesus[PriscaandAquilaandthehouseholdofOnesiphorusarementionedasbeingwithTimothy(1:16,4:19),andhe
himselfisinapositionofauthoritytheseconsiderationspointtoEphesus,wherehewasbefore].WhenSt.Paulwrites,heis,saveforLukesattendance,alone
DemashasforsakenhimCrescens,Titus,andTychicushavebeensentonmissions(TitustoDalmatla,nottoCrete)andTimothyispressedtobringMarkandto
cometoRomewiththethingsleftbehindatTroas.TychicusseemstohavebeensentashissubstitutetoEphesus(4:913).InthisletterSt.Paulspeaksof
Onesiphorushavinghelpedhim,notonlyatEphesusonaformeroccasion,butwhenhewasaprisonerinRome,perhapsatthefirstimprisonment,forheseemsto
havediedbefore2Tim.waswritten(1:1618).Itisdisputedwhetherthefirstdefence(first,notformer)of2Ti4:10,whenallforsookhim,referstoa
preliminaryexaminationinthesecondimprisonment,or,asseemsmorelikely(Zahn),tothefirstimprisonmenttheApostlespeaksofhisbeingdeliveredoutofthe
mouthofthelion,thatthroughhimthemessagemightbefullyproclaimed,andthatalltheGentilesmighthear.Thisseemstorefertothefurthertravelsofthe
Apostleafterhisfirstimprisonment,whereaswhenwriting2Tim.heknewthathewasnearhisend.
13.ByuniversaltraditionthemartyrdomofSt.PaulwasatRome[Harnack64,Turner6465,RamsayandLightfoot67].ClementofRome(Cor.5),c.A.D.
95,saysthathavingbornewitnessbeforerulershedepartedfromthisworld.Attheendofthe2ndcent.Tertulliangivesdetails:PaulisbeheadedAtRomeNero
wasthefirstwhostainedwithbloodtherisingfaith.
ThendoesPaulobtainabirthsuitedtoRomancitizenshipthere(Scorp.15,Patr.Lat.li.174
f.)RomewherePaulwinshiscrowninadeathlikeJohns(dePrse.Hr.36,Patr.Lat.li.59).Inthe3rdcent.Origen(Com.inGen.iii.,seeEusebius,HEiii.
1)saysthatSt.PaulsufferedmartyrdominRomeunderNero[NerodiedA.D.68].Asthereisnoconflictingtradition,wemaywithconfidenceacceptthisaccount.
MoremoderntraditionsmakethedeathtohavetakenplaceatTreFontane,3milesfromRome,andtheburialatS.PaolofuorileMura,nearerthecity.
14.Appearance.ThefollowingisthedescriptionintheActsofPaulandThecla(Armen.vers.3,ConybearesMonuments,p.62),whichmaygoback,in
thismatter,tothe1stcent.:OnesiphorussawPaulcomingalong,amanofmoderatestature,withcurlyhairscanty,crookedlegs,withblueeyesandlarge
knitbrows,longnoseandhewasfullofthegraceandpityoftheLord,sometimeshavingtheappearanceofaman,butsometimeslookinglikeanangel.The
blueeyesarepeculiartotheArmenian.Theotherversionssaythathewasbowlegged,withmeetingeyebrows,andbaldheaded.Thisunflatteringdescriptiondoes
notagreebadlywiththatofSt.Paulsdetractorsin2Co10:10,11:6,whosaidthatthoughhisletterswereweightyandstrong,hisbodilypresencewasweak,and
hisspeechofnoaccounthewasrudeinspeech.TheappearanceoftheApostlewouldbemadeworsebythepermanentmarksofpersecution,themarksof
Jesus,asmostmodernsinterpretGal6:17,whichbrandedPaulastheslaveofChrist.
iii.S T.P AULSTEACHING.ItwouldbeamistaketolookonthePaulineEpistlesas
constitutingaSummaTheologica,acompendiumofChristiandoctrine.ThewriteralwaysassumesthathisreadershaveintheirpossessiontheChristiantradition.
WehavenorecordofthemethodbywhichPaulpreachedthegospel,buthetakesitforgrantedthatitisknownbythosetowhomhewrites,andherepeatshis
teachingonlywhensomespecialcircumstancescallforrepetition.DoctrinesliketheGodheadofourLordandoftheHolySpirit,theAtonement,andthe
Sacraments,arenotstatedasinatheologicalmanual,butassumed(cf.2Th2:15,3:6,1Co11:2).EventheEpistletotheRomans,addressedtothosewhohadnot
heardthePaulinepresentationofthegospel,andpartakingmoreofthenatureofatreatisethandoanyoftherest,assumesthesubstratumofChristiandogmanote,
forexample,thewayinwhichtheAtonementisalludedtoinRo3:25,5:17.ItfollowsthatitwouldbeextremelyunsafetobuildanyargumentastoSt.Pauls
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forexample,thewayinwhichtheAtonementisalludedtoinRo3:25,5:17.ItfollowsthatitwouldbeextremelyunsafetobuildanyargumentastoSt.Pauls
teachinguponhissilence.TheparagraphswhichherefollowareanattempttobringtogetherreferencesintheEpistlestosomeofthemoreimportantpointsof
Christiandoctrine.ButwemayfirstaskwhetherSt.Paulusedacreedinhisinstructions.In1Co15:3f.heseemstobequotingsomethingofthisnatureandaverse
fromacreedlikehymnisgivenin1Ti3:16.Yettheearliestknowncreed(theApostles)cannotbetracedbackinanyformbeyondthesecondquarterofthe2nd
cent.,andtheexistenceofanythinglikeacreedintheApostlestimesisthereforeamatterofconjectureonly.
1.TheFatherhoodofGod.ChristianityinheritedthisdoctrinefromtheOT.YetitwasfullyrevealedtousonlybyourLord,fortheJewshadhardlygot
beyondthetruththatGodwastheFatherofIsrael.TheApostledevelopsthistruth.GodistheFatherofJesus(2Co1:3,Eph1:3etc.),whoistheSonofGod(Gal
2:20,Ro1:4,2Co1:19,Eph4:13cf.1Th1:10)HisownSon(i.e.partakerofHisnature),whomHedidnotspare(Ro8:3,32,passageswhichrecallbothMk
1:11andJn3:16).But,further,Godisthefatherofallcreatures(Eph4:6),fromHimeveryfatherhood(i.e.family)inheavenandearthisnamed(Eph3:14f.)
Heisthe
Father(Gal1:1etc.),theFatherofglory(Eph1:17).InaspecialsenseHeistheFatherofallChristians,whoareHissonsbyadoption(Ro8:15f.,Gal3:28,
4:5f.,Eph1:5etc.).St.PaulneverconfusestherelationoftheFathertotheSonwiththatoftheFathertomankind,butkeepsthedistinctionofJn20:17(myFather
andyourFather).
2.TheFallofMan.TheuniversalityofsinisthemostprominentthemeinRom.,amongbothGentiles(1:18ff.)andJews(2:9ff.)allareundersin(3:10ff.).
SinisduetoAdamsfall,andispunishedbydeathyeteachmanisresponsible(5:12).Sindoesnotmeanmereerror,asitwasunderstoodbytheheathen,but
moralwrong(cf.Ps51:4sofrequentlyinOT).FromAdamcameataintwhichiscalledthelawofsininthemembers(Ro7:23)itisamoralweaknesswhich
makesmaninclinedtosin.ItisnoticeablethatGenesissaysnothingofthepenaltyandtaintasinheritedfromAdamuponwhichSt.Paulinsistswefinditfirstin
Wis2:23f.,andprobablyinSir25:24.TheRabbinicalteachingvariedsomeJewishteachersemphasizedtheinheritedtaintandpenalty,otherstheresponsibilityof
eachman.Forthefirstcf.2Es4:30f.,7:118[7:48]forthesecondcf.2Es9:11(freedomofchoice)andApocalypseofBaruch54:15192Es3:20ff.combines
bothviews.Thesetwoworksareprobablyofthe1stcent.A.D.,andpartsof2Esdras(butnotthosequoted)seemtohavebeenaddedbyaChristianhand(see
Thackeray,St.PaulandJewishThought,ch.ii.andp.21f.amostsuggestivebook).St.PaultracestheuniversalityofsintotheInstigationofSatan,thepersonal
powerofevil(1Co7:6etc.),andofhisevilangels(Eph6:12).
3.TheIncarnation.TheremedyforuniversalsinisprovidedbytheloveoftheFather(Ro8:32)andoftheSon(Gal2:20),intheIncarnation.ThatSt.Paul
usesthetitleSonofGodinnomereethicalsenseisseenbythelanguageinwhichhedescribesthepreexistenceofourLord.TheManhoodandtheGodheadare
bothspokenofinRo1:8f.(oftheseedofDavidaccordingtotheflesh,declaredtobetheSonofGod)and8:3(GodsendinghisownSoninthelikenessof
sinfulflesh).TheChristisofthefathersasconcerningtheflesh,butisoverall,Godblessedforever(Ro9:5soEVandSandayHeadlam,whoinanexhaustive
noteupholdthisinterpretationthosementionedinRVmasofsomemoderninterpretersseemtosuitneitherNTusagenorthecontext).Withthesepassagescf.Ph
2:6ff.,withLightfootsnotes.ChristJesus,beingoriginallyintheformofGod,having(thatis)theessentialattributesofGod(Lightfoot),didnotthinkequalitywith
Godathingtobejealouslyguarded[asarobberguardswhatisnothis],butemptiedHimself[oftheinsigniaofmajesty]bytakingtheformofaslave.Hisposition
wasnouncertainonethatitshouldneedtobeasserted.ItwasthisfactthatmadethecondescensionsogreatChrist,beingrich,becamepoorforoursakes(2Co
8:9).ThepreexistenceofourLordisimpliedbythefactthatHewastheFathersinstrumentinCreation(1Co8:6,Col1:16f.cf.Jn1:3).Heistheimageofthe
invisibleGod,thefirstbornofallcreationandheisbeforeallthings(Col1:15,17).LightfootremarksthatthefirstofthesephrasesexpressesChristsrelationto
Deity(cf.Wis7:26,2Co4:4,He1:3),HeisthemanifestationoftheunseenFatherwhiletheseconddenotesHisrelationtocreatedthings,itimpliespriorityto
allcreation(fortheArianglossthatitmeansthatChristwasthefirstcreatureisabsolutelyexcludedbyv.16f.),andimpliesalsosovereigntyovercreation,forthe
firstbornistherulerofGodsfamily(Ps89:27soinHe12:23thechurchofthefirstbornprobablymeansheirsoftheKingdomcf.alsoRo8:29).ThePastoral
EpistlesalsoteachthepreexistenceofourLordthewordsmanifestedinthefleshin1Ti3:16(whereGodmustbeomittedfromthetext)necessitatethisandin
Tit2:13,accordingtothemostprobableinterpretation(RVtext),JesusiscalledourgreatGodandSaviour(seeDeanBernardsnote).Itwould,however,he
misleadingtosuggestthatSt.PaulsbeliefintheDivinityofhisMasterdependsonlyontheInterpretationofafewcontrovertedtexts,howevergreattheir
combinedforce.ThewholelanguageofthePaulineEpistles,thedevotedsubmissionofPaultheslave(Ro1:1andpassim)toJesus,areinexplicableonanyother
hypothesis(seealsothenextparagraph).
4.TheAtonement.AsinAdamalldie,soalsoinChristshallallbemadealive.Thelast
Adambecamealifegivingspirit(1Co15:22,45cf.Ro5:1417).OurLordisthesecondorlastAdam,thusreestablishingwhatthefirstAdamdestroyed.It
hasbeenthoughtthatthesecondAdamwasacommonRabbinictitlefortheMessiah,butthisseemsdoubtful.ThetermfirstAdamisfound,butisusedin
contradistinctiontoothermen(Adam=man),notasopposedtoMessiah(Thackeray,op.cit.p.41).OthershavethoughtthatSt.Paulgothiscontrastbetween
AdamandChristfromPhiloandtheAlexandrianJewishschool.Howeverthismaybe,St.PaulteachesthatourLordcametobetheSecondAdamfromheaven
(1Co15:47),torestoreallthings,tobetherepresentativeman,andtorecapitulateorsumupthehumanspeciesinHimself(cf.Eph1:10),toshowtofallen
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(1Co15:47),torestoreallthings,tobetherepresentativeman,andtorecapitulateorsumupthehumanspeciesinHimself(cf.Eph1:10),toshowtofallen
humanitywhatGodmeantmantobe.
ThisrestorationwastobebythedeathofJesus,byasacrifice.ChristwassetforthbyGodtobeapropitiation,or(asweshouldperhapstranslate)tobe
propitiatory(Ro3:25cf.1Jn2:2,4:10).ThewordisusedinLXXasasubstantivemeaningtheplaceofpropitiationorthemercyseat,thetopoftheark,so
calledbecauseitwassprinkledwiththebloodofthesacrificesbutthiscanhardlybethemeaninginRom.,asthemetaphorwouldbeconfused,Christbeingatonce
thepriest,victim,andplaceofsprinklingandthesecondtranslationisthereforepreferable(soSandayHeadlam,Romans,p.87f.).Buttounderstandthemeaning
wemustnotice(a)thathereaselsewhere(Ro5:9,Eph1:7,2:13,Col1:14,20)thebloodofourLord,shedfortheforgivenessofsins,isemphasizedand(b)that
inRo5:10Jesusdeathissaidtobeareconciliationoratonement.Manisreconciledto,madeatonewith,GodhisattitudetoGodischanged(cf.2Co5:18).
Godisnotheresaidtobereconciledtoman,becauseitisman,notGod,whomustchangeifthereistobereconciliation,asissaidinCol1:21(wheresee
Lightfootsnote).Yetthereisanothersideofthesametruth,alludedtointheAnglicanArticleii.
(toreconcilehisFathertous).ThewordpropitiatoryofRo3:25canonlymeanthatby
Christsdeath,Godispropitiated,thatis,Godsjustangeristakenawayfromus.[In2Mac1:5,7:33,8:29Godissaidtobereconciledtoman.]
Thisreconciliationiseffectedbyavicarioussacrifice.Inordinarylifevicarioussufferingiscommon,andisusuallyinvoluntary.ButChristfreelyoffered
Himself(Gal2:20,1Ti2:6,Tit2:14),thesinlessfortheguilty.Hewasmadesininourbehalf(2Co5:21cf.1Co5:7,15:3,Gal3:13).
Thissacrificewasforallmen(2Co5:14f.).AndherewenoticethatSt.PauldoesnotattempttoreconciletheDivinesovereigntywithmanschoice,Gods
predestinationwithhumanfreewill.Hesometimesstatestheformer(e.g.Ro9),sometimesthelatter(e.g.Ro10),lookingsometimesatonesideofthetruth,
sometimesattheother.Ontheonehand,Godisthepotterwithpowerovertheclay(Ro9:21),foreordainingandcallingbeforethefoundationoftheworld(Ro
8:29f.,9:23f.,Eph1:4f.),purposingthatallmenshallbesaved(Ro11:32,1Ti2:4,4:10),sendingHisSontotheworldnotonlytosavemankindgenerally,asa
body,buttosaveeachindividual(cf.Gal2:20).Ontheotherhand,mancanexercisehisfreewilltothwartGodspurpose,asallIsraelexceptaremnantdid(Ro
9:27,11:1,5),andthecalldoesnotnecessitatesalvation(1Co9:27).Theelectionisthereforetoprivilege,asitiscalledGodhaschosencertainmentoreceive
privilegesinthisworld,asJewsintheOldCovenant,ChristiansintheNew.YetthereisalsoanelectiontolifethegloryofRo9:22f.isnotofthisworldonly.
HereSt.Paulleavesthequestion,andwemaydowelltoavoidtheorizingonit,whetherinthedirectionoftheArminianview(namedfromvanHarmen,A.D.
15601609),whichwasthatGodknowswhowillandwhowillnotrespondtoHiscall,andthereforepredestinatestheformertolifeoroftheCalvinistorultra
Augustinianview,whichisthatpredestinationisarbitrary,andthatChristdiedonlyforthosepredestinedtolife(particularredemption).Theparadoxisinsoluble
withourpresentknowledge,andwemustpatientlywaitforitssolutioninthefullerlightoftheworldtocome.ItmayberemarkedthatSt.Paul,whiledwellingon
boththegoodnessandtheseverityofGod(Ro2:4,11:22),neverspeaksofpredestinationtocondemnation.
ByanothermetaphortheatoningworkofourLordiscalledbySt.Paularansomor
redemption.Weareboughtwithaprice(1Co6:20,7:23cf.Gal3:10,4:5,Tit2:14etc.,and2P2:1).InhischargetothepresbytersofEphesus,St.Paulspeaks
ofthechurchofGodwhichhepurchasedwithhisownblood(Ac20:28).Withoutstoppingtodiscusstheotherdifficultiesofthisverse(forwecannotbesurethat
wehaveSt.Paulsipsissimaverba),wemayremarkthatthemetaphorofpurchaseorransommustnotbepressedtoofar.Thereneedbenoquestionoftheperson
towhomthepriceispaid,whetheritbeGodtheFather,orSatan,whoissupposedbysometohaveacquiredarighttomanbytheFall.Theforceofthemetaphor
lies,notinthepersonrecompensed,butinthepricepaid.Itistheimmensityofthesacrificethatisemphasized,andthefiguremustnotbecarriedfurtherthanthis.
5.ResurrectionandAscensionofourLord.TheformereventismadebySt.Paulthegreatfoundationofhisteaching.In1Co15:111he
explainsthegospelwhichhepreachedashehadreceivedit,thatChristdied,wasburied,andwasraisedonthethirdday(thescripturesreferredtoseemtobe
Is53:5ff.,Ps16:8ff.)thehistoricalfactoftheresurrectionwas,hesays,witnessedbyCephas,thetwelve,the500brethren[inGalilee?]ofwhommoststill
survived,James[notinGospelsorActs],alltheapostles[attheAscension?],andlastlybyhimselfasonebornoutofduetime.TheappearanceofChristat
hisconversionhetooktobeasrealandaslittleahallucinationastheappearancesbeforetheAscension.SofarfromthefactoftheappearancetoSt.Pauland
thosetotherestbeingputonaparshowingthatinSt.Paulsviewthelatterwerepurehallucinations,itshowsthathewasconvincedoftherealityofbothalike
(cf.esp.1Co9:1).ThecriterionofApostleshipwasthatamanhadseenJesus,notmerelydreamtthathehadseenHim.Inaword,ifChristsresurrectionbe
false,Paulspreachingisvain,ourfaithisvain(1Co15:14cf.1Th1:10,4:14,2Ti2:8etc.).Thehistoricalfactistreatedasfundamentalinthesermonsat
PisidianAntioch(Ac13:30ff.),atAthens(17:31),andbeforeAgrippa(26:23)andthesalientpointofPaulsteachingseizedonbyFestuswasthatheaffirmed
Jesus,whowasdead[haddied],tobealive(25:19).ItisthisfactthatisthegreatpoweroftheChristianlife(Ph3:10).
TheAscensionandFutureReturnofourLordareoftenalludedtobySt.Paul(seealso10below).ItisexplicitlystatedinEph4:8thatJesusascendedtogive
giftsuntomen,andPs68:18isquoted.Jesusisexaltedinglory(Ph2:9,1Ti3:16),or,inthesymboliclanguagefoundalsoelsewhereinNT,expressingthesame
fact,isseatedontherighthandofGod(Ro8:34,Eph1:20,Col3:1,fromPs110:1)sothebelieverismadetositinheavenlyplaces(Eph2:8).Jesusisexpectedto
returnfromheaven(1Th1:10,4:10,Ph3:20),tojudgetheworld(2Co5:10,2Ti4:8,Ac17:31cf.Jn5:22,27).Itissaid,however,byProf.Harnackthatthe28/144
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returnfromheaven(1Th1:10,4:10,Ph3:20),tojudgetheworld(2Co5:10,2Ti4:8,Ac17:31cf.Jn5:22,27).Itissaid,however,byProf.Harnackthatthe
AscensionhadnoseparateplaceinprimitiveChristiantradition,andthattheResurrectionandSessionwerethoughtofasoneact.AsregardsSt.Paul,hissilencein
1Co15:3ff.,Ro8:34astothe
Ascensionisalleged.IntheformerplacereferencetotheAscensionwouldhavenopoint,fortheApostleisprovingthetruthoftheResurrection.Inthelatterwe
havethesequencediedwasraisedisattherighthandofGodmakethintercession.Ifwearetotakethesecondandthirdphrasesasdenotingoneact,
whynotthefirstandsecond?[Forafulldiscussiononthispoint,seeSwete,TheApostlesCreed,p.64ff.]
6.TheHolyGhost.InRo8:127St.Paulgivesagreatexpositionoftheworkofthe
Spirit,whichcloselyapproximatestothedescriptionoftheParaclete(Helper,Comforter,
Advocate)inJn.,thoughthenameitselfisnotused.TheSpiritoflifedwellsinus(cf.1Co3:16,6:19)toquickenus[atthesametimewereadofthisasChrist
beinginus,Ro8:911],toleadus,andtohelpustopray.Hemakesintercessionforus[totheFather]wordsinwhichSt.Paulindicateswhatthetechnical
languageofChristianitycallsthepersonalityoftheHoly
Spirit,distinctfromtheFather.SoinEph4:30theHolyGhostcanbegrieved.HeistheSpiritof
Christ(Ro8:9).In1Co12theApostledescribesthevaryingworkoftheSpiritinman,
dividingashewill(v.11notetheindicationofpersonality).WelivebytheSpirit(Gal5:25).In2Co3:17theSpiritisatfirstsightidentifiedwithChristthe
LordistheSpiritthegiftoftheSpiritisthegiftofChrist.HereagainwerecallourLordswordsinJn.,wherethecomingoftheSpiritandthecomingofChristare
identified(Jn14:1623).Soalsoarereconciledtheapparentlycontradictorysayings,Iwillbewithyoualway(Mt28:20)andIgoawayIwillsendhimunto
you(Jn16:7).ItistheworkoftheSpirittomakeChristspresencerealtous.HencealsotheSpiritworkswithinusweareunitedtoChristbyHim,andfromthe
beginningofourChristianlifeweareallbaptizedinoneSpiritintoonebody(1Co12:13).TheSpiritisalsospokenofasbeinggiventous(Gal3:5,Tit3:6,Ac
19:2,6etc.).Lastly,wenoticethattheFather,Son,andSpiritarejoinedtogetherintheApostolicbenediction(2Co13:14),butinastrikingorder,ourLordcoming
first.PerhapstheApostlesthoughtisthatitisonlybythegraceoftheSonthatwecancometotheloveoftheFather,andthattheoutpouringofthegiftsofthe
Spiritappliesthatgraceandlovetous.
7.Justificationbyfaith.TheJewishteacherswhobadprecededSt.Paulhadtaughtthatmanisalwayslayingupatreasureofgoodandhaddeeds(cf.Ro
2:5)andaccordingaseitherpreponderateatanygiventime,heisdeclaredrighteousoriscondemnedwhileifthegoodandevildeedsareequal,Godgivesman
thebenefitofthedoubtandmoreover,amansgooddeedsmaybesupplementedbythoseofthepatriarchs.[AnechoofthismaybeseeninRo11:23see
Thackeray,op.cit.p.83f.]Itwastaughtthatthewholetransactionwasamatterofcontract,Godowingadebttomanforgoodness.St.Pauladoptstheforensic
metaphorofjudgeandverdictmanisjustified,oraccountedrighteous,byGod,thoughheisnotrighteous.TheChristianlife,ithasbeensaid,ismadetohave
itsbeginninginafiction(SandayHeadlam,Romans,p.36).ButthisismerelyanotherwayofsayingthatGoddoesnotexactthedebttotheutmostHeforgives
freely(Ro3:24,8:33).Manisgivenafreshstart,withaclearrecord.ThegreatdifferencebetweenSt.PaulandtheJewishteachersliesintheplaceassignedbyhim
tofaith(Ro1:17,4:3,Gal3:6,11),inhisdenyingthemeritsofworksoftheLaw(Gal2:16,3:21),andinthegiftofjustificationbeingfree.TheJewsrecognized
faithonlyasoneoftheworks,andwiththemitwasnomorethanobediencetotheLaw.
TheforgivenessofmanisdescribedbySt.Paulasamanifestationoftherighteousness(orarighteousness)ofGod(2Co5:21,Ro1:17,Ph3:8),whichis
regardedasbeingdiffusedamongmen,asinthesecondIsaiah(Is45:23RVm,46:13,51:6,56:1).Buttheconditionofforgivenessisfaith,whichfortheChristianis
arealbeliefinChristthatconvictionwhichtheApostlehimselfattainedathisconversion,anactiveandenthusiasticbeliefInfluencinghiswholelife.Abraham
wasjustifiedbecausehebelievedthepromisestheChristianwillbejustifiedifhebelievestherevelationofJesusChrist(Ro1:5,3:22,10:9,17etc.)thisisthe
faith(2Ti4:7etc.).
InthisconnexionwemayglanceatSt.PaulsviewoftheMosaicLaw.HewasnoMarcionite,rejectingtheOT.InhisviewtheLawwasusefulasaguardian,a
tutor,havingchargeoftheworldinitschildhood(Gal3:23f.).Itisproved,however,tohavebeensubsidiaryandtransitory,(a)bythefactthatthepromisewas
giventoAbraham,beforetheLaw(Gal3:17)andinthisplaceSt.PaulusesaRabbinicalargumentfromthegrammaticalformofthewordseed,whichhe
appliestoChristand(b)bythefactthatitwasgivennotdirectfromGod,aswasthepromisetoAbraham,butbythehandsofangelministers(Gal3:19the
referenceisperhapstoDt33:2,Ps68:17cf.Ac7:38),andbyamediator,Moses(cf.Dt5:5).TheLawaffixesapenaltytosin,butdoesnotprovidethewayto
escapefromitthusthosewhoareundertheLawareunderacurse,whichisremovedbythegospel(Gal3:10ff.).InanotherpassageSt.Pauldrawsanallegory
fromthestoryofMosesveil,putonhisfacethatthepeoplemightnotseetheglorypassingawayfromit.FortheLawgiverveiledhimself,notbecausetheycould
notbeartolookonhisface,butbecauseheknewthattheLawwastransitory,andwishedtohidethefactfromthepeople.ThisseemstobetheApostlesmeaning
in2Co3:13ff.(seeThackeray,op.cit.p.75).
InteachingfreeforgivenessSt.Pauldoesnotteachlawlessness(Ro6:1f.see8).ButitwasperhapsadistortedaccountofhisearlyteachingthatcausedSt.
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InteachingfreeforgivenessSt.Pauldoesnotteachlawlessness(Ro6:1f.see8).ButitwasperhapsadistortedaccountofhisearlyteachingthatcausedSt.
JamestowritethefamouspassageonworkswhichoccursinhisEpistle(Ja2:14ff.).ThereisnorealcontradictionbetweenthetwoApostlesassoofteninreligious
controversy,anapparentdifferencecomesfromwordsbeingusedindiversesenses.St.Jamesspeaksofanemptyfaithwhichdoesnotproduceaholylife,thatis,
whichisnorealfaithatallwhileSt.PaulspeaksofbarrenworksthatareameremechanicalobediencetotheLaw,asopposedtoafaithwhichnecessarilyproduces
activeobediencetothecommandsoftheMaster.
8.SanctificationandSacraments.Ashasbeensaid,St.Pauldwellsonthenecessity,notonlyofforgiveness,butofholiness.Thetwoareinextricably
interwoven.WemustbecometherighteousnessofGod(2Co5:21)andbeconformedtotheimageofhisSon(Ro8:29)astheSonistheimageoftheFather
(seeabove,3).SanctificationisdescribedasanimplantingintheChristianofthelifeofChrist(Gal2:20),fortherisenlifemustbegininaveryrealsensehere
belowifitistobeperfectedhereafter(Col3:1).ByaslightlydifferentfigurewearesaidinRo6:5(seeRV)tobeunitedbygrowth[withChrist],inrespectof,orby,
thelikenessof(i.e.bypartakingin)Hisdeathandresurrection(cf.Ph3:10)thelanguagecloselyresemblesourLordswordsatCapernaum(Jn6:5357),andHis
parableoftheVine(Jn15:1ff.).Ofthisunionbaptismisatonceasymbolandaninstrumentweareimmersedandsubmerged,thenemergefromthefontthe
referenceistothecustomofbaptismbyimmersionandsowedie,areburled,andrisewithChristtoanewlife(Ro6:3f.cf.Col2:12,Tit3:6)bybaptismweare
incorporatedwithHim(Ro6:3cf.Gal3:27,1Co1:13,15RV,Mt28:19RV,Ac8:16RV,19:5RV).Thephrasebaptizedintooruntodenoteseitherthepurpose
ofbaptism(e.g.remissionofsins)orthepersontowhomthebaptizedisunited.[In1Co10:2thewordsareusedinaninferiorsense,oftheobedienceofthe
IsraelitestoMoses.]IthasbeenobjectedtothisinterpretationthatourLordgavethecommandtobaptize(Mt28:19)inAramaic,andthatthephraseusedinthat
languagecouldonlymeantobaptizeundertheauthorityof(DeanRobinson).Butwhateverthephraseinthenameofmightformerlyhavemeantamongthe
Jews,St.PaulslanguageseemstoshowthattheApostlesunderstoodourLordswords,eveninAramaic,toconveythenewtruththatbaptismisanincorporation
intotheNameofJesus,oroftheFather,Son,andHolyGhost(Bp.Chase).ForafulldiscussiononbothsidesseeJThStvi.481,vii.186,viii.161.
Again,ofthisunionwithChristSt.PaulmakestheEucharistatonceasymbolandaninstrument.ThatSacramentisnotonlyaunionofChristiansamong
themselves(onebread,onebody),butalsoaparticipationinorcommunionofthebodyandbloodofChrist(1Co10:16f.).ItisthisfeatureoftheSacrament
thatmadetheCorinthianabusessoheinous,andthatmakesanunworthyreceptionbythecommunicantsoserious,ifhediscernnotthebody(1Co11:2332).
ThisunionwithChristcannotbeeffectedbymansownunaidedpower,butrequiresgrace.ItisimpossibleheretodescribealltheshadesofmeaningwhichSt.
Paulgivestothisword.ButwemaysayinbriefthatitisGodsgoodfavourtowardsus,notonlyasaDivineattribute,butasactivelyoperatingandasfreelygiven
tomanthroughtheIncarnation(Ro5:21,1Co1:4).HenceitisthegraceofJesusChrist(2Co8:9,13:14).ItisatonceGodsgoodfavourtowardsusandthe
activehelporpowerwhichGodgivestomantoenablehimtoovercome(Eph4:7),andissufficientforhim(2Co12:9).Emphasisislaidonthefactthatgraceis
notearned,anditisopposedtoadebt(Ro4:4)andtomeritoriousdeeds(works,Ro11:5).Thewordisespeciallyusedinconnexionwiththepreachingofthe
gospeltotheGentiles,ofthehelpgivenbothtotheevangelizer(1Co3:10etc.)andtotheevangelized(2Co6:1,Ac13:43etc.).ButinSt.Paultheuseofitis
somewhatmorefluidthaninLatintheologicallanguage,inwhichDivinehelpbecamethecrystallizedsense.
9.TheCatholicChurchandUniversalityoftheGospel.ThelargesubjectoftheChurchcanherebereferredtoonlyverybriefly.St.Paulmaintainsin
Rom.andGal.theuniversalityoftheChurch,asocietyforalltheworld,whichneednotbeenteredthroughJudaism.ChristhasbrokendownthewallbetweenJew
andGentile(Eph2:14,3:5).HisChurchisavisiblesociety(Eph4:11f.)one(1Co10:17,12:13)becauseGodisone(Eph4:4ff.)holybecauseallChristiansare
calledtobesaints(1Co1:2),anditiscleansedbythelaverofwaterwiththeword(Eph5:26),thoughitcontainssomewickedmen(cf.1Co5)catholic,because
foreveryman(Col1:28:thereisnoinnercircleoftheinitiated),andforallnationsandages,andcontainingalltruth(Gal3:28etc.,1Ti3:15,2Ti2:15cf.Jn
16:13:thenameitselfisnotfoundbeforeIgnatius)andapostolic(Eph2:20).ThelastthoughtisthesameasthatofJn20:21,forChristiansarenotaselfconstituted
body,butaresentbyGodthatis,theyareapostolicSt.
PauldescribestheChurchundervariousmetaphors.ItisthebodyofChrist(1Co12:27,Eph4:12,5:30,Col1:18,24)becauseitsmembersareunitedtoChrist(see
8above),andChristisitshead(Eph1:22f.)theideaisleduptobyRo12:5(onebodyinChrist),1Co12:12(thebodyisone).AlsotheChurchisthebrideof
ChristthetitleisimpliedinEph5:25ff.(cf.Rev21:2).ItisthehouseofGod(1Ti3:15),acommonmetaphorwhichstillgivesusthedoublemeaningofchurch
andthephrasetobeedified(Ro15:2etc.)thebuilding,foundation,andcornerstonearedescribedinEph2:20ff.,whereeachseveralbuildingofRVmeans
eachstonethatisbuiltintotheonebuilding.ThemetaphorsofbodyandhousearejoinedinEph4:12.InanotherfiguretheChurchisanolivetree,being
regardedasacontinuationoftheolddispensation,newbranches(theGentiles)havingbeengraftedin,andtheoldones(theJews)brokenoff,thoughtheytoomay
againbegraftedin(Ro11:1324).SeeGRAFTING.
InthisChurchSt.PauldescribesaregularministryApostleslikehimselfapostolicdelegatessuchasTimothyandTitus,whosework,likethatoftheApostles,
wasmainlyitinerantsettledorlocalofficers,calledbishops(overseers)anddeacons(ministers)atPhilippi(Ph1:1)andinthePastoralEpistles(nodeaconsare
mentionedinTit.).Presbyters(elders)arealsomentionedinthePastoralEpistles(cf.alsoAc11:30,15:2ff.,16:4,21:18forthoseatJerusalem,14:23,20:17for
thoseelsewhere)andtheidentityofthesewithbishopsintheApostolicageseemstobeshownbyacomparisonofthesepairsofpassages:Ac20:17,28,1Ti3:1,
5:1,Tit1:5,7,1P5:1,2,thoughthisinferenceisdeniedbysome.Theappointmentisbylayingonofhands(1Ti5:22cf.Ac6:6).Timothyissaidtohavebeen 30/144
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5:1,Tit1:5,7,1P5:1,2,thoughthisinferenceisdeniedbysome.Theappointmentisbylayingonofhands(1Ti5:22cf.Ac6:6).Timothyissaidtohavebeen
ordainedwiththelayingonofthehandsofthepresbytery(1Ti4:14probablythebodyofpresbytersisintended),andthroughthelayingonofSt.Paulshands
(2Ti1:6).NothingissaidinthePaulineEpistlesofthemethodofchoosingministers(seeAc6:5f.).In1Co12:28St.Paulseemstoenumeratenotsomuch
namesofofficialsasvariousworksdonebytheministry(Apostles,prophets,teachers,miracles,giftsofhealings,helps,governments,tongues)soinEph4:11
(Apostles,prophets,evangelists,pastorsandteachersthelasttwodenotethesamepersons).Inanycasetheregularministrydidnotexcludetheexistencesideby
sidewithitofacharismaticministry,giftsofprophecy,tongues,healings,andothermiraclesbeingexercisedbymanyoutsidetheofficialministry(Ro
12:3ff.,1Co1214seealsoart.TONGUES[GIFTOF]).
ThepowerofexercisingdisciplineintheChurchisrecognizedbySt.Paulin1Co5:6,1Ti1:20,thoughtheexactforceofthephrasetodeliveruntoSatanis
uncertain.Itmaydenoteeithersimpleexcommunicationorthemiraculousinflictionofsomepunishmentbuttheformerseemstobethemoreprobableexplanation.
10.Eschatology.AsSt.PaulmakestheResurrectionofourLordthefoundationofhisteaching,soheinsistsontheresurrectionofthebodyattheLastDayas
acardinaltruth.ButintheEpistleshedoesnotalwaysdealwiththesamesideofeschatologicaldoctrine.(a)IntheearliestofhisextantEpistles(1Th4:13ff.)his
languageissodeeplycolouredbyhisexpectationoftheImmediatereturnofourLord,thathesaysnothingofthetimebetweendeathandtheJudgment,butthinks
onlyofJesuscomingwithHissaints(3:13),atthesoundofthetrump(4:16cf.also1Co15:52,2Es6:23),toawakenthesleepingdead(cf.1Co15:20,51)all
commonJewishfiguresforthephrasewethatareleftcf.2Es7:28,13:24,26.PerhapsthesupposednearnessoftheSecondAdventisreflectedinMaranatha,
TheLordcometh(1Co16:22),butthephrasemaymeanTheLordhathcome.Lestmisapprehensionofhislanguageshouldarise,St.Pauladdsin2Th2:3ff.
thecautionthatthemanofsinmustfirstcome,andpersecutionmustarise(so1Co7:26ifwetranslatetheimminentdistress).TheideaoftroublebeforetheEnd
iscommonintheJewishapocalypses.TheonethingcertainisthattheComingwillbeunexpected(1Th5:2).(b)IntheseearliestEpistlesnothingissaidofthe
transformationofthebody.Butin1Co15:35ff.thisisinsistedon(soPh3:21cf.Ro8:23).AstheResurrectionofChristisanassuredfact,sothatofallmenis
certain(1Co15:12ff.)theresurrectionbodyisatoncethesameandnotthesameastheterrestrialbodythereisanidentity,andyetachange.Theresurrection
bodyisaspiritualbody,thenecessaryresultoftheterrestrialbody,justasaparticularseedmustresultinaparticularplant,andyettheseedischangedtobecome
theplant(cf.ourLordssimilarmetaphorinJn12:24).IntheApocalypseofBaruch(1stcent.A.D.)thereisthethoughtofthetransformation,butastakingplace
aftertheJudgmentthedeadinthisbookriseastheywere,inorderthattheymayberecognized(cf.also4Mac9:22asthoughtransformedbyfireinto
immortality,henoblyenduredtherackings).St.Paulsaysthatthistransformationisnecessary,becauseinourpresentstatewecannotseeGodforthisseemstobe
themeaningofthesayingthatfleshandbloodcannotinherittheKingdomofGod(1Co15:50,cf.alsoPh3:21).InthisdiscussionSt.Pauldoesnotspeakofthe
resurrectionofthewickedbutelsewherehereechoestheteachingofDn12:2thattherighteousandtheevilrisetogetherforjudgment(Ac24:15,Ro2:5ff.,
14:1012,2Co5:10).Itisthereforenotprobablethatin1Co15:28f.aresurrectionfirstoftherighteous,andthen,afteraninterval,ofthewicked,isintendedthe
righteousalonearehereconsidered,andtheyriseatChristscoming,andthen(atChristscoming)istheend.Thosewhoseeinthispassageamillennium,andan
intervalbetweentherisingofthegoodandofthewicked,areinfluencedgreatlybyRev20:46butthethousandyearsthereseemstobeasymbolicalphrasefor
theintervalbetweenthefirstAdventandthelastconflict,inwhichthebaptizedshareinChristsresurrection(cf.Col3:1,aparadoxofobviousmeaning).See
SwetesApocalypseofSt.John,p.260ff.(c)Inyetanotherpassage,2Co4:165:10,theApostlelooksonlyatthestateofthedepartedimmediatelyafterdeath.
Herethemetaphorofsleepisdropped,andthenearnesstoChristofthefaithfuldeadisdweltontheyarewithChrist,whereasin1Th4wethatareleftshall
meettheLordonlyatthesoundofthetrumpattheLastDay,andthedeadinChristwillmeetHimatthesametime.Anexcessiveliteralismhassuggestedtosome
thatSt.Paulchangedhismindabouttheresurrectionofthebodyandgaveupthebeliefinitinfavourofabeliefintheimmortalityofthesoulonly,perhapsunder
theinfluenceofAlexandriantheology(Wis9:15iscitedasshowingthatthelatterhadnodoctrineoftheresurrectionofthebody.)Butthissupposition,whichis
veryunlikelyinitselfwhenweconsidertheshortintervalbetweenthetwoCorinthianEpistles,isdecisivelynegativedbyPh3:21.In2Ti4:8,writtenindaily
expectationofimminentdeath,heyetlooksbeyondtheintermediatestatetotheDayofJudgment,thatday,thedayoftheLord,whenheshallreceivethecrown
ofrighteousness.
11.Marriageandvirginity.St.Paulwritesnotreatiseonmarriage,butheoftenalludestoit.BothJewsandGentileshadbeenaccustomedtodivorcebeing
easilyobtained.ButSt.PaulsaysthataChristianwomanistobeboundtoherhusbandforlife,thoughawidowmaymarryagain(Ro7:1ff.).Marriageisnottobe
forbidden(1Ti4:3cf.1Co9:6).In1Co7,accordingtotheusualinterpretation,theCorinthianshavingaskedwhetheramongChristiansmarriageshouldbe
discouraged,St.Paulanswersthatmarriageispermissibleforall,thoughtheunmarriedstateisthebetteronebecauseofthepresent(orimminent)distress(v.26)
thethoughtisofthenearnessofChristscoming,andofthepersecutionswhichwouldprecedeit.ButRamsaythinksthatsuchaquestionisnottobeexpectedfrom
eitherJewsorGentilesofthattime,seeingthattheJewsformanyageshadlookedonmarriageasauniversalduty,andthattheRomanlawgreatlyencouragedithe
supposes,therefore,thattheCorinthianshadaskedwhethermarriageoughttobemadeobligatoryforChristians,andthatSt.Paulpleadedforapermissible
celibacy.InEph5:22ff.theApostleemphaticallytreatsmarriageasholy,symbolizingtheunionbetweenChristandHisChurch.
In1Ti3:2,12,Tit1:6abishop(presbyter)ordeaconmustbethehusbandofonewife.Thisneednotnecessarilyimplycompulsorymarriagefortheclergy.It
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In1Ti3:2,12,Tit1:6abishop(presbyter)ordeaconmustbethehusbandofonewife.Thisneednotnecessarilyimplycompulsorymarriagefortheclergy.It
has,however,beenvariouslyinterpretedasforbidding(a)bigamybutthatwasforbiddentoallChristiansor(b)digamy,i.e.marryingagainafterthedeathofthe
firstwife,asinalaterecclesiasticaldisciplineor(c)divorce:i.e.thebishopmustbeonewho,inhispreChristiandays,hadnotdivorcedhiswifeandtakenanother.
[Thelasttwoexplanationsarenotexclusive.]Soin1Ti5:2awidowontherollmusthavebeenthewifeofoneman.
iv.P REDECESSORSANDTEACHERS.IntheApostleoftheGentilesallwillrecognizeoneof
themostoriginalofthinkersbutoriginalitydoesnotnecessarilymeanhavingnopredecessorsinoneslineofthought.Itliesratherinneworganizationand
arrangement,intheemploymentofoldterminologyinahigherandwidersense,orinthereconstructionofoldmaterialsoastomakeanoblerwhole.Again,the
factthattheChristianChurchbelievesthatSt.PaulwasaninspiredApostledoesnotprecludetheideaofhumanpreparationforhislifework.Andheundoubtedly
gleanedfrommanyfields.
1.Jewishofficialteachers.St.PaulhadbeenapupilofGamalielinJerusalem(Ac22:3).ThisRabbi,whomwemaytaketobethefamousgrandsonof
Hillel(Ac5:34ff.),wasofthatliberalschoolofthePhariseeswhichencouragedthestudyofGreekliterature.IthasbeenobjectedbyBaurthatthestatementinAc
22:8cannotbehistorical,becausePaulbeforehisconversionwassuchazealot,soblindlybigoted,sounlikeGamaliel.Butpupilsdonotalwaysfollowtheir
masters,andwecannotdoubtthatinGodsprovidenceGamalielsmoderationhaditsinfluenceontheApostleintheend,andeventuallycontributedmuchtohis
wellbalancedcharacter.
2.InfluenceofpopularJewishwritings.TheJewishapocalypseshavegreatlyinfluencedSt.Paul(forexamplesseeiii.)theAlexandrianwritingsnotso
much.ButtheBookofWisdomisclearlyusedinthedescriptionsofheathencorruptioninRo1:1832,andofthepoweroftheCreatorinRo9:19ff.,Theinfluence
ofcontemporaryJewishthoughtisalsoseeninSt.PaulsmethodoftreatingtheOT.Hisrunningcommentaries(Ro10:5ff.,Gal4:22ff.,Eph4:7ff.),themakingofa
centoofOTpassagestoproveapoint,thoughttobeduetotheuseofaJewishanthology(Ro3:10ff.,2Co6:15ff.),hismysticalinterpretationsofOTsuchasthose
of1Ti5:18,1Co9:9f.(foroursakeitwaswrittencf.Ro15:4,2Ti3:13,2P1:20f.),1Co10:1ff.
(thepassageoftheRedSeaaBaptism,themannaandthewaterfromtherockanEucharist),Gal4:21ff.(Hagar,notev.24),areallthoroughlyJewishandsois
theadoptionbytheApostle,forpurposesofillustration,ofsomelegendarystoriesaddedbytheJewstotheOT,suchasthereferencestotheRockwhichwassaidto
havefollowedtheIsraelitesinthewilderness(1Co10:4),thepersecutionofIsaacbyIshmael(Gal4:29),andJannesandJambres(2Ti3:8f.).Fortheseandsome
otherpossibleinstancesoftheuseoflegendsseeThackeray,op.cit.pp.180,204,50,159ff.
3.Greekphilosophy.Thisinfluence,tobeexpectedinapupilofGamaliel,iscertainlynoticeableinSt.Paulsspeechesandwritings.Stoicismespecially
seemstohaveleftamarkonthem.HerewemayremarkontheundoubtedconnexionwhichexistsbetweenSt.PaulandtheStoicphilosopherSeneca(see
LightfootsessayinhisPhilippians,p.270ff.).SenecaswritingshaveverynumerouscoincidenceswiththePaulineEpistles,withtheGospels,andevenwiththe
otherbooksofNT.HeandtheApostlewerecontemporaries.Couldeitherhaveinfluencedtheother?TherearedifficultiesinthewayofsupposingthatSenecawas
influencedbyNT.ChronologyforbidsustothinkthatheknewtheJohanninewritingsorHebrews,ashediedinNerosreignyethehasmanycoincidenceswith
thesebooksalso.Again,SenecaquotesmanyofthephrasescommontohimandNTfromolderwritersthese,then,arenotduetoNT.Further,thecoincidencesare
oftenverbalratherthanrealthesenseisoftenquitedissimilar,theStoicpantheismandmaterialismandtheabsenceinthatphilosophyofanyrealconsciousnessof
sinmakinganabsoluteseparationfromChristianity.Yetmanystrikingcoincidencesremain,morebetweenNTandSenecathanbetweenNTandEpictetusorany
otherStoicwriter.Thuswearesurprisedtofindthatthephrasetospendandbespent(2Co12:15)iscommontoSt.PaulandSenecaandthisisonlyoneoutof
manyparallels.Theconnexion,however,isprobablynotbetweenthetwowritersdirectlynoryet(ashasbeensuggested)throughSenecasbrotherGallio,the
proconsulofAchaia,whowasthelastpersonlikelytohavebeeninterestedinSt.Paulsdoctrine(Ac18:17).ButprobablytheApostle,educatedpartlyatTarsus,a
greatStoiccentre,imbibedinhisyouthmanyStoicphraseswhichwefindrepeatedintheHispanoLatinSeneca,whoderivedhisStoicismfromtheEast.Ifso,we
noticethatSt.Pauloftenassignedquiteanewandamuchhighermeaningtothesephrases.InthesamewaySt.JohndrewonAlexandrianJudaismfortheword
Logos,butassignedtoitahighersensethaniteverhadbefore.TheinfluenceofStoicphilosophyonSt.PaulmaybeseeninthespeechatAthens(wheremany
Stoicswerepresent),containingasitdoesaquotationfromtheStoicAratus(Ac
17:28alsofoundintheStoicCleanthes).AnexampleofastrikingwordwhichcomesintoChristianityfromStoicismisconscience.Wearenothereconcerned
withthecoincidencesmentionedabovebetweenSenecaandtheotherNTwritersbuttheexplanationintheircaseisprobablysimilartothatjustgiven.
4.InfluenceoftheRomanEmpire.Ithasalreadybeenremarked(2:3)thatSt.PaulwasgreatlyinfluencedbyhispositionasaRomancitizen,towhichhe
owedhisgreatplanofevangelization.ThesamethingmaybeincidentallyseenfromtheallusionstothelawoftheEmpireinthespecialforminwhichitwasin
forceintheparticularprovincetowhichhewaswriting.TheGreeklawwasleftinpossessionbytheRomansinthoseprovinceswhereithadformerlybeenin
force.AccordinglyinGal.3:15thereferenceistotheformoftestamentarydispositionknowntotheGreek(andtotheolderbutobsoleteRoman)law,the
irrevocablewill.InGal4:1ff.theadoptionofanheir,likethemakingofawill,isirrevocable,theadoptedheirbecomingnecessarilyason,andthetermsheirand
sonbecominginterchangeable.IntheexistingRomanlawwillswererevocableandheirscouldbedisinheritedaccordingly,writingtoRome(Ro8:15ff.),St.
PaulputsthetruthofwhichhehadwrittentotheGalatiansinadifferentway.Heirshipisnowdeducedfromsonship,whereasinGalatianssonshipisdeducedfrom
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sonbecominginterchangeable.IntheexistingRomanlawwillswererevocableandheirscouldbedisinheritedaccordingly,writingtoRome(Ro8:15ff.),St.
PaulputsthetruthofwhichhehadwrittentotheGalatiansinadifferentway.Heirshipisnowdeducedfromsonship,whereasinGalatianssonshipisdeducedfrom
heirshipforatRomeasonmustbeanheir,butanheirneednotbeason(cf.He9:15ff.whichpresupposesRomanlawandtherevocabilityofawill).SoinGal
3:24,1Co4:15thepedagogueortutor(notschoolmaster)isareferencetoaGreekinstitutionadoptedbytheRomansthispersonwastheguardianofthe
child,oftenoneoftheupperslaves,whotookhimtoschool.Theguardianofthechildsproperty(Gal4:2)wasadifferentperson.Onthewholesubjectsee
Ramsay,Galatians,pp.337393.
5.Christianteachers.InGal.St.PaulinsistssomuchonhisApostleshipbeingDivine,notonlyinitssourcebutinthechannelbywhichitisconveyed
(esp.1:1),andonhisnothavingreceivedanythingfromtheTwelve(2:8),thatatfirstsightitseemsasifhedescribeshimselfashavingbecomeafullyinstructed
Christianinamoment,onhisconversion.YethemusthavelearnedmuchfromChristiansbothbeforeandafterthatgreatchange.Hewasclearlymuchinfluenced
byStephen,withwhomhehadperhapshadarguments(Ac6:9noteCilicia,Paulsprovince).AfterhisconversionhemusthavelearnedthefactsofChristianity
fromChristianteacherssuchasAnaniasatDamascus,andtheprophetsandteachers(especiallyBarnabas)atAntioch(Ac13:1),andnodoubtalsoatTarsus.Ofthis
instructiontherearesometracesinthePaulineEpistlesthefactsoftheLastSupper,thoughreceivedoftheLord(1Co11:23),musthavecomebyahuman
channelandsotheaccountoftheResurrectionappearances(1Co15:3).Ontheotherband,St.PaulascribestodirectrevelationfromGodhisknowledgeofthe
spiritualmeaningofthefacts(Gal1:12)hisvisionsarefrequentlyreferredto(Ac9:3ff.,16:6f.,9,18:9,22:3ff.,17,23:9,11,26:13ff.,1Co9:1,15:8,2Co12:1ff.,
Gal2:2,Eph3:3)hewasdirectlytaughtofGod.
InsuchwayswasSt.Paulpreparedforhiswork.Hiseducationwasmanifold.PartlytheJew,partlytheGreek,partlytheRomancitizen,butwhollythe
Christian,hewentforthequippedforhismanylaboursastheApostleoftheGentiles.
A.J.MACLEAN.
PAULUS,SERGIUS.ProconsulofCyprusatthetimeofthevisitofPaulandBarnabasinthefirstmissionaryjourney(Ac14:7).ThetranslatorsoftheAV
alwaysusethetermdeputywhenspeakingofaproconsul.TheprovincesoftheRomanEmpireweredividedintotwoclasses,governedrespectivelyby
proprtorsandproconsuls.StrabodescribesCyprusasgovernedbyaproprtor,andhencesomehaveimpugnedtheaccuracyoftheauthoroftheActsbut
thereisampleevidencetoshowthatitwassometimesunderoneandsometimesundertheother.AcoinhasbeendiscoveredinCyprusbearingtheinscriptionin
thetimeofPaulus,proconsul.ThisinscriptionmayprobablybedatedA.D.55,whenitssubjectwouldbetheproconsulofActs.PlinyinhisNaturalHistorygives
SergiusPaulusashisauthorityforcertainfacts,andamongthesearetwospeciallyconnectedwithCyprus.
MORLEYS TEVENSON.PAVEMENT.SeeGABBATHA.
PAVILIONisformed(throughFr.pavilion)fromLat.papilio,whichmeantabutterfly,andalso(fromtheresemblancetoabutterflysoutspreadwings)a
tent.Pavilionisthetr.inAVofskinPs27:5,andofsukkahin2S22:12,1K20:12,15,Ps18:11,31:20(towhichRVaddsJob36:29andIs4:5forAV
tabernacle).sukkahisoffrequentoccurrence,andisoftenrenderedboothortabernacle,oncetent(2S11:11).Besidesthese,shaphrurinitssingle
occurrence(Jer43:10)istr.royalpavilion(RVmglitteringpavilion).RVhasalsogivenpavilioninNu25:8,withmg.alcoveforAVtent.Itispossiblethat
theHeb.qubbahinthispassageisamistakeforchuppah,nuptialtent.
PE.TheseventeenthletteroftheHebrewalphabet,andassuchemployedinthe119thPsalmtodesignatethe17thpart,eachverseofwhichbeginswiththis
letter.
PEACE.FromLatinpax,throughFrench.1.ExceptinDn8:25,11:21,24(whereRVcorrectstosecurity),theOTpeacerepresentsuniformlytheHeb.
shlm(Easternsalaam),thefundamentalsenseofwhichalwaysmoreorlessdistinctlyimpliediswelfare(asinGn43:27,Ps73:3etc.)ofwellbeing,inthe
oldturbulenttimes,peacewastheprimecondition.Thewordhasthefollowingspecificreligioususes:(1)itisthecommonformulaofcourteouswellwishing,
employedbothatmeetingandatparting(seeGn43:23,1S1:17,Ps122:7f.cf.Mt10:12f.)(2)peaceconstitutedthemostconspicuousblessingofthe
MessianicKingdomofGod(wh.seecf.Ps72:3,7,Is2:4,9:57,11:59,Hag2:9,Zec9:10)and(3)itsignifiedasoundandsettledunderstandingbetweenJand
Hispeople(Nu6:26,Ps29:11,85:8ff.,122:6,Jer16:5etc.)henceJscovenantofpeaceislodgedwithHispriests(Nu25:12,Mal2:4f.).Inthislastandrichest
usethewordapproximatestoitssubjectiveNTsignification,implyingtranquillityofheart,asinPs4:8,119:155,Is48:18,22.
2.Thetransition,fromOTtoNTusagestrikinglyillustratestheinwardnessofChristianity.Outofsome90NTinstancesofpeacetherearenotmorethan8or9
whichdonotrefertoheartpeace.TheGreekeirninitspropersensesignifiedpeacestrictly,astheoppositeofconflictbutittookover,firstintheLXXandthen
intheNT,thebroaderimportofshlm,whichisconspicuousinthe(Hebraistic)Benedictions(seeMk5:34,Lk7:30,24:36,Jn14:27,Ja2:16etc.)andinthe
epistolarySalutations.Inthelatterformul,peacecomprehendsthesumofblessingexperienced,asgracethesumofblessingbestowed,fromGodinChrist.
TheMessianicpeace(1(2),above)reappearsinLk1:79,2:14,Mt10:34andthepeaceofharmonywithGod(1(3))inJn16:33,Ac10:36,Ro8:6,15:33,Ph4:733/144
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TheMessianicpeace(1(2),above)reappearsinLk1:79,2:14,Mt10:34andthepeaceofharmonywithGod(1(3))inJn16:33,Ac10:36,Ro8:6,15:33,Ph4:7
etc.Theusesjustnamedaregatheredup,withadeepenedsense,intothespecificNTdoctrineofpeace,ofwhichPaulistheexponent,andRo5:1theclassicaltext
(cf.v.10,also2Co5:1821,Eph2:1318,Col1:20seearticleonJUSTIFICATION):peacewithGodthroughourLordJesusChrististhestateandtheexperience
ofthosewhohavebeenreconciledtotheFatherthroughthesacrificeofferedbytheSonofHislove,whosetrespassesareforgivenandinwhoseheartthe
spiritofadoptiondwells.ReconciledtoGod,menarereconciledtolifeandtheworldbyHiscrossChristhasslainatablowtheenmitybetweenGodandman
andbetweenraceandrace(Eph2:18).
PeaceonearthistoflowfromthepeaceofChristthatrulesinChristianhearts(Col3:15).
G.G.F INDLAY.
PEACEOFFERING.SeeS ACRIFICEANDOFFERING,12.
PEACOCKS.1.tkkyym,1K10:22,2Ch9:21.ThewordmayhefromtheTamiltokeimeaningpeacock,butfromthefactthattheLXXhasin1K10:22
carvedstones,andthatin2Ch9:21thewordisomitted,thetr.isdoubtful.Thepeacock(Pavocristatus)isanativeofIndia.2.rnnm,AVtr.inJob39:13
peacock.SeeOSTRICH.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
PEARL.ReferencesinOTareuncertain.InJob28:10gbshisinAVtr.pearls,butinRVcrystal,whilepnnminsameverseisinAVtr.rubies,hutin
RVmpearls.InEst1:6darshouldperhapsherenderedpearlormotherofpearl.InNTpearls(Gr.margaritai)arementionedinMt7:8,13:45f.,1Ti2:9,Rev
21:21.Thelastref.mustbetomotherofpearl.PearlsareapathologicalproductionofthemolluscAvicula.margaritifera.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
PEDAHEL.TheprinceofNaphtall(Nu34:28).
PEDAHZUR.ThefatheroftheprinceofthetribeofManasseh(Nu1:10,2:20,7:54,59,10:22).
PEDAIAH(Jhasredeemed).1.FatherofJoel,rulerofManasseh,westoftheJordan,inthetimeofDavid(1Ch27:20).2.OfRumah,fatherofZehudah
themotherofJehoiakim(2K23:35).3.SonofJeconiah(1Ch3:15),in1Ch3:19calledthefatherofZerubhabel,who,however,isotherwiserepresentedasthe
sonofPedaiahsbrotherShealtiel.4.AmanofthefamilyofParosh,whorepairedthewallofJerusalem(Neh3:25).5.OneofthosewhostoodbyEzrawhenhe
readtheLawtothepeople(Neh8:41Es9:44Phaldeus),perhapsidenticalwith4.6.ALevite(Neh13:18).7.ABenjamite(Neh11:7).
W.F.BOYD.
PEDIAS(1Es9:34)=Ezr10:35Bedeiah.
PEEP.Topeep(Is8:10,10:14)istocheepasnestlingsdo.RVmistakenlyhaschirp.
PEKAHwasoneofthelastkingsofIsrael.Thecountrywasunsettled,andtherewasgreatdiscontentonaccountoftheheavytributepaidtoAssyria.Pekah
madehimselftheorganofthedissatisfaction,andmurderedhiskingPekahiah(2K15:25).Heneededthehelpofonlyfiftysoldiersorbravostoaccomplishhis
purpose.OnceonthethronehesetonfootamovementagainsttheAssyriansinwhichallthekingdomsofSyriaweretounite.WhenthekingofJudahheldout
againstit,PekahandRezininvadedthatcountry,asissetforthintheart.AHAZ.TheAssyrianswerepromptinmeetingthecoalition,andtheissuecanhardlyhave
beendoubtful,excepttothosewhowereblindedbypatriotism.ThefallofDamascuswasfollowedbytheravagingofthedistrictsofIsraelnorthandeastof
Samaria,andthetransportationoftheirinhabitantstoremoteportionsoftheempire.Thecapitalwouldnodoubthavebeenbesiegedhadnotthepartyfriendlyto
AssyriagottheupperhandandremovedPekahbytheusualmethodofassassination(v.30).Theleaderinthismovement,Hosheabyname,hadanunderstanding
withtheAssyrianking,andwasperhapsfromthefirstacreatureofhis.AbjectsubmissiononhispartsavedSamariaforthetimebeing.ThelengthofPekahsreign
isgivenastwentyyears,whichisdifficulttoreconcilewithotherdataatourcommand.Thetrueperiodcannothavebeenmorethanfiveyears.
H.P.S MITH.
PEKAHIAH,sonofMenahem,waskingofIsraelforashorttimeinthetroubledperiodwhichprecededthefallofSamaria.Therecordtellsusnothingabout34/144
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PEKAHIAH,sonofMenahem,waskingofIsraelforashorttimeinthetroubledperiodwhichprecededthefallofSamaria.Therecordtellsusnothingabout
himexceptthathedispleasedJahwehbywalkinginthesinsofJeroboamI.,andthathewasassassinatedbyPekah,oneofhisofficers(2K15:2328).
H.P.S MITH.
PEKOD.ProbablytheBab.Pukdu,apeoplesettledinLowerBabylonia,possiblyofAramanrace(Ezk23:23,Jer50:21).Theirseatwasnearthemouthof
theUknuRiver.
C.H.W.JOHNS.
PELAIAH.1.AsonofElioenai(1Ch3:24).2.ALevitewhohelpedEzratoexpoundtheLaw(Neh8:7[1Es9:48Phalias]),andsealedthecovenant(Neh
10:10).
PELALIAH.Apriest(Neh11:12).
PELATIAH.1.Aprinceofthepeople(Ezk11:1)hediedastheprophetdeliveredhismessage(v.13).ItisdifficulttodecidewhetherPelatiahsdeathisto
beunderstoodasactualormerelysymbolical.2.AgrandsonofZerubbabel(1Ch3:21).3.ASimeonite(1Ch4:42).4.Asignatorytothecovenant(Neh10:22).
PELEG.AdescendantofSheminthefourthgeneration,accordingtothetableofpeoplesgiveninGn10.InLk3:35hestandsagenerationfurtheroff
throughtheinterpolationofCainanfromtheLXX.Theetymologyofthenameisuncertain.Itsreferencemaybegeographical,orracial,or,asthewordmeans
ordinarilyawatercourse,itmaydenotealandcutupbystreams.
W.F.COBB.
PELET.1.AsonofJahdai(1Ch2:47).2.ABenjamitechiefwhojoinedDavidatZiklag(1Ch12:3).
PELETH.1.SeeP ALLU.2.AJerahmeelite(1Ch2:33).
PELETHITES.SeeCHERETHITESANDP ELETHITES.
PELICAN(qath,prob.fromroottovomit).Oneoftheuncleanbirds(Lv11:18,Dt
14:17)inhabitingtheruinsofNineveh(Zeph2:14,whereAVhascormorant),anddesolateIduma(Is34:11).ApelicaninthewildernessisreferredtoinPs
102:3.Ifinthesetwolastgathisreallypelican,Itisapoeticalandconventionalreference,forthisbirdshabitatisalwaysnearpoolsofwaterortheseathe
creaturesattitudeafteraplentifulgorge,whenhesitswithhisheadsunkonhisbreast,issupposedtosuggestmelancholy.InPalestinetwospeciesareknown,of
whichthewhitepelican(Pelicanusonocrotalus)isplentifulinthemoreretiredpartsoftheJordanlakes,especiallyintheHuleh.Itisnearly6feetfromheaktoend
oftail,andisremarkablechieflyforitspouch,inwhichitcollectsfishforfeedingitselfanditsyoung.TheotherspeciesisP.crispus,theDalmatianpelican.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
PELONITE.AdesignationappliedtotwoofDavidsheroes(1Ch11:27,35).FortheformerseeP ALTITE.InthesecondcasePeloniteisprob.ascribalerror
forGilonite.
PEN.SeeWRITING,6.
PENCIL.SeeARTSANDCRAFTS,1LINE,6.
PENDANTS.SeeAMULETS,ORNAMENTS,2.
PENIEL.SeeP ENUEL.
PENINNAH.ThesecondwifeofElkanah(1S1:2f.).
PENKNIFE.MentionedonlyinJer36:23.Orientalsuseareedpeninwriting,andalwayscarryaknifeforthepurposeofmendingit.
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PENKNIFE.MentionedonlyinJer36:23.Orientalsuseareedpeninwriting,andalwayscarryaknifeforthepurposeofmendingit.
PENNY.SeeMONEY,6,7.
PENSION.OnlyAVof1Es4:56(AVmportionsofland,RVlands).ThisarchaismisfirstfoundintheGenevaversion,andisusedintheoriginalsenseof
payment(Lat.pensio).
PENTATEUCH.SeeHEXATEUCH.
PENTECOST,FEASTOF
1.IntheOT.TheofferingofabarleysheafduringtheFeastofUnleavenedBreadopenedthereapingseason,whichlastedofficiallyfor49days,aweekof
weeks.Onthe50thdaytookplacetheFeastofPentecost,alsocalledtheFeastofWeeks(Ex34:22,Dt16:10),theFeastofHarvest(Ex23:16),andtheDayof
Firstfruits(Nu28:26).Itthustookplaceattheendofthereapingseason,whenallthewheatandbarleyhadbeencutandgathered,andmarkedespeciallythe
terminationofthewheatharvest(wheatbeingthelastofthecerealstoripeninPalestine).Thefestivalwasheldatthecentralsanctuary(Dt16:11),whitherthe
peoplewereexpectedtorepairforthecelebrationitcannot,therefore,haveexistedbeforethesettlementinCanaan.
ThepropermethodbywhichtocomputethedateofPentecostwasamatterofcontroversy.InLv23:11theterminusaquoisgivenasthedayaftertheSabbath
duringtheFeastofUnleavenedBread.InChriststimetheJewsunderstoodthistomean16thNisan,treatingthefirstdayofUnleavenedBreadasaSabbath,sinceit
wasadayofholyconvocation.OnthiscomputationPentecostwouldfallon6thSivan(June).ButsometheoristsmaintainedthattheSabbathreferredtowasthe
ordinarySabbathduringthedaysofUnleavenedBread,wheneveritchancedtofall.Theobjectiontothisviewwasthatif14thor21stNisanwasaSabbath,the
sheafwavingwouldoccuroutsidetheUnleavenedBreadfestival,ofwhichitcertainlyappearstoformapart.Anyhow,whateverbethecorrectinterpretationofthe
disputedpassageinLev.,theJewsusuallycelebratedthesheafwavingon16thNisanandPentecoston6thSivan.
Thefeastwasprobablyoriginallyanaturefestival,fixedinlatertimesataspecifieddate.ItalwaysretaineditsagriculturalcharacterinBiblicalages,butsome
laterRabbinicalwriterstreateditalsoasacommemorationofthedeliveryoftheLawonSinaianeventwhichwassupposedtohavetakenplace50daysafterthe
Exodus(Ex19:1),thoughthisideaisnotfoundinPhiloorJosephusandthefactthatthereadingoftheLawintheSabbaticalyeartookplaceattheFeastof
TabernaclesandnotatPentecost,pointstothelateoriginofthistradition.
Thefestivallastedforoneday(thoughthelaterJewsallowedtwodaysforit,becauseintheDispersionitwasdifficulttodetermineaccuratelythePalestinian
month)itwasadayofholyconvocation,andnoservileworkmightbedone.TwoleavenedloavesofwheatenflourwerewavedbeforetheLordtwoyearling
lambswerealsowavedasapeaceofferingsevenlambs,onebullock,andtworamswereofferedasaburntoffering,andonekidofthegoatsasasinoffering(Lv
23:1721).InNu28:27theburntofferingsaregivenastwobullocks,oneram,andsevenlambs.These,perhaps,weresupplementarytotheofferingsprescribedin
Lv23,wherepossiblyonlythesacrificesconnectedwiththeloavesarespecified.Lv23:22alsoprescribesfreewillofferingsforthepoorandthestranger,whilstDt
16:10,11ordainsafreewillofferingforthesanctuary,andstatesthatthefestaljoyistobesharedbyallclasses.Itisprobablethatthislatterofferingisreferredtoin
Dt26:211,andtheformofconfessionandthanksgivingtheredictatedwassousedatthisperiod.
2.IntheChristianChurchPentecostwastheoccasiononwhichtheoutpouringoftheHolySpiritoccurred(Ac2).ThepresenceofmultitudesatJerusalem
showsthegeneralityoftheobservancewhichtheJewspaidtothisfeast.ItbecameoneoftheChurchsgreatfestivals,astheanniversaryofthespiritualfirstfruits
procuredthroughJesusChristssacrifice.Bythecloseofthe2ndcent.itwasestablishedasanoccasionofChristianrejoicing.Nofastingorkneelinginprayerwas
allowedduringitsduration,anditwasespeciallyusedasaseasonforbaptisms.UndertheolddispensationPentecosthadbeendistinctlyconnectedwiththeFeast
ofUnleavenedBread.SoinChristiantimesitsdependenceonthePassoversacrificeofChrist,whichledtothegiftoftheHolyGhost,isunmistakable.
A.W.F.BLUNT.
PENUEL(once,Gn32:30,Peniel).AplaceE.ofJordan,andneartheJabbok,atwhichJacobwrestledwiththeangel(Gn32:24ff.),andsaid(v.30)tobe
calledPeniel(orPenuel),i.e.
FaceofGod,becauseJacobsaid,IhaveseenGodfacetoface,andyetmylifeispreserved.(ThementionofthefaceofGodin33:10makesitpossiblethat
anotherexplanationoftheoriginofthenameistherealludedto.)Therewas,however,inPhnicia,alittleS.ofTripolis,aheadlandcalledTheouprospon,Gods
faceanditisthoughtbysomescholarsthatPenuelreallyderiveditsnamefromsomeprojectingrockinwhosecontourafacewasseen.Penuelismentionedalso
inthehistoryofGideon,asaplacewithastrongtowerorcastlewhichGideondestroyed(Jg8:8,9,17)itmaybeinferredfromthispassagethatPenuelwasalittle
E.ofSuccoth(v.6),andalsoonahigherelevation(wentup,v.8).Manyyearslater,PenuelwasfortifiedbyJeroboam(1K12:25)sothatitmusthavebeena
placeofsomestrategicimportance.ThesiteisnotmorecertainthanthatofSuccothseeunderS UCCOTHsomeaccountofthedatauponwhichitssettlement
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placeofsomestrategicimportance.ThesiteisnotmorecertainthanthatofSuccothseeunderS UCCOTHsomeaccountofthedatauponwhichitssettlement
depends,andasuggestionforit.MerrillidentifiesPenuelwithTulledhDhahab(thehillsofgold,socalledfromtheyellowmetalliferoussandstoneofwhich
theyarecomposed),twoconicalhills,about250ft.high,roundwhichtheJabbokwinds,about6milesE.ofDeirAll(whichMerrillidentifieswithSuccoth),up
thevalley,withancientruinsonthetopandConderIdentifiesitwithJebelOsha,amountain3597ft.high,withafineview,8milesS.oftheJabbok.Buttoeach
oftheseidentificationstherearegraveobjections:asregardsMerrillssite,itisexpresslydeclaredbyothertravellersthatthebanksoftheJabbokformanymiles
aboveTulledhDhahabareonbothsidessoloftyandprecipitousastoaffordnowayforeithertheMidianitesorGideontopassalongthem(seeExpT.xiii.[1902]
457ff.,ormorebrieflythewritersGenesis,p.300ff.).
S.R.DRIVER.
PEOPLE.ThisisthetranslationusedinAVforalargenumberofHebrewandGreekterms.Insomecasesambiguityoccurs,asthepl.peoplesisnotusedin
AVexceptinRev10:11,17:15.ThuspeopleisusedsometimesofthepeopleofIsrael,andoftenofheathennations.RVusespeoplesfreely,andthismakesthe
meaningmuchclearerinsuchpassagesasPs67:4,Is55:4,60:2etc.(seeart.NATIONS,alsoprefacetoRV).
AspecialphrasethepeopleofthelandoccursfrequentlyintheOT,especiallyin
Jeremiah,Ezeklel,2K.,and2Ch.Inmostofthesecasesitmeansthegeneralbodyofthepeople,thecommonpeopleasopposedtothecourtiersortherulingclass.
InGn23:7,12,13,Nu14:9thetermisappliedtononIsraelites.IntheBooksofEzraandNehemiahthepeopleofthelandarethehalfheathen,halfJewish
populationwithwhomthelessscrupulousJewsintermarried,butwhowereavoidedbythestricterpartyrepresentedbyEzraandNehemiah(Ezr10:2,11,Neh
10:30,31cf.9:1,Neh9:30).ThesamephrasewasusedbytheRabbistodescribethecommonpeople,whowerelaxinobservingtheMosaiclaw(Jn7:49).
W.F.BOYD.
PEOR.1.AmountainE.oftheJordantowhichBalakledBalaam(Nu23:28).Itlookeddownuponthedesert.TheOnomasticon(s.v.Fogor)placesit7
milesfromHeshbon,aboveLivias,oneoftheheightsoftheNebogroup.CondersuggestsforitthepeakaboveAinelMinyeh,about5milesW.ofMan.Buhl
(GAP)thinksitmaybeetMushakkar,flankedby
WdyHesbnandWdyAynMsa.2.InNu25:18,31:16,Jos22:17,PeoristhegodBaalPeor.3.LXXplacesaPeor(Phagor)inJudahnotfarfromBethlehem,
whichisevidentlythemodernKhirbelFaghr,totheS.ofthetown.
W.EWING.
PERA.ThedistrictcalledbyJosephusthePeraisreferredtoinNTasbeyond
Jordan(Mt4:16etc.).WhenJosephussaysthatitstretchesfromMachrustoPella,andfrom
Philadelphia(Ammn)totheJordan,heprobablygivespoliticalboundaries,excluding
Decapolis(BJIII.iii.3),since(IV.vii.3,6)GadaraiscalledthecapitalofthePera.ThenameseemstohavecoveredtheancientLandofGilead,whatisnow
knownasJebelAjlnandetBetk.ItisperhapsthemostpicturesqueandbeautifulpartofPalestine.Roughmountainheightsrisefromthemidstofwoodedslopes,
whilerichfieldsstretchbetweenanonromanticvalesbreakdownintomightygorges,wherethesoundofrunningwatermakesmusicalltheyear.Theoliveand
vineflourish,andgoodharvestsrewardthehusbandmanstoil.
TheremovaloftheJewsfromthePerabyJudas(1Mac5:45)leftitinGentilehands.Later,theJewsresumedpossessionandcontrol.AlexanderJannusheld
swayfromtheDeadSeatotherootsofHermon.PerawasgivenasatetrarchytoPheroras,thebrotherofHerod(Ant.XV.
x.3,etc.),andlatertoHerodAntipas(XVII.viii.1).FromPera,SimonmadehisillstarredraiduponJericho(XVII.x.6).ItwaspartofthejurisdictionofFelix
(BJII.xii.8).ManassehwasmadegovernorafterthedisastertoCestius(II.xx.4).PlaciduseffecteditsfinalsubjugationtotheRomans(IV.vii.3,6).Itwas
attachedbytheMoslemstotheprovinceofDamascus,SubsequentlyitwasunderKerak.
TheMishnarecognizesthePerathelandbeyondJordanasaprovinceofthelandofIsrael,rankingwithJudaandGalileeonthewest.Ontheborderof
thePeraprobablyJesuswasbaptized.ItwasthesceneofhappyandprofitableintercoursewithHisdisciples(Mt19:1etc.).ItfurnishedtheretreatfromJewish
enmity,whenceHewassummonedbythedistressatBethany(Jn10:40etc.).ThemosthorriblestoryconnectedwiththesiegeofJerusalemisthatofMary,anative
ofthePera(BJVI.iii.4).InthePeratodaytheJewisrepresentedonlybythetravellingtinsmithandthepedlar.ColoniesofCircassiansareturningthesoilto
goodaccount,
e.g.atJerash.AtesSaltthenativespursueaprofitabletradeinraisins,whileinthebarryeh,theuncultivatedparts,thenomadsfindgoodpasturefortheirflocks.
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W.EWING.
PERAZIM(Is28:21)prob.=Baalperazim.
PERDITION.ThewordisusedseveraltimesintheNTintheordinarysenseof
destruction,withspecialreferencetothedestructionofthesoul(Ph1:28,1Ti6:9,He10:39,2P3:7,Rev17:8,11).Itisfoundtwiceinthephrasesonof
perditionaHeb.expressiondenotingcloseconnexionbetweenproductandproducer(cf.sonsofthunder,sonsoflight,etc.).InJn17:12thephraseisapplied
toJudasIscariot,whilein2Th2:3itisusedofthemanofsin,orAntichrist.Inthelattercontextagreatdealofdiscussionhascentredroundthemeaningofthe
reference(seeart.ANTICHRIST).Itwillsufficeheretopointoutthatthephrasein2Th2:3,thesonofperdition,combinedwithcertainpassagesintheApocalypse
(ch.13),pointstoaconstanttraditionintheChristianChurchoftheApostolicAge,whichappears,fromthepassagesalludedto,tohaveconceivednotofaforeign
potentatealientotheChurch,butratherofafalseMessiahwhoshouldbesenttothemthatareperishing(namely,theJews),andwasexpectedtomakehis
appearanceatJerusalem.Thephrasesonofperditionsuggestnotsomuchthepowerofdestructionexerteduponthosecomingunderthesphereoftheevil
influence,astheeffectofwickednessuponthesouloftheindividualtowhomthephraseineachcase,isapplied.
T.A.MOXON.
PERESH.AsonofMachir(1Ch7:16).
PEREZ.SonofJudahandTamar,andtwinbrotherofZarah(Gn38:29in1Es5:5
PharespatronymicPerezites,Nu26:20).HisimportanceconsistsinhisbeingtheancestorofDavidthroughBoazandRuth,andthenofJesusChrist.His
descendantswereinallprobabilitythemostnumerousamongthefamiliesofJudahhencetheblessingoftheeldersonBoazLetthyhousebelikethehouseof
Perez(Ru4:12).AccordingtoGn46:12,Perezhadtwosons,HezronandHamul.FromHezron,accordingto1Ch2,cameJerahmeelandRamandCaleb,and
throughRamwastracedthelineoftheroyalhouseofDavid.
W.F.COBB.
PEREZITES.SeeP EREZ.
PEREZUZZA(H).SeeUZZA,3.
PERFECTION.ThevariousBiblicaltermsconnotingperfectiondifferinshadeofmeaningbetweenwholeness,theattainingofanendorideal,complete
adjustment,fullequipmentinfitnessforanappointedtask.TheyaresparinglyappliedtoGodInOTHisway,work,knowledge,lawareperfect(Ps18:30,Dt
32:4,Job37:16,Ps19:7)inNTthesametermisusedofHiswill,Hisgifts,Hislaw(Ro12:2,Ja1:17,25),whileChristdescribestheFatherinheavenasperfect,
andthereforeasthesourceandpatternofmoralideals(Mt5:48).Thesenseinwhichperfectionisattributedtoorurgeduponmenmustnaturallyvaryaccordingto
themoralconceptionsofthetime.
1.InOT.Inthesharpmoralcontrastswhicharepresentedinthesuccessivekingsof
Judah,rightdoingandloyaltytoJehovahareexpressedinthephraseaperfectheart(e.g.1K8:61cf.11:4,15:3,5).Itisclearfromwhatiscontrastedwiththe
perfectheartidolatry,abominablesinthatthephrasehasregardonlytogeneraltendenciesofreligiousattitudeandmoralconduct,anditsethicaldepthisnot
perhapsgreatlyincreasedbytheadditionwiththeLordhisGod,forinthecaseofAmaziahacontrastisdrawnbetweenthetwophraseshedidthatwhichwas
rightintheeyesoftheLord,butnotwithaperfectheart(2Ch25:2).InasimilarsensethetermperfectisappliedtoNoah,Abraham,andJob:itsmeaningistobe
gatheredfromthesynonymswhicharelinkedwithitrighteousandperfect,perfectandupright,fearingGodandeschewingevil(Gn6:9,17:1,Job1:1,8,
2:8cf.Pr2:21,11:5).ItisnoteworthythatinanumberofpassagesinRVperfecthasdisplacedAVupright,withgreaterfidelityoftranslationbutlittledifference
ofmeaning(e.g.Ps18:23,25,19:13,37:18).
2.InNT.TheideaofmoralperfectioniscarrieduptoanimmeasurablyhigherlevelbythesayingofChristtheclimaxofHiscontrastbetween
evangelicalandPharisaicrighteousnessYethereforeshallbe(imperativalfuture)perfect,asyourheavenlyFatherisperfect(Mt5:48).Thismaybe
regardedasourLordsrestatementoftheOTlaw,Yeshallbeholy:forItheLordyourGodamholy(Lv19:2,cf.11:44),buttheimmediatecontextofthetwo
passagesissufficienttoindicatetheinfinitedifferencebetweentheoldlawandthenew.Infinite,becauseinplaceofpreceptsofritualpuritythereisnowsetup
anabsolutemoralidealintheperfectloveofGod.
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Moralconductmayindeedinvolveobservanceofprohibitionsandpositivecommands,butthemoralitydoesnotconsistintheobservance:itmustcomefirst,asthespringof
action,andwillissueinanobedienceverydifferentfromthatofthecurrentethicalcode.Itisthedispositionthatcounts:alldutyspringsfromalovetoGod,workingfromwithin
outwards,seekingtorealizeitselfinfreeandboundlessaspirationafterHisperfection.HencethecharacteristicthoushaltnotoftheJewishlaw,withitspossibilityofevasion
underseemingcompliance,givesplacetoapositivethoushaltoflimitlesscontent,becauseinspiredbyalimitlessideal(Mt5:1748,7:12,18:21,22).Whenthemancameto
Christwithhiseagerquestionabouteternallife,thoughhecouldclaimtohavekeptallthecommandmentsfromhisyouth,heisbidden,ifhewouldbeperfect,striphimselfof
allworldlypossessionsandfollowChristdoubtlessbecauseonlythroughsuchsacrificecouldhecometodiscernandattainthemoralrealitiesrevealedbysimpledependenceon
God(Mt19:21cf.Mk10:1731,Lk18:1830).ThesimilarquestionofthelawyerismetwiththesameteachingoflovetoGodastheonesourceofthatdoinginwhichislife
Lk10:28).
IntheteachingofSt.PaulthemorallifeoftheChristianisoftendweltupon,andinsomepassagesissummarizedinglowingideals(e.g.Ro12,1Co13,Gal5:22,
Eph3:1419,Ph4:49,
Col1:923,1Th5:1423).OncetheidealiscompressedintoaphrasewhichremindsusofMt5:48,BeyeimitatorsofGod(Eph5:1).Thereisconstant
insistenceonloveasthesupremesourceandmanifestationofthemorallife(Ro12:9,13:819,1Co13)itisthebondwhichbindsallothervirtuesintoperfection
(Col3:14)themotivepoweristobefoundinfaithinChrist,andintheenergiesoftheindwellingSpiritofGod(Ro8:9,2Co5:17,Gal5:24,25,Eph3:20).
ButthoughSt.Pauloftenusesthewordperfect,hehardlyconnectsitwiththeattainmentofthemoralidealinthesenseofMt5:48.Heavailshimselfofa
meaningoftheGreektermasappliedtomen,fullgrown,mature,andusesittomarkadvancefromtheearlierstageofChristianlifeandexperience,atwhich,in
contrast,hedescribesmenasbabes.TohisimmatureCorinthianconvertshewrites,wespeakwisdomamongtheperfectcomplains,Icouldnotspeakuntoyou
asuntospiritual,butasuntocarnal,asuntobabesinChristandbidsthembenotchildreninmind:howbeitinmalicebeyebabes,butinmindbeperfect(1Co
2:6,3:1,14:20).ThesamemetaphorisusedbytheauthorofHebrews(5:116:1),whereperfectandperfectionconnoteaChristianmanhoodwhichcanreceive
andassimilateadvancedChristianteaching.InthelaterPaulineEpistlesthewordimpliesasimilarstressonintellectualmaturity,possiblywithasideglanceatthe
technicalmeaningoffullyinitiatedintotheGreek
mysteries.InprotestagainsttheColossiangnosis,arrogatedbyafew,St.Paul,byunrestrictedteachingofthewholegospeltoeveryman,wouldpresentevery
manperfectinChrist(Col1:28,4:12).So,too,theattainmentoftheidealcorporateunityofallChristiansisexpressedinthephraseuntoaperfect(i.e.full
grown)man(Eph4:18).ItischaracteristicofSt.Paulsthoughtthatthisunityexists(Eph4:35),yetistobeattainedsimilarly,withoutsenseofcontradiction,he
canwriteofhimselfasperfect(Ph3:15),andinthesamecontextasnotperfected(3:12).
ThegreatChristianveritiesthemselves,andalsotheirimplicationforthelivesofallwhobelieve,areconceivedbyhimasequallyreal,yethisassertionofthem
isjoinedwithanappealfortheirrealization(e.g.Ro5:1221,6:111).Thefactsarethere,whatevercontradictionsmayseemtobegiventothembytheimperfect
liveswhich,ifindeedreal,theymightbesupposedtofashionintomorecompleteaccord.Itfollowsthatheisablewithoutmisgivingtosetbeforehisconvertsso
loftyanIdealofmoralperfectionasthatcontainedinthepassagesalreadycited,thegulfbetweenidealandvisibleattainmentbeingbridgedbyhisfaithinthe
spiritualforcesatwork
(Ro7:24,25,1Co1:8,9,Eph3:20,Ph1:6,2:13,4:13cf.1P1:8).Anydoctrine,therefore,ofChristianperfectionmustreckonatoncewithSt.Paulssenseof
itsreality,andatthesametimeofthepresentdifferencebetweenrealandactual.
TheideaofperfectionappearsalsoinJa1:4,thatyemaybeperfectandentire,lackinginnothing(cf.3:2).InHebrewsspecialstressislaiduponthe
perfectingofChristbyHishumiliationandsuffering,notinmoralexcellencebutinfitnessforHisworkofredeemingman(2:10,5:9,7:28)throughhissacrifice
theperfectionunattainableundertheoldcovenant(7:1119,9:9)issecuredforthebeliever(10:14cf.11:40,12:23,13:21).
Theideaofperfectioninthesenseofcompleteadjustmentandequipment(fromadifferentGr.root)occursin1Co1:10,2Co13:11,2Ti3:17.
S.W.GREEN.
PERFUMER.TheOrientallikingforodoriferoussubstanceshasalwaysrenderedthefunctionoftheperfumeranimportantone.ThematerialsusedinBible
timesweregums,resins,roots,barks,leavesandthesewerevariouslycombinedaccordingtotheskillandfancyoftheperfumer.InNeh3:8wereadofaguildof
perfumers.PerfumersoughtineveryinstancetobesubstitutedforAVapothecariesaswellasforconfectionariesof1S8:13.
Cf.art.APOTHECARY.
PERGA.AninlandcityofPamphyliaabout12milesfromAttaliaonthecoast,butpossessingariverharbourofitsownontheCestrus5milesaway.Itswalls
datefromthe3rdcenturyB.C.ItwasthechiefnativecityofPamphylia,andneverseemstohavecomemuchunderGreekinfluence,butithadacoinageofitsown
fromthe2ndcent.B.C.toA.D.276.ArtemisofPergawasthechiefobjectofworship,andsheresembledDianaoftheEphesiansinherritesandimages,being
sometimesrepresentedliketheGreekArtemisasgoddessofthechase,butmoreoftenbyapillarofstone,thetopofwhichwasroundedorroughlycarvedto
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sometimesrepresentedliketheGreekArtemisasgoddessofthechase,butmoreoftenbyapillarofstone,thetopofwhichwasroundedorroughlycarvedto
representahead.HerworshipwasmoreAsiaticthanGreek.Hertempleprobablypossessedtherightofsanctuary.
St.PaulpassedthroughPergatwiceonhisfirstmissionaryjourney.SeeP AMPHYLIA.ButChristianitydidnottakerootthereeasily.Pergaisnotmentionedin
earlymartyrologies.WhentheEmpirebecameChristian,itwastheseatofametropolitanbishop,butaftertheblowsufferedbytheByzantineEmpireatthebattleof
Manzikert,A.D.1071,PergaseemstohavefallenintothehandsoftheTurks.InA.D.1084wefindAttaliamadeametropolitanbishopric,anditistheonly
bishopricinPamphylianow.ThemodernnameofthesiteofPergaisMurtana.
A.E.HILLARD.
PERGAMUM,orPERGAMUS,wasanancientcityofMysia,theseatofanindependentkingdomfromaboutB.C.280toB.C.133,andthecapitalofthe
RomanprovinceofAsiafromB.C.133untilthe2ndcent.A.D.ItlayintheCaicusvalleyabout15milesfromthesea,anditsacropolisrosebetweentwotributary
streams3milesN.oftheCaicus.Asthecapitalofakingdom,Pergamushadacquiredasomewhatfactitiousimportance.Itstoodonnogreattraderoute,andunder
theRomansitslowlylostallbuttheofficialpreeminenceintheprovince.ItskingshadbeenchampionsofGreekcivilizationandarts,anditstillremainedacentre
ofconservativeculture.ButEphesuswasnowthecentreoftrade,anditwasatEphesusthatWestandEastmettogether,creatingamedleyofallphilosophiesand
allreligions.AtPergamusthereweresplendidtemplesofZeusandAthene,wherethesegodswereworshippedintheordinaryGreekway,butothersalsoof
DlonysosandAsklepios.
TheonlyallusiontoPergamusintheNTisintheApocalypse,where(1:11,2:12)itisincludedamongthesevenchurchesofAsia.Themessagetoitspeaksof
PergamusastheplacewhereSatansseatis.Whileitispossiblethatthisreferstoitasthechiefseatofheathenworshipingeneral,itismoreprobablethatitrefers
totheworshipofRomeandAugustus,participationinwhichhadbecomeatestofloyalty,andthereforeafrequentgroundofChristianmartyrdom.Christianswould
bebroughttoPergamusfortrialfromanynorthernpartoftheprovince,andthementionofonemartyr,Antipas,ashavingsufferedtheredoesnotprovethathe
belongedtoPergamus.TheChurchatPergamusischargedwithhavingthemthatholdthedoctrineofBalaam,whotaughtBalaktocastastumblingblockbefore
thechildrenofIsrael,toeatthingssacrificeduntoidols,andtocommitfornicationandalsothemthatholdthedoctrineoftheNicolaitans.Wemustgatherfrom
thisthatadefinitesectionofthechurchatPergamusmaintainedthat,Inasmuchasheathenceremoniesmeantnothing(cf.Co8:4,10:19),theywereatlibertyto
joininidolatrousfeasts,andthustomaintaintheirsocialpositionandjustifytheirloyaltyinthesightofthelaw.Theallusionin2:17toawhitestone,andinthe
stoneanewnamewritten,maybeanallusiontoapracticeofkeepingsecretanewnametakenatbaptisminaplacewhereitwasdangeroustobeknownasa
Christian.FromitsofficialandreligiouscharactertherecanbelittledoubtthatAntipaswasbutoneofmanymartyredatPergamus.
Pergamuswastheseatofabishopric,butitssubsequenthistoryisobscure.ItretainsitsnameintheformBergama.TheGermanGovernmenthasbeenconductingexcavations
onthesitesince1878,andin1901aPergamonMuseumwasopenedinBerlin.ThenameofPergamussurvivesintheword
parchment,i.e.Pergamena.ItissaidthatkingEumenes,thefounderofthelibrary,inventedtheuseofthispreparationofsheepskinorgoatskinforthepurposesofwriting.
A.E.HILLARD.
PERIDA.AfamilyofSolomonsservants,Neh7:57=Ezr2:55Peruda,1Es5:33Pharida.
PERIZZITES.AccordingtothefrequentlyrecurringlistoftheDeuteronomiceditors,oneofthepreIsraelitishnationsofPalestine(cf.Ex3:8,17,23:23,
33:2,34:11,Dt20:17,Jos3:10,24:11).ThePerizzites,however,donotappearanywheredefinitelyinthehistory.BecauseinGn15:20andJos17:15theyare
mentionedwiththeRephaim,somehaveinferredthattheywereoneofthepreSemitictribesofPalestine.IntheJdocumentthePerizzitesarethreetimesmentioned
withtheCanaanites(Gn13:7,34:30,Jg1:4).ThenamePerizzite(inAVandRVof1Es8:69,2Es1:21,andAVofJth5:16Pherezite(s))isinHebrewalmost
identicalwithawordmeaningdwellerinanunwalledvillage,henceMoore(onJg1:5)hassuggestedthattheywereCanaaniteagriculturists,livinginunwalled
towns,andnotaseparatetribe.Thisviewismostprobable.
GEORGEA.BARTON.
PERJURY.SeeCRIMESANDP UNISHMENTS,5.
PERSECUTION.JesusChristfrequentlywarnedHisdisciplesthatpersecutionwouldbethelotofallwhofollowedHim(Jn15:18,20).Sofarfrombeing
dismayedatthis,itshouldbeacauseofrejoicing(Mt5:11,12).TheearlyChurchhadnotlongtowaitforthefulfilmentofthesewords.ThemartyrdomofStephen
wasthesignalforafierceoutburstofpersecutionagainsttheChristiansofJerusalem,bywhichtheywerescatteredinalldirections.SaulofTarsuswasthemoving
spiritinthismatter,until,onhisroadtoDamascustoproceedagainsttheChristiansthere,ChristsfoebecameHissoldier.TheconversionofSaulseemstohave
stayedthepersecution.TheattemptofCaligulatosetuphisstatueintheTempleatJerusalemalsodivertedtheattentionoftheJewsfromallelse.Hencethe
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stayedthepersecution.TheattemptofCaligulatosetuphisstatueintheTempleatJerusalemalsodivertedtheattentionoftheJewsfromallelse.Hencethe
churcheshadrest(Ac9:31).
ThenextpersecutionwasbegunbyHerod,whoputtodeaththeApostleSt.James,andwouldhavedonethesametoSt.Peterhadhenotbeendelivered.
Herodsmotivewasprobablytogainacheappopularity,butthepersecutionwasendedbyhisownsuddenandterribledeath.
Afterthisthehistoryofpersecutionbecomesmorethehistoryofthesufferingsofcertainindividuals,suchasSt.Paul,thoughpassagesintheEpistlesshowus
thatthespiritofpersecutionwasaliveevenifthedetailsofwhattookplacearehiddenfromus(1Th2:14,He10:32,33,1P2:1925).Finally,intheRevelationof
St.John,theseermakesfrequentreferencetothepersecutionandmartyrdomofthesaintsasthelotoftheChurchinallages.
MORLEYS TEVENSON.
PERSEPOLIS.ThechiefcapitaloftheancientkingsofPersia,chosenassuchbyDariusHystaspis(B.C.521486).Imposingruinsstillmarkitssiteabout30
milesnortheastofShiraz.Itisnamedin2Mac9:2InconnexionwiththeunsuccessfulattemptofAntiochusEpiphanestoplunderitstemplesandpalaces.
J.F.MCURDY.
PERSEUS.KingofChittim,i.e.Macedonia(1Mac8:5).HiskingdomwasbroughttoanendwithhisdefeatbytheRomansatPydna(B.C.168).
PERSIA,PERSIANS.ThePersians,whentheyappearedfirstinhistory,werethesouthernbranchoftheIranianswhohadmigrated,inthe10thor9thcent.
B.C.,fromthetablelandofTurkestanwestwardandsouthward.Theywereforlongsubjecttothemorenumerousandpowerfulnorthernbranch(seeMEDES),from
whom,however,theywereseparatedbythecountryofElam,throughtheirsettlementinthedistrictlatercalledPersis,eastofthePersianGulf.SouthernElamthey
acquiredbeforeB.C.600.Theirprince,Cyrus,thesecondofthatnameamongtherulingfamilyoftheAchmenides,threwofftheMedianyokeanddeposedhis
sovereignAstyagesinB.C.550.In545thekingdomofLydiafelltohimbythecaptureofSardisunderitskingCrsus.In539Babylonsurrenderedtohistroops
withoutfighting,afteratwoweekscampaign,andbecamethenceforthoneofthePersiancapitals.ThustheBabylonianempirewasaddedtotheMedoPersian.Cf.
Is13,14,21(whereinv.6ElamstandsforPersia,intowhichitwasincorporatedseeabove)41,4447,Jer50,51.
ThuswasfoundedthegreatestW.Asianempireofantiquity,whosepower,moreover,wasuponthewholeconsistentlyemployedfortheprotectionofthesubject
peoples,includinginthegreatsatrapybeyondtheRivertheHebrewcommunityinPalestinewhichwasreestablishedbythegenerosityofCyrushimself(seeEzra
andNeh.passim).OfthekingswhosucceededCyrustherearenamedinOT,DariusHystaspis(B.C.521486),hissonXerxes(486465,the
AhasuerusofEsther),ArtaxerxesI.(465424).Seethesenamesintheiralphabeticplaces.TothemispossiblytobeaddedCambyses,sonofCyrustheGreat,
madekingofBabylonin538,andthuscorrespondingtothemisnomerDariustheMedeofDn6:1ff.,9:1,11:1.
J.F.MCURDY.
PERSIS.AChristianwomansalutedinRo16:12.
PERSONOFCHRIST
I.CHRISTOLOGYOFTHES YNOPTICGOSPELS.InsobriefanarticleasthepresentnoattemptcanbemadetodetailthestagesintheselfrevelationofJesus,orto
assigneachpartialdisclosure
toafixedperiod.NorisitpossibletoinquirecriticallyhowfarthepictureofJesusintheGospelshasbeencolouredbylaterexperiencesoftheChurch.Accepting
thesubstantialauthenticityofthenarrative,andoftheviewofJesusPersonandteachingitembodies,weareledtoexaminechieflythevarioussignificanttitlesin
whichHisreligiousclaimwasexpressed.
ButwemustglancefirstofallatthehumanportraitdrawnbytheEvangelists.
1.HumanityofJesus.EverywhereintheSynopticsthetruehumanityofourLordistakenseriously.Hisbodilyandmentallifearebothrepresentedas
havingundergoneanaturaldevelopment.Heishungryandathirst,capableofthekeenestsuffering,possessedofasoulandspiritwhichHeyieldsuptoGodin
death.Joy,sorrow,distress,peace,love,angereverywholesomehumanemotionisfeltbyHim.HepraystoGodtheFather,lookinguptoheavenhabituallyin
lowlytrust,forstrengthandguidancetodoHisappointedwork.OutofthesinlessImpulsetouseHispowersinfurtheringanddefendingHisownlifethererose
temptations,notmerelyattheoutsetbutrepeatedlylater,whichinvolvedHiminarealconflict.HeispicturedassharinginthecommonsecularbeliefsofHisage
andcountry.CertainlyHeexhibitsattimesanextraordinarydegreeofpenetrationintothethoughtsofmenbuttospeakofHimasomniscient,whetherinregardto
thepastorthefuture,issimplytodesertoursources(Mk13:32).HeasksquestionstoelicitinformationHefeelsandexpressessurpriseHelookstofindfruitupon
thefigtree,andthereisnone.Sofarfrombeingmanifestationsofomnipotence,HismiraclesaredonethroughfaithinthepowerofGod,thegiftofwhichissought
inprayerandacknowledgedwiththankfulness(Mk7:34,Mt14:19).Finally,itisimpossiblenottofeelthatmosttheologicalattemptstovindicatefortheJesusof41/144
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inprayerandacknowledgedwiththankfulness(Mk7:34,Mt14:19).Finally,itisimpossiblenottofeelthatmosttheologicalattemptstovindicatefortheJesusof
theGospelsadoubleconsciousnessordoublewilltheonehumanandlimited,theotherinfiniteandDivinenotmerelydestroytheunityoftheimpressionHe
makesonus,butarereallyduetoatendency,devoutbutmistaken,tocastbackuponthoseearthlyyearsthegloryoftherisenLord.Thistotallyignoresthe
differenceinJesusstatuswhichtheuniformteachingoftheNTconsiderstohavebeenmadebytheResurrection,whileitalsoobscuresthefactindicativeofthe
vastredeemingsacrificeofGodthatthelifeofJesus,theSonIncarnate,wasalifeintheflesh,adistinctlyhumanphenomenonwhichmovedwithinthenormal
linesofahumanmindandwill.
2.Messiah.ThefirstarticleinthecreedoftheApostlesistheMessiahshipofthecrucifiedandrisenJesusofNazareth.Certainscholarshaverecentlydenied
thatourLordclaimedthistitleforHimselfbutwemayfairlysaythatonsuchtermstheGospelnarrativebecomesachaos.ThetitleMessiah(Christ),familiarto
JewishreligionfromPs2,denotesingeneraltheanointedHeadoftheKingdomofGod,thenewKingofaredeemedpeopleandJesus,retainingtheoutlineofthe
traditionalidea,infusedintoitanewspiritualmeaning,which,asappliedtoHimself,signifiedthatHewasnotanewTeacherorLawgiveroreventheFounderofa
newfaith,buttheBearerandFinisherofdivinelywroughtsalvation.FullconsciousnessofHisMessianicfunctionmusthavecometoHimnotlaterthanHis
baptismthemannerofitscomingisforusinexplicableandatthatcrisisawonderfulbestowaloftheSpiritequippedHimwiththeknowledgeandpower
demandedbythisvocation.HisselfavowalasMessiahwas,however,markedbyasingularreserve.ItfollowedfromHisnovelviewoftheKingdomofGod,asthe
spiritualreignofaFatheroverHischildren(nodoubtineschatologicalperspective),thatHisconceptionofHisownKingshipalsomovedonnovellines.Hencethe
almostinsurmountabledifficultyofrevealingHimselfastheexpectedDelivererwithoutfanningintoflamesuchpoliticalpassionsaswouldhavemademendeafto
Hisgospel.Itisnoticeable,therefore,thatatNazarethHeannouncedHimselfnotasMessiah,butasaprophet(Lk4:18).
WeareprobablyrightinsayingthatSt.PetersconfessionatCsareaPhilippi(Mt16:16)wastheearliestpointatwhichtheMessianicdignityofJesusbecame
theexplicitsubjectofconversationbetweentheMasterandtheTwelvethismaybeinferredwithcertaintyfromthewordingofHisquestionandthejoyHeevinced
atthereply.HegreetsSt.Petersanswerwithextraordinaryemotion,asseeinginitaproofthatthemennearesttoHimhadgainedaclearreligiousviewofthe
meaningofHislifewhileHeisabletocheckanysecularanticipationstheymightalsoformbyatonceaddingthepredictionofHisdeath.Totheworldatlarge,
however,HefirstdeclaredHisMessiahshipwhenarraignedbeforeCalaphas.
OurLordsreplytotheBaptistsmessagefromprison(Mt11:2ff.)givesus,perhaps,ourclearestlookatHisownconceptionoftheMessianicoffice.Butitisto
beobservedthatHedidmuchmorethanmodifytheancientideaethicallyHesupersededitbyunheardofpersonalclaims.JesuswascondemnedbyHisheathen
judgeasausurperofthethrone,bytheJewishtribunalasOnewhopretendedtosuchadignityashadneverbeenconcededeventotheMessiah(Dalman).Hewas
allthattheprophetshadspoken,andmuchmore.ButalthoughHeputintothetitleanimmensityofmeaningwhichburstitsreallimits,andinasenseantiquatedit,
yetthehistoricnameremainstoteachthatthehopesofmentowardsGodhavenotbeenvain,andthatitisthroughapersonalDelivererthatGodsredemption
comes.Furthermore,whiletheideaofasufferingMessiahmaynothavebeenaltogetherunknowntoRabbinicaltheology,itwasJesuswhofirstmadeitcurrent
spiritualcoin.BroodingmeditationontheSufferingServantofIs53maywellhaverevealedHimtoHimself.Itwasinthismodethroughthefeltneedandreality
ofsavingvicarioussorrowthattheconceptionofIsraelsMessiahwassoglorifiedastopassintothatoftheRedeemeroftheworld.But,evenapartfromthis,a
straightlinecanbedrawnfromtheMessianicclaimofJesustothelaterChristologyoftheApostles.WiththerecognitionofJesusastheMessiahtheclosest
possibleconnexionwasestablished,foreverydevoutJew,betweenJesusmessageandHisperson,foritisintheMessiahsactivitythatGodHimselfcomestoHis
people,andtheMessiahwhodoesGodsworkandsitsatHisrighthandhasarighttobeworshipped(Harnack).
3.SonofMan.ThistitleisusedonlybyJesus,andappliedtoHimselfalonetheearliestmentionofitintheSynopticnarrativebeingMk2:10,28.Itis
scarcelyprobable,asDalmaninclinestothink,thatJesusemployeditforthefirsttimeafterSt.Petersconfessionyetatleastthatcrisisdoesmarkanincipient
understandingofitssignificanceonthedisciplespart.ButitwasonlyatHistrial(Mk14:62)thatitsmeaningdawnedonthegeneralmind.ItsabsencefromNT
writingsotherthantheGospels(exceptAc7:56)isintelligibleifweconsiderthathohuiostouanthrpouisaphrasewhich,toanyonebutaJew,wouldrequiretoo
muchexplanationforconvenience.Thevirtualdisappearanceofthetitle,however,provesconclusivelythatitwasnoinventionoftheprimitiveChristianSociety.
IntheSynopticsthenameisfoundonJesuslipsabout40times.Variouswritershavenotedthatthepassageswhereitoccursnaturallydivideintotwogroups,
astheyrefer(a)toJesusworkonearth,andparticularlyHispassion,or(b)tothefinalgloryofHisParousia.Itisobservablethattheratioofapocalypticpassages
isgreaterintheclosingthanintheearliersectionsofthenarrative.
Theultimatesourceofthetitleisnotaquestionoffirstrateimportance,andanyhowitisinsolublebutwearejustifiedinregardingDn7:13asatalleventsitsproximate
source,sinceJesusobviouslyreferstothispassageinHisselfavowalbeforetheSanhedrin.WemustalsobepreparedtoallowfortheinfluenceofPs8andperhapsEzk2:1ff.
WhetherinDn7:13onelikeuntoasonofmandenotestheidealIsraeloranidealizedperson,itishardtosay,buttheexegeticalprobabilitiesaredecidedlyinfavouroftheformer
explanation.LaterJewishthought,however,readthepassageinaMessianicsenseandintheSimilitudesoftheBookofEnoch(probably B. C.9664)theSonofManisa
supernaturalperson,preexistent,and(perhaps)identifiedwiththeIsaianicServantoftheLord.NothingcanbemorelikelythanthatJesuswasfamiliarwiththiscircleofideasand
inpracticallyeverycaseHisuseofthetitleisintelligibleonlyifitdenotesanindividual.RecentlytheargumenthasbeenusedthatthedistinctionexistinginGreekbetweenman
andsonofmancouldnothavebeenexpressedinAramaic,andthatweareconsequentlydebarredfromsupposingthatbytheexpressionJesusmeantmorethansimplymanas 42/144
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andsonofmancouldnothavebeenexpressedinAramaic,andthatweareconsequentlydebarredfromsupposingthatbytheexpressionJesusmeantmorethansimplymanas
suchbutDalman,followedbyDriver,hasputforwardconvincingreasonsfordenyingthis.HencewemayreasonablyassumeboththatJesuscalledHimselftheSonofMan,and
thatHedidsofrequently.
InaskingwhatJesusmeantbythisselfdesignation,weoughttorememberthatagivenexpressionmayhaveonemeaningforthespeakerandanotherforhis
audience.Still,oneortwothingsareclear.ItisquiteunBiblicaltointerpretthetitleasequivalenttotheideaofmanortheidealmanthisconceptionisHellenic
ratherthanJewish,andthoughitisembodiedinthecharacteroftheSonofManasrealizedinJesus,itisnotstrictlypresentinthename.Again,thetermwas
certainlynotmeantbyJesusasadogmaticassertionofHistruehumanityforofthatnoonewasindoubt.Whatwejudgetohavereallyhappenedisthis:takingthe
titlefreelyasgiveninDn7,andpossiblyinfluencedbytheSimilitudesofEnochorkindredideas,Jesusbeganbyusingittomeanspecialorrepresentative
humanityasappointedtotranscendentgloryanddominionbutlaterHedefinedandenrichedthismeaninginasingularwaybyintroducingtheideaofsuffering.
OnHislips,indeed,thenamealwayshadaneducativeaim.Itwas,asitwere,asuggestivemystery,asmuchaproblemasadisclosure.Thetitlewastraditional,yet
itawaitedfinalinterpretationandthisJesusgavebystampingonittheimpressofHimself.Itseducativevaluelayinthis,thatwhileinnosensecanitbecalleda
popularortransparentdesignationoftheMessiahotherwiseJesusquestioninMt16:13ismeaninglessityethintedMessiahshiptothosewhocaredtosearch
deeper.Thus,breakingtheboundsofthepast,JesuspouredintothenameasignificanceofHisown,outstrippingallpreviousMessianicideals,as,e.g.,whenHe
claimedthattheSonofManhadpoweronearthtoforgivesins(Mt9:6||).ItisatitlewhichdenotesthevocationratherthanthenatureofHimwhobearsitandwe
areledtothinkthatJesuschoseitdeliheratelyinordertoveil,foratime,HispersonalclaimtoMessiahship.
AsusedbyourLord,then,thenameSonofManisintrinsicallyaparadox.ItbindsJesustohumanity,yetsinglesHimoutfromothermen.ItpredicatesofHim
alikesupramundanegloryandearthlyhumiliation.Itunitesinitselfthecontrastofanticipationandreality,ofthefutureandthepresent.Yetthisseeming
contradiction,farfrombeingfataltotheinternalcoherenceoftheidea,isreallyconstitutiveofit.ItisjustthroughpresentsufferingandindignitythatHewhoisto
beSaviourandJudgepassestoHisKingdom.TheSonofMan,inthematuremindofJesus,isthePersonwhounitesacareerofutmostserviceandsuffering
withasureprospectoftranscendentglory.AndhereinwetouchatoncethedepthandheightofHisoriginality
(Muirhead).HetrainedthedisciplestograspthisnovelviewofwhatitmeanttobeMessiahandwhentheyatlastunderstoodHim,whattheirmindsdwelton,and
heldfast,asindicatedbythetitlesointerpreted,wasnottheDivineoriginofJesusitwasratherHisDivinecallingandtheDivinedestinythatawaitedHim.For
themSonofManpointedtothefuturemorethantothepast.
4.SonofGod.ThereareseveraloccasionsintheSynopticnarrativeonwhichthistitleisaddressedtoJesuse.g.bythepossessed(Mk3:11),byunbelieving
Jews(Mt27:40),bythecenturion(Mk15:39),andconstructivelybyCaiaphas(Mt26:63)whereitcannothaveanythinglikeitsfullsignificanceforaChristian
mind.ItisatmostonlyasynonymofMessiah.EvenwhenattheBaptismaDivinevoicehailsHimasGodsbelovedSon,thewordsdenotesimplyHisdefinitive
consecrationtotheMessianicoffice,asisshownbytheclearechoofPs2:7.IntheOT,weshouldnote,thetitleSonofGodisappliedtothechosenpeople,to
thetheocratickingwhorulesandrepresentsit,andtotheperfectKingwhoistocome.TheoutersideofthisrelationtoGodconsistedinthepossessionofHis
powerandglorytheInnersidewastheenjoymentofHisloveasitschosenobject.
ItwasontheinnersideofthisrelationthatthemindofJesusdwelt.IntheSynopticrecordsHedoesnotHimselfusethefulltitleSonofGodprobably
becauseitwastoofamiliarasadesignationoftheMessiah.ButthereareindicationsthatthenamewhichHechosetoexpressHisownviewofHisPersonissimply
theSon.Notonlydoesthisformoccurinthreeimportantpassages(Mt11:27,Mk13:32,andpossiblyMt28:19),certainpiecesofindirectevidencealsobearon
thepoint,suchasHisveiledreferencetoHisSonshipintheparableoftheVineyard,HisquestiontoSt.Peterastothetaxingofkingssons,andHisconversation
withthescribesaboutDavidsSonandDavidsLord.Muchmoresignificant,however,isHishabitofnamingGod
myFather(Mt7:21,10:32,12:50etc.and||),aphrasewhich,beyondallseriousdoubt,putsHisrelationtoGodinaplacedistinctlybyitself.St.Lukerepresents
thedawningconsciousnessofthisuniqueSonshipasalreadypresentattheageoftwelve(2:49).
TheclassicalpassagebearingonthispointisMt11:27:AllthingsaredelivereduntomeofmyFather:andnomanknoweththeSon,buttheFatherneither
knowethanymantheFather,buttheSon,andhetowhomsoevertheSonwillethtorevealhim.Hereweoughttonotedistinctlytheunqualifiedassertionthatthe
mutualrelationexistingbetweenFatherandSonisaperfectone.NotonlyistheFathersnatureopentoJesus,withoutthatsenseofmysteryofwhichprophetsand
saintshavealwaysbeenconscious,notonlyistheknowledgewhichJesushasofGodcomplete,final,andunattainablebyothersexceptasmediatedthroughHim
butinlikemannerJesusnatureisopentotheFather,andtoHimalone.HestandstoGodinarelationofintimacysuchasnoothercanshare,sinceeventhosewho
becomethesonsofGodthroughHimaresonsonlyinasecondaryandderivativesense.GodandJesusbelongtogetherinafashiontranscendingmans
intelligencetheirpersonallifeisoneanditisconstitutedbyareciprocalfellowshipinwhichFatherhoodandSonshipareuniquelyperfect.Thisisnotmerelya
newideathenewideaistheexpressionofanewfact.
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WhathasbeensaidisenoughtocastsomedoubtonthecorrectnessofHarnacksfinding.Theconsciousness,hewrites,whichJesuspossessedofbeingthe
SonofGodis,therefore,nothingbutthepracticalconsequenceofknowingGodastheFatherandasHisFather.Rightlyunderstood,thenameofSonmeans
nothingbuttheknowledgeofGod(WhatisChristianity?p.131).ButwearenotjustifiedinconfiningtherelationofSonshiptothesphereofspecialknowledgea
unitywhichisnothingifnotpersonalisnotthustobeloweredtotheplaneofmerecognition.Weareawarethattherewasatimewhenourknowledgebegantohe
butJesusfilialrelationtoGod,sofaratleastasHisownwordssuggest,hadnobeginning,noneatalleventsofwhichHewasconscious.InDalmanswords,it
seemstobenaturallyboundupwithHisperson
for,indistinctionfromeveryoneelse,justasitisbybirththatasonbecomesheir,sotheprospectofuniversalruleandthepossessionofimmediateknowledgeof
GodwereHis.ForJesusmind,aswecanstudyitintheSynoptics,thesecretandoriginofHisownPersonlayhidinGodscreativelove.Sofar,alikeinHisself
disclosureandintheestimateofdisciples,wehavenosignofastrictdoctrineofincarnationoroftwonaturesunitedinonepersonwhatwedohaveisthe
subduingdelineationofOnewho,invirtueofacareerofpatientserviceandofsufferinguntodeath,istheperfectRevealerofGodandthedestinedRulerofthe
world.ButitismadeundeniablyplainthatHisSonshipliftsHimoutofthecontextofsinfulhumanity,andputsHiminarelationtoGodwhichcannotbefully
interpretedbyanyofthegeneralcategoriesofhumanlife.BycallingHimselfSonHedescribeswhatHeisforGodbutHedoessowithoutgivinganyexplanation
ofit,orexplicitlyfollowingitbackwardsorforwardsinitseternalrelations.Notthattheserelationsaretherebydenied,ormadeofnoaccountintheinterpretation
ofthename.AllthattheApostlessayofthepreexistinggloryofChristwithGod,orofcreationasmediatedthroughHisagency,takesaplacequitenaturallyas
partofitsimplicitcontent.ButatfirstJesususedthenametoconveysimplyHisperfectlyfilialhumanconsciousness,asfilled,orratherconstituted,bypersonal
fellowshipandethicalsolidaritywithGod.
ThisconsciousSonshipisforJesusthesupremerealityandinthelightofitHerecognizedfromthefirstwithperfectclearnesstheworkGodhadgivenHimto
do.ItwasnotthatHeknewHimselftobeMessiah,androsefromthistothecertaintythatGodwasHisFathertheconnexionofthetwofactsisjustthereverse.He
isSonofMan,andHeadoftheKingdomofGod,becauseofthestilldeeperconsciousnessthatHeisSonofGod.TherootsofHisvocationareintheuniqueness
ofHisPerson.Yetinthelastresortwecannotseparatethesetwoaspects.Theloftierinthescaleofbeingahumancharacterstands,themoreentirelypersonality
andvocationcoincideandinthecaseofJesusChristthecoincidencewasabsolute.
5.SelfassertionofJesus.Apartfromspecificand,asitwere,technicalmodesofselfdesignation,theSynopticspictureJesusasinmanywaysassumingan
attitudetoGodandmenwhichisscarcelyintelligibleexceptuponapositiveviewofHishigherbeing.Awholeseriesoffeaturespointinthedirectionofthemore
developedChristologyoftheApostles.HewhocouldspeakofHimselfasmeekandlowlyofheartexhibitsalsoanunparalleledloftinessandmajestyofbearing.
Hisdisciples,thecrowdatNazareth,andthepossessedarealikeconsciousofthissingularelevation.ThepersonaltrustandallegiancewhichHeneverscrupledto
askfrommen,puttingevennaturalaffectioninthesecondplace,isyieldedalmostinstinctively.NordoesthesourceoftheimpressionthusproducedlieinHis
miraclesitliesinthefeelingofHissupremeauthority.HespokeuniformlyinthetonesofOnewhohadthekeysoftheKingdomofheaven,andwithwhomit
restedtodeclaretheconditionsofentrance.HeputasidetheancientordinancesoftheLaw.HecalledallthewearytoHimselfforrestmostamazingofall,He
claimedthepowertoforgivesin,andactuallybestowedforgivenessonthesickofthepalsyandthedyingmalefactor.Hisentiredemeanourmakestheimpression
ofperfectacquaintancewiththemindofGodHisthoughtstowardsmen,Hishearingofprayer,thegroundsofHiscondemnationandHispardon.Withapparently
notasingleintervalofdoubt,HeknewHimselftobethechosenOneofGod,bywhosepresencethepowersofevilwerealreadyvanquished,whoshouldredeem
manybyHisdeath,whoshouldrisefromthedeadandcomehereafterwithDivinepowerastheJudgeoftheworld.Itgraduallybecamecleartothedisciplesthat
nocomparisonwasreallypossiblebetweenJesusandthegreatfiguresoftheOT.Noprophethadevercalleduponmentoconfesshisnamenoprophethad
declaredthattherelationofmentohimwoulddecidetheirfinaldestinynoprophethadeversaid:AllthingsaredelivereduntomeofmyFather.ButJesus
repeatedlyputsHimselfforwardastheobjectofsavingfaith,andgivestothosewhotrustHimthesovereignpromisethat,astheygatherinHisname.Hewillbe
presentintheirmidst.ThesearefeaturesoftheSynopticportraitureofJesuswhichitisimpossibletoeliminateandwhiletheydonotamounttoadoctrineofHis
Person,theyinsistondoctrinalinterpretation.Inviewofsuchthingsitisfutiletosayblankly,withBousset,thatJesussimplyplacesHimselfatthesideofordinary
humanity,andreservesforHimselfonlythedistinctionofauniquevocation.Onthecontrary,eveninthefirstthreeGospelsthePersonofJesushasfactorsof
mysteryinitwhichleadthemindtowardstheApostolicdoctrineofHistranscendentrelationtoGod.
6.SinlessnessofJesus.TheNTbeliefinthesinlessnessofJesus,whichwemaysuitablyconsideratthispoint,isnotreallyanaprioridogmathoughas
LambofGodHewasviewedasbeingnecessarilywithoutspotorblemishitisaconclusiondrawnfromconvincingfactsatwhichwehaveaclearlookinthe
Synoptics.Nor,ontheotherhand,isitquiteaccuratetosaythattheNTbidsusregardthesinlessnessofJesusassomethingwhichonlyabelievercangraspor
assentto,andwhich,fromthenatureofthecase,cannotbeestablishedhistorically.Asagainstthis,thereisgreatforceinDr.Forrestsargument(AuthorityofChrist,
p.22ff.),thatevenashistorians,andirrespectivelyofanyjudgmentoffaith,weareboundtoaccepttheApostolicInterpretationofthefacts,sincethefacts
concerningHimmusthavebeensuchastosanctionandnecessitatetheinterpretation.
TheSynopticGospels,itistrue,containnoexpressclaimonJesusparttobesinlesscertainlynothingsostrongasJn8:46.YetwefindtraitsinHisdemeanour
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TheSynopticGospels,itistrue,containnoexpressclaimonJesusparttobesinlesscertainlynothingsostrongasJn8:46.YetwefindtraitsinHisdemeanour
whichrevealHisselfconsciousnessmoreplainlythanevenwordscoulddo.HecalledmentorepentanceHecondemnedtherighteousunsparinglyHepredicted
thatHeshouldonedayjudgetheworldHeurgedconfessionuponHisdisciples,andputtheLordsPrayerupontheirlips:yetHeHimselfneverutteredthecryof
theburdenedconscience,neverspokeonewordofcontrition.
WedonotneedtodefendHimagainstthechargeofharshjudgment(Mt12:34),oralackoffamilyaffection(v.48),oranexcessofpassion(21:12)these,surely,
areintelligiblemanifestationsoffidelitytoHisMessianictask,andithasbeenfitlysaidthattheirfinaljustificationisthatsuchaoneasHeshouldhavedonesuch
thingswithoutanysubsequentregret.ThereallydecislvefactisthatinthematuremindofJesusthereisnotraceofolddefeats,nomemoriesofweakness
overcome,nohealedscars.Itmaybesaid,indeed,thatonemaybesinfulwithoutbeingconsciousofit,butthefamiliardistinctionisinappositeforthemoralpain
ofJesusanswertoPeterssuggestion(Mt16:23)proveswithwhatinfinitesensitivenessHefeltthemovingsofsininanother,sothatHecouldnothavebeen
unconsciousofitspresenceinHimself.Besides,inviewofHisdutytoremoveamistakenimpressiononsuchapoint,Hissilence,wereHeawareoftheslightest
imperfectioninHisownnature,wouldhavebeenanaddedhypocrisy.Finally,oneverypageoftheEvangelistswereaddemandsforperfectobedience,aswellas
promisesofgraceandhelp,whichitwouldhavebeenanenormityforasinfulmantoutter.FromthesefactstheonlypermissibleconclusionisthatJesushadno
experimental,interiorknowledgeofmoralevil.NormayHisparticipationinthebaptismofJohnbeurgedagainstthisforthatwasagreatactofloving
communionwithourmisery,InwhichHeidentifiedHimselfwithsinfulmen,andtookalltheirburdensandresponsibilitiesasHisown(cf.Denney,Deathof
Christ,p.21).Hisrepudiationoftheepithetgood(Mk10:18)hasperplexedmany,andmustcertainlynotbeexplainedawaybut,inthefirstplace,itissurely
obviousthatJesusmeantverymuchwhatthewritertotheHebrewsmeansbythewords(5:8):Helearnedobediencebythethingsthathesuffered.Hewasbeing
madeperfectfromtheoutsettotheendandweseenowthattoattributetoHimtheeternal,changelessperfectionofGodHimselfwouldbetoforgettheethical
conditionsofincarnation.And,inthesecondplace,shouldwehavethoughtmorehighlyofonewhocalmlyacceptedthefacilewordofpraise?Arenotevenwe
painedbycarelesseulogy?
Manyrecentwriters,inviewoftheapparentlynegativecharacterofthetermsinlessness,havepreferredtopredicateofJesusabsolutefidelitytoHisvocation.
Anditistruenotmerelythatthisconceptionbringsoutafactoftheutmostsignificance,butthatseveralNTpassageswhicharecommonlyadducedasproofsofour
Lordssinlessness(e.g.1P2:21,Ph2:7,8,1Jn3:5)maymoresuitablybereferredtotheothercategory.Yettheideaofsinlessnessisnotonewithwhichwecan
dispense.Weneedsometermwhichwillinclude,notmerelyJesusactualfulfilmentofHisDivinecommission,buttheebbandflowofHisinner,spirituallifeand
thesinlessdevelopmentoftheearlyyears.Itistruethatsuchasinlessdevelopmentisincomprehensibletous.Toethicalpsychologyitremainsanundecipherable
mystery.AllwecansayisthatitisbecausenooneeversofeltHisutterdependenceuponGod,andhenceknewhowmuchinGodHehadtodependupon,that,
fromfirsttolast,JesuskeptHisholinesspure(cf.DuBose,GospelintheGospels,ch.13).Whenwethinkouttheideaofsinlessness,however,andconsiderhow
adultmanhoodriseswithorganiccontinuityoutofchildhoodandinfancy,wecanhardlyescapetheinferencethatJesusstainlesslifehadfromthefirstadifferent
personalcontentfromours.Thetheologicalexpressionforthiswouldthenbe,thatinHiscaseDivinitywasthebasisandconditionofperfecthumanity.
7.Virginbirth.IntheGospelsofMatthewandLuketheDivineSonshipofJesusisviewedasbeingmediatedinpartbythebestowaloftheSpiritatHis
baptism,inpartbythesupernaturalcharacterofHisconception.WeightmayjustlybelaidonthefactthatbothEvangelists,divergentastheirnarrativesofthe
conceptionareincertainpoints,agreeinaffirmingthespecialactionoftheHolyGhost.Ontheotherhand,noreferencetotheVirginbirthistobefoundelsewhere
intheNT.ItisnotpresentinGal4:4orRo1:3andfewwouldsaywithWestcottthatthefactofthemiraculousconception,thoughnotstated,isnecessarilyimplied
inJn1:14.Thissilencemight,indeed,haveledmentoaskwhetheranystatementonthesubjectoughtinwisdomtoformpartoftheCreedandyetagain,itwould
beamistaketooverstraintheargumentumesilentio.TheveryfactthattheeternalDivinityofChristcouldthusbeheldandinterpretedwithoutrecoursetotheidea
ofvirginbirthprovesthatthatideadidnotariseasapsychologicallyinevitablereligiouspostulate,andmaythereforeclaimtohavegenuinetraditionbehindit.The
presentwritercanonlysaythattohimsupernaturalconceptionappearsareallybefittingandcredibleprefacetoalifewhichwascrownedbyresurrectionfromthe
dead.ThatanabnormalfactinthesphereofnatureshouldanswertothetranscendentspiritualelementinthePersonofChristisbothaScripturalandaprofoundly
philosophicalthought.Nevertheless,theChristianfaithofmanywillalwaysshrinkfromtheassertionthatvirginbirthisasinequanonofrealincarnation,orthat,
inanyultimatesense,itexplainsthewonderandgloryofJesusPerson.
II.P RIMITIVEAPOSTOLICDOCTRINE.Asrepresentingthisstageofthought,wemaytake,withsomecaution,thediscoursesofSt.PeterinActs,checkingour
resultslaterbycomparisonwithhisFirstEpistle.
1.St.PetersdiscoursesinActs.TheChristologyofthesediscoursesis,onthewhole,extremelysimple.Itwouldhavebeenstrange,indeed,hadthe
ApostolicmindcometounderstandthePersonofChristotherwisethangradually.ThewordsJesusofNazareth,amanapprovedofGodamongyoubymiracles
andwondersandsigns(Ac2:22),aretheearliestPetrinedescriptionofJesus,andtherudimentarynatureofthesuggesteddoctrineischaracteristic.Aparallelto
thisisthelaterverse,fromthesermoninCorneliushouse:GodanointedJesusofNazarethwiththeHolySpiritandwithpower:whowentaboutdoinggood,
forGodwaswithhim(10:38).ThegistofSt.PetersgospelisthatthisJesusisthepromisedMessiah,attestedassuchbywonderfulworks,resurrection,and
ascensiontoglory(2:2224,33,36).HencethenameJesusChristnowappearsChrist,whenitoccursbyitself,beinganofficial,notyetapersonaltitle.The 45/144
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ascensiontoglory(2:2224,33,36).HencethenameJesusChristnowappearsChrist,whenitoccursbyitself,beinganofficial,notyetapersonaltitle.The
ministryofJesusasteacherisscarcelyreferredto,exceptin10:36.ButHisdeath,asDivinelyordainedandforeknown,andaboveallHisdeliverancefromdeath,
withtheexaltationwhichfollowed,arethethemestowhichthespeakerperpetuallyrecurs.
Atendencyhasbeenshown,inviewofthefactthatJesusisthusdescribedasanointedwiththeHolySpirit,astheholyoneandthejust(3:14),andasagreat
prophet(3:22),toinferthattheprimitiveChurchheldamerelyhumanitarianviewofHisPerson.Wehavealreadyconceded,orratherasserted,thatthedoctrineis
rudimentary.SpeciallydeservingofnoteistheeschatologicallightinwhichthewholeisviewedJesusbeingrepresentedasgonemeanwhileintoheaven,thus
affordingtheJewstimeforrepentance,uponwhichwillensueHisreturntoarestoredcreation(3:1921).AllisasyetwithinthelimitsofnationalisticMessianism.
Yetwhenwelookmorecloselythereareclearindicationsofanotherkind.JesushasbeenexaltedtotherighthandofGod,andmadeLordofallthingsHeisthe
giveroftheHolySpirit(2:33)Heknowstheheartsofallmen(1:24)HeistheJudgeofquickanddead(10:42).Heissetforthquitedefinitelyasthethemeofthe
gospelandtheobjectoffaith,fromwhomrepentanceandforgivenesscome.PrayerisfreelyofferedtoHim(1:24,7:59).AgainandagainHisname,i.e.HeHimself
asrevealedandknown,isproclaimedastheonlymediumofsalvation(2:38,3:16,4:12,10:43).Hence,whilenoattempthasyetbeenmadetodefineHisPerson,
theattitudeofbelieverstoHimisquiteclearlyoneoffaithandworship.WecanscarcelyoverestimatethesignificanceforJewsofthisascriptionofuniversal
LordshiptoOnewithwhomtheyhadeatenanddrunk,andofwhosedeaththeyhadbeenwitnesses.
2.TheFirstEpistleofSt.Peter.TheinterestofthisEpistleliesratherinsoteriologythaninthedoctrineofChristsPerson.ThesufferingsoftheCrossare
viewedashavingbeenpredestinedbyGodandforetoldbyprophets,and,inconnexionwiththeatonementaccomplishedthereby,thesinlessnessofJesusas
sacrificialvictimisinsistedon(1P1:19).OnesignificantfactindicatingthewritersfavouriteviewoftheSavioursPerson,isthat,whereasthenameJesusis
nowhereusedbyitself,ChristhasbecomeapropernameanditisnaturaltointerpretthischangeasduetothefactthatthepersonofJesusiscontemplatedbythe
ChristianexclusivelyinHisspecificqualityasMediatorofsalvation(Weiss).Itisadisputedpointwhether1:11inwhichtheSpiritofChristissaidtohavebeen
presentintheprophets,and1:20whichrepresentsHimasforeknownbeforethefoundationoftheworld,doordonotimplyHisrealpreexistence.Thearguments
oneithersidearegiveninthecommentariesthepresentwritercanonlysaybrieflythatthelanguageof1:11appearstohimtobesatisfiedifwetakeittomeanthat
theDivineSpirit,nowsoentirelyboundupwithChristthatitcanbecalledHisSpirit,waspreviouslyactiveintheprophetswhilethewordsforeknownbeforethe
foundationoftheworldnomorenecessarilyinvolvethepersonalpreexistenceofChristthanthewordsHechoseusinhimbeforethefoundationoftheworld
(Eph1:4)demandasimilarconclusionastobelievers.Thusforeknownandpredicted,then,Christhasbeenmanifestedattheendofthetimesforoursakes.InHis
incarnatePersonfleshandspiritaretobedistinguished(3:18)andacarefulinvestigationprovesthatbyspiritismeanttheDivineprincipleinapotencyhigher
thanthatinwhichitdwellsinman,andpossessed,forthatreason,ofaninherentandindestructibleenergyoflife.InAc2:24thegroundofJesusresurrectionis
determinedbyprophecyherethefurtherstepistakenofreferringittothepoweroflifethatwasinHimthroughtheunctionoftheSpiritwhichconstitutedHim
Messiah.WeneednotpauseatpresentontheenigmaofthedescenttoHades(3:19,4:8isitconnectedwithEph4:9and1Ti3:10?),thecluetowhichhasbeen
lostbutatalleventsthewritermeansitasanillustrationofthevictoriousandunparalleledpowersoflifethatdweltinChristevenpriortoHisresurrection,aswell
asofthewonderfulredemptiveefficacyofHisdeath.
TheChristologyof1PeteristhusseentobeslightlymorefullandelaboratethanthatoftheearlychaptersofActsbutitsprimitivecharactercannotbe
mistaken.Still,therearedistincttokensofthespecificallyChristianestimateofJesusPerson.Thus,theSpiritofGodisnamedtheSpiritofChrist(1:11)and
althoughthetitleSonofGodisnotemployed,wefindin13thefulltonedphrasetheGodandFatherofourLordJesusChrist,withaclearimplicationofHis
specialSonship.Thestatement(3:22)thatangelsandauthoritiesandpowersaresubjecttoHimisadeclarationnotmerelyofHisexaltedstate,butofHis
participationintheDivinepower,whoseinstrumentsangelsare.Thedoxologyin4:11equivalenttothatappliedtoGodin5:11ismostnaturallyinterpretedof
Christandin3:15aphrasewhichinIs8:13referstoJehovahisusedofourLordexpressly.
III.CHRISTOLOGYOFS T.P AUL.ThefieldofinquiryforthepurposesofthisarticlewillincludenotonlythefourgreatEpistlesoftheearlierperiod(Rom.,1
and2Cor.,andGal.),butalsotheEpistlesoftheImprisonment.Weshallusethemwithequalconfidence,althoughnowandthenitmaybenecessarytomarka
differenceofaccentinthelaterEpistles.Butif,asappearstobethecase,Ro9:5containsadefiniteaffirmationoftheGodheadofChrist,weshouldhavetotreat
withsuspiciontheorieswhichimplythattheChristologyofPhil,andCol.isconspicuouslyhigherthanwhatpreceded.
MuchinterestattachestothequestionofthegenesisofSt.PaulsviewofChrist.Holsten,followingtheleadofF.C.Baur,arguedformanyyearsthattheApostlesChristology
tookshapepurelyastheresultofalogicalprocessinhismind.Facedbythedeathuponthecross,asaneventinwhichhefeltthewillofGodformanssalvationtoberevealed,St.
PaulyieldedtowhatwasreallyanintellectualcompulsiontoabandontheJewishtheologywhichhehadbeentaught,andtosubstituteforittheconceptionofJesusChristweare
familiarwithinhiswritings.OthershaveheldmorerecentlythatSaulthePhariseewasalreadyinpossessionofacomplexofideasastoasuperhumanMessiahconceivedas
revealerofGodandheavenlyKingwhichowedmuchtomythicalelementsdrawnfromOrientalfaithsandthatthesubjectiveexperiencesofhisconversionledhimsimplyto
identifytheJesuswhomheseemedtobeholdinDivineglorywiththisantecedentnotionofMessiah,andinconsequencetoassertsuchthingsofHimasthatHeexistedbeforethe
worldandsharedinitscreation.HencewemayinfertheChristofSt.PaulhasnothingparticulartodowiththeJesusofhistory(Brckner).Tomakebutonecriticism,boththese
relatedtheoriesmanifestlypresupposethatSt.PaulsvisionofChristonthewaytoDamascushadnoobjectivereality.Butifwefinditanincrediblesuppositionthatamereillusory
processintheApostlesfancyshouldhaveinstantlyrevolutionizedhislife,orthathecouldhavepersuadedtheprimitiveChristiansocietytoaccept,oreventolerate,aviewof 46/144
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processintheApostlesfancyshouldhaveinstantlyrevolutionizedhislife,orthathecouldhavepersuadedtheprimitiveChristiansocietytoaccept,oreventolerate,aviewof
Christsoengendered,weshallnaturallyseekforsomemoresolidbasisandjustificationofhisbeliefs.Andthis,withtheutmostcertainty,wefindinhisactualrelationstothe
glorifiedLord,notmerelyathisconversion,thoughmostmemorablythen,butalsoinhispersonallifeasbelieverandApostle.Itisthisfeature,itsbeingborrowedfromhisown
religiousexperience,thatdistinguishesPaulsideaofChristfromaphilosophicalconception(Somerville).
ThesystemofSt.PaulsthoughtisentirelyChristocentricnotonlyso,hisconceptionofChristisentirelysoteriological.Fromthesavingefficacyofthedeathof
Christ,asthefundamentalcertainty,hemovesontoaninterpretationoftheDivinehumanpersonality.Hewhodiedforallmuststandinauniquerelationto
mankind.TheworkandthePersonalwaysgotogetherinhismind.HiscreedinitssimplestformisthatJesusisLord(1Co12:3,Ro10:9cf.
Ph2:11)andalthoughstarting,liketheotherwritersoftheNT,fromthebeliefthatJesusofNazarethistheMessiah,heatoncetranscendsthecurrentMessianic
idea,andgraspsthesignificanceofJesus,notfortheJewsonly,butforthewholeworld.NowheredoesheemploythetitleSonofMan,andforhimtheKingdom
ofGodisvirtuallymergedinthePersonofJesusChrist.
1.ItmaybetakenascertainthatSt.PaulwasacquaintedwiththeEvangelicaltraditionastoJesusearthlylife.HeappealstothewordsoftheLordasof
supremeauthority.YetnoallusionismadetoHismiraclesortoHiswaysandhabitsamongmen.Hishumanbirth,Hissinlessness,HisinstitutionoftheHoly
Supper,HisdeathbycrucifixionandHisresurrectiononthethirddaytheseandafewmoredetailsarereported.ThetruthisthatSt.Paulsminddweltchieflyon
thedecisiveactsofredemption,andtheblessingswontherebyhenceitisnotsurprisingthatheshouldsaylittleornothingastoJesushumandevelopment.Atthe
sametimetherealhumanityofourLordistohimanaxiom.Jesuswasmadeofawoman,oftheseedofDavidaccordingtotheflesh.Thereisnothinginconsistent
withthisintheremarkableexpression(Ro8:3)thatGodsentHisownSoninthelikenessofsinfulfleshwhichsimplymeansthatthesinfulfleshofmanisthe
patternonwhichChristssinless(2Co5:21)fleshwasformedinHimaloneweseethefleshinperfectrelationtothespirit.Moreover,humannature,asHeworeit
onearth,wasaformofbeingintrinsicallyandunavoidablyinadequatetoHistrueessence.OriginallyHebelongedtoahigherworld,andleftitbyavoluntaryact
indeed,onthewhole,itmaybesaidthatwhatSt.PaulputsinplaceofafulldrawnpictureofJesusearthlyactivitiesisthegreatactoftheIncarnation.Thefactthat
HeshouldhavelivedasmanatallismorewonderfulthananyofHiswordsordeeds.
2.Inadditiontoabodyoffleshandblood,theuniqueconstitutionofJesusPersonincludedspirit,thespiritofholiness(Ro1:4,onwhichcf.Denneysnote
inEGT),whichcompletelydominatedHisnature,andwasnotmerelythepowerenergizinginHislifeintheflesh,buttheactiveprincipleofHisresurrectionfrom
thedead.TothisspiritualbeingSt.PaulwouldprobablyhavereferredforanultimateexplanationofwhathemeantbyChristspreexistence.
3.ThemainreasonforSt.PaulscomparativesilenceastoJesusearthlycareeristhatthePersonwithwhomhewasdirectlyinrelation,habituallyandfrom
thefirst,wastherisenLordofglory.ThisisthestartingpointofhisChristology,anditdeterminesittothelast.TheattitudeisnodoubtcommontotheNTwriters,
butithasbeenaccentuatedinSt.Paulscasebyhissingularhistory,andhispassionatefacultyoffaith.Allredeeminginfluences,whethertheyconcernthe
individualortheworld,andbearonsinordeathorprincipalitiesorpowers,flowdirectlyfromtherisenChrist.ThispreoccupationwithChristasglorifiedis
expressedforciblyin2Co5:16,ThoughwehaveknownChristaftertheflesh,yetnowweknowhimsonomore.ThepresentmajestyoftheLordissomething
otherandbetterthantheearthlylifenowpast.YetagainthecounterstrokealwaysfollowstheExaltedOneisalsotheCrucified,whohasinHimforeverand
evertheredemptorialefficacyofHisdeath.
Wecanhardlyputthefacttoostrongly,thatforSt.PaulsminditwasaftertheResurrectionthatthemanifestedBeingofChristtookonitsfullgreatness.The
classicalpassageonthisisRo1:4:appointed(ordeclared)SonofGodwithpower,accordingtothespiritofholiness,bytheresurrectionfromthedead.The
implicationisthatDivinepower,actingthroughthemediumoftheResurrection,setChristfreefromthelimitationsoflifeonearth,limitationswhichhadpermitted
toHisDivineSonshiponlyareducedanddepotentiatedexpressionhere.InHisexaltationthatSonshipisdisplayedfully.WiththiswemaycomparePh2:9andRo
14:9,thelatterbeingasomewhatremarkablestatement:FortothisendChristdied,andlivedagain,thathemightbeLordofboththedeadandtheliving.Inthese
andallparallelpassagesthetwoideasarecombined:first,thatChristhasascendeduptobeLordoftheworld,assumingthisplaceforthefirsttimeatthe
Resurrection,andstillretainingHishumanitysecondly,thattherewasinHimfromthebeginningthatwhichfullyqualifiedHimforthistranscendentglory.
Itisrewardingtopauseforamomentuponthisconcrete,workingconceptionofJesusChristasitinspiredtheApostlesheroiclife.TheRedeemeristohima
DivineBeing,cladforever,asonthewaytoDamascus,inthegloriousradiancewhichisthemarkofDeity.HehasreachedapositionfromwhichHecanmake
effectualthereconcilingandredemptiveworkachievedinHispassion.HeismorethanHeadoftheChurchHeisomnipotentinthefullestsense.GodhassetHim
faraboveallruleandauthorityandpoweranddominion,andeverynamethatisnamed,notonlyinthisworld,butalsointhatwhichistocome(Eph1:21).Vastas
Hisgloryis,HehasnotyetcometoHisfulltriumphforitisGodspurposeyettosumupallthingsinChrist,thethingsinheavenandthethingsonearth(v.10).
HisswaywillculminateinHisadventatthelast.AndthisroyalLordisnotfaroff,inaccessiblyhighabovebelievers,butratherwithinandbesidethemalways,to
guide,warn,inspire,comfortwithinfinitemightandlovesothatSt.PaulcouldspeakofhimselfasbeinginChrist,ofhislifeasbeingnothisown,butthelifeof
Christlivinginhim,andcouldprayforhisconvertsthatChristmightdwellintheirheartsbyfaith(Gal2:20,Eph3:17).Wereoursubjectthepersonalreligionof
theApostle,muchmorewouldhavetobesaidastohisimmediatecertaintyofChristasalikedwellinginandembracingourspirituallifetheideasofChristinus
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theApostle,muchmorewouldhavetobesaidastohisimmediatecertaintyofChristasalikedwellinginandembracingourspirituallifetheideasofChristinus
andweinhimalternatebuthereitmustsufficetohavenotedthisprofoundandeverpresentmysticalnote.Thepassageaboutthethornintheflesh(2Co12)
showsusthereverentialfellowshipinwhichSt.PaullivedwiththerisenLord,andthenaturalspontaneitywithwhichheprayedtoHim.
WhataretheApostlesreasonsforgivingChristthisDivineplace?(a)ThefirstistherelationwhichHesustainstohumanityasRedeemer,andwhichis
indicatedbythetitleSecondAdam.AsAdamwashead,representative,andtypeoftheracethatderivedfromhim,soChristbydeathandresurrectionisHeadand
Representativeofanew,redeemedhumanity(Ro5).Forhumandevelopmenthasthesetwostages,theearthlyorcarnalandthespiritual.Nowtheoneelementin
theconceptionofChristthatruledthethoughtsoftheApostlewasthatofSpirituality(Somerville).ThespiritofholinessistheinmostanddeepestrealityofHis
ownlife,andofthelifethatemanatesfromHimHeistheorganicHeadofanewspiritualcreation,and,assuch,mediatestomentherenewinggraceofGod.
Manyscholars,notaltogetherunnaturally,holdthatSt.PaulborrowedthisturnofthoughtfromtheJewishHellenicconceptionofapreexistentheavenlyMan,thearchetypal
modelofmanscreation,andthatheaccordinglyconceivedChristashavingexistedasManinheavenpriortoHisbeingincarnate.CertainlywecanperceivethattheApostlewas
acquaintedwiththeseideas.Nevertheless,nodecisiveproofcanbegiventhatheallowedthemtoexerciseanyparticularinfluenceonhisviewofChrist.Atallevents,thisistrueof
theparallelhedrawsbetweenAdamandChristinRo5:12ff.andinthepassageinwhichthisHeavenlyMantheoryhasitschiefsupport,1Cot15:4547,twopointsmaybe
notedwhichlessentheprobabilityofAlexandriandescentfirst,thattheHeavenlyMan,forwhomPhilosdesignationistheFirstMan,isbySt.PaulcalledtheSecondMan
secondly,thattheimportantconcludingphrasethesecondmanisfromheaven,isreferredbymanyofthebestexegetestotheglorifiedLord,thesensebeingthatatHis
resurrectionChristbecamethelifegivingheadofanewrace.ItisallbutincrediblethatthisHeavenlyManidea,whichcanonlybeprovedtoexistinonechapterofoneEpistle,
reallywasthefonsetorigooftheApostlesChristologyandinanycaseitisoutofkeepingwithhisundoubtedascriptionofpersonalDivinitytoJesus.Ontheotherhand,itwas
eminentlynaturalthatJewishtheologyshouldoftensupplytheframeworkofhisargument,orsupplyhimwithtermsbywhichtogiveexpressiontotruthsspringingdirectlyfrom
hisfaithinChrist.Thatfaith,wehaveseen,graspsJesusChristasRedeemeroftheworld,andthereafterproceedstoviewHimreflectivelyassustainingauniquerelationtoGodand
tomankind.
(b)St.PaulssecondreasonforplacingChristsohighisthathebelievesHimtohavebeenSonofGodoriginally,inaheavenlylifepriortoincarnation.The
incidentalfashioninwhichallusionismadetothisfact,astosomethingfamiliartoallChristians,isveryimpressive.Astospecificpassages,wemaynotbeableto
layverymuchweightontheexpression:GodsentforthhisSon(Gal4:4),foritmightconceivablybeusedofonewhocameintotheworldsimplywiththe
commissionofaprophet.Buttheunderlyingideabecomesplainerin1Co10:4,whichaffirmsthattherockwhichfollowedthefathersinthedesert,andfrom
whichtheydrank,wasChristInotherwords,HeisrepresentedashavingpersonallyintervenedinOThistory.Andnodoubtatallispossibleasto2Co8:9:Ye
knowthegraceofourLordJesusChrist,thatthoughhewasrich,foryoursakehebecamepoor,thatyethroughhispovertymightberich,whereitisunmistakably
assertednotonlythatHislifeonearthwaslessgloriousthanHislifeinheaven,butayetmoresublimeideathatHisentranceuponthelowerestateofbeingwas
avoluntaryact.Realpreexistence,i.e.independentandselfconsciouslife,isevenmoredeliberatelyaffirmedinthegreatpassagePh2:511.Hereitisstatedand
theentireappealhingesonthestatementthatbeforeHecameasmanChristwasinpossessionofaDivineformofbeing,andspontaneouslyrenounceditto
assumetheformofaservant.WithoutpermittinghimselftospeculateastothetranscendentrelationsofthepreexistentChristtoGod,St.PaulclearlypicturesHim
asenjoying,inthatpriorlife,thesamekindofbeingasGodenjoys.AndtheethicalmotifofthepassageisthegreatconceptionthatwhileitwasopentoChristsoto
usetheinfinitepowersinherentinHisDivinenatureastocompelmen,withoutmoreado,toworshipHimasGod,Heresolvedtoreachthishighdignityof
Lordshiprecognizedandadoredbythepathofhumiliation,suffering,anddeath.ButwhilewearejustifiedinsayingthatJesuswasconstitutedLordbyHis
exaltation,andthatthiswasinsomesensetherewardofHisselfemptying,wemustavoideverykindoflanguagewhichsuggeststhattoSt.Paultheascensionof
Christwasadeification.ToaJewtheideathatamanmightcometobeGodwouldhavebeenanintolerableblasphemy.Itistobenotedthattheincreasedglory
whichSt.PaulandalltheNTwritersregardaspertainingtoChristafterHisresurrectionhasonlytodowithHisdignity,Histheocraticposition,notwithHis
essentialpersonality.HehassimplybecomeinactualitythatwhichHealreadywassubstantially(Kennedy).
4.Inviewofallthis,itisnotsurprisingthattheApostleshouldascribetoChristapartinthecreatingoftheworldandanoriginalrelationtoman.Thiscomes
outespeciallyintheEpistlesoftheImprisonment,notablyinCol1:1318,ofwhichLightfootgivesthefollowingluminousparaphrase:
TheSonoftheFathersloveinwhomwehaveourredemption,istheimageoftheinvisibleGod,thefirstbegottenofallcreation.ForinHimwereallthingscreated,inthe
heavensandupontheearth,thingsvisibleandthingsinvisibleallthingshavebeencreatedthroughHimanduntoHimandHeisbeforeallthings,andinHimallthingsconsist.
ThisisHewhoistheHeadoftheBody,theChurch.Inbothspheres,thenaturalandthespiritual,Hehasthepreeminence.
Thechiefpredicationswhicharemadehereshouldbenoted:(1)Christistheinstrumentofcreation(2)Hesustainsall(3)allmovesontoHimasgoal.The
wordsinhimwereallthingscreatedoughttobetakenincorrelationtotheseotherclauses,inhimallthingsconsist,andheistheheadofthebody,thechurch
andwhenwetakethemso,theyassertthatChristwasappointedbyGodCreatorofallthingsquathePersoninwhomtheworld,throughtheworkofreconciliation,
nowfindsitsorganiccentre.HisfunctionasCreatorisprolepticallyviewedasconditionedbyHissubsequentworkasRedeemerbuttheexpressionofthethought48/144
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nowfindsitsorganiccentre.HisfunctionasCreatorisprolepticallyviewedasconditionedbyHissubsequentworkasRedeemerbuttheexpressionofthethought
isrenderedwellnighimpossiblebythemysteriousrelationsofeternityandtime.JustaseveninhisconceptionofthepreexistentOne,St.Paulneverlosessightof
thecrucifiedandrisenSaviour,neithercanhethinkofChristasCreatorandSustaineroftheworldexceptashemediatestheideatohisownmindthroughthe
presentcertaintyofChristtheRedeemer.Inaword,the
CreatorshipofChristisneverdweltuponforitsownsake,butalwaysinrelationtoHisSaviourhood.Itisstrikinglysoinaversewhichinvariouswaysformsa
paralleltotheversesjustcommentedon,1Co8:6,TousthereisoneGod,theFather,ofwhomareallthings,andweuntohimandoneLord,JesusChrist,through
whomareallthings,andwethroughhim.Heretheideasofcreationandredemptionareheldandenvisagedtogether,redemptionbeingtheexperimentalideafrom
whichthemindstarts,asitalsoistheexaltedLordwhoisthesubjectofpredication.ItisanoteworthyfactthattherisenChristshouldthusbebracketedwithGod
theFatherinaversewhichactuallyinsistsonmonotheism.
Ontheotherhand,oneofthemostbafflingproblemsofNTtheologyisjustthefactthatSt.PaulshouldcombinewiththeseplainassertionsofChristsDivinity
anumberofstatementsofadifferentcomplexion.NocandidexegetewilldenythatoverandoveragainChristissomehowgivenaplaceinferiortoGod,Hisentire
redeemingWorkandpositionbeingtracedbackdirectlytotheFather.WehavesuchexpressionsasGodsentforthhisSon(Gal4:4),Hethatsparednothisown
Son(Ro8:32),Godhathhighlyexaltedhim(Ph2:9)inwhicheitherthegiftofChristtotheworld,orthebestowalofexaltedgloryonChristHimself,isdeclared
tobeGodsact.Allisaccepted,endured,achievedtothegloryofGodtheFather.Stillmoreexplicitis1Co11:3Theheadofthewomanistheman,andthehead
ofChristisGodandin1Co15:28apassagewhichstrangelytouchedtheimaginationoftheGreekandLatinFathersChristisportrayedasdeliveringupthe
KingdomtoGod,andasfinallysubmittingevenHimselftoahigher,thatGodmaybeallinall.Thesestatements,aswehaveseen,aretobefoundonthesame
pageswhichunambiguouslyaffirmChristsrealDeity.ItmaybethatSt.PaulnowherenamesChristGod,andthat2Th1:12,Tit2:13,andRo9:5mustallbe
otherwiseexplainedyetaverselikeCol2:9inHimdwellethallthefulnessoftheGodheadbodily,assertingthatinChristthereisgivenasaunity,orinorganic
oneness,thewholesumofqualitiesandattributeswhichmakeGodtobeGod,isquitedecisiveastotheApostlesrealbelief.St.Pauldoesnotgiveusmuchhelp,
perhaps,insolvingthisantinomy.QuestionsastotheoriginofChristsbeinginGod,ortherelationofthepersonalenergiesoftheSontothoseoftheFather,did
not,apparently,comebeforehim.ItispossiblyatrueexegesiswhichholdsthatinversesofasubordinationisttendencythesubjectofpredicationisChristviewed
asahistoricperson,theIncarnateMediator,Onewhohasfulfilledonearthacertainvocationforhumanity,and,fromthenatureofthecase,hassubmittedHimself
toGodinthefulfilmentofit.ButthereisatleastasmuchhelpfortheintelligenceintheviewthatwhileacertainsubordinationofChristindubitablyformspartof
NTteaching,wemaystillthinkofHimasbeingoneinnaturewithGod,inthelightofcertainhumananalogieswhichareouronlyguide.Fatherandson,orruler
andsubject,maystillbeofonenature,althoughthereexistbetweenthemrelationsofhigherandlower.
IthasbeenarguedthatforSt.PaultherisenChristandtheHolySpiritarereallyoneandthesame.Thisisahastydeductionfromthefirstclauseof2Co3:17NowtheLordis
theSpiritbutitisatoncerefutedbythesecondclause,whichspeaksoftheSpiritoftheLord,somakingadistinctionbetweenthetwo,aswellasbythethreefoldblessingof
2Co13:14.WhattheApostlemeansbyhisformofverbalidentificationisratherthereligiouscertaintythatJesusChrist,inwhomGodredeemsmen,andtheSpirit,inwhomHe
communicatesHimselftomen,aresoindissolublyboundupinone,actsoabsolutelyforthesameendthroughthesamemeans,thatfromthestandpointofthepracticalissuethey
areseenasmergedineachother.Theyareoneasthefountainandthestreamareone.Christinyou,ortheSpiritofChristinyouthesearenotdifferentrealitiesbuttheoneisthe
methodoftheother(Moberly).
5.TheChristologyofSt.Paul,itoughttobesaidwithemphasis,isbuiltfirmlyonthefoundationoftheprimitivedoctrine.Afterall,hisviewofChrist,asthe
incarnateSonofGod,wasnever,sofarasourknowledgegoes,thesubjectofdenialorcontroversyintheearlyChurchifitwasanadvance,therefore,onthefirst
beliefs,itwassuchanadvanceasnoonefelttobeoutoflinewithwhattheyalreadyheld.ButofcoursehisconceptionoftheLorddoesgobeyondtheprimitive
Christology.InstancesarehisviewofChristinrelationtotheuniverse,alikeinitscreationandinitsmaintenancealso,perhaps,hispermanentconjunction,notto
sayidentification,oftheSpiritofGodwiththeprincipleoflifeandenergythatconstitutesthepersonalityofChrist.Further,wemustallowfortheinfluenceofthe
intellectualcategoriesofhistime,evenuponhisdoctrineofChristsPerson.IdeasborrowedfromJewishapocalypticcomeoutincertainpicturesoftheLords
returnandinthestatementthattherockwhichfollowedtheIsraelitesinthedesertwasChrist,wemayseeavestigeofAlexandriantypology.ThelastAdamis
possiblyaRabbinicalconception.ButatmostthesethingsformpartofthesettingforhispurelyChristianthinkingtheywereamodeinwhichSt.Paulsmind
naturallyexpresseditselftheywereessentialifthetruthhehadgraspedwastobepassedontohiscontemporariesandinthisliestheirabundanthistorical
justification.ItisvastlymoreimportanttonotethattheApostlesprofoundestaffirmationsregardingtheLordJesusChrist,sofarfromhavingfadedinto
obsolescence,stilleludeusbytheirverygreatness.Theyarestillbeyonduswecanbutthrowoutourmindsataninfiniterealityandthebelievingintelligencewill
foreverstriveinvainadequatelytodiscernandexpressallthatSt.PaulsawinChristwhenhewasmovedtosay:Inhimwereallthingscreated,intheheavensand
upontheearth.
IV.THECHRISTOLOGYOFTHEEPISTLETOTHEHEBREWS.ThewriterofthisEpistledevelopshisviewofthePersonofChristasanimpliedpresuppositionofHis
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IV.THECHRISTOLOGYOFTHEEPISTLETOTHEHEBREWS.ThewriterofthisEpistledevelopshisviewofthePersonofChristasanimpliedpresuppositionofHis
priestly vocation. Christ is the Mediator of the new and better covenant (12:24, 9:15, 8:6) and its superiority to the old covenant rests upon the incomparable
dignityoftheEternalHighPriest.
1.ThepicturewhichisdrawnofthehistoricalJesusisfullandintimateindeed,noNTbooksetsforththerealhumanityofourLordwithmoremovingpower.
ParticularincidentsofHislifearereferredto(He2:3,4,5:7,12:2,13:12)andthenameJesusoccurs10times.Hepassedthroughthenormaldevelopmentof
humanlife,andlearnedbysuffering(5:8).TheinfirmitiesandtemptationscommontomanwereHisalso(4:15,aversewhichmeansnotonlythatHeconquered
thetemptation,butalsothatHewasmovedbynosinfulimpulsesofHisown(Weiss)).ElsewhereHissinlessnessisaffirmedcategorically,initsbearingonHis
redeemingwork(7:26).ThehumanvirtuesofJesusarebroughtoutinafashionuniqueintheNT:Hisfidelity(2:17,3:2),Histrust(2:13),Hispiety(5:7).Bythis
courseofexperienceHewasfinallymadeperfect(5:9)notthatatanytimeevilreallytouchedHim,butthatthepotenciesofabsolutegoodnessthatwereinHim
werecompletelyevokedbyamoraldisciplinewhichrenderedHimthegreatHighPriestofhumanity.Nevertheless,Hedoesnot,asman,gainHisperfectunitywith
Godswill,butisrepresentedasbringingitwithHimintotheworld(10:57).Lifeonearth,althoughanimperfectmediumofHishighernature,isahumiliation
demandedbyHisofficeorvocationastheSanctifierofsinners.Heassumedflesh,notmerelytomakeHimselfapprehensible,butinordertosuffer,bytastingdeath
foreverymanandtothebitternessandshameofdeathforJesustherearepatheticallusions(5:7,8,13:12).
2.InspiteofallthisvividportraitureofthehumanityofJesus,thewriterwellnighoutstripsPaulintheloftinessofhisChristology.AswithotherNTbelievers,
hismindstartsfromtheExaltedOne(cf.9:28),whomheconceiveshabituallyasHighPriestwithintheveil,butaPriestwhohassatdownontherighthandofthe
Majestyintheheavens(8:1)andfromthisMessianicdignityhearguesbacktoJesusoriginalnature.In1:2ChristisannouncedastheSonandstatementsare
maderegardingtheSonwhichimplythatHeismorethanman(1:8,whereHeisplainlyaddressedasGod),eternalbothbeforeandafter(7:3),andtranscendently
relatedtoGod(1:3).ThuseternalandDivine,Hewasmadealittlelowerthantheangels(2:9)andittouchesthewritershearttothinkthatincomingintotheworld
theSondidnotstopshortofagenuineparticipationinthefleshandbloodwemortalswear(2:1416).IthasbeenjustlypointedoutthatinHebrewsacertain
metaphysicalcolourhasbeenaddedtotheethicalsenseinwhichtheterm
SonoccursinotherApostolicwritingsalthoughweoughttotakethisdistinctionofmetaphysicalandethicalwithgreatcaution.Still,aproofoftheprimitive
feelingwhichunderliesthewholeisgiveninthefactthatinHebrews,preciselyasintheSynoptics,theSonshipofChristislookeduponasthebasisofHis
Messiahship,foritistofulfiltheMessianicfunctionofsalvationthattheSoncomesintotheworld.
3.AverydifficultquestioniswhetherinthisEpistleSonisappliedtothepreincarnateOne,ortotheincarnateChristonly.Thepassagechieflyindisputeis
1:14.NoonecandoubtthatthewritersmindstartsfromChristtheSon,asknowninhistoryandinHisexaltation,andholdstheserevealingfactssteadilyinthe
foregroundofhisthoughtbutdoeshegofurtherback,andcarrythisSonshipintothepreexistentstate?A.B.Davidsonsays,SonisHischaracteristicname,
describingHisessentialrelationtoGod,arelationunaffectedbychangeofstateandA.B.BruceurgesthattheinterestofmagnifyingChristssacrificerequiresHis
Sonshiptobeofolderdatethanthelifeonearth.Infavourofthisview,despiteweightyargumentsagainstit,isthefactthatthroughoutthethreestagesofHis
existenceChristisrepresentedaspersonallyidentical.ItisprimafacieasSonthatHeissaidtohaveactedasagentofGodinthecreationoftheworlds(1:2),orto
havebuiltthehouseoftheOTdispensation(3:3).Butprobablythepointisonewhichexegesisbyitselfcannotdecideandweoughttonotethatasimilar
unavoidableambiguityobtainsinwhataremoreorlessparallelpassagesCol1:15andJn1:18.
But,atallevents,itisclearthatHebrewsteachestherealpreexistenceofChrist,whetherornotthepreexistentOneisdesignatedbythetitleSon.Itwasthe
reproachofChristthatMosesbore(11:26)asLord,Helaidthefoundationoftheearthinthebeginning1:10)Hecameintotheworldwiththeconsciouspurpose
ofsacrificingHimself(10:5).Littleissaidaboutthepreexistingstate,yetitoccupiesmorespacethaninanyotherNTEpistle.Butthewriteroffersnorationaleof
theIncarnationthereisnopassagecomparablewithPh2:511althoughinoneplaceitispointedouthowclosetheSoncametomenintakingfleshandblood
(2:1416).ThesupernaturalcharacterofHisbeingisinsistedon:Hedidnotcomeoutofhumanity,Hecameintoit.Atthesametime,alldocetismisexcluded
fornotonlyissufferinganddeathrepresentedastheaimofHisentranceuponhumanlife,buttheexperienceofHispassionstillremainsasthegroundonwhichHe
isresortedtobymenasthegreatHighPriest,whohaslearnedsympathythroughsufferings(2:18).
ItisinHiscapacityasSonthatthepriestlyworkofChrist,inwhich,dyingasaman,HeoffersHimselfinandafterdeath,isaccomplished.Soagain,itisthe
essentialbeingoftheSonthatisindicatedwhen,inastrikingexpression(9:14),itissaidthatHeofferedHimselfuntoGodthroughaneternalspiritforthewords
meanthattheSpiritwhichwasinHim,andconstitutedHispersonalbeing,wasindestructiblebydeath,andenabledHimtopursueHishighpriestlyvocationinthe
heavenlysanctuary.Oncemore,strongemphasisislaidontheactivityofChristtheSonforusinheaven,particularlyasIntercessor(7:25,9:24,4:14,13:8)itisas
SonthatHesitsdownatGodsrighthand,theheirofallthings,andMessianicKingasSonthatHecarriesHisofferingbeforethefaceofGodforus,andentersthe
holyplace.Inaword,theSonshipofChrististhecentralthoughtofHebrewsitsuppliesthegroundandpreconditionofHisbeingaperfectSuretyoftheeternal
covenant.
4. AbriefcomparisonwiththeChristologyofSt.PaulisnotwithoutInterest.InboththereisadistinctassertionofChristspretemporalbeing,andHisactivity
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4.AbriefcomparisonwiththeChristologyofSt.PaulisnotwithoutInterest.InboththereisadistinctassertionofChristspretemporalbeing,andHisactivity
increationtheargumentgoingbackfromHispresentexaltationtoHisoriginalnature.InbothChristreachesHisthrone,farabovetheangels,bywayofthecross
andtheideaissuggestedthatattheResurrectionorAscensionChristfirstattainedinstatuswhatHehadalwayspossessedbynature.Inbothreal
DivinityiscombinedwithasdistinctsubordinationthusinHebrewsnotChrist,butGod,isJudge,andtheSonsplaceisnoton,butontherighthandof,thethrone
ofGod(8:1,12:2).Ontheotherhand,certainslightfeaturesofdifferencemaybenoted.InHebrews,ascontrastedwithSt.Paul,Christisdefinitelyrepresentedas
havingtakenfleshandbloodwithaviewtosufferingtheearthlyJesus,ratherthanthepreexistingOneortheglorifiedLord,isviewedasourexamplethe
exaltationbecomesslightlymoreprominentthantheresurrectionthehighpriestlyactivityinheavenfillsalargeplacethemysticalstrainofreciprocalunitywith
Christisabsentnoristhereanysuggestion,asin1Co15:4647,ofatimeyettobewhenthereignofChristshallclose,andbemergedinsomefinaldispensation.
ItisnotimprobablethatthewriterofHebrewshadfelttheinfluenceofthecultivatedJewishthoughtofAlexandria,thatcrucibleofallthecreeds.ButwhilethesystemofPhilo
mayhavepartiallysuppliedhimwithavocabulary,whatappearstobecertainisthatthisdidnotdictatehisuseofit.ThusthetermLogosisnowhereemployedinthePhilonic
sense,norisChristcalledLogosHisregulardesignationrather,wehaveseen,isSon,asgivenbytheOTandChristianusage.Whatfinallyputsoutofcourttheidentificationof
theSonwiththeLogosofPhiloisthattheSonparticipatesinaredeeminghistory,whichisunthinkablefortheother.NoristhereanythinginPhilothatcouldproperlybecompared
withtheHighPriesthoodofChrist.
V.THEAPOCALYPSE.TheChristologyoftheApocalypsepresentsaratherperplexingproblemtothehistoricalcritic.Whateverbethesourcesthatliebehind
thebook,mostscholarsnowregarditasacharacteristicproductofintenselyJewishChristianityandOTandJewishconceptionsoftheMessiaharecertainlythe
foundationuponwhichitsviewofChristisbuiltup.Yet,ontheotherhand,itsChristologyisapparentlythemostadvancedinalltheNT(Bousset),andseemsata
fewpointstopassbeyondthelimitsofPaulinism.
1.AlthoughthebookrepresentstheheavenlyratherthantheearthlylifeofChrist,yetthepersonal,historicnameJesusoccursfrequently.OurLordis
describedastherootandtheoffspringofDavid,andasofthetrineofJudah.PrimitiveChristianthoughtcomesoutinthepictureofHimasrulingthenationswitha
rodofiron(Rev2:27),or,quiteintermsoftheDanielicpassage,asonelikeuntoasonofman(14:14).HeisrepeatedlysetforthineschatologicallanguageHeis
thebrightandmorningstar(22:16),usheringinthedayoffinaltriumph.Hisredeemingworkonthecrossiscompendiouslysummarizedintheprofoundly
significanttitleoftheLamb,whichmayalmostbecalledthewritersfavouritedesignationofHim.
2.YetallmemoriesofhistoryarelostinthehigherviewofChristwhichcentresinHisexaltedglory.ItisnottoomuchtosaythatthestrainofpraisetoChrist
risesfrompointtopointuntil,inHisessentialqualitiesandattributes,HeisfranklyidentifiedwithGod.HeistheLiving
One,whosevictoryoverthegravehasgivenHimthekeysofdeathandtheunderworld(1:18)Hecanunlockthesecretsofhumandestiny(ch.5)witheyesthat
arelikeaflameoffireHesearchesthereinsandhearts(2:18,23).HeisrankedwithGod,notwithfinitebeing,inphraseslikethebeginningofthecreationof
God(3:14cf.Col1:15),theSonofGod(2:18)whonamesGodHisFatherinsomeuniquesense(2:27,3:21Cf.1:6),andtheWordofGod(19:13),thislast
beingintroducedwithmuchsolemnity.ThespecificallyDivinetitletheFirstandtheLast(cf.Is44:6andRev1:8)HeappliesthreetimesdirectlytoHimself(1:17,
2:8,22:13),therebysignalizingHisownPersonasthesourceandendofallthatis.Thisclaimisechoedpassionatelythroughoutthebook.Notwithstandingthe
prohibitionof19:10,allcreationunitestoworshipHim,instrainsofferedelsewheretoGodAlmighty(1:6cf.7:12)andGodandtheLambreceiveunited
adoration(5:13,7:10).Onemeaningofsuchphenomenaisplain.TheyarethemostconvincingproofoftheimpressionmadebyJesusuponHisdisciples,one
whichhadbeensufficienttorevolutionizetheirmostcherishedreligiousbeliefforthemHehadthevalueofGod(AndersonScott).
3.YetevenherethesubordinationistnotewhichisaudibleinotherApostolicwritingsdoesnotfail.ThustherevelationformingthebookwasgiventoJesus
ChristbyGod(1:1)HisauthorityoverthenationsHehasreceivedofHisFather(2:27)andmorethanonce,intheletterstotheChurches,thephrasemyGodis
putuponHislips.Similarly,in3:21and5:9thereappearstheconceptionpresentalsoinPh2:511andJn17:4,5thatourLordsrisengloryistheissueandthe
rewardofHissavingword.InreplytotheargumentthatthisisincongruouswithpreexistentDivinity,Weissremarks,withgreatpoint,thatsofarfromtheassertion
ofHisoriginalDivinenaturebeingneutralizedbythisrepresentationofJesusexaltedgloryasthegiftofGod,theoneisratherthegroundandjustificationofthe
other.
VI.JOHANNINECHRISTOLOGY.1.TheviewofChristpresentedintheFourthGospel,itshouldbenotedattheoutset,isbasedfirmlyuponcommonNTbeliefs.
ThewriteraJewandanApostledeclaresithispurposetoprovethatJesusistheMessiah(Jn20:31),thoughnodoubthewentfarbeyondprimitiveChristian
reflexioninperceivingallthatMessiahshipimplies.Thisinterestiseverywherepresent.ThusinJn1:49NathanaelhailsJesusastheChristonthegroundofHis
preterhumaninsightthewomanofSamariaisledtothesameconclusionandasimilarmovementofthoughtonthepartofthemultitudeisindicatedbytheir
question(7:31):WhentheChristcometh,willhedomoresignsthanthisman?AndtheworkentrustedtoJesusisspecificallyMessianic.Hecomestoraisethe
dead,toexecutejudgment,toconferthegiftoftheSpiritaccordingtotheancientpromise,totaketoHimselfuniversalLordship(3:35,16:15)inaword,toexerta
delegatedbutcompetentauthorityfromabove,suchasnonebuttheMessiahcouldassume.Only,theJewishhorizonhasdisappeared.AllthatJesusisasMessiah,51/144
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delegatedbutcompetentauthorityfromabove,suchasnonebuttheMessiahcouldassume.Only,theJewishhorizonhasdisappeared.AllthatJesusisasMessiah,
Heisforthewholeworld.
2.Itisobservable,further,thatthewriterdeliberatelymakesChristologyhismaintheme.TherelationoftheFathertotheSon,thrownupsoconspicuouslyon
oneoccasioninthe
Synoptics(Mt11:27),nowbecomesthecentralinterest.ThebookopenswithanassertionoftheGodheadoftheSon(Prologue),anditclosesuponthesamenote
(20:28).What,intheselfrevelationofdailylifeandact,theSynoptisthadshownChristtobe,theFourthEvangelistexplicitlyproclaimsanddemonstratesthatHeis
or,aswemayexpressitotherwise,whileMatthew,Mark,andLukeexhibitJesusasMessiah,theGospelofJohngoesastepfurther,anddisclosestheultimate
groundonwhichMessiahshiprests.ChristisMessiah,intheabsolutesenseofthatword,becauseHeistheEternalSon,thepersonal,articulateexpressionofGod,
inwhomtheFatherisperfectlyrevealedandthechangingincidentsofthenarrativearesodisposedastobringout,byavarietyofselectedscenes,boththecontent
ofthisrevelationanditsdiversereceptionbymen.
Astothehistoricalaccuracyofthediscourses,itoughttohesaidthatthereisagrowingconsentamongscholarsthatJesuswordshavepassedthroughthemediumofthe
writersmind,andsomewhattakenthecolourofhismaturethinking.AsHanpthasexpressedit,theteachingofJesushasboundupwithitanauthenticcommentary,showingthat
all,andmorethanall,thetruthwhichSt.JohnandtheChurcharoundhimhadlearnedbythecloseoftheApostolicagewasreallypresentintheteachingofthehistoricJesus.Itis
thusthatwecanunderstandthecomparativeabsenceofgrowthorprogressalikeinJesusselfrevelationandinthedisciplesapprehensionofittotheEvangelistlookingback,the
evolutionaryprocesswasforeshortened(Sanday).HecarriesoutJesusteachingaboutHimselftoitslastconsequenceheviewsit subspecieternitatisbuthedoessowith
unerringperception,foritisremarkablethatwhenweanalyzeaJohanninediscourseintoitssimplestelementsweinvariablycometowhatispresentalsointheSynoptics.This
beinggranted,however,itoughttobeconsideredanaxiomthatthewritersconceptionofChristhadundergonealong,richdevelopment.Influenceswhichmusthaveactedonit
caneasilybeimagined,suchashisdailycommunionwithChristinprayer,thegeneralteachingofSt.Paul,ofwhichhecannothavebeenignorant,andthechallengeofthewistful
religiousquestioningseverywherecurrentintheGrcoRomanworldofhisday.UnlessexperienceissomethingofwhichGodcanmakenouseinconveyingtruthtoman,these
forces,playingonthewritersmemoriesofthehistoricJesus,musthavegonetoevokeaneverfullerappreciationofHissignificanceforhumanity.Hencewemayconcludethatthe
FourthGospelistheworkofonewho,inthelateeveningoflife,wasmovedtocommunicatetomentheintuitionhehadreachedofthepermanentandessentialfactorsinthe
PersonofChristHisuniquerelationtoGodasonlybegottenSon,HisuniquerelationtomenasLifeandTruthandwho,indoingso,hasreallyseizedtheinmostcentreofthe
selfconsciousnessofJesuswithgreaterfirmnessandprofoundertruththaneventheSynopticwriters.
3.TheJohanninepictureofJesusimpressesthereader,fromthefirst,byacertainwonderfulandharmonioustranscendence.Incessupatetdeus,wesay
instinctivelythisisinverydeedGodmanifestintheflesh.Suchafigureisnotofourworldyet,ontheotherband,itwouldbeagravemistaketoconceiveHimas
outoftouchwiththerealitiesofhumanlife.NomisgivingshouldeverhavebeenfeltastothegenuinehumanityoftheChristofSt.John(cf.Burkitt,TheGospel
History,p.233).CanweforgetHiswearinessatJacobswell,HistearsbesidethegraveofLazarus,HisjoyinthefellowshipoftheTwelve,thedarktroublesofHis
forebodingsoul,Histhirstuponthecross?EspeciallydoesHisTealonenessofnaturewithuscomeoutinHisuninterrupteddependenceuponGod,whichis
accentuatedinthemoststrikingway.TheSoncandonothingofHimself,butwhatHeseeththeFatherdo(5:19cf.7:28,8:28,10:37etc.).AgainandagainHe
speaksofHimselfasbeingsentofGod,acommissionedambassadortowhomwordsandworkshavealikebeengiven,whoseknowledgeandpowerare
mediatedtoHimbytheSpirit,whoseeksthegloryofGod,andfindsHismeatanddrinkindoingahigherwill.Hishumandependence,however,isnota
commonplacefactwhichmighthavebeenassumeditreallyspringsoutofthecreativegroundofHisspecialSonship,or,inotherwords,itistheformtakenbythe
EternalSonshipundertheconditionsofhumanlife.ThelifeoftheSoniswhollyrootedintheFathers.Theirreciprocalloveandknowledge,itistrue,are
frequentlyinsistedonyet,althoughtheSonisuniformlydependentontheFather,itwouldheseriouslyuntruetoSt.JohntosaythattheFatherisdependentonthe
Son.Therelationleavesarealsubordinateness,ahumanInferiority,onJesusside.Again,thisdependenceisconceivedingenuinelyethicaltermsitismediatedby
motives,feelings,desires,surrenders,notmechanicallynecessitatedbythepropertiesofaDivinesubstance,orthestiffcategoriesofanapriorimetaphysic.Allthat
JesussaysofHimselfisperfectlyreligiousincharacteritismeanttoexpresspersonalrelationshumanly,andsotoenablehumanfaithtograsptheonlytrueGod
throughJesusChristwhomHehassent.ForSt.John,then,JesusistrulyandperfectlymanwhatdistinguishesHimfromothermenisHisuniquerelationtothe
Father.Theideaofanewbirthfromabove,apreludetounionwithGodindispensableforothers,isnowhereappliedtoHim.
4.JustasintheSynoptics,JesusisdepictedintheFourthGospelasstrivingtofreetheTwelvefromearthlyandpoliticalideasofHispurpose.And,asaresult
ofHiscareandteaching,itdawnsuponthemgraduallythattheboonHeoffersisDivineanduniversal.AnearlystageoftheprocessismarkedbySt.Peters
words:WehavebelievedandknowthatthouarttheHolyOneofGod(6:69)anditisoneproof,outofmany,oftheEvangelistssubstantialaccuracy,thathe
doesnotintroduceatthispointideasoftheEternalSonshipoftheLogos.ButitisasSonthatourLordwouldhavethemknowHim.HeusesthephrasemyFather
30times,onnineoccasionssoaddressingGoddirectlyandatleast17timesHecallsHimselfSonorSonofGod.Wecanhardlydoubtthatwhereverthisterm
SonoccursintheJohannineliterature,itsprimaryreferenceistothehistoricalChrist,knownintherealmofhumanfactanditdenotesHimasholdingtoGoda
relationofuniqueintimacyandlove.Thusinthegreatword1Jn4:10
GodsenthisSontobethepropitiationforoursins,thewriteristhinkingofJesusof
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GodsenthisSontobethepropitiationforoursins,thewriteristhinkingofJesusof
Nazareth,thehistoricMessiah.St.John,however,lovesalwaystogobacktoultimatetruthsandhisGospeloutstripstheothersbytheassertionthatthisrelationof
Sonshipisreallyanteriortotimeandhistory.Jesushaslivedpreviouslyinastateconditionedbypersonalrelationships(17:24)init(sothepresentwriter,with
somehesitation,judges)thepreincarnateOnewasalreadySon,andwasbynaturepossessedofauniqueknowledgeofGodwhichwassomehowcapableof
reproducingitselfinHisearthlyconsciousness(1:18,3:18,32).
TheobjectionhasbeenmadethatthisreducesJesusspiritualexperienceasmantoamereshowyetitissurelypossibletobelievethatJesusknowledgeofGodwas
experimental,asbeingmediatedbytheunmeasuredgiftoftheHolySpirit,withoutdenyingthatitsultimatesourcesaretobefoundinHiseternalbeing.Roommustalwaysbeleft,
nodoubt,forthepossibilitythatwordsascribedtoJesusregardingHisownpreexistence,andspokeninwonderfulhoursofamorethanhumanselfconsciousness,haveundergonea
certainmodificationwiththelapseoftime,inthedirectionofintensifyingtheoriginallightandshade.ItisscarcelycrediblethatJesusshouldhavespokensoplainlyofHispre
temporallifewithGodasthatHismeaningwastransparenttoordinarypeoplethiswouldmakethesilenceoftheSynopticsunintelligible.Itisaltogethermorelikelythatonthis
subject,asonthesubjectofHisMessiahship,Heexhibitedreticenceanddelay.Ontheotherhand,wearejustifiedinbelievingthatHedidutterwords,mysteriousyetsignificant,
which,asponderedbyamindlikeSt.Johns,wereclearlyseentoinvolvepreexistence,notofasocalledidealsort,butrealandpersonal.EvensocarefulastudentasTitiushas
said,IcannotregarditasimpossiblethatthegeneralNTideaofthepreexistenceofChristgoesbacktosayingsofJesusHimself,andthattheJohanninediscoursesespeciallyare
basedonreallyhistoricalmaterial.
5.ThelaststageofJesusclaimtoandinterpretationofthenameSon(ofGod)isgiveninHispredictionoftheglorytowhichHeshouldrise,andofHis
futurepresenceinspiritwithHisfollowers(especiallychapters13ff.).TheprimarymeaningofSonshiphadbeenarelationtotheFatherofuniquelycloseloveit
nowtranspiresthat,asSon,JesusisdestinedtoshareintheFathersomnipotenceanduniversalsway.Inthewords(13:3),Jesus,knowingthattheFatherhad
givenallthingsintohishands,noconvincingreasoncanbeofferedforlimitingallthingstothefunctionofrevelationandredemption,andbarringout
omnipotenceassuch.Besides,theEvangelistisquitefamiliarwiththeideathatJesusisoriginallyLordandPossessorofmen,irrespectivelyoftheirfaithinHim
HecameuntoHisown,andHisownreceivedHimnot.HenceinhisviewtheDivinepowertowhichJesusrisesisnotunsuitedtoHisnature,orgainedby
usurpationitisgivenHimbyGod,foronlysocouldHereceiveanything(3:27),anditanswerstotheglorywhichHehadbeforetheworldwas.Weseethistruth
breakingfullyonthemindsoftheTwelveaftertheResurrectionandthecryofThomas,myLordandmyGod(20:28),marksthegreatdiscovery.Intherisen
OnetheApostlediscernstheVictoroverdeath,theLordofgloryandrealizinginthatmomentofinexpressiblereliefhowinChristhehadallthatJehovahHimself
couldbe,hegraspsHimashavingforfaiththevalue,becausethereality,ofGod.NowhereintheNTistheimplicationmoreclearthatreligiousfaithinJesusChrist
isreallyequivalenttofaithinHisDivinity.
6.ThesegeneralconclusionsarestrengthenedbyanexaminationofthetitleSonofMan,asusedintheFourthGospel.Herealsothenameisputonlyon
Jesuslips.PerhapstheaccentisshiftedslightlyfromHisvocationtoHisPersonthewriteremploysthenameinaccordancewithhishigherviewofourLords
naturetoexpressHispersonaluniqueness.AsintheSynoptics,thetermisundoubtedlyMessianic(12:34)andwhileinthisGospelitisnotputindirectrelationto
theSecondComing,yetitisnoticeablethatthemajorityofpassagesinwhichJesusspeaksofHimselfasSonofManarereferencestoHisexaltation(3:14,8:28,
12:34),orHisglorifying(12:23,13:31),itbeingimpliedthatDivineglorybefitsandstillawaitsHimandthisisalinkwithonesideoftheSynopticrepresentation.
TheotherclassofSynopticpassagesbearingontheworkoftheSonofManhasalsoitsparallelinJohannineverses,whichdescribetheSonofManasgivingmeat
whichendurethtoeverlastinglife(6:27),orattachthepossessionoflifetoeatingHisfleshanddrinkingHisblood,ordeclarethatHemustbelifteduponthecross.
Inpointoffact,however,noappreciabledistinctioncanbedrawnbetweenwhat,intheFourthGospel,ispredicatedoftheSonofGodandoftheSonofMan.Both
areMessianicnames,raised,asitwere,totheirhighestpoweroneexpressingtheoriginofJesusPersoninGod,theotherHishumanaffiliation.Yet,forSt.John,
thetitleSonofManalwaysappearstocarrysomethingofthesuggestionthatforJesusitisawonderfulthingthatHeshouldbemanatall.Thoughinallpoints
perfectlyhuman,heaveniseveropentoHimHeispresentthereperpetually,beholdingGodwithimmediatevision(3:13),andHewillyetascendupwhereHewas
before(6:32).
7.OtherformsofthoughtinwhichthehighernatureofJesusissetforthintheFourthGospelarerichintheologicalimplication.HeistheVineinwhichHis
followersinhereandgrowaslivingbranches(15:1ff.)HeistheResurrectionandtheLife,tobelieveinwhomistoovercomedeath(11:25)HeistheBreadofLife
whichbyfaithmeneat,andlive(6:32ff.).InallsuchutterancesthedistinctionbetweenChristologyandsoteriologyhasvanished.Tosustainarelationofvital,inner
unitywith,andsuffusionof,humansoulsismanifestlybeyondthepowerofanylowerthanGodHimselfandthisisreallythebasalargumentfortheDeityof
ChristwhichwecanseetobeimplicitintheNTasawhole.
8.ThesumandclimaxofthematterandthisquiteirrespectiveoftheLogosidea,towhichweshallcomeimmediatelyisthatGodispersonallyinJesus,
andJesusinGod(10:38).ThesimplestanddeepestwordsintheGospelpointtothis:IandtheFatherareone(10:30cf.17:11,21)Hethathathseenmehath
seentheFather(14:9cf.12:46).Bythesesayingsthemindisledinthedirectionofasimplemodalism,butnotheoryofitisfurnished.TheFathergiven
personallyinJesusistheobjectofsavingfaith.JesusisLifeandLightinasensewhichisabsolute(Jn1:4,9,1Jn5:11).InHimthereisarealadventand
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personallyinJesusistheobjectofsavingfaith.JesusisLifeandLightinasensewhichisabsolute(Jn1:4,9,1Jn5:11).InHimthereisarealadventand
inhabitationofGodHimselfthisfaithiscertainofandunconditionallyassertsyetwhattheontologicalpresuppositionsofitmaybeisaremoteandderivative
question,andeventheLogosidea,whichSt.Johnappliesatthispoint,isnotfitted,perhapsisnotdesigned,totakeusmorethanacertaindistancetowards
theoreticinsight.Noexplanation,nocombinationofcategories,evenanApostles,isabletoplaceuswhereweseethelifeofGodonitsinnerside.Whatas
believerswearesureof,isthatinJesustheGodofheavenandearthispersonallyapprehensible,actuallypresentinhistoryenlighteningoureyesinall
knowledgebecausefirstpossessingusasourinwardlife.ThisisthekeynoteoftheJohannineChristologythefaithoutofwhichtheGospeliswrittenandwhichit
seekstowakeinotherminds,isthatJesusandGodareone.Attemptstodiscreditthisunitybydescribingitasnomorethanaunityofwillaresimplywideofthe
mark.Will,thelivingenergyofpersons,isthemostrealthingintheuniverseitistheultimateformofbeingandthesuggestionthatbehindthewilltheremayliea
stillmorerealDivinesubstance,amoreauthenticregionfromwhich,afterall,Jesusisexcluded,isafigmentofobsoletemetaphysic.Ifitispossibletoexpressin
humanlanguagetheessentialandinherentGodheadofJesusChrist,thethinghasbeendoneintherelevantstatementsofthisGospel.
9.Nevertheless,intheFourthGospel,asintheNTgenerally,thisunitywithGodisviewedasbeingcompatiblewithrealsubordination.MyFatherisgreater
thanI(14:28).In10:35JesusspeaksofHimselfasOnewhomtheFathersanctifiedandsentintotheworld.YetthisisbuttherelationwhichbelongstoFatherhood
andSonshipassuchfor,asLtgerthasexpressedit,thesuperordinationofGodaboveJesusdoesnotconsistinGodsreservinganythingtoHimselfonthe
contrary,HeconveysHimselfwhollytoJesus,makingHimmonarchofthewholeworldwhatitdoesconsistinisthefactthatGodiseverywheretheOrigin,the
Giver,theFoundation,whileJesusistheobedientandreceptiveorganofHispurpose.
10.TurningnowtothePrologue,anditscharacteristicideas,letusnotefirstofallthatthestudyofitcomesproperlyatthispoint,afterwehaveconcludedour
moregeneralsurvey.Aspreface,theProloguestandsfirst,butwemaywellbelievethatitwasthelasttobewritten.TouchingtheoriginofthetermLogos,while
weneednotassertthatSt.JohntookitfromPhilo,yetitisextremelyprobablethattheinfluenceofPhilonicthoughtwenttodecidewhichtermoutofthose
suppliedbytheOTandtheTargums(Wisdom,theSpirit,theWord)heshouldchoose.TheWordhadlongbeenfamiliartotheHebrewmindasdesignatingthe
principleofrevelation,andithadreceivedfromGreekphilosophyacertaincosmicwidthofsignificance.TheEvangelist,itwouldseem,tookitassingularlyfitted
toexpresstomenofthattimetheDivinelightandlifepresentinJesusChristbut,writinginAsiaMinor,hetookitwithoutprejudicetothefullChristianmeaningit
wastobear.Itis,besides,atermwhichmusthavebeeninsomesortfamiliartotheChurchforitisintroducedwithoutcomment.InSt.Johnsuseofit,too,ethical
andsoteriologicalconsiderationsaresupremeLogosreceivesitscolourandatmospherefromthetermSon,asdenotingthehistoricJesus.WhattheApostleis
settingforth,inshort,isnotaGreektheologoumenon,butthetotalimpressionmadebyChristspersonality.AndwhenwerecallhowSt.Paulhadsaidthatall
thingswerecreatedbyChristandforHim(Col1:18),itiseasytoseehowstrongweretheinteriortendenciesoffaithconductingtothisidentificationoftheJesusof
historywiththecreativeWordofGod.
Inv.1threeweightyaffirmationsaremadeastotheLogos:(a)Heexistedfromthebeginning,i.e.eternally(b)HisrelationtoGodwaslivingandpersonalin
character(c)HisplaceisinthesphereofGodhead.Stevens,withaterminologyslightlytoodeveloped,butwithsubstantialaccuracy,saysofthecontentofthis
verse:theauthoraffirmsadistinction,butacommunityofessence,betweentheWordandtheFather.ItisnextassertedthattheLogosisthemediumalikeof
creationandofrevelation,thatHehasauniversalrelationtomen(vv.4,9),thathavingbeenintheworldfromthefirst,butunrecognized,Heisnowcome
personally,andhasgiventoallwhoreceiveHimtherighttobecomechildrenofGod(vv.11,12).
Commentatorsinviteustonotethesolemnfashioninwhichv.14attachesitselfandcorrespondstov.1.TheWordisindeedthesubjectofdiscoursethroughout,but
Hehasnotbeenspecificallynamedintheintervalnow,however,inv.14,theannouncementoftheIncarnationislaid,pointforpoint,alongsideoftheprevious
declarationoftheabsolutebeingoftheWord.Thesimplephrase,theWordbecameflesh,appearstosignifythatHepassedintoanewphaseofbeingaphaseof
humanmortality,weakness,dependencebecomingindividualizedasaman,yetretainingpersonalcontinuitywiththatwhichHewasbefore.
Thesefourstages,then,arediscernibleinthemovementofthoughtinthePrologue:(1)TheWordinHisoriginal,eternalbeing(2)theLordwhocomestoHis
ownasLifeandLight(3)theonlySonoftheFather(4)thefullnameofthePersonbeforetheEvangelistsmindthroughout,JesusChrist.Theseriesisnotstrictly
chronological,butitfollowsawelldefinedgradationofideasandfromthefashioninwhichitends,wecanperceivethatthetermLogosisanancillaryand
theoreticone,secondarilyinterpretativeofJesusasahistoricpersonality,andthat,althoughitstandshereasfirstintheorderofthought,itwaslastintheorderof
the
Evangelistsreflexion.ThePrologue,itisclear,hasnothingtosayastothemodeofIncarnationbutwhenweconnectit,asweoughttodo,withtheGospelto
whichitisprefixed,wecanperceivethemotivetowhichIncarnationisdue,namely,theDivinepurposeofgivingeternallifetoaperishingworld.UnlikeSt.Paul,
however,St.JohnconceivestheadventoftheSon,notasahumiliation,butasameansofrevelation.
11.IntheFirstEpistleofJohntheunityofGodandChristissostronglyfeltthatthetwosubjectsareusedalmostinterchangeablyso,forexample,in5:20.
AgainandagaineverythingisaffirmedtodependonthecomingoftheSonofGodintheflesh,asSaviouroftheworld.Atoneortwopointsweseemtobe
observingthefirstmovementsofadogmaticChristology(2:22,4:3cf.2Jn7).Thewriterischieflyconcernedtoasserttheidentityofthesavingwordoflifewith
JesusChrist,adoceticidealismhavingbegunveryearlytodissolvethebondbetweenthetwo,andtoseeksomeotherpathtofellowshipwithGodthanthatwhich54/144
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JesusChrist,adoceticidealismhavingbegunveryearlytodissolvethebondbetweenthetwo,andtoseeksomeotherpathtofellowshipwithGodthanthatwhich
laythroughthemediationofJesustheMessiah.
VII.CONCLUSION.AswesurveythedifferentviewsofChristsetforthintheNT,thesovereignfreedomwithwhichApostolicbelieverscontemplatedJesus,
andtoldwhattheysawinwritingswhichhavebeenquitetrulydescribedasliterature,notdogma,isinfinitelyimpressive.ThelookedatJesuseachthroughhis
owneyesandtotrytoforcetheirstatementsintooutwardharmonyistotallytomistakethegeniusofChristianfaith.Ontheotherhand,allgraspedinChristthe
realityofapresentGodofgrace,andinthisdecisivefactliesthedeeper,inwardunityofNTdoctrine.ItistemptingtoregardthevarioustypesofApostolic
Christologyaselementsinanadvancingandorganicseries.ThusitmightbeaskedwhethertheSynopticsdonotgiveustheJesusofhistory,andSt.Paultheliving
Christ,whileSt.Johnfusesbothtogetherinanantidoceticway.Itisareasonablequestionfor,sofarasChristologyisconcerned,St.JohndoesbuilduponSt.Paul,
andSt.Pauluponthefaithoftheprimitivesociety.Nevertheless,itisprobablytrueronthewholetothefactsifwethinkofNTmindsasdifferentprisms,through
whichtheonewhitelightofJesusPersonfell,andwasanalyzedintodifferentcolours.
Twocertaintiesarecommontothewriterswithwhomwehavebeendealing:(1)ThatthelifeandconsciousnessofJesuswereentirelyhumaninform(2)that
thishistoriclife,feltandknownaspossessedofaredeemingsupernaturalcontent,issomehowinseparablyonewiththeeternallifeofGodHimself.Again,itis
impliedwhereverthemattercomesup,thatitisoneandthesamepersonalsubjectwhichpassesthroughthethreestagesofpreexistence,historicallife,and
exaltation.Again,wearecertaintogowrongunlesswenotethattheNTisguided,initsChristologicalpassages,bywhatisreallyasoteriologicalinterest.Dr.
Dalesquestion:WhatmustChristsrelationtomenbeinorderthatHeshouldbeabletodieforthem?isentirelyfaithfultotheApostolicattitude.ThePersonofthe
MessiahmustbeofaqualitythatanswerstoHisfunctionasRedeemeroftheworld.AlltheChristologyoftheNT,asKhlerhasjustlysaid,isbutthestatement
ofthepresuppositionsandguaranteesofthatwhichbelieversmayhave,shouldhave,andactuallydohave,forfellowshipwithGod,intheCrucifiedandExalted
One.ThechiefproblemwhichtheNTbequeathedtodogmatictheologyisthatofthinkingoutandconstruingtointelligencetwothingswhichtheApostlessimply
putsidebysidethetrueDeityofJesusChristandHisrealsubordinationtotheFather.Itliesbeyondthescopeofthisarticle,however,tofollowtheprobleminto
thePatristicandlaterages.
H.R.MACINTOSH.
PERUDA.SeeP ERIDA.
PESTILENCE.SeeMEDICINE,p.598b.
PETER.SIMON,surnamedPeter,wasthecoryphusoftheApostlechoir(Chrysostom).HisfatherwasnamedJonahorJohn(Mt16:17,Jn1:42,21:15
17RV).HebelongedtoBethsaida(Jn1:44),probablythefisherquarterofCapernaum(Bethsaida=Fisherhome).Therehedweltwithhiswife,hismotherinlaw,
andhisbrotherAndrew(Mk1:2831=Mt8:14,15=Lk4:38,39).HeandAndrewwerefishermenontheLakeofGalilee(Mt4:18=Mk1:18)inpartnership
withZebedeeandhissons(Lk5:7,11,Mt4:21).
SimonfirstmetwithJesusatBethanybeyondJordan(Jn1:28RV),thesceneoftheBaptistsministry(vv.3542).HehadrepairedthitherwithotherGalilns
toparticipateinthemightyrevivalwhichwasinprogress.JesuswasthereandAndrew,whowasoneoftheBaptistsdisciples,havingbeendirectedbyhismaster
toHimastheMessiah,toldSimonofhisgladdiscovery,andbroughthimtoJesus.Jesuslookeduponhim(RV)withthoseeyesoffarperceptionandthelook
masteredhimandwonhisheart.Hewasadisciplefromthathour.Jesusreadhischaracter,seeingwhathewasandforeseeingwhatthedisciplineofgracewould
makehimandHegavehimasurnamepropheticofthemoralandspiritualstrengthwhichwouldonedaybehis.ThouartSimonthesonofJohn:thoushaltbe
calledCephas.CephasistheAram.=Gr.Petros,andmeansrock.HewasnotyetPeter,butonlySimon,impulsiveandvacillatingandJesusgavehimthenew
nameerehehadearnedit,thatitmightbeanincentivetohim,remindinghimofhisdestinyandincitinghimtoachieveit.Inafterdays,wheneverhedisplayedany
weakness,Jesuswouldpointedlyaddresshimbytheoldname,thusgentlywarninghimthatheshouldnotfallfromgrace(cf.Lk22:31,Mk14:37,Jn21:1517).
PresentlytheLordbeganHisministryatCapernaum,andamongHisfirstactswasthecallingoffourofthemenwhohadbelievedinHimtoabandontheir
worldlyemploymentsandattachthemselvestoHim,followingHimwhithersoeverHewent(Mt4:1822=Mk1:1620,Lk5:111).Thushebegantheformation
oftheApostleband.ThefourwereJamesandJohn,
SimonandAndrew.Theywerebusywiththeirboatsandnets,andHecalledthemtobecomefishersofmen.ItwasthebeginningofthesecondyearofJesus
ministryereHehadchosenalltheTwelveandthenHeordainedthemtotheirmission,arrangingtheminpairsformutualassistance(Mk6:7),andcouplingSimon
PeterandAndrew(Mt10:2).
ThedistinctionofPeterlieslessinthequalitiesofhismindthaninthoseofhisheart.Hewasimpulsive,everardent,everleapingbeforehisfellows
(Chrysostom),andoftenspeakingunadvisedlyandincurringrebuke.This,however,wasonlytheweaknessofhisstrength,anditwastheconcomitantofawarm
andgenerousaffection.IfJohn,saysSt.Augustine,wasthedisciplewhomJesusloved,PeterwasthedisciplewholovedJesus.Thisqualityappearedonseveral 55/144
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andgenerousaffection.IfJohn,saysSt.Augustine,wasthedisciplewhomJesusloved,PeterwasthedisciplewholovedJesus.Thisqualityappearedonseveral
remarkableoccasions.(1)InthesynagogueofCapernaum,afterthefeedingofthefivethousandatBethsaida,JesusdeliveredHisdiscourseontheBreadofLife,
fullofhardsayingsdesignedtotestthefaithofHisdisciplesbyshatteringtheirJewishdreamofaworldlyMessiah,atemporalKingofIsrael,arestorerofthe
ancientmonarchy(Jn6:2265).Manywereoffended,andwentbackandwalkednomorewithhim.EventheTwelvewerediscomfited.Wouldyealsogoaway?
HeaskedanditwasSimonPeter,themouthoftheApostles(Chrysostom),whoanswered,assuringHimoftheirloyalty(vv.6669).(2)Duringtheseasonof
retirementatCsareaPhilippiinthelastyearofHisministry,Jesus,anxioustoascertainwhethertheirfaithin
HisMessiahshiphadstoodthestrainofdisillusionment,whethertheystillregardedHimastheMessiah,thoughHewasnotthesortofMessiahtheyhadexpected,
puttotheTwelvethequestion:WhodoyesaythatIam?AgainitwasPeterwhoansweredpromptlyandfirmly:ThouarttheChrist,fillingtheLordsheartwith
exultantrapture,andprovingthathehadindeedearnedhisnewnamePeter,therockonwhichJesuswouldbuildHisChurch,thefirststoneofthatlivingtemple.
PresentlyJesustoldthemofHisapproachingPassion,andagainitwasPeterwhogaveexpressiontothehorroroftheTwelve:Beitfarfromthee,Lordthisshall
neverbeuntothee.Evenhereitwaslovethatspoke.TheSinaiticPalimpsestreads:ThenSimonCephas,asthoughhepitiedHim,saidtoHim,Beitfarfrom
Thee(Mt16:1823=Mk8:2733=Lk9:1822).(3)AweeklaterJesuswentuptotheMountwithPeter,James,andJohn,andwastransfiguredbeforethem,
communingwithMosesandElijah,whoappearedinglory(Mt17:18=Mk9:28=Lk9:2836).Thoughawestricken,PeterspokeLord,itisgoodforusto
behere:ifthouwilt,Iwillmakeherethreetabernaclesoneforthee,andoneforMoses,andoneforElijah(Mt17:4RV).Itwasafoolishandinconsideratespeech
(Mk9:6,Lk9:33),yetitbreathedaspiritoftenderaffection.Hisideawas:Whyreturntotheungratefulmultitudeandthemalignantrulers?WhygotoJerusalem
anddie?Stayherealwaysinthisholyfellowship.(4)WhenJesuswashedthedisciplesfeetintheUpperRoom,itwasPeterwhoprotested(Jn
13:69).HecouldnotbearthattheblessedLordshouldperformthatmenialofficeonhim.(5)AtthearrestinGethsemane,itwasPeterwho,seeingJesusinthe
graspofthesoldiers,drewhisswordandcutofftheearofMalchus(Jn18:10,11).
TheblotonPeterslifestoryishisrepeateddenialofJesusinthecourtyardofthehighpriestspalace(Jn18:1217cf.Mt26:6975=Mk14:6672=Lk
22:5462).Itwasaterribledisloyalty,yetnotwithoutextenuations.(1)Thesituationwasatryingone.ItwasdangerousjustthentobeassociatedwithJesus,and
Petersexcitableandimpetuousnaturewaspronetopanic.(2)ItwashisdevotiontoJesusthatexposedhimtothetemptation.HeandJohnweretheonlytwowho
ralliedfromthepanicinGethsemane(Mt26:56b)andfollowedtheircaptiveLord(Jn18:15cf.Mt26:58=Mk14:54=Lk22:54).(3)Ifhesinnedgreatly,he
sincerelyrepented(Mt26:75=Mk14:72=Lk22:62).Alookofthatdearfacesufficedtobreakhisheart(Lk22:51).(4)Hewascompletelyforgiven.Ontheday
oftheResurrectionJesusappearedtohim(Lk24:34,1Co15:5).Whathappenedduringthisinterviewisunrecorded,doubtlessbecauseitwastoosacredtobe
divulgedbutitwouldcertainlybeasceneofconfessionandforgiveness.TheLordhadallthewhilehadHisfaithlessdiscipleinHisthoughts,knowinghisdistress
ofmind(cf.Mk16:7)andHehadthatsolitaryinterviewwithhimonpurposetoreassurehim.
AtthesubsequentappearancebytheLakeofGalilee(Jn21)Peterplayedaprominentpart.OndiscoveringthatthestrangeronthebeachwasJesus,impatientto
reachhisMaster,hesprangoverboardandswamashore(cf.hisactioninMt14:2831).AndpresentlyJesuschargedhimtomakegoodhisprotestationofloveby
diligentcareoftheflockforwhichHe,theGood
Shepherd,haddied.BeittheofficeoflovetofeedtheLordsflock,ifitwasanevidenceoffeartodenytheShepherd(Augustine).Jesuswasnotupbraiding
Peter.Onthecontrary,HewaspublishingtothecompanyHisforgivenessoftheerringApostleandHisconfidenceinhimforthefuture.
PeterfiguresconspicuouslyinthehistoryoftheApostolicChurch.Hewasrecognizedastheleader.ItwasonhismotionthatasuccessorwasappointedtoJudas
betweentheAscensionandPentecost(Ac1:1526),hisimpetuosityappearinginthisprecipitateaction(seeMATTHIAS)anditwashewhoactedasspokesmanon
thedayofPentecost(2:14ff.).HewroughtmiraclesinthenameofJesus(3,5:15,9:3242)hefearlesslyconfessedJesus,settingtherulersatnaught(4:1
18)asheadoftheChurch,heexposedandpunishedsin(5:111,8:1424)hesufferedimprisonmentandscourging(5:1742,12:119).
ThepersecutionconsequentonthemartyrdomofStephen,byscatteringthebelievers,inauguratedafreshdevelopmentofChristianity,involvingabitter
controversy.Therefugeespreachedwherevertheywent,andthusarosethequestion,onwhattermstheGentilesshouldbereceivedintotheChurch.Mustthey
becomeJewsandobservetheritesoftheMosaicLaw?InthiscontroversyPeteractedwiselyandgenerously.BeingdeputedwithJohntoexamineintoit,he
approvedPhilipsworkamongthehatedSamaritans,andinvokedtheHolySpirituponhisconverts,andbeforereturningtoJerusalemmadeamissionarytour
amongthevillagesofSamaria(Ac8:125).HisJewishprejudicewasthoroughlyconqueredbyhisvisionatJoppaandtheconversionofCorneliusandhis
companyatCsareaand,whentakentotaskbythe
JudaisticpartyatJerusalemforassociatingwithuncircumcisedGentiles,hevindicatedhisactionandgainedtheapprovaloftheChurch(1011:19).
ThecontroversybecameacutewhentheJudaizers,takingalarmatthemissionaryactivityofPaulandBarnabas,wenttoAntiochandinsistedontheconverts
therebeingcircumcised.ThequestionwasreferredtoacounciloftheChurchatJerusalemandPeterspokesowellonbehalfofChristianlibertythatitwas
resolved,onthemotionofJames,theLordsbrother,thattheworkofPaulandBarnabasshouldbeapproved,andthatnothingshouldberequiredoftheGentiles
beyondabstinencefromthingssacrificedtoidols,blood,thingsstrangled,andfornication(Ac15:129cf.Gal2:110).ByandbyPetervisitedAntioch,and,
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beyondabstinencefromthingssacrificedtoidols,blood,thingsstrangled,andfornication(Ac15:129cf.Gal2:110).ByandbyPetervisitedAntioch,and,
thoughadheringtothedecisionattheoutset,hewaspresentlyintimidatedbycertainJudaizers,and,togetherwithBarnabas,separatedhimselffromtheGentilesas
unclean,andwouldnoteatwiththem,incurringanindignantandapparentlyeffectiverebukefromPaul(Gal2:1121).
TherearecopioustraditionsaboutPeter.SufficeittomentionthatheissaidtohavegonetoRome[whichisquitepossible]andlabouredtherefor25years
[utterlyimpossible],andtohavebeencrucified(cf.Jn21:18,19)inthelastyearofNerosreign(A.D.68)beingathisownrequestnailedtothecrosshead
downwards,sincehedeemedhimselfunworthytobecrucifiedinthesamemannerashisLord.AccordingtotheancientandcredibletestimonyofPapiasof
Hierapolis,ahearerofSt.JohnatEphesus,ourSecondGospelisbaseduponinformationderivedfromPeter.MarkhadbeenPeterscompanion,andheardhis
teachingandtooknotesofit.FromthesehecomposedhisGospel.Hewroteit,Jeromesays,attherequestofthebrethrenatRomewhenhewastherewithPeter
andonhearingitPeterapproveditandauthorizeditsusebytheChurch.
DAVIDS MITH.
PETER,FIRSTEPISTLEOF.NoEpistleoftheNThascaughtmoreofthespiritofJesusthan1Peter.ImbuedwithastronglovefortherisenChrist,anda
profoundconvictionofthetruthofthegospelasestablishedintheworldbythelife,death,andresurrectionoftheMessiah,theauthordelineatesarichChristianlife
onthebasisoftheseevangelicalfacts.
1.Contents.
I. ThanksgivingandexhortationinviewoftheChristiansalvation,1:32:10.
(i.)ThegloriouscharacteroftheChristiansalvation,1:312.
(a)Asureinheritance,vv.35.ToGodourFatherisascribedallpraise,becausebyraisingJesusChristfromthedeadHehasbegottenusintoalivinghopecertainto
besoonrealized.
(b)Apresentjoy,notwithstandingmanifoldtrials,vv.59.Sufferingsrefinefaithasfiredoesgold,andevennowtheunseenChristisanobjectofunspeakablejoy,
andgivesaforetasteoffullsalvation.
(c)Thefulfilmentofthepromisesmadetotheprophets,andawondereventoangels,vv.1012.
(ii.)ExhortationtorealizethishopeinaholylifeasmembersofaDivinebrotherhood,1:132:10.(a)TheholyandabsolutelyjustFatherrequiresfilialobedience,vv.16
17.
(b)ToredeemusfromsintheeternalandspotlessMessiahwasslain,andbyHisresurrectionhasawakenedustotruefaithinGod.ItisintheHolyGodthusrevealed
thatallyourfaithandhoperest,vv.1821.
(c)ThefamilyofGod,begottenoftheimperishableseedofthegospel,mustobeythetruth
withsinceremutualloveandgrowintomaturity.Aslivingstonesbuiltintotheliving
butoncerejectedChrist,theyformaspiritualtempleandalsoaholypriesthoodtoofferspiritualsacrificestoGod.TheyhavebecomethenewIsrael,thepeople
ofGod,1:222:10.
II. ThebehaviouroftheChristianintheworldandinthebrotherhood,2:113:12.
Itmustbepureandhonourableinthemidstoftheheathen,2:11,12.
(a)ThoughfreeservantsofGod,Christiansmustbeloyaltotheearthlygovernment,andobservetheirdutiestoallmenintheirseveralstations,vv.1317.
(b)Slavesmustbeobedienteventoharshmasters,showingtheirpossessionofDivinegraceandtheirdiscipleshiptoJesus,byenduringsufferinglikeHimwhose
unmeriteddeathhasbroughtussalvation,vv.1825.
(c)Wivesaretoexerciseaquietandgentlespirit,liketruemothersinIsrael,submittingto
theirhusbands,inthehopethatiftheyareheathentheymaybewontothefaithbytheirChristianlife.Likewisehusbandsmusthonourtheirwivesasequally
withthemselvesheirsoflife,3:17.
(d)Thedutyofapeacefulandkindlylifetostrengthentheunitywithinthebrotherhood,vv.812.
III. Theusesofsuffering,3:134:19.
(a)SufferingcannotreallyharmonewhohasChristinhisheartnay,gentlesteadfastnessunderpersecutionmay,likeourMasters,winoverotherstoGod,3:1317.
Digression.Quickenedinspiritbydeath,ChristcarriedthegospeltothegodlessworldthatperishedintheFlood,throughwhichNoahandhisfamilyweresaved,atypeof
theChristianwhoinhisbaptismasksGodforagoodconscience,andiscleansedthroughtherisenChristnowtriumphantoverallHisenemies,vv.1822.
(b)Sufferingdeliversusfromoursinfullife.Thoughyourformerheathencomradesrevileyouforabandoningtheirlifeofsensuality,youmusthavedonewiththem
andleavethemtothejustJudgeofall,4:16.
Digression.IntheshorttimethatremainsuntilthereturnoftheLord,Christiansshouldlivealifeofselfcontrol,exercisingbrotherlylove,hospitality,and 57/144
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Digression.IntheshorttimethatremainsuntilthereturnoftheLord,Christiansshouldlivealifeofselfcontrol,exercisingbrotherlylove,hospitality,and
spiritualgifts,4:711.
(c)Yoursufferingsarenotunique,butbecomeablessingiftheyaretheresultoffidelitytoyourChristianprofession,andnotofevilconduct.Theyareasignthat
judgmentisnear,whichyoumayawaitinalifeofwelldoing,trustingyourfaithfulCreator,vv.
1219.
IV. Miscellaneousadvice,5:114.
(a)CounseltoelderoftheChurch,andtotheyoungermen,5:16.
(b)Exhortationtoresignation,watchfulness,andtrustinthemidstoftheterriblesufferingsthatarebeingenduredbythebrotherhoodeverywhere,vv.611.
(c)Personalgreetings,vv.1214.
2.Readers.Oftheprovincesinwhichthereaderslived,GalatiaandAsiawereevangelizedbySt.Paul,butnothingisknownoftheevangelizationofthe
rest,nordoestheletterassumethatSt.Peterhadanyshareinit.AtfirstsightitwouldappearthatthereaderswereJewish
Christians,assomescholarsholdthattheywere,butthebodyoftheEpistleclearlyshowsthattheprevailingelementwasGentile,andthewordsof11aretobe
takenfigurativelyofthesojournoftheChristianasaresidentalienonearth,absentfromhisheavenlyfatherland(2:8,10,4:14).Doubtless,however,verymany
whohadbeenJewswerefoundinalltheChurchesofthelargecities.Theformerlifeofthereaders,ontheaveragelowlevelofAsiaMinor,hadbeengivenoverto
thevicesofthefleshperhaps,indeed,theirpastconductwasthesourcefromwhichthecriminalchargeswerebroughtagainstthemafterwardsasChristians(2:12,
4:15,16).TheChurchesweresufferingseverely,thoughtheredoesnotseemtohavebeenanofficialpersecution,orasystematicattemptatextermination,foritis
assumedthatmostwillremainuntiltheParousia(4:7).Soseverewastheirsuffering,thatonlythestrongarmofGodcouldprotectthemintheirtemptation(1:67,
4:12,5:6).Christiansareeasilyconfoundedwithcriminals(2:12,15,16,3:13,16,17,4:15,19),slavessufferatthehandsoftheirmasters,wivesfromtheir
husbands,buttheirexperiencewasofthesamecharacterasthatoftheChristianbrotherhoodthroughouttheworld(5:9).TheChurchesareislandsinanoceanof
heathenism.
3.Purpose.Thisletterisanencouragementtoreaderswhoareindangeroflapsing,throughsuffering,intotheunholylifeoftheirneighbours.Byrecalling
thefactoftheresurrectionofChrist,andbyanappealtotheexampleofHisremedialsufferings,theauthorseekstoawakentheirfaithandhopeinGod.Theyare
urgedtosustaintheirmorallifeintheexerciseofacalmandsoberconfidenceinthegraceofGodsoontoberevealedmorefully(1:18,4:7,5:810),andto
commendtheirgospeltotheheathenworldbytheirlivesofgoodness,entrustingthemselvesinwelldoingtoafaithfulCreator(4:19).
4.Teaching
(a)Doctrine.FaithinGodastheholyFatherandfaithfulCreatorisbuiltuponthesolidfactsofthegospel,inparticular,thelife,death,andresurrectionof
ChristtheeternalMessiah(1:821).ThelifeofJesusChristhasmadeanineffaceableimpressionupontheauthor.Hewasspotless,theperfectpatternformen,but
alsotheMessiah,whoastheServantoftheLordhasbyHisdeathransomedanewpeopleandratifiedanewcovenant(1:2,1820,2:2224).ByHisresurrection
HehasbeenexaltedtoGodsrighthand,andwillsoonreturntounveilfurtherglories(1:13,3:22).Themostprobableinterpretationof3:18ff.isthatChristwent,
duringtheperiodbetweenHisdeathandresurrection,totheabodeofthedead,and,havingpreachedHisgospeltothosewhohadbeenthewickedantediluvian
world,hasmadeitofuniversalefficacy(cf.Eph4:819).InthislifeChristbecomesanobjectofinexpressiblejoytobelieversonwhomtheSpirithasbeenpoured
forth(1:2,8,12).PeterdoesnotregardtheSpiritasthesourceofChristianvirtues,butasthepledgeofourfutureinheritance,aswellasofpresentDivinegrace
manifestedintheabilitytoenduresuffering(4:14).ThisSpiritwasalsoidentifiedwiththepreexistentMessiah,andwasthemeansofHispersistencethroughdeath
(1:11,3:18,19,4:14).BytheSpiritthebrethrenarealsoconsecratedinanewcovenanttoJehovah,therebyreceivingthefulfilmentofthepromiseoftheMessianic
age(1:2).TherisenChristhasbecometheobjectofthebelieversutterloveanddevotion,andhasbegotteninhimthelivinghopeofaneternalinheritance.
(b)TheChristianlife.AtbaptismthebelieverhashisconsciencecleansedthroughtherisenChristandthenewlifespringingfromtheseedofthewordof
Godplantedintheheartgrowsbyfeedinguponthatword.Holinessisitsquality,involvingobediencetothetruth,freedomfromfleshlylusts,selfcontrolunder
suffering,joyinapresentsalvation,andhopeoflifeintheincorruptibleinheritance.Faithistheactwherebythebeliever,realizingtheworthoftheunseenworld
throughtherevelationofJesusChrist,putscompletetrustinGod.WithChrist,thelivingstone,Christiansformthenewtempleinwhichthebrethrenarearoyal
priesthood.TheyarethetrueIsrael,abrotherhoodwhichisGodshomeonearth.TheChristianisapilgrimonearth,hislifeoneoflovetothebrethrenandof
gentleendurancetowardstheunbeliever,whomheseekstowintothegospel,whilehestandsreadygirtforhisMasterscoming(1:18,5:511).
5.Literaryaffinities
(a)TheOT.ThisEpistleisgreatlyindebtedtotheLXX,especiallytothePsalmsandtoIsaiah,whoseteachingastotheholinessofGodandtheredemptive
efficacyofthesufferingsoftheServantoftheLordisechoed(1P1:1820,Is52:3,531P1:24,25,Is40:6ff.1P2:6ff.,Is28:18,Ps118:221P2:21ff.Is531
P3:10ff.,Ps34:12ff.).Proverbsalsoisused(1P2:17,Pr24:211P4:8,Pr10:121P4:18,Pr11:311P5:5,Pr3:34).
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P3:10ff.,Ps34:12ff.).Proverbsalsoisused(1P2:17,Pr24:211P4:8,Pr10:121P4:18,Pr11:311P5:5,Pr3:34).
(b)BookofEnoch.Anacquaintancewiththispseudepigraphicbookmaybetracedin1P1:12,3:10,20.Cf.Enoch9.1,10.4,6,12,13,64.1,2,69.26.
(c)TheGospels.WhiletheEpistleaffordsnoproofofacquaintancewithourGospels,itcontainsmanysuggestionsofthelifeandteachingsofJesus.Peter
claimstohavebeenawitnessofthesufferingsandthegloryofJesus(5:1),whichmayreferbothtotheTransfigurationandtotheappearancesoftherisenChrist.
Christissetforthastheexampleforthesufferer,asthoughHissilentenduranceofrevilingandtheagonyofthesinlessOnehadbeenindeliblyimpressedonthe
authorsmemoryand,asintheSynoptics,JesusChristfulfilstheprophecyoftheSufferingServant.ThegreatcommandofJesustoHisdisciplestorenouncethe
world,takeupthecrossandfollowHim,seemstoreechointhisEpistleasJesuspronouncedblessingsonthosewhowerepersecutedforrighteousnesssake,so
doesPeter(3:14,4:14),andotherwordsfromtheSermonontheMount(Mt5:10,11,16,6:25)seemtospeakin2:12,3:1316,5:6.TheparableoftheSowermay
havesuppliedthefigureof1:23ff.thelessonofthetributemoneymayunderlie2:13,14andChristsutteranceofdoomonapostateIsrael,especiallytheparable
ofMk12:112,probablysuggestedthethoughtof2:510.ThattheKingdomofGod,socommonintheteachingofJesus,isnotreferredto,maybeduetothefact
thatthetermhadnoworthyassociationforthereaders.TheyhadlearnedtocallGodFather,notKing.
(d)Acts.TherearesimilaritieswithPetersspeechesinActs,e.g.,thewitnessoftheprophetstotheMessiahJesusChristastheSufferingServantwhosedeath
wasforeknowntoGod,andwasenduredforoursinsHisexaltationandnearreturntojudgethelivingandthedead(Ac2:23,33,3:18,5:30,31,10:42,43).Cf.
also1P3:20withAc3:1921.
(e)ThePaulineEpistles.AcomparisonofRomanswiththisEpistlerevealsstrikingresemblancesbetweenthem(1P1:14,Ro12:21P1:22,Ro12:91P
2:5,Ro12:11P2:68,10,Ro9:25,32,33,1P2:1317,Ro13:1,8,4,71P3:8,9,Ro12:161P4:711,Ro12:3,6),soclose,indeed,in1P2:6andRo9:32,
thatitisallbutcertainthatoneEpistlewasknowntothewriteroftheotherandRomansmusthavebeentheearlier.ThemoreorlessobviousrelationsofEphesians
with1Peter(1P1:35,7,9,Eph1:3141P1:12,Eph3:5,101P2:48,Eph2:18221P2:18,Eph6:51,3:17,Eph5:22331P3:22,Eph1:2022)
justifytheopinionthattheauthorsofbothlettersbreathedthesameatmosphere(v.Soden).
(f)Hebrews.ManycloseverbalparallelsarefoundbetweentheseEpistles,andtheirleadingreligiousconceptionsaresimilar.Bothhavethesameviewof
faith,ofJesusChristasanexample,andastheOnewhointroducesthebelievertoGod,ofHisdeathasthesacrificeratifyingthenewcovenantandtakingawaysin.
SimilarstressislaidonhopeandobediencethefortunesofoldIsraelareemployedinbothtoillustratethedemandforfaithonthepartofnewIsrael,andasimilar
useismadeofthesufferingsofthereaders.Cf.1P1:8,He11:1:1P1:20,
He9:261P2:2123,He12:131P4:13,5:1,He11:26,13:131P4:11,He13:211P5:10,He13:21.Thoughdirectliteraryrelationshipbetweenthetwo
Epistlescannotbeaffirmed,theauthorsmayhavebeenclosefriends,andthereaderswereperhapssimilarlysituated.
(g)James.Acomparisonof1P1:1,Ja1:11P1:6f.,Ja1:2f.1P1:232:1,Ja1:11221P5:5f.,Ja4:6f.,10provescloserelationship,butthepriority
canbedeterminedonlyonthebasisofthedateofJames.
6.Authorship.Accordingtothepresentgreeting,thisEpistlewaswrittenbytheApostlePeter,andthisissupportedbyverystrongtradition.Polycarpisthe
earliestwriterwhoindubitablyquotestheEpistle,thoughitwasprobablyfamiliartoBarnabas,ClementofRome,Papias,andperhapsIgnatius.Basilidesseemsto
haveknownit,anditwasrejectedbyMarclonondoctrinalgrounds.ItisfirstquotedasPetersbyIrenusandTertullian,andisfrequentlyusedbyClementof
Alexandria.ItsomissionfromtheMuratorianFragmentisnotsignificantitiscontainedintheoldestversions,andEusebius,infullagreementwithwhatweknow
ofearlyChristianliterature,placesitamongthebookswhichtheChurchacceptedwithouthesitation.IntheApostolicFathers,e.g.,itisaswellattestedasGalatians
orEphesians.Harnacksuggeststhattheopeningandclosingverseswerelateradditions,andthatPolycarpdidnotregardtheletterasPetersbutthishypothesisis
utterlywithouttextualsupport,andbothparagraphsarefittedcompactlyintotheEpistle.ThechiefobjectionstothePetrineauthorshipare(1)theEpistleissaidto
besosaturatedwithPaulineideasthatitcouldnothavebeenwrittenbytheApostlePeter(2)thereadersareGentileChristianslivingwithinterritoryevangelized
byPaul,inwhichPeterwouldhavebeentrespassingontheGentiles(Gal2:9)(3)thereisalackofpersonal
reminiscencesofthelifeofJesusthatwouldbestrangeinPeter(4)theuseofgoodGreekandoftheLXXwouldberemarkableinaGalilanfisherman(5)the
persecutionreferredtoinch.4issaidtobehistoricallyimpossibleuntilafterthedeathofPeter.
Inanswerto(3)referencemaybemadeto5(c).(4)istooconjecturaltobeserious,forthereisnottheslightestpresumptionagainsttheuseofGreekin
writingspurportingtoemanatefromthecircleofthefirstbelievers.Theywouldwriteasmenwhohadusedthelanguagefromboyhood(J.H.Moulton).Silvanus
alsomayhavehadalargeshareinthecompositionoftheEpistle.Thedifficultyof(5)isremovedif,aswehaveseentobeprobable,noofficialImperial
persecutionisinvolved.Littleisknownofitsbeginningsintheprovinces,thoughfromActswelearnthattheJewssoonstirreduphostilityagainsttheChristians.
RomeiscalledBabylon,theidolatrousoppressorofthetrueIsrael.ThismighthavehappenedwhenevertheChristiansbegantorealizetheawakeninghatredofthe
wickedcity,mistressofanempireruledbyadeifiedNero,evenbeforethepersecutionof64A.D.UndoubtedlythereisacloserelationshipbetweenthisEpistleand
PaulsEpistles,closerinthoughtthaninvocabulary.Probablytheapproximationisnearestinthetreatmentofmorals,as,e.g.,marriage,slavery,obediencetocivil
rulersandhowmuchofthiswascommonChristianbeliefandpractice.Itis,however,strikingthatinanEpistlesoindebtedtotheRomansthelegalistic
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rulersandhowmuchofthiswascommonChristianbeliefandpractice.Itis,however,strikingthatinanEpistlesoindebtedtotheRomansthelegalistic
controversyispassedby,whileadifferentviewofrighteousness,achangeofemphasisastotheImportofChristsdeath,andadissimilarconceptionoftheworkof
theSpiritaremanifest.NordoestheEphesianideaoftheChurchappealtothisauthor.HecannotbecalledaPaulinist.Hehasbeennurturedonprophetic,rather
thanonPharisaic,ideals.DoubtlessSt.Paul,abroadlyeducatedJew,aRomancitizen,andamanofmassiveintellectandpenetratinginsight,influencedSt.Peter.
ThismuchmaybeinferredfromGal2:1517.Ontheotherhand,St.PauldidnotresentSt.PetersvisittoAntiochinGal2:11.WhyshouldnotSt.Peter,many
yearslater,havewrittentoChurchessomeofwhichatleastseemnottohavebeenevangelizedbySt.Paul?ButgreatlyasSt.PetermayhavebeenimpressedbySt.
PaulsmasterfulconstructionofChristianthought,hischaractermusthavebeenimmeasurablymoremouldedbyJesus,whilehisownstrongtemperament,
responsivetothepropheticsideofhispeoplesreligion,wouldchangelittlewiththeyears.ItispreciselythegroundtoneoftheEpistleinharmonywiththespirit
ofOTprophecyandoftheJesusoftheSynopticGospelsthatmakesitsPetrineauthorshipsoreasonable.
7.Date.ThebeliefthatSt.PeterdiedinRomeissupportedbyaverystrongchainofevidence,beingdeduciblefromClementofRome,Ignatius,Papiasand
itisheldbyDionysiusofCorinth,Irenus,Tertullian,andClementofAlexandria.UnlessSt.PeterhadbeendefinitelyassociatedwithRome,itisdifficultto
understandhowhesupplantedSt.PaulsosooninthecapitalasthechiefApostle.Evidentlythetraditionofa25yearsepiscopatehasnohistoricalbasis,butSt.
PeterprobablycametoRomeafterSt.Paul,anddiedperhapsintheNeronianpersecutionof64,orpossiblylater.ItisinthehighestdegreeprobablethatSt.Peter
wrotethisEpistlefromRomebeforeA.D.64.
R.A.F ALCONER.
PETER,SECONDEPISTLEOF.ThisEpistlecannotrankwith1PeterasaChristianclassicindeed,verymanywouldagreewithJlicherthat2Peterisnot
onlythelatestdocumentoftheNT,butalsotheleastdeservingofaplaceinthecanon.Nevertheless,itstrikesapureChristiannoteinitspassionforrighteousness.
1.Contents.
(i.)Greetingandexhortation,1:111.TheEpistleopenswithasalutationfromSimonPetertoreaderswho,throughtherighteousnessofGod,havebeenadmittedtothefull
privilegesoftheApostolicfaith.Hisprayerforincreasedblessinguponthem,throughtheknowledgeofGodandJesusourLord,isbasedonthefactthatbytherevelationofHis
gloriousexcellenceHisDivinepowerhasmadeagodlylifepossibleforusandhasgivenrichpromisesofourultimatelysharingHisnature,whenwehaveescapedfromthispresent
worldperishinginitslust(vv.14).Theyarethereforeurgedtoenrichtheircharacterwithvirtues,becauseonlyfromsuchasoilwillafullknowledgeofJesusChristgrowand
entranceintoHiseternalKingdomdependsuponforgivenessofsins,andthezealouseffortofthebelievertomakethegospelcalleffectivebyalifeofvirtue(vv.611).
(ii.)Thesurewitnesstothegospel,vv.1221.TheApostlewillholdhimselfinreadinesstoremindhisreadersofthetruthandsincehisdeathmaybesudden,hewill
endeavourtoleavethematrustworthymemorialofhisteachingfor,unlikethefalseteachers,PeterwasaneyewitnesscompetenttosetforththepowerandthereturnoftheLord,
havingseentheTransfigurationontheHolyMount.HsalsoheardtheDivinevoicethatconfirmedprophecy,towhichtheymustpayheed,sinceitwasgivenbytheSpiritbut
prophecyhavingsuchanorigincanbeinterpretedonlybythevoiceofGod,notbyprivateopinion.
(iii.)Thefalseteachers,ch.2.Aninvasionoffalseteachersisforetold.Thesemenwillsubvertthegospelofredemptionfromsin,andcauseapostasyintheChurch.Buttheir
doomatthehandofarighteousGod,isnolesscertainthanthatoftheangelswhosinned,ortheantediluvianworld,orSodomandGomorrahthoughnowalso,astheo,thefew
righteouswillescape(vv.19).Sensual,irreverent,brutish,andignorantofspiritualthings,theydestroyeventhesacredChristianfeastsbytheirrevelry,and,likeBalaam,seek,
fortheirselfishpurposes,toleadtheirvictimsintofornication,deludingrecentlyconvertedbelieverswithafalsedoctrineoffreedom.Hadtheseapostatesneverknownthetruth,it
wouldhavebeenbetterforthem(vv.1022).
(iv.)WarningagainstscepticismastothereturnoftheLord,ch.3.HeremindshisreadersthatitwasforetoldasasignoftheendthatmockerswoulddenythattheLordwill
return,butthatboththeprophetsandtheLordproclaimedadayofFinalJudgment.ThememoryoftheFloodshouldbeawarningtothescoffers(vv.17).Godsdelayisintended
togiveopportunityforrepentance,andHispurposes,thoughslowlymaturing,willbebroughttopasswithoutwarningbuttheDaymaybehastenedbyholylivingandgodliness.
ThisistheteachingalsoofPaul,whosegospelofgracesomeareseekingtodistortintolicence.SafetyliesinwatchfulnessandingrowthinthegraceandknowledgeofJesusChrist
(vv.818).
2.Situationofthereaders.Wereitnotthat2P3:1seemstoreferto1Peter,nodefiniteinformationwouldbefoundinthisletterastothelocalityofthe
readers.ItappearstobeanEpistledesignedtocounteractaparticularerroraffectingadistrictratherthanoneChurch.Itmaybeinferredthatthereaderswere
Gentiles(1:1),andwerebeingmisledbydistortionsofthePaulinedoctrineofgrace(3:16,18),thoughtheChurcheswereundisturbedbyanyechoesoftheJewish
Christiancontroversy.IndifferencetoChristianmorality,inducingadulledspiritualsense,hasmadethemliabletoapostasyundertheinfluenceoffalseteachers
whoareabouttoinvadetheChurches.Somearealreadyatworkamongthem(2:1318).Theyseemtohavetakenadvantageoftheprivilegeofporphecytospread
theirlibertinism,andtohaveturnedthesacredlovefeastsintobestialcarousals,holdingout,especiallytorecentconverts,thedistortedpromiseofChristain
freedom.Theysatisfiedtheirownavariceandlust,andscoffedatmoralresponsibility,teaching,itwouldappear,thatthereisnoresurrectionofthebodyor
judgmenttocome,byplayinguponthedeferredChristianhopeoftheReturnoftheLord.Apparentlytheywereallofonetype,andsowickedastohecompared 60/144
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judgmenttocome,byplayinguponthedeferredChristianhopeoftheReturnoftheLord.Apparentlytheywereallofonetype,andsowickedastohecompared
withtheworstsinnersoftheOT(2:4,8,8,18).Thereisnoevidenceofanyspeculativesystemlikethoseofthe2ndcent.Gnosticism,buttherearefeaturesin
commonwiththepracticesoftheNicolaitansoftheChurchesofPergamumandThyatira(Rev2:1324),thoughnomentionismadeofidolatry.Agreateraffinity
maybetracedwiththeSadducaicspiritofportionsoftheJewishandsemipaganworld,wherescepticismastospiritualrealitieswenthandinhandwithpractical
immorality.ThecitiesofSyriaorSamariawouldbeanotimprobablesituationforthereadersof2Peter.
3.PurposeoftheEpistle.Itisamistaketoconfinethepurposeof2Petertotherefutationofoneerror,as,e.g.,thedenialoftheParousia.Itisaloudappeal
forgodlylivingandfaithintheaffirmationsofthegospel.Scripture,andtheChristianconscience.GodspromisesofmercyandthreateningsofjudgmentareYea
andAmen.Thewriteraimstoimpressonhisreaders:(1)thatsavingknowledgeofJesusChristisgrantedonlytothevirtuousheart(2)thatJesusChristisapresent
powerforagodlylife,andiscertaintoreturnforjudgment(3)thehideouscharacterofthefalseteachersandtheselfevidentdoomofthemselvesandtheirvictims
(4)thatdelayintheReturnoftheLordmustbeusedforrepentance,forthatDaywillsurelycome.
4.Literaryaffinities
(a)TheOT.Thoughthedirectquotationsarefew(Ps90:4in3:8andprobablyPr26:11in
2:22,withreminiscencesofIs34:4in3:12,andIs65:17,66:22in3:13),therealindebtednessof
2Pet.totheOTisverygreatinthehistoricalexamplesofch.2,andintheviewofCreation,the
Flood,andtheDayoftheLord(3:5,6,7).TheinfluenceofIsaiahismanifest(cf.Is13:913,
34:4,51:6,66:15f.with2P3:7,10)andtheuseofProverbsmayperhapsheseenin2P2:17(Pr
10:11,21:6,25:14)andin2P2:21(Pr12:28,16:17,31)
(b)BookofEnoch.ItcannotbedoubtedthatEnoch9.1,10.46,18.1121hasinfluenced2P2:4,11.
(c)TheGospels.Themostobviousreferencesarein2P1:1618,whichagreesfundamentally,thoughnotprecisely,withtheSynopticnarrativesofthe
Transfiguration,andin1:14,whichseemstopointtotheincidentinJn21:18,19.TheSynopticeschatologyalso,alongwithOTprophecy,hasinfluenced2Peter
(cf.Mk13:24,25,26,31||and2P3:1012Mt19:28,25:31,Lk21:2628and2P3:12,18).Mt11:27,29||andtheparableoftheSower(Lk8:10,16)throw
muchlighton2P1:28andMt12:28,29,4345on2P2:1921.
(d)ThePaulineEpistles.Ofthesethereareveryfewtraces,though2P1:13maybecomparedwith2Co5:12P2:19withRo6:132P3:14with1Th3:13,
5:23,and2P3:16withRo2:4,9:22.ThereareverbalsimilaritieswiththePastoralEpistles,butprobablytheydonotinvolveanythingmorethanawidespread
similaratmosphere.Accordingto3:16,18,theauthorseemstoknowallSt.Paulscorrespondence,butheshowsastonishinglylittleevidenceofitsinfluence.
(e)Jude.OneoftheseEpistlesmusthavebeenusedbytheauthoroftheother,butthereisgreatdiversityofopinionastothepriority,theprevailingviewat
presentbeingapparentlyinfavourofthepriorityofJude,thoughZahnandBiggarestrongadvocatesof2Peter.Thequestionisreallyindeterminable,and,apart
fromtheexternaltestimonyoftheonetotheother,haslittlebearingontheauthorship.
(f)1Peter
(i.)Differences.Thesearemanyandserious.1PeteriswritteninfluentHellenisticGreekwhilethestyleof2Peterisalmostpseudoliterary,anditswordsare
oftenquiteuncommon.1PeterquoteslargelyfromtheLXX,theuseofwhichcanhardlybedetectedin2Peter.TheDivinenamesaredifferent,anddifferent
conceptionsofChristsworkandoftheChristianlifeareemphasizedin1PeterJesusistheMessiahwhosesufferings,death,andresurrectionaretheleading
motivesfortheChristianlifein2PeterChristisSaviour,whobringspowerforagodlylifetoallwhohaveknowledgeofHim.Hopeandjoyarethenotesof1
Peter,whichwaswrittentoreaderswhoarebuoyedupinsufferingbyfaithinandlovetotheirrisenLord.In2Peterfalseteachinginsteadofpersecutionisa
sourceofdangerknowledgetakestheplaceofhope,andpietythatofholiness.
(ii.)Resemblances[cf.(i.)].Thesearemanifoldandstriking.BothEpistlesareinfluencedgreatlybyIsaiahandinsomemeasurebyProverbsandEnoch.Both
teachthatJesusChristisprogressivelyrevealedtothebeliever,theParousiabeingthefulfilmentoftheTransfigurationortheResurrection(1P1:13,4:13,5:1,2P
1:3,4,16).BothemphasizethefactoftheParousiaandofDivinejudgmentNoahandtheFloodareusedasexamplesinboth.AsimilarconceptionoftheHoly
Spirit,uniqueintheNT,isfoundin1P1:1012and2P1:1921.InboththeChristianlifeisregardedasagrowthfromseed(1P1:23,2P1:8,3:18)obedience
tothetruth,emphasizedin1P1:22and2P2:2,21,bringsthefavouritevirtueofsteadfastness(1P2:8,5:10,2P1:10,3:17).Thelawofholylivingconferstrue
freedom(1P1:15,16,2:15ff.,2P2:19,3:11,14).Thevirtuesof2P1:57areparalleledin1Peter,beingthoseofagentle,orderly,patient,kindlylifeof
goodnessandinboththeChristianlifeisregardedasapilgrimagetoaneternalinheritance](1P1:1,4,2P1:11,13,14).
5.TestimonyoflaterChristianLiterature.Untilthe3rdcent.thetracesof2Peterareveryfew.ItwasevidentlyknowntotheauthoroftheApocalypseof
Peter(c.150A.D.),thoughthisisquestionedwithoutsufficientreasonbysomescholars.ThefirstcertainquotationisfoundinFirmilianofCsareainCappadocia
(c.250)probablyitwasusedbyClementofAlexandriaandOrigenknewit,butdoubteditsgenuineness.WhileEusebiushimselfdidnotaccepttheEpistle,be 61/144
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(c.250)probablyitwasusedbyClementofAlexandriaandOrigenknewit,butdoubteditsgenuineness.WhileEusebiushimselfdidnotaccepttheEpistle,be
placedit,indeferencetogeneralopinion,amongthedisputedbooks.ItisnotreferredtobythescholarsofAntioch,norisitinthePeshitta,thecommonversion
oftheSyrianChurch.TheoldestLatinversionsalsoseemnottohavecontaineditpossiblyitwasabsentfromtheoriginalofCodexB,butitisfoundinthe
Egyptianversions.Jerome,andafterwardsErasmusandCalvin,harboureddoubtsaboutitsgenuineness.
6.Authorship.ItwillhavebeenevidentthatthereismuchinthisEpistletojustifythedoubtastoitsgenuinenesswhichhasbeenentertainedbymanyofthe
greatestChristianteachersfromtheearlycenturiesandrecentscholarshiphasnotyetrelievedthedifficultiesinthewayofacceptingthePetrineauthorship.They
are(1)theremarkabledivergencefromtheFirstEpistle,whichseemstobetooradicaltobeexplainedbytheemploymentofdifferentamanuenses(2)theinferior
styleoftheEpistle,itslackofrestraintanditsdiscontinuity,notablyin1:1221andch.2(3)theabsenceofanearlyChristianatmosphere,togetherwithatoneof
disappointmentbecausethepromiseofChristtoreturnhasbeenlongdeferred(3:3f.)(4)theappealtothethreeauthoritiesoftheprimitiveCatholicChurchthe
Prophets,theLord,andtheApostles(1:1921,3:2)(5)thereferencetoSt.PaulslettersasScripture(6)theextremelymeagreexternalevidence.
Ofthesedifficultiesthegravestare(1)and(6).Itisalmostimpossibletoholdthattheauthorof1Petercouldhavedescribedhisletterinthewordsof2P3:1,
andhaveregarded2Peterasasequeltothesamereaders.Ithas,however,beensuggestedthat2Peterwaswrittenearlierthan1Peter,andthattheEpistleswere
composedbydifferentamanuensesfordifferentreaders.Butthishypothesishasnotmetwithmuchfavour.Theinsufficientwitnessisalsoserious,andthough
singlytheotherdifficultiesmayberemoved,theircumulativeeffectistoomuchforaletteralreadyheavilyburdened.ButiftheevidenceisagainstdirectPetrine
authorship,isthebooktobesummarilybanishedintothemiddleofthe2ndcent.asentirelypseudonymous?Probablynot.(1)TherearenofeaturesoftheEpistle
whichnecessarilyextrudeitfromthe1stcentury.DoubtsastotheParousiaandsimilarfalseteachingwerenotunknownintheApostolicage,andsomeofthemost
distinctivefeaturesofthe2ndcent.,suchasdevelopedGnosticismandChiliasm,areconspicuousbytheirabsence.AlsothereferencetoSt.Paulslettersas
Scriptureisnotdecisive,forinviewoftheinsistenceuponwrittenprophecyanditsorigin(1:1921)itisdoubtfulwhetherSt.PaulisrankedwiththeOT
prophets.Butinanycase,bythetimeof1ClementtherewasacollectionofSt.PaulsletterswhichwouldbereadinchurcheswithsomeScripturalauthority.
Finally,thereismuchtobesaidfortheviewthatnottheOTScriptures,butotherChristianwritings,arereferredtoin3:16.(2)2Petercontainsalargedistinctively
Petrineelement.Ithasalreadybeenshownthat1and2Peterhavemuchincommon.TheypresentanonPaulineconceptionofChristianity,sharedbythemin
commonwiththeGospelofMarkandthespeechesofPeterinActs.InMk.andin2PeterJesusChrististhestrongSonofGod,whosedeathransomedsinners,and
whosereturntojudgmentisdescribedingenerallysimilaroutlines.IntheEpistlestressislaidonrepentance,asintheopeningofMk.andinActs(2P3:915),and
thereisastrikingsimilaritybetweenAc3:1921and2P3:11,12.LikewisetheChristianlifeisregardedasthefulfilmentofthenewlaw,andtheparablesinMk.
oftheplantingandgrowthoftheseed,supplysuggestiveparallelsforboth1and2Peter.BothEpistles,likethespeechesinActs,areHebrewinspirit,andare
influencedbypropheticmotives.
PerhapsthesolutionthatwillbestsuitthefactsistoassumethatadiscipleofPeter,whorememberedhowhismasterhaddealtwithanattackofSadducaic
sensualityinsomeofthePalestinianChurches,beingconfrontedwitharecrudescenceofsimilarevil,reeditedhisteaching.Thiswilldojusticetothemoral
earnestnessandthetrueChristiannoteoftheEpistle.
R.A.F ALCONER.
PETHAHIAH.1.Theheadofthenineteenthpriestlycourse(1Ch24:15).2.ALevite(Ezr10:23,Neh9:5)in1Es9:23Patheus.3.AJudahiteofficer(Neh
11:24).
PETHOR.MentionedinNu22:5andDt23:4asthehomeofBalaam,inN.Mesopotamia,whenhewascalledbyBalaktocurseIsrael.Withthisindication
agreestherepeatedstatementbykingShalmaneserII.ofAssyriaregardingacertaincitywhichhecallsPitru,thatitlayontheriverSgr(modernSjr),nearits
junctionwiththeEuphrates.ThusPethorwouldseemtohavelainalittlesouthofCarchemish,onthewestoftheEuphrates.
J.F.MCURDY.
PETHUEL.ThefatheroftheprophetJoel(Jl1:1).
PETRA.SeeS ELA.
PEULLETHAI.TheeighthsonofObededom(1Ch26:5).
PHAATHMOAB(1Es5:11,8:31)=PahathmoabofEzr2:6etc.
PHACARETH(1Es5:34)=Pocherethhazzebaim,Ezr2:57.
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PHACARETH(1Es5:34)=Pocherethhazzebaim,Ezr2:57.
PHAISUR(1Es9:22)=Ezr10:22Pashhur,1Es5:25Phassurus.
PHALDEUS(1Es9:44)=Pedaiah,Neh8:4.
PHALEAS(1Es5:29)=Padon,Ezr2:44.
PHALIAS(1Es9:48)=Pelaiah,Neh8:7.
PHALTIEL(cf.2S3:16).Thecaptainofthepeople(2Es5:16).
PHANUEL.ThemotherofAnna(Lk2:36).
PHARAKIM.AfamilyofNethinim(1Es5:31).
PHARAOH.ThelaterEgyptianroyaltitle,Pero,GreatHouse,adoptedintoHebrew.OriginallydesignatingtheroyalestablishmentinEgypt,itgraduailly
becametheappellativetitleoftheking,andfromthe22ndDyn.(c.B.C.950)onwardswasregularlyattachedtothekingsnameinpopularspeech.TheHebrew
PharaohnechoandPharaohhophraarethuspreciserenderingsofEgyptian.ShishakalsowasentitledPeroSheshonkinEgyptian,butapparentlyHebrewhadnot
yetadoptedthenovelfashion,andsogavehisnamewithoutPharaoh(1K11:40,14:24).TirhakahisnotentitledPharaohasinEgyptiandocuments,butismore
accuratelydescribedaskingofCush(2K19:9).
ThefollowingPharaohsarereferredtowithouttheirnamesbeingspecified:1.PharaohofAbram(Gn12:1020),impossibletoidentify.ThetitlePharaohand
thementionofcamelsappeartobeanachronismsinthestory.2.PharaohofJoseph(Gn39etc.).Thepropernamesinthestory,viz.Potiphar,Potiphera,Asenath,
Zaphenathpaneahareatoncerecognizable(whenthevocalizationisdiscounted)astypicalnames(Petepre,Esnelt,Zepnetefonkh)ofthelateperiodbeginningwith
the22ndDyn.(c.B.C.950),andendinginthereignofDarius(c.B.C.500).IthasbeenconjecturedthatthePharaohofJosephwasoneoftheHyksoskings,butitis
notadvisabletopressforhistoricalidentificationsinthisbeautifullegend.3.and4.The
PharaohsoftheOppressionandtheExodus.ThenameofRaamses,giventoastorecitybuiltbytheHebrews(Ex1:11),pointstooneofthekingsnamed
Ramessesinthe19th20thDyn.asthePharaohoftheOppression.ThechiefofthesewasRamessesII.(c.B.C.1350),afterwhomseveraltownswerenamed.He
wasperhapsthegreatestbuilderinEgyptianhistory.HissonMineptahmightbethePharaohoftheExodus:butfromthefifthyearofMineptahthereisanEgyptian
recordofthedestructionofIsrael,who,itwouldseem,werealreadyinPalestine.Atpresentitisimpossibletoascertaintheproportionofhistoricaltruthcontained
inthelegendsoftheExodus.5.1Ch4:18,Bithiah,daughterofPharaoh:nocluetoidentity.BithiahisHeb.,andnotlikeanEgyp.name.6.1K3:1,9:16,24,
11:1,Pharaoh,thefatherinlawofSolomon,mustbeoneofthefeeblekingsoftheendofthe21stDynasty.7.1K11:18,thePharaohwhobefriendedHadadthe
EdomiteinthelastdaysofSolomon,andgavehimthesisterofhisqueenTahpenes:notidentified.(AtthispointinthenarrativeShishakcomesin:heisnever
calledPharaoh,seeabove.)8.Pharaoh,kingofEgyptin2K18:21,Is36:6etc.,perhapsasageneraltermfortheEgyptianking,notpointingtoanyindividual.In
thetimeofSennacheribandHezekiah,TirhakahorsomeearlierkingoftheEthiopianDynastywouldbeonthethrone.9.ForJer37,Ezk29,seeHOPHRA.
F.LL.GRIFFITH.
PHARATHON.Named,withTimnathandTephon,amongthecitieswhichBacchidesstrengthenedwithhighwalls,withgatesandwithbars(1Mac9:60).
SomeauthoritiesreadwithLXXTimnathpharathon,asindicatingoneplace.CondersuggestsFeron,about15milesW.ofNhlus.Thisseemstobetoofartothe
north,asthetownsmentionedareallinJuda.ItmaypossiblybeFerata,6milesS.W.ofNblus,althoughthesamedifficultyexistsinamodifieddegree.Cf.
P IRATHON.
W.EWING.
PHARES.SeeP EREZ.
PHARIDA.SeeP ERIDA.
PHARISEES.AstudyofthefourcenturiesbeforeChristsuppliesastrikingillustrationofthelawthatthedeepestmovementsofhistoryadvancewithoutthe63/144
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PHARISEES.AstudyofthefourcenturiesbeforeChristsuppliesastrikingillustrationofthelawthatthedeepestmovementsofhistoryadvancewithoutthe
men,whoinGodsplanaretheiragents,beingclearlyawareofwhatisgoingon.TheanswertothequestionHowcamethePhariseesintotheplaceofpowerand
prestigetheyheldinthetimeofourLord?involvesaclearunderstandingofthetaskofIsraelaftertheExile.Itwastofoundanddevelopanewtypeofcommunity.
TheHebrewmonarchyhadbeenthrownintoperpetualbankruptcy.ButmonarchywastheonlyformthatthepoliticalprinciplecouldassumeintheEast.What
shouldbeputinitsplace?InsolvingthisproblemtheJewscreatedacommunitywhich,whileitwashalfState,wasalsohalfChurch.Theworkingcapitalofthe
Jewswasthemonotheismoftheprophets,theselfrevelationofGodinHischaracterofholyandcreativeUnity,and,inseparablefromthis,thebeliefinthe
perfectibilityandindestructibilityoftheChosenNation(theMessianicidea).Prophecyceased.Intotheplaceoftheprophetcametheschoolmasterandthedrill
master.Theypopularizedmonotheism,makingitanationalinstinct.Necessarily,thepopularizationofmonotheismdrewalongwithitagrowingsenseofsuperiority
totheheathenandidolatrousnationsamongstwhomtheirlotwascast.AndbythesamenecessitytheJewsweretaughttoseparatethemselvesfromtheirheathen
neighbours(Ezr10:11).Theymustnotintermarry,lestthenationhedraggeddowntotheheathenlevel.Thiswasthestateofthingsinthe3rdcent.B.C.(see
ESSENES),whenHellenismbegantothreatenJudaismwithannihilation.ThedeepestforcesofJudaismsoundedtherally.ThemorezealousJewsdrewapart,calling
themselvestheHolyMen(Chasdm),Puritans,orthoseselfdedicatedtotherealizationofEzrasideal.Thencamethegreatwar.ThetendenciesofJudaism
precipitatedthemselves.TheJewishPuritansbecameadistinctclasscalledthePharisees,ormenwhoseparatedthemselvesfromtheheathen,andnolessfromthe
heathenizingtendenciesandforcesintheirownnation.Theyabstainedevenfromtablefellowshipwiththeheathenasbeinganabominablething(Gal2:12ff.).As
yearswentonitbecamemoreandmoreclearthattheheartofthenationwaswiththem.AndsoitcomestopassthatinourLordstime,touseHisownwords,the
scribesandPhariseessitinMosesseat(Mt23:2).They,notthepriests,arethesourceofauthority.
ThehistoryofPharisaismenablesustounderstanditsspiritandrulingideas,todojusticetoitsgreatness,whileemphasizingitslimitationsanddefects.Intoit
wentthedeepestelementsamongtheforceswhichbuilttheJewishchurchandnation.ThePhariseesareseenattheirbestwhencontrastedwiththeZealots(see
CANANAN)ontheonesideandtheHerodians(wh.see)ontheother.Unlikethelatter,theyweredeeplyinearnestwiththeirancestralreligion.Againandagainat
criticaltimestheyshowedthevigourandtemperoffearlessPuritanism.Unliketheformer,theyheldbackfromtheappealtoforce,believingthattheGodofthe
nationwasincontrolofhistory,thatinHisowngoodtimeHewouldgrantthenationitsdesirethat,meanwhile,thedutyofatrueIsraelitewaswholehearted
devotiontotheTorah,joinedtopatientwaitingontheDivinewill.ThisnoblersideofPharisaismcouldfinditselfinPs119.ThePhariseeswereinasense
Churchmenratherthanstatesmen.Andtheyemphasizedspiritualmethods.Theirinterestslayinthesynagogue,intheschoolingofchildren,inmissionaryextension
amongsttheheathen.TheydeservedthepowerandprestigewhichwefindthemholdinginourLordstime.TheMasterHimselfseemstosaythiswhenHe
distinguishesbetweentheirrightfulauthorityandthespiritwhichtheyoftenshowedintheiractions(Mt23:14).Hencewearenotsurprisedwhenwelearnthat,
aftertheconflictswithRome(A.D.66135),PharisaismbecamepracticallysynonymouswithJudaism.Onegreatwar(theMaccaban)haddefinedPharisaism.
Anotherwar,evenmoreterrible,gaveitthefinalvictory.ThetwowarstogethercreatedtheJudaismknowntoEuropeansandAmericans.Andthis,allowingforthe
inevitablechangeswhichalongandvariedexperiencebringstopassinthemosttenaciousrace,isinsubstancethePharisaismofthe2ndcentury.
AwidehistoricalstudydiscoversmoraldignityandgreatnessinPharisaism.ThePharisees,ascontrastedwiththeSadducees(wh.see),representedthe
democratictendency.Ascontrastedwiththepriesthood,theystoodbothforthedemocraticandforthespiritualizingtendency.Thepriesthoodwasaclose
corporation.NomanwhowasunabletotracehisdescentfromapriestlyfamilycouldexerciseanyfunctionintheTemple.ButthePhariseesandtheScribesopened
agreatcareertoallthetalents.Furthermore,thepriesthoodexhausteditselfintheritualoftheTemple.ButthePhariseesfoundtheirmainfunctioninteachingand
preaching.SoPharisaismclearedthegroundforChristianity.AndwhenthereadergoesthroughhisNTwiththispointinmind,andwhenhenotesthestriking
freedomoftheNTfromritualisticandsacerdotalideas,heshouldgivecredittoPharisaismasoneofthehistoricalforceswhichmadethesesupremequalities
possible.
WehavenotyetexhaustedtheclaimsofthePhariseesonourinterestandgratitude.Itwastheywho,forthemostpart,preparedthegroundforChristianityby
takingtheMessianicideaandworkingitintotheverytextureofcommonconsciousness.Pharisaismwasinseparablefromthepopularizationofmonotheism,and
theuniversalacceptancebythenationofitsDivineelectionandcalling.WeneedonlyconsiderourLordstasktoseehowmuchpreparatoryworkthePharisees
did.ContrasttheSaviourwithGautama(Buddha),andthegreatnessofHisworkisclearlyseen.Buddhateachesmenthewayofpeacebythinkingawaythe
politicalandsocialorderofthings.ButourLordtooktheglorifiednationalismofHisnationasthetrunkstockofHisthought,anduponitgraftedtheKingdomof
God.Now,itwasthePhariseeswhomadeidealizednationalism,baseduponthemonotheismoftheprophets,thepithandmarrowofJudaism.Itwastheywho
wrotethegreatApocalypses(DanielandEnoch).Itwastheywhomadethebeliefinimmortalityandresurrectionpartofthecommonconsciousness.Itwasthey
whotrainedthenationalwillandpurposeuptothelevelwheretheSaviourcoulduseit.
Butalongwiththisgreatworkwentsomelamentabledefectsandlimitations.Thoughtheystoodforthespiritualizingtendencieswhichlookedtowardsthe
existenceofaChurch,thePhariseesneverreachedtheChurchidea.Theymadeaninextricableconfusionbetweenthequestionofthesoulandthequestionof
descentfromAbraham.Theydevelopedthespiritofproudandarrogantorthodoxy,untilthemonotheismoftheprophetsbecameintheirhandswhollyincompetent
tofoundasocietywhereJewandGentileshouldbeone(Gal3:28,Col3:11).TheydevelopedSabbatarianismuntilreverencefortheSabbathbecamea
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tofoundasocietywhereJewandGentileshouldbeone(Gal3:28,Col3:11).TheydevelopedSabbatarianismuntilreverencefortheSabbathbecamea
superstition,asourLordsrepeatedclashwiththemgoestoshow.Andinspiteofmanynobleindividualexceptions,thedeepesttendencyofPharisaismwas
towardsanovervaluationofexternalthings,Leviticalcorrectnessandprecision(Mt23:23),thatmadetheirspiritstronglyantagonistictothegeniusofProphetism.
ForProphetism,whetheroftheOldoroftheNewDispensation,threwthewholeemphasisoncharacter.Andso,whenJohntheBaptist,thefirstprophetformany
centuries,cameonthefield,heputhimselfinmortaloppositiontothePharisees,nolessthantotheSadducees(Mt3:7f.,Jn1:19ff.).AndourLord,embodyingthe
moralessenceofProphetism,foundHismostdangerousopponents,untiltheendofHisministry,notintheSadduceesortheEssenesortheZealots,butinthe
Pharisees.
Seealsoartt.S ADDUCEESANDS CRIBES.
HENRYS.NASH.
PHARPAR.AriverofDamascusmentionedwiththeAbanah(2K5:12)byNaamanascontrastingfavourablywiththeJordan.Itsidentificationisbyno
meanssocertainasthatofAbanahwiththeBarada.ThemostprobableisthatsuggestedbyThomson,namely,theAwaj,ariverrisingeastofHermon.Awady
near,butnottributaryto,oneofitssourcesiscalledtheWadyBarbar,whichmaypossiblybeareminiscenceoftheancientname.Theprincipalobstacletothis
identificationisthedistanceoftheriverfromthecitybutNaamanwasperhapsthinkingasmuchofthefertileplainofDamascusasofthecityitself.Other
identificationshavebeenwitheithertheriverflowingfromAinFijeh,orelseoneorotherofthecanalsfedbytheBarada.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
PHASELISismentioned1Mac15:23asacitytowhichtheRomansinB.C.139sentlettersonbehalfoftheJews.ItwasattheE.extremityofthecoastof
Lycia,aDoriancolonywhichapparentlyalwaysmaintaineditsindependenceoftherestofLycia.Itsearlyimportancewasduetoitspositioninthetradebetween
thegseanandtheLevant.ItsalliancewithCilicianpiratescausedittobecapturedbyServiliusIsauricusinB.C.77,anditseemsnevertohaverecoveredits
formerimportance.ItwasabishopricintheByzantineperiod.
A.E.HILLARD.
PHASIRON.ANabatantribe(1Mac9:66)unknown.
PHASSURUS(1Es5:25)=Pashhur,Ezr10:22.
PHEREZITE.SeeP ERIZZITES.
PHICOL.Abimelechscaptain(Gn21:22,32,26:26).
PHILADELPHIAwasacityofLydia,28milesfromSardis,inthevalleyoftheCogamis,atributaryoftheHermus,andconvenientlysituatedforreceivingthe
tradebetweenthegreatcentralplateauofAsiaMinorandSmyrna.ThedistrictknownasKatakekaumene(BurntRegion),becauseofitsvolcaniccharacter,rises
immediatelytotheN.E.ofPhiladelphia,andthiswasagreatvineproducingregion.
PhiladelphiawasfoundedandnamedbyAttalusPhiladelphusofPergamusbeforeB.C.138.Itwasliabletoseriousearthquakes,butremainedanimportant
centreoftheRomanprovinceofAsia,receivingthenameofNeoCsareafromTiberius,and,lateron,thehonouroftheNeocorate(i.e.thewardenshipofthe
templeforEmperorworship).ThereisnorecordofthebeginningoftheChurchatPhiladelphia,butintheApocalypseitisoneofthesevenchurchestowhich,as
headsofdistricts,specialmessagesaresent.Initsmessage(Rev3:813)Itissaidtohavealittlestrength(whichperhapsreferstoitsrecentorigin),andtohave
setbeforeitanopendoor,whichseemstorefertotheopportunitiesithadofspreadingthegospelinthecentreofAsiaMinor.In3:9thesynagogueofSatan
whichsaytheyareJewsandarenotmustmeanthattheJewsofPhiladelphiahadbeenlax,andhadconcededtoomuchtoGentileways.Butthemessagecontains
noreproachagainsttheChristians,althoughtheyarebiddentoholdfastthatwhichtheyhave,andthepromisetohimthatovercomethisthatIwillwriteuponhim
thenameofmyGod,andthenameofthecityofmyGod,thenewJerusalem,andmineownnewname.Doubtlessthereisareferencehere,asinthemessageto
Pergamus,tothenewnametakenatbaptism,andapparentlysometimeskeptsecret.
Philadelphiawastheseatofabishop,butwasnotametropolisuntilabout A. D.1300,whentheimportanceofSardishadbecomeless.Inthe14thcent.,whentheGreekEmpire
retainednothingonthemainlandofAsiaexceptastripofterritoryoppositeConstantinople,Philadelphiastillresistedthe
Ottomanarms,thoughfarfromtheseaandalmostforgottenbytheEmperors.InthewordsofGibbon(ch.lxiv):AmongtheGreekcoloniesandchurchesofAsia,Philadelphiais65/144
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Ottomanarms,thoughfarfromtheseaandalmostforgottenbytheEmperors.InthewordsofGibbon(ch.lxiv):AmongtheGreekcoloniesandchurchesofAsia,Philadelphiais
stillerect,acolumninasceneofruins:apleasingexamplethatthepathsofhonourandsafetymaysometimesbethesame.Thedateofitsfinalcaptureisuncertainprobably A. D.
1391.ItsmodernnameisAlaSheher,andaconsiderableportionofthepopulationisChristian.
A.E.HILLARD.
PHILEMON.KnownonlyasthepersonaddressedbySt.PaulonbehalfoftherunawayslaveOnssimus(Philem1).Theclosenessofthepersonaltie
betweenhimandtheApostleisexpressedinthetermsbelovedandfellowworker,andappearsinthefamiliarconfidencewithwhichSt.Paulpresseshisappeal.
FromCol4:9itseemsthatOnesimus,andthereforePhilemon,residedinColossArchippus,too,whoisjoinedwithPhilemoninthesalutation,isaColossian
(Col4:17),andthereisnoreasontodoubtthenaturalsuppositionthatSt.Paulsgreetingistohusband,wife(Apphia),andson,withthechurchinPhilemons
house.Thathewasofgoodpositionissuggestednotonlybyhispossessionofslaves,butalsobyhisministrytothesaintsandbyPaulshopetolodgewithhim
(Philemv.22).HeapparentlyowedhisconversiontoSt.Paul(v.18),possiblyduringthelongministryinEphesus(Ac19:10),fortheApostlehadnothimself
visitedColoss(Col2:1).
S.W.GREEN.
PHILEMON,EPISTLETO.
1.Occasionandcontents.Thisbeautifulprivateletter,uniqueintheNT,purportstobefromSt.Paul(withwhosenamethatofTimothyisjoined,asin1and
2Thess.,2Cor.,Philipp.,Col.)toPhilemon,withApphiaandArchlppus,andthechurchinhishouse.Thispluraladdressappears,quitenaturally,invv.22and25
(you)otherwisetheletteristoPhilemonalone(thee).St.Paulisaprisoner(vv.1,9,13)afirstlinkofconnexionbetweenthisletterandPhilippians(1:7,18
etc.),Eph(3:1,4:1,6:20),andCol.(4:3,18)withCol.thereisalsocloseconnexioninthefactthatOnesimuswasaColossian(Col4:9),andinthesalutationsin
bothEpistlesfromEpaphras,Mark,Aristarchus,Demas,andLuke.ItisalmostcertainthattheletterwassentfromRome(notCsarea)toColoss,alongwiththe
ColossianEpistle,byTychicusandOnesimus,tobehandedtoPhilemonbytherunawayslave,whoatSt.Paulsinstancewasreturningtothemasterhehad
wrongedbyembezzlementandflight.OnesimushadinsomewaybecomeknowntotheApostle,whohadwonhimtotheChristianfaith(v.10).St.Paulregards
himashischild,hisveryheart,abrotherbeloved(vv.10,12,16),andwouldfainkeephishelpfulministry(vv.13,11).Buttheconvertmustfirstputhimself
rightbyvoluntarysurrender:hisservicebelongstoPhilemon,and,howeverdesiredbySt.Paul,canbeacceptedbyhimonlyofhisfriendsfreewill(v.14).SoSt.
Paulsendstheslaveback,withthislettertosecurehisforgivenessandthewelcomeofoneChristianbrotherforanother(vv.1517).Hefoundshisappealonwhat
hehasheardofPhilemonslovetowardallthesaints(vv.47,9)yetmakesitalsoapersonalrequestfromPaultheagedandnowaprisoner,whohasclaims
uponPhilemonsservice(vv.914,17,20),withjustahintofanauthoritywhichhewillnotpress
(vv.8,19,21,obedience).Awistfulhumourappearsintheplayonthemeaningofthename
OnesimusIbeseechtheeforProfitable,whowasaforetimeunprofitable,butnowisprofitableYea,letmehaveprofitofthee(vv.11,20)alsowhenatv.19St.
Paulhimselftakesthepenandwithplayfulsolemnity(cf.,forthesolemnformulaIPaul,1Co16:21,2Co10:1,Col4:18,2Th3:17)giveshisbondforthedebt,
IPaulwriteitwithmyownhand,Iwillrepayit.(Itispossible,thoughlessprobable.thattheGreektenseshouldberenderedIhavewritten,andthattheprevious
versealso,ifnotthewholeletter,isbySt.Paulshand.)Indeed,themingledearnestness,tact,andcharmamplyendorseRenansverdictalittlemasterpiece:the
letterexemplifiestheApostlesownpreceptastospeechseasonedwithsalt(Col4:6),andshowstheperfectChristiangentleman.
2.Teaching.ItissignificantforthedepthandsincerityofSt.Paulsreligiousfaiththatthisprivateletterinitssalutation,thanksgiving,andbenedictionisas
loftilydevoutasanyEpistletotheChurches.Apartfromthis,thedogmaticinterestliesinitsillustrationofChristianityatwork.Therelationofmasterandslave
comesintoconflictwiththatoftheChristiancommunionorfellowship:theproblemiswhetherthatfellowshipwillproveeffectualintheknowledgeofeverygood
thingwhichisinyouuntoChrist,andtheslavebereceivedasabrother.St.PauldoesnotaskthatOnesimusbesetfree.Itmayevenbedoubtedwhethertheword
emancipationseemstobetremblingonhislips(Lightfoot,Col.p.321):ifitis,itisratherthatOnesimusmaybepermittedtoreturntocontinuehisministrytothe
imprisonedApostlethanthatChristianity,asheconceivesit,forbidsslavery.ThatInstitutionisnotinSt.Paulsjudgmenttobeviolentlyended,thoughitistobe
regulatedbytheChristianprincipleofequalityandresponsibilitybeforeGod(Eph5:59,Col3:224:1)totheslavehimselfhisworldlypositionshouldbematter
ofindifference(1Co7:2124).YetifPhilemonshouldchoosetoasserthisrights,itwillmeanafatalbreachinChristianfellowshipandtherejectionofa
Christianbrother.ThusSt.Paullaiddowntheprinciplewhichinevitablyworkeditselfoutthoughnottillthe19thcent.intotheimpossibilityofslaverywithin
aChristiannation.ChristianslongandstrenuouslydefendedIt:
Christianity,andnotleastthisletter,destroyedit.
3.Authenticity.Theexternaltestimonyisfullandconsistent,althoughsoshortandpersonalalettermighteasilylackrecognition.Itiscontainedinthe
SyriacandOldLatinVersions,andnamedintheMuratorianFragment.Marcionacceptedit(Tert.adv.Marc.v.21).Origenquotesfromitthreetimes,ineachcase
asSt.Pauls.Eusebiusincludesitamongtheundisputedbooks.Oninternalgroundsitmayfairlyheclaimedthattheletterspeaksforitsowngenuineness.Some 66/144
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asSt.Pauls.Eusebiusincludesitamongtheundisputedbooks.Oninternalgroundsitmayfairlyheclaimedthattheletterspeaksforitsowngenuineness.Some
moderncritics(sinceF.C.Baur)havequestioneditsauthenticity,mainlybecausetheyrejectColossians,withwhichthisletterissocloselyconnected.AsRenan
writes:Iftheepistleisapocryphal,theprivateletterisapocryphalalsonow,fewpageshavesoclearanaccentoftruth.Paulalone,itwouldseem,couldhave
writtenthislittlemasterpiece(St.Paul,p.xi.).Butitmustsufficeheretoaffirmastheallbutuniversaljudgment,thatPhilemonbelongstotheleastdoubtfulpart
oftheApostleswork(Jlicher,Introd.toNT,p.127).
4.Dateandplaceofwriting.TheargumentforRomeasagainstCsarea(Meyer,etc.)seemsdecisive.Opinionisgreatlydividedastotheorderofthe
EpistlesoftheCaptivity,i.e.whetherPhilippiansorthegroupEph.Col.Philem.istheearlier(seeLightfoot,Philip.pp.3046).Ineithercasethelimitofdatefor
Philem.liesbetweenc.A.D.6062,andthelaterdateissuggestedbyvv.21,22(seeCOLOSSIANSandP HILIPPIANS).
S.W.GREEN.
PHILETUS.MentionedinSt.PaulsEpistletoTimothy(2Ti2:17)asanexampleofoneofthosewhoweredoingharmbytheirfalseteachingonthesubject
oftheresurrectionofthebody.Forthemtheresurrectionwaspast.Itwasaspiritualresurrectionfromsintoholiness,andtherewasnofutureresurrectionofthe
body,nolifetocome.St.Paulsaystheirteachingwilleatawaythetruedoctrineasacankerorgangreneeatsawaytheflesh.Cf.HYMENUS.
MORLEYS TEVENSON.
PHILIP(Apocr.).1.FatherofAlexandertheGreat(1Mac1:1,6:2).2.Afriendorfosterbrother(2Mac9:29)ofAntiochusEpiphanes,whoreceivedthe
charge(previouslygiventoLysias)ofbringinguptheyoungAntiochusEupator(1Mac6:14).OnthedeathofAntiochusEpiphanes,Lysiastookuponhimselfto
proclaimyoungEupatorking(B.C.164).ThejealousyoverthismatterledtoopenhostilitlesbetweenLysiasandPhilip.PhilipwasovercomebyLysiasatAntioch
andputtodeath.Heisbymanyregardedasidenticalwith3.APhrygianwho(inB.C.168).whenleftinchargeofJerusalembyAntiochusEpiphanes,was
remarkableforthecrueltyofhisgovernment(2Mac5:22,6:11).Littlemoreisknownofhimunlessthedetailsofhislifehefilledupbyassuminghisidentitywith
theformerPhilip.4.AkingofMacedonia(B.C.220179)overthrownbytheRomans(1Mac8:5).
T.A.MOXON.
PHILIP(NT)
1.TheApostle(Mt10:3=Mk3:18=Lk6:14)oneofthediscipleswhomJesuswonatBethanybeyondJordaninthemorningofHisministry(Jn1:2851).
HewasafellowtownsmanofAndrewandPeter(v.44),andseemstohavehadaspecialfriendshipwiththeformer(Jn6:8,12:21,22).Hewasofatimidand
retiringdisposition.Hedidnot,likeAndrewandJohn,approachJesus,butwaitedtillJesusaccostedhimandinvitedhimtojoinHiscompany.AndrewandJohn
foundJesus(v.41)JesusfoundPhilip(v.43).ThischaracteristicgivessomecountenancetothetraditionthatthedisciplewhowouldfainhavedeclinedtheLords
callthathemightgoandburyhisfather(Lk9:59,60=Mt8:21,22),wasnoneotherthanPhilip.Thoughsomewhatslowofheartanddullinspiritual
understanding(cf.Jn14:8,9),hehadhisaptitudes.Hehadaturnforpracticalaffairs,and,justasJudaswastreasurertotheApostoliccompany,soPhilipwas
purveyor,attendingtothecommissariat(BengelonJn6:5).IfAndrewwasthefirstmissionaryoftheKingdomofheaven,bringinghisbrotherSimontoJesus(Jn
1:4042).Philipwasthesecond,bringinghisfriendNathanael(vv.45,46).ItissaidthatafterthedepartureofJesushelabouredinAsiaMinorandwasburiedat
Hierapolis.
2.TheEvangelist.ItwassoonfoundnecessaryintheApostolicChurchthatthereshouldbeadivisionoflabourandthattheTwelvemightgivethemselves
withoutdistractiontoprayerandtheministryoftheword,sevenofthebrethrenweresetapartforthemanagementofthebusinessmattersoftheChurch(Ac6:16)
.Philipwasoneofthese.HeseemstohavebeenaHellenist,i.e.aGreekspeakingJewatalleventshewasamanofliberalsympathies,andhegreatlyhelpedin
theextensionofthegospeltotheGentiles.HewasinfacttheforerunnerofSt.Paul.DuringthepersecutionwhichfollowedthemartyrdomofStephen,hepreached
inSamaria
(Ac8:48).HewasinstrumentalintheconversionofthechamberlainofCandace,queenofEthiopia,thusintroducingChristianityintothathistoricheathencountry
(8:2639).OnpartingfromthechamberlainhewenttoAzotus(Ashdod),andtravelledalongtheseaboard,preachingfromcitytocity,tillhereachedCsarea(v.
40).Therehesettled,andtherehewasstillresidingwithhisfourunmarrieddaughters,whowereprophetesses,whenPaulvisitedCsareaonhislastjourneyto
Jerusalem.Thetwomenwerelikeminded,anditisnowonderthatPaulabodewithhimduringhisstayatCsarea(21:8,9).
3.HerodPhilip.SeeHEROD.
DAVIDS MITH.
PHILIPPIwasacitysituatedE.ofMt.Pangus,ontheE.borderofMacedonia,about10milesfromthecoast.Itwasoriginally(underthenameofCrenides)a
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PHILIPPIwasacitysituatedE.ofMt.Pangus,ontheE.borderofMacedonia,about10milesfromthecoast.Itwasoriginally(underthenameofCrenides)a
settlementofThasians,whominedthegoldofMt.PangusbutoneoftheearlyactsofPhilipofMacedonwastoassurehimselfofrevenuebyseizingthesemines
andstronglyfortifyingthecity,towhichhegavehisownname.Theminesaresaidtohaveyieldedhim1000talentsayear.Philippipassedwiththerestof
MacedoniatotheRomansinB.C.168.UntilB.C.146Macedoniawasdividedintofourregions,withseparategovernments,andsodividedthatamemberofone
couldnotmarryorholdpropertyinanother.Butin146itreceivedthemoreregularorganizationofaprovince.ThegreatEasternroadoftheRomanEmpire,theVia
Egnatia,aftercrossingtheStrymonatAmphipolis,keptN.ofMt.PangustoPhilippiandthenturnedS.E.toNeapolis,whichwastheportofPhilippi.Philippi
stoodonthesteepsideofabill,andimmediatelyS.ofitlayalargemarshylake.
TheChurchatPhilippiwasfoundedbySt.Paulonhissecondmissionaryjourney.WithSilas,Timothy,andLukehelandedatNeapolis,andproceededto
Philippi,whichSt.LukedescribesasacityofMacedonia,thefirstofthedistrict,aRomancolony.Philippiwasnotthecapitalcityofeitheroftheregionsinto
whichMacedoniahadbeendividedin168,butthemostnaturalexplanationofthephrasefirstofthedistrictisthattheprovincehadatthistimeadivisionfor
officialpurposesofwhichwedonotknow.Otherexplanationsarethatitmeansthefirstcitywearrivedat(whichtheGreekcouldscarcelymean),orthatPhilippi
claimedapreeminenceinmuchthesamewaythatPergamus,Smyrna,EphesusallclaimedtobethefirstcityofAsia.IthadbecomeaRomancolonyafterthe
battleofPhilippi,B.C.42,whenOctavianandAntony,havingvanquishedBrutusandCassius,settledanumberoftheirveteransthere.Anotherbodyofveterans
wassettledthereafterActium,B.C.31.AsacolonyitsconstitutionwasmodelledontheancientoneofRome,anditstwochiefmagistrateshadnotonlylictors(EV
Serjeants),butalsoajurisdictionindependentofthatofthegovernoroftheprovince.ItwasthefirstessentiallyRomantowninwhichSt.Paulpreached.There
wasnosynagogue,butontheSabbath,saysSt.Luke,wewentforthwithoutthegatebyariversidewherewesupposedtherewasaplaceofprayer.Atthisplace,
therefore,St.Paulfoundanumberofwomenassembled,Jewessesorproselytes,oneofwhomnamedLydia(wh.see),amerchantinpurplefromThyatira,was
immediatelyconvertedandbaptized.ForthesubsequentIncidentsseeP YTHON,
MAGISTRATE,etc.
ItisprobablethattheChurchatPhilippiwasleftinchargeofSt.Luke,foratthispointinthenarrativeoftheActsthefirstpersonisdroppeduntilSt.Paulpasses
throughMacedoniaonhisreturnfromthethirdmissionaryjourney(20:5).TheChurchflourished,andalwaysremainedontermsofpeculiaraffectionwithSt.Paul,
beingallowedtoministertohisneedsmorethanonce.
Seeart.P HILIPPIANS[EPISTLETO],whichwasprobablywrittenduringhisfirstimprisonmentatRome.From1Ti1:3weassumeatleastonelatervisitoftheApostle
toPhilippi.
Before A. D.117IgnatiuspassedthroughPhilippionhisjourneyfromAntiochtohismartyrdominRome.HewaswelcomedbytheChurch,andtheywrotealetterof
consolationtotheChurchofAntiochandanothertoPolycarpofSmyrna,askingforcopiesofanylettersthatIgnatiushadwritteninAsia.PolycarpwrotehisEpistletothe
Philippiansinanswer.Inthe4thand5thcenturieswereadofthebishopofPhilippiaspresentatCouncils,butapartfromthistheChurchpassesoutofhistory.
A.E.HILLARD.
PHILIPPIANS,EPISTLETO
1.TheChurchofPhilippi.St.PaulvisitedPhilippionhissecondmissionaryjourney,andfoundedtherehisfirstChurchinEurope.ThenamesinPh4:2f.,
probablythoseofearlyconverts,leadustoinferthattheGentileelementcontinuedstrongfromthedayswhentheChurchbeganinthehouseholdsofLydiaand
thejailor(Ac16:1240).ItisonlybytheexerciseofmuchimaginationthatthecharacterofthecityaRomancolonyenjoyingthejusItalicum,andthereforewith
asenseofitsownimportancecanbediscernedintheletter,thoughprobablythefactthatSt.PaulwasaRomancitizen,andthevirtualapologywithwhichhewas
sentawaybytheprtors,mayhavehadsomeeffectonthesubsequenttreatmentoftheChristians.AsoneoftheChurchesofMacedoniareferredtoin2Co8:2ff.,
itwasdoubtlessindeeppoverty,butisheldforthalongwiththemasamodelofliberality.St.PaulseemstohavetreatedthePhilippiansinanexceptionalway,by
acceptingfromthemsupportwhichheordinarilyrefused(2Co11:7ff.,Ph4:16).HemusthavevisitedPhilippiatleastthreetimes(Ac16:12,2Co2:13,Ac20:6),
andhealwaysfoundhisownlovereciprocatedbytheChurch,andexperiencedauniquejoyintheirfellowshipwithhimforthefurtheranceofthegospel(Ph1:3
8).TheApostlesascendencyintheChurchwasneverquestioned,asinCorinth.Therewere,itistrue,rivalriesinthecongregation,especially,itwouldseem,
amongsomeoftheactivewomenoftheChurch,andSt.PauldoesnothesitatetousethemostpowerfulofChristianmotivestogiveforceanddirectiontotheshaft
thatheaimsatdiscord(2:111).But,unliketheChurchesofGalatia,PhilippihadnotbeendisturbedbyasevereattackfromtheJudaists,thoughtheApostlesees
threateningindicationsoftheirapproach(3:2,18f.).TheChurchwasorganizedwithbishopsanddeacons,fromwhomSt.Paulseemstohavereceivedthepeoples
gift(1:1),whichtheysentby
Epaphroditus,probablywithaletter.Innopartofhismissionaryfield,sofarasweknow,didhefindsuchapureChristianlife.Theywerelightsintheworld
(2:15,16),andtheApostlesjoyandcrown(4:1).
2. SituationofSt.Paul.TheApostleisaprisoner(1:7,13,14,17).ItappearsthathisimprisonmenthadbecomemorerigoroussincethePhilippians
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2.SituationofSt.Paul.TheApostleisaprisoner(1:7,13,14,17).ItappearsthathisimprisonmenthadbecomemorerigoroussincethePhilippians
receivedtheirfirstwordconcerninghimanditmusthavebeenofsomeduration,becausetherehadbeenseveralcommunicationsbetweenthem(2:2530,4:10).
Theyaredistressedbythefearthatthegospelwillsufferthroughhisstrictconfinementandpossiblemartyrdom.Butthisimprisonment,insteadofhinderingthe
gospel,hasreallyledtoamoreeagerpreachingofChristbythe
ChristiansofthecityofRome.ThemotiveofthisincreasedactivitywassometimesanunworthyemulationoftheApostle,andtheremusthavebeenthoseinthe
Churchwhorefusedtoacknowledgehisleadership,beingarousedbythesuccesswithwhichhisbondsbecamemanifestthroughoutallthePrtoriumandtoallthe
rest(1:1218).Hehascometoberecognizedasnomeredisturberofthepeace(Ac24:6,25:8),butasapreacherofareligiondifferentfromthatoftheJews,and
onewhichhadalreadyreachedCsarshousehold(Ph4:22).Hisdefencehasbeenpartlymade,andheisfullofhopeofaspeedyacquittal(1:25ff.),thoughthe
possibilityofmartyrdomhangslikeacloudinhissky,brighttohisownview,butcastingashadowuponhisreadersjoy(1:1930).
Ithasbeenassumed,inaccordancewiththeoverwhelmingopinionofscholars,thatSt.PaulwasatthetimeimprisonedinRomebutsomesayinCsarea.The
chiefreasonsfortheRomanimprisonmentare(1)thatthewidespreadactivityonbehalfofthegospelbyfriendsandenemiesoftheApostleinvolvesalarger
ChurchthanseemstohavebeeninCsareaand(2)hisownconvictionthathisacquittalisnear.Withthisviewtheindicationsof1:13and4:22mostnaturally
agree.Prtoriummight,indeed,meanHerodspalace,whichwasusedastheheadquartersoftheRomangovernorinCsarea,butthewordsinthewhole
PrtoriumseemtopointtothebodyguardoftheEmperor,thoughMommsensupposesthattheconditionsarebestrealizedifthewordsimplythatSt.Paulwas
handedovertothejudicialprefectsofthePrtorianguard,whopresidedoverthesupremeImperialcourtinRome.Nosufficientproofhasbeenadducedthatthe
wordwasusedfortheEmperorspalaceinRome,orforthebarracksoftheguard.AlsoCsarshousehold(4:22)probablymeanstheattendantsoftheEmperorin
Rome,includingthoseofhighrankandslaves.
AssumingthattheletterwaswrittenfromaRomanprison,whatisitsrelationshiptoEphesians,Colossians,andPhilemontheotherlettersofthecaptivity?
SomeholdthatthesewerewrittenfromCsareawhilePhilippianswassentfromRome,butmostassignalltheseCaptivityEpistlestoRome.Thereis,however,no
unanimityastowhetherPhilippiansprecededorfollowedtheothers.SomeofthemostdistinguishedEnglishandAmericanscholarsputPhilippiansearliest,forthe
reasonthatinstyleandlanguageitisverymuchakintoRomans,whileEphesiansandColossiansaremorelikethePastorals,andtheiratmosphereisquitedifferent
fromthatofRomansandPhilippians.Thereismuchforceinthis,thoughEphesiansalsopresentsstrongsimilaritytoRomans.ButthesituationoftheAsian
Churches,invadedastheywerebyanewtypeoferror,mighthavecalledforthnewthemesinaformalEpistlelikeEphesians,whilePhilippiansisafriendlyletterto
anoldChurchwhoselifewasapparentlynowforthefirsttimebeingthreatenedbytheJudaists,withtheirgospeloflegalrighteousness.Norwouldtheyearorso
whichonthissuppositionelapsedbetweenPhil.andEph.accountforthedifferencebetweenthem.Thequestionofprioritymaynotadmitoffinaldecision,butin
PhilippiansSt.Paulsimprisonmentseemstobeneareritsendthanintheotherletters.Hort,whoisinfavourofthepriorityofPhilippians,holdsthattherequestto
Philemontopreparealodgingisnottobetakeninacrudeliteralsense,andthatinthecontemporaryColossiansthereisnoexpectationofaspeedyrelease.Also
inPhilippiansSt.Paulhasnofriendsuponwhomhecandepend,exceptTimothy(cf.Col4:7ff.withPh2:20,21).Anadditionalreasonoflessweightinfavourof
placingPhilippianslastis,thatasomewhatlongdurationofSt.PaulsimprisonmentisinvolvedbythecommunicationsofthePhilippiansandtheiranxietyatthe
changeintherigourofhiscaptivity.
InregardtothedateofPhilippians,afurtherdifficultyemergesbecauseoftheuncertaintyofthePaulinechronology,butsinceA.D.61isthemostprobableyear
fortheApostlesarrivalinRome,thislettermay,thoughnotwithouthesitation,beassignedtoA.D.63.InthisletterSt.Paulrefresheshislonelyspiritbyperfect
freedomoffellowshipwithhisfavouriteChurch.Romewasnotsohomogeneous,nordiditacknowledgehisgospelsowholeheartedlyastheChurchesofhisown
creationthitherwouldcomeChristiansofeveryshadeofopinionJudaists,Hellenists,Petrinists,andsympathizerswithSt.Paul.ItisdoubtfulwhethertheChurch
ofRomewaseverofathoroughlyPaulinetypefor,notwithstandingthechangeeffectedbytheNeronianpersecution,thatChurchcouldnothavesoonbecomeso
decidedlyPetrinehaditoriginallybeenstronglyimbuedwiththePaulineGospel.Thislettershowsusaveryactiveandvariedmissionaryeffortinthecapital
partlybySt.PaulamongthePrtoriansandintheImperialhousehold,partlybyhisfriends,andtosomeextentbyotherswhoprobablypreachedtotheJewsand
theirproselytes.
3.ContentsoftheEpistle
(i.)Greeting,1:1,2.PaulandTimothysalutethesaintsofPhilippi,togetherwiththeirbishopsanddeacons.
(ii.)Introduction,vv.311.St.Paulisconstantlymovedtothanksgivingfortheirgenerousfellowshipwithhiminthefurtheranceofthegospelfromthebeginning,andthey
arealleveronhisheartwhereChristdwells.HisprayerforthemisthattheirlovemayaboundinknowledgeandinsightastowhatbefitstheChristianlife,thatsotheymaylive
sincereandblamelesslivesuntilChristcomes.
(iii.)ThepresentconditionofSt.Paul,vv.1226.Hisimprisonmenthas,contrarytoexpectation,ledtothespreadofthegospel,partlybyhisbeingchainedtothePrtorian
guards,partlythroughanewcourageamonghisfriends,andpartlythroughenviousrivalry.He,however,rejoicesbecauseheisassuredthatinanswertotheirprayerstheSpiritof
ChristwillenablehimtoglorifyhisLordwhateverbetheissueofhisimprisonmenthedoesnotknowwhattodesire,thoughhebelievesthathewillbeacquittedandwillworkfor
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ChristwillenablehimtoglorifyhisLordwhateverbetheissueofhisimprisonmenthedoesnotknowwhattodesire,thoughhebelievesthathewillbeacquittedandwillworkfor
theirChristianwelfare.
(iv.)ExhortotionstothePhilippianstowalkworthilyofthegospel,1:272:18.Nohostilitymustdeterthemfrommaintainingthegospelinaspiritofunity,forabilitytosuffer
forChristisasignofDivinegracetothemandofruintotheirenemies.Anappealisalsomadetothem,byallthattheyhaveexperiencedofChristianlove,tocompletehisjoyby
livinginfellowship,andtoexhibitthatunselfishmindwhichpromptedChristtocometoearthanddieforthem.WhereforeHeisnowexaltedtobeworshippedbyeverycreature.
ByreverentobedienceletthemworkwithGodandeffectHiswillofgoodtowardsthem,sothatatthelastdaytheApostleandhisbelovedPhilippiansmayrejoiceinwhatthe
gospelhasdoneforthem.
(v.)ThepromisetosendTimothy,andthecommendationofEpaphroditustothePhilippians(2:1930).
(vi.)ChristianprogressthroughtheknowledgeofJesusChrist,3:14:1.Tosumuphisletter,theApostlewouldsay,RejoiceintheLord.But,asthoughsuddenlyremindedof
adanger,hereturns,evenattheriskofwearyingthem,toawarningagainstthejudaistsdogs,evilworkers,mutilatorsoftheflesh.HewhobelievesinChristaloneasasufficient
SaviouristhetrueIsraelite.St.Paul,whohadenjoyedeveryHebrewprivilege,knowsofhowsmallvaluetheywereforattainingtruerighteousness,andnowheboastsonlyin
Christ.ForpersonalknowledgeofHimhewillgladlyloseallelse,inorderthathemaygettherighteousnesswhichisfromGodbyfaith,andincloseunionwithHimmayrealize
themeaningofHissufferings,death,andresurrection.Christianperfectionisstillinthedistance,butallwhohavebeenlaidholdofbyChristmustrespondbystrivingeagerlyfor
perfectfellowshipwithHim.ThematureChristianmustkeeponinthepathofprogress,andnotbemisledbyteachingwhichwillendinanearthlygoalandtherejectionofthe
cross.St.Paulandhisfollowersaretobetheirexample,fortheirCommonwealthanditsidealsareabove,whenceChristwillsooncometotransfigurethemintoHislikeness.
WhereforeletthisChurch,whichwillbehiscrownatthatday,standfastintheLord.
(vii.)Conclusion,4:219.
(a)ExhortationstoIndividualstounity(vv.2,3).Possiblyyokefellow(v.3)referstoEpaphroditus,ormoreprobablyitshouldbetranslatedSynzygus,apropername.(b)
St.PaultheirexampleforChristianjoyandconduct(vv.49).(c)Thanksfortheirgiftsandfortheirmanypastfavours.ContentedasheiswithwhateverGodsends,hemight
havedonewithoutthem,buttheywilladdinteresttotheaccountofthePhilippians,andhegivesthemareceiptinfullwhichGodwillacknowledge(vv.1019).
(viii.)Doxologyandfinalgreetings(vv.2023).
4.PurposeandCharacteristics.EpaphroditushadfallensickatRomebeforehisworkofloveforSt.Paulwasdone,andthenews,havingreachedPhilippi,
casttheChurchintoanxietyEpaphroditusinhisturnhavingheardoftheiralarmhasgrownhomesick.St.Paulusestheoccasionofhisreturntosettheirmindat
restabouthisownimprisonmentforthegospel,andtodealwithsomeaffairsaboutwhichtheyhadinformedhim.Theletterissothoroughlypersonalthatithasno
planoranysingleaim.HethanksthePhilippiansfortheirgift,crowningmanyactsofgenerositytowardshim,andyet,lesttheyshouldfeelthathewastoo
dependentuponthem,heremindsthemthatitistheirspiritthathevaluesmost.AgainhewarnsthemagainstaJudaisticgospel,andisurgentinseekingtocompose
personaljealousiesoftwoofthewomenworkers.Hisgospelistheonlyone,anditisthegospeloflove.HisunionwithChristfillshimwithloveandcontentment,
andthrillsthelonelyprisonerwithjoy,whichmaybecalledthenoteoftheEpistle,andhehopesbythislettertoImpartsomeofthisspirittothePhilippiansalso.
ShouldtheviewthatSt.Paulwasnotacquittedbecorrect,thislettermightbecalledhislasttestamenttohisbelovedChurchbutthereisgoodreasontobelieve
thathishopeofreleasewasfulfilled.
PhilippiansisanexcellentexampleofthePaulinemethodofsustainingChristianlifebydoctrinaltruthwhichistheoutcomeofpersonalexperience.Human
thoughthasmadefewnoblerflightsintothemysteryofredemptionthanPh2:611,butitisusedtoexaltthehomelydutyofsacrificeintheministryoffellowship.
Like2Co8:9,thedynamicofthetruthliesnotinanintellectualinterpretationofthemysteryofChristspersonality,forlittleistoldfurtherthanthatHewasinHis
natureessentiallyDivine,andenjoyedtheprerogativesofDivinitybutitliesinthefactthatSt.PaulhadlearnedfromhisownIntercoursewiththerisenChristHis
extraordinarypowerandgraceastheeternal,DivineSonofGod.Everythingearthlybecomesworthlessincomparisonwiththeexcellencyoftheknowledgeof
ChristJesus,hisLord.ThecontrastbetweenHisearthlylifeofsufferinganddeathandtheeternal,gloriousexistenceinvolvedinthevisionoftherisenLord,has
becomethereligiousmotiveofsupremeefficacy.Similarlyin3:811,20,21thedoctrineisdeducedfromexperience,andistobewroughtintocharacter.The
emphasisonthepracticeofvirtue,especiallyin4:812,issaidtoreflectthefinestcontemporaryteachingofthepaganworld,buttheformispervadedwiththe
purestChristianspirit.
5.AuthenticityandIntegrity.TheobjectionsurgedagainstthisEpistlebyBaurandhisfollowersarenotseriouslyregardedtoday,andhavebeen
abandonedbyallbutafewextremistswhostartfromcertainpresuppositionsastoprimitiveChristianity,andareoffendedbythetoneof3:17,4:9,aswellasbythe
abrupttransitionin3:1,2.Therecurrenceofthemotives,ideas,andlanguageofthegreatPaulineEpistles,andtheexternalevidenceofitsusefromtheearlysub
Apostolicage,makeitunnecessarytoconsidertheobjectionsindetail.MoreplausibilityattachestothetheorythattheEpistle,aswenowhaveit,consistsoftwo
letters,whicharejoinedat3:2,thelasttwochaptersbeingprobablyearlierandaddressedtodifferentreaders.Insupportofthis,appealismadetoPolycarpsletter
tothePhilippians(3.2),wherethewordswhoalsowroteyoulettersareheldtoprovethattheyhadnotthenbeenunited.Butinitselfthissuppositionisbaseless
andPolycarp,whoknewapparentlyonlyourletter,mayeitherhaveheardofotherswhichSt.PaulwrotetothePhilippiansorhaveemployedthetermlooselyor
perhapshewasreferringtoacollectionofSt.PaulsEpistlesusedwidelyforedificationbyalltheChurches.Theabruptnessin3.1,2,however,isexplainedbythe
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perhapshewasreferringtoacollectionofSt.PaulsEpistlesusedwidelyforedificationbyalltheChurches.Theabruptnessin3.1,2,however,isexplainedbythe
factthatSt.Paulisexpressinghimselffreelyinanintimatelettertohisfriends,andperhapsitwaspartlyduetosomethingintheirlettertohimwhichhesuddenly
remembered.
R.A.F ALCONER.
PHILISTIA.Seenextart.andP ALESTINE.
PHILISTINES.TheinhabitantsoftheMaritimePlainofPalestine(cf.art.P ALESTINE,1)fromtheperiodoftheJudgesonwardtothe6thcent.orlater.They
aresaidtohavecomefromCaphtor(Am9:7,Jer47:4,Dt2:23),whichiswithmuchprobabilityidentifiedwithCrete.Atalleventstheycamefromoverthesea.
RamesesIII.oftheXXthEgyptiandynastyencounteredapiraticalseafaringpeopleonthebordersofSyria,whomhecalledPurusati(=PulistaorPhilistines).They
afterwardsmadeincursionsonthenortherncoastofEgyptaswellasonthecoastofPalestine.Inthelattercountrytheygainedapermanentfoothold,owingtoitsdisorganized
condition.WhenWenamonmadehisexpeditiontoLebanonforakingoftheXXIstdynasty(c.1100),aPhilistinekingdomexistedatDor.(Forthesefactscf.Breasted,Ancient
Records,iv.274ff.,andHistoryofEgypt,p.513.)
ThePhilistinesfirstmaketheirappearanceinBiblicalhistorylateintheperiodoftheJudges,whenSamson,ofthetribeofDan,issaidtohavewagedhis
curioussinglehandedcombatswiththem(Jg1316).TheseconflictswerethenaturalresultoftheimpactofthePhilistinesuponIsraelswesternborder.The
referencetothePhilistinesinJg3:31isalaterinsertion(cf.ISRAEL,I.11).DuringthetimeofElitheseinvadersweretryingtomaketheirwayintothecentralridge
ofPalestine,andinoneofthebattlescapturedthearkofJahweh,whichapestilence(probablybubonicplague)inducedthemtoreturn(1S46).
WhenSaulbecamekingthePhilistinestriedtobreakhispower,butweredefeatedthroughthebraveryofJonathan(1S13,14).Sauldidnotpermanentlycheck
theirprogress,however,asbytheendofhisreignthewholeoftherichplainofJezreelwasintheirpossession,includingthecityofBethsheanatitseasternend(1
S31:10).Davidearlyinhisreigninflicteduponthemaseveredefeat(2S5:22ff.),afterwardsreducingthemtovassalage(2S8:1).DowntothistimePhilistine
powerwasconcentratedinthehandsoftherulersofthefivecitiesofGaza,Ashkelon,Ashdod,Ekron,andGath.Therulersofthesecitiesarecalledbyapeculiar
title,whichistranslatedlordsofthePhilistines(wh.see).
AfterthereignofDavid,probablyatthedivisionofthekingdom,thePhilistinesregainedtheirindependence,forwefindthekingsofIsraelinthe9thcent.
tryingtowrestfromthemGibbethon,atownontheborderoftheMaritimePlain(1K15:27,16:15).LateinthesamecenturytheAssyriankingAdadnlrariIII.
tooktributeofPhilistinekings(KIBi.190),andbeganthelongseriesofAssyrianinterferencesinPhilistineaffairs.Amos(1:68)denouncesPhilistinemonarchies
asamongtheindependentkingdomsofhistime.
ThepositionofthePhilistinesexposedthemtoeveryapproachoftheAssyriansandEgyptians,andduringthelastthirdofthe8thcent.andthewholeofthe7th
theirhistoryisaseriesofconquests,conspiracies,andrebellions.ItispossibletofollowthesewithmuchfulnessintheAssyrianinscriptions,butfulldetailscannot
begivenhere.TiglathpileserIII.receivedtributefromPhilistines(KIBii.20).TheybecameSargonsvassalstheyearthatSamariafell,B.C.722(KIBli.54),butten
yearslaterarebellionwasledbyAshdod(Is20:1KIBii.64ff.).AtthebeginningofthereignofSennacheribanothereffortwasmadetoshakeofftheAssyrian
yoke.InthisHezekiahofJudahtookpartbyimprisoningPadi,thePhilistinekingofEkron,whoremainedfaithfultoSennacherib.Thealliesthusbroughttogether
weredefeatedatEltekeh(KIBii.92ff.),andthesiegeofJerusalembySennacheribwastheresult(2K18,19).Esarhaddon(KIBii.148),andAshurbanipal(KIBii.
240)marchedacrossthePhilistineterritoryandhelditinsubjection.WiththedeclineofAssyriathePhilistinesbegantosufferfromtheriseofEgyptunderthe
XXVIthdynasty.PsammetichusI.tookAshdodafterasiegeof29years(Herod.ii.157).NechoII.,acontemporaryofJosiahofJudah,capturedGaza(Herod.ii.
159).ItisprobablethatthePhilistinessufferedatthehandofNebuchadnezzar,butnorecordofhisdoingsamongthemhasbeenpreserved.TheAssyrianscallthe
Philistinerulerskings.Theoldertitle,lordsofthePhilistines,hasdisappeared.
WhenCambysesmadehisexpeditionintoEgypt(B.C.525),Gazaopposedhim(Polyb.xvi.40).TheSidoniankingEshmunazarclaimsthatDorandJoppa
wereaddedtothedominionsofSidon.Gazain332heldoutagainstAlexandertheGreat,andhissiegeofitisfamous(Diod.Sic.XVII.XLVIII.7).ThePtolemysand
SeleucidsoftenfoughtoverPhilistineterritory.ItfinallypassedunderRomanrule,anditscitieshadthenanimportanthistory.
ThePhilistinesceasetobementionedbythisnameafterthetimeoftheAssyrians.SomeinferfromthefactthatHerodotus(iii.5)speaksoftheArabiansas
beinginpossessionofthecoastinthetimeofCambyses,thatthePhilistineshadeventhenbeensupplanted.Itisprobablethatintheebbandflowofthenations
overthislandtheyweregraduallyabsorbedandlosttheiridentity.
ProbablythePhilistinesadoptedinthemainthereligionandcivilizationoftheCanaanites.Theirchiefgod,Dagon(1S5:2ff.),wasaSemiticdeity.Heappears
intheelAmarnalettersandalsoinBabylonia(cf.Barton,Semit.Or.229ff.).TherewasalsoatAshkelonatempleofAshtart(Herod.l.105).Iftheirreligionwas
Semitic,soalsowereprobablytheotherfeaturesoftheircivilization.Iftheybroughtothercustomsfrombeyondthesea,theyarenotdescribedinourscanty
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Semitic,soalsowereprobablytheotherfeaturesoftheircivilization.Iftheybroughtothercustomsfrombeyondthesea,theyarenotdescribedinourscanty
records.
GEORGEA.BARTON.PHILOLOGUS.AChristiangreetedinRo16:15.
PHILOSOPHY.ThiswordoccursinEVonlyinCol2:8,whereitreferstoanunsoundandperniciousformofteaching.Philosophyproperfallsoutsidethe
scopeofthepresentwork.SomepointsofcontactbetweenitandtheBiblewillbefoundinsucharticlesasGNOSTICISM,LOGOS,ECCLESIASTES,WISDOMcf.also
EPICUREANS,S TOICS.
PHINEES.1.=Phinehas,1(1Es5:5,8:2,29,2Es1:2k).2.=Phinehas,2(2Es1:2b).3.=Phinehas,3(1Es8:63).
PHINEHAS.1.ThesonofEleazar,whowasthethirdsonofAaron.BothhisnameandthatofhismotherPutielareperhapsofEgyptianorigin.Theonly
certainoccurrenceofthenameinapreexilicwritingisinJos24:33ahill(GibeathPinhas)inEphraimwasnamedafterhim,wherehisfatherand(LXX)he
himselfwasburied.InPandtheChroniclerherisesintogreatprominence.HesucceededEleazaraschiefpriest(Ex6:25,1Ch6:4,50,Ezr7:5,1Es8:2,2Es1:2),
andwasthesuperintendentoftheKorahiteLevites(1Ch9:20).ThesuccessionofthepriesthoodinhislinewasassuredtohimwhenheshowedhiszealatShittim
inMoab,whenIsraeljoinedthemselvesuntoBaalpeor.AnIsraelitebroughtintothecampawomanfromtheMidianiteswhohadbeguiledthepeopleintoforeign
worship.Phinehasslewthemanandthewoman(Nu25).ThisisreferredtoinPs106:30f.,Sir45:2325,1Mac2:25,54.Aspriestheaccompaniedtheexpedition
topunishtheMidianites(Nu10:8f.).Hewasthespokesmanofthewesterntribesconcerningthealtarwhichtheeasterntribeshaderected(Jos22:13,3032,See
ED.).ThewarbetweenBenjaminandtheothertribesoccurredinhishighpriesthood(Jg20:28).
AftertheExileaclanofpriests,thesonsofPhinehas,claimeddescentfromhim(Ezr8:2[1Es5:5,8:29,2Es1:2kPhinees]).2.TheyoungersonofEli(1S1:3
[2Es1:2bPhinees]).SeeHOPHNIANDP HINEHAS.3.Ezr8:33fatherofapriestnamedEleazar=1Es8:62Phinees.
A.H.MNEILE.
PHINOE(1Es5:31)Paseah,Ezr2:49,Neh7:51.
PHLEGON.ThenameofaChristiangreetedbySt.PaulinRo16:14.
PHBE.ThebeareroftheEpistletotheRomans(Ro16:1).ShewasadeaconessofthechurchatCenchre.SeeDEACONESS.
PHNICIA,PHNICIANS.PhniciawasthestripofcoastlandbetweenLebanonandthehillsofGalileeandtheMediterraneanSea.Itsnorthernand
southernlimitsareIndefinite,beingdifferentlydefinedbydifferentancientgeographers.
TheSemiticnameofthecountrywasCanaan(KinachchiandKinachnaintheelAmarnatablets,andChnaonPhniciancoinscf.CANAANITES).ThenamePhnicia
comesfromaGr.rootsignifyingbloodred,andwasprobablygivenonaccountofthecolourofthesoil.ItwasoncethoughttobederivedfromtheEgyptianFenkh,butthatis
nowconcededtohavebeenadesignationofAsiaticsingeneral(cf.W.MaxMller,AsienundEuropa,208ff.).
TheextentofthecountrymayberoughlydeterminedbyitschiefcitiesArvadorArados,ontheislandnowcalledRuad,eightymilesnorthofSidon,Simyra,
Arka,GebalorByblos,BirutaonthesiteofthemodernBeyrout,Sidon,Sarepta,Tyre,Achzib,andAcco.Thelatter,themodernAcre,notfarnorthofMt.Carmel,
wasthemostsoutherlyofthesecities.
ThePhnlciansareprovedbytheirlanguageandreligiontohavebelongedtotheSemiticrace.Herodotus(l.1andvii.89)recordsatraditionthattheycame
fromtheRedSea.ScholarsnowsupposethatthisrefersreallytothePersianGulf,andthattheCanaanites,ofwhomthePhnicianswereapart,camefromNorth
ArabiabywayoftheshoreofthePersianGulfandtheEuphratesvalley.ThismigrationwasprobablyapartofthatmovementofraceswhichaboutB.C.
1700gaveBabylontheKassitedynastyandEgyptitsHyksoskings(cf.Paton,EarlyHist.ofSyriaandPal.ch.v.).PerhapstheCanaaniteswerethelastwaveof
Amorites(wh.see).Theirchiefcitiesmayhavebeenbuiltbyapreviousrace.Herodotus(li.44)recordsatraditionwhich,iftrue,wouldcarrythefoundingofthe
templeatTyrebacktoB.C.2730.
ThecivilizationofthePhnicianswasacitycivilization,andeachcityhaditspettyking.Thehistoryisthereforetherecordofanumberofpettydynasties,
oftenjealousofoneanother,andneverpowerfulenoughtoresistastronginvaderfromwithout.Hemmedinbetweenthemountainsandthesea,theyaloneofthe
earlySemitesdevelopednavigation,andbecamethemerchantmenandthecarriersoftheancientworld.TheirshipsandshippingwereimportantasearlyasB.C.
1400(cf.KIBv.150:61,152:58).Herodotustells(iv.42)howNechoofEgypt,acontemporaryofJeremiah,employedPhnicianstocircumnavigateAfrica,while72/144
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1400(cf.KIBv.150:61,152:58).Herodotustells(iv.42)howNechoofEgypt,acontemporaryofJeremiah,employedPhnicianstocircumnavigateAfrica,while
Strabo(xvi.ii.23)againtestifiestotheirexcellenceinseamanship.AccordingtoHomer,theyhadintercoursewithGreeksinthetimeoftheTrojanwar(Il.vi.290).
TracesoftheirinfluencearefoundinGreece(cf.Barton,Semit.Or.315ff.),andtheirmaritimeskillledthemlatertofoundcolonies,especiallyinSicily,Carthage,
andCyprus.
ForsomereasonSidonsoexcelledtheothercitiesintheeyesofIsraelitesandGreeks,thatintheOTandHomerthePhniciansarefrequentlycalled
Sidonians,evenwhen,asinthecaseofAhabsmarriage,Tyriansarereallyreferredto(cf.Jg10:6,12,18:7,1K5:6,11:6,33,16:31,2K23:13Horn.Il.vi.290,
Od.iv.618,XV.118).Thereasonforthisisobscure.
PhniciafirstappearsinwrittenhistoryintherecordoftheAsiaticcampaignsofThothmesIII.ofEgypt.Inhisearliercampaignsthatkingconqueredtheregion
betweentheLebanonranges.Inhis7thexpedition(B.C.1471)hecameouttothecoastandconqueredArvad,themostnortherlyoftheimportantPhniciancities
(cf.Breasted,AncientRecordsofEgypt,ii.196).TherearereasonsforsupposingthatTyrehadpreviouslybeenaddedtohisempire(BreastedHist.ofEgypt,298).
ProbablythesameistrueoftherestofPhnicia,forintheelAmarnalettersallthePhniciancitieswereincludedintheEgyptianempireofAmenophisIII.and
AmenophisIV.TheselettersshowthatunderAmenophisIV.RibAddawasvassalkingofGebal,AmmuniraofBiruta,ZimridaofSidon,andAbimilkiofTyre.
Thesekingswereinconstantfeudwithoneanother,withthepeopleofArvad,andwiththeAmoritesbeyondtheLebanon.Theyareconstantlyaccusingone
another(cf.Nos.33ff.,128130,and147156).UndertheXIXthdynastyPhniciawasagaininvaded.SetiI.heldAccoandTyre(Breasted,Records,iii.47),
whileRamesesII.pushednorthwardtoBiruta(ib.iii.123).Inthereignofhissuccessor
MerenptahthecitiesfromtheLebanontoAshbelonrevolted.Phniciawasprobablyincludedintherevolt,forinthepoemwrittentocelebratetheresubjugationof
theselands,weread:PlunderedisCanaanwitheveryevil(Breasted,Records,iii.264,Hist.470).IntheXXthdynastyRamesesIII.(B.C.11981167)stillheldthe
countryfromArvadandsouthward(Breasted,Records,iv.34,37).ItisprobablybecauseofthislongEgyptianvassalagethatGn10:15tracesthedescentofSidon
fromHam.BytheendofthedynastyPhniciawasagainfree,forinthefifthyearofRamesesXII.(B.C.1113)acertainWenamonwasdespatchedtoPhniciafor
cedarfromtheLebanonforestsandDor,Tyre,andGebal,thetownsatwhichhetouched,werenotonlyindependentbuthadsmallrespectforarepresentativeof
Pharaoh(Breasted,ib.iv.274ff.).ThekingofGebalwasatthistimeZakarBel.ProbablythedynastyofTyretracedtoJosephus(c.Apion.i.18)wasfoundedatthe
timeofthisemancipationfromEgypt,andtheeratowhichherefers(Ant.VIII.iii.1)thenbegan.
AcenturylaterthanthetimeofWenamon,HiramkingofTyrewasanallyofDavid,andfurnishedcedartobuildhimaplace(2S5:11).Laterhewastheallyof
Solomon,andaidedhimintheconstructionoftheTemple(1K5:1,7:13,9:11,12).InthefollowingcenturykingAhabofIsraelmarriedJezebel,daughterof
Ethbaal,kingofTyre.ThusPhnicianinfluencefounditswayintoIsrael.
ShortlybeforethetimeofAhab,theAssyriankingAshurnasirpal(B.C.884860)hadmadearaidtotheMediterraneancoastandexactedtributefromTyre,
Sidon,andGebal(KIBi.109).Hissuccessor,ShalmaneserII.,recordstributefromthesamecitiesinhis21styear(KIBi.143).LaterhetookitalsofromArvad(ib.
173).Adadnirari(B.C.812783)countedTyreandSidonamonghissubjects(ib.191).IntheintervalofAssyrianweaknesswhichfollowed,Phniciabecame
oncemoreindependent,andwhenthepowerfulTiglathpileserIII.(B.C.745727)againinvadedtheWest,Tyrejoinedacoalitionagainsthim,butintheendTyre
andGebalandArvadpaidtribute(KIBii.21,23,31).Sidonisnotmentioned.ProbablyitwassubjecttoTyre.TyreatthisperiodruledoverapartofCyprus.
Menanderrelates(Jos.Ant.IX.xiv.2)thatShalmaneserIV.(727722)overranPhniciaandunsuccessfullybesiegedTyreforfiveyears.Perhapstheissueofthe
siegecameinthereignofSargon,forthestatueofthatkinginCyprusshowsthatthisdependencyofTyrewasruledbyhim.Sennacherib(705681)recordsthe
submissionofSidon,Sarepta,Achzib,andAcco(KIBii.91).Tyrehedidnotdisturb.EsarhaddonhadtoreduceSidonbyasiege,andchangeditsnameto
Esarhaddonsburg(KarAssurakhiddina),buthefailedtoreduceTyre(KIBii.125ff.,149Rogers,Hist.Bab.andAssyr.ii.226ff.).
Ashurbanipal(668626)claimstohavereducedTyreandArvad.AtanyratehemadeanalliancewiththekingofTyre(KIBii.169,171).Beforetheendofhis
reign,however,Phniciawasagainindependent,Assyriahavingbecomeweak.WenexthearthatkingNebuchadnezzarofBabylon(604562)unsuccessfully
besiegedTyreformanyyears(Ezk26:1ff.,29:17ff.).
InthePersianperiod(howPhniciabecamesubjecttoPersiaoursourcesdonottell)Sidonagainbecametheleadingcity,Tyretakingasecondplace.An
inscriptionofYabawmelech,kingofGebal,probablybelongstothisperiod(CISi.1).
SidonfurnishedthebestshipsforthefleetofXerxes,Tyrethenextbest(Diod.Sic.XVI.xlvi.Herod.vii.44,96,98,viii.67).Straton(AbdAshtart?)ofSidonin
thenextcenturyeffectedGreekcivilization(lian,Var.Hist.vii.2Athenus,531).About350hissuccessorTennes(Tabnith?)joinedinanunsuccessfulrevolt
againstPersia,andSidonwasagainbesieged
(Diod.Sic.XVI.xlii.).
AfterthebattleofIssus(B.C.333),allthePhniciancitiesexceptTyreopenedtheirgatestoAlexandertheGreat.Tyreresistedandagainstoodasiegeofseven
months(Diod.Sic.XVII.xll.
ff.).Duringthenextcentury,underthePtolemys,anativedynastyflourishedatSidon,fromwhichanumberofinscriptionssurvive(cf.G.A.Cooke,NorthSem. 73/144
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ff.).Duringthenextcentury,underthePtolemys,anativedynastyflourishedatSidon,fromwhichanumberofinscriptionssurvive(cf.G.A.Cooke,NorthSem.
Inscr.26ff.JAOSxxiii.156ff.).ThekingswereEshmunazarI.,Tabnith,BodAshtart,andEshmunazarII.BodAshtartbuiltatemplenearSidon,whichhas
recentlybeenexcavated.
InthewarsofthelaterPtolemysandSeleucidsthePhniciansplayedanimportantpart.PhniciabelongedtotheSeleucidsafterB.C.197.InB.C.65itpassed
underRomanrule.ThereferenceinMk7:26toawomanwhowasaSyrophnicianbyraceshowsthattheEvangelistrecognizedthattheoldstocksurvived.In
B.C.14AugustusmadeBirutaaRomancolony.
Claudius(A.D.4154)madeAcco,thencalledPtolemais(cf.Ac21:7),aRomancolony.SeptimiusSeverus(A.D.193211)performedasimilarserviceforTyre,
andElagabalus(218222)forSidon.Graduallytheoldracewasmergedwithvariousconquerors.
IncivilizationthePhnicianswereforthemostpartborrowersfromBabyloniaandEgypt.Whattheyborrowedtheycarriedintheirtradingvoyagesallabout
theMediterranean,andthusdiffusedcultureandtheartsoflife.Perhapstheywerepioneersintheartofseamanship,butofthiswecannotbesuretheymayhave
borrowedthisfromCreteortheMycenans.Thattheyinventedthealphabetanddiffuseditintheirvoyages,sothatitwasadoptedbytheGreeksandRomans,is
generallyconceded,butwhethertheyobtaineditbyadaptingEgyptianhieroglyphs,orBabyloniancuneiformcharacters,orfromsomeotherancientformof
writing,isstillindispute.InreligiontheycloselyresembledtheotherSemites(cf.W.R.Smith,RSandBarton,Semit.Origins).BaalandAshtartweretheprincipal
divinities,andmuchprominencewasgiventosexualrites(cf.Lucian,deSyriaDea,6).Humansacrificepersistedlongamongtheminspiteoftheircontactwith
thehighlycivilizedGreeks(cf.EBiiii.col.3189,3190).
ThebestaccountthatwehaveofthenatureandextentofPhniciantrafficiscontainedinEzekielsdescription(chs.27,28)ofthetradeofTyre,which,aswe
haveseen,hadbeentheleadingPhniciancityforacenturyormorebeforehistime.
GEORGEA.BARTON
PHNIXwasagoodharbourontheS.coastofCrete.IthasbeenidentifiedalmostcertainlywithLoutro,whichissaidtobetheonlyharbourW.ofFair
HavenswhereashipofsuchsizeasthatbywhichSt.Paultravelled(itwasacargoship,buthadcrewandpassengersonboardnumberingaltogether276)could
findshelter.StrabospeaksofPhnixasbeingonanisthmus(i.e.anarrowpartoftheisland),andapparentlyasbeingintheterritoryofLappa,whichwasnotfar
fromLoutro.OtherauthoritiesspeakofitasifitwerenearAradena,whichisonlyamilefromLoutro.TheidentificationwouldthereforebecertainbutforSt.
LukesdescriptionoftheharbourofPhnixaslookingtowardstheS.W.andtheN.W.(Ac27:12),whereastheharbourofLoutrolookstowardstheEast.Hence
someidentifiedPhnixwithaharbouralittlefartherW.,ofwhichwehavenoevidencethatitcouldaccommodatesolargeaship.Itisperhapsmoreprobablethat
St.Lukemakesamistakeinhisdescriptionofaharbourwhichheneverreached.TheRVunderstandstheGreektomeaninthedirectioninwhichtheS.W.and
N.W.windsblow,andthereforetranslateslookingN.E.andS.E.Thismayhavebeenasailorswayofexpressingit,butwehavenoauthorityforit.
A.E.HILLARD.
PHOROS(1Es5:9,8:30,9:26)=Parosh(wh.see).
PHRURAI.InAd.Est11:1theBookofEstheriscalledtheepistleofPhrurai(i.e.Purim[wh.see]).
PHRYGIA.ThePhrygianswereanAryanracewhoseemtohavehadtheirfirsthomeinThrace,andtohavecrossedintoAsiathroughthesamesouthward
movementoftribesthatbroughttheHellenesintoGreece.InAsiatheyoccupiedatonetimethegreaterpartofthecountryW.oftheHalys,probablydisplacinga
SemiticracefromwhomtheymayhavelearnedtheworshipofCybele.WemustregardHomersTrojansaspartofthePhrygianrace,andtheTrojanWarasa
contestbetweenthemandGreeksettlersfromThessaly.InmorehistoricaltimesthenamePhrygiaappliestoaninlandregionvaryinginextentatdifferenttimes,but
boundedatitswidestbytheSangariusontheN.,theHalysontheE.,theTaurusrangeontheS.ItthuscoveredtheW.partofthegreatplateauofAsiaMinorand
theuppervalleysoftheriversManderandHermus.Itwasaregionfruitfulinoilandwine,exportingalsowool,gold,marble,andsalt.
WhentheRomansinheritedthekingdomofPergamusinB.C.133,apartofPhrygiawasincludedintheprovinceofAsia,butthesouthernportiontowards
Pamphyllawasnotincluded.ThisportionwasinthehandsofthedependentkingofGalatiawhenAugustusconstitutedGalatiaaprovinceinB.C.25,andwas
thereforeincludedinthenewprovincewhichextendedfromLyciaontheS.W.almosttothemouthoftheHalysontheN.E.HencethisportionofPhrygia,withits
citiesofAntiochandIconium,cametobeknownasPhrygiaGalatica.
ThiscountrywasincludedbySt.Paulintheworkofhisfirstmissionaryjourney(Ac13:1414:24).FromPergaheandBarnabasmadetheirwayN.alongthe
difficultmountainroadto
Antioch,herecalledPisidianAntioch(seeP
http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/p.htm ).OnhissecondmissionaryjourneySt.Paul(nowaccompaniedbySilas)beganwiththechurchesofCilicia 74/144
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Antioch,herecalledPisidianAntioch(seeP ISIDIA).OnhissecondmissionaryjourneySt.Paul(nowaccompaniedbySilas)beganwiththechurchesofCilicia
andthenpassedthroughDerbeandLystra,wherehetookTimothyintohiscompany.Thenarrativethenproceeds(Ac16:6):Andtheywentthroughtheregionof
PhrygiaandGalatia[Gr.thePhrygianandGalatianregion],havingbeenforbidden[AVandwereforbidden]oftheHolyGhosttospeakthewordinAsiaand
whentheywerecomeoveragainstMysiatheyassayedtogointoBithyniaandtheSpiritofJesussufferedthemnotandpassingbyMysiatheycamedownto
Troas.ThenaturalinterpretationofthisisthatfromLystratheytraversedPhrygiaGalatica,fromAntiochtooktheroadleadingN.toDorylaion,wheretheywould
benearBithynia,andfromthereweredirectedW.toTroas.Attemptshavebeenmade,however,tofindhereanevangelizationofGalatiaproperwithitstownsof
PessinusandAncyra.Butagainstthiswemustset(1)theformoftheGreekphrasethePhrygianandGalatianregion(2)thestrangesilenceofSt.Lukeabouta
workthatmusthavetakenaconsiderabletime(3)thegeographicalconsiderationthatthetravellerscouldnothavecrossedthedesertoftheAxylonstraightfromS.
toN.andmustinanycasehaveusedtheroadtoDorylaion.See,further,artt.GALATIAandGALATIANS[EP.TO]forthisandthefurtherquestionwhethertheEpistle
totheGalatianscanhavebeenwrittentothechurchesofPhrygiaGalatica.Ifitwas,wehaveaninterestingglimpseofhowinthechurchesfirstfoundedbySt.Paul
hisauthoritywasverysoon(perhapsA.D.50)assailedbyJudaizers,whodisputedhisApostoliccredentialsanddeclaredhisdoctrinetobeanimperfectformof
Christianity,neglectingitsJewishbasis.
ThethirdmissionaryjourneylikewisebeganwiththeregionofGalatiaandPhrygia(Ac18:23),ortheGalatianregionandPhrygia.Herethereferenceis
probablytothesamechurches,buttheorderofwordsisdoubtlessmeanttoincludethechurchesofLycaoniafirstthesewereintheprovinceofGalatia,butwere
notinPhrygia.TheorderisinanycasestronglyagainsttheinclusionofGalatiaproper.ThejourneywascontinuedthroughtheuppercountrytoEphesus,i.e.
alongthedirectroutewhichpassedthroughthehighercountryfromMetropolistoEphesus,insteadofthehighroadwhichfollowedthevalleyoftheLycus.
A.E.HILLARD.
PHYGELUS.MentionedincompanywithHermogenesinSt.PaulslastEpistle,asthoseinAsiawho,amongothers,hadturnedawayfromtheApostle(2
Ti1:15).SeeHERMOGENES.MORLEYS TEVENSON.
PHYLACTERIES,FRONTLETS.1.AmongthechargesbroughtbyourLordagainstthePhariseesofHisdayweread:butalltheirworkstheydofortobe
seenofmen:fortheymakebroadtheirphylacteriesandenlargethebordersoftheirgarments(Mt23:5,6forbordersseeF RINGES).ThisistheonlyBiblical
referencetooneofthemostcharacteristicinstitutionsoftheJudaismofthefirstcenturyasofthetwentieth.Thewordphylactery(Gr.phylactrion)literally
signifiesasafeguard,assafeguardingtheweareragainsttheattacksofhurtfulspiritsandothermaligninfluencessuchastheevileyeinotherwords,an
amulet.BytheJewsthenasnow,however,thephylacteriesweretermedtephilln,thepluraloftheordinarywordforprayer.
2.ForinformationregardingthephylacteriesofourLordsdaywearedependentonthesomewhatlaterallusionsintheMishna,withwhichthemodernJewish
usageagreesinallessentialpoints.Then,asnow,theyconsistedoftwosmallsquarecasesorcapsulesofleather,twofingerbreadthsaccordingtotheTalmud,say
11/2inch,intheside,oneofwhichwaswornontheforehead,theotherontheleftupperarm.Theleatherhadtobepreparedfromtheskinofarituallyclean
animal,andwascolouredadeepblack.
Thecasefortheforehead,whichwastermedtheheadtephillah,wasdistinguishedfromthearmorhandtephillahbyitsbeingshapedsoastogivefour
smallbutdistinctcompartments,whileitsfellowconsistedofasinglecompartment.Ineachofthefourcompartmentsoftheformerwasplacedanarrowstripof
parchment,alsofromtheskinofacleananimal,havingcarefullywrittenonitoneofthePentateuchpassageswhichwereregardedastheScripturewarrantforthe
institutionofthephylacteries(see4).ThesewereEx13:110,13:1116,Dt6:49,11:1321.Thecompanioncapsule,ontheotherhand,containedthesame
fourpassageswrittenonasinglestripofparchment.Eachcasewasthenclosedbyfoldingbackthelowerhalfofthesquareofstoutleatherfromwhichitprojected,
spacebeingleftatthefoldforthepassingofalongstrap,blackenedontheupperside,bywhicheachphylacterywaskeptinpositionwhenproperlylaid.The
strapoftheheadphylacterywastiedbehindtheheadintoaknothavingtheshapeoftheHebrewletterdaleth.Onthetwosidesofthecapsulewereimpressedthe
lettershn,ononesidewiththeusualthreeprongs,ontheotherwithfourprongs.Thecorrespondingloopofthephylacteryforthearmwassupposedtoformthe
letteryd,thethreeletterstogethergivingthesacrednameShaddai,Almighty.
3.FromtheMishnawelearnfurtherthatwomen,slaves,andminorswereexemptedfromtheobligationofwearing,orintechnicalphraselaying,the
tephillin,adutystillincumbentonallmaleIsraelites,fromtheageofthirteenyearsandaday,duringtherecitalofmorningprayer,onalldayssaveSabbathsand
festivals.These,beingthemselvessigns,renderedthephylacteriesunnecessaryforthispurpose(Ex13:9cf.4below).Itisprobable,however,thatinourLords
time,aswasthecaselater,themorezealousspiritsamongthePhariseesworetheirphylacteriesduringthewholeday.
Inputtingonthephylacteriesthatofthehandislaidfirst,totheaccompanimentofaprescribedprayer,andmustlieontheinnersideoftheleftarm,which
mustbebare,alittleabovetheelbow,sothatthecasewiththeScripturepassagesmayrestupontheheart(Dt11:18).Thestrapisthendrawntightandwoundround
thearmandthemiddlefingerofthelefthandaprescribednumberoftimes.(FordetailsseeHastingsDBiii.870.)Theheadphylacteryisnextlaid,itsposition
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thearmandthemiddlefingerofthelefthandaprescribednumberoftimes.(FordetailsseeHastingsDBiii.870.)Theheadphylacteryisnextlaid,itsposition
beingthemiddleoftheforehead,betweentheeyes(Ex13:9etc.,seenext),withtheknotabovedescribedatthebackofthehead,andthetwoendsofthestrap
broughtforwardtohangdownoverthebreastinfront.Thephylacteriesaretakenoffinthereverseorder.Whennotinuse,theyarekeptinabag,whichisoften
madeofsuperiormaterialrichlyornamented(seeillust.inJewishEncyc.,s.v.Phylacteries).
4.TheScripturewarrantforthispeculiarinstitutionofJudaismisfoundinthefourpassages,Ex13:9,16,Dt6:8,11:18.OftheseDt6:8maybequotedasthe
mostexplicit:Andthoushaltbindthemi.e.thesewordswhichIcommandtheethisday,v.6forasignuponthinehand,andtheyshallbeforfrontlets
betweenthineeyes.Thesewordsandtheirparallelsintheotherpassages,itismaintainedbyJewishandsomeChristianscholars,areintendedbytheirauthorsto
betakenliterally.ThiscontentionhasbeenexaminedindetailinthecorrespondingarticleinHastingsDB(iii.87072).Theresultisaverdictinfavourofthe
figurativeinterpretationofallthepassages,includingthatjustcited.Agooddealturnsonthesenseofthewordrenderedfrontlets(ttphth).Thisrendering(cf.
Oxf.Heb.Lex.bands,frontletbands)cannotbemaintainedinfaceoftheevidencefortherenderingjeweloramulet,themeaningwhichthewordhasinthe
Heb.textofSir36:3(=AV33:3),asreadbySmendinhiseditionofthetextandcommentary(both1906):thelawisforthewisemananamulet,aband(orknot)
uponthehand.InMishna,also,Shabbath,vi.1,5,ttephethsignifiesanornamentinaladysheaddress.
Weconclude,then,thatthePentateuchwritersreallyintendedbythesemetaphorstoimpressuponGodspeoplethatHiswordwastobetothematreasuremore
preciousthananyjewel.Thefigureswerederivedfromtheprevailingcustomofwearingjewelsontheforeheadandonthewristsbothasornamentsandasamulets
(seeAMULETS,ORNAMENTS).Ontheotherhand,iftheliteralinterpretationisfollowed,weshouldhavetorecognizeanotherofthenumerousinstancesinthe
Hebrewlegislation,inwhichadeeplyrootedandineradicablepracticeofheathenoriginandsuperstitiousassociationswasadoptedandgivenareligious
signification,preciselyaswasdonewiththekindredsignofthetasselsonthecornersofthemantle(seeF RINGES,end).
5.Thedateatwhichthisliteralinterpretationwasfirstgiveneffecttoandthewearingofthephylacteriesintroducedcannotbedeterminedwithcertainty.The
factthattheinstitutionisunknowntotheSamaritansshowsthatitmusthavearisenafterthedateoftheSamaritanschism.ThepassageofJesusSirachabove
quoted(writtenc.B.C.180170)seemstoimplythatthefigurativeinterpretationstillheldthefield.Ontheotherhand,thewriterofthefamousLetterofAristeas
(scarcelylaterthanB.C.90)distinctlymentions(159)thebindingofthesignuponthehand(seeThackeraystr.InJQRxv.368f.).Wemay,therefore,with
someconfidenceassigntheintroductionofthephylacteriestotheperiodofthedominationofthePhariseesinthereignofJohnHyrcanus(B.C.135105).
EveninthefirstcenturyofoureraitisverydoubtfulifthepracticeextendedbeyondthePhariseesandtheiradherents,whoshowedtheirzealforreligionbythe
sizeofthecasesandthebreadthofthestrapsbywhichtheywerefastened.CertainlythemassoftheJewishpeopleatthisdate,whoknewnotthelaw(Jn7:49),
paidnoheedtosuchliteralismneither,wemaybesure,didJesusorHisdisciples.
Inpopularestimation,asisshownbytheverynamephylacteries(1),andbyreferencesinTargumandTalmud,thephylacterieswereregardedaspowerful
amulets.IntheMiddleAgestheyseemtohavefallenfromtheabsurdlyexaggeratedesteeminwhichtheywereheldinTalmudictimes.Thiswasnodoubtdueto
thefactthatsomeofthemostinfluentialJewishexegetesstillfranklymaintainedthefigurativeinterpretationofthecardinalpassagesofthePentateuch.Inmore
moderntimes,however,thepracticeoflayingthetephillnhasrevived,andisnowuniversalinorthodoxJewishcircles.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
PHYLARCH(2Mac8:32).Amilitarytitleforeitheracavalryofficeroracommanderofauxiliaryforces.
PHYSICIAN.SeeMEDICINE,p.597b.
PIBESETH.Ezk30:17:Bubastis,oneofthegreatestcitiesinLowerEgyptEgyp.Pubasti,HouseofUbastiItwasespeciallytheresidenceofthe22nd
Dyn.,whichwasfoundedbyShishak.ThegoddessUhastiwasusuallyfiguredwithalionshead,butshewasofamildcharacter,andhersacredanimalinlate
timeswasthecat.TheruinsofthecityarenowcalledTellBasta,lyingnearZagazig,intheE.oftheDelta.ThetempledescribedbyHerodotuswasexcavatedby
Naville,yieldingmonumentsofeveryperiodfromthe4thDynastytothe30th.
F.LL.GRIFFITH.
PIECE.PieceisusedinAVfor(1)ameasureequaltoafirkin(1Es8:20anhundredpiecesofwine)(2)aninstrumentofwar(1Mac6:51piecestocast
darts,andslings).
PIGEON.SeeDOVE.
PIHAHIROTH(Ex14:2,9,Nu33:7,8).Mentionedinconnexionwiththecampingoftheisraelites.ItwasbetweenMigdolandthesea,beforeBaal
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PIHAHIROTH(Ex14:2,9,Nu33:7,8).Mentionedinconnexionwiththecampingoftheisraelites.ItwasbetweenMigdolandthesea,beforeBaal
zephon(Ex14:9).Thisdefinitiondoesnotenableustofixitssite,fortheseotherplacesarethemselvesunknown.InNu33:8thenameissimplyHahiroth.
PILATE.PontiusPilatus,aRomanofnoknownfamily,succeededValeriusGratusasprocuratorofJudainA.D.26.Hepossiblyowedhisappointmentto
Sejanus,andhisadministration,asdescribedfromtheJewishstandpoint,showseitherthathesharedtheantiJewishfeelingsofSejanusorthathefailedto
understandthetemperofthepeoplewithwhomhebadtodeal.Hisfirstoffencewasnotallowingthesoldierstoremovetheimagesfromtheirstandardsonentering
Jerusalem.Theseimageswereworshippedbythesoldiers,andwerethereforesymbolsofidolatry.AdeputationofJewswaitedonPilateforfivedays,andrefused
todesistthoughthreatenedwithinstantdeath.Hewascompelledtogiveway,butsubsequentlysetupinthepalaceofHerodtabletsdedicatedtotheEmperor,which
wastakenasanattempttointroducetheCsarworshipalreadyflourishingintherestoftheEmpire.OnlyanorderfromTiberiuscompelledhimtoyieldasecond
time.Hegavefurtheroffencebyamorejustifiableaction.Theneedofwaterinthecitywasmuchfeltatthetimeoffestivals,andPilateproceededtoconstructa
newaqueductattheexpenseoftheTempletreasure.TheSanhedrinmighthaveorderedsuchawork,butasPilatesactitcausedariotwhichwasnotquelled
withoutbloodshed.TotheseincidentswemustaddthemassacreofsomeGalilansattheveryaltarofsacrifice,referredtoinLk13:1,butnototherwiseexplained.
TheendofPilatesrulewasbroughtaboutbyadisturbanceinSamaria.TraditionsaidthatthevesselsoftheTabernaclehadbeenburiedon
Mt.Gerizim,andabandofarmedmenescortedthitheranimpostorwhopromisedtorevealthem.Pilatesenttroopstothespot,who,afteramassacre,dispersedthe
multitude.ComplaintwasmadetoVitellius,thelegatusofSyria,whoseemsatthistimetohavehadauthorityoverthegovernorofJuda.Pilatewasorderedto
justifyhimselfatRome(A.D.36),outbeforehearrivedthereTiberiushaddied(March,A.D.37),andhewasnotreappointed(Joseph,Ant.XVIII.iii,1iv.2).
Eusebiusstatesthathecommittedsuicide.TheActsofPilateandhisletterstotheEmperorarelateforgeries.
Pilatewouldthereforebetousonlyoneofaseriesofunsuccessfulprocurators,butforthefactthathisyearsofofficecoveredtheperiodofChristsministry.
FromtheaccountsofourLordstrialwelearnmoreofhimthanfromanyothersource.
ExceptatthetimesofthegreatfeaststhegovernorsusuallystayedatCsareabutPilatewasprobablypresentwithreinforcementstorepressanydisorder
duringthePassover,andhadhisheadquartersinthefortressknownastheTowerofAntonia,whichadjoinedtheTempleontheN.side.Theprtoriumformed
partofthisfortress(butseeP RTORIUM),andonthisoccasion,whiletheprisonerwasledinside,theaccusersremainedbelowthestepswhichledintothehall,lest
theyshouldberendereduncleanforthefeastbyenteringabuildingdefiledbyleaven.PilateexaminedJesusinsidethehall,andcameoutsideeachtimehewished
tospeaktotheaccusers.Jesushadbeenbroughttohimtobecondemnedtodeath,thispenaltybeingoutofthepoweroftheSanhedrinandatfirsttheyexpected
Pilatetopasssentenceontheirsimplestatementthathewasamalefactor(Jn18:2832).PilatewastooRomanforthispenaltiesintheirpowertheymightinflict,
butifhewastoaddhisauthorityherequiredareason.Therefore(avoidingthechargeofblasphemy)theyaccusedJesusofforbiddingtributeandcallinghimself
Christ,aking(Lk23:2).Pilatereturnedinside,andbyquestionsassuredhimselfthattheprisonerclaimedonlywhathewouldhavecalledaphilosophical
kingshipanideafamiliartohim,ifonlyfromtheStoics.Hardlybelievingthattruthwasattainable(asheshowedbythescornfulanswer,Whatistruth?),hewas
yetprepared,likemanyRomansofhisday,topatronizeonewhothoughthehadattainedtoit(Jn18:3338).Fromthistimeonwardswemustregardthetrialasa
seriesofattemptsonPilatesparttoreleaseJesuswithouttoogreatoffencetotheJews.(1)HearingthatHecamefromGalilee,hesendsHimtoHerodAntipas,
whowasatJerusalemforthefeast.IfHerodclaimedjurisdictionovertheprisonerhemighthavereleasedHim,buthehadnomorepowertocondemnamanto
deathinJerusalemthantheJewshad.ThecourtesyreconciledHerodandPilate,theirformerenmitybeingduetothefactthatHerodsentprivatereportstoRome
andwasregardedastheEmperorsspy.ButwhenHerodfailedtogeteitherreplyormiraclefromJesus,hesentHimbacktoPilate(Lk23:612).(2)Itwasa
custom(whetherJewishorRomaninorigin)toreleaseaprisonerinhonourofthePassover.PilateproposedtoreleaseJesus,but,persuadedbythepriests,the
multitudeclamouredforBarabbas(Mt27:1521,Mk15:611,Lk23:1319,Jn18:39,40).(3)Aftersolemnlywashinghishands,asifabsolvinghimselfof
responsibilityforcondemninganinnocentman(Mt27:24,25),Pilatehopedtosatisfytherancouroftheaccusersbyscourgingtheprisoner.Iwillchastisehimand
releasehim(Lk23:16,22).ButwhenJesuscameforthfromthescourging,theJewsforthefirsttimebroughtforwardthecrythatHemadehimselftheSonof
God(Jn19:7).TosuchasPilate,Greekmythologywouldmakeitnotincrediblethatthesonofagodshouldbeonearth,andinthedecadenceoftheirown
religiontheRomanswerelendingareadyeartothemysteriousreligionsoftheEast.Moreover,Pilatessuperstitionsfearhadalreadybeenarousedbythereportof
hiswifesdream(Mt27:19).Again,therefore,hequestionedJesus.ButatlengththeJewsprevailedwiththecry,Ifthouletthismango,thouartnotCsarsfriend
(Jn19:12).ThethreatthattheprovincewouldaccusehimatRomefortreasonovercamePilatesscruples.Anaccusationfortreasonmightmeandeathunder
Tiberius.Pilategaveway,causedhisthroneortribunaltobebroughtontothetessellatedspaceinfrontoftheprtorium(calledGabbathainAramaic),andthere
pronouncedfinaljudgment.Butinthetauntingwords,Beholdyourking!andShallIcrucifyyourking?aswellasintheinscriptiononthecross,whichhe
refusedtoalterinspiteofprotest,hewreakedupontheJewssuchrevengeaslayinhispower.
InthisunjustcomplaisancewehaveanillustrationofonedangerinthestrictsupervisionwhichAugustusandTiberiusmaintainedoverprovincialgovernment.
Inthemainitwasagreatbenefit,butitenabledtheprovincialstointimidateaweakgovernor.TheweakpointsinPilatescharacterstandoutstrongly.Heseemsto
havebeenascepticinprinciple,butnotfreefromsuperstition,inthisresemblingperhapsmostoftheupperclassamongtheRomansinhisday.Hehadprobably 77/144
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havebeenascepticinprinciple,butnotfreefromsuperstition,inthisresemblingperhapsmostoftheupperclassamongtheRomansinhisday.Hehadprobably
nottakenthetroubletounderstandthefiercepassionsofthepeoplewhomhewassenttogovern,andwhenworstedbytheminearlyencounters,thescornwhich
RomansfeltforJewsbecameinhimsomethinglikehatred,andastrongdesiretobeavengedontheirleadersatallcostssaveone,namely,disgraceatRome.For
beforeallthingsheseemstohaveconsideredhisownposition.
ButitisveryunlikelythatTiberius,whowasjealousforgoodprovincialgovernment,wouldhaveallowedPilatetoremainprocuratorfortenyearsifhis
administrationhadbeenashadasourknowledgeofhimwouldimply.Itiseasytounderestimatethedifficultiesofhispost.TheprovinceofJudaincludednot
onlyJudaproper,butSamariaandIdumaandinadditiontoitsnormalpopulationtherewasatthetimeofgreatfeasts,particularlythePassover,aninfluxof
Jewsfromotherprovinces,whichmadethetemporarypopulationofJerusalemsometimesbetweentwoandthreemillions.Andthispopulationwasanimated,asno
otherracewas,byareligiousfervourcapableofpassingonoccasionintopoliticalexcessesdifficulttocopewith,sinceintheeyesofalargeminoritysubmissionto
foreignrulewasreligiousapostasy.Buttheprovincerankedonlyasaminorimperialprovinceitsgovernorwasaprocurator,notalegatusorprfectus,andto
controlthedifficultelementsinthepopulationhehadonly3000troops,quarteredusuallyatCsarea,besidessmalldetachmentsusedtogarrisonJerusalemand
Sebaste.ThegovernorusuallywentuptoJerusalemforthePassovertime,buthemusthavefeltthatinfaceofasuddennationalmovementhewouldbepowerless
anditisnosmalltestimonytoRomanpowersofadministrationthatfor60yearstheseriesofprocuratorsinJudamanagedtopostponemoreseriousconflicts.The
faultwouldseemtorestwiththecentralauthority,whichdidnotrealizethatinadministeringthesmallprovinceofJudaithadtodealnotwiththeprovincealone,
butwithallthemillionsofJewsscatteredthroughouttheEmpire,profoundlyearnestinreligiousconvictions,regardingJudaastheholycentreofalltheyheld
dearest,andmaintainingdirectcommunicationwiththeSanhedrin,towhichtheRomansthemselveshadallowedacertainauthorityoverallJewsthroughoutthe
Empire.Hence,mistakingthenatureofthework,theysentasprocuratorssecondratemen,whowereoften(likePilate)nomineesofimperialfavourites,andwho
wereprobablylookingforwardtotheirpromotionfromthemomentthattheylandedinCsarea.HadJudabeendefinitelyattachedtotheprovinceofSyria,it
wouldatanyratehavebeengovernedbymenwithawideroutlook.
A.E.HILLARD.
PILDASH.OneofthesonsofNahor(Gn22:22).
PILHA.Asignatorytothecovenant(Neh10:24).
PILLAR.1.Withtwoorthreeunimportantexceptions,pillarinOTistherenderingoftwoverydistinctHeb.terms,ammdandmazzbh.Theformer
denotesinmostcasesforaconspicuousexceptionseeJACHINANDBOAZapillarorcolumnsupportingtherooforotherpartofabuilding(Jg16:25f.,1K7:2f.),
alsothepillarsfromwhichthehangingsoftheTabernacleweresuspended(Ex26:32andoft.).Fromthissensethetransitioniseasytoacolumnofsmoke(Jg
20:40),andtothepillarofcloudandthepillaroffireoftheExodusandtheWanderings(Ex13:21etc.).Thefurthertransitiontothefigurativeuseoftheterm
pillar,whichaloneprevailsinNT(Gal2:9,1Ti3:15,Rev3:12,10:1),maybeseeninJob9:6,26:11passagesreflectinganantiquecosmogonyinwhichthe
pillarsofearthandheavenwereactualsupports.
2.Itiswiththesecondofthetwotermsabovecited,themazzbh,thatthisarticlehasmainlytodeal.DerivedfromarootcommontotheSemiticfamily,
mazzbhdenotessomethingsetuponend,inparticularanuprightstone,whetheritheamegalithicmonument,suchasthestonesknowntocontemporary
archologyasmenhirsorstandingstones,oralessimposingfunerarystele.ThreevarietiesofmazzbhsmaybedistinguishedinOT.
(a)Forreasonsthatwillappearatalaterstage,oursurveymaystartfromthestoneerectedoveragraveorelsewhereasamemorialofthedead.Themazzbh
setupbyJacobuponthegraveofRachel(Gn35:20)wasofthiskind.ThiswastheprevailingapplicationofthetermamongthePhnicians(seeCooke,Textbook
ofN.Sem.Inscrips.60).TothiscategorymayalsobereckonedthememorialpillarwhichAbsalomerectedforhimselfinhisownlifetime(2S18:18).
(b)Inasecondgroupmaybeplacedthestonessetuptocommemorate,or,inBiblicalphrase,forawitnessof,someimportantincident(Gn31:44f.,Jos
24:27)inparticulartheappearanceormanifestationofaDivinebeing(atheophany)atagivenspot.Such,inthepresentformofthestoryfortheprobable
originalform,see4belowwasthestonewhichJacobsetupandanointedatBethel(Gn28:18,22cf.31:13,35:14).Otherexamplesofmazzbhs,interpreted
bytheHeb.historiansascommemorativemonuments,arethestoneEbenezerof1S7:12,andthecromlech(gilgal)setupbyJoshuaafterthecrossingofthe
JordanforamemorialuntothechildrenofIsrael(Jos4:7).
(c)ThethirdandmostimportantclassofmazzbhscomprisesthepillarstoneswhichstoodbesidethealtarateveryCanaanitesanctuary(seeHIGHP LACE).
ForthisclassAVhasthemisleadingtermimage(exceptDt12:3),forwhichRVhassubstitutedpillar,withobeliskinthemargin.Thatthelocalsanctuaries,in
mostcasestakenoverfromtheCanaanites,atwhichtheHebrewsworshippedJwereprovidedwithsuchpillarstones,isevidentbothfromthereferencesinHos
3:4,10:1f.,andfromtherepeatedcondemnationoftheminthesuccessivelawcodes(Ex34:13,23:24,Dt7:5,12:3etc.),andbytheDeuteronomichistorians(1K
14:23,2K18:4,23:14[forJudah]17:10[Israel]).
Aspecialvarietyofpillarassociatedwithidolatrousworshipemergesinthelaterwritings,thechammnmorsunpillars(AVimages,RVsunimages).They
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Aspecialvarietyofpillarassociatedwithidolatrousworshipemergesinthelaterwritings,thechammnmorsunpillars(AVimages,RVsunimages).They
wereprobablyconnectedwithsunworship(Lagrange,tudessurlesrelig.Smit.2314f.).
3.TheOTevidenceforthemazzbhsasanindispensablepartofthefurnishingofaCanaanitehighplacehasbeenconfirmedinaremarkabledegreebythe
excavationsofrecentyears,inthecourseofwhichpillarstonesofdiverseshapesandsizeshavebeenbroughttolight.
Eventosummarizethearchologicalevidencewouldextendthisarticlebeyondduelimits(see
Vincent,Canaandaprslexplorationrcente[1907],102115Benzinger,Heb.Arch.2
[1907],321ff.Kittel,Studienzurheb.Arch.[1908],126ff.).Itmustsufficetoreferbrieflytothemagnificentseriesofmazzbhswhichformedpartofthehigh
placeatGezer(forfulldetailsseePEFSt,1903,23ff.,andMacalister,BibleSidelights,etc.,54ff.).Originallyteninnumber,eightofthemarestillstandinginsitu.
Theyareunhewnblocks,simplysetonendandsupportedatthebasebysmallerstonesandrangeinheightfrom10ft.6in.to5ft.5in.Thesmaller
dimensionsarethoseofthesecondstoneoftheseries,whichissupposedtohavebeentheoriginalbethel(seenext)ofthehighplace.Thefactthatthisstone,
aloneofthegroup,hasitstopsmoothandpolished,asifbylongcontinuedanointingonthepartoftheworshippers,isgreatlyinfavourofthisview.Severalofthe
largerstonesareprovidedwithcavities,eitheratthetoporinoneside.Thisprovision,whichisalsocharacteristicofthemazzbhsfoundatTaanachandMegiddo,
mustevidently,aswillpresentlyappear,havesomerelationtotheritualoftheworshipoftheseancientsanctuaries.
4.Itnowremainstodealwithaquestionwhichmaybethusformulated,WhatsignificancedidtheCanaanites,andtheHebrewsafterthem,attachtothese
mazzbhs,andwhatplacedidtheyholdintheancientcult?Thisquestioncanhardlybeapproachedwithoutareferencetothestillunsolvedproblemofthe
religioussignificanceofstandingstonesalltheworldover.Thisworldwidephenomenonmustrestonsomecausewhichwasoperativeinallprimitivereligions
(W.R.Smith,RS2209).Itwillprobablybefound,onconsiderationofalltheconditionstobesatisfied,thatthedesiretoappeasethespiritofthedeadliesatthe
beginning,whiletheconceptionofthepillarstoneasarepresentationofthedeity,besidethealtardedicatedtohisworship,comesattheendofalongprocessof
evolution.Onthisview,astone,overorbesidethegraveofthedead,afforded,totheprimitivemind,aconvenientabodeforthedepartedspirit,whenitchoseto
returntoreceivethehomageandofferingsoftheliving.Thebloodofthesacrificewaspouredoverthestone,andthusbroughtintocontactwiththeindwelling
spirit(cf.thecupmarksonthecapstonesofthedolmensontheeastoftheJordanandelsewhere).Withthisdesiretodohonourtothedead,theideaofkeeping
alivehismemorybyaconspicuousoruprightstonewassoonerorlaterassociated.Whenandwherehigherideasofthespiritworldprevailed,themazzbh
becameamemorialstoneandnothingmore,asingroup(a)above.
Thebeliefthatastonemightbecometheabodeofanynumenmarkedadistinctstepinadvance.InGn28itisadmittedthatwehavealateradaptationofa
Canaanitetemplemyth,whichexplainedtheoriginofthesanctuaryatBethel,andespeciallythesanctityattachingtotheoriginalbethel,i.e.,theabodeofanelor
numen(v.22),roundwhichthesanctuarygrewup.Intheoriginalformofthestorytheanointingofthestonewasanofferingtotheindwellingnumen.Thesecond
oftheGezermazzbhsshowsanexactcounterparttothis.Thecavitiesintheotherrecentlydiscoveredmazzbhs,abovementioned,werenodoubtoriginally
intendedtoreceivesimilarofferingsofblood,wioe,oroil(cf.Gn35:14).
Whenthisfetishworshiphadbeenoutgrown,themazzbhbecamemerelyasymbolorrepresentationofthedeity,whohadhishormeelsewhere.Theconical
pillarstandinginthecourtofthetempleofAstarte,asrepresentedonthecoinsofByblus,isanillustrationofthishigherconception.Wemaybesurethatthe
worshippersofJregardedtheCanaanitemazzbhsinthislightfromthefirst.Butthedangerofcontaminationwasgreat(seeHIGHP LACE,6),andthe
condemnationofthemazzbhsisarecurringfeatureofallthelawcodes(reff.above).
5.Anotherunsolvedproblemmaybementionedinconclusion.Whatistherelationofthemazzbhtothealtar?Shallwesay,withthedistinguishedauthorof
theReligionoftheSemites9(p.204),thatthealtarisadifferentiatedformoftheprimitiverudestonepillar,thenosbormassebahor,withthelatestinvestigator,
thatthemassebahisnothingelsethantheartificialsubstituteforthesacrificialstone(Kittel,op.cit.129,134)?Iftheviewsexpressedintheprevioussectionare
correct,thesecondalternativeoffersthemoreprobablesolution.Thepillarwillthenbeadifferentiatedformofthemostancientaltar(ALTAR,1.2),thecauseof
thedifferentiation,aswehaveseen,beingthedesiretocommemorate,aswellastoappease,thedead.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
PILLAR,PLAINOFTHE.InJg9:6wereadthatthemenofShechemmadeAbimelechkingbytheplain(AVRVoak,RVmterebinth)ofthepillar.The
correcttranslationisundoubtedlytheterebinthofthepillar,themeaningbeingthesanctuaryofShechem.Thepillarreferstothesacredstone,originallya
fetish,whichwasoftenfoundinholyplacesalongwiththesacredtree(seepreced.article).
W.F.BOYD.
PILLOW.ThepillowofMk4:38(AV)isthecushion(soRV)usedbyrowers.SeealsoB
http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/p.htm andH ,8. 79/144
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PILLOW.ThepillowofMk4:38(AV)isthecushion(soRV)usedbyrowers.SeealsoBOLSTERandHOUSE,8.
PILTAI.Apriestlyhouse(Neh12:17).
PINETREE.1.tsshemen,Neh8:15,seeOILTREE.2.tidhr.Is41:19[RVmplane]60:13.FromsimilaritytotheSyr.daddr(elm),thetidhrhasbeen
supposedtobetheelm,butquiteasprobablymayhavebeenakindofpineofthesethetwocommonvarietiesknowninSyriaaretheAleppoormaritime(Pinus
halepensis),andthestone(P.pinea)withitsumbrellaliketop.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
PINNACLE.ThiswordhasbeenadoptedbyourEVfromtheVulgateofMt4:5
(pinnaculum)toindicatethespotwithintheTempleenclosurefromwhichthedeviltemptedourLordtocastHimselfdown.Theprecisenatureandlocationofthe
pinnacleofthetemple(Mt.l.c.,Lk4:9[bothRV]),however,arenowhereindicated.Thecontextandtheuseofthewordusuallyemployedforthewholecomplex
ofbuildingsasopposedtothatwhichdenotestheTempleproper(seeplaninart.TEMPLE,12)ratherfavourtheviewthatthepinnacleistobesoughtinthe
neighbourhoodoftheS.E.corner,wheretheroyalporchmetthatofSolomon.Here,asJosephusinformsusandtheexcavationscorroboratehistestimonya
spectatorlookingdownintothevalleyoftheKidronwouldturngiddy,whilehissightcouldnotreachdownsosuchanabyss(Ant.XV.xi.5).Manyauthorities,
onthecontrary,favoursomepartoftheroofoftheTemplebuildingitself.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
PINON.AnEdomiteduke(Gn36:41,1Ch1:52),prob.samenameasPunonofNu33:42f.
PIPE.SeeMUSIC,etc.,4(2)(a).
PIRAM.ThekingofJarmuth,defeatedbyJoshuaatBethhoronandafterwardsputtodeath(Jos10:3ff.).
PIRATHON,PIRATHONITE.PirathoninthelandofEphraimwasthehomeofAbdonthePirathonlte(Jg12:13,15),andofBenaiah,oneofDavids
heroes(2S23:30etc.).ItcanhardlyhavebeenidenticalwithParathon(wh.see),butitisprobablyrepresentedbyeitherFeronorFerata.
W.EWING.
PISGAH.AmountainintheregionofMoab,withacommandingviewoverboththedesert(Nu21:20)andWesternPalestine.HithertheIsraelitesjourneyed
fromBamoth,andtheretookplacetheextraordinaryepisodeofBalaam,whoonthetopofPisgahbuiltsevenaltars(Nu23:14).Itsprincipaldistinction,however,
isitsbeingthesceneofMosesvisionofthePromisedLand(Dt3:27,34:1)andofhisdeath.ItfellintotheterritoryofReuben(Jos13:20[AVAshdothpisgah,as
in12:3andDt3:17RVinallthreeslopes(mg.springs)orPisgah]).
AnalternativenameforPisgahisNeho(wh.see),referredtoinDt32:49asthesceneofthedeathofMoses.ThelatternameispreservedbyJebelNeb,arange
whosesummitreachesaheightof2643feetandcommandsaviewofalargepartofWesternPalestine.Itis5milesS.W.
ofHeshbon,andrunswestwardfromtheMoabiteplateau.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
PISHON.SeeEDEN[GARDENOF].
PISIDIA.Thenameappliedtoadistrictabout120mileslongand50milesbroad,immediatelyN.oftheplainsofPamphylia.Itisentirelyoccupiedbythe
numerousrangesintowhichtheTaurusherebreaks,withthedeepintersectingvalleys.Thenamewasnotappliedtoadefinitepoliticaldivision,andnothingis
knownoftheraceinhabitingPisidia.UntilthetimeofAugustustheywerewildmountaineersandbrigands.AugustusbegantheirreductionaboutB.C.25by
establishingachainofRomanpostswhichincludedontheN.sideAntiochandLystra,reconstitutedascolonies.ThenamePisidianAntioch(Ac13:14)would
seemtorecordthisfact,sinceAntiochwasneverincludedinPisidia.ThecivilizationofthedistrictseemstohavebeeneffectedbyaboutA.D.74.Untilthenitwas
dealtwithaspartoftheprovinceofGalatia,butatthatdateVespasianattachedaconsiderableportionofittoPamphylia,inwhichprovincenogreatmilitaryforce
wasmaintained.
PaulandBarnabastraversedthedistricttwiceinthefirstmissionaryjourney(Ac13:13,14:24).Itwasprobablystilladangerouslocality,anditisplausibly
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PaulandBarnabastraversedthedistricttwiceinthefirstmissionaryjourney(Ac13:13,14:24).Itwasprobablystilladangerouslocality,anditisplausibly
conjecturedthatSt.Paulreferstoitwhenhespeaksofperilsofrobbers(2Co11:26).Theroutewhichtheyfollowedisuncertain,butthemostlikelytheoryisthat
ofProf.Ramsay(seeChurchintheRomanEmpire,ch.2:2),thattheywentthroughAdada,theruinsofwhichbearthenameKaraBavlo(i.e.Paulo).Thededication
ofthechurchtoSt.Paulmayhavebeenduetosomesurvivingtraditionofhispassingbythatway,butwearenotinformedthathepreachedatallinPisidia.There
isnoevidencethatChristianitymadeanyprogressinPisidiabeforethetimeofConstantine.FromthetimeofDiocletianwefindthenamePisidiaapplied
differently,namely,toaRomanprovinceincludingPhrygiaGalatica,Lycaonia,andthepartofPhrygiaroundApamea.
A.E.HILLARD.
PISPAH.AnAsherite(1Ch7:38).
PIT.OfthedozenHeb.words,besidestwoGr.wordsinNT,renderedpitinEV,thefollowingarethemostimportant.
1.ThetermbrisresponsiblefornearlyhalfofalltheOToccurrences.Itistheusualwordforthecisternwithwhichalmosteveryhouseinthetownswas
supplied(seeCISTERN).DisusedcisternsintownandcountryarethepitsmentionedinGn37:20ff.(thatintowhichJosephwascast[cf.art.P RISON]),1S13:6
(RVmcisternsetc.).Insomepassages,indeed,thecontextshowsthatcistern,notpit,istheproperrendering,asinLv11:36,Ex21:33f.withreferencetoan
uncoveredandunprotectedcisterncf.Lk14:5,RVwellforAVpit.ThesystematicexplorationofPalestinehasbroughttolightmanyseriesofunderground
caveswhichwereusedatvariousperiodsasdwellingplaces(cf.1S13:6)hencebyanaturalfigure,pitbecameasynonymofSheol,theunderworld(Is14:15,
Ps28:1,Pr1:12,andoft.cf.Rev9:1ff.and
S HEOL).
2.Asecondwordrenderedpit(shachath)seemstohavedenotedoriginallyapitinwhich,afterconcealingthemouthbyacoveringoftwigsandearth,
hunterstrappedtheirgame(Ezk19:4,8).Likethepreceding,itisfrequentlyusedinafigurativesenseoftheunderworldsofivetimesinJob33(RV).
3.Ahunterspit,denotedbypachath,alsosuppliedthefigureofIs24:17f.anditsparallelsJer48:43f.andLa3:47RVnotetheassociationwithsnare.
Suchapitservedasaplaceofconcealment(2S17:9)andofburial(18:17).
4.InMk12:1RVrightlyrecognizesapitforthewinepress,wherethereferenceistowhattheMishnacallsacementvat,i.e.apitduginthesoilforawine
vat(cf.Mt25:18,wherethesameexpressiondiggedisused),ascontrastedwiththeusualrockhewnvats(seeWINEAND
S TRONGDRINK,2).
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
PITCH.SeeBITUMEN.
PITCHER.Theearthenwarejar(cf.La4:2earthenpitchers)inwhichinallagesthewomenandmaidensofPalestinehavedrawnandcarriedthewaterfrom
thevillagewell(Gn24:14ff.).Inwealthyhouseholdsthistaskwasperformedbyaslaveorothermenial(Mk14:13,Lk22:10).Forillustrationsofwaterjarsfound
inancientcisterns,seeMacalister,BibleSidelights,etc.,fig.22,andtheworkscitedunderHOUSE,9.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
PITHOM.OneofthetreasurecitiesbuiltbytheIsraelitesinEgypt(Ex1:11etc.).ItistheEgyptianPetm(HouseofEtm),thesiteofwhichisnow
markedbyTellelMaskhutaintheWadyTumilat.TheresearchesofNavilleandPetrieindicatethatthecitydatesasfarbackasthe12thDyn.,andwasoccupied
downtoverylatetimes.Itwascapitalofthe8thnomeofLowerEgypt,andinitwasworshippedaformofthesungodunderthenameofEtm.
F.LL.GRIFFITH.
PITHON.AgrandsonofMeribbaal(1Ch8:35,9:41).
PITY.ThiswordisentirelysynonymouswithcompassionbothinOTandNT,except,perhaps,in1P3:8,wheresympatheticwouldbetterexpressthe
meaningoftheoriginalword(seeRVm).PitywasregardedbyOTwritersasholdinganessentialplaceintherelationsofGodandHispeople(seePs78:38,86:15,
103:13,111:4,112:4,145:8,Is63:8cf.Ja5:11).OneofthewaysinwhichthisDivinefeelingbecameactiveontheirbehalfrevealsanincipientbeliefinthe
dealingsofJehovahwithnationsotherthanIsraelforHeisoftenrepresentedasinfusingcompassionforHischosenintotheheartsoftheirenemies(cf.1K8:50,2
Ch30:9,Ps106:46,Ezr9:9,Neh1:11,Jer42:12).AnobjectivemanifestationofthefeelingofpityintheheartofGodwasrecognizedinthepreservationofHis 81/144
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Ch30:9,Ps106:46,Ezr9:9,Neh1:11,Jer42:12).AnobjectivemanifestationofthefeelingofpityintheheartofGodwasrecognizedinthepreservationofHis
peoplefromdestruction(La3:22f.),andinthenumerousinstanceswhichwereregardedastheinterventionsofmercyontheirbehalf(cf.Ex15:13,Nu14:19,Dt
13:17,30:3,2K13:23,2Ch36:15).Thedirectresultofthisbeliefwasthat
Israeliteswereexpectedtodisplayasimilardispositiontowardstheirbrethren(cf.Mic6:8,Is1:17,Jer21:12,Pr19:17).Theywerenotrequired,however,tolook
beyondthelimitsoftheirownrace(Dt7:16,Zee7:9)exceptinthecaseofindividualalienswhomightatanytimebelivingwithintheirborders(seeEx22:21,
23:9,Dt10:18f.etc.).
IntheparableoftheUnmercifulServant,Jesusinculcatestheexerciseofpityinmensdealingswitheachother,andteachesthesacrednessofitscharacterby
emphasizingitsidentitywithGodscompassionforsinners(Mt18:33cf.Lk6:36,Mt5:7,9:18).TheteachingofJesus,moreover,broadeneditsconceptioninthe
humanmindbyinsistingthathenceforthitcouldneverbeconfinedtothemembersoftheJewishnation(cf.theparableoftheGoodSamaritan,Lk10:2537).At
thesametimeHisownattitudetothethrongingmultitudessurroundingHimwascharacterizedbyprofoundpityfortheirweaknesses(Mt15:32=Mk8:2cf.Mt
9:36,14:14).UnderHisguidance,too,DivinepityfortheworldwastransmutedintothatEternalLovewhichresultedintheIncarnation(Jn3:16).Sidebysidewith
thisdevelopment,andinexactcorrespondencewithit,Jesusevolvesoutofhumanpityforfrailtythemorefundamental,becauseitisthemoreliving,qualityof
love,whichHeinsistswillbeactiveeveninthefaceofenmity(Mt5:43f.,Lk6:27ff.).
J.R.WILLIS.
PLACEOFTOLL.InAVreceiptofcustom.SeeCUSTOMSANDTRIBUTE,2.
PLAGUE.SeeMEDICINE,p.598b.
PLAGUESOFEGYPT.TherearenotmanyreferencesintheBibletotheplaguesoutsidetheBookofExodus.TheyareepitomizedinPs78:4451and
105:2836.InRo9:1424GodstreatmentofPharaohisdweltupon,toshowHisabsoluterighttodowhatHewillwiththecreaturesofHisownhandiwork.And
inRev8,9,16muchoftheimageryinthevisionsofthetrumpetsandthebowlsisbasedupontheplagueshailandfire(8:7,16:17f.),waterbecomingblood,and
thedeathofthecreaturesthatwereinit(8:8f.,16:3f.),darkness(8:12,16:10),locusts(9:111),boils(16:2),frogs(16:13).
Thenarrativesoftheplaguesdemandstudyfromthreepointsofview:(1)theirliteraryhistory(2)therelationoftheseveralplaguestonaturalphenomena(3)
theirreligioussignificance.
1.Thesources.Forafulldiscussionofthereasonsfortheliteraryanalysisreferencemustbemadetocommentaries.Theanalysis,onwhichcriticsareinthe
mainagreed,isasfollows:
J7:141517a1821a24258:18
415a
E1517b20b23
P1920a21b2257
J209:113171823b24b
327
E2223a24a25a
P8:158
b12
19
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19
R1419
1521
J9:2510:1313b14b15a15cba1119
34
E351218a14a15b2021
28
R1b2
J10:2282948232930
4
26
E2711:1
2
P12:112
2
R9102627a13:115
4
Ifthesourceshaveherebeenrightlyseparated,itbecomesprobablethattheoriginalaccountofJEcontainedeightandnottenplagues.The3rdand4thare
insectpests,theformerkinnm,kinnm,i.e.gnatsormosquitoes(P),thelatterrbh,i.e.swarmsofflies(J).Thesemaywithprobabilitybeconsidered
duplicates.Andsimilarlythe5thand6th,murrain(J)andboils(P).Ifthisisso,alltheeightwereoriginallycontainedinJsnarrativeEhaselementsinthe1st,
7th,8th,and9th,andinthe9thEsnarrativehaslargelydisplacedthatofJ.
2.Relationtonaturalphenomena.Thehostilitywhichusedtoexistbetweenreligionandnaturalscienceisrapidlypassingaway,asitisbecomingmore
clearlyrecognizedthatscienceisconcernedsolelywiththeobservationofphysicalsequences,whilereligionembracesscienceasthegreaterincludestheless.
NothingcanlieoutsidetheactivityofaGodwhoisbothatranscendentPersonandanimmanentsustainingPowerintheuniverse.Andthereforetopointouta
connexionbetweensomeofthemiraclesofScriptureandnaturalphenomenadoesnoteliminatefromthemtheDivineelementitrathertransfiguresan
unreasoningfaithintheimpossibleintoafaithwhichrecognizesthefingerofGodineverything.Thusthefollowingdiscussionoftheplaguesmayclaimtobe
entirelyconstructiveitseekstodestroynothing,butaimsatshowingittobeprobablethattheprovidenceofGodworkedinEgyptbymeansofaseriesofnatural
phenomena,uponwhichthereligiousinstinctoftheHebrewwritersunerringlyseizedassignsofGodsfavourtotheirforefathers,andofpunishmenttotheir
oppressors.Thisreligiousconvictionledinprocessoftimetoaccretionsandamplificationsasthestorieswerehandeddown,theyacquiredmoreandmoreofwhat
ispopularlycalledthemiraculous.TheearlieststageatwhichtheyemergeintowritingisinJIntheremainsofEthewondershaveincreased,whileinPtheyare
greatlymultiplied.
1stPlague.AccordingtoJ,thisconsistedinthesmitingoftheriverbyJ,andtheconsequentdeathofthefish,causingthenecessityofobtainingwaterby
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1stPlague.AccordingtoJ,thisconsistedinthesmitingoftheriverbyJ,andtheconsequentdeathofthefish,causingthenecessityofobtainingwaterby
diggingintheneighbourhoodoftheriver.Nothingisheresaidofblood,butthatisintroducedinthenextstageofdevelopment.InEthemarvelisperformednot
directlybyJintheordinarycourseofnature,butthroughMoseswonderworkingstaff,andtheriveristurnedtoblood.Twosuggestionshavebeenmadeastothe
naturalphenomenawhichmightgiverisetothestory.WhentheNilerisesinJune,itswatersbecomediscolouredfromfragmentsofvegetablematter,which
graduallyturntoadullredcolourastheriverrisestoitsheightinAugust.Thisisconfirmedbymanytravellers,whoalsospeakofoffensiveodoursemittedatthe
laterstage.Othersreferthereddeningofthewatertoenormousquantitiesofminuteorganisms.Whatevermayhavebeentheactualcause,Jcomesthenearesttothe
naturalfactafetidexhalationkilledthefish,orinHebrewlanguageJsmotetheriver.Andtheeasewithwhichthebeliefcouldarisethatthewaterwasturnedto
bloodisillustratedin2K3:23.InPsfinalamplification,everydropofwaterinEgyptwasturnedtoblood.
2ndPlague.Fromwhatevercausetheriverbecamefetid,amassoforganicmatterandofanimallifewouldbecollected.Andtheseconditionswouldbe
suitabletotherapidmultiplicationoffrogs.InJ,JforetellsthatHewillHimselfsmiteEgyptwithfrogsintheordinarycourseofnaturetherivershallswarmwith
frogs.InP,Aaron(asusual)isbiddenbyMosestobringtheplaguebystretchingouthisstaff.PlaguesoffrogswerenotunknowninancienttimesandHaggard
tellsofaplagueintheupperNilevalleyinmoderntimes(UnderCrescentandStar,p.279).FrogsaremostplentifulinEgyptinSeptember.
3rdand4thPlagues.Themassofdeadfrogscollectedinheaps(8:14)wouldleadtothebreedingofinnumerableinsects.InJ,JHimselfsendsswarmsof
fliesinP,throughthestretchingoutofAaronsstaff,allthedustofEgyptbecamemosquitoes(EVlice[wh.see]).
Themosquitoescannothavebeen,accordingtoanynaturalsequence,distinctfromtheswarmsPparticularizesthegeneralstatementofJ.Stinginggnatsof
variouskindsarecommoninEgyptaboutOctober.TheinsectscometomaturityafterthewatersoftheNileinundationhavereceded,andthepoolsinwhichthe
larvhavelivedhavedriedup.NotethatinPs105:31theswarmandthemosquitoesarecoupledinonesentenceandPs78:45omitsthemosquitoes
altogether.
5thand6thPlagues.Thedecomposingbodiesofthefrogswouldproducepestilentialeffectsandbacteriologicalresearchshowsthatsomeinsects,especially
mosquitoes,areaseriousfactorinthespreadofdisease.Thusthemurrain(J)isamplyaccountedfor.IntheprecedingnarrativeJrelatesthatGoshenenjoyed
completeimmunityfromtheinsects.Itisnotimpossiblethatthedirectionofthewindorothernaturalcauses,underGodsguidance,preventedthemfromreaching
theIsraeliteterritory.Andiftheinsects,whichspreaddisease,didnotenterGoshen,thestatementthatthemurraindidnottouchthecattleoftheIsraelitesisalso
explained.P,ontheotherhand,departsfromnaturalcauses.MosesandAaronflungsootintotheair,whichbecameboilsonmanandbeast.Cattleplagues,causing
enormousmortality,arereportedinEgypt.OnesuchinA.D.1842killed40,000oxen.
7thPlague.Thusfartheseriesofplagueshavefollowedoneanotherinanaturalsequence.Butatthispointanewseriesbeginswithadestructive
thunderstorm,accompaniedbyhail.SuchstormsarerareinEgypt,butarenotwithoutexample.Thosewhichhavebeenreportedinmoderntimeshaveoccurred
aboutJanuaryandthatisthepointoftimedefinedin9:31f.,thebarleywasintheear,andtheflaxwasinbud,butthewheatandthevetchwerenotgrownup.
Thusthecattleplaguehadlastedabouttwomonthsandahalf(Nov.tothemiddleofJan.)whenthestormcameandthefirstfiveplagues(reckoning3,4and5,6
asduplicates)occupiedaperiodofaboutfivemonths.
8thPtague.Theatmosphericconditionswhichresultedinthestormalsoledtootherplagues.Astrongeastwind(thesirocco)wassentbyJ,andbroughta
densemassoflocusts(J).InE,Mosesbroughtthembyliftinghisstaff.Thelightnessandfragilityofthelocustsrenderthemhelplessbeforeawind(cf.Ps
109:23b).Andwhenthewindshiftedtothewest,theywerecompletelysweptawayintotheRedSea(J)cf.Jl2:20.
9thPlague.OnlyafragmentofJsnarrativehasbeenpreserved,whichrelatestheeffectofthedarknessuponPharaoh.E,asbefore,saysthatitwasdueto
theliftingofthestaffbyMoses.Butitisnotimpossiblethatitwasafurtherconsequenceofthewestwind.Dr.A.Macalister(art.PlaguesofEgyptinHastings
DBiii.)writes:Theconditionofdarknessreferredtoisstrikinglylikethatbroughtaboutbythesevererformoftheelectricalwindhamsin.ThisisaS.orS.W.wind
thatissonamedbecauseitisliabletoblowduringthe25daysbeforeandthe25daysafterthevernalequinox(hamsin=50).Itisoftennotsomuchastormor
violentwindasanoppressivehotblastchargedwithsomuchsandandfinedustthattheairisdarkened.ItcausesablacknessequaltotheworstofLondonfogs,
whiletheairissohotandfullofdustthatrespirationisimpeded.Denonsaysthatitsometimestravelsasanarrowstream,sothatonepartofthelandislight
whiletherestisdark.Andheaddsthatthreedaysisnotanuncommondurationforthehamsin.
10thPlague.MalignantepidemicshaveatalltimesbeenthescourgeofBiblelandsanditisworthyofnotethatmanyauthoritiesstatethatpestilenceisoften
worstatthetimeofthehamsinwind.IntheHebrewnarratives,however,allthoughtofanaturaloccurrencehaspassedaway.Onlythefirstbornaresmitten,asa
justretributionforPharaohsattempttodestroythefirstbornoftheIsraelites.
3.Religiousvalue.Thisismanifold.Consideredfromthepointofviewofnaturalphenomena,thenarrativesteachtheallimportanttruththatGods
providentialcareofmenisnotconfinedtomiraclesinthecommonlyacceptedsenseoftheterm,elsewereGodsprovidentialactionsunknowntoday.Thelifting
ofMosesstafftobringtheplagues,andhissuccessiveentreatiesfortheirremoval,teachthatprayerisnotoutofplaceorunavailingincaseswherenaturallaws
canbecoordinatedandguidedbyGodtobringaboutthewishedforresult.Andfromwhateverpointofviewtheplaguesareregarded,thesamegreatfactsshine84/144
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canbecoordinatedandguidedbyGodtobringaboutthewishedforresult.Andfromwhateverpointofviewtheplaguesareregarded,thesamegreatfactsshine
throughthenarrativesthatJissupremeinpowerovertheworldwhichHemadethatHehasanabsoluteright,ifHesowills,topunishPharaohinordertoshow
forthinhimHispowerthatHedoesso,however,onlybecausePharaohisimpenitent,andconsequentlyfittedfordestruction,forJisaGodwhohatessinthatif
amanhardenshisheart,theresultwillbeasinevitableasresultsinthenaturalworldsoinevitablethatitmaytrulybesaidthatJhardenshisheartthatthesinof
Pharaoh,andsoofanyotherman,mayentailsufferingsuponmanyinnocentmenandanimalsandfinally,thatJismindfulofHisown,anddeliversthemfrom
thenoisomepestilence,thepestilencethatwalkethindarkness,andthedestructionthatwastethatnoonday,sothatnoplaguecancomenightheirdwelling
(Ps91).
A.H.MNEILE.
PLAIN.ThiswordisgivenbytheAVastheequivalentof8differentterms,7Heb.and1GreekbutisretainedbytheRVinthecaseof4only,allHebrew.
(1)biqhistranslatedintheRVbyplaininGn11:2,Neh6:2,Is40:4,Ezk3:22,23,8:4,Dn3:1butelsewherebyvalley.Itgenerallydesignatesabroadvale
betweenhillsamongthelocalitiestowhichitwasappliedthemostnotablearethepassbetweenLebanonandHermon(thevalleyofLebanon,Jos11:17,12:7),
andtheplainofEsdraelon(thevalleyofMegiddo,2Ch35:22,Zee12:11).
(2)mshrisusuallytranslatedbyplainorplaincountry,sometimesaccompaniedbythemg.tableland(Dt3:10,Jos13:9,1K20:23etc.)butinthe
poeticalandpropheticalbooksbyevenplace(Ps26:12)orstraight(Is40:4).Itsprimarysenseislevellandandtheword,withthearticle,wasspecificallyused
ofthehighplateauontheE.oftheDeadSea.
(3)rbhisordinarilyrenderedintheAVbyplain(plains)anddesert(or
wilderness),butinJos18:18itistransliteratedArabah.TheRValsosometimestranslatesbyplain(s)anddesert(Jos4:13,Is33:9etc.),butretainstheHeb.
expressionwhereveritdenotesthedeepvalleyrunningN.andS.oftheDeadSea.Thedistinctivesenseofthewordisthatofabare,sterileplain,or(ifbetween
hills)anunfertilefloor.
(4)kikkr,unlikethepreceding,characterizesnotthesurfaceofthelocalitytowhichitisapplied,butitsshape.Itisusedspecificallyofthelowerpartofthe
bedoftheJordan,whereitflowsintotheDeadSea,andpossiblyalsoofthedepressionS.ofthesameseaandshouldberenderedbycircleratherthanbyplain
(asinRVminGn13:10)Cf.nextarticle.InNeh3:22,
12:28itseemstorefertoadistrictaroundJerusalem,andistranslatedinRVmbycircuit.
(5)OftheotherHeb.wordssometimesrenderedintheAVbyplain,one(shephlah)isuniformlytranslatedintheRVbylowland,anddesignatesagroup
oflowhillsontheE.oftheMaritimePlain,whichareseparatedfromthehillsofJudaandEphraimbyaseriesofvalleys(Dt1:7,Jos10:40etc.).Ofthe
remainingtwo,one(bl)istransliteratedintheRV(Jg11:38),andtheother(ln)isrenderedbyoak(mg.terebinth)(Gn12:8,13:18etc.).
(6)TheonlypassagewherethewordplainisemployedintheNToccursinSt.Lukesaccount(6:17)ofoneofourLordsdiscourses,which,ace.toSt.
Matthew,wasdeliveredonamountain(Mt5:1)theRVsubstitutesalevelplace.
G.W.WADE.
PLAIN,CITIESOFTHE.Thesewerefiveinnumber,namely,Sodom,Gomorrah,Admah,Zeboiim,andBela(orZoar),situatedintheplain(circle)of
Jordan.Theirinhabitantsbeingguiltyofgreatwickedness,thefirstfouroftheabovenamedfivewereoverthrownbyfire.Lot,thenephewofAbraham,whohad
madehishomeinSodom,waswarnedbytheLordtowithdrawfromthecitybeforeitwasdestroyedandheaccordinglyescapedtoZoar,which,athisentreaty,
wassparedthefateofitsneighbours(Gn18,19).
ThesituationofthefivecitieshasbeenvariouslyplacedattheN.andtheS.endoftheDeadSea.TheBiblicalstatementsaregenerallyinfavouroftheformer
site,whichissupportedbythefacts:(1)thatthecircleoftheJordan,whichisalsocalledthecircleofthevalleyofJericho(Dt34:3),isappropriateonlytothebroad
hasinoftheJordan,nearitsmouth(2)thatitwasvisiblefromnearBethel(Gn13:310)(3)thatthecitieswereN.ofHazazontamar(usuallyidentifiedwithEn
gedi),sincethisplacewaspassedbyAmraphelwhenhemarchedfromKadeshagainstthekingofSodomandhisallies(Gn14:7,8).Ontheotherhand,(1)itis
impliedinEzk16:46thatSodomwasontheright(i.e.south)ofJerusalem,whereasifitwereattheN.endoftheDeadSeaitwouldbealmostdueE.(2)Zoar,
whichmusthavebeenneartheothercities(Gn19:20),isplacedbyJosephusinArabia(BJIV.viii.4),andbyEusebiusattheoppositeendoftheDeadSeato
Jericho(3)thenameSodomisgenerallyidentifiedwithJebelUsdum,acliffofrocksaltneartheS.W.corneroftheDeadSea(4)Hazazontamarmaybe,notEn
gedi,buttheTamarofEzk47:19,whichhasbeenidentifiedwithalocality20m.W.S.W.ofthelake,andthereforeontheroadbetweenKadeshandSodomifthe
latterwereatitsS.end.Ifthisviewisright,thesiteofthecitiesisprobablythemarshyflatesSebkha,E.ofJebelUsdum.Butthestatementthattheplain(orcircle)
ofJordanwasnearJerichoseemsincompatiblewithasituationS.oftheDeadSeaandifthenameSodomsurvivesinJebelUsdum,thatofGomorrahseemsto
lingerinthatofTubkAmriyeh,aplaceattheN.W.cornerofthelakesothat,thoughtheevidenceisconflicting,thepreponderantweightappearstosupportaN. 85/144
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lingerinthatofTubkAmriyeh,aplaceattheN.W.cornerofthelakesothat,thoughtheevidenceisconflicting,thepreponderantweightappearstosupportaN.
site.(FortheotherviewseeDriversart.ZoarinHastingsDB).
Thenatureofthecatastrophewhichdestroyedthecitiescanonlybeconjectured.Itmayperhapsbesuggestedthatthebitumenwhichaboundsinthe
neighbourhoodoftheDeadSeawasignitedbylightning,andthatthiscausedanextensiveconflagrationinwhichthecitiesperished.
G.W.WADE.
PLAISTER,PLASTER.1.SeeARTSANDCRAFTS,4.HOUSE,4.
2.Thepiaister(Is38:21Amer.RVetc.,piaster)whichIsaiahprescribedforHezekiahsboilwasafigpouitice,accordingtothetextof2K20:7,butthe
parallelpassageabovecitedreadsliteraily,Letthemtakeacakeoffigsandrubitupontheboll.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
PLANE.Is44:18onlyseeARTSANDCRAFTS,1.ForplanetreeseeCHESTNUTTREE,P INETREE.
PLEAD.InAVpleadalwaysmeanstoarguefororagainstacauseasinacourtofjustice,nevertoprayorbeseech.Thesubstantivepleadingisused
inthesamesenseinJob
13:8Hearkentothepleadingsofmylips.
PLEDGE.ThetakingofapledgefortherepaymentofaloanwassanctionedbytheLaw,butahumanitarianprovisionwasintroducedtotheeffectthat,when
thispledgeconsistedofthelargesquareoutergarmentorcioakcalledsimlah,itmustbereturnedbeforenightfali,sincethisgarmentoftenformedtheonlycovering
ofthepooratnight(Ex22:26f.,Dt24:12f.cf.Am2:8,Job22:6,24:9,Ezk18:7,12,16,33:15).Itwasforbiddenalsototakethemillortheuppermillstoneasa
pledge(Dt24:6).InIs36:8thereferenceistoapledgetobeforfeitedifawagerislost(cf.RVm).InIS17:18taketheirpledgeprobablymeansbringbacka
tokenoftheirwelfare(Driver).
PLEIADES.SeeS TARS.
PLEROMA.ThetransliterationofaGr.wordwhichisgenerallyrenderedfulnessintheNT.plrmaisderivedfromtheverbplroun,whichmeanseither
(a)tofill,or(b)tofillup,hencetofulfil.Thecorrespondingmeaningsofthenounare(a)fulness,(b)fulfilment.
1.pleroma=thatwhichfills.ThewordhasthismeaningintheLXXversionofPs24:1(cf.LXXEzk5:2,Dn10:3)quotedin1Co10:26Theearthisthe
LordsandthefulnessthereofalsoinMk6:48(cf.8:20),wherethefragmentsoftheloavesaredescribedasamountingtothefillingsoftwelvebaskets.
2.pleroma=thatwhichfillsup.ThewordhasthismeaninginMk2:21(cf.Mt9:18)whichreferstotheeffectofsewingapieceofundressedclothona
worngarment:Thatwhichshouldfillitup(toplrma)takethfromit,thenewfromtheold,andaworserentismade.Lightfootsaysthepatchmustbecalied
theplrmanotbecauseitfillsthehole,butbecauseitisitselffulnessorfullmeasureasregardsthedefect.Hisparaphraseisthecompletenesstakesawayfrom
thegarment,thenewcompletenessoftheoldgarment(Com.onCol.,NoteonThemeaningofplrma).Theobscurityofthisstatementisremovedbytheactive
interpretationthesupplementaryunfulledpatchtakesawayfromtheoriginalgarment.Thenewpieceusedtofilluptherenttearsitselfawaybycontractionwhen
wetted,takingapartoftheoldgarmentalongwithit(Bruce,EGTi.153).
Tothissectionbelong:(a)Ro13:10,whichcontrastspartialfulfilmentoftheLaw,securedbyobediencetothisorthatcommandment,withlovescomplete
fillingupofthemeasureofneighbourlyduty.(b)Ro11:12,whichcontraststheenrichingoftheGentilesthroughIsraelslosswithwhatDr.ArmitageRobinson
(Com.onEph.)happilydescribesaswealthinstorefortheminthegreatReturn,whenallIsraelshallbesavedwhenGodhathmadethepilecomplete!(c)Ro
11:25,inwhichthecominginofthefulnessoftheGentilesreferstothecompletingoftheirwholenumber.Thesameideaisexpressedinthephrasethefulnessof
theseasons(Eph1:10RVmcf.thefulnessofthetime,Gal4:4).
3.pleroma=thatwhichisfilled,orthatwhichisfilledup.Initspassiveuseplrmameansplenitude,whetherfulnessiscontrastedwithincompleteness
orwithemptiness.AstheplenipotentiaryofChrist,St.Paul(Ro15:29)isconfidentthathewillcometoRomeinthefulnessoftheblessingofChrist.
SiximportantpassagesremaintheymaybeclassifiedaccordingastheplenitudeDivineissaidtobe(a)inChrist,(b)impartedbyChristtoHisChurch,(c)
impartedtobelievers.
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(a)InCol2:9St.PauldeclaresthatinChristdweilethallthefulnessoftheGodheadbodily.TheassertionnegativestheAlexandrianphilosophywithits
cloudofmediatingangeipowersandspiritualemanations(Findlay,PulpitCom.,inloc.).ThedefiningphraseoftheGodheadisnotfoundinCol1:19,which
basesthepreeminenceofChristontheindwellinginHimofallthefulness.Insteadofmakingthisexpressionidenticalinmeaningwiththemoredefinite
statementin2:9,itisbetterwithMeyer(Com.,inloc.)toexpoundpleromaasreferringtothewholetreasureofDivinegracewithwhichtheSonofGodwas
endowed.AsuggestiveparalleltothesePaulinesayingsisfurnishedbyJn1:16,ofhisfulnessweallreceived,andgraceforgrace.Thefulnessisours,ifweare
Christs.Inhim,saysSt.Paul(Col2:10),yearemadefull.
(b)InEph1:23itisprobablethatSt.PauldescribestheChurchasthefulnessofhimthatfillethallinall.ThemainthoughtiswhatChrististotheChurchHe
isitsHeadandinHimitiscomplete.Dr.ArmitageRobinson(op.cit.)regardstheChurchasthefulfilmentoftheChristwho,allinall,isbeingfulfilled.
AccordingtothisinterpretationthemainthoughtiswhattheChurchistoChrist.Moreover,theadverbialphraseallinallseemsinadequatetoexpressthemeaning
oftheemphaticassertion:Hefilleththeallwithallthings.Theobjectiontotheactiverenderingoftheverb(plroumenou),whichismiddleorpassive,doesnot
applytoDr.
Salmondsexpositionofthereflexivemiddle:itconveystheideaoffillingthetotalityofthingsforHimself(EGTiii.281).
(c)ToindividualbelieversaswellastoHisChurchChristimpartstheplenitudeofHisgrace.Eph4:13givesthemeasureofthestatureofthefullgrown
ChristianitisnothinglessthanthefulnesswhichbelongstoChrist,bywhichismeantthefullpossessiononoursideofthatwhichChristhastoimpartthe
embodimentinus,themembers,ofthegracesandqualitieswhichareinHimtheHead(Salmond,EGTiii.333).AnearlierpassageinthisEpistle(3:16ff.)teaches
thatthisexaltedidealmaybeattained.When,astheresultoftheHolySpiritsinwardstrengthening,Christdweilswithintheheart,andHisknowledgesurpassing
loveisknown,theonlylimittospiritualexcellenceistobefilleduntoallthefulnessofGod.
J.G.TASKER.PLOUGH.SeeAGRICULTURE,1.
PLUMBLINE,PLUMMET.Thelatterisadiminutiveofpiumb,fromLat.plumbum,iead,anddenotesthecombinedcordandweight,bysuspending
whichagainstawaliitcanbeseenwhetherornotthelatterisperpendicular.OnthestrengthofZec4:10(lit.thestone,thetin,notieadcf.AVm)ithasbeen
inferredthattheHebrewmasonsusedaplumbbobofiead,butthetextofthispassageisundoubtedlycorrupt(Wellh.,Marti,Nowack).TheHebrewplummet(2K
21:13,Is28:17)moreprobablyconsistedofastone(Is34:11AV,butRV
plummet)suspendedbyacord,thepiumblineofAm7:7ff.,Cf.ARTSANDCRAFTS,3.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
POCHERETHHAZZEBAIM.AmongthechildrenofSolomonsservantswhoreturnedwithZerubbabel.Ezr2:57=Neh7:59calledin1Es5:34
Phacareth.
POETRY.1.ThepresenceofpoetryintheBibleisnaturalandfitting.Asitistheformofcompositionwhichiseasiesttomemorize,whetherintheearlier
stagesofaliterature,orlaterintheexpressionofcommonreligiousexperience,itisnaturalthatpoetryshouldbepreserved,andshouldbethepreserverofHebrew
thought.Astheformofliteraturewhichisconcreteinitspictures,itistobeexpectedthattheHebrewpeople,towhomabstractthoughtandterminologyarealmost
unknown,wouldemployitveryfreely.Astheliteratureofemotionandimagination,itisnaturallyusedtoexpressreligiousemotionandreligiousideals.Itdoesnot
suffice,however,tostatethefitnessofpoetrytosatisfyinameasurethepurposesforwhichtheBiblewaswritten.Doesitactuallycontainpoetry?Theansweristo
befoundonlybyexaminationofitscontents,andonlyanaffirmativeanswerispossible.ThoughthePsalmshavenotbeenwritteninpoeticalformfortwo
thousandyears,yettheirpoetrycannotbeobscured.ScholarsmaydifferastotheformsandlawsofHebrewpoetry,yettheydonotventuretosaythatnoneistobe
foundintheBible.
ThepresenceofpoetrymustherecognizedifonewouldgainanyadequateknowledgeoftheScriptures.Otherwisecorrectinterpretationisimpossible.From
failureinthisrespectinthepast,ourtheologyhassuffered,thewarfarebetweentheBibleandsciencehasbeenintensifiedifnotcaused,andChristianshavelost
immeasurablythecomfortandspiritualhelpavailablefromthiskindofliterature.Poetrymustbeinterpretedaspoetry.Toapplytoitthesameprinciplesofexegesis
asareappliedtoproseishighlyabsurdforinattemptingtomarkthedifferencesbetweenproseandpoetrywemustgobelowtheformoflanguage,andnotethat
thereisadistinctlypoeticmodeofthoughtandrangeofideas.Thefactsofexperiencearesogroupedandwroughtuponbytheimaginationastobecomeanew
creation.Thesingerisnotboundtotimeorplacehespeaksinfigurewithoutknowingthatitisafigurehespeaksinhyperbolebecausehedoesnothavethesense
ofproportion.Thepoetryofthethoughtaffectsalsothevocahularyofthesingeritmodifieshiswordmeanings,andaffectshisgrammar.Italtershisliterarystyle,
andtherearisesadistinctstudy,thatofliteratureaspoetryastudyinwhichtheattemptismadetodiscoverhowpoeticalformsexpressthepoeticalthoughtofthe
writer.
2. IntreatingthepoetryoftheBibleweareconcernedchieflywiththeOT.TheNThasafewpoeticalsections(seeH
http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/p.htm ),buttheseareconfessedlyHebrew87/144
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2.IntreatingthepoetryoftheBibleweareconcernedchieflywiththeOT.TheNThasafewpoeticalsections(seeHYMN),buttheseareconfessedlyHebrew
incharacter,anddonotcallforindependenttreatmenthere.AscomparedwiththeOT,theNTcontainsverylittlepoetry,fortheobviousreasonthatChristianity,
earlyandlate,haslargelyfoundtheHebrewPsaltersufficientforitsdevotionalpurposes.
3.WhatarethecharacteristicsofHebrewpoetry?TheymustbefoundfromaninductivestudyofrecognizedpoeticalsectionsoftheOT.Acertainpartofthe
Scripturesisclearlypoetryacertainotherpartisclearlyprose.Betweenthetwothereisagreatamountofliterature,especiallyinthepropheticalbooks,about
whichthereisadifferenceofopinion.Itiscalledpoetryorproseaccordingtothescholarsdefinitionsandhiszealinmakingemendations.Thereareprosepoems,
productsofrealpoeticalimagination,andartisticinform,butlackinginpoeticrhythm.Thesedoubtfulpassagesshouldheleftoutofaccountuntiltheessential
principlesofthepoetryoftheHebrewpeoplearedetermined,andthenthetestcanbereasonablyappliedtothem.Suchhasnotalwaysbeenthemodeofprocedure
onthepartofscholars.Sometimestheiraimseemstohavebeentodiscovernewexamples,whetherbydirectstudyorbyinexactmethods.Onecannotlookvery
deeplyintothesubjectwithoutdiscoveringthemostextremedifferencesofopinionamongscholars.Thereisabundantreasonforthisstateofthings.Thevery
reasonswhichmakethepresenceofpoetryintheBiblenaturalandfitting,operatetomakeitsdefinitiondifficult.Themorenaturalthepoeticexpressionofthought
andfeeling,thefreeritwillbefromconventionalregulation,andthelesssharpwillbethedifferencebetweentheproseandthepoeticalliteratureofapeople.And
again,inHebrewsomanyfactsarelostuponwhichwearewonttoplacedependenceinsuchastudy,thatuntilwegetnewlightfromwithout,anyschemeof
Hebrewmetremustbemerelyaworkinghypothesis,andnocompletesystemcanbeexpected.Thereisnotacommandingtraditionofthepronunciationofthe
language,whetherwethinkofvowels,syllables,oraccent.WehavenoknowledgeofHebrewmusicofacharacterthatwouldaidindeterminingtherhythmofthe
poemsthatweresungtoitsaccompaniment.Eventheconsonantaltextiscorrupt,inmanyplacesconfessedlysoandthereisalmostnoplacesocertainthatanew
scholardoesnotfeelhimselffreetoariseandemendit,andsowinhisspurs.Underthesecircumstanceswidedifferencesofopinionaretobeexpected,andtheir
existencemustbeenduredpatiently.Ifthereisanyridiculejustifiable,itshouldheexpended,withextremecaution,uponthosewho,ignoringthesemanypointsof
uncertaintywhichnecessarilylimitthevalueoftheirinductions,formulateanelaborateandmicroscopicallyminutesystemofmetre,andthenturnconfidently
roundandusethesystemtoemendthetextsoastobringittoitsoriginalcondition.Rhythmicalconsiderationsmaytoacertainextententerintoliteraryandtextual
criticism,butunsupportedtheycannotbeconvincing.
TheOTisnotquitedestituteofevidencethattheHebrewsthemselveswereconsciousofadifferencebetweentheirproseandtheirpoetry.Theyhadspecial
namesforproverbandsongtheyprovidedthePsalmswithheadings,someofwhichmusthavebeenmusicaldirectionstheymadealphabeticalpoems,the
severallinesorstanzasofwhichbeginwiththelettersofthealphabetinregularorder.Theselinesandstanzasareofequallengthandsimilarrhythm.Someofthe
poemsinsertedintheprosebooksarewrittenandprintedlinebyline,asEx15,Dt32,Jg5,2S22andforthethreepoeticalbooksofthecanontheMassoretesof
latertimesprovidedaspecialsystemofpointing,therebyrecognizingadistinctionthatmusthavehaditsbasisintradition,althoughthespecialpointingwasnotto
preservethepoeticvalue.
Passingover,withthebriefallusionalreadymade,thepeculiaritiesofthought,ofvocabulary,andofgrammarwhichpoetryreveals,thefeaturesthatone
expectstofindinOTpoetryconcerntheline,andthestanzaorstrophe.(1)Thelineissoconstructedthatwhenitisreadalouditsoundsagreeabletotheearby
virtueofadistinctrhythmthisrhythmisrepeatedwithlittleornovariationfromlinetolinetheendofthelinecoincideswithabreakinthesense.Thelineis
properlyregardedastheunitofpoeticalexpression.Itiscommonlyofalengthtobeutteredwithasinglebreath,and,ifsung,abriefstrainofmusicsufficesto
accompanyit.Thefundamentalimportanceofthelinemakesitdesirabletodetermine,ifpossible,whataretherulesforitslength,andwhatisthenatureofthe
measurementthatsecurestherhythmicaleffectsouniversallyrecognizable.Thehistoryofthesearchforasatisfactorysystemofmetrecannotbegivenhere.
Classicalmodels,withquantityasabasis,werelongagoabandonedonegroupofscholarsdiscardtheMassoreticaccents,andattemptanexplanationonthebasis
ofSyriacmetre,countingsyllables,andaccentingalternateonesbutthepredominanttheoriesareaccentual.Ofthesesomehavereckonedonlytherises(accented
syllables),andotherscountthefallsalso,permittingonlyacertainnumberofthemtointervenebetweenrises.Thisnumberismadetodependonthemetricalvalue
ofthesyllables,which,accordingtosomescholars,isdeterminedbythenumberofmor,ortimeunits,whichtheycontain.
Itshouldberememberedthatwearedealingwithanearlyformofanancientliterature,andthatthisliteratureisanOrientalone.Thiscreatesaverystrong
presumptionagainstanelaborateandminutesystemofmetre.TheHebrewlanguagewasindeeddominatedbytradition,whichmadeitdifficulttoalterestablished
practicebutincasethetraditionwasoneoffreedomonthepartofthewritertoconstructhispoemashechose,itnaturallyoperatedtokeephimfreefromthe
complicatedruleswhichspringupinthelaterperiodsofthelifeofalanguage.
Untilthecontraryisshownonothergrounds,itmustbeassumedthattheHebrewaccentsystem,differingtraditionallyfromArabicandSyriac,differedfrom
themactuallyandasthetraditionalgrammaticalformsdependlargelyupontheaccent,thenaturalInferenceisthatitisanimportantfeatureofthelanguage.Ifso,it
mayhesupposedthatitisimportantalsoinpoetry.Theviewthatseemsbesttosuitthefactsastheyexist,thatmakesthesmallestdemandsinthewayofdeparture
fromordinaryprosestyle,andthatyieldsatthesametimeresultsreasonablysatisfyingtothepoeticfeeling,isthis:thelinewascomposedofadefinitenumberof
accents,or,asordinarilyeachwordhadoneaccent,ofadefinitenumberofwords.Thisviewdoesnotfitallthelinesofeverypoembutthepossibilityof
exceptionsatthewillofthewriterisapartofthetheory.Moreover,thepercentageofexceptionsisverylikelynotgreaterthanthatofprobablecorruptionsinthe 88/144
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exceptionsatthewillofthewriterisapartofthetheory.Moreover,thepercentageofexceptionsisverylikelynotgreaterthanthatofprobablecorruptionsinthe
text.Itisnottobecountedasanexceptionwhen,inordertosecuretheregularnumberofaccents,twoshortwordsmustbepronouncedasone,asissooftendone
forotherreasonswiththeinsertionofamaqqeph(),orwhenawordexceptionallylongandheavymustbepronouncedwithtwoaccentsforthesamepurpose.(2)
Thenexthigherunitisthegroupoflinestakentogether.Thenamestrophemightbeappliedtoallsuchgroups,butitisusuallyreservedforthelargergroups.The
smallestgroupthecoupletordistichexhibitsthemostcharacteristicfeatureofthepoetryofthelanguage,namelyParallelism,anamegivenbyLowthin1753.
Thelinesaresorelatedtoeachotherthatthereisacorrespondenceofparts,bothinformandinsense.Itisnotconfinedexclusivelytopoetry,foritisnothingbut
thedevelopmentoftheideaofbalanceandeuphonyofpartswhichisfoundinelevatedprosestyle,especiallysuchasisutteredorally.Themindmoreeasilygrasps
thethoughtofasecondclause,iffashionedlikeanearlierone.Itislessoccupiedwiththeform,forthatisalreadyfamiliar.Itisalso,anddoubtlessforthatvery
reason,moreagreeabletotheear.Whatisdesirableinprose,andoftenusedthere,becomestheruleinpoetry,asonemayeasilyunderstandwhenoneconsidersthe
necessityofauniformlineforthesakeofeasyutterancewithmusicalaccompaniment.Itisbyitspersistenceanduniformitythatparallelismcertifiestothepoetical
natureofapassage.Thisparallelismisoftheutmostimportanceindeterminingthemeaningofaverse.Whileitsadoptionasapoeticalformhasalogicalbasis,
onceletitbecometheruleforsuchcomposition,anditcannotfailtooperatetomodifythethoughtaswellastheform.Whatwouldotherwiseappeartobeacareful
choiceofsynonyms,forexample,perhapstosecureclimactericeffect,maybesimplytheoperationofthisprinciple.Sotheunusualpositionofawordinaclause
maybetraceabletothisratherthantoadesiretosecurespecialemphasis.
Severaldistinctformsofparallelismhavebeenobserved.
(a)Synonymousparallelism.Thethoughtofthetwolinesissynonymous,andsoaretheseveraltermsbywhichthethoughtisexpressed.
HowshallIcursewhomGodhathnotcursed?
AndhowshallIdefywhomJahwehhathnotdefied?(Nu23:8).
(b)Antitheticparallelism.Thesecondlineexpressesthesamerealtruthasthefirst,butitdoesitantithetically.Theformistrulyparallel,andonememberof
thelinesissynonymous,theothertwocontrasted.Thisisespeciallycommoninproverbs.
Awisesonmakethagladfather,
Butafoolishsonistheheavinessofhismother.(Pr10:1).
(c)Stairlikeorascendingrhythm.Thethoughtofthefirstlineisrepeatedinpart,or,ifentirely,morebriefly,sothatthesecondlinecanaddafurtheritemof
thought,thusrisingabovetheparallelline.
Tillthypeoplepassover,Jahweh,
Tillthypeoplepassover,whichthouhastpurchased.(Ex15:6).
(d)Syntheticparallelism.Thethoughtofthesecondlineisentirelydifferentorsupplementary,noneofthefirstbeingrepeated.Thedistichremainsin
parallelism,forthetwolinescorrespondinform.
Answernotafoolaccordingtohisfolly,Lestthoualsobelikeuntohim.(Pr26:4).
Othervarietiesareoftensingledoutfordiscussion,anditwillnotbesupposedthatatypicalformisalwaystobediscovered.Thevariationsandcombinations
areverynumerous,andthestudyofthemisfullofinterestandnovelty.
Thetwolinegroup,ordistich,hasbeenconsideredabove,asthesimplestinwhichparallelismcanbeobserved.Itisalsobyfarthecommonest.Threelines
groupedinasimilarwayarenotuncommon.Inthiscasethefirstandsecondmaybesynonymous,andthethirdsynthetictothemorothercombinationsmaybe
found.Moreover,distichesmaybearrangedinpairs,withthesameparallelismasbetweensinglelinesofthedistich.Itoftenoccursthatseverallinesaregrouped
togethersoregularlythatastanzaorstropheisrecognizable.Itmaybemarkedoffbyalinerepeatedasarefrain,orbyaspecialinitialletter,inalphabeticalpoems
butsuchindicationsarenotofcommonoccurrence.Absoluteregularityinlengthisnotoftenfound,andscholarsoftenattempttosecureitbyassumingthelossor
insertionofacoupletortwo.Thereisalsonospecificprincipledistinctfromtheparallelismabovementioned,toformthebasisofastrophicaldivision.Itseems
likely,then,thatstrophesarenottoberegardedasanessentialfeatureofHebrewpoetry,likethestanzasofahymnthatistobesungbutthatthegroupingis
entirelyoptionalandordinarilylogicalaliteraryfeature.Rhymeandassonanceareknowninthelanguage,butarenotusedpersistentlythroughoutapoem,and 89/144
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entirelyoptionalandordinarilylogicalaliteraryfeature.Rhymeandassonanceareknowninthelanguage,butarenotusedpersistentlythroughoutapoem,and
cannotbeanticipatedorreducedtorulewhenpresent.
3.ByfarthegreaterpartoftheOTpoetryisofcoursereligiousandethical,asthePsalms,Proverbs,andJob(seeartt.).Outsideofthesebooks,however,isan
interestingandbynomeanssmallamountofpoetrywhichtheBiblestudentmayprofitablystudyforitsliteraryandhistoricalvalue.
Infamilyandsociallife,poetryevidentlyhadalargeplace.Marriageoccasionsfurnishedtheverybestopportunityforthecompositionofsongs,andfortheir
executiontotheaccompanimentofmusic.SucharethesongsintheBookofCanticles.TheweddingsongevidentlyfurnishedthemodelofthepassageIs5:1ff.
Lamentationforthedeadisalsoanevidence.ThefinestexampleisthatofDavidoverSaulandJonathan(2S1:17ff.).ApartofalamentbyhimoverAbneris
foundin2S3:33f.ThetendernessandfitnessoftheseutterancesareverydifferentfromthestereotypeddirgesofwhichthereisnoticeinJer9:16(17).The
characterofthesemaybeseenfromtheBookofLamentations,wherethepoetlamentsoverthecityasoveraperson.Thefirstfourofthefivepoemsofthisbook
arealphabetical,astrongmarkofartificiality,whichisfurtheremphasizedbythechoiceofapeculiarrhythm,knownastheelegiacrhythm.Thereisalongline,
commonlybrokenbyacsura.Thefirsthalfcontainsthreebeatsorrises,theordinarylengthoftheHebrewline.Thesecondhalfhashuttwo.Inordinaryrhythmit
wouldhavethree,andwouldformasecondlineinparallelismwiththefirst.Thesamerhythmisdetectedinafewpassagesofsimilarimportintheprophets.There
areallusions,toonumeroustocite,totheuseofsongsatfeastsofvariouskinds,andatthedrunkenrevelsagainstwhichtheprophetsprotest.Nu21:17f.isclaimed
toheanexampleofthesongsoftensungtocelebratethediscoveryofaspringorthesuccessfuldiggingofawell.Thereligioususeofpoetryisscarcelytobe
distinguishedfromitsnationaluse.ForwhenJahwehcouldbeaddressedastheGodofthehostsofIsrael,poemscomposedtoinciteorrewardbraverycouldnot
failtomakeuseofreligiousaswellasofpatrioticemotionstosecuretheirend.See,forexample,Jg5.
O.H.GATES.
POLE(SACRED).SeeASHERAH,3,4.
POLL.Bythepoll(Nu3:47)isbythehead.Cf.Shaks.Hamlet,IV.v.196,Allflaxenwashispoll.TheideaintheHebrewwordisroundness,andsoto
polltheheadistogiveittheappearanceofroundnessbycuttingoffthehair.Cf.More,Utopia,ed.Arber,p.49,Theirheadeshenotpolledorshanen,but
roundedalytleabouttheeares.
POLLUX.SeeDIOSCURI.
POLYGAMY.SeeF AMILY,MARRIAGE.
POMEGRANATE(rimmn,Arah.rummn).Treeandfruit(Ex28:33f.,39:2426,Nu
13:23,20:5,Dt8:8,1S14:2,1k7:18,20,42,2K25:17,2Ch3:16,4:13,Ca4:3,13,6:7,7:12,8:2,Jer52:22f.,Jl1:12,Hag2:19).Thepomegranate(Punica
granatum)isoneofthefamiliarfruittreesoftheOTitisusuallyashrub,hutmayattaintheheightofatree(1S14:2)itwasmuchadmiredforitsbeauty(Ca4:3,
6:11),anditsflowerwascopiedinornamentation(Ex28:33,1K7:13).Itsdarkgreenleavesandbrilliantscarletblossommakeitapeculiarlyattractiveobject,
especiallywhengrowinginorchards(Ca4:13),mixedwithtreesofothershadesofgreenitsbudsdevelopwiththetendergrapes(Ca7:12),andtheround,reddish
fruit,withitshrilliantcrimson,juicyseeds,ripensatthetimeofthevintage.Thefruitisafavouritefood,andtheharkavaluedastringentmedicine.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
POMMEL.SeeBOWL.
POND.SeeP OOL.
PONTUS.Intheearliesttimesofwhichwehaveanyknowledge,thisname,meaningseainGreek,wasusedbyGreekstoindicatevaguelycountry
borderingonorneartheBlackSea.FromitsimportanceforthecornsupplyofGreece,theBlackSeaandthelandarounditcametobeknownastheseapar
excellence.AstimewentonthetermgraduallybecameconfinedtothecountrytothesouthoftheBlackSea.ItwasnottillaboutB.C.302thatakingdomwashere
formed.Inthatyear,consequentuponthetroublesduetotheearlydeathofAlexandertheGreat,acertainMithradateswasabletocarveoutforhimselfakingdom
beyondtheriverHalysinN.E.AsiaMinor,andaboutB.C.281heassumedthetitleofking.Itisnotpossibletodefinetheexactextentoftheterritoryruledbythis
kingandhisdescendants,butitiscertainthatitincludedpartofthecountrypreviouslycalledCappadocia,someofthemountaintribesneartheBlackSeacoasts,
andpartofPophiagoniaandalsocertainthatitsextentvariedfromtimetotime.TheMithradaticdynastylastedtill
http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/p.htm . .63.Intheprecedingyearthekingdom 90/144
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andpartofPophiagoniaandalsocertainthatitsextentvariedfromtimetotime.TheMithradaticdynastylastedtillB.C.63.Intheprecedingyearthekingdom
ceasedtoexist,andpartofitwasincorporatedintheRomanEmpireunderthenamePontus,andthisdistricthenceforthconstitutedonehalfofthecombined
provinceBithyniaPontus,whichwasputunderonegovernor.Theremainingportionsoftheoldkingdomweredistributedinotherways.Thecivilwarshelped
Pharnaces,asonofthelastMithradates,toacquirethewholeofhisfatherskingdom,buthisbriefreignendedindefeatbyJuliusCsar(B.C.47).Thenarrowed
kingdomofPontuswasreconstitutedbyMarkAntonyinB.C.39,andgiveninB.C.36toPolemon,whofoundedadynasty,whichruledoverthiskingdomtillA.D.
63.ThedaughterofthisPolemon,QueenTryphna,ismentionedintheapocryphalbook,TheActsofPaulandThecla,ashavingbeenpresentatagreatImperial
festivalatPisidianAntiochinthereignoftheEmperorClaudius,whosebloodrelationshewas.Thisstatementisnodoubtfoundedonfact.TheseActsrelatethat
sheprotectedtheChristianmaidenThecla,andwasconverted,throughherinstrumentality,toChristianity.AstraditionconnectsBartholomewalsowiththe
Polemoniandynasty,itisprobablethatthereweresomeChristiansamongthem.InA.D.63thekingdomofPontushadbeenbroughttoasufficientlyhighpitchof
civilizationtobeadmittedintotheRomanEmpirethewesternpartwasmadearegionoftheprovinceGalatia,andtheeasternwasaddedtoCappadocia.The
dispossessedPolemonwasgivenaCiliciankingdom,anditwasaskingofpartofCiliciathatbe(laterthanA.D.63)marriedBerenice.
Inthe1stcent.A.D.,therefore,thenamePontushadvarioussignifications,andastrictnomenclaturewasavailablefortheirdistinction.Theprovincewas
Pontus,PolemonskingdomwasPontusPolemoniacus(incorporatedintoprovinceGalatiaA.D.63),thepartofMithradatesoldkingdomincorporatedinthe
provinceGalatia(B.C.32)wasPontusGalaticus,andtheregionsthatlayE.ofPontusPolemoniacus,betweentheBlackSeaandArmenia,wereknownasPontus
Cappadocicus.(Intothedifficultquestionoftheinstitutionofthisfourthdistrictwecannotenterhere.)FromaboutA.D.78to106P.GalaticusandP.Polemoniacus
wereincludedinthecombinedprovincesGalatiaandCappadocia,andafterA.D.106theyconstitutedpermanentpartsoftheprovinceCappadocia.In1P1:1
PontusmeansclearlytheRomanprovince.ThereislittledoubtthattheadjectivePontikos,appliedtoAquilainAc18:2,meansthat,thoughaJew,hewasanative
oftheRomanprovince,anditisinterestinginconnexionwiththistomentionthataninscriptionhasrecentlybeenfoundreferringtooneAquilaatSinope,oneof
theprincipalcitiesoftheRomanprovincePontus.TheonlyremainingNTreferencetoPontus(Ac2:9)cannotbesoeasilyexplained.Itmustbeleftuncertain
whetherthenamePontusthereisusedstrictlyoftheprovince,ormorelooselyofthekingdom,orofthekingdomandtheprovincetogether.
ChristianitywasnotbroughttoPontusbySt.Paul,ifwecantrustthesilenceofActs,anditisbesttodoso.From1Peteritisclearthatabouttheyear80,the
probabledateoftheEpistle,therewereChristiansinthatcountry,andtheseconvertsfrompaganismtoChristianityprobablycametherefromtheAsiancoastsor
fromRome.ThereisawellknownandvaluabletestimonytotheprevalenceofChristianityintheprovince,belongingtotheperiodA.D.111113.Atthattimethe
youngerPlinywasgovernoroftheprovinceBithyniaPontus,andaddressedinquiriestotheEmperorTrajanonthemannerinwhichChristiansoughttobetreated
bytheadministration.
Hereportsthatmanymenandwomenofallagesandofeveryrankintownandcountrywere
Christians,andthatsomehadabandonedthefaith20or25yearsbefore.AfterPlinystimePontuscontinuedtobeastrongholdofChristianity.Fromherecamethe
famousMarcion(bornabout120atSinope),andofthisprovinceAquila,atranslatoroftheOTintoGreek,wasanative.
A.S OUTER.
POOL,POND.gam,acollectionofstandingwater,isdistinguishedfrommiqweh,aplaceintowhichwaterflows,orisled(Ex7:19).Theformermay
denotethewaterleftinthehollowswhentheinundationoftheNilesubsides,andthelatter,reservoirs(cf.Gn1:10,Lv11:36).AVtr.gampond,inEx7:19,8:6
RVuniformlypool(Is14:23etc.).brikah(2S2:13,4:12etc.)is=Arab,birkeh,anartificialpondortank.Itisappliedtogreatreservoirsconstructedtofurnish
waterforcities,orforirrigation,likethatatGibeon(2S2:18),thoseatHebron(2S4:12),andatJerusalem(2K18:17),etc.andalsotolargebasins,suchaslend
freshnesstothecourtsofthehousesinDamascus.TheusualLXXequivalentiskolumbthra,thewordusedinNTforthepoolsofBethesdaandSiloam(Jn5:2,
9:7).InIs19:10readwithRValltheythatworkforhireshallbegrievedinsoul.SeealsoHESHBON.
W.EWINO.POOR.SeeP OVERTY.
POPLAR(libneh[rootmeaningwhite]Gn30:37RVmstoraxHos4:13.TheHeb.isverysimilartoArab,lubnameaningstorax,whichistheLXXtr.in
Gn30:37ontheotherhand,inHos4:12theLXXhasleuk[white],i.e.thepoplar).ThepoplarmayeasilyhavefurnishedJacobwithwhiterods.Thereare
twokindsofpoplarinSyria,PopulusalbaandP.euphraticatheybothflourishroundDamascus,wheretheirtrunksaremuchusedinmakingsupportsforthemud
roofs.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
PORATHA.ThefourthsonofHaman(Est9:8).
PORCH.Thiswordisadoubletofportico(fromLat.porticus),bothoriginallydenotingacoveredentrancetoabuilding.Whenthefrontofthisentranceis
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PORCH.Thiswordisadoubletofportico(fromLat.porticus),bothoriginallydenotingacoveredentrancetoabuilding.Whenthefrontofthisentranceis
supportedonpillars,theporchbecomesaportico.particus,liketheGr.stoa,wasextendedtosignifyaroofedcolonnaderunningroundapublicbuildingsuchasa
temple,orenclosinganopenspace,likethecloistersofamedivalmonastery.Themostfamousoftheseporchesasenseinwhichthewordisnowobsolete
werethepaintedporchthePorchparexcellenceatAthens,andSolomonsporchatJerusalem(seebelow).
IntheOTaporchisnamedchieflyinconnexionwiththeTemple(seebelow),orwiththepalace(wh.see)ofSolomon.ThepillarsofthetempleofDagonat
GazawhichSamsonpulleddown,orratherslidfromtheirstonebases,wereprobablytwoofthosesupportingtheportico,asingeniouslyexplainedbyMacalister,
BibleSidelights,etc.,ch.vii.(seeHOUSE,5).ThewordrenderedporchinJg3:23isofquiteuncertainmeaningandevenofdoubtfulauthenticity.
IntheNT,inconnexionwiththetrialofJesus,mentionismadeofaporchor,asRVm,forecourt(Mk14:63),asdistinguishedfromthecourt(v.66RV)of
thehighpriestspalace,forwhichMt26:71(EVporch)hasawordelsewhererenderedgate.Inbothcasesthecoveredgatewayleadingfromthestreettothe
courtisprobablymeant.
Solomonsporch(Jn10:23,Ac3:11,5:12)wasacoveredcolonnadeorcloisterrunningalongtheeastsideoftheTempleenclosure(seeTEMPLE,1(a),
wherethetriplecolonnadeofHerodstempletheRoyalPorchofJosephusisalsodiscussed.FordetailsseeExpT,Nov.1908,p.68).Asimilarcolonnade
enclosedthepoolofBethesda(Jn5:2).
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
PORCUPINE.SeeBITTERN.
PORPOISE.Ex25:5,Ezk16:10RVm.SeeBADGERSS KINS.
PORT.TheportofNeh2:13isagate,thesameHeb.wordbeingtranslatedgateinthesameverse.Cf.Pr.Bk.versionofPs9:14Withintheportsofthe
daughterofSion.
PORTERinEVhasalwaysthesenseofdoorkeeper(seeH OUSE,6)orgatekeeper(seeF ORTIFICATIONANDS IEGECRAFT,5,end).InJn10:3theporteris
themanleftinchargeofasheepfoldbytheshepherdorshepherdswhosesheeparetherehousedforthenight.Inprivatehousesthedoorkeepermightbeawoman
(2S4:6asrestoredfromLXX,Ac12:13).InOT,however,portersaremostfrequentlynamedintheBooksofChron.,EzrandNeh.inconnexionwiththeTemple
(1Ch9:17f.onwards),wheretheyhadchargeofthevariousgates(seeTEMPLE,
6,P RIESTSANDLEVITES,III.1,2).ThesamewordisrendereddoorkeepersinAV1Ch
15:23f.,andinseveralotherplacesinRV(15:19etc.).Itistoberegrettedthatthistermwasnotsubstitutedthroughout.InPs84:10theoriginalisdifferent,and
shouldprobablyberendered:Ihadratherbe[standingorlying]atthethresholdinthehouseofmyGod.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
POSIDONIUS.AnenvoysentbyNicanortoJudas(2Mac14:18).
POSSESSION
1.Meaningoftheterm.Thecentralideainthewordisthecoerciveseizingofthespiritofamanbyanotherspirit,viewedassuperhuman,withtheresult
thatthemanswillisnolongerfreebutiscontrolled,oftenagainsthiswish,bythisindwellingpersonorpower.InScripturetheideaisassociatedwithbothphases
ofmoralcharacterandamanmaybepossessedbyChristortheHolySpirit,orbyaorthedevil.Laterusagehasconfinedthewordmainly,thoughnotexclusively,
topossessionbyanevilspirit.OfthebetterpossessionthereareseveralkindsofinstancesinbothTestaments.Itissometimesrepresented,accordingtothemore
materialpsychologyofearlytimes,astheseizureofamanbyanexternalpower,thoughtheinternaloccupationisimplied,andthecontrolisnonethelesscomplete
(1S10:10,Is61:1cf.thefrequentthehandoftheLordwasuponhim,1K18:46:soofanevilspirit,1S18:10).Theinspirationoftheprophetsisinsomeplaces
describedaseffectedbyasupernaturalagencyoccupyingtheseatofpersonalitywithintheprophet,andcontrollingormovinghim(Lk1:70,1P1:11,2P1:21,2
Es14:22).InpersonalreligionnotonlyisthetransferenceofauthoritywithintotheindwellingChristspokenof(Jn17:23,Gal2:20),buttheHolySpiritalsomay
seizeandpossessaman(Ac2:1,Lk1:15,Ro8:9,Eph5:18),andshouldruleinhim(Eph4:30).Butthisinvolvesawelcomeandgladsubmissiontotheswayofa
spiritwithin,thoughpersonalwishesmaybethwartedorcrossed(Ac16:7).Demoniacalpossession,ontheotherhand,ischaracterizedbythereluctanceofthe
sufferer,whoisoftenconsciousofthehatefultyrannyunderwhichheisheldandagainstwhichhiswillrebelsinvain.
2. Featuresofdemoniacalpossession.Insuchpossessiontwofeaturesmaygenerallybetraced.Itisalliedwithandyetdistinctfromphysicaldisease,and92/144
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2.Featuresofdemoniacalpossession.Insuchpossessiontwofeaturesmaygenerallybetraced.Itisalliedwithandyetdistinctfromphysicaldisease,and
thereisalmostalwayssomethingabnormalwithrespecttothepsychicaldevelopmentordefectofthesufferer.Itisgivenastheexplanationincasesofdumbness
(Mt9:32,Lk11:14),ofdeafnessanddumbness(Mk9:25),ofdumbnessandblindness(Mt12:22),ofcurvatureofthespine(Lk13:11),andofepilepsy(Mk1:25).
Elsewheresuchcomplaintsarereferredtoasmerelydisease,andno
suggestionismadethattheywerecausedorcomplicatedbytheactionofanevilspirit(Mt15:30,Mk7:32,Lk18:25).Sometimespossessionanddiseaseareeven
distinguishedbydifferentenumeration(Mt10:8,Mk1:32,Lk6:17f.,7:21,13:32)andonceatleastepileptics(orlunatics)andpalsiedoccupyadifferentcategory
fromdemoniacs(Mt4:24).Therightconclusionseemstobethatthesamediseasewasinsomecasesascribedtoordinarycausesandinotherstopossession,the
distinguishingfeaturebeingpossiblyintractabilityduetotheviolenceofpermanenceofthesymptoms.Evidencethatthedisorderwasatthesametimeofa
psychicalornervouscharacterisplentiful.AccordingtoArabbelief,somethingabnormalintheappearance,suchasastrangelookintheeyesoranunusual
catchinginthethroat,wasaninvariablesymptom,andbothareindicationsofnervousexcitementoralarm.Thewillwasparalyzed(Mk9:18),andthesuffererwas
undertheinfluenceofillusions(Jn7:20).Heidentifiedhimselfwiththedemons,andwasaversetodeliverance(Mk1:24,5:7).InsuchcasesJesusdoesnotfollow
Hisusualcourseofexcitingfaithbeforeheheals,butactsasthoughthesuffererwerenotinafitstatetobelieveortotrust,andmustbedealtwithforciblyfirstof
all.Someconfidentandmajesticwordisspoken,ofwhichtheauthorityisimmediatelyrecognizedandonlythen,whentheproperbalanceofthemindhasbeen
restored,isanattemptmadetocommunicatereligiousblessing.
3.OurLordsbelief.TwoopinionshavebeenheldastowhetherChristactuallysharedthecurrentviewsofHisdayastodemoniacalpossession.ThatHe
seemedtodosoisattestedonalmosteverypageoftheSynoptics,(a)Accordingtooneopinion,thiswasnothingmorethanaseeming,andHisattitudetowards
thephenomenamustbeexplainedasagraciousaccommodationtotheviewsoftheage.Inadditiontotheseriousobjectionthatsuchatheoryintroducesan
unwelcomeelementofunrealityintoChriststeaching,andimpliesalackofcandouronHispart,theargumentsinitsfavouraresingularlyineffective.Toassertthat
ChristneverentangledHisteachingwithcontemporaryideasistoprejudgetheveryquestionatissue.ThatHeadopteddifferentmethodsfromthosefollowedby
professionalexorcists,whosesuccessHeexpresslyattests(Mt12:27),isexactlywhatHisdifferenceinpersonfromthemwouldcausetobeexpected,butdoesnot
necessarilyinvolveadifferenceintheory.TohumourapatientbyfallinginwithhishallucinationisnotacorrectdescriptionofChristsprocedureforinmanyof
theinstancesthetreatmentisperemptoryandstern(cf.Mk9:25,wherethesuffererwasnotconsulted,andanyhumouringfollowedthecuresoelsewhere),andthe
evilspiritsarerepresentedafterexpulsionasactualandstillcapableofmischief(Mk5:13).Christsownlanguageisitselfsignificant.Hemakesthecurrentbelief
thebasisofargument(Lk11:16ff.),attributesthepowertocastoutdevilstothedisciplesofthePharisees,andimplicitlyassertsitforHimself(Mk12:27f.,Lk
11:19f.),andrecognizesthepowerasresidentinothers(Mk9:38f.,Mt7:22),withoutasingleintimationthatHewasspeakinginmetaphor,andthatHishearers
wereblunderinginassumingthatHemeantwhatHesaid.
(b)Therealexplanationistobefoundinquiteanotherdirection.Hishumanitywastrueandcomplete,thehumanityoftheageintowhichHewasbornandof
HisDivineattributesHeemptiedhimself(Ph2:7,2Co8:9,13:4),excepttotheextenttowhichHisperfecthumannaturemightbetheorganoftheirmanifestation
(Bruce,HumiliationofChrist,136ff.Ottley,Doct.ofIncarnation,610ff.).Invirtueofthisvoluntaryselflimitation,Hishumanitywasnotliftedclearofthe
intellectualatmosphereofHistimebutHesharedtheconceptionsandviewsofthepeopleamongstwhomHebecameincarnate,thoughHissinlessnessandthe
welcomedguidanceoftheHolySpiritaidedHishumanintelligence,removingsomeoftheworsthindrancestocorrectthinking,butnotmakingHiminanysensea
prodigyinadvanceofHisageinregardtohumanknowledge.Accordingly,Heavoidstheextremeandexaggerateddemonologyintowhichanundulyextended
animisticinterpretationoftheuniversewasleadingHiscontemporaries,butdoesnotrejectorquestiontheinterpretationitself.Atalaterdatetherewasadisposition
toascribealldiseasestopossession,tomultiplyevilspiritsbeyondcalculation,andtoinvestthemwithfunctionsandactivitiesofthemostgrotesquekind.Christs
attitudewasaltogetherdifferent,thoughHeconsistentlytalksandactsupontheassumptionthatevilspiritswerenocreaturesofthefancy,andthatpossessionwasa
realphenomenon.
Thatsuchanassumptionwaswrongitisoutsidetheprovinceoftherealsciencestoassertortodenyandtherearesomeconsiderationsthatmakethe
conclusionatleastprobable,thatpersonalspiritsofevilexist,andcausebytheiractivitysomewoefulsufferingsamongstmen.Metaphysicspostulatestranscendent
personalpowerastheoriginalcauseofmaterialphenomena,andissustainedinsodoingbyallthatamanknowsconcerningtherootsofhisownmoralprocedure.
Immanentinmanandoutside,thereisgenerallyrecognizedagreatspiritualexistence,affectinghumanlifeinathousandinvisiblewaysandthebeliefinOne
SupremeSpiritremovesmostofthedifficultiesfromthebeliefinothers,subordinateyetsuperhuman.Intheasylumsandhospitals,moreover,arecasesofmental
ornervousdisease,notentirelyexplicablebyphysicallaw,butlookingexceedinglylikewhatcasesofpossessionmaybesupposedtobejustasinsocialandcivil
lifemenaresometimesmetwithwhoseviciousnessdefiesanyotherinterpretationthanthatan,orthe,evilspirithassecuredthemasteryoverthem.Psychical
research,too,pointstoalargespiritualpopulationoftheworld,andallthenaturalisticexplanationssofarsuggestedhavefailedtosolvethemystery.The
conclusionseemsprobablethatdemoniacalpossessionwasacceptedbyChristasanactualfact,withmodificationsoftheviewsofHiscontemporariesinthe
directionofeconomyinthebringinginofsuperhumanagencies,andoftheirduedistinctionfromprocessesofphysicallaw.
Possessionmayfurtherbeclassedasoneofthefundamentalanduniversalbeliefsofmankind,withasolidelementoftruthinit,thoughrunningattimesofexcitementinto
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Possessionmayfurtherbeclassedasoneofthefundamentalanduniversalbeliefsofmankind,withasolidelementoftruthinit,thoughrunningattimesofexcitementinto
extravagance.Homerheldthatawastingsicknesswascausedbyademon,andtheGreekdramatistsgenerallyattributemadnessandquasireligiousfrenzytodemonicorDivine
possession.TheEgyptianslocatedademonineachofthethirtysixmembersofthebodytheirpresencewasthecauseofdisease,whichwashealedbytheirexpulsion.Sevenevil
spiritsaregroupedinBabylonianmythology(Mt12:45,Mk16:9,Lk8:2,11:26),andthesewiththeirsubordinategeniikeptmenincontinualfear,andwerethoughtabletooccupy
thebodyandproduceanykindofsickness.Inalmosteverycivilization,ancientasthoseoftheEastorrudeasthoseofCentralAfrica,asimilarconceptionhasprevailedandthe
prevalencepointstoacertainrudimentarytruththatneednotDerenouncedalongwiththeelaborationsbywhichinthecourseofagestheactualfacthasbeenoverlaid.
R.W.MOSS.
POST.Postisusedin2Ch30:6,Est8:14,Job9:25,Jer51:31forabearerofdespatches,arunner.Theserunnerswerechosenfromthekings
bodyguard,andwerenotedfortheirswiftness,whenceJobssimile(9:25),Mydaysareswifterthanapost.
POST,DOORPOST.SeeHOUSE,6.
POT.SeeHOUSE,9.
POTIPHAR.Gn39,ahighEgyptianofficialinthestoryofJoseph.ThenameisperhapsadeformationofPotiphera(wh.see)oranunsuccessfulattemptto
formanEgyptiannameonthesamelines.Potipharseemstobeentitledchiefcook(EVcaptainoftheguard),andlikewisesaris,eunuchofPharaoh.Butthe
formertitlecookmaybeonlyamarkofhighrankpersonsdescribedasroyaltastersintheNewKingdomwereleadersofexpeditions,investigatorsofcriminal
cases,judgesinthemostimportanttrials,etc.asyet,too,thereislittleindicationthateunuchswereemployedinEgyptevenatalaterperiod:sothisalsowasbutan
honorificofficialtitletheHebrewwordsarisisactuallyfoundattachedtothenamesofPersianofficersinEgypt.JosephwassoldtoPotiphar,onwhosewifes
accusationhewascastintothekingsprison(inPotipharsownhouse),towhichPharaohafterwardscommittedhischiefbutlerandchiefbaker.Theofficethusheld
byPotipharcannotyetbepreciselyidentifiedinEgyptiandocuments.InthepassageGn41:45andtherepeateddescriptionofJosephswife,theformsofthenames
andthetitleofthepriestaremuchmorepreciselyEgyptian.
F.LL.GRIFFITH.
POTIPHERA.Gn41:45,50,46:20.TheconsonantsintheHebrewareanalmostexacttranscriptoftheEgyp.Petepr,GivenbytheSungod,alatename
foundfromthe22ndDyn.onwardsonlytheletterw(representedbyEng.o)ispuzzling.Potiphera,fatherofJosephswifeAsenath(wh.see),waspriestofOn,
i.e.probablyhighpriestofR,theSungod,inOn.Hewouldthusbetheheadofthemostlearnedsacerdotalcollegeinthecountry,andofhighrank.F.LL.
GRIFFITH.
POTSHERD.SeeP OTTERY.
POTTAGE.SeeF OOD,3.
POTTER,POTTERY.Theartificer(ytsr)isfirstnamedin2S17:28.Thisimpliestheuseofpotteryatanearlierperiod.TheancientEgyptianswere
familiarwithitsmanufacture(Wilk.Anc.Egyp.ii.190ff.),andIsraelcouldnotbeentirelyignorantofit.Duringtheirnomadlife,however,suchbrittlematerial
wouldbelittleserviceable,anditsusewouldbereducedtoaminimumskins,vesselsofwood,metal,etc.,beingpreferred.Skinsforwater,wine,etc.,havebeen
inuseatalltimes,downtothepresentday(Gn21:14,Jg4:19,1S16:20etc.)butwealsofindtheearthenwarepitcher,orjar(kad),similarlyemployed(Gn
24:14,Jg7:18,1K17:12[EVbarrel]etc.).OnlyaftersettlementinPalestinewastheartdevelopedtoanyextentby
Israelites.Inthelaterwritingsthepotterisfrequentlyreferredto(Ps2:9,Is29:16,Jer18:2etc.).
Thepotterfirstkneadedtheclaywithhisfeet(Is41:25),thenshapedthevesselonthewheel(Jer18:8).Thisconsistedoftwowoodendisksattachedtoa
perpendicularaxle,thelargerbeingbelowtheworktable.Thisthepotterturnedwithhisfoot.Thevesselwasthenfiredinanoven(Sir38:29ff.).Inlatertimesthe
artofglazingwasalsounderstood,oxideoflead(silverdross),obtainedinrefiningsilver,beingusedforthepurpose(Pr26:23,Sir38:30).InJeremiahsdaythe
pottersseemtohavehadastancebythegateofpotsherds(Jer18:1,19:1f.,RVgateHarsith),prohablyintheneighbourhoodoftheclaypits,wherethey
offeredtheirwaresforsale.
Thethoughtofthepottermouldinghisclayatwillisimplicitinmanypassageswhereytsar,toform,istheverbused(Gn2:7f.,Ps33:16,95:5etc.),andis 94/144
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Thethoughtofthepottermouldinghisclayatwillisimplicitinmanypassageswhereytsar,toform,istheverbused(Gn2:7f.,Ps33:16,95:5etc.),andis
madeexplicitinsuchpassagesasIs29:16,45:9,Ro9:21etc.
Thereadingelhatsr(Syr.),intothetreasury,ispreferredinZec11:13bymanyscholarsandRVmtoMTelhayytsr,untothepotter.Thepassageis
oneofgreatdifficulty.WhatisknownofthepottersartinPalestineisduemainlytotheworkofthePalestine
ExplorationFund,andespeciallytothatcarriedoutbyFlindersPetrie,Bliss,andMacalister,atTellelHesypossiblytheancientLachishandelsewhere,from
1890onwards.Theresultoftheirinvestigations,anddiscussionsbyotherscholars,arefoundinthePEFStPetriesTellelHesyBlisssMoundofManyCities
ExcavationsinPalestine,byBliss,Macalister,andWnsch,etc.
Petriedistinguishesthreeperiodsofancientpottery.1.Amorite,prehistoric,wheretheshapeandmarkingsofthevesselsseemtoshowthattheyweremoulded
ontheoldleathernvessels.2.Phnician,roughandporousincharacter,oftenwithpaintedornamentation,ofwhichpossiblymetalvesselsfurnishedthemodels.
ThismaybedatedfromB.C.1400to1000.3.Jewish,inwhichAmoriteandPhnicianstylesareblendedthisapparentlybelongstothetimeofthelatermonarchy.
OnmanyjarhandlesarelegendsstampedincharactersresemblingthoseoftheSiloaminscription.AlongwiththeJewish,Greektypesofpotteryarefound,chiefly
ribbedbowls,andlargeamphorwithloophandles.Theredandblackfiguredwarewasalsoimported(Bliss,inHastingsDBiv.27).
WherepotteryoftheSeleucidage,withGreeknamesstampedonthehandles,orRomanpottery,ribbedamphor,andtilesstampedwiththestampofthetenth
legion,orArabglazedware,isfound,sitesmaybedatedwithapproximateaccuracy.Butfortheseandoldertimes,datafurnishedbyremainsofpotterymustbe
usedwithcaution.ThuscertainjarsfoundatagreatdepthbelowthesurfaceatJerusalem,undoubtedlybelongingtoacomparativelyearlytime,closelyresemble
someofthoseinuseatthepresentday(Nowack,Heb.Arch.i.265ff.).
W.EWING.
POTTERSFIELD.SeeAKELDAMA.
POUND.SeeMONEY,7WEIGHTSANDMEASURES,III.
POVERTY
1.IntheOT.Thecharacteranddegreeofthepovertyprevalentinacommunitywillnaturallyvarywiththestagesofsocialdevelopmentthroughwhichit
successivelypasses.Povertyismoreacutelyfelt,anditsextremesaremoremarked,wherecitylifeandcommercehavegrownupthanwheretheconditionsoflife
arepurelynomadicoragricultural.
ThecausesofpovertyreferredtointheOT(apartfromthoseduetoindividualfolly)arespecially(a)badseasons,involvingfailureofcrops,lossofcattle,etc.
(cf.2K8:17,Neh5:3)(b)raidsandinvasions(c)landgrabbing(cf.Is5:8)(d)overtaxationandforcedlabour(cf.Jer22:13f.)(e)extortionateusury,the
opportunityforwhichwasprovidedbythenecessityformeetinghightaxationandthelossesarisingfrombadharvests(cf.Neh5:16).
Intheearlierperiod,whenthetribalsystemwithitscomplexofclansandfamiliesflourished,povertywasnotacutelyfelt.Losses,ofcourse,therewere,arising
frombadseasons,invasion,andpestilencewehear,too,ofrichmenoppressingthepoor(cf.Nathansparable,2S12:16)buttherewaslittlepermanentpoverty.
Mattersweremaintainedinastateofequilibriumsolongasthelandsystem,underwhichallfreeIsraelitishfamiliespossessedapatrimony,remainedin
workingorder.ItissignificantthatintheearlierlegislationofJE(cf.esp.theTen
Commandments,Ex20:117,andtheBookoftheCovenant,Ex20:2323:33)thefewreferencesthatdooccur(e.g.Ex22:25,23:6)donotsuggestthatpoverty
wasverywidespreadoracutelyfelt.Duringtheperiodofthelatermonarchy,however,commerce,citylife,andluxurygrewapace,andthegreedandheartless
oppressionoftherich,thecorruptionandperversionofjustice,whichthisstateofthingsbroughtinitstrain,wereconstantlydenouncedbythegreatwriting
prophets,esp.inthe8thcent.(cf.e.g.,Is1:25,Am4:1,6:1ff.,Mic2:1ff.).
TheDeuteronomiclegislation(7thcent.)bearseloquenttestimonytotheprevalenceofpovertyunderthelatermonarchy(cf.Dt10:1719,14:2829,15,23:19,
20,24:1021,26:1215),andinonefamoussentencepredictsitspermanence(thepoorshallneverceaseoutoftheland,15:11).
Theclassesofpoormoreparticularlymentionedarewidows,orphans,andthesojourners,orresidentstrangers,whopossessednolandedrights(grim).The
LevitesalsoarespeciallyreferredtoinDeut.asanimpoverishedclass(cf.12:12,19:18),aresultofthecentralizationofworshipintheonesanctuaryatJerusalem.
AllclassesofthepooraretheobjectsofspecialsolicitudeandconsiderationintheMosaiclegislation,particularlyinthePriestlyCode(cf.e.g.
Lv5:7,11,19:915etc.)
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ForalongtimeaftertheExileandReturnthePalestiniancommunityremainedinastateofmiserablepoverty.Itwasapurelyagriculturalsociety,andsuffered
muchfromcontractedboundariesandagriculturaldepression.ThedayofsmallthingsspokenofbytheprophetZechariah(4:10)wasprolonged.Aterriblepicture
ofdevastation(producedbyalocustplague)isgivenbytheprophetJoel(ch.1),andmatterswereaggravatedduringthelastyearsofPersianrule(downto332),
andbytheconflictbetweentheSeleucidsandPtolemyeforthepossessionofPalestinewhichragedforconsiderablymorethanacentury(322198).Itis
significantthatinthePsalmsthetermpoororlowlyhasbecomesynonymouswithpious.DuringtheearlierpartofthepostexilicperiodthewealthyJewish
familiesforthemostpartremainedbehindinBabylon.Inthelaterperiod,aftertheconquestsofAlexandertheGreat(from322),prosperouscommunitiesofJews
grewupinsuchcentresasAntiochandAlexandria(theGreek
Dispersion).SlowlyandgraduallythePalestiniancommunitygrewinimportanceforatimeundertheMaccabeestherewasapoliticallyindependentJewishState.
Acertainamountofmaterialprosperityensued.Jerusalem,asbeingacentreofpilgrimage,receivedlargerevenuesfromtheJewishpilgrimswhothrongedtoIt:a
Templetaxswelledtherevenuesofthepriesthood.Thearistocraticpriestlyfamilieswereverywealthy.Butthebulkofthepriesthoodstillremainedcomparatively
poor.TheJewishcommunityofPalestinewasstillmainlyagricultural,hutmoreprosperousundersettledgovernment(theHerodsandtheRomans)whileGalilee
becameahiveofindustry,andsustainedalargeindustrialpopulation(anartizanclass).
IndealingwithpovertytheJewishlegislationdisplaysaveryhumanespirit.Usuryisforbidden:thepooraretohavetheproduceofthelandinSabbaticalyears
andinDeut.tithesareallottedtobegiventhem(14:28etc.)theyaretohavetherighttoglean(24:15,21),andinthePriestlyCodethereistheunrealizedidealof
theJubileeYear(Lv25,cf.Dt15:1215).Alltheseprovisionsweresupplementedbyalmsgiving,whichinlaterJudaismbecameoneofthemostimportantparts
ofreligiousduty(seeALMS,ALMSGIVING).
2.IntheNT.IntheNTperiodconditionswerenotessentialyaltered.Theexactionsoftaxcollectorsseemtohavebeenacutelyfelt(noticeesp.thecollocation
publicansandsinners),butalmsgivingwasstronglyinculcatedasareligiousduty,theearlyChristiansfollowinginthisrespecttheexamplesetbythesynagogue
(cf.Ro12:18andSt.PaulscollectionforthepoorsaintsatJerusalem,Ro15:26,Gal2:10).TheearlygenerationsofChristiansweredrawnmostlyfromthe
poorerclasses(slavesorfreedmen),buttheimmediatedisciplesofourLordbelongedrathertowhatweshouldcallthelowermiddleclasssturdyGalilan
fishermen,owningtheirownboats,ortaxcollectors.ItshouldhenotedthatintheGospels(e.g.intheBeatitudes)thetermpoorsometimespossessesareligious
connotation,asinthePsalms.
G.H.BOX.
POWER.Ingeneralthewordmeansabilityfordoingsomething,andincludestheideaofadequatestrength,might,skill,resources,energy,andefficiency,
eithermaterial,mental,orspiritual,toeffectintendedresults.Strictlyspeaking,thereisnorealpowerorauthorityintheuniversebutthatwhichisultimatelyofGod
(Ps62:11,Jn19:11,Ro13:1).ButthisAlmightyOnehasoriginatedinnumerablesubordinatepowers,andsomeofthesearepossessedofabilitytoperformacts
contrarytothewillandcommandmentsoftheCreator.AndsowemayspeakofthepowerofGod,orofman,orofangel,orofdemon,orofpowersinherentin
thingsinanimate.InasmuchasinthehighestandabsolutesensepowerbelongethuntoGod,ItisfittingtoascribeuntoHimsuchdoxologiesasappearin1Ch
29:11,Mt6:13.InMt26:64thewordpowerisemployedforGodHimself,anditisaccordinglyverynaturalthatitshouldbeoftenusedtodenotethevarious
formsofGodsactivity,especiallyinHisworksofcreationandredemption.ChrististhusthepowerofGodbothinHisPersonandinHisgospelofsalvation(1Co
1:18,24,Ro1:16).ThepoweroftheHolySpiritisalsoanothermodeoftheDivineactivity.BysimilarusageSimonthesorcererwascalledthepowerofGod
whichiscalledGreat(Ac8:10),i.e.asupposedincarnationofthepowerofGod.Thepluralpowersisusedinavarietyofmeanings.(1)InMt7:22,Lk10:13,Ac
2:22,8:13,powers,ormightyworks,alongwithsignsandwonders,aretobeunderstoodasmiracles,andwereconcretemanifestationsofsupernaturalpower.
(2)Thepowersoftheheavens(Mt24:29,Mk13:25)areunderstoodbysomeastheforcesinherentinthesun,moon,stars,andotherphenomenaoftheheavens,
byvirtueofwhichtheyruleoverthedayandoverthenight(Gn1:18)byotherstheseheavenlypowersareunderstoodtobethestarryhoststhemselves
conceivedasthearmiesoftheheavens.(3)BothgoodandevilangelsaredesignatedbythetermsprincipalitiesandpowersinsuchpassagesasEph1:21,3:10,
6:12,Col1:16,2:10,15,1P3:22.Thecontextofeachpassagemustshowwhetherthereferenceistoangelsordemons.inEph2:2Sataniscalledtheprinceof
thepoweroftheair,andthesepowersarefurtherdefinedin6:12asworldrulersofthisdarkness,thespiritualhostsofwickednessintheheavenlyplaces.These
arethoughtofassomanyranksofevilspiritswhoareeveratwarwithGodshosts,andseektousurptheheavenlyregions.(4)inRo13:1civilmagistratesare
calledthehigherpowersbecauseoftheirsuperiorrank,authority,andinfluenceasofficersordainedofGodfortheadministrationofjusticeamongmen(cf.Lk
12:11,Tit3:1).(5)Thepowersoftheagetocome(He6:5)arebestunderstoodofallsupernaturalgiftsandspiritualforceswhichbelongtotheageor
dispensationoftheNewCovenant,ofwhichJesusistheMediator(cf.He9:15).Theyincludethegreaterworks(Jn14:12)whichJesusassuredHisdisciplesthey
shoulddoafterHisgoinguntotheFatherandsendingthemtheSpiritoftruth.SeeAUTHORITY,KINGDOMOFGOD.
M.S.TERRY.
POWEROFTHEKEYS.InecclesiasticalhistorythephraseisassociatedprimarilywiththesocalledPrivilegeofPeter,uponwhichthedogmaofpapal 96/144
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POWEROFTHEKEYS.InecclesiasticalhistorythephraseisassociatedprimarilywiththesocalledPrivilegeofPeter,uponwhichthedogmaofpapal
supremacyhasbeenbuilt,butalsowiththedelegatedauthorityofanofficialpriesthoodtopronouncesentenceoftheabsolutionortheretentionofsins.
1.ThefundamentalpassageisMt16:18.WhenSt.PeteratCsareaPhilippihadmadehisgreatconfessionofJesusastheChrist,Jesusblessedhimand
announcedthatuponthisrockHewouldbuildHisChurch.ThenHeadded,Iwillgiveuntotheethekeysofthekingdomofheavenandwhatsoeverthoushalt
bindonearthshallheboundinheavenandwhatsoeverthoushaltlooseonearthshallbeloosedinheaven.Thatthisdoublepromise,liketheoneinthepreceding
verse,wasmadetoSt.Peterpersonallycanhardlybedoubted.Thequestionisastowhatitmeans.EvidentlyJesusiscarryingoutthefigureHehasalreadyusedof
abuildingfoundeduponarocktherock,viz.,ofbellevingconfession,ofwhichtheApostlewasthesplendidtypeandHenowdeclaresthatastherewardofa
confessionwhichstampedhimasthefirsttrueChristian,thebottomstoneofthegreatedificethatwasabouttorise,heshouldhavetheprivilegeofwieldingthe
keysofthatChurchofChristwhichwastoberealizedintheKingdomofheaven.TherearesomewhothinkthatbythisgiftofthekeysSt.Peterwasappointedto
thepositionofastewardinchargeofhisLordstreasuries,entrustedwiththedutyoffeedingthehousehold(Lk12:42,cf.Mt13:52).Butfromtheuseoftheword
keybyJesusHimselfinLk11:52,andfromtheanalogyofIs22:22,Rev3:7,itisprobablethatthekeysarethosenotofthestorehousebutofthemansionitself,
andthatthegiftofthempointstotheprivilegeofadmittingothersintotheKingdom.Thepromisewasfulfilled,accordingly,onthedayofPentecost,whenSt.Peter
openedthedoorsoftheChristianChurchtotheJewishworld(Ac2:41)andagainat
Csarea,whenhe,firstoftheApostles,openedthatsamedoortotheGentiles(Ac10:3438,
15:7).But,asthetwoincidentsshow,therewasnothingarbitrary,official,ormysteriousaboutSt.Petersexerciseofthepowerofthekeysontheseoccasions.It
washisbelievingconfessionofChristthathadgainedhimtheprivilege,andbothinJerusalemandatCsareaitwasbyarenewedconfessionofChrist,
accompaniedbyatestimonytothetruthregardingHimasthathadbeenmadeknownintheexperienceoffaith(Ac2:3236,10:3648),thatheopenedthedoors
oftheKingdomaliketoJewsandtoGentiles.
Withregardtothesecondpartoftheverse,Whatsoeverthoushaltbindonearthshallbeboundinheavenandwhatsoeverthoushaltlooseonearthshallbe
loosedinheaven,somescholarshaveregardeditasmerelyexplainingwhatismeantbythekeysoftheKingdom,whileothersboldthatitconfersaprivilege.The
latterviewisthemoreprobable.AndasweknowthatintheRabbiniclanguageofthetime,tobindandtolooseweretheregulartermsforforbiddingand
permitting,thesewordsconferupontheApostleapoweroflegislationintheChristianChurchapowerwhichweseehimexercisingbyandby,alongwiththe
otherApostlesandtheelders,attheJerusalemConference(Ac15:611,2228).
Butnowcomesthequestion,Wasthistwofoldpromise,whichwasgiventoSt.Peterpersonally,givenhiminanyexclusivesense?Asregardsthesecondpartof
it,clearlynotforonalateroccasioninthissameGospelwefindJesusbestowingpreciselythesameprivilegeonHisdisciplesgenerally(18:18cf.v.1andalso
vv.19,20).Moreover,thelaterNThistoryshowsthatSt.PeterhadnosupremepositionasalegislatorintheChurch(seeAc15:13,19,Gal2:11ff.).Andifthe
powerofbindingandloosingwasnotgiventohimexclusively,thepresumptionisthatthesamethingholdsoftheparallelpowerofthekeys.Asamatteroffact,
wefindittobeso.ThoughSt.PeterhadtheprivilegeoffirstopeningthedoorsoftheKingdomtobothJewsandGentiles,thesameprivilegewassoonexercised
byothers(Ac8:4,11:19ff.,13:2ff.).ByandbyPeterfallsintothebackground,andwefindPaulandBarnabasrehearsingtotheChurchhowGodthroughtheir
preachinghadopenedadooroffaithuntotheGentiles(14:27).ButthisdoesnotmeanthattheprivilegewaswithdrawnfromSt.PeterItmeansonlythatitwas
extendedtoothersontheirfulfilmentofthosesameconditionsoffaithandtestimonyonwhichPeterhadfirstreceivedit.
2.InMt18:18thereappearstobenoreferencewhatevertotheremissionandretentionofsins.Asin16:18,whatsoevernotwhomsoeveristheword
employed,andhereastherethebindingandloosingmustbetakentorefertotheenactmentofordinancesforregulatingtheaffairsoftheChurch,nottothe
dischargeofsuchapurelyspiritualfunctionastheforgivenessofsins.Inanycase,thepromiseismadenottotheApostles,muchlesstoanofficialpriesthood
derivingauthorityfromthembyanApostolicsuccession,buttotheChurch(v.17).
3.InJn20:23wefindtheassurancedefinitelygivenofapowertoremitorretainsins.Butthegiftisbestoweduponthewholecompanypresent(cf.Lk
24:35)asrepresentingtheChristiansocietygenerally.Thatsociety,throughitspossessionoftheHolySpirit(v.22),isthusempoweredtodeclaretheforgivenessor
theretentionofsins(cf.1Jn2:20,Gal6:1andseeF.W.Robertson,Serm.,2ndser.xi.).
J.C.LAMBERT.
PRTOR.SeeMAGISTRATE,P ROVINCE.
PRTORIANGUARD.Seenextart.andGUARD.
PRTORIUM(Gr.praitrion)occursonlyonceinAV(Mk15:18).Elsewhereitisrepresentedbycommonhall(Mt27:27,RVpalace),judgmenthall(Jn
18:28,33,19:9,Ac23:25RVinallpalace)andpalace(Ph1:18,RVprtorianguard).ThewordatfirstdenotedtheheadquartersintheRomancamp,a
spacewithinwhichstoodthegeneralstent,thecampaltar,theaugurle,andthetribnlthenthemilitarycouncilmeetingthere.Eachprtor,oncompletinghis 97/144
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spacewithinwhichstoodthegeneralstent,thecampaltar,theaugurle,andthetribnlthenthemilitarycouncilmeetingthere.Eachprtor,oncompletinghis
yearofoffice,wentasgovernortoaprovince,andhisofficialresidencewascalledprtoriumthenanyhousedistinguishedbysizeandmagnificence,esp.the
EmperorsresidenceoutsideRome.IntheGospels,prtoriumperhaps(butseeP ILATE,p.729a)standsforthepalaceofHerodtheGreat,occupiedbyPontius
Pilateasplendidbuilding,probablyinthewesternpartofthecity.InPh1:13itisprobablythebarracksoftheprtorians,theImperialbodyguard.Originallythe
CohorsPrtoriawasacompanyattachedtothecommanderinchiefinthefield.Augustusretainedthename,butraisedthenumbertotencohortsof1000each,
quarteringonly3cohortsinthecityatatime.TiberiusbroughtthemalltoRome,andplacedtheminafortifiedcamp,atthenorthernextremityoftheViminal.
UnderVitelliustheirnumberwasraisedto16,000.
W.EWING.
PRAISEistherecognitionandacknowledgmentofmerit.Twopartiesareinvolved:theonepossessingatleastsupposedmerit,theotherbeingapersonwho
acknowledgesthemerit.
Menmaypraisemen.Formsofpraisemaybeusedwithoutgenuinefeelingsofpraise,andextravagantpraisemayberenderedIntentionally,becauseofthe
advantagethatwillbegainedthereby.Thisisdownrighthypocrisy,andthewholeburdenofthemoralteachingoftheBible,andespeciallyofChrist,isagainst
hypocrisy.Again,theestimateofvaluesmaybesocompletelyfalsethatpraisemaybefeltandexpressedgenuinelyincaseswhereitisundeserved.AndJesus
wholeinfluenceisdirectedtowardstheproperappreciationofvaluessothatonlythegoodshallappeartousgood.
InitscommonBiblicaluse,however,praisehasGodforitsobject.Thisrestrictiondoesnotinvolveanessentialdifferenceeitherinthepraiseorinthesenseof
moralvalues.ThedifferenceliesratherinthegreaterpraiseworthinessofGod.PraiseofGodisofcoursecalledforthonlyasHerevealsHimselftomen,onlyas
menrecognizeHisactivityandHispowerintheeventorconditionwhichappearstothemadequatetocalloutpraise.MenpraiseGodinproportionastheyare
religious,andsohaveconsciousrelationswithGod.Thepraiseworthinessofagodisinvolvedintheverydefinitionofagod.Ifmenpostulateagodatall,itisasa
beingworthytobepraised.EverythoughtandactbywhichmencomeintorelationwithGodisathoughtandanactofpraise.Petitionisjustifiableonlyifbehindit
isthebeliefthatGodisworthyofsuchapproach.Iftheactisconfessionofsin,thesameistrue,forconfessionisnotmadetoabeingwhodoesnotholdaplaceof
honourandpraise.IfsomeactiveserviceisrenderedtoGod,thissubjugationofourselvestoHimcanbeexplainedonlybytheconvictionthatGodisineveryway
entitledtoservice.
Moreover,asinthecaseofpraiseofmen,thereisaverycleardistinctiontobedrawnbetweengenuineandhypocriticalascriptionofpraisetoGod.The
temptationtothelatterisextreme,becauseoftheimmensegainpresumablytobesecuredbypraisebutthehypocrisyandthesinofitareequallygreat.Indeed,the
seriousnessoftheoffenceisevidentwhenonereflectsthathewhopraisesGodknowsfullwellthepraiseworthinessofGod,sothatifhepraiseswhilethegenuine
feelingislackingandthesincereactofpraiseisunperformed,onlymoralperversitycanaccountforthehypocrisy.
Inordertogenuineness,praisemustbespontaneousItmaybecommandedbyanotherhumanbeing,andthepraisecommandedmayberendered,butthereal
impellingcauseistherecognizedmeritofGod.GodmaydemandpraisefromHiscreaturesincommandstransmittedtothemthroughprophetsandApostles,butif
manpraisesHimfromtheheart,itisbecauseoftheimperativeInseparablefromtheverybeingandnatureofGod.
Weareprepared,then,tofindthatintheBiblepraisetoGodisuniversalonthepartofallwhoacknowledgeHim.Itistheveryatmosphereofboth
dispensations.Itisfutiletoattempttocollatethepassagesthatinvolveit,foritsexpressionisnotmeasuredbyspecialtermsorconfinedtospecialoccasions.The
authorofGn1,likeeveryreaderofthechapter,findstheworkofcreationanoccasionforpraisingGod.Thechapterisacalltopraise,thoughthewordbenot
mentioned.WehavebuttoturntothePsalms(e.g.Ps104)tofindformalexpressionofthepraisethattheworldinspires.
ThelegalrequirementsoftheLawlikewisedependfortheirauthoritywithmenupontherecognitionofthemeritoftheLawgiver.Yeshallbeholy,forI
JehovahyourGodamholy,hasnoforceexceptforhimwhoacknowledgesholinessinGodwhocommandsandobedienceisthecreaturestributeofpraisetothe
holyGod.
ThewholehistoryofIsrael,asIsraelshistorianspictureit,hasinittheconstantelementofpraisetoIsraelsGod:weturntothePsalms(e.g.Ps102)ortoother
songs(e.g.Ex15),andfindthepraiseoftheheartrisingtoformalexpression.
IntheNT,praiseofChristandofGodinChrististheuniversalnote.Itisthesongofthosewhoarehealedoftheirsicknesses,orforgiventheirsinsofApostles
whomediateonthegospelmessageandsalvationthroughChristofthosewhorehearsethegloriesoftheNewJerusalemasseeninapocalypticvision.
Wearealsopreparedbythisuniversalitytofindthatpraisecannotformatopicforindependenttreatment.Thereisnotechnicalterminologytobeexaminedin
thehopethattheetymologyofthetermsusedwillthrowlightuponthesubject,forinthiscaseetymologiesmayleadusawayfromthecurrentmeaningofthe
commonwordsemployed.ThehistoryofpraiseintheOTandtheNTisthehistoryofworship,temple,synagogue,sacrifice,festivals.Theliteratureofpraiseisthe
literatureofreligion,whetherastheproductofnationalconsciousnessorofpersonalreligiousexperience.
ItwillsufficetomentiononeortwopointsofInterestwhichthestudentmaywellbearinmindashestudiestheBibleandconsultsthearticlesonrelated
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ItwillsufficetomentiononeortwopointsofInterestwhichthestudentmaywellbearinmindashestudiestheBibleandconsultsthearticlesonrelated
subjects.
TheHeb.wordoftenestusedforpraiseishilll,perhapsanonomatopoeticSemiticrootmeaningcryaloud.Aninterestingfeatureistheuseoftheimperativein
ascriptionsofpraise.Takenliterally,theseimperativesarecommandstopraisebuttheyaretobetakenasrealascriptionsofpraise,withtheaddedthoughtthat
praisefromonepersonsuggestspraisefromall.Cf.thedoxologyPraiseGodfromwhomallblessingsflow,whichconsistssolelyoffourimperativesentences.
TheimperativeoftheHebrewverb,followedbytheDivinename,givesusHallelujah,i.e.PraiseyeJah.Thewordisusedatthebeginningandendof
Psalms,apparentlywithliturgicalvalue.Cf.alsotheHallelPsalms(113118,136).ThenounfromthesamerootappearsasthetitleofPs145.SeeHALLEL.
TheformwhichpraisetookasanelementofworshipinIsraelvariedwiththegeneralcharacterofworship.ItwascalledforthbytheactsofJahwehuponwhich
theIsraeliteswereespeciallywonttodwellindifferentperiods.ForpersonalandfamilyfavourstheypraisedHiminearlytimeswithformsoftheirownchoosing.
Whenthenationalconsciousnesswasaroused,theypraisedHimforHisleadingofthenation,informssuitabletothisservice.Asworshipcamemoreandmoreto
conformtothatelaboratedfor,andpractisedin,theroyalsanctuarytheTempleatJerusalemtheformsofpraisecouldnotfailtosharetheelaborationandto
becomegraduallymoreuniform.TowhatextentthesemodificationstookplaceistobestudiedinthehistoryofOTreligion.
PraisewascertainlyapartofthevariedservicerenderedbytheLevitesintheTempleritualoflaterJudaism,andanexaminationofthatritualwillshowhowfar
praisewasgivenovertothem,andhowmuchwasretainedbythecongregation.ThePsalmsarecertainlyadaptedtoantiphonalrendering.Didthepeoplerespond
tothepriests,orweretheretwochoirs?[ThiswordoccursinEVonlyinRVmofNeh12:8.]Theelementofpraiseinthesynagogueworshipisaninterestingand
disputedquestion.Cf.alsoADORATION,HYMN.
O.H.GATES.
PRAYER.PrayerintheBibleistheupliftingofthehearttoGodwithwhatevermotive.Itincludessupplication,whetherinviewofmaterialorofspiritual
needsintercession,forindividualsorcommunitiesconfessionofsinbutalsoassertionofrighteousnessadorationcolloquywithGodvowsthanksgiving
blessingImprecation.Theresultsarechieflyobjectiveandexternal.Buttheapparentfailureofprayermaybemoreinstructivethanitsoutwardsuccess.(Apartfrom
ChristsprayerinGethsemane[Mk14:35ff.||],takeSt.Paulsfortheremovalofhisaffliction[2Co12:8f.].)Failuremakeswayforaboongreaterthantheone
denied.Suchcaseswouldsupporttheviewthatprayerisreflexinitsaction,speciallypotentinasubjective,inward,spiritualsense.Intercessoryprayermustonthe
lowestviewbeofgreataltruisticvaluewhilearecognitionofGodspersonalitymakesnaturalthebeliefthatHemaycontroleventsinanswertoprayermade
accordingtoHiswill.
1.Terminology
(i.)InOT.(1)Themoatusualnoun(tephillah)andtheverb(primarilyofintercession)connectedwithitarepossiblyderivedfromarootmeaningtocut.If
so,thismightharkbacktodayswhendevoteeslaceratedtheirfleshinworship(cf.1K18:28).Anotherword(usedonlyofprayertoGod)isfromarootofsimilar
meaningSomeconjecturethattheJewishtephillin(phylacteries)originatedassubstitutesforsuchmarksoflaceration.tephillahmay,however,indicatemerely
intervention.
(2)Severalwordsmeantocall.TocallontheNameistoworship(e.g.Gn4:26).Othersmeantocallfortheredressofwrongs(e.g.Jg3:9),orforhelpin
trouble(e.g.Ps72:12).Onenounisaringingoutcry(e.g.Ps.17:1).
(3)Itisnaturaltofindwordsmeaningseek(e.g.Am5:4adifferentwordinHos5:15toseekGodsface),ask(e.g.Ps105:40).Toallsuchwords,and
generally,thecorrelativeishearoranswer.
(4)Someexpressionsareanthropomorphic:toencounter,falluponinordertosupplicateorintercede(e.g.Jer7:16)tomakethefaceofGodpleasant,
i.e.toappease(e.g.Ex32:11),thusequivalenttoamoregeneralword,tocravefavour(e.g.Dt3:23).
(5)Othertermsregardthesuppliantsstateofmind:prayerisanoutpouringofsoul(e.g.Ps62:8)orameditation(e.g.Joh15:4RVm)orcomplaint(e.g.
Ps142:2)ortheoriginalconnotationmaybephysical,tobowdown(Ezr6:10,cf.Eph3:14),towhisper(Is26:16
RVm).
(ii.)InNT.(1)TheclassicalGr.word(proseuchomai)islargelyused.UnlikemostOTwords,thisisusedforprayertoGodonly.Arelatedword(euchomai)is
byitselflittlemorethanwish(e.g.Ro9:3),andneedssupplementingtomeanprayer(e.g.2Co13:7).Thecorrespondingnoun(euch)usuallymeansvow
(e.g.Ac18:18)butprayerinJa5:15.
(2)TocallontheNameorinvokeinprayer(e.g.Ac9:14).
(3) Thewordsforseekandaskmaybeusedofrequestsorinquiriesmadetoman(e.g.Ac8:34),anddonotofthemselvesconnoteworship.One
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(3)Thewordsforseekandaskmaybeusedofrequestsorinquiriesmadetoman(e.g.Ac8:34),anddonotofthemselvesconnoteworship.One
worddenotestherequestofthewill(e.g.Mt6:8),anothertherequestofneed(e.g.Ac8:22),anothertheformoftherequest(e.g.Jn17:9,cf.RVm).
(4)TheOTencounterhasNTequivalentusedofintercession(e.g.Ro8:27).
(5)Prayerisastruggle(e.g.Ro15:30).Onepicturesqueword(hiketria),foundonlyinHe5:7,suggeststheolivebranchesheldforthbysuppliants.
2.Place,time,andcircumstance
(i.)P LACE.Whilenorestrictionissuggestedatanyperiod(cf.e.g.Gn24:12,13,Jon2:1,Ps42:6,61:2,Dn6:10,Lk6:12,Ac16:2425,21:6),andis
disclaimedbyChristinviewoftrueworship(Jn4:2123),yetnaturallyspecificworshipcentreswereregardedasappropriate:thusinearlytimesShiloh,wherethe
arkrested(1S1:9,10),Mizpah(1S7:5,1Mac3:48),Gibeon(1K3:4ff.).But,later,theTemplewastheplacewhere(Is37:14ff.,56:7)or(inabsence)toward
whichprayerwasoffered(1K8:29,30etc.,Ps28:2,Dn6:10,1Es4:56).Synagoguesafforded,inlatertimes,localprayercentres.Wheretherewasnosynagogue,
aspotoutsidethetownwaschosen,nearsomestream,forhandwashingbeforeprayer(Ac16:13,16).IntheNTwefindApostlesgoingtotheTemple(Ac3:1)
andSt.Paulattendedthesynagogueonhismissionjourneys(Ac17:1,2).DistinctivelyChristianworshipwasheldinordinarybuildings(Ac1:13,14,4:23,12:12,
Col4:15)apracticemadenaturalbyJewisharrangementsforprivateprayer(Dn6:10,Jth8:6,10:2,Mt6:8,Ac10:9,30)orforPassovercelebration(Mt26:16).
OstentatiousprayingatstreetcornersisdiscouragedbyChrist(Mt6:5).
(ii.)TIME.Itbecameacustomtopraythricedaily,i.e.atthe3rd,6th,and9thhours(cf.?Ps55:17[maymeanalldaylong],Dn6:10,Ac3:1,10:9,30cf.
2:15cf.1).Forinstancesofgracebeforemeat,cf.1S9:13,Mt15:35,Ac27:35,andthePaschalmeal.
(iii.)CIRCUMSTANCE
(1)Attitude:(a)standing(e.g.Gn18:22,1S1:26,Neh9:5,Mk11:25,Lk18:11,13[theusualJewishmode,notfollowedbyearlyChristianChurchsaveon
SundaysandthedaysbetweenEasterandWhitsun])(b)kneeling(Ps95:6,Is45:23,1K8:54,Ezr9:6,Dn6:10,Lk22:41,Ac7:60,9:40,20:35,21:5,Eph3:14)
(c)prostrate,facetoground(Ex34:6,Neh8:6,1Es8:91,Jth9:1,2Mac13:12,Mt26:39)facebetweenknees(1K18:42,cf.?Ps35:13b)(d)sitting(?2S
7:18)(e)handsuplifted(Ps28:2,63:4,134:2,La2:19,3:41,2Mac3:20,1Ti2:3)orextended[symbolofreceptionfromGod?](Ex9:20,1K8:22,Is1:16,Ezr
9:5,Ps77:2[ct.
AV]).
(2)Formsofprayer:(a)formul(Dt21:7,8,26:515)(b)theLordsPrayer(c)allusiontotheBaptists(Lk11:1)(d)Christsrepeatedprayer(Mt26:44)(e)
allusiontovainrepetitionsorbattology(Mt6:7,cf.Sir7:14).
(3)Incense.TheOTwordsometimesmeansmerelythesmokefromasacrifice.Realincensewas(certainlyinlaterOTperiod)inuseatsacrificialceremonies,
withwhichprayerwasprobablyalwaysassociated(cf.Gn12:6).Incensetypifiesprayer(Ps141:2cf.Jer11:12,Mal1:11,Lk1:10,Rev5:8,8:3,4).
(4)Fasting.Beingappropriatefortimesofsolicitudeandsorrow,fastingnaturallybecameassociatedwithprayer(Ps35:13),especiallyaftertheExile(Neh1:4,
Dn9:3cf.Lk2:37),andwascontinuedintheChristianChurch(Ac13:3,14:23,Mt9:16).ThefollowingAVallusionstofastingcoupledwithprayerareabsent
fromRV(butseeRVm):Mt17:21,Mk9:29,Ac10:30,1Co7:5.
3.PrayerintheOT
(i.)P ATRIARCHALP ERIOD.Prayeris(1)colloquywithGod(e.g.Gn15:1,2,7,8,17:15,16,22)(2)intercession(e.g.Gn17:16,18:23ff.)(3)personal
supplication(e.g.Gn15:2,32:11,43:14)(4)asseveration(e.g.Gn14:22)(5)vow(e.g.Gn28:20seeart.Vows).
(ii.)THELAW(i.e.ascodifiedandexpandedinlatertimes).ThereticenceastoprayermightsuggestthatitisvoluntaryandnotpatientoflegislationbutinOT
itislessageneralduty(ct.NT)thanapropheticprivilege(especiallyreintercession)cf.Gn20:7andbelow,iii.vi.Note,however,theformulforthanksgiving
(Dt26:511),assertionofobedience(vv.1314,ct.NT),supplication(v.16),expiation(21:7,8).
(iii.)MOSESTOJUDGES.(1)Mosespreeminentlyamanofprayerandanintercessor(e.g.
Ex8:12,30,32:1113,32,cf.Jer15:1):colloquywithGod(Ex3,4,5:22,6:1,10,12,2830,Dt3:2325),appealincrises(Ex5:22,Nu11:11),propheticblessing
(Dt33:611)(2)Joshuasprayerafterdefeat(Jos7:79),andinbattle(10:14)(3)Gideonscolloquy(Jg6:1124)(4)Israelitesfrequentcryforhelp(Jg3:9,
15,6:6etc.).
(iv.)KINGDOMP ERIOD.(1)Samuel,likeMoses,anintercessor(1S7:5,6,9,8:6,10,21,12:23,15:11):colloquy(1S16:13,cf.3:10,11)(2)David:apart
fromthePsalms,withwhichhisconnexionisdubious,thefollowingprayersmaybenoted,especiallythelast:forguidance(1S23:2,30:8[consultingephod]),
onbehalfofchild(2S12:18),prayerofasseveration(1S24:1215,25:22[athreat]),confession(2S24:17),adoration,etc.(2S7:1829)(3)Solomonsprayer
forwisdom(1K3:6ff.notetheelaborateintercessionattributedtohimatdedicationofTemple,1K8:2253,where(ct.v.63)sacrificeisnotmentioned!The
Templeisahouseofprayer)(4)Elijahsintercession(1K18:36,37),colloquy(19:911),prayerbeforemiracle(1K17:20,21),soalsoElisha(2K4:33,6:17)100/144
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Templeisahouseofprayer)(4)Elijahsintercession(1K18:36,37),colloquy(19:911),prayerbeforemiracle(1K17:20,21),soalsoElisha(2K4:33,6:17)
(5)Hezekiahpraysinnationalcrisis(2K19:15)andinillness(20:3)notehisassertionofrighteousness.Forthisperiodseealsov.
(v.)THEP ROPHETS.Intercessioninattitude,action,word,characterizestheprophets(muchmorethanthepriests,butcf.Jl2:17),whethertheearlierprophets,
(iv.above)orthosewhosewritingsareextant.ThereasonlayintheprophetsDivinecall,hisvisionoftheDivinewill(soaseer),andhisforthtellingofthe
Divinemessage.Hencecomesprayerfulexpectancy(e.g.Jer
42:4),inthespiritofHab2:1andintercessiontoavertdisaster(e.g.Am7:2,3and5,6,Is63:917,andvividlyJer14.15[whereobservethecolloquyof
persistentintercessionnotwithstandingDivinediscouragement]),combinedwithprayerinviewofpersonaldifficulty(e.g.Jer20:713).
(vi.)EXILEANDRETURN.Inthisperiodprayerloomslarge,owingtothecessationofsacrificialworshipandtherealizationofchastisement.Accordingly
confessionandahumblesenseofdependenceareprominent.Thefollowingpassagesshouldbestudied:Is63:764:12,Ezr9:515,Neh1:411,9:538(cf.
retrospectivePsalms,e.g.106),Dn9:419.Further,notethepersonalprayerhabitofJewishleaders(Dn6,Ezr8:2123).Nehemiahsprayerisoftenejaculatory
(Neh2:4,4:4),andsometimesbetraysselfcomplacency(5:13,13:14,22).
(vii.)P SALMS,P ROVERBS,JOB.TheBookofPraisesmightbeappropriatelycalledalsotheBookofPrayers.(Fiveonlyaresodescribedintitle:17,86,90,
102,142,butcf.72:20,Hab3:1.)(1)ThroughoutthePsalms,prayerwhetherofthepoetasanindividualorasrepresentingthenationisspeciallyanoutpouring
artlessandimpulsiveofvariedexperiences,needs,desires.Hencetypicalpsalmsexhibittransitionsofthoughtandalternationofmood(e.g.6:710,42,69:20,
27,30,77:911,109:2330).(2)Theblessingsoughtisoftenermaterialorexternal,likerescuefromtroubleorchastisement.Notseldom,however,thereisamore
spiritualaim:inPs51pardonissoughtforitsownsake,nottoavertpunishment,andPs119isnotableforrepeatedrequestsforinwardenlightenmentand
quickening.ThetrendofthewholecollectionisindicatedbyitsreadyandnaturaladaptationtoNTidealsofprayer.Inestimatingpsalmswhichexpressvindictive
andimprecatorysentiments,weshouldnotethattheybreatheabhorrenceofevil,andarenottheutteranceofprivatemalice.Evenonthelowestviewtheywould
illustratethehumanelementintheScriptures,andtheprogressivenatureofrevelation,throwingintovividrelieftheGospeltemperandteaching.Theproprietyof
theirregularuseinpublicworshipneednotbediscussedhere.
Proverbs.Notethesuggestiveallusiontothecharacterofasuppliant(15:6,29,28:9cf.Ps145:18,19,Jth8:31,Sir35:16,Ja5:10),andAgursprayer(30:79).
Job.InthisdramaticpoemJobsobjectionstohisfriendscriticismsoftentaketheformofdaringexpostulationdirectlyaddressedtoGod(e.g.especiallych.
10).AsacryinthedarkthebookreechoesprayerslikePs88buttheconflictofdoubtculminatesinthecolloquybetweenGodandJob,inwhichthelatter
expressesthereverentsubmissionoffaith(42:16).
4.PrayerintheApocrypha.TheApocr.booksoffiction,fable,history,withapocalypticandsapientialwritingsareofveryunequalvalue,butcontain
manyprayers.Theideasareonthewholeadmirable,sometimesreachingadistinctivelyNTlevelthethoughtin2Mac12:44astoprayerinrelationtothedeadis
noteworthy(cf.below,2Es.andBar.).Asthebooksarelittleread,itmaybewelltotaketheminorder,givingfairlyfullreferencetorelevantpassages.
1Esdras.Zerubbabelsthanksgiving(4:6869)prayerforjourney,withconfession(8:7890).
2Esdras.Confessionandhistoricalretrospect(3:436),colloquywithUriel(414,wherenotetheallusiontovariousOTintercessors,alluselessat
judgmentday,7:102,112[notinAV]).
Tobit.PrevailingprayerofTobitandSarah(3:115)Tobiasurgedtopray(4:19)praysinnuptialroom(8:48)thanksgivingofRaguel(8:1517),Tobit
(11:14,15,17,13).
Judith.Exceptwheregeneralsupplicationismade(4:913:16,6:18,6:19,7:29),orwhereJudithsintercessionissought(8:31),prayerinthisromanceisofa
veryunworthykind:prayerforthesuccessofatrick(ch.9)prayerandtheplansofHolofernes(11:17,18)prayerbeforeslayinghim(13:4,5).
Ad.Esther.PrayersofMordecai(13:818)andEsther(14:319)innationalperil.
Wisdom.Chs.919areinprayerform.Notethepicturesqueillustrationofmannaandthemorningprayer(16:27,28).
Sirach.Inthisbookprayerreachesheights:valueofprayer(21:5),trueprayerheardofGod(35:1317),prayerinsickness(38:8,14,cf.Ja5:1416),for
deliverancefromsin(23:15),prayerandalms(7:10),battology(7:14,cf.Mt6:7),prayerandrevenge(28:14,cf.Mt6:14,18:21,22),nationalprayeragainst
foe(36:117),thanksgiving,ledbySimon(50:2124),authorsclosingprayer(51:112).
Baruch.JewsofBabylonaskthoseofJerusalemtoprayforwelfareofNebuchadnezzar(1:11cf.Ezr6:10,Jer29:7,1Ti2:2)prayerandconfessionofcaptive
Israelites(1:153:8,wherenoteprayerbythedead,3:4,butseeRVm).
SongoftheThree.PrayerandconfessionofAzariasbeforetheBenedicite(vv.122cf.Ezr9,Dn9).
Susanna.Herprevailingprayer(vv.4244).
Bel.BriefprayerbyHabakkuk(v.35),Daniel(v.38),kingofBabylon(v.41).
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Bel.BriefprayerbyHabakkuk(v.35),Daniel(v.38),kingofBabylon(v.41).
PrayerofManasses.Forpardon.
Maccabees.Thetwobooksarequitedistinct,1Mac.beingmuchthemorereliableashistory.PrayerisveryprominentthroughoutthewholeMaccaban
struggle,before,during,andafterbattles(1Mac3:4653,4:10,24,3033,40,55,7:3338,41,42,9:46,11:71,2MaC1:2429,3:22,10:13,25,33,11:6,
12:15,28,42,13:1012,14,14:16,3436,15:2224,28,27).Notespeciallyin2Mac.theallusiontotheefficacyofprayer,etc.,ofthelivingforthedead(12:44,
45.cf.baptismfordead,1Co15:29,and[?]2Ti1:18),andprayerofthedeadfortheliving(15:1214cf.angelicintercession,Zec1:12).
5.PrayerintheNT
I.EXAMPLEANDTEACHINGOFJESUSCHRIST.ThespecialcharacteroftheFourthGospelshouldberemembered.OftheSynoptics,Lk.isspeciallyinstructiveas
toprayer(cf.Actsalso).ForLordsPrayer,seeseparatearticle.
(i.)CHRISTSEXAMPLE
(a)PraysatgreatmomentsinHislife:baptism(Lk3:21),electionofApostles(Lk6:12,13),miracles(Lk9:16cf.Jn6:23,Mk7:34[implied]9:29,Jn9:3033
[implied]11:41,42),transfiguration(Lk9:29)Gethsemane(Lk22:3946),crucifixion(Mt27:46,Lk23:46)(b)intercedesfordisciples(Jn17),Peter(Lk22:32),
soldiers(Lk23:34)forHisintercessioninglory,seebelow,II.(ii.)(1).
(ii.)CHRISTSTEACHING.Therangeofprayerischiefly(ct.OT)forspiritualblessing(cf.
LordsPrayer,andesp.Mt6:33),butnotexclusivelyso(dailybreadinLordsPrayerandMt24:20).Theconditionsandrequisitesofprayerarenumerous.(a)
Earnestness[cf.urgentsupplicationinOT,esp.Psalms](Lk11:513,wherenotejuxtapositionwithLordsPrayer,18:18)andHisattitudetotheSyrophnician
seemstoteachurgencyofpetition(Mk7:27).(b)Humility(Lk18:914thejuxtapositionwithprecedingparableissuggestive,andct.OTassertionof
righteousnesse.g.inDt.andNeh.[seeabove,3(vi.)],Lk17:10)ambitionrebuked(Mt20:2023).(c)Aforgivingspirit:asinSir.(seeabove,4).(d)Privacy
recommendedseeabove,2(i.)end,andcf.Christsownexampleofsolitaryprayer(Lk6:12).(e)Without
battologyseeabove,2(iii.)(2),wherethereff.showthattherepetitiondiscouragedisthatofmeremechanicalprayer(cf.heathenincantations)orofpretence
(Mk12:40).(f)Withfaith.Mk11:23containsjustsuchhyperboleaswouldappealtoanEasternmindandenforcethevalueofprayerwhiletheseemingparadox
ofv.24mustbetakenalongwiththisandunderstoodinthelightofChristsgeneralteaching.TheneedoffaithisfurtherillustratedbyChristsattitudetothose
seekingaid(e.g.Mt8:13,9:28,Mk5:35,9:23,Lk8:48).(g)Agreementwhentwoorthreejoininprayer(Mt18:19,20).(h)InHisname(Jn14:13,15:16,16:23,
24,25).ThisspeciallyJohanninefeaturesuggestsframeofmindratherthanformofspeech(cf.Mt18:5,20,10:22etc.ontheotherhand,cf.Ac3:6,10).Forthe
Christologyitsupports,seebelow,II.(ii.)1.
II.CUSTOMSANDIDEASINAPOSTOLICTIMES.EvidenceisaffordedbyActs(wheretheprominencegiventoprayerisnaturalifLk.wroteit,seeabove,I.),and
byEpp.,whosewritershadinheritedthebesttraditionsofJewishpietyandhadalsoassimilatedtheirMastersteaching(which,however,theymaynotinevery
pointhavegraspedfully).AglimpseofprayertriumphswouldbeaffordedbysuchpassagesasAc3:10,4:31,9:40,10:4,12:5,12,16:25,28:8.Oneortwo
detailedpointshavealreadycomeupfornotice(seeabove2(i.ii.iii.1.4),5(I.ii.(h)),butitmaybewellnowtocollect,fromActstotheApocalypse,some
passagesshowingthepracticeandteachingastoprayerintheApostolicChurch.
(i.)Prayerisfoundinconnexionwith:(1)Layingonofhands:(a)inhealing(Ac28:8,cf.
9:17,(seebelow(3))(b)afterbaptism(Ac8:1417,cf.19:6)(c)onappointmenttooffice(Ac
6:6,13:3),withwhichalsoprayerfullotcastingisassociated(Ac1:24,26,cf.Pr16:33).(2)Publicworship(1Ti2).(a)Bothsexesparticipate(cf.1Ti5:6,1Co
11:4,5)(b)prayerandgiftoftongues(1Co14:14,16,whereitissuggestedthattheheadaswellastheheartisconcernedwithprayer)(c)stateprayersinthe
ApostolicChurch(1Ti2:1f.cf.4Baruch).(3)Sickness(Ja5:1316,wherenoticeconjunctionofprayerandoutwardmeans[forunctioncf.Mk6:13]with
confessionphysicalandspiritualhealingareassociated,andbothwithprayerseeabove,4Sirach).
(ii.)(1)AdistinctiveIdeainNTprayeristheworkoftheHolySpirit.Heaidsusinprayer
(Ro8:1416,Eph6:18,Jude20),intercedingforus(Ro8:26).Christalsointercedes(Ro8:34,He7:25cf.5I.(1.)(b)).Ct.presentationofprayertoGodinRev
5:8,8:4.ByChristweenjoyfreeaccesstoGod(Gal4:47,Eph2:18,3:12,He4:15,16,10:1922seeabove,5I.(II.)(h))prayerofferedtoChristdirect(Ac
7:59,60,9:14(?),1Co1:2(?)).(2)Prayerneedsfaith(Ja1:68,1Ti2:8RVm,He10:22),musthaverightalms(Ja4:3),andbebackedbyconduct(1Jn3:22,cf.
above,3(vii.)Proverbs).Suchprayersucceeds(Ja5:1618,1Jn3:22,5:14,15).
PrayerfortemporalgiftsisnotveryconspicuousinNT,butseeRo1:10,2Co12:8,Ph4:6.(3)Exhortationstoprayer(Ro12:12,Col4:2,1Th5:16,1P4:7,Jude
20).(4)ReminiscencesofOToccurinprayerascolloquy(Ac9:1316,22:1721cf.3),asstruggle(Ro15:30,Col2:1,4:12cf.Gn32:24),ascryforvengeance
(Rev6:9,10,ct.1Ti2:8).(5)Intercession,whichinOTisspeciallycharacteristicofthepropheticoffice,ishereageneralduty,andisveryprominent:Apostlesfor
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(Rev6:9,10,ct.1Ti2:8).(5)Intercession,whichinOTisspeciallycharacteristicofthepropheticoffice,ishereageneralduty,andisveryprominent:Apostlesfor
converts(Ro10:1,15:5,2Co13:7,Eph1:15,3:14,Ph1:4,9,Col1:9,2:1,1Th1:2,
2Th1:11,Philem4,3Jn2)convertsforApostles(Ac12:5,Ro15:30,2Co1:11,9:14,Col4:3,
2Th3:1,Philem22)foroneanother(Ja5:15,1Jn5:16[withinlimit]).(6)Thanksgivingabounds(Ro1:3,1Co1:4,2Co2:14,8:15,Ph1:3,Col1:3,1Th1:2,
2:13,2Th1:3,2:13,1Ti1:12,2Ti1:3).(7)NotealsothesalutationandblessingatthebeginningandcloseofEpistles.TheNTcloseswithathreefoldprayerfor
Christscoming(Rev22:17,20).
H.F.B.COMPSTON.
PRAYEROFMANASSES.SeeAPOCRYPHA,11.
PREACHING.IntheOTpreachingisreferredtoexplicitlyinthecaseofJonahspreachinginNineveh(Jon3:2).Thewordhereusedmeansstrictly
proclamation,andcorrespondstotheNTwordusedwithreferencetoourLordproclaiming(asaherald)theadventoftheKingdomofGod(e.g.Mt4:17),
which,initsinitialstages,wascloselyassociatedwiththepreachingofJohntheBaptist(cf.Mt3:1,2).ChristianpreachingisoftendescribedintheNTasa
declarationofgladtidings(evangel,gospel).Strictly,theproclamationoughttobedistinguishedfromtheteachingthatfollowedonit.Butinitsmore
extendedapplicationpreachingcoversallinstructioninreligiousmattersofahomiletlcalcharacter,andespeciallysuchasisassociatedwithpublicworship.
Thepropheticpreachinghardlyfallswithinthiscategory.Theprophetsundoubtedlyasarulespoketheirdiscourses(beforewritingthemdown).Butthese
allocutionswerespecialincharacter,andformednoregularpartofthepublicworship.
ThepreachingofJohntheBaptistandofJesuswaslargelypropheticincharacterthegospelmaybedescribedasarevivalofthespiritofprophecybut
neverthelessitpossessedsomeaffinitieswiththesynagoguepreaching,whichhadbecomeaninstitutionofworship,thoughinmanyrespectsinmarkedcontrast
withandindependentofit(ourLordconstantlyaddressedthemultitudesintheopenair).
Preachingasaregularpartoftheserviceofpublicworshipwasacomparativelylatedevelopment.Itsrealbeginningcanbetracedbacktothecustom
inauguratedbyEzraofreadingapartoftheLaworTorahattheSabbathdayassemblagesofthepeople,andonotherholydays.Ontheseoccasionsthelesson
fromtheLawwasreadintheoriginalHebrew,andexplainedintheformofaparaphraseintheAramaicvernacularbyamethurgemn(dragoman)orinterpreter.
SuchtranslationswerecalledTargums.Itwasfromthispracticethatpreachinginthesynagoguewasdevelopedprobablyasearlyasthe4thcent.B.C.(cf.Ac
15:21).Thusoriginallythesermonwasessentiallyanexposition(ofalegalkind)ofsomepartofScripture.TwofamousteachersoftheLawofthe1stcent.B.C.are
styleddarshanim(preachers,Pes.70b),thoughtheywereprimarilyexpoundersoftheLawonitsstrictlylegalisticside.Butinprocessoftimethesermon
assumedtoalargeextentapurelyedifyingcharacteritutilizedthetale,parable,allegory,inenforcingthelessonsofmoralityandreligion,anddevelopedtruly
homileticalfeatures,without,however,losingitsScripturalcolouring.
ByNTtimespreachinghadevidentlybecomeanintegralpartoftheordinarysynagogueservice,andinthiswayitbecameoneofthechiefinstrumentsinthe
propagationofthenewteaching.OurLordconstantlytaughtinthesynagogues(cf.Mt4:23,Mk1:21,6:2,Jn6:59,18:20).St.Luke(4:16f.)haspreserveda
compressedaccountofonesuchsermon,whileinActs(13:1441)afullerreportofanexhortationbythegreatmissionaryApostie,deliveredinasynagogue,isset
forth.
OurLordsteaching,andthatoftheApostleswhichHeinspired,weremarkedbyafreshness,aspontaneityandpowerwhichfilledtheirhearers,accustomedas
theyweretothemoresetandlaboriousexhortationsofthescribes,withtheutmostsurprise.Butoriginalastheywereinsubstance,theseaddresseswerestill
Semiticinform,andwemustguardagainstimportingourWesternideasofrhetoricintowhatwereessentiallyEasternhomilies.Thedifferencesbetweenthetwoare
fundamental.WhiletheWesterndevelopsamainandprincipalthoughtorthemethroughitslogicalsubdivisions,andusuallyinamoreorlessabstractway,the
Easternaddspointtopoint,themetotheme,ofteninstrikingantithesis,andstrivestoemployconcreteillustrationsandembodimentseitherfigurativeorparabolicof
thethought.TheSermonontheMount(thoughitsformintheFirstGospelisdoubtlessanextendedone)isanexcellentillustrationofEasternmethodinsomeof
theserespects.ThefollowingexampleofanoldRabbinicaddress,basedonthewordsHehathclothedmewithgarmentsofsalvation,whichcomefromthe
chapterinIsaiah(61)fromwhichJesustookHistextinHisaddressinthesynagogueatNazareth,willillustratethecharacterofcontemporaryJewishsermons:
SevengarmentstheHolyOneblessedbeHehasputon,andwillputonfromthetimetheworldwascreateduntilthehourwhenHewillpunishthewholeofwickedEdom
(=theRomanEmpire).WhenHecreatedtheworld,HeclothedHimselfinhonourandmajesty,asitissaid(Ps104:1):Thouartclothedinhonourandmajesty.WheneverHe
forgaveIsraelssinsHeclothedHimselfinwhiteforweread(Dn7:9):Hisgarmentwaswhiteassnow.WhenHepunishesthepeopleoftheworld,Heputsonthegarmentof
vengeance,asitissaid(Is59:17):Heputongarmentsofvengeanceforclothing,andwascladwithzealasacloak.ThesixthgarmentHewillputonwhentheMessiahcomes
thenHewillclotheHimselfinagarmentofrighteousness,foritissaid:Andheputsonrighteousnessasabreastplate,andanhelmetofsalvationuponhishead.Theseventh
garmentHewillputonwhenHepunishesEdomthenHewillclotheHimselfinAdomi.e.redforitissaid(Is63:2):Whereforeartthouredinthineapparel?Butthegarment
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garmentHewillputonwhenHepunishesEdomthenHewillclotheHimselfinAdomi.e.redforitissaid(Is63:2):Whereforeartthouredinthineapparel?Butthegarment
whichHewillputupontheMessiah,thiswillshinefar,fromoneendoftheearthtotheotherforitissaid(Is61:10):Asabridegroomdeckethhimselfwithagarland.Andthe
IsraeliteswillpartakeofHislight,andwillspeak:
BlessedisthehourwhentheMessiahshallcome!
BlessedthewomboutofwhichHeshallcome!
BlessedHiscontemporarieswhoareeyewitnesses!
BlessedtheeyethatishonouredwithasightofHim!
FortheopeningofHislipsisblessingandpeace
Hisspeechisamovingorthespirits
ThethoughtsofHisheartareconfidenceandcheerfulness
ThespeechofHistongueispardonandforgivenessHisprayeristhesweetincenseofofferingsHispetitionsareholinessand
purity.
Oh,howblessedisIsraelforwhomsuchhasbeenprepared!
Foritissaid(Ps31:19):Howgreatisthygoodnesswhichthouhastlaidupforthemthatfearthee!
SeveralspecimensoftheApostolicpreachingaregivenintheActs(cf.chs.2,7,8etc.).TotheJewstheApostlespreachedtheMessiahshipofJesus,basing
theirappealmainlyontwoarguments,viz.(1)theresurrection,and(2)OTprophecy.Onthisdependedtheforgivenessofsins,andsalvationthroughChrist.These
reports,abbreviatedastheyobviouslyare,revealtheiressentialgenuinenessbytheirundevelopedtheology(e.g.oftheAtonement).
PreachinglongcontinuedfreeandspontaneousamongtheChristiansocieties,beingexercisedintheassemblybyprivatememberswhopossessedthegiftof
prophecy(cf.e.g.1Co14:31),though,ofcourse,theApostles,whiletheywerealive,wouldnaturallyassume,andbeaccorded,thechiefplaceinthis,asinother
respects.
G.H.BOX.
PRECIOUSSTONES.SeeJEWELSANDP RECIOUSS TONES.
PREDESTINATION.TheEnglishwordpredestinateintheAVis,inthefewcasesinwhichitoccurs(Ro8:29,36,Eph1:5,11),exchangedintheRVfor
foreordain,areturntotheusageoftheolderVersions.TheGr.word(proorizo)conveysthesimpleideaofdefiningordeterminingbeforehand(thus,inadditionto
above,inAc4:29,1Co2:7).Thechangeinrenderingbringsthewordintocloserrelationwithanumberofothersexpressingthesame,orrelated,meanings,as
foreknow(inpregnantsense,Ac2:23,Ro8:29,11:2,1P1:2,20),
determine(Ac17:26),appoint(1P2:8),purpose(Eph1:9),inthecaseofbelievers,chooseorelect(Eph1:4etc.).IntheOTtheideaisexpressedbythe
variouswordsdenotingtopurpose,determine,choose(e.g.Is14:2427,46:10,11),withtheahundanceofphrasesextollingthesovereigntyandimmutabilityof
GodscounselinallthespheresofHisoperation(seebelowsoinNT).ThebestcluetotheScriptureconceptionwillhefoundintracingitasitappearsinthese
differentspheresoftheDivineaction.
1.Initsmostgeneralaspect,foreordinationiscoextensivewiththesphereofGodsuniversalprovidence,is,infact,butanothernamefortheeternalplan,
design,purpose,counselofGod,whichexecutesitselfinprovidence.Theelectionofbelievers,towhichpredestinationissometimesnarrowed,ishutaspecific
caseofthepurposeofHimwhoworkethallthingsafterthecounselofhiswill(Eph1:11).Itisinthiswiderregard,accordingly,that
foreordinationmustbestudiedfirst.ItcannotbereasonablydoubtedthatallScriptureOTandNTrepresentsGodasexercisinginandovertheworlda
providencethatisabsolutelyuniversal.Nothing,greatorsmalloperationsofnatureoractionsofmenisleftoutsideitsscope.Thisdoesnothappenblindly,but
inaccordancewithaplanorpurpose,equallyallembracing,whichhasexistedfrometernity.AsPlatosaysinhisParmenidesthatnothing,noteventhemeanest
object,isunpenetratedbytheidea,soeventheminutestdetails,andseeminglymostcasualhappenings,oflife(thenumberingofhairs,thefallofasparrow,Mt
10:29,30)areincludedintheDivineprovidence.Freeagencyisnotannulledonthecontrary,humanfreedomandresponsibilityareeverywhereinsistedon.But
evenfreevolitions,otherwisemerepossibilities,aretakenupintheirplaceintothisplanofGod,andaremadesubservienttotheaccomplishmentofHispurposes.
TheBibledoesnottroubleitselfwithsolvingdifficultiesastotherelationoftheDivinepurposetohumanfreedom,but,inaccordancewithitsfundamental
doctrineofGodasthefreepersonalCreatoroftheworldandabsolutelysovereignRulerintherealmsbothofmatterandofmind,workingthroughallcauses,and
directingeverythingtothewisestandholiestends,itunhesitatinglyseesHishandandHiscounselinwhateverispermittedtohappen,goodorbad(Ac2:28).It
neednotbesaidthatthereisnothingarbitraryorunjustinthiscounselofGoditcanbeconceivedofonlyastheeternalexpressionofHiswisdom,righteousness,
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neednotbesaidthatthereisnothingarbitraryorunjustinthiscounselofGoditcanbeconceivedofonlyastheeternalexpressionofHiswisdom,righteousness,
andlove.
TextsarealmostsuperfluousinthecaseofadoctrinepervadingthewholeofScripture,history,prophecy,psalm,epistle,butaninstanceortwomaybe
given.ThehistoryisacontinualdemonstrationofaDivineteleology(e.g.Gn45:8,50:20).Godscounselstands,andcannotbedefeated(Ps33:1,46:10,11)all
thatGodwillsHedoes(Ps115:3,135:6,Dn4:35)itisbecauseGodpurposedit,thatitcomestopass(Is14:24,27,37:26)Godisthedisposerofallevents(2S
17:11,12,Job1:21,Pr16:33)manmaydevisehisway,butitistheLordwhodirectshissteps(16:9)eventheheartsofmenareunderHiscontrol(21:1)God
sendstomangoodandevilalike(Am3:6,Is45:7).IthasalreadybeenpointedoutthatthesamedoctrineisimpliedintheNT(e.g.Ac4:28,15:18,28[storyof
Paulsshipwreck],Eph1:11,Rev4:11etc.).
2.Auniversal,allpervadingpurposeofGodincreation,providence,andhumanlife,isthuseverywhereassumed.TheendofGodspurpose,asregards
humanity,maybethoughtofastheestablishingofamoralandspiritualkingdom,orKingdomofGod,inwhichGodswillshouldbedoneonearth,asitisdonein
heaven(cf.Mt6:10).Butthisend,nowthatsinhasentered,canbeattainedonlythrougharedemption.ThecentreofGodspurposeinourworld,therefore,that
whichgivesitsmeaninganddirectiontothewholeBiblicalhistory,andconstitutesalmostitssoleconcern,isthefactofredemptionthroughJesusChrist,andthe
salvationofmenbyHim.TothiseverythingprecedingthecallofAbraham,theCovenantwithIsrael,thedisciplineandgrowingrevelationofLawandProphets
leadsup(onpredestinationhere,cf.Gn18:18,19,Lv20:24,26,Is43:1,7etc.)withthisbegins(or,morestrictly,continues)theingatheringofapeopletoGod
fromallnationsandracesofmankind,who,intheircompleteness,constitutethetrueChurchofGod,redeemedfromamongmen(Eph5:2527,1P2:9,10,Rev
1:5,6,14:16etc.).Thepeculiarinterestofthedoctrineofforeordination,accordingly,intheNT,concentratesitselfinthecallingandsalvationofthosedescribed
asthechosenorelectofGodtothisgreatdestiny(Eph1:4etc.).Thedoctrineofforeordination(predestination)herecoalescespracticallywiththatofelection(
wh.see).Yetcertaindistinctionsarisefromadifferenceinthepointofviewfromwhichthesubjectiscontemplated.
Election,intheNT,asseeninthearticlereferredto,relatestotheeternalchoiceoftheindividualtosalvation.Aslittleasanyotherfactoreventinlifeisthe
salvationofthebelieverregardedaslyingoutsidethepurposeorpredeterminationofGodrather,aneternalthoughtofloveonGodspartisseencomingtolight
inthesavedonebeingbroughtintotheKingdom(2Th2:13,15).Thereistheyetdeeperreasonforseeinginthebelieverscallingandsalvationthemanifestation
ofaDivinepurpose,that,aslostinsin,heistotallyincapableofeffectingthissavingchangeinhimself.Heoweshisrenewal,hisquickeningfromspiritualdeath,to
thegratuitousmercyofGod(Eph2:18seeREGENERATION).EverysoulbornintotheKingdomisconsciousinitsdeepestmomentsthatitisonlyofGodsgraceit
isthere,andisreadytoascribethewholegloryofitssalvationtoGod(Rev7:10),andtotracebackthatsalvationtoitsfountainheadintheeverlastingcounselof
God.Thusregarded,electionandforeordinationtosalvationseemtohavemuchthesamemeaning.Yetinusageacertaindistinctionismade.Itmayperhapsbe
statedthus,thatelectiondenotestheDivinechoicesimply,whileforeordainhasgenerally(insenseofpredestinate)areferencetotheendwhichthe
foreordinationhasinview.Thus,inEph1:4,5Evenashechoseusinhimbeforethefoundationoftheworldhavingforeordainedusuntoadoptionassons
(wherehavingforeordained,asMeyerrightlysays,isnottobetakenaspriorto,butascoincidentinpointoftimewith,hechose)andinv.11havingbeen
foreordained,i.e.tobemadeaheritage,andthistotheendthatweshouldbeuntothepraiseofhisglory(v.12).InRo8:29,again,whereforeknewwhich
seemstotaketheplaceofchose(itcanhardlybeforeknowledgeofthefaithwhichistheresultofthelatercalling)comesbeforeforeordained,thelatterhas
theenddefined:tobeconformedtotheimageofhisSon.ThoseforeknownareafterwardsdescribedasGodselect(v.33).Thisstrikingpassagefurthershows
how,inforeordainingtheend,Godlikewiseforeordainsallthestepsthatleadtoit(foreknewforeordainedcalledjustifiedglorified).In1P1:1,on
theotherhand,foreknowledgeisdistinguishedfromelectionstill,however,insenseofpredesignation.
3.Godsforeordination,orpredestination,whetherinitsprovidential,historical,orpersonalsavingaspects,iseverrepresentedasagreatmystery,thedepthsof
therichesofthewisdomandknowledgeofwhich(forthisisthecharacterofitsmystery)mancanneverhopetofathom(Ro11:33,34).WhentheApostle,inRo9,
isdealingwithobjectors,hedoesnotattemptarationaleofthatwhichheadmitstoliebeyondhisken,butfallsbackontheunchallengeablesovereigntyofGodin
actingasHewills(vv.1416,1923).Theanswerwouldbeapoorone,wereitnotasabsolutelyassumedthroughoutthatGodsisawillinwhichtherecanbeno
taintofunrighteousness,andthatthereisnothinginHisactionwhichdoesnotadmitofvindicationtoaperfectwisdomandgoodness.IfGodshowsHismercyon
whomHewills,HisrighttodosocannotbeassailedifHehardensnotarbitrarily,butthroughthefixedoperationofethicallawsandglorifiesHiswrathinthe
destructionofthehardened,itisnotwithoutsufficientcause,andonlyaftermuchlongsuffering(v.22).AslittledoestheApostleattempttoshowthecompatibility
oftheDivineforeordinationwithhumanfreedom,buthabituallyassumesthattheoneisnot,andcannotbe,inviolationoftheother.Thematerialwithwhichthe
potterworks(v.21)isnot,inthiscase,afterall,mereinanimateclay,butbeingswhocanreplyagainstGod(v.20),andaretheobjectsofHislongsuffering
endurance(v.22).Sovereigntyisseeninthis,thateventhosewhorefusetobemouldedtohigherusesdonotescapethehandsofGod,butaremadetosubserve
Hisglory,evenifitbeintheirdestruction.DoubtlessevenhereapurposeofGodistoberecognized.Godet,whoisnotarigidpredestinarian,saysoftheinstance
inv.17
GodmighthavecausedPharaohtobeborninacabin,wherehisproudobstinacywouldhavebeendisplayedwithnolessselfwill,butwithoutanyhistoricalconsequenceon
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GodmighthavecausedPharaohtobeborninacabin,wherehisproudobstinacywouldhavebeendisplayedwithnolessselfwill,butwithoutanyhistoricalconsequenceon
theotherhand,hemighthaveplacedonthethroneofEgyptatthattimeaweak,easygoingman,whowouldhaveyieldedatthefirstshock.Whatwouldhavehappened?Pharaohin
hisobscurepositionwouldnothavebeenlessarrogantandperverse,outIsraelwouldhavegoneforthfromEgyptwithoutclat(onRo9:17,18).
Onlyinthissense,ofthosewilfullyhardenedandpersistentlyobdurate,isitpermissibletospeakifthelanguageshouldbeemployedatallofadecreeof
reprobation.Scriptureitself,withallitsemphasisonforeordination,neverspeaksofaforeordinationtodeath,orofareprobationofhumanbeingsapartfromtheir
ownsins.SeeREPROBATE.Itsforeordinationisreservedforlife,blessing,sonship,inheritance.
JAMESORR.
PREEXISTENCEOFSOULS.
Ourbirthisbutasleepandaforgetting:
Thesoulthatriseswithus,ourlifesstar,
Hathhadelsewhereitssetting,
Andcomethfromafar.
Wordsworth,IntimationsofImmortality
Theideaexpressedintheselineshasbeenprominentinmanyreligionsculturedandcrudealike.ThatithadJewishadherentsisclearfrom(a)Wis8:19,20,
writtenbysomeJewishthinkerinfluenced(as,e.g.,Philo,abelieverinthesamedoctrine,wasconspicuously)byPlatoniststudy(b)thereferenceofJosephusto
Essenedoctrines(c)theTalmud.ThattracesoccurintheOTisdoubtful.Theideacanbemoreeasilyreadinto,thangatheredoutof,suchpassagesasJob1:21(cf.
Sir40:1),Ec12:7,Ps139:16.Cf.alsoRev4:11b.ButsomethingverylikeitoccursJn9:2.Hadthemanbeenbornblindbecauseofhisownsin?InHisreply
Christfindsnofaultwiththequestionassuch.Theobjectionthatsuchanideawouldbeunfamiliartothedisciplesisweakenedbyconsiderationsastotheadvanced
thoughtoftheFourthGospelmoreover,theBookofWisdom(seeabove)isclearlyreechoedinNT.Somethinkthatthequestionrosefrom
Jewishideasastoprenatalconsciousness.SeeGn25:22(strife),Lk1:4144(joy).Nonliquetmustbetheverdict.ThesubjectreappearsinOrigensspeculative
teachingand,indirectly,inrelatedcontroversies.
H.F.B.COMPSTON.
PREPARATION(Gr.paraskeu).AtermappliedbytheJewstothedayprecedingtheSabbath,oranyofthesacredfestivals,especiallythePassover.
PRESBYTER(Gr.presbyteros,elder).ThewordoccursonlyonceinEV,viz.asaRVmarginalalternativeforeldersinAc20:17theGr.presbyteros,
whichisoffrequentoccurrence,beingotherwiseinvariablyrenderedelder.InthiscasetheRevisersdoubtlessputpresbytersInthemarginbecausethepassage
furnishesoneoftheleadingproofsfortheidentityofthepresbyterorelderwiththebishoporoverseer(cf.v.17withv.28).Fortreatmentofthesubjectofthe
presbyter,seeart.BISHOP.
J.C.LAMBERT.
PRESBYTERY(Gr.presbyterion).InEVofNTthewordoccursonlyin1Ti4:14,whereitdenotesthebodyofChristianpresbytersorelders(nodoubtthose
belongingtothechurchatLystracf.Ac16:14)wholaidtheirhandsuponTimothybeforehesetoutonhislaboursasSt.Paulsmissionarycompanion.IntheGr.
text,however,thewordpresbyterionisfoundintwootherpassages,viz.Lk22:66(AVelders,RVassemblyoftheelders)andAc22:5(AVandRVestateofthe
elders),asanexpressionforthebodyofJewishelderswhowiththechiefpriestsandthescribescomposedtheSanhedrin.Thistwofolduseoftheword(likethe
correspondingtwofolduseofelder)affordsastrongconfirmationoftheview,whichisotherwisemostprobable,thatthepresbyteryoftheChristianChurchfinds
itsrootsintheeldershipoftheJewishecclesia.
Thepresbyterywasatfirstapurelylocalbody(cf.theLettersofIgnatius,passim),correspondingnottothemodernpresbyteryofthePresbyterianChurches,
whichisadistrictcourtcomposedofministersandeldersdrawnfromanumberofseparatecongregations,buttothekirksessionorbodyofeldersbywhichin
thosechurchesasinglecongregationisruled.Originallythepresbyteryhadnofixedpresident.Thepresbytersorelders,otherwiseknownasbishops(seeart.
BISHOP),whomwemeetintheNTseemofficiallytohaveallstooduponthesamefooting.ButearlyinthepostApostolicageoneofthecongregationalpresbyter
bishopsrose,bywhatwasprobablyaprocessofnaturalevolution(cf.1Ti5:17,Lettheeldersthatrulewellbecountedworthyofdoublehonour,especiallythose
wholabourinthewordandinteaching),toapositionofpredominance,andwasnowknownasthebishopparexcellence,indistinctionfromtheotherpresbyters
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wholabourinthewordandinteaching),toapositionofpredominance,andwasnowknownasthebishopparexcellence,indistinctionfromtheotherpresbyters
(cf.inthePresbyterianandCongregationalChurchestheprecedenceoftheministerovertheeldersanddeaconsrespectively,although,properlyspeaking,a
ministerissimplyadiakonosordeacon).ThebishopaswemeethimintheLettersofIgnatius(e.g.Ephes.4)isacongregationalbishop,thepresidentofabody
ofcongregationalpresbyters.Themonarchicalbishopisalatercreation.
WhatwasinvolvedinthelayingonofthehandsofthepresbyteryinthecaseofTimothyitisimpossibletosaywithcertainty.Probablyitwasanact
correspondingtoordinationtooffice(seeLAYINGONOFHANDS),St.Paulhimselfbeingassociatedwiththepresbyteryinthematter(cf.2Ti1:6).Ontheother
hand,itmayhavebeennomorethanacommendationofTimothytothegraceofGodforstrengthandguidanceinhisnewworkasamissionary,analogousthusto
theactionoftheprophetsandteachersofAntiochinthecaseofBarnabasandSaul(Ac13:13).ThelayingonofSt.Paulshands(2Ti1:6)mayreallyhavebeena
separateincident,comparableagaintothelayingonofthehandsofAnaniasonhimself(Ac9:17)notanofficialactbutagraciousbenediction(cf.Lindsay,
ChurchandMinistry,p.143n.).St.PaulwithoutdoubtreceivedaconsecratinggracefromthehandsbothofAnaniasandofthoseprophetsandteachersofthe
ChurchatAntioch,butheclaimedtobeanApostlenotfrommen,neitherthroughman,butthroughJesusChristandGodtheFatherwhoraisedhimfromthedead
(Gal1:1).
J.C.LAMBERT.
PRESS,PRESSFAT.TheformeroccursintheOTfortheusualwinepressinPr3:10
(RVfatsinmodernEnglish,vats),Is16:10,wherealoneitisretainedinRV,andJl3:13RVwinepress.AlsoHag2:16AV,alongwiththeonlyinstanceof
pressfat(RVwinefat),astherenderingofarareword,whichRVwronglytr.vessels.Thepassageinquestionshouldrun:Whenonecametothewinepress
(expecting)todrawofffifty(measures[probablybathsareintended])fromthewinetrough,therewerebuttwenty.Fortheancientwinepresses,seeWINE
ANDS TRONGDRINK,2.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
PREVENT.TopreventintheEng.ofAVistobebefore,anticipate,forestall,asPs119:147Ipreventedthedawningofthemorningandcried(Amer.
Revisionhasanticipatedhere,buttheEng.Revisersretainprevented).Sometimesitistoforestallforonesgood,asPs59:10TheGodofmymercyshall
preventmeandsometimesforoneshurt,asPs18:5Thesnaresofdeathpreventedmebutthemod.ideaofmerelyhinderingneveroccursinAV.
PRIESTSANDLEVITES.Themethodhereadoptedasonthewholethemost
satisfactoryisfirsttogivesomeaccountofthehighlyorganizedhierarchicalsystemoftheSecondTemple,asweknowitfromthePriestlyCode,and,takingthisas
astandard,nexttotraceitshistoryuptothispoint,and,lastly,followitssubsequentdevelopments.
I.THEHIERARCHYOFTHES ECONDTEMPLE.ThechiefauthorityforthereligiousinstitutionsoftheearlyperiodoftheSecondTempleisthedocumentknownas
thePriestlyCode(P),whichwascomposedprobablyshortlyafter,orpartlyduring,theExile,andreachedverynearlyitspresentforminthetimeofNehemiah.It
comprisedthewholeofLeviticusandtheritualportionsofNumbers,alltheregulationsconnectedwiththeTabernacleinExodus,togetherwithcertainnarrative
portionsespeciallyconnectedwithreligiousinstitutionstheSabbath,circumcision,andthelikeandstatisticalstatementsthroughouttheHexateuch.Accordingto
P,theJewishhierarchywasthreefold,includinghighpriest,priest,andLevite,distinguishedbydifferentfunctionsanddifferentprivileges.
A.Thehighpriest
1.Hisconsecration
Thehighpriest,whoistheeldestsonofhispredecessorintheoffice,isconsecratedbyanelaborateritualconsistingofwashing,solemnvestinginhisrobes,
anointingbypouringoilonthehead,andseveralsacrificialrites,amongthemthesprinklingwithbloodandtheanointingwithoilofdifferentpartsofthebody.The
sacrificialceremonieslastedforsevendays(Ex29,Lv8).
2.Thedistinctivevestmentsofthehighpriest,inadditiontothosewornbyallpriests(B.2),weretherobeofblue,whichwaswovenwithoutseam,hadahole
forthehead,andwassaidtohavereacheddowntothekneestheephodofcuriouslywronghtembroideredworkthebreastplate,alsoofembroideredwork,which
wasattachedtotheephod,andcontainedoriginallytheUrimandThummim(II.B.4)theturbanwiththecrownorplateengravedHolytoJahweh(Ex28:36).
3.Thespecialdutiesofthehighpriestincludedtheofferingofadailymealoffering(Lv6:19,20,wherethewordsinthedaywhenheisanointedare
probablyalaterinterpolation).Hehadalsotoperformtheceremonialsprinklingsinthecaseofsinofferingsforthewholepeople(Lv4:1321).Butbyfarthemost
importantceremonieswerethoseconnectedwiththegreatDayofAtonement,onwhichdayalonehe,andhealone,attiredmerelyinthelinengarbofthepriest,
enteredtheHolyofHoliesandsprinkledthemercyseatwiththebloodofabullockasasinofferingforhimself,andthatofagoatasasinofferingforthepeople
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enteredtheHolyofHoliesandsprinkledthemercyseatwiththebloodofabullockasasinofferingforhimself,andthatofagoatasasinofferingforthepeople
(Lv16).
B.Priests.1.Theirconsecration.ThepriestswhobelongedtothefamilyofAaronwereconsecratedbyspecialceremonieslikethoseofthehighpriest,but
lesselaborate(Ex29,Lv8).Thesedidnot,however,include,inlatertimesatanyrate,anointing,thehighpriestbeingcalledbywayofdistinctiontheanointed
priest(Lv4passim,cf.Ps133:2).Atmosttheanointingofpriestsmeantsprinklingthedifferentpartsofthebodywiththeholyoilaswellaswiththeblood(Ex
29:21,Lv8:30).
2.Allpriestswererequiredtowear,duringtheirministrationsonly,specialvestments.Thesewerelinenbreeches,coatsofcheckerwork,girdlesandhead
tires(Ex28:42,29:3,9,Lv8:13).
3.Theworkofthepriestsconsistedin(a)offeringupallsacrifices.Thisincludedespeciallycollectingthebloodandsprinklingthealtarwithitwashingthe
inwardsandlegs,makingthefire,placingthepiecesoftheburntofferinguponitandburningthem,doingthesametothememorialsofotherofferings,andthe
removalofashes.Theydidnot,exceptusuallyinthecaseofpublicsacrifices,themselveskillthevictim(Lv16).(b)Theywererequiredtogivedecisions,after
examination,aboutsuspectedleprosy,plague,andmouldingarmentsandhouses,andtoperformtherequiredrites(Lv13,14).(c)Itwasalsotheirdutytoblow
thetrumpets,whetherasthealarmofwaroratthenewmoon,especiallythatofthe7thmonth,andatthesetfeasts(Nu10:10,Lv23:24cf.Ps81:3)andonthe
DayofAtonementoftheJubileeyear(Lv25:9).Thewordsusedindifferentpassagessuggesttheprobabilitythattheinstrumentsemployedwereoriginallyhorns,
forwhichsilvertrumpetswereafterwardssubstituted.
4.Thepriestsweresupported(a)partlybythetitheofthetithewhichtheyreceivedfromtheLevites(Nu18:26)(b)partlybythefirstfruitsandfirstlings,
includingtheredemptionmoneyformenanduncleanbeasts(Nu18:1218,Lv7:3034)(c)partlybysacrificialduesofvariouskinds.Thelatterincluded(1)
practicallythewholeofprivatemealofferings,whetherflourorcakes,sinofferingsandguiltofferings(Nu18:9,Lv5:16,10:1620).Thesewereregardedas
mostholy,andmightbeeatenonlybythepriestandhissonsasasacrificialactintheTempleprecincts(Lv6:16,26,7:8,Nu18:10).(2)Ofpeaceofferingsthe
breastandthethigh,whichmightbeeatenbyanyofthepriestsfamily,thesacrificialactconsistingintheirfirstbeingwavedorheavedrespectively(Nu18:11,
Lv7:3034).(3)Theskinoftheburntofferings(Lv7:8).(4)Theshewbreadandseveralspecialofferings,asthatoftheleper,etc.(Lv24:9,Mk2:26,Lv14etc.).
Thelanguagesuggeststhatthesedueswereinsomecasesfreshenactments(seeesp.Lv10:1820,Nu18:18).Thetendencytoincreasetheduesofthepriestswas
thenaturalconsequenceoftheincreaseofworkarisingoutofthecontinuallygreatercomplicationofreligiousceremonies.C.Levites
1.Dedication.TheLeviteswerealsodedicatedtotheirworkbyspecialceremonies.Theyweresprinkledwithwater,theirbodiesshaved,andtheirclothes
washed.ThentheyweresolemnlypresentedtoGod,thehighpriestlayinghishandsonthem,andwererequiredtopresenttwobullocks,oneasaburntoffering,
theotherasasinoffering(Nu8:522).TheceremoniessignifiedthesolemnofferingupoftheLevitestoGodasawaveoffering(vv.13,15b).Thisissaidtohave
beenasasubstituteforthefirstbornoftheIsraelites,whobyrightbelongedtoGod(Nu3:913).
2.Theageatwhichtheyenteredupontheirofficevariedatdifferenttimesbetween30,25,and20(Nu4:3,8:24,1Ch23:3,24,27).Probablyitwastwice
reducedbecauseoftheincreasingdifficultyinprocuringLevitestodothework.
3.Work.TheLevitesweresaidtohavebeengivenasagift(nthnm)toAaronandhissons.Inotherwords,theyweretoberegardedastheservantsofthe
priests.Thisincludedespeciallytheworkoffetchingandcarrying,astheywerebelievedtohavecarriedtheTabernacleanditsfurnitureintheWilderness.Beyond
thisbelongedtothemtheworkof
keepingthecharge,i.e.protectingandkeepingcleanthevesselsandthefurniture.Inshort,theywererequiredtodoeverythingconnectedwiththeservicewhich
wasnotbylawrequiredoftheprieststhemselves(Nu18:27,3:539).
4.TheLevitesweresupportedfromthetithe,whichwasinthefirstinstancepaidtothem(Nu18:2124).
D.Leviticalandpriestlycities.AccordingtoNu35:18,therewereassignedtotheLevitesindifferentpartsofPalestine48citieswithsuburbsand
surroundingpasturelandtoabout500yardsdistance.InthedescriptionofthedivisionofthelandunderJoshua,13ofthese,intheterritoriesofJudah,Simeon,and
Benjamin,aregiventothepriests(Jos21seealso1Ch6:5481,where,however,thetextisverycorrupt).Notraceofanysucharrangementistobefoundin
Ezekielsidealsanctuary,accordingtowhichthepriestsandLeviteshavetheirpossessionsintheoblationorsacredground,whichincludedthesanctuary(48:9
14).ThisprovisionofcitiesandlandinPappearstobeindirectcontradictiontotheoftrepeatedstatementthattheLeviteshadnoportioninthelandbecause
Jahwehwastheirportion(Dt10:9,Nu18:20,26:62etc.)astatementexplainedasmeaninginpracticethattheyweretodependfortheirsupportupontheirtithes
andpriestlydues,whichwereallregardedasofferingstoJahweh(Dt18:2,Nu18:832,Lv27:30).
Thisassignationofpriestlycitiesmustthereforeberegardedasasortofhistoricaltheory,whichgrewpartlyoutofsomesortofprovision,inlandandhousesinandabout
Jerusalem,havingbeenactuallymadeintheperiodoftheSecondTempleforthepriestsandotherofficers(Neh11:3,21,1Ch9:2),partlybecausethecitiessoassignedinPwere
manyofthemancientsanctuaries,wherepriestsandLeviteswouldhavebeenlocatedinearlytimes.Atsomeofthelargersanctuariestheremayhavebeenseveralpriests,as,
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manyofthemancientsanctuaries,wherepriestsandLeviteswouldhavebeenlocatedinearlytimes.Atsomeofthelargersanctuariestheremayhavebeenseveralpriests,as,
accordingtoanearlytradition,therewereatNob(1S21).ThoughtoogreatarelianceshouldnotbeplacedontheeditorialnoteinJer1:1,itisquitepossiblethatseveralofthe
priestsofJerusalemmayhavelivedtogetheratAnathoth,whichwasonly21/2milesfromJerusalem,andthehomeofAbiathar(1K2:26),andsogivenrisetothetraditionthatit
wasapriestlycity.
E.Genealogicaltheoryofthehierarchy.Pstheoryoftheoriginofthehierarchywasasfollows:TheLeviteswereoneofthe12tribesofIsrael,descended
fromLevi,oneofJacobssons.TheyweresetapartbyJahwehforHimselfinlieuofthefirstbornoftheIsraelites,whenHeslewthefirstbornoftheEgyptians(Nu
3:12,8:17,19).AllthesonsofAaronadescendantofLevi(Ex6:1420)werepriests(Lv1:5etc.).Thehighpriesthooddescendedinonelineby
primogeniture.NadabandAhihu,Aaronseldestsons,havingperished,itpassedtoEleazar,thenextinage(Nu20:2229,Ex6:23).ThatEleazarssonPhinehas
succeededhimisperhapsimpliedinNu25:11,andcertainlyissoinJg20:28inadocumentcloselyalliedinitspresentformtoP.Therestofthemade
descendantsofLeviwereLevites,dividedintothethreegreatfamiliesofGershon,Kohath,andMerari.ThefamilyofKohath,asbeingthattowhichbothAaron
andMosesbelonged,hadthemosthonourablework.Theyhadchargeofthesacredfurnitureandvesselstheark,altars,candlestick,andtable,whiletheother
familiesdividedbetweenthemthechargeofthedifferentpartsofthebuilding(Nu3:2139).
II.OT EVIDENCEFORTHEEVOLUTIONOFTHEHIERARCHY.ThereisreasontobelievethatthehierarchicalsystemofPwasnothandeddowninitscompleteness
fromprimitivetimes,butwasofgradualgrowth.
A.TheBookoftheCovenant
1.Statusofthelocalpriests.TheearliestdocumentbearingatallfullyonthesubjectistheBookoftheCovenant(Ex2123),towhichweshouldaddEx
20and24.Thepriestsoftheseveralsanctuaries,ofwhichmanyarecontemplated(20:24b),arecalledElohim(RVGod,AVusuallythejudges),probablyinthe
sensethattheywereGodsrepresentatives,andthattheirdecision,oftenprobablydeterminedbythesacredlot,wasregardedastheexpressionofGodswill.We
maycomparePs82:6Isaid,Yearegodsareferenceundoubtedlytothispassage,madetoshowhowunworthythejudgesofalatertimewereoftheirsacred
office.
2.Theirwork,etc.Theselocalpriestswererequiredtosuperintendtheancientprimitiveceremonyconnectedwiththeretentionofaslaveafter6years
service(Ex21:6),decidesuits,imposefinesandthelike(21:22,22:9,9).Torevilethemwasacrime(22:28,wheretheorderofphrasessuggeststhattheywereof
moreconsequencethantherulers).Nomentionismadeofanydistinctivedress,evenwhereonemightcertainlyhaveexpectedit(cf.20:26with28:42,from
whichwemaygatherthatthelinenbreechesweretheadditionofalater,probablypostexilic,date).Norisanythingsaidoftheirbeinganhereditaryguild.But
silenceonthislatterpointdoesnotprovethattheywerenot.Inlawswhatiscustomaryisoftentakenforgranted.
B.TheFirstBookofSamuel
1.TempleofShiloh.WiththeBookoftheCovenantwemaycompareISamuel,whichpointsinmanywaystothestateofsocietyandreligionassumedby
theformer.Herewefindseverallocalsanctuaries.Oneofthemostimportantofthem,atthetimewhenthebookopens,isthetempleofShiloh.
Thewordstentofmeetingin2:22areaverylateinsertionnotfoundeveninLXX.ItdependsuponalatertraditionthattheTabernaclewassetupinShiloh
(Jos18,19:51[P]).
Inthistemplewastheark,andtheinfantSamuelsleptinsidethesanctuarytoprotectit(1S3:3).ThepriestEliseemstohavehadalargeinfluenceandtohave
exercisedajurisdictionoveratleastthewholetribeofEphraim.In2:29inadocumentprobablyatearliestonlyalittlebeforeJosiahsreignheisspokenofina
waywhichimpliesthatheheldauniquepositionamongthetribesofIsrael.Thefurtherstatementin4:19,thathejudgedIsrael40years,isastilllatereditorial
insertionconnecting1SamuelwithJudges(seeJg15:20,16:31etc.).
2.PositionofSamuel.WhenShilohhadbeendestroyedbythePhilistines,Samuelcametobeastillmorepowerfulpriest,being,accordingto1S7:10,17,
connected,bothaspriestandruler,withseverallocalsanctuariesBethel,Gilgal,Mizpah,andRamah.Buteventhesewerecomprisedwithinaverysmallcircle.It
iscuriousthat,accordingto9:6partofoneoftheearliestsourcesofthebook,Sauldidnotappear,atthetimeofsearchingforhisfathersasses,tohaveeven
heardofSamuelsexistence.Itisalsosignificantthatin2:26EliusesElohimasintheBookoftheCovenant,showingthat,inhistimeatanyrate,therewereother
priestsexercisingjurisdictionattheirseveralsanctuaries.
3.Absenceofregularreligiousorganization.1Samuelpointstogreatlibertyofactiononthepartofthepriests,or,atleast,ofSamuelhimself.His
movementsdonotseemtoimplyanyregularlyorganizedsacrificialsystem.Exceptfornewmoonsandyearlyfeastsofperhapsmorethanonekind(1S1:3,20:5,
6,29),towhichweshouldprobablyaddsabbaths(cf.2K4:23),thereseemtohavebeennoregularfeastdays.Thepriestappointsandinviteswhomhechoosesto
thesacrificialmeal(1S9:23,24),andononeoccasiontakeswithhimtheanimalforsacrifice(16:25).
4. Dressoftheprimitivepriests.In1S2:18,19thetwopartsofthedressofSamuel,theephodandtherobe,are,innameatanyrate,whatafterwards
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4.Dressoftheprimitivepriests.In1S2:18,19thetwopartsofthedressofSamuel,theephodandtherobe,are,innameatanyrate,whatafterwards
belongedtothepeculiardressofthehighpriest(Ex28:612,3135).Buttherobeisalsothecommonnamefortheuppergarment,andisusedofthatwornby
JonathanandSaul(1S18:4,24:4).Oftheuseoftheephodbythepriestsofthisdatethereisabundantevidence.Itwasessentiallythepriestlygarmentofprimitive
times,andisespeciallyconnectedwithascertainingthewillofGodbymeansofthesacredlots,UrimandThummim,whichwasthepeculiarprovince,andoneof
themostimportantfunctions,ofthepriest(1S14:13,22:18,23:6,9,30:7).TheUrimisexpresslymentionedin28:6,andtheUrimandThummimwereboth
originallyinthetextof14:41,42,asacomparisonwiththeLXXandVulgateshows.
5.Thepriestsmeansofsupport.Accordingto1S2fromarelativelyolddocumentthepriestshadnofixedduesbutthepassageseemstosuggestthat
then,oratleastinthewritersday,whathadbeenvoluntarygiftswerepassingintocustomaryclaimswhichwereliabletoabuse.Thechiefgroundofcomplaintwas
thewrongcommittednotsomuchagainstthesacrificerasagainstGod,towhomwasduethefatoftheinwards,whichshouldfirstbeburnt(2:16).
6.Acolonyofpriests.Inadditiontothepriestsofthelocalsanctuaries,wefindin1S21,22anaccountofasettlementofpriestsatNobunderAhimelech,
allofwhomexceptAbiatharhissonwereputtodeathbyDoegatSaulscommand.Thissettlementmayhaveoriginatedinthetroublesbroughtaboutbythe
Philistines.
7.PriestsnotregardedasLevitical.ThereisnothingintheBooksofSamuelwhichaffordsasufficientreasonforconnectingthepriesthoodofthisperiod
directlywithatribeofLevi,thementionoftheLevitesin1S6:16and2S15:24beingclearlyaverylateinterpolationwhichassumestheliturgicalarrangements
ofP.Hadthesebeeninvogueatthetime,weshouldcertainlyhavefoundsomereferencetothemin2S6suchaswefindabundantlyintheparallelin1Ch15,
wherev.2suggeststhatthedeathofUzzahwasapunishmentforotherthanLeviteshavingcarriedtheark.
C.Jg1721(adocumentwhich,thoughrevisedbyapriestlywriter,belongstorathertheearlierpartofthemonarchyandspeaksofastillearlierconditionof
things)confirmsinmanywaystheBooksofSamuel.ItspeaksofdifferentsanctuariesMizpah(20:1)andBethel(20:18,26),besidesShiloh,whichisaplaceof
comparativelysmallimportance,yetmarked,asin1
Sam.,byayearlyreligiousfestivalofasomewhatsecularcharacter(cf.21:1921with1S1:3,1315,21).TheLevitewhoispriesttoMicahisactuallyofthe
tribeofJudah(17:7).Thereismentionofanephodandasuitofapparelforthepriestbutitisuncertainwhethertheephodreferstothepriestsdressor,as
apparentlyin8:27,tosomekindofimage.
D.1and2Kings(originaldocuments)uptoJosiahsreform.Thereweretwocircumstanceswhichtendedtodiminishtheprestigeofthelocalpriests.1.
Theestablishmentofthemonarchy,bywhichmany,ifnotall,ofthesecularfunctionsofthepriestshadpassedintothehandsofthekingorhisdeputies.Ofthese
oneofthemostimportantwasthepracticeofjurisdiction(seeesp.2S12,14:120,15:24,1K3:9,1628cf.alsoDt16:18).Itisalsotruethat,soonerorlater,
theideaofthekingasGodsearthlyrepresentativewassubstitutedforthatofthepriest.
2.OfevengreaterimportancewasthebuildingofthegreatTempleatJerusalembySolomon.Fromtheveryfirstitmadeforthecentralizationofworship,
thoughnotofcourseintendedoriginallytobetheonesinglelawfulsanctuarywhichitafterwardsbecame.Thelocalsanctuaries(highplaces)werestilltolerated(1
K15:14,22:48etc.),butwouldtendmoreandmoretosinkintoinsignificancebesidethissplendidbuilding.ThiswasespeciallythecaseintheSouthernKingdom.
IntheNorththelocalsanctuaryworshiphadmorevitality,butitwaslargelymaintainedandalsodebasedforpoliticalreasons(1K12:2629).Thecalvesof
JeroboamwereprobablyCanaanitish,thoughheprobablymeantthemassymbols,notrivals,ofJahweh.Thecultofthehighplacesseemsgraduallytohave
relapsedintofamiliarandpopulartypesofSemiticworshipandinthebooksoftheearlyprophetsAmosandHoseaitisnotalwayseasytodistinguishbetween
heathenismandaheathenishworshipofJahweh.
Withthedeclineofthelocalsanctuarythestatusofthepriestgraduallydeclined,tillitreachedthelowlevelimpliedinJg1719,andinDeuteronomy.
E.Deuteronomy
1.Levites.InDt.(firstpublishedinallprobabilityinJosiahsreign)wefindthetermspriestsandLevitesrathercuriouslyused.Thelatteroccurs
frequently,butwhenusedaloneitisalwaysasofaclassdeservingofpity.TheLeviteisfrequentlyrangedwiththeslave,thewidow,andthefatherless(Dt12:12,
18,16:11,14).ThedescriptivephrasethatiswithinthygatesmeansinthetownsgenerallyasdistinctfromJerusalem,asweseefrom12:15,16:5,wherethelocal
sanctuariesarecontrastedwiththeonepermissiblesanctuary.TheLeviteswerecertainlythepriestsoftheselocalsanctuaries.ThepovertyoftheLevitesisalso
testifiedbyJg1719,inwhichwefindmorethanonecaseofLeviteswanderingaboutinsearchofaliving.
2.Effectofabolishinglocalsanctuaries.Dt18:38suggeststhatLevitesmightdesiretogouptoJerusalemandperformpriestlyfunctionsandreceive
support,andordersthattheyshouldbeallowedtodoboth,andbetreatedintheserespectsonanequalitywiththepriestsat
Jerusalem.WhenwerealizethattheidealofDt.wastheoneonlysanctuary,itbecomesevidentthatthecasecontemplatedwasonewhichwouldnaturallyarise
whenthelocalsanctuarieswereabolished,asinfacttheywerebyJosiah.
3. TheprieststheLevites.Ontheotherhand,thepriestsofJerusalemaregenerallycalleddistinctively,itwouldseem,theprieststheLevitesoccasionally
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3.TheprieststheLevites.Ontheotherhand,thepriestsofJerusalemaregenerallycalleddistinctively,itwouldseem,theprieststheLevitesoccasionally
priestsonly,whenthecontextmakesitclearthatthepriestsofJerusalemaremeant,asin18:8,19:17.
4.Theduesofthesepriests,includingtheLeviteswhojoinedthem,weretheshoulder,thetwocheeks,andthemaw,andthefirstfruitsoffieldandgarden
produce.Theydidnotinclude,asinP,thethighorthefirstlings.ThetitheswerenotgivenbyrighttothepriestsorLevites,butthelattersharedinthefamilyfeastat
theonesanctuary,atwhichtheyweresolemnlyeatenasasacrificialact.Thesamewasthecasewiththefirstlings,vows,andfreewillofferings(18:18,12:1719)
.OneseesinthesearrangementsveryclearlythesystemwhichwaselaboratedinP,andadevelopmentfromwhatisimpliedin1S2.
5.Leviticaltheoryvariouslyexplained.NotonlyarethepriestsofthelocalsanctuariesandthoseofJerusalembothcalledLevitesinDt.butthenameis
distinctlyunderstoodasthatofatribetowhichbothbelonged(18:1,7).ThetraditionalexplanationacceptedbyDt.oftheexceptionalpositionofthetribe,wasthat
itwasarewardforhavingslainalargenumberofrebelliousapostates,probablyontheoccasionofthegoldencalf(cf.Dt10:8,8withEx32:28,29.[Thereare
somecriticaldifficultiesinbothpassagesconcerningtheconnexionoftheincidentwiththecontext]).ThisdoesnotverywellaccordwithP,which,assaidabove,
connectstheseparationofthetribewiththededicationofthefirstbornandthelastoftheplagues,andthatofthepriests,orthehighpriestespecially,withtheaction
ofPhinehasatBaalpeor(Nu3:1113,25:13).Whatis,however,probablyanoldertraditionthaneither,whilerecognizingtheLevitesasatribe,explainstheir
beingscatteredinIsraelasapunishmentforanactofcrueltyinconjunctionwiththeSimeonitestowardstheShechemites(Gn49:57,34).Itisquiteimpossibleto
saywhatelementsoftruthmayunderliethesetraditions.ButifthewordLevitewasoriginallymerelyofficial,suchaunitedactonthepartofabodyofpriests
seemsimprobableandthestoriesmayhavearisenasdifferentwaysofaccountingfortheirdispersion.Butthebeliefthatthepriestsallbelongedtoonetribeproves
atanyratethatatthetimewhenDt.waswritten,andprobablylongbefore,thepriesthoodhadbecomeahereditaryandisolatedguild.Thatistosay,everypriest
wasthesonofapriest,andhissonsbecamepriests.ThecursingofLeviinJacobsblessing,soconspicuouslycontrastedwiththeglorificationofJoseph(i.e.
EphraimandManasseh),perhapsshowsthatthewriter,evidentlyoftheNorthernKingdom,despisedthepriestlyoffice.
F.ReformsofJosiahastheyconcernedtheLevites.WhenJosiahabolishedthelocalsanctuaries,thedifficultyaboutthepriestscontemplatedby
Dt.seemstohaveariseninfact.Butitwasnotsolvedaltogetherinthewaydirected.ProbablythepriestsofJerusalemresentedthepresenceofthelocalpriests
attheiraltar,andcertainlytheirservicescouldhardlyhavebeenrequired.InfactthelanguageofDt.almostsuggeststhatthemainpurposewastosecuremeans
ofsupport(18:8).ThispurposewasatanyratesecuredbyJosiah.TheyweretoreceiveallowancesoffoodwiththepriestsofJerusalem,butwerenotallowedto
performpriestlyfunctions(2K23:9).Itistobenoticedthatthewritertreatsthemwithrespect,callingthempriests,andspeakingofthepriestsofJerusalemas
brethren.
G.Ezekielsidealsanctuary
1.HisdirectionconcerningtheLevites.InhisidealsanctuaryEzekielmakesamarkeddistinctionbetweentheLevitesthatwentfarfromme,whenIsrael
wentastray,andtheprieststheLevites,thesonsofZadok,whohadfaithfullykeptthechargeofmysanctuary(44:10,15).TheLevitesareherechargedwith
apostasyandidolatry,inreference,nodoubt,tothesinofJeroboam,whichEzekielsoregarded.Hedirectsthatasapunishmenttheyshouldbeforbiddentheoffice
ofpriest,andbeallowedtodoonlytheservileworkofthesanctuary,suchastheoversightofthegates,slayingofvictimsworkthathadhithertobeendone,so
Ezekielcomplains,byuncircumcisedaliens(vv.510).TherecanbelittledoubtthatEzekielheregivesthecluetothewayinwhichtheLevitesinthelatersense
ofthetermarose.Thedescendantsofthepriests,turnedoutfromtheirlocalsanctuariesandnotallowedtodotheregularworkofthepriests,becameasortof
inferiororder,todothemenialserviceoftheSecondTemple.
2.TheappellationsonsofZadokseemstoimplythatthepriestsinJerusalemalsowere,atleastinEzekielstime,anhereditaryguild.Zadokhimselfwasthe
chiefpriestappointedbySolomonintheroomofAbiathar,inconsequence,nodoubt,ofhisloyaltywithreferenceto
Adonijah(1K2:35).ItisobviousthatatfirstallthepriestsofJerusalemcouldnothavebeensonsofZadok,anditisextremelyunlikelythattheirsuccessorswere
alldescendedfromhimoranyotheroneancestor.
3.LiketheLevites,thehighpriestseemstohaveemergedgradually.Inthedifferentsmallsanctuarieseachpriestprobablyoccupiedanindependentposition.
Assomeofthesegrewinimportance,thepriestattachedtothemwouldobtainarelativelygreaterinfluence,orpossiblyaparamountinfluence,overadistrictor
tribe,asinthecasesofEliandSamuel,whosepower,however,alatertraditionseemstohavegreatlymagnified.Whenseveralpriestswereassociatedtogether,as
exceptionallyperhapsatNoh(seeII.B.6),andafterwardsinSolomonsTemple,somekindofleadershipbecamenecessary,withoutanynecessarydifferenceof
religiousfunctions.SuchaleadershipseemstohavebeenheldbyAhimelech(1S21),Zadok(1K2:35),andJehoiada(2K11).Thesewereknownasthepriest.
SuchisprobablymeantbythepriestthatshallbeinthosedaysinDt26:3.
InEzekielsidealsanctuarythereisnodistinctionbetweenpriestandhighpriest,andtheonlyspecialvestmentssanctionedforthepriestsarethegarmentskept
inthepriestschambers,butnodetailsaregivenastotheircharacterorstyle(42:14).
TheearliestdocumentinwhichthedistinctionappearsisprobablythealmostcontemporaryCodeofHoliness(Lv1726).In21:10wefindthecuriousphrase
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TheearliestdocumentinwhichthedistinctionappearsisprobablythealmostcontemporaryCodeofHoliness(Lv1726).In21:10wefindthecuriousphrase
hethatisthehighpriestamonghisbrethren(RV),whichmightbemoreexactlyrendered,thepriestthatisgreaterthanhisbrethrenanexpressionwhichwould
verywellapplytoonewhodidnotholdadistinctlydifferentoffice,asthehighpriestofP,butwasratherprimusinterpares.Thedirectionsconcerninghimdeal
entirelywithceremonialandsocialobligations,whichwererathermoreexactinginhiscasethanwithotherpriests.Forinstancehemightnotmarryawidow,or
rendhisgarmentsasasignofgrief(21:1015).Theallusionstoaspecialunction(seeI.A.1,B.1)andthehighpriestlydressin10and12arealmostcertainly
laterinterpolations.
III.DEVELOPMENTSINTHEHIERARCHYAFTERTHEP RIESTLYCODE.
1.RelationoflowerofficerstoLevites.Thehistoricalsketchjustgivenshowsclearlyhow,inmanyways,theearlierarrangementspavedthewayforthe
hierarchicalsystemofP.Thelaterhistorypointstonewdevelopmentsinthehierarchicalsystem.TheBooksofChronicles,andthepartsofEzraandNehemiah
whichbelongtothem,pointtoahighlyorganizedserviceinwhichsingers,andplayersonmusicalinstruments,porters(RVsometimesdoorkeepers),and
Nethinimtakeaprominentplace.
TheNethinimarealwaysdistinguishedfromtheLevites,asin1Ch9:2(Neh11:3),Ezr2:43
(Neh7:46).BothsingersandportersaredistinguishedfromtheLevitesindocumentscontemporarywithNehemiahandEzra,butincludedamongthembythe
Chronicler(cf.1Ch9:1434(Neh11:1524)15:1624etc.withEzr7:24,10:23,24,Neh7:1,10:28).Thisshowsthattheportersandsingerscametobe
regardedasLevites,andwerebelievedtobedescendedfromonetribe.MeanwhilethemoremenialworkoftheLevitespassedintothehandsoftheNethinim,
whoaresaidinaChroniclersnotetohavebeengivenbyDavidtotheLevitesjustasinPtheLevitesaresaidtohavebeengiven(nthnm)tothepriests(cf.Ezr
8:20withNu18:16).
2.(a)Theirhistory.Theoriginofthesingersandportersisunknown.ThattheywerebothinexistenceinsomeformwhenEzrabeganhisworkofreformis
clearfromEzr7:24,wheretheyaswellastheNethinimwereexemptedfromtaxationbyadecreeofArtaxerxes.Whatisapparentlythefirstmentionofthemisin
whatis,onthefaceofit,alistofthefamilieswhichreturnedfromtheExileinEzr2(Neh7:6ff.),inwhichthesingers,porters,andNethinimappearasseparate
classes.Acloserexamination,however,oftheparallelpassagesmakesitclearthatthelistinNehemiahisnotwhatwasfoundinthearchives,butthecensusmade
byhimself.ThisisshownbytheuseofTirshatha,theofficialtitleofNehemiah,inv.65,andthereferencestocontemporaryeventsinvv.64,70,73.The
ChroniclerinEzr3,aftergivingthelist,continuestheparallelcontextofNehemiah,showingthatheretoohehastakenthewholeextractfromthesamesourceasin
NehemiahEzr2cannot,therefore,becitedasindependentevidencefortheearlydateofthislist.
TheportersmightverynaturallyhavearisenoutofthenecessityofdefendingthecityandTemplefromhostileattack(2Ch23:4,Neh11:19).Thecomplicated
arrangementsin1Ch26:119suggestthatanoriginalnecessityhadbecomeastatelyceremonial.
Thesingers,oratanyratethemusicians,ofNehemiahstimeappeartohavebelongedtooneparticularguild,thatofAsaph(Neh12:35,45).Thenoteinv.45
isprobablyalaterinsertionoftheChronicler,whoascribedtoDavidalltheTempleinstitutionsnotalreadyassignedtoMosesinP.
ItappearsfromNeh7:1thatNehemiahprobablywentalongwayinreorganizingtheworkofLevites,singersandporters.
(b)TheBooksofChroniclesandthePsalmsasawholepointtoalaterdevelopmentoftheTempleoffices.(1)NewguildsconnectedwiththenamesofKorah,
Heman,andJeduthun(orEthan)wereadded.TheguildsofAsaphandKorah,andperhapsHemanandJeduthun,hadeachapsalmbookoftheirown,ofwhich
severalwereafterwardsincorporatedintothegeneralPsalter(seePss7385,8789,1Ch15:1622).Ontheotherhand,in1Ch9:19,theKorahites,whowere
perhapsreallyofLeviticalorigin,arerepresentedasdoingthemenialwork,whichhadbeenthatoftheLevites,andyetareclassed(9:33)underthegeneralnameof
singers.Itisimpossibletosaywhichrepresentstheearlierarrangement.(2)AnotherchangeinorganizationtestifiedbytheChronicleristhedivisionofpriestsand
Levites(singers)into24courses(1Ch24:119,25).ThesewerebelievedtohavebeenarrangedbyDavid,butfirstappointedbySolomon(2Ch8:14).This
meantthatinlatertimesthewholebodyofpriestsandLeviteswasarrangedin24guilds,eachofwhichwasbelievedtobeaseparatefamily.Sotheworkcouldbe
convenientlyarranged.ThusitbecamecustomaryforeachofthecoursesofprieststoattendinturntothepublicworkoftheTemple.Likemuchthatcametobe
ascribedtoDavid,thebeginningofsomearrangementofthekindwasprobablytheworkofNehemiah(Neh13:30,31).
3.FurtherdevelopmentofLeviticaltheory.IntheBooksofChronicleswefindaconsiderabledevelopmentoftheLeviticaltheoryofthehierarchy.(1)A
LeviticaloriginisassignedtoSamuel,Asaph,Heman,etc.(1Ch6:27,28,33,39,44).(2)ZadokisheldtobeadescendantofEleazar(1Ch6:412)Ahimelech
(orAbimelech),Abiatharsfatherorson,adescendantofIthamar,Eleazarsyoungerbrother(1Ch24:3,6cf.1S22:20,2S8:17,1Ch24:6).ThatAbiatharwas
adescendantofEli,andEliadescendantofAaron,hadalreadybeenimpliedbyaneditorialnotein1K2:27,whichexplainedSolomonssupplantingAbiatharby
ZadokasafulfilmentoftheprophecyagainstthehouseofEli(1S2:2736),whereasinallprobabilitybythefaithfulpriestismeantSamuel.Accordingtothe
Chronicler,whatSolomondidwastorestorethehighpriesthoodfromthelineofIthamartothatofEleazar.Theofficehadoriginallypassed,accordingtothe
priestlytradition,fromEleazartohissonPhinehas(Jg20:28),buthoworwhenitgotintothelineofIthamarisnowhereexplained.Thereisatendencyinthe
ChroniclertoignorethepriesthoodofAbiathar,eveninDavidsreign.In1Ch16:39ZadokisappointedpriestwhenthearkisfirstbroughttoJerusalem,andin 112/144
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ChroniclertoignorethepriesthoodofAbiathar,eveninDavidsreign.In1Ch16:39ZadokisappointedpriestwhenthearkisfirstbroughttoJerusalem,andin
29:22heisanointedtogetherwithSolomonshortlybeforeDavidsdeath.
4.ExtraecclesiasticalworkofthepriestsandLevites.ThelaterbooksoftheBiblemakeitlikelythatinthelaterperiod,atleastfromNehemiahonwards,
thepriestsandLevitesengagedinotherthansacrificialwork,andespeciallyinreligiousteaching(see2Ch15:3,wheretheChroniclercharacteristicallyreadsinto
thehistorytheideasofalatertime,Mal2:7,Neh8:4,7).In2Ch19:811theworkofadministeringjusticeissimilarlyreferredtothem.Thustheinfluenceand
also,tosomeextent,theworkwhichinprimitivetimeshadbeentheirs,andhaddwindledwiththeriseofkingandprophet,seemtohavereturnedtothem,when
theseofficersdisappeared.
IV. INFLUENCE OF THE HIERARCHY ON THE RELIGION OF ISRAEL AT DIFFERENT PERIODS.1. In primitive times, when each local sanctuary was the centre of
religious,and,tosomeextent,ofsocialandpolitical,life,wefindtheinfluenceofthepriestsveryconsiderable(seeII.A.).Theywerethenaturalpersonstoconsult
in case of difficulty. With them grew up a religious and moral tradition. They became the earliest channels of Divine revelation, and handed down that Divine
teachingorInstruction(thelawofourEnglishBibles,asinIs1:10).
2.Itwasprobablyoutoftheearlypriesthoodthatthepropheticoffice,asrepresentedintheBooksofSamuel,emerged.TheprophetSamuel,who,according
totradition,combinedthetwooffices,marksthetransitionbetweenthespiritualinfluenceofpriestandprophet.
3.Asthepriestlypowerdeclinedthroughlossofspiritualvigour,thepropheticinfluencebecamestronger,andwefindtheearlyprophets,inboththeNorth
andtheSouth,butintheNorthespecially,denouncingtheunspiritualcharacterofthepriesthood,andtheprevailingreligiousrites(seeesp.Hos4:49,Is1:1017).
4.WiththereligiousrevivalunderJosiahandthepublicationoftheearlychaptersofDt.wemaynoticeatemporaryreaction,butonemarkedbyastrong
tendencytogivereligionamorespiritualtone.ItisstilltheprophetwhoistobethesourceofDivinerevelation(Dt18:15),thougheventhewordsofaprophetare
notnecessarilyinfallible(13:15).AtaboutthesameperiodJeremiahdenouncesthepopularvaluationofapurelyformalworshipandanunworthypriesthood
(3:16,5:31,7:11).
5.Thepossibilities,however,ofaspiritualworshipandaholypriesthoodwereneverlostsightof,andafreshimpetustopriestlyideasisgiven,atlatestduring
theExile,bytheCodeofHoliness(Lv1726)andtheidealsanctuaryandpriesthoodsketchedbyEzekiel(4048).
6.WiththefirstReturnandthereinstitutionofTempleworship,thepriesthoodgainedafreshaccessionofpower,allthegreaterasthesecularpowerwasunder
Persianrule.Thecontemporaryprophets,Zech.andHaggai,notonlyinsistentlyurgetheimportanceofusingeveryefforttorebuildtheTemple,butspeakof
JoshuathehighpriestasthoughonallbutequaltermswithZerubbabel(Hag1:14,2:19,Zec3,4:1114,6:915).
7.ThesamepriestlyfeelingsinfluenceMalachi,almostthecontemporaryofNehemiah,who,whileheattacksunmercifullytheunworthypriests(1:62:9),is
loudindenouncingthosewhorobbedGodbynotpayingtithes(3:16),andseeksforareligiousidealinapurifiedLeviticalsystem(3:3,4).
8.TheexaltationofthepriesthoodreacheditsclimaxinthepersonofSimontheJust,whorestoredtheTemple,andrebuiltthecitywallswhichhadbeen
demolishedbyPtolemy.Thepeopleregardedhimwithsupremeveneration.Sir50:512givesamostglowingdescriptionoftheimpressionthathemadeashe
officiatedinhishighpriestlyvestments:Hewasasthemorningstarinthemidstofacloud,andasthemoonatfullasthesunshininguponthetempleoftheMost
High,andasarainbowgivinglightinthebrightclouds,etc.etc.
9.IntheMaccabanperiodwefindSimonII.,theyoungerbrotherofJudas,actuallyrulingthepeopleashighpriest.Lateron(B.C.106)Judas(Aristobulus),
accordingtoJosephus,borethetitleofking,andthetitleactuallyappearsonthecoinsofhisbrotherJannus.
10.Thecloseofthisperiod,nevertheless,marksadecline,atanyrateinthespiritualinfluenceofthepriesthood,andespeciallyofthehighpriest.Thelatter
officeceasedtobehereditary,andwasoftenboughtandsold.Ahighpriestcouldbedeposed,andanotherappointedforpoliticalpurposes.Onereasonforthis
declinewasthatreligiousinteresttendedinanincreasingdegreetobedivertedtoethicalandmoralquestions,asweseeintheWisdomliteratureoftheage.Other
causesorperhapsrathersymptomsofthespiritofthetimeatalaterperiodwerethegrowthoftheJewishsectsandthepracticeofachildishcasuistry,which
dependedmoreontheopinionoftheancientsthanonthespiritualneedsofthepresent.
F.H.WOODS.
PRIEST(InNT).Priest(Gr.hiereus)isemployedintheNTtodenoteanyonewhosefunctionitistoofferareligioussacrifice.1.ItisusedofaGentile
priesthoodinAc14:15(thepriestofJupiter),andalsoinHeb.asappliedtotheorderofMelchizedek(5:8,10,6:20,7:1ff.),forMelchizedek,itisevident,was
notmerelyapreAaronicbutaGentilepriest.
2.ItisconstantlyemployedtodenotethemembersoftheJewishpriesthoodintheirvariousranksandfunctions.TheordinaryofficiatingpriestsoftheTemple
comebeforeusdischargingthesameofficesofwhichwereadintheOT.Theyburnincense(Lk1:5,8),presentthesacrificialofferings(Mt12:5,cf.Nu28:9,10),
effecttheceremonialcleansingoftheleper(Mt
8:4=Mk1:44=Lk5:14,cf.17:14).Thehighpriest(archiereus)appearsaspresidentofthe
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8:4=Mk1:44=Lk5:14,cf.17:14).Thehighpriest(archiereus)appearsaspresidentofthe
Sanhedrin(Mt26:57||,Ac5:27,7:1,23:2etc.),andasenteringeveryyearontheDayofAtonementintotheMostHolyPlacewithhisofferingofblood(He9:25).
Mostfrequentlyofallthewordoccursinthepluralformchiefpriests(archiereis),anexpressionthatprobablydesignatesahighpriestlypartyconsistingofthe
highpriestproper,theexhighpriests,andthemembersofthoseprivilegedfamiliesfromwhichthehighpriestsweredrawn.
3.IntheEp.totheHebrewsChristisdescribedasbothpriestandhighpriest,butthefactthatMelchizedek(wh.see),thechosentypeofHiseternal
priesthood,isalsodescribedbythesametwoterms(cf.5:6withv.10,6:20with7:1)showsthatnodistinctioninprincipleistobethoughtof,andthatChristis
calledahighpriestsimplytobringoutthedignityofHispriesthood.ThisconceptionofChristasapriestisclearlystatedinnootherbookoftheNT,though
suggestionsofitappearelsewhere,andesp.intheJohanninewritings(e.g.Jn17:19,Rev
1:13).InHeb.itistheregulatingideainthecontrastthattheauthorworksoutwithsuchelaborationbetweentheOldandtheNewCovenants.Hethinksofa
mediatingpriestasessentialtoareligion,andhispurposeistoshowtheimmensesuperiorityinthisrespectofthenewreligionovertheold.Hefindscertainpoints
ofcontactbetweenthepriesthoodofAaronandthatofChrist.This,indeed,wasessentialtohiswholeconceptionoftheLawashavingashadowofthegoodthings
tocome(10:1),andofthepriestswhooffergiftsaccordingtotheLawasservingthatwhichisacopyandshadowoftheheavenlythings(8:5).Christ,e.g.,was
Divinelycalledandcommissioned,evenasAaronwas(5:4,6).Hetoowastakenfromamongmen,wastemptedlikeHisfellows,learnedobediencethrough
suffering,andsowasqualifiedbyHisownhumansympathiestobetheHighPriestofthehumanrace(4:15ff.,5:1ff.).Butitispreeminentlybywayofantithesis
andnotoflikenessthattheAaronicpriesthoodisusedtoillustratethepriesthoodofChrist.ThepriestsoftheJewishfaithweresinfulmen(5:3),whileJesuswas
absolutelysinless(4:15).Theyweremortalcreatures,manyinnumber,becausethatbydeaththeyarehinderedfromcontinuing(7:23),whileJesusabidethfor
ever,andsohathhispriesthoodunchangeable(v.24).ThesacrificesoftheJewishLawwereimperfect(10:1ff.)butChristbyoneofferinghathperfectedfor
everthemthatarebeingsanctified(10:14).Thesanctuaryoftheoldreligionwasaworldlystructure(9:1),andsoliabletodestructionordecaybutChristenters
intoheavenitself,nowtoappearbeforethefaceofGodforus(9:24).
AndthiscontrastbetweenthepriesthoodofAaronandthepriesthoodofChristisbroughttoaheadwhenJesusisdeclaredtobeapriestnotaftertheorderof
Aaronatall,butaftertheorderofMelchizedek(7:11ff.).Order,itmustbekeptinmind,doesnothererefertoministry,buttothehighpriestspersonalityafact
which,whenclearlyperceived,savesusfrommuchconfusionintheinterpretationofthisEpistle.ThedistinctiveorderofChristspriesthoodisfoundinHisown
nature,aboveallinthefactthatHeisapriestforever.TheMelchizedekhighpriestisconceivedofallthroughasperformingthesamekindofpriestlyactsas
weredischargedbythehighpriestsofthehouseofAaroobutthequalityofHisPersonisquitedifferent,andthiscompletelyaltersthecharacterofHisacts,raising
themfromtherealmofcopiesandshadowstothatofabsoluterealityandeternalvalidity(cf.A.B.Davidson,Hebrews,149).
Itisamistake,therefore,toattempt,assomedo,todistinguishbetweenanAaronicpriesthoodexercisedbyChristonearthandaMelchizedekpriesthood
exercisedbyHiminheavenandequallyamistaketoattempttoconfineHispriestlyministrytoaworkofmediationandintercessionthatbeginsafterHis
exaltation.NodoubtitistruethatHispriestlyworkisnotconsummateduntilHeentersintoGodspresenceintheheavenlyplaces,butallthatthewriterhas
previouslysetforthasbearinguponHispriesthoodmustbeborneinmind.ItwasbyHislifeonearth,bytheobedienceHelearnedandthehumansympathyHe
gained,thatChristwasqualifiedtobethehighpriestofmen.Moreover,everyhighpriestmusthavesomewhattooffer,andthesomewhatofJesuswasHimself,
yieldeduponearthinalifeofperfectobedience(5:3,9)andanatoningdeathofspotlessselfsacrifice(9:1116,28).ItwaswiththispriestlyofferingofHislife
anddeath,andinvirtueofit,thatJesusenteredintothepresenceofGod(9:24)asthemediatorofanewcovenant(v.15)andtheeverlivingIntercessor(7:25),
andsosecuredforusouraccesswithboldnessuntothethroneofgrace(4:16,10:1822).
4.AccordingtotheteachingoftheNT,theChurchisapriestlyinstitution,andallbelieversarethemselvespriests.TheOTideathatIsraelwasakingdomof
priestsuntoGod(Ex19:5)istransferredinprecisetermstoGodspeopleundertheNewDispensation.Theyarearoyalpriesthood(1P2:9)Christhasmade
themtobeakingdomofpriestsuntoGodandhisFather
(Rev1:6,5:10).Again,theyarereferredtobythesesametwowritersasaholypriesthood(1P2:5),priestsofGodandofChrist(Rev20:6).Andthoughthe
authorofHeb.doesnotsodescribetheminsetlanguage,itfollowsfromhiswayofspeakingthatheregardsallChristspeopleaspriests.Whenhesaysinthe
passagefastcited(10:1922)thattheyhaveboldnesstoenterintotheHolyPlacebyanewandlivingwaythroughtheveil,itseemsevidentthatheisthinkingof
thosewhodrawneartoGod,bythebloodofJesusandinfulnessoffaith,asacompanyofworshippingpriestsforundertheoldeconomy,whichserveshimatso
manypointsasatypeofthenew,itwaspriestsalonewhocouldpassthroughthecurtainintotheHolyPlace.Itisthesameidea,probably,thatmeetsusinSt.Paul
whenhespeaksofouraccess(Ro5:2),ouraccessinoneSpirituntotheFather(Eph2:16),ouraccessinconfidencethroughourfaithinChrist(3:12).Anditis
nothingmorethanacarryingoutofthissameconceptionthatallbelieversbelongtoaholypriesthood,whenSt.Peterwritesofthespiritualsacrificeswhichwe
arecalledtoofferup(1P2:5)andSt.Paulbeseechesustopresentourbodiesalivingsacrifice(Ro12:1)andtheauthorofHeb.bidsusoffertoGodthesacrifice
ofpraise(13:15),ordeclaresthatGodiswellpleasedwithsuchsacrificesaskindlydeedsandgiftsofChristianliberality(v.16)andtheseeroftheApocalypse
speaksoftheprayersofallthesaintsasrisinguplikeincensefromthegoldenaltarbeforethethrone(Rev8:3).
5. ItisanoteworthyfactthattheNTneverdescribestheChristianministryasapriesthood,ortheindividualministerasapriest,exceptinthegeneralsensein
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5.ItisanoteworthyfactthattheNTneverdescribestheChristianministryasapriesthood,ortheindividualministerasapriest,exceptinthegeneralsensein
whichthesetermsareapplicabletoallbelieversafactwhichisallthemoresignificantwhenweconsiderhowfrequentlyboththeministerandtheministryare
referredto.Inparticular,thereisnotraceintheNTofthelaterideathatintheLordsSupperasacrificeofpropitiationisofferedtoGod,muchlessthatthissacrifice
ispresentedthroughthemediationofanofficialpriesthood.Thetwotermspresbyter(presbyteros)andpriest(hiereus),whichcametobeconfoundedbyandby,
wereatfirstkeptabsolutelyapart.Thus,sofarastheNTisconcerned,itisonlyinanetymologicalsensethatitcanbesaidthatpresbyterispriestwritlarge.
J.C.LAMBERT.
PRINCE.Thisisthetr.ofaconsiderablenumberofHeb.andGr.words,expressingdifferentshadesofmeaning,e.g.chieftain,ruler,king,governor,
noble,deputy.Themaintermsare1.sar,onewhohasauthorityorbearsrule.Itisusedofrulers(Is21:6,Nu21:18etc.),ofroyalofficials(Gn12:15,2K
24:12etc.),ofleadersinwar(1S22:2),oftribalchieftains(e.g.Philistines,1S18:30),ofthechiefbutlerandbaker(Gn40:2,16),ofthekeeperofprison(Gn
39:21),ofthetaskmaster(Ex1:11),oftheprinceoftheeunuchs(Dn1:7).Itcamelatertobeappliedtotheguardianangelsofthenations(Dn10:13,20,21),to
Michaelthearchangel(Dn12:1).Itisthemostgeneraltermforprince,andoccursinthefem,formsrh,princess,usedofthewivesofSolomon(1K11:3),and
alsoofJerusalemprincessamongtheprovinces(La1:1),anditistranslatedladiesinJg5:29andqueensinIs49:23.
2.ngd,onewhoishigh,conspicuous,outstanding.Itisappliedtothegovernorofthepalace(2Ch28:7),thekeeperofthetreasury(1Ch26:24),thechief
oftheTemple(1Ch9:11,2Ch31:13)alsotothechiefofatribe(2Ch19:11),thesonofaking(2Ch11:22),thekinghimself(1S25:30),thehighpriest(Dn
9:25),andisoccasionallyinAVtranslatedcaptain.
3.ns,oneliftedup,isappliedtochiefsoftribes,princesofIshmael(Gn17:20),to
Abraham(23:6),toShechem(34:2),toSheshbazzar(Ezr1:8).ItisoftenusedoftheheadsoftheIsraelitictribes,andtranslatedrulerinAV.Thewordisfrequently
inEzekielusedofkingsofJudahandforeignprinces,andisalsoappliedtothefutureheadoftheidealState(34:24etc.).
4.ndb,willing,avolunteer,generous,noble,generallyfoundinplur.andoftentranslatednobles,usedofthoseofnobleorprincelybirth(1S2:8,Ps
47:9,107:40etc.).
Otherlessfrequenttermsarenskinstalled,partmmleadingmen,qtsnjudge,shlshofficer,captain,sgnmdeputies.InDn3:2,3,27,6:2,4,7,
theprincesofAVarePersiansatraps,whileinthenamesRabshakeh,Rabsaristheprefixrabsignifieschief,asalsothepropernameRezon(1K11:23),which
occursasacommonnoun(rzn)inPr14:28.WemayalsonotethatinJob12:19thewordpriests(khnm)iswronglyrenderedprinces,andinPs68:31the
wordtranslatedprincesisnotfoundinanyotherpassage,thetextbeinglikelycorrupt.
TheNTtermsare1.archgos,appliedtoChristthePrince(author)oflife(Ac3:15),PrinceandSaviour(Ac5:31)soinHe2:10Jesusistheauthor(AV
captain)ofsalvationandinHe12:2theauthorandfinisherofourfaith.2.archn,usedofBeelzebub(Mt9:34,12:24,Mk3:22),oftheprincesoftheGentiles
(Mt20:25),theprincesofthisworld(1Co2:6,8),princeofthepoweroftheair(Eph2:2),thePrinceofthekingsoftheearth(Rev1:5).3.
hgemn,usedofBethlehem,notleastamongtheprincesofJudah(Mt2:6).
W.F.BOYD.PRISCA,PRISCILLA.SeeAQUILAANDP RISCILLA.
PRISON.Imprisonment,inthemodernsenseofstrictconfinementunderguard,hadnorecognizedplaceasapunishmentforcriminalsundertheolder
Hebrewlegislation(seeCRIMESANDP UNISHMENTS,9).Thefirstmentionofsuch,withapparentlylegalsanction,isinthepostexilicpassageEzr7:26.Aprison,
however,figuresatanearlyperiodinthestoryofJosephsfortunesinEgypt,andisdenotedbyanobscureexpression,foundonlyinthisconnexion,whichmeans
theRoundHouse(Gn39:20,23,40:3,5).Sometaketheexpressiontosignifyaroundtowerusedasaprison,othersconsiderittheHebraizedformofan
Egyptianword(seeDriver,Com.inloc.).Josephhadalreadyfoundthatadisusedcisternwasaconvenientplaceofdetention(Gn37:24seeP IT).Thesameword
(br)isfoundinEx12:29andJer37:16intheexpressionrenderedbyAVdungeonanddungeonhouserespectivelyalsoalonein38:8,Zec9:11.
ThestoryofJeremiahintroducesustoavarietyofotherplacesofdetention,nofewerthanfourbeingnamedin37:1516,althoughone,andperhapstwo,of
thesearelaterglosses.Rigorousimprisonmentisimpliedbyallthefour.Thefirstprisonofv.15EVdenotesliterallythehouseofbonds,almostidenticalwith
thePhilistineprisonhouse,inwhichSamsonwasboundwithfettersofbrass(Jg16:21,25).ThesecondwordrenderedprisoninJer37:15(alsovv.4,18,
52:31andelsewhere)isasynonymmeaninghouseofrestraint.Thethirdisthedungeonhouseabovementioned,whilethefourthisadifficultterm,rendered
cabinsbyAV,cellsbyRV.Itisregardedbytextualstudents,however,asaglossonthethirdterm,asthefirstisonthesecond.
Jeremiahhadalreadyhadexperienceofanirksomeformofdetention,whenplacedinthestocks(20:2cf.Ac16:24),aninstrumentwhich,astheetymology
shows,compelledtheprisonertositinacrookedposture.2Ch16:10mentionsahouseofthestocks(RVmEVprisonhouse),whileJer29:26associateswith
thestocks(soRVforAVprison)anobscureinstrumentofpunishment,variouslyrenderedshackles(RV),pillory(Oxf.Heb.Lex.),andcollar(Driver).The115/144
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thestocks(soRVforAVprison)anobscureinstrumentofpunishment,variouslyrenderedshackles(RV),pillory(Oxf.Heb.Lex.),andcollar(Driver).The
lastoftheseisafavouriteChineseformofpunishment.
InNTtimesJewishprisonsdoubtlessfollowedtheGreekandRomanmodels.TheprisonintowhichJohntheBaptistwasthrown(Mt14:3,10)issaidby
JosephustohavebeeninthecastleofMachrus.TheprisoninwhichPeterandJohnwereputbytheJewishauthorities(Ac4:3AVhold,RVward)was
doubtlessthesameasthepublicwardof5:18RV(AV
commonprison).St.PaulsexperienceofprisonswasevenmoreextensivethanJeremiahs(2Co6:5),varyingfromthemildformofrestraintimpliedinAc
28:30,atRome,totheseverityoftheinnerprisonatPhilippi(16:24),andthefinalhorrorsoftheMamertinedungeon.
Forthecruxinterpretum,1P3:19,seeart.DESCENTINTOHADES.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
PRIZE.SeeGAMES.
PROCHORUS.OneoftheSevenappointed(Ac6:5).
PROCONSUL.Thiswasoriginallytwowordsproconsule,meaningamagistratewiththeinsigniaandpowersofaconsul.Whenthekingshipwasabolished
inRomeitgaveplacetoaruleoftwomen,notcalledbythenowdetestedname,butnamedprtores(generals)orconsules(colleagues).AstheRoman
territoryincreased,menofprtorianorconsularrankwererequiredtogoverntheprovinces(wh.see).DuringtheEmpireallgovernorsofsenatorialprovinceswere
calledproconsuls,whethertheywereexconsulsandgovernedimportantprovinceslikeAsiaandAfrica,ormerelyexprtors,likeGallio(Ac18:12AVdeputy),
whogovernedalessimportantprovince,Achaia.
A.S OUTER.
PROCURATOR.Originallyaprocuratorwasastewardofprivateproperty,whohadchargeoftheslavesandhismastersfinancialaffairs.Hisimportance
dependedonthatofhismaster.ThustheEmperorsstewardswerepersonsofconsequence,andweresometimestrustedwiththegovernmentofsomelessimportant
ImperialprovincesaswellaswiththeEmperorsfinancialaffairsinallprovinces.Theywereofequestrianrank,likeTheophilus,towhomtheThirdGospeland
Actsareaddressed.ThefollowingwereatdifferenttimesprocuratorsofJuda:PontiusPilate,Felix,andFestus,calledinNTbythecomprehensiveterm
governors.A.S OUTER.
PROFANE.To profane is to make ceremonially unclean, to make unholy. And so a profane person (He 12:16) is an ungodly person, a person of
common,coarselife,notmerelyofspeech.
PROGNOSTICATOR.SeeMAGICDIVINATIONANDS ORCERY,andS TARS.
PROMISE.AlthoughtheOTistherecordofGodspromisestolowlysaintsandtoanointedkings,topatriarchsandtoprophets,tothenationofHischoice
andtotheworldatlarge,theworditselfisrarelyusedintheEV,andlessfrequentlyintheRVthanintheAV.TheHeb.noundbhrisgenerallyrenderedword,
butpromiseisfoundin1K8:56,Neh5:12f.InPs105:42thechangemadeintheRVremindsusthatGodsholywordisalwaysaholypromise.Similarly,the
Heb.verbdbharisusuallytr.speakbutpromiseisfoundinEx12:25,Jer32:42etc.Inseveralpassages,as,e.g.,Dt10:9,Neh9:23,theRVgivesspeakor
sayinsteadofpromise.AcompletestudyofthesubjectwouldthereforerequireaconsiderationofthewholequestionofOTprophecy.Forthywordssakeis
theultimateappealofthosewhocansaythouartGod,andthywordsaretruth,andthouhastpromised(2S7:21,
28).SeeP ROPHECY.
1.Inafewpassages(Jos9:21,Neh5:12f.,Est4:7,Mt14:7,Mk14:11,Ac7:5,2P2:19)thereferenceistoamanspromisestohisfellowmanonceonly(Ac
23:21)thenounhasthismeaningintheNT.InDt23:23theverbreferstomanspromisestoGod,andissynonymouswithvowinguntoGod.Thispassageis
instructive,onaccountofthestressthatislaidonthevoluntarynatureoftheobligationthatisincurredbyhimwhopromisesormakesavow.Driverrenders
accordingasthouhastvowedfreelyuntoJehovah,thyGod,thatwhichthouhastspoken(promised)withthymouth(ICC,inloc.).Thethoughtofspontaneityis
anessentialpartofthemeaningofthewordwhenitisusedofGodspromisestoman,andespeciallyofthepromisewhichcomprisesalltheblessingsofthe
MessianicKingdom(Ac2:39,7:17etc.).
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2.TheGr.wordepangellesthai,tr.promise,isfoundonlyinthemiddlevoiceintheNTitsrootmeaningistoannounceoneself,henceitcomestosignify
toofferonesservices,andtoengageoneselfvoluntarilytorenderaservice.DalmanderivestheNTconceptionofthepromisefromtheRabbinicphraseology
concerningassurance.AtypicalexampleisBer.R.76:forthepiousthereisnoassurance(promise)inthisagecf.Apoc.Bar53.8,thepromiseoflifehereafter
(TheWordsofJesus,p.103).ThepromisesofGodarenumerous(2Co1:20)theyarealsopreciousandexceedinggreat(2P1:4).Hiseverywordofgraceisa
promiseevenHiscommandmentsareassurancesofgrace,conditionalonlyuponmenswillingnesstoobey.WhenGodcommandedthechildrenofIsraeltogoin
topossesstheland,itwasasgoodastheirsalreadyHehadliftedupHishandtogiveitthembutthepromiseimpliedinthecommandwasmadeofnoeffect
throughtheirdisobedience.ThepossessionofCanaan,thegrowthofthenation,universalblessingthroughtherace,areexamplesofpromisesofwhichthe
patriarchsdidnotreceivetheoutwardfulness(He11:18).Ontheonehand,Abrahamobtainedthepromise,becausethebirthofIsaacwasthebeginningofits
fulfilment(6:15)ontheotherhand,heisoneofthefatherswhoreceivednotthepromise,butwithatruefaithlookedforafulfilmentofthepromiseswhichwas
notgrantedtothem(cf.WestcottsnoteonHe11:39).
3.TheNTphraseinheritthepromises(He6:12cf.11:9,Gal3:29)isfoundinPs.Sol13:8(B.C.70toB.C.40).Thispassageisprobablythefirstinstancein
extantJewishliteraturewheretheexpressionthepromisesoftheLordsumsuptheassurancesoftheMessianicredemption(RyleandJames,Com.,inloc.).In
theGospelsthewordpromiseisusedinthistechnicalsenseonlyinLk24:49,wherethepromiseoftheFatherreferstothegiftoftheHolySpirit(cf.Ac1:4,
2:33,39,Gal3:14,Eph1:13).TheEp.totheHebrewsisespeciallyrichinpassageswhichmakementionofpromisesfulfilledinChrist(4:1,6:17,7:8,9:15etc.)
butbothinhisspeechesandinhisEpistlesSt.PaullooksattheChristiangospelfromthesamepointofview(Ac13:28,32,26:6f.,Ro9:8,Gal4:28,Eph3:6cf.
theonlyJohannineuseofpromisein1Jn2:25).Therearepromisestoencouragebelieversastheystrivetoperfectholiness(2Co7:1),whilsttothemthatlove
himtheLordhathpromisedthecrownoflife(Ja1:12)thereisalsotheunfulfilledpromiseofhiscoming(2P3:4).Buthowmanysoeverhethepromisesof
God,inhimisthe
Yea:whereforealsothroughhimistheAmen,untothegloryofGodthroughus.
J.G.TASKER.
PROPHECY,PROPHETS.Hebrewprophecyrepresentsareligiousmovementof
nationalandworldwideimportance,notparalleledelsewhereinhistory.Mostsignificantinitself,ithasacquireddeeperandwiderimportthroughitsconnexionwith
Christianityandthephilosophyofreligiongenerally.Thepresentarticlewilldealinbriefoutlinewith(1)thehistory,(2)theinspiration,and(3)thefunctionsand
specificteaching,oftheprophetsoftheOTalso(4)withthespecialtopicofMessianicprophecyanditsfulfilmentintheNT.
1.Historyandprophecy.Thepropheticperiodpropermaybesaidtohaveextendedfromthe8thtothe4thcent.B.C.Duringthesecenturiesatleast,
prophecywasarecognized,flourishing,andinfluentialpowerinIsrael.ButalongpreparatoryprocessmadereadyfortheworkofAmos,Hosea,andtheir
successors,anditisnottobeunderstoodthatwiththelastofthecanonicalwritingsthespiritofprophecydisappearedentirelyfromtheJewishnation.Itisnot
surprisingthatthebeginningsofHebrewprophecyarelostincomparativeobscurity.Littlelightissheduponthesubjectbyacomparisonbetweensimilar
phenomenainotherreligions.ItistruethatamongSemiticandotherpeoplestheideawaswidelyprevalentofanorderofmenwhowerefavouredwithspecial
intercoursewiththeDeityandentrustedwithspecialmessagesfromheaven,oranunusualpowerofprognosticationoffutureevents.Thelinewhichseparatedthe
priestfromtheprophetwasinearlytimesaverynarrowone,andsometimesthefunctionsofthetwoofficeswereblended.InIsraelalso,duringtheearlierstagesof
history,lowerconceptionsoftheDivinewillandhumanmodesofoptainingknowledgeofitprevailed,togetherwithpracticeshardlytobedistinguishedfrom
paganrites.ThedescriptioninDt18:1014proveshowlongthesemanticideasandcustomslingeredoninthemidstofclearermoralandspirituallight.Whenthe
truesignificanceofprophecycametobeunderstood,thecontrastbetweenitandheathendivinationwasverymarked,buttheprocessbywhichthisstagewas
reachedwasgradual.Itscoursecannotalwaysheclearlytraced,anddowntotheChristianera,thelowerandlessworthypopularconceptionsexistedsidebyside
withthehighstandardofthepropheticideal.
Nocertaininformationcanbegatheredfromthenamesemployed.ThewordmostfrequentlyusedinOT(morethan300times)isnb,butitsderivationisdoubtful.Itwas
longassociatedwitharootwhichmeanstobubbleup,andwouldthusdenotetheecstaticinfluenceofinspiration,butitisnowmoreusuallyconnectedwithakindredArabicword
meaningtoannounce.Twootherwordsreh,whichoccurs9times(7timesofSamuel),andchzeh,about20timesareofknownderivationandarebothtranslatedseer.
Thehistoricalnotein1S9:9marksthefactthatrehpassedcomparativelyoutofuseafterSamuelstime,butbothitandchzehareusedlaterassynonymsofnb,andin
Chroniclesthereappearstobearevivalofearlierusage:Weshallprobablynotbefarwongifwefindinthewordsthetwomaincharacteristicsoftheprophetasseerand
speaker,thespiritualvisionwhichgavehimknowledge,andthepowerofutterancewhichenabledhimtodeclarehismessagewithpower.Otherphrasesemployedaremanof
God,usedofMoses,Samuel,andothersservantofGod,atermnotlimitedtoprophetsassuchmessengerofJehovah,chieflyinthelaterwritingsandonce,inHos9:7,the
significantsynonymforaprophetisused,manofthespirit,orthemanthathaththespirit.
Wemaydistinguishthreeperiodsinthehistoryofprophecy:(1)sporadicmanifestationsbeforethetimeofSamuel,(2)theriseandgrowthoftheinstitutionfrom
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Wemaydistinguishthreeperiodsinthehistoryofprophecy:(1)sporadicmanifestationsbeforethetimeofSamuel,(2)theriseandgrowthoftheinstitutionfrom
SamueltoAmos,(3)theperiodmarkedoutbythecanonicalpropheticwritings.
(1)Indealingwiththefirst,itwillheunderstoodthattheliteraryrecordislaterthantheeventsdescribed,andtheformsofspeechusedmustbeestimated
accordingly.ButitmaybenotedthatinGn20:7Abrahamiscalledaprophet,andinPs105:15thenameisgiventothepatriarchsgenerally.InEx7:1Aaronis
describedasaprophettoMoseswhowasmadeagodtoPharaoh.InNu11:2529theincidentofEldadandMedadshowsthatinthewildernessthespiritrested
oncertainmen,enablingthemtoprophesy.TheepisodeofBalaaminNu2224isveryinstructiveinitsbearingupontheideasofDivinerevelationoutside
Israel.InNu12:58theDivineintercoursevouchsafedtoMoseswithhimIwillspeakmouthtomouth,evenmanifestlyisdistinguishedfromthelowerkind
ofrevelation,inavision,inadream,grantedtotheprophetandinDt18:15Mosesisdescribedaspossessingthehighesttypeofpropheticendowment.Later,
Deborahisdescribed(Jg4:4)asbothaprophetessandajudge,andananonymousprophetwassenttoIsraelatthetimeoftheMidianiteoppression(Jg6:8).
Samsonwasnotaprophet,butuponhim,asaNaziritefrominfancy,thespiritofJehovahbegantomoveinyouth,anditcamemightilyuponhim.Finally,
beforethespecialrevelationgiventoSamuel,therecameamanofGodtoEli,rebukingtheevildoingsofhissonsandannouncingpunishmenttocome.Itmust
beborneinmind,moreover,thatduringallthisperiodGodwas,accordingtotheOTnarrative,speakingtoHispeopleinvariousways,revealingHimselfby
dreamsandvisions,orthroughspecialmessengers,thoughthetermprophetbutseldomoccurs.
(2)ItisgenerallyrecognizedthatanewerabeginswithSamuel.PeterinAc3:24usedacurrentmodeofspeechwhenhesaidalltheprophetsfromSamuel
andthemthatfollowedafter,andthecombinationinhimoftheprophetandthejudgeenabledhimtopreparethewayforthemonarchy.Thestatementin1S3:1
thatinthetimeofElithewordofJehovahwasrareandthatvisionwasnotwidelydiffusedorfrequent,pointstotheneedofclearerandfullerrevelationsuchas
beganwithSamuelandcontinuedmoreorlessintermittentlyforsomecenturies.Whetherheoriginatedthepropheticcommunitiesknownassonsofthe
prophets,whofirstappearinhistimeandarementionedoccasionallyuntilafterthetimesofElisha,wecannotbesure.ButatRamah(1S19:18),atNaioth(2K
6),atBethel,Jericho,Gilgal,andotherplacesthereweresettlementswhichmaybedescribedastrainingschoolsforreligiouspurposes,andtheseprovideda
successionofmen,whowereintheory,andtosomeextentinpractice,animatedbythedevotedandferventspiritwhichwasnecessaryforthemaintenanceofthe
propheticfireinthenation.Musicformedaprominentpartintheirworship(1S10:5,10).ThesesocietiesmightconstituteatrueandabidingwitnessforJehovah
(1K18:13),ortheymightbecharacterizedbyfalsepatriotismandsubserviencytoaprevailingpolicy(1K22:6).Saulwasatonetimebroughtundertheir
influenceinaremarkablemanner(1S10:1013),andSamuelevidentlyexercisedacommandinginfluenceoverthem,asdidElishainlaterdays.Tothese
collegesmayprobablybetracedthepreservationofnationaltraditionsandthebeginningsofhistoricalliteratureinIsrael.
DavidisstyledaprophetinAc2:30,butthisisnotinaccordancewithOTusage,thoughtheSpiritofJehovahissaidtohaverestedonhimasapsalmist(2S
23:2).InhistimebeganthatcloseassociationbetweenkingsandprophetswhichcontinuedinvaryingphasesuntiltheExile.Nathantheprophetwashisfaithful
spiritualadviser,andGadisdescribedasthekingsseer(2S24:11).Boththesecounsellorsexercisedawholesomeinfluenceuponthelargehearted,but
sometimeserring,king,andaccordingtotheChroniclertheyassistedDavidinorganizingDivineworship(2Ch29:25).Nathan,AhijahofShiloh,andIddotheseer
arementionedin2Ch9:29ashavingtakenpartinthecompilationofnationalrecords,historyandprophecyhavingbeenfromthefirstcloselyassociatedinIsrael.
InSolomonstimeprophecywouldseemtohavebeeninabeyance.ButitappearsagaininconnexionwiththedescriptionoftheKingdom,andfromthistime
forwardsinIsraelandJudahtherelationbetweenChurchandState,betweenkingandprophet,wasofanintimateandverysignificantkind.Theprophet,asaman
speciallyendowedwiththespiritofGod,didnothesitatetowarn,rebuke,oppose,andsometimesremove,thekingwhowasGodsanointed.Butwhenthe
monarchwasfaithfultothehighposition,theprophetwastohimasastrongrighthand.Elijah,intheidolatroustimesofAhab,istheverytypeofthe
uncompromisingandundauntedreformerandElisha,thoughofamildercharacterandwithalessexactingtasktoaccomplish,wasinstrumentalintheoverthrowof
theungodlyhouseofOmri(2K9).Thesetwoareessentiallyprophetsofactionthewritingprophetsdonotappeartillacenturylater.
(3)Itisinevitablethatforusatleastaneweraofprophecyshouldappeartosetinwiththeearliestpropheticalbookthathascomedowntous.Weare
dependentuponourrecords,andthoughthecontinuityofprophecywasneverquitebroken,thehistoryoftheprophetsassumesanewcharacterwhenwereadtheir
verywordsatlength.Amos,thefirstinchronologicalorder,showsin2:11thathewasonlyoneinalonglineofwitnesses,andthathewasbutrecallingthepeople
toanallegiancetheyhadforgottenorbetrayed.Butheintroducesthegoldenageofprophecy,inwhichIsaiahisthecentralgloriousfigure.Moderncriticismhas
carriedtheanalysisofthepropheticalbooksastheyhavecomedowntoussofarthatitisnoteasytopresentthechronologyofthepropheticwritingsinatabular
form.ButitmaybesaidroughlyandgenerallythatsixprophetsbelongtotheAssyrianperiod,AmosandHoseaintheNorthernKingdom,aboutthemiddleofthe
8thcent.B.C.,andIsaiahandMicahintheSouthern,alittlelater,whilstZephaniahandNahumbelongtotheearlypartofthe7thcent.B.C.Asprophetsofthe
ChaldanperiodwefindJeremiahandHabakkukbeforetheExile(B.C.586),andEzekielduringtheformerpartoftheCaptivity.Beforeitscloseappearsthe
secondIsaiah(perhapsabout540),andaftertheReturn,HaggaiandZechariah(chs.18),whilstMalachiprophesiedinthemiddleofthe5thcent.B.C.Thedatesof
Joel,Jonah,Obadiah,andZec914arestilldebated,butintheirpresentformthesebooksaregenerallyconsideredpostexilic.ManychaptersofIsaiah,notably
2427,areascribedtoacomparativelylatedate.
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Itisimpossibleheretotracethefluctuationsinpropheticpowerandinfluence,asthesewaxedorwanedwiththevaryingfortunesofthenationthroughoutthe
periodofthemonarchy.TheNorthernKingdomcametoanendinB.C.722,butformorethan150yearslongerthereappearedprophetsinJudahwhoaidedthe
repeatedeffortsatnationalreformationmadebykingslikeHezekiahandJosiah.These,however,metwithlittlepermanentsuccess,andachangeinthe
characteristicnoteofprophecybeginswithJeremiah.Thusfartheprophetshadaidedthecauseofreligiousandcivilprogressbybringingtobearuponnational
policythemoralprinciplesof
thereligionofJ,butastimepassed,therecuperativepowerofthenationdeclined,falseprophetsgainedpredominatinginfluence,andthetrueprophetstask
grewmoreandmorehopeless.AllthatremainedforJeremiahwastopreachsubmissiontoforeignfoes,andtheimminenceofcomingjudgment,andtopointthe
peopletoaspiritualfulfilmentofpromiseswhichcouldnolongerberealizedbymeansofanyearthlymonarchordynasty.ItwasthepainfuldutyofJeremiahto
opposeprinces,priests,andpeoplealike,asnoneofhispredecessorshaddone,andtostandalone,chargedwithlackofpatriotism,ifnotwithactualtreachery.
Thoughamanofpeaceableandkindlytemperament,hewasinvolvedinperpetualconflict,andwheneverhewastemptedtowithdrawfromathanklessand
apparentlyuselessoffice,thewordoftheLordburnedwithinhimagainlikeafireinhisbones,andhewasboundtodeliverit,whethermenlistenedandheededor
not.Thechiefburdenofthislastpreexilicprophetwasthedeclarationthat,asthemeasureofthepeoplessinswasnowfilledup,theymustasanationsuffer
practicalextinctionbutstresswaslaidupontheimportanceofindividualfidelityandthefulnessofspiritualblessingwhichmightstillbeenjoyed,whilsthopesof
materialgoodandnationalprosperityhadbeendisastrouslyoverthrown.
ThefallofJerusalembroughtwithitmanychanges.EzekieladoptedandexpandedmanyofJeremiahsideas,buthisforecastsofrestitution,asdeliveredtothe
exilesinBabylon,tookfreshshapes,determinedbyhiscircumstances,hispersonaltemperament,andthefactthathewaspriestaswellasprophet.Itwasleftfora
greatunknownseertodeliverinthesecondpartoftheBookofIsaiahthemostspiritualmessageofall,andtoreanimatehiscountrymenbymeansofpictures
glowingwithlargerandbrighterhopesthananyofhispredecessorshadportrayed.Butafterthereturnfromcaptivityprophecydidnotrenewitsancientfires.
HaggaiandZechariaharebutminorstarsinthegreatconstellation,andthebookknownasMalachitestifiestoadwindlinginspiration,thoughfidelitytotruth,and
hopeoffullerDivinemanifestationsyettocome,werenotentirelyextinctinGodsmessengersandrepresentatives.
AtlastPs74:9and1Mac4:43,9:27and14:41pointtoatimewhensignswerenolongerseenamongthepeople,whenthereisnomoreanyprophet,neither
isthereanyamongusthatknowethhowlong.Thelatestpropheticbook,Daniel,doesnotproperlybelongtothislistitwasnotreckonedbytheJewsamongthe
prophets,butinthethirdpartofthesacredcanonknownaswritings.TheremarkablevisionsitcontainsdonotrecalltheloftyspiritortheburningwordsofIsaiah
theycontainanotherkindofrevelation,andbelongnottoprophecybuttoapocalyptics.NearlytwocenturieselapsedbeforeJohntheBaptist,thelastprophetunder
theOldCovenantandtheforerunneroftheNew,cameintheveryspiritandpowerofElijahtomakereadyfortheLordapeoplepreparedforhim.
2.Inspirationoftheprophets.Whenweseektopassfromtheoutwardphenomenaofprophetismtoitsinnermentalprocesses,fromitshistorytoits
psychology,manyquestionsarisewhichcannotbedefinitelyanswered.HowdidGodrevealHiswilltotheprophets?Inwhatdidtheirinspirationconsist?Howfar
weretheirnaturalfacultiesinabeyance,or,ontheotherhand,heightenedandstrengthened?Didtheprophetfullyunderstandhisownmessage?Howcould
personalerrorsandprejudicesbedistinguishedfromdirectDivineafflatus?Tothesequestionsnosimplecategoricalrepliescanbemade.ButScripturesheds
sufficientlightonthemforallpracticalpurposes.
Itmustbeborneinmindthatprophecyhasahistory,thattherecordisoneofdevelopmentofrise,progress,anddecayandthatprecisedefinitionswhich
takenoaccountofthesechangesaremisleading.Someformsofinspirationarehigherthanothers,andameasureofadvanceisdiscerniblefromthelowerforms
whichbelongedrathertothesoothsayer,tothosehighermoodswhichdistinguishtheOTprophetfromallothers.Thestepsoftheprocessarenotalways
discernible,butthedistinctionbetweenlowerandhigheristobedrawnaccordingas(1)theprophetwasamereunconsciousinstrument,orhishighestmentaland
spiritualfacultieswereenlistedinhiswork(2)theinwardrevelationoftheDivinewillwasorwasnotboundupwithexternalandobjectivemanifestationsand
especially(3)themoralandspiritualelementinthemessagebecameitsdistinguishing,feature,incontrastwithamerenonethicalseekingforsigns.Revelationby
meansofdreamsandvisionswasrecognizedthroughout,andinNu12:6,Dt13:1,Jer23:5adreamerofdreamsissynonymouswithaprophet.Thedistinction
betweendreamandvisionappearstobethattheformeroccurredinsleep,thelatterinakindofecstaticwakingstate,theseerfallingdownandhavinghiseyes
open.Butthedistinctionisnotstrictlyenforced,andintheHexateuch,andwheretheElohistspeaksofdreams,theJahwistmorefrequentlydescribesGodas
speakingdirectlytoHismessengers.Sidebysidewithrevelationbymeansofdreamsandvisionswentthathigherspiritualenlightenmentwhichweassociatewith
Hebrewprophecyatitsbestestate.
Itwasnotnecessarythataprophetshouldreceiveaformalcalltoundertaketheoffice.Manyweretrainedintheschoolswhoneverbecameprophets,and
someprophets,likeAmos,receivednopreparation,whetherintheschoolsorelsewhere.Uponsome,theaffiatusappearstohavedescendedoccasionallyfora
specialpurpose,whilstinothercasestheinfluenceoftheDivineSpiritwaspermanent,andtheyweresetaparttotheworkofalifetime.Theimportantpointwas
thatineverycasetheSpiritofGodmustrestuponHismessengerinsuchawayastosupersedeallotherinfluencesandideas,andthishigherimpulsemustbe
obeyedatallcosts.Theprophetmustbeabletoannouncewithunwaveringconfidence,ThussaiththeLord.Insomeinstancesadescriptionisgivenofthewayin
whichthisoverpoweringconvictioncameupontheman.Samuelwas(perhaps)calledasachildAmosexclaimed,whenbothkingandpriestdidtheirbestto 119/144
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whichthisoverpoweringconvictioncameupontheman.Samuelwas(perhaps)calledasachildAmosexclaimed,whenbothkingandpriestdidtheirbestto
silencehim,Jahwehhathspoken,whocanbutprophesy?Isaiah,whenhebeheldGodliftedupuponHisthroneandwhenhislipshadbeenpurifiedbythehot
stonefromthealtar,cried,HereamI,sendme.Jeremiah,whenbutayouth,wasstrengthenedtobeasanironpillarandabrazenwallagainstthewholeforceof
thenation,becauseGodhadputHiswordsinhismouth.ThevisionofthechariotwhichcametoEzekielbytheChebardominatedhisimaginationandmouldedall
hisministry.Whetheravocationintheformalsensewas,orwasnot,vouchsafedattheopeningofaprophetscourse,itwasabsolutelyessentialthatheshouldbe
directlymovedbytheSpiritofGodtodeliveramessagewhichhefelttobeanirresistibleandoverwhelmingrevelationoftheDivinewill.
Thephraseologyusedtodescribethisinspiration,thoughvaried,pointsentirelyinthisdirection.TheSpiritoftheLordisdescribedascomingmightilyupon
Saul(1S10:6,10)thehandoftheLordwasonElijah(1K18:46,Ezk1:3)ortheSpiritclotheditselfwiththemanasinJg6:34,2Ch24:20orMicahissaidto
befullofpowerbythespiritoftheLordtodeclaretoJacobhistransgression(3:8).Perhapstheimpulsesweremoreviolentandexternalintheearlierhistory,
whilstinthelatermoreroomwasleftforhumanreflexion,andamoreintelligentcomprehensionoftheDivinewillandword.Still,itwouldbeamistaketosuppose
thattheovermasteringpoweroftheDivinecommissionwasrelaxedinthelaterpropheticperiod.Nostrongerexpressionstodescribethisarefoundanywherethan
thoseusedbyJeremiah,whosatalonebecauseofGodshand,andtowhomGodswordwasasaburningfireshutupinhisbones,sothathecouldnotcontain
(15:17,20:9).
NeithertheexactmodeofcommunicatingtheDivinewill,northeprecisemeasureofpersonalconsciousnesswhichobtainedinthepropheticstate,canbe
definedthesevariedaccordingtocircumstances.Butspeakinggenerally,itmaybesaidthatthepersonalityoftheprophetwasnotmergedorabsorbedinthe
Divine,norwashismindasaninanimateharporlyrewhichtheDivineSpiritusedasamereinstrument.MosesisrepresentedasholdingbackfromtheDivinecall
(Ex3:3),asremonstratingwithGod(32:11),andofferinghimselfasasacrificetoappeasetheDivineanger(32:32).AmossucceededinmodifyingtheDivine
decree(7:2,3),andJeremiahwasveryboldinreproachingtheMostHighwithhavinggivenhimanimpossibletask,andashavingapparentlyfailedtofulfilHis
ownpromises(15:18).Acarefulstudyofallthephenomenawouldgotoshowthatwhilstsupernaturalpowerandoperationweretakenforgranted,theworkingsof
thepropheticmindunderinspirationwerenotverydifferentfromsomeofthehighestexperiencesofsaintsinallages,theDivineandhumanelementsbeing
blendedinvaryingproportions.Thefactofinspiration,ratherthanitsmode,istheimportantfeatureintheBiblenarratives.
Asimilaranswermustbegiventothequestionwhethertheprophetsunderstoodtheirownprophecies.Forthemostparttheyunderstoodthemverywell,and
expressedthemselveswithremarkableclearnessandvigour.Whattheyoftendidnotunderstand,andcouldnotbeexpectedtounderstand,wasthefullbearingof
theirwordsuponcontingenteventsandtheirapplicationtoconditionsasyetinthefarfuture.In1P1:10wearetoldthattheysearcheddiligentlywhattimeorwhat
manneroftimetheSpiritofChristwhichwasinthemdidpointunto,perhapswithspecialreferencetoDn8:15.Thatis,itwasnotgiventhemtodiscernatwhat
epoch,orunderwhatcircumstances,thefulfilmentoftheirwordsshouldcometopass.Butthedeclarationofmoralprinciplesrequirednosuchelucidation,andthe
prophetswerethefirsttorecognizethatthefulfilmentoftheirwordsdependedonthewayinwhichtheywerereceived.Fortheworkoftheprophetwasnotto
mouthoutoracles,mysticsayingsobscuretothemindofthespeakerandenigmaticaltothehearers,liketheutterancesofDelphiorDodona.Therootideaof
prophecyisrevelation,notmysterymongeringSurelytheLordGodwilldonothing,butherevealethhissecretuntohisservantstheprophets(Am3:7).
Deeperandmoreimportantquestionsconcerningthenatureofpropheticinspirationgatherroundtheexistenceoffalseprophetsthistermdoesnotoccurin
theHebrewtextthelineofdistinctionbetweenthetrueandthefalse,andthetestswhichshouldseparatethetwoinpractice.Thesubjectisgreatlycomplicatedto
themodernmindwhenwereadinDt13thataprophetmightbeutterlymistaken,thatalyingspiritmightcomefromtheLord(1K22:22),thattestsofgenuineness
werenecessary,andthatGodmightmisleadtheveryprophetsthemselves,destroyingthepeoplethroughtheagencyofadeceptivevision(Ezk13:14).Theseareno
doubtexceptionalexpressions,asharpcontrastbeingusuallydrawnbetweengenuineandspuriousprophecies,asthosewhichcomefromGod,andthosewhich
comefromtheprophetsownheart(Jer23:16).Professedprophetsmightbetreacherous(Zeph3:4),justasthepriestsmightprofanethesanctuaryanddoviolence
tothelaw.ThefactthatDivinegiftsmaybeabuseddoesnotinterferewiththeirsignificancewhenrightlyused.Butwhereinlaythedistinctionbetweentrueand
false?Iftheprophetswereconnectedwithidolatrousworship(1K18),ordevotedtoothergods(Dt13:2),theirdeparturefromthetruthisobvious.Alsoifhigh
propheticgiftswerepervertedforpurposesofselfishadvancement,orapartweredeliberatelyassumedtodeceive(Zec13:4),orofficeweredesiredmerelyfora
livelihood(Mic3:5),thecaseisclear.Butmighttheprophetsthemselvesbedeceived,andhowwerethepeopletodistinguishbetweenthetrueandthefalse?
OstensiblybothclasseshadthesameendsinviewthehonourofJehovahandtheprosperityofthenation.Butsomeputreligiousprinciplefirstandtaughtthatprosperity
wouldfollowobedienceothers,blindedbyfalseideasofnationaladvantage,thoughttheyweredoingGodservicebypromotingapolicywhichseemedlikelytoleadtothe
aggrandizementofHispeople.ThesamedifferencehasoftenbeenobservedintheChristianChurchbetweenatruereligiousleaderandamereecclesiastic,honestlypersuadedthat
whateveradvancestheChurchmustbefortheDivineglory,butwho,nonetheless,pervertsthetruthbysettingthemeansabovetheend.LowerideasofGod,ofmorality,andof
truenationalprosperitylayattherootoftheutterancesofthefalseprophets.ThemaindistinctionbetweenthemandthetruemessengersofGodwasamoralandspiritualone,and
discriminationwaspossibleonlybytryingeachonitsownmerits.
Butcertaintestsaresuggested.Sometimes(a)asignorwonderwaswroughtinattestation(Dt13:1,
2),buteventhiswasnotconclusive,andthetrueprophetsseldomrelieduponthisevidence.Again,(b)inDt18:21f.fulfilmentofpredictionisadducedasatest.Clearlythatcould
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2),buteventhiswasnotconclusive,andthetrueprophetsseldomrelieduponthisevidence.Again,(b)inDt18:21f.fulfilmentofpredictionisadducedasatest.Clearlythatcould
notbeappliedatonce,anditwouldratherbeusefulafterwardstostudentsofthenationalhistorythantokingsorpeopleabouttoenteronabattleoranalliance.But(c)thepeople
wereexpectedtousetheirmoralandspiritualinsightanddistinguishtheissuessetbeforethem,asamanhastojudgeforhimselfinquestionsofconscience.InthecaseofHananiah
(Jer28),anexampleisgivenoftwolinesofnationalpolicypresentedbytwoleadingprophets,andtheprocessofjudgingbetweenthetrueandthefalsewasapartoftheeducation
throughwhichIsraelwascalledtopassandinwhichunfortunatelyitoftenfailed.Thedifficultyofthisprocessofdiscriminationwasoftenlightened(d)bywatchingthecareerof
theprophets,astohowfartheircharacterboreouttheirprofessions,whatmotivesactuatedthemwhethercrookedpolicy,immediateexpediency,orhighselfdenyingprinciple
andthusinthecenturiesbeforeChrist,asafterwards,oneofthebestcriteriawas,bytheirfruitsyeshallknowthem.
Oneotherpointremains.Towhatdoestheterminspirationapplythemenortheirwritings?Whatrelationdothebooksthathavecomedowntousbeartothe
originallyspokenwordsoftheprophets?Theansweristhatinthefirstinstanceitisthemanwhoisinspired,notthebook.InthecaseoftheHebrewprophet
especially,theverynatureoftheinfluenceatworkimpelledhimtoimmediateutterance,andifhewasinspiredatall,thewordismostapplicableatthisstage.In
manyinstancestheprophetwentasitwerefromtheverypresenceofGodtoperformhiserrandandutterwingedwordswhichhavecomedowntousasdelivered,
whitehotfromtheveryfurnaceofDivineprompting.Butinothercasestherecordwasnotwrittentilllongaftertheoriginalutteranceonlyasummaryofthe
addressesdeliveredwashandeddown.Theliteraryelementpredominatesinthecomposition,andafinishisgiventoitsphraseologywhichdoesnotbelongtothe
spokenword.Afullaccountoftheprocessisgiveninonecase(Jer36:7),wherewearetoldthatthepropheciesdeliveredthrough21yearswerecarefullywritten
outwiththeaidofasecretary,thetranscriptiontakingsomemonthstoaccomplish.Thedocumentthuspreparedwashandedtothekinganddestroyedbyhimin
angeratitscontents,whereuponanotherrecordwasmadewithconsiderableadditions.Probablyasimilarprocesswasusualinthecaseoftheliteraryprophets.The
utterancescalledforthbyacrisiscouldnotbepreparedbeforehandsometimes,asinMalachi,theprophetwouldbeinterruptedbyobjectionsfromthepeople,to
whichhemustreplyonthespurofthemoment,andopenconflictswerenotinfrequent.Butthewordsinwhichthesubstanceofmanyutteranceswasembodied
werecarefullychosenandwereofmoreabidingimport.Theprocessofselectionandtranscription,aswellastheoriginaloutpouringofthemessage,wasunderthe
guidanceoftheDivineSpirit,whoactuatedtheprophetinallhesaidordid.
Thattheworkofcollectingthepropheticutteranceswasnotalwayscarefullydoneisclearfromthestateofthetextinsomeofthebooksthathavecomedown
tous,e.g.,theseriousdifferencesbetweentheHebrewandtheLXXinJeremiah.Alsoitshouldbenotedthattheutterancesofdifferentauthorswereoftenblended
underonewellknownname:e.g.,underIsaiahmanypropheciesextendingoveralongperiodhavebeengatheredtheBookofZechariahiscertainlycomposite,
andindicationsofadditions,editorialnotes,andmodificationsarenumerous.ButtheGodwhoinspiredHisservantfirsttoseeandthentospeak,didincertaincases
inspirehimalsotowriteandthuswordswhichwereintendedinthefirstinstanceforrebelliousIsraelordisconsolateJudahhaveprovedofperennialsignificancein
thereligiouseducationoftheworld.
3.Functionsandteaching.OnewhowasessentiallyamanofGodundertheconditionsoflifewhichobtainedinIsraelmusthavehadmanypartstoplay,
manymessagestogiveandmanywouldbethewaysinwhichhebroughthisInfluencetobearuponthelifeofhistime.Thepropheticofficeinitsessenceimplied
freedomfromsuchroutinedutiesasoccupied(e.g.)thepriestandlaterthescribe.Thesecouldeasilybeenumerated,buttheworkoftheprophet,fromitsvery
nature,cannotbedefinedbystrictboundarylines.
Intheearliesttimesprophetswereconsultedoncommonmattersofdailylife.SamuelwasaskedbySaulsservanthowtofindthelostassesofhismaster.Later,
inquirywasmadeconcerningthesicknessofJeroboamanditsprobableissue,andElishathroughouthislifewassoughtforintimesofprivateanddomesticneed.
Onanothersideoftheirlivestheprophetswerecloselyconnectedwithliteraturetheycompiledhistoricalrecordsandpreservedthenationalchronicles(see1Ch
29:29).ThenarrativeportionsofIsaiah,Jeremiah,andotherpropheticalbooksshowthattheseerisamanwhosesearchingglancemayrunbackwardsaswellas
forwards.ItrequiredapropheticeyerightlytoreadthelessonsofIsraelspast,andtothisdaytheinspiredhistoricalbooksofOTteachlessonswhichnomere
annalistcouldhaveperceivedorconveyedtoothers.Theworkofotherprophetslayinthedepartmentnotofliteraturebutofaction,andapartfromElijahand
Elishasomeofthemostnotablefiguresinthepropheticsuccessionweredistinguished,notsomuchforwhattheytaughtasbecauseatthecriticalmomentthey
threwtheweightofdeservedlygreatinfluenceintotherightscale,andactuallyledthepeopleintherightway.
These,however,werenottheprophetsmainfunctions.Hischiefworkwastoserveasagreatmoralandreligiousteacher,especiallyinrelationtothedutiesof
nationallife.Hewassenttoministertohisownage,toteachhiscontemporariesthedutiesofthehour,howtoapplythehighestreligiousprinciplestocurrent
questionsofpoliticalandsociallife.Inthecourseofthedeliveryofthismessagehewasmovedtoutterpredictions,andtheseformedsocharacteristicand
importantafeatureoftheprophetsteachingthatforetellingthefuturecametoberegardedashischiefwork.Thiswasnotstrictlythecase,sincetheforecastsofthe
futurearoseoutofthedeliveryofthemessagetothespeakersownage.ButpredictionmustbealloweditsdueplaceinanestimateofHebrewprophecyareaction
againsttheexcessivestressformerlylaiduponthiselementhasunfortunatelyledtotheoppositeextremeofunderestimatingitsimportance.
Moralteachingwaspreeminent.Theprophetswerenotexponentsofthelawinthetechnicalsensethatbelongedtothepriest(Jer18:18)buttheword
whichwasgiventotheprophetwasanimmediaterevelationofthewillofGod,andwassometimesnecessarilyopposedtotheorthodoxandconventionalreligious
teachingofmenmoreanxiousaboutfollowingprecedentsthandiscerningthehighestduty.InIs1and58,inMic6,andEzk18wehaveexamplesofloftyethical
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teachingofmenmoreanxiousaboutfollowingprecedentsthandiscerningthehighestduty.InIs1and58,inMic6,andEzk18wehaveexamplesofloftyethical
teachingwhichmightappeartodisparagetheroutineofreligiousserviceandthetraditionsofreligiousdoctrine.Itisnotsacrificeinitself,however,thatis
denounced,butatrustinformalservicepunctiliouslyrenderedtoGod,withoutacorrespondingreformationofcharacter.Theprophetwasthemessengerwho
recalledthepeopletotheirhighestallegiance,whofearlesslyrebukedspiritualunfaithfulness,andwholaidemphasis,notonthetithingofmint,anise,andcummin,
butonthoseweightiermattersofthelaw,judgmentandmercyandfaith.Ofworshipandritualtheywouldhavesaid,asdidthegreaterProphetwhofollowedthem,
Theseoughtyetohavedone,andnottohavelefttheotherundone(Mt23:23).Thesemoralteachingscoveredaverywidefield.Theprophetscalledevilsby
plainnamesanddenouncedtheminuncompromisingterms,howeverhightheplacesinwhichtheywerefound.Habitsofluxuryandselfindulgenceintheupper
classesIntemperanceandtendenciestoexcessofallkindstheoppressionofthepoor,theusurpationsoflandowners,theextravaganceofwomenindressthese
areonlyafewspecimensofclasssinswhichtheyfranklyexposedandfearlesslydenounced.
InthissensetheprophetsstrovetorecallthebestfeaturesofIsraelspost.Thetoneofremonstranceadoptedshowsthatforthemostpartthepeoplewerefamiliarwiththe
principleslaiddown.Theprophetswerenotinnovatorstheyspokeasmenwhosewordswerelikelytofindanechointheconsciencesoftheirhearers.Butreformersthey
undoubtedlywereinthesensethattheysparednotthehoaryheadofinveterateabuse,andtheypreventedmanyoftheevilswhichanundisturbedconservatisminduces.They
belongedtothepartyofprogressinthebeatsenseoftheterm,andtheirworkwasespeciallytobreakupthefallowgroundofhabitthathadbecomehardandsetandunfittoreceive
theseedoffreshspiritualteaching.Moralreformation,theytaught,wasanecessaryconditionfortheacquisitionofspiritualknowledge,andtheenjoymentofspiritualprivilege.
Washyou.makeyoucleanwastheburdenoftheirmessagethearmofJehovahisnotshortened,norHisearheavy,butyoursinshaveseparatedbetweenyouandyourGod.Deal
breadtothehungryandlettheoppressedgofree,thenshallthylightbreakforthasthemorningandthineobscurityshallbeasthenoondayandthoushaltbelikeawatered
garden,andlikeaspringofwaterwhosewatersfailnot.
Thismoralteachingwasbroughttobearespeciallyuponnationallife.Israelwasachurchnation,oneinwhichthecommunitycountedformuchmorethanthe
individual,andtheprophetschieffunctionwastopromotenationalrighteousness.Herepresentedthehighestcivicconsciousness.Hemight,anddid,rebuke
privateindividualsandpointoutpersonalfaults,thoughthiswaschieflyinthecaseofkingslikeDavid,Jeroboam,orAhab,orStateofficialslikeShebnainIs22.
Wholeclassesmightgoastray,theprophetsthemselvesbeunfaithfultotheircalling,andthenanindividualprophetwassenttorecallallaliketotheirduty,himself
thesolerepresentativeofJehovahinadegeneratenation.Foratimethepoliticalinfluenceoftheprophetswasgreat,whiletheirpowerwasatitszenith,butthis
perioddidnotlastverylong.IsaiahandMicah,AmosandHosea,illustratethewayinwhich,bothintheSouthernandintheNorthernKingdom,theprophets
intervenedinquestionsofwarsandalliancesandtreatiestheforeignpolicyoftheirtimes.Theytooktheirpartindomesticpolicynoless,sometimesstanding
betweenthesovereignsandtheirsubjectsteachersandexamplesofpatriotisminthebestsenseoftheword.Whilstthefalseprophetspracticallyassertedthe
maximMycountry,rightorwrong.thetrueprophetenforcedthelessonthatThereisnowisdomnorunderstandingnorcounselagainsttheLord,andthat
unflinchingloyaltytoHimistheonlysecretofnationalstabilityandsuccess.Sometimestheyurgedbolddefianceofenemies,asintheinvasionofSennacherib(2
K19)sometimestheyrecommendedapolicyofneutralityasbetweenEgyptandAssyria(Is30)whilst,asalreadypointedout,itwassometimesthedutyofa
JeremiahtopreachsubmissiontothepowerofBabylon,eventhoughthatcoursemightberepresentedaspusillanimoustrucklingtosuperiorforce.Inthusdirecting
thenationalpolicy,theprophetmightbecommissionedtoannouncethesuccessorfailureofcertainprojects,andtoforetelltheconsequencesofagivencourseof
action.Butifthepropheciesbecloselyexamined,itwillbeseenthattheforecastswereforthemostpartconditionalIfthouwilthearandobey,thoushalteatthe
goodofthelandifnot,thoushaltbedevouredwiththeswordtheobjectofsuchvaticinationsbeingpreeminentlymoral,tobringthepeopletosuchastateof
mindthatthethreatenedevilsmightbeaverted.
ThevalueofsuchaninstitutioninanyStateisobvious.J.S.Milldescribesitasan
inestimablypreciousfeature,thatthepersonsmosteminentingeniusandmoralfeelingcouldreprobatewiththeauthorityoftheAlmighty,andgiveahigherand
betterinterpretationofreligion,whichhenceforthbecameapartofthatreligion.Thepoweroftheprophethasbeencomparedtothemodernlibertyofthepress.
Thecomparisonissadlyinadequate,foratbestthepressrepresentsthehighestcurrentofpublicopinion,whilstitwasoneofthechiefdutiesoftheprophetto
rebukepublicopinioninthelightofhighertruth,whichhediscernedasfromamountaintopwhilstallthevalleybelowlayindarkness.Thattheethicalstandard
wasmaintainedinIsraelashighasitwas,andthattheJewswerethemostprogressivepeopleofantiquity,andconjointlywiththeGreekshavesostrongly
influencedmodernculture,isduemainlytotheprophets.
Religiousteachingwascloselyconnectedwiththeethical.Theprophetwouldnotpermitanyseveranceofthesetwoelements.Theexplanationofthefreedom
andbeautyofthemorallifeonwhichtheyinsistedwasthatitwasnotinculcatedasacode,butasaservicerenderedtoaholyandgraciousGod.Thepeoplewere
toofferthekindofservicewithwhichHewouldbepleasedhencethehighertheirconceptionsofGodwereraised,thehigheralsobecametheirstandardof
conduct.Theprophetsofthe8thcent.B.C.aresometimesdescribedasthefirstteachersofethicalmonotheism,butthispositionitwouldbedifficulttoestablish.
Thatthestandardofthepeoplehadsunksadlybelowthatoftherevelationgrantedthemiscertain,andthattheprophetsnotonlyrecalledthemtotheirduty,but
raisedtheirveryconceptionsofDeity,ispracticallycertain.ButAmos,thefirstofthewritingprophets,appealedtoaconscienceandaGodconsciousnessalready
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raisedtheirveryconceptionsofDeity,ispracticallycertain.ButAmos,thefirstofthewritingprophets,appealedtoaconscienceandaGodconsciousnessalready
developed,andhisrebukespresupposetheknowledgeofoneholyGod,anddonotinculcatethedoctrineforthefirsttime.BothheandHoseapresshometheduty
ofthepeopletoreturntotheGodtheyhadforsakensometimessternly,sometimeswithtenderandpatheticpleading:OEphraim,whatshallIdountothee?Thou
artgravenonthepalmsofmyhands.TheworstfeatureofthewickednessofthetimeslayintheunfaithfulnessofIsraeltotheGodwhohadboundHispeopleto
Himbytheclosesttiesandtheirdisobedienceisdescribedasinfidelitytoaspiritualmarriagevow.Theprophetsstroveandurgedandremonstrated,risingupearly
andpleadingthattheymightwintheheartofthepeoplebacktoGod,surethatthus,andthusonly,abasiscouldbesecuredforapermanentlyuprightnationaland
individualcharacter.Fromthispointofviewtheirwordscannevergrowobsolete.
Astothepredictiveelementinprophecy,itmaybediscernedoneverypage,butitisnotofthefortunetellingorder.Mostofthepredictionsrefertonational
events,inIsraelorsurroundingnations.Someoftheseenterintodetail,asintheoverthrowofAhabatRamothgileadforetoldbyMicaiah(1K22:34),andthe
failureofSennacheribsexpeditionannouncedbyIsaiah.Othersthreateninamoregeneralwaythatpunishmentwillfollowdisohedience,thisstrainbecomingever
sternerandmorepronouncedastimeadvanced.ThesedarkpresageswerefulfilledinthecaseoftheNorthernKingdominthe8thcent.B.C.andafterwardswhen
Judahrefusedtotakethewarning,hercalamitiesculminatedinthecaptureandoverthrowofJerusalem.
Theprophets,however,areabletotakeawideroutlook,theirpenetratinggazeextendstothemoredistantfuture.Thisfeatureissocloselyblendedwiththelast,
thatitissometimeshardtodistinguishthetwo.Itisthehabitoftheprophetstopassimmediatelyandwithoutwarningfromthenearertothefurtherhorizon,andthe
questionperpetuallyrecursOfwhom,ofwhatperiod,speakeththeprophetthis?Thattheirpowerofforesightwasakintothemoralinsightwhichother
exceptionallygiftedpersonshavepossessed,enablingthemwithinlimitstoforecastthefuture,maybeadmitted.Butnoparallelhasbeenfoundinanyothernation
tothephenomenaofHebrewprophecy,especiallyinthecontinuoussuccessionofmencarryingonthesameremarkableworkforgenerations.Manycriticsseekto
eliminatetheelementofthesupernaturalfromprophecy.But,whilstitmaybegrantedthatmanyprophecieswerenotfulfilledbecausetheyweregivenwitha
conditionstatedorimplied,andthatthepoeticallanguageofmanyothersneverwasliterallyfulfilled,orintendedtobeso,thereremainaconsiderablenumberof
nationalpredictionswhichwerefulfilledinaveryremarkablemanner,especiallywhenwebearinmindthattheyrandirectlycountertotheprejudicesofthetimes
andweresometimesutteredattheriskofverylifetothedaringmessengerhimself.
AcandidexaminationofthewholeconditionsofthecasemustleadtotheadmissionofasupernaturalpowerandknowledgeinHebrewprophecyquiteapart
fromtheMessianicelement,whichwillbeconsideredseparately.Theattemptstoexplainthisawayhavefailed.Thepropheticpowerwasnotexceptionalpolitical
shrewdness,notthemeresanguineexpectationofenthusiasts,orthegloomyforebodingofconvincedpessimistsitwasnotlikethesecondsightoftheHighlander,
theeffectofexcitementuponahighlysensitivetemperamentnor,asrationalismteaches,canallpredictionsbeexplainedonthevaticiniaposteventumprinciple,as
historywrittenaftertheevent.Ontheotherhand,supernaturalenlightenmentanddirectionmustbeincluded,whilstitmaybefreelyadmittedwithTholuckthatthe
predictionswereforthemostpartnotoftheaccidental,butofthereligiouslynecessary,thattheyweremostlygeneral,sometimeshypothetical,consistentwiththe
freedomofthepersonsaddressed,andthatwhiletheycontainwhatsomecallfailures,inbroadoutlinetheyreflectwithwonderfulaccuracyandforcethewordof
Godinrelationtotheprinciplesandprogressofhumanhistory.
4.Messianicprophecyanditsfulfilment.ItwasinevitablethatteacherssocommissionedbyGodtodeclareHiswillshouldtakeawiderrange.Theirswas
emphaticallyamessageofhopetheyweresenttopreparethewayforabrighterfuture.Hencewefindthempassing,byrapidandalmostinsensiblegradations,
fromimmediatetofardistantissues,anddescriptionsofa
FinalConsummationareblendedwiththeirverypracticalteachingastopresentduty.Inlater
JudaismtheseprospectsofcomingnationalfelicitygatheredroundthetermMessiah,theAnointedOne,usedtodesignateacomingDeliverer,throughwhose
instrumentalitythegloriesofthefutureageweretoberealized.ChristiansbelievethatJesusofNazarethclaimedtobe,andwas,thepromisedMessiahoftheJews,
andthenameMessianicprophecyhasbeengiventopredictionswhichreferdirectlytotheidealpersonageofwhosecomingtheprophetsweretheheralds.But
thisnarrowermeaningofthephraseisforseveralreasonsunsatisfactory.Inthefirstplace,MessiahisnotarecognizedOTtermforthisDelivereritmaybe
questionedwhetherthewordisonceusedinthissense.Further,thereisagreatbodyofpropheticutteranceswhichbelongtotheMessianicera,thoughno
mentionismadeofapersonalKingorSaviour.AndfromtheChristianpointofview,thepreparationforthecomingofChristwasveryvarious:manyprophecies
arebelievedtofinddirectfulfilmentinHim,inwhichneitherthenamenortheideaofapersonalMessiahoccurshenceMessianicprophecyisnowgenerally
understoodtomeanalltheOTpromiseswhichrefertothefinalaccomplishmentofGodspurposesforthenationandtheworld.
ThewholeOTreligionisoneofhope.GodspromisesmadetoHispeopleweretoolarge,theidealdescriptionsoftheirprivilegesweretoolofty,tofindfull
realizationatanyearlystageofnationaldevelopment.AndIsraelitselfwassointractableandunfaithful,andthegapbetweenprofessionandpracticewasso
painfullyobvious,thatthegazeofthepeoplewaseverfixedonthefuture.Sometimestheprospectwasheldoutofaregeneratedcity,sometimesofanidealtemple
anditsworship,sometimestheideaprevailedofaclearermanifestationofGodHimselfinthemidstofHispeople,sometimesexpectationpointedtoaRulerwho
wouldembodyallthequalitiesofrighteousness.wisdom,andpowerwhichhadbeensoconspicuouslylackinginmanymonarchsoftheDavidicline.Sometimes
materialconsiderationsfiguredmostlargelyinthepicturesofthefuturethefruitfulnessoftheland,abundanceofcornandwineandoilsometimesapromise 123/144
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materialconsiderationsfiguredmostlargelyinthepicturesofthefuturethefruitfulnessoftheland,abundanceofcornandwineandoilsometimesapromise
filledtheairlikemusicofanunprecedentedpeacewhichshouldblesstheofteninvadedandalwaysmoreorlessdisturbedcountrysometimesabroadlandscape
picturewasdrawnoftheextensivedominionandinfluencewhichIsraelshouldexerciseoverthenationsaround.Anditisobviouslyundesirablethatforecasts
whichcontainamoredirectlypersonalreferenceshouldbeseparatedfromtheseotherswithwhichtheywerecloselyconnectedintheprophetsthoughts,especially
ascloserexaminationhastendedtoreducethenumberofpassageswhichmaybedescribedasdirectlyMessianic.Afewcentralideaslayattheheartofthewhole.
TheCovenantwhichboundtogetherGodandHispeople,theCityinwhichHemadeHisabode,theTemplehallowedbyHispresence,theKingdominwhichHis
lawshouldprevailandHiswillbealwaysdone,wereneververyfarfromthemindsoftheancientseers.Correspondingly,theJewanticipated,andtheprophet
foretold,thecomingoftheidealKingwhowoulddwellintheCityandattheheadoftheKingdom,theidealPriestoftheTemple,theidealProphettodeclarethe
Divinepurposescompletely,andcementtheDivineCovenantsothatitshouldneveragainbebroken.BroodingoverthewholewasthethoughtoftheDivine
Presence,whichinthefuturewastobeaTheophanyindeed.
Itwasonlyinthe2ndcent.B.C.thatthetermMessiahbecamethefocusinwhichalltheserayswerecentralized.IntheOTbooksthewordisusedasanepithet
oftheking,JehovahsanointeditisusedofCyrus,aheathenprince,inIs45:1f.possibly,thoughimprobably,itmaybeunderstoodasapropernameinDn9:25
whilstsomewouldfindinPs2analmostuniqueuseofthewordtodesignatetheidealPrinceofthehouseofDavidwhoshouldruleallthenationswith
unparalleledandillimitablesway.ButifthetermMessiah,standingalonetodesignateauniqueoffice,appearscomparativelylateinJewishhistory,alessclearly
definedideaofapersonalRulerandDelivererpervadedthenationalthoughtforcenturiesbefore.Theterms(1)SonofDavid,pointingtoaruleroftheDavidic
line,togetherwithBranchorShoot,withthesameconnotation(2)SonofMan,appliedinOTtoEzekielandothers,sometimesindicatingmaninhisfrailty,
butsometimesmanasGodintendedhimtobeand(3)SonofGod,indicatingthenationIsrael,IsraelsjudgesandIsraelsking,alikerepresentingtheMostHigh
uponearthallhelpedtopreparethewayfortheideaofaMessiahwhoshould,inanundefinedandunimaginableway,unitetheexcellencesofthewholeinHis
person.(4)Oneothername,suchaswouldnothaveoccurredtotheearlierprophets,appearsfreelyinSecondIsaiahand,astheeventproved,influenced
subsequentthoughttoanunexpectedlyprofounddegreetheServantofJehovahasSuffererandSaviour.Itwasalongtheselinesandotherskindredtothem
whichhavenotbeennamed,thatthepreparationwasmadebytheprophetsforthecomingofIsraelstrueDeliverer.Whenallareputtogether,itwillbeseenthatif
thenumberofpassagesreferringdirectlytotheMessiahbynameisunexpectedlysmall,thenumberwhichpreparedthethoughtsofthepeopleforHisAdventis
exceedinglylarge,andthesearesovariousintheircharacterthatitmightwellhaveseemedimpossiblethattheyshouldallberealizedinonePerson.
Itisquiteimpossibleheretosurveythisvastfieldeveninoutline.Butonepointmustnotbelostsightofthedistinctionbetweenthoseprophecieswhichare
directlyandthosewhichareonlyindirectlyMessianic.Whenthemeaningoftheprophetswordsisobviouslytooloftytobeappliedinanysensetoamereearthly
kingdom,orwherethecontextnecessitatesit,wemayassumethattheprophetseyeswerefixed,notonhiscontemporariesbutonthefardistance,andtheperiod
oftheConsummationforwhichitwasneedfullongtowait.Butwherethementionoflocalandtemporalconditionsorofhumanimperfectionsandlimitations
makesitclearthattheimmediatereferenceofapassageistotheprophetsowntimes,whilstyethisglanceshootsatintervalsbeyondthem,therethewordsareonly
indirectlyMessianic,andatypicalsignificanceisfoundinthem.Thatis,thesameideasorprinciplesareillustratedintheearlierasinthelaterdispensation,butin
aninferiordegreethepointsofsimilarityanddifferencevaryingintheirrelativeproportions,sothatapersonoraneventoraninstitutionundertheOldCovenant
maymoreorlessdimlyforeshadowthecompleterealizationoftheDivinepurposeyettocome.Thetypemaybedescribedasapropheticsymbol.
Thelinebetweentypicalanddirectlypropheticpassagesisnotalwayseasytodraw.Forexample,itmaybedebatedinwhatsensePss2,8,16,45,72and
othersareMessianic,theprobabilitybeingthatineverycasetheprimarythoughtofthePsalmistwasoccupiedwiththehistorythatheknew,thoughhiswordsin
eachcasesoaredbeyondtheirimmediateoccasion.SothelanguageofIs53whichforcenturieshasbeenunderstoodbyChristianinterpreterstoreferdirectlytoa
sufferingMessiahisnowunderstoodbysomeofthebestChristianscholarsasreferringatleastinthefirstinstancetofaithfulIsrael.Anidealpersonificationof
Israel,i.e.,identifiedwiththenationyetdistinctfromit,isrepresentedasthetrueservantofGodcarryingoutHispurposesforthenationalpurification,even
throughpersecution,suffering,anddeath.Opinionsmaywelldifferastowhetherthisinterpretationisadequate.Butitmustbeborneinmindinanycasethatinthe
prophetswedofindaremarkablecombinationoftwofeaturesawideoutlookintothefutureimplyingpreternaturalinsight,andverymarkedlimitationsofvision
derivedfromtheideasofthetimesinwhichtheylived.TheobjectofthestudentofMessianicprophecyistoexaminetherelationsbetweenthesetwoelements,and
toshowhowoutofthemidstofcomparativelynarrowideas,determinedbythespeakerspoliticalandhistoricalenvironment,therearoseothers,lofty,wide,and
comprehensive,withspringingandgerminantaccomplishments,andthustheSpiritofChristwhichwasintheprophetstestifiedbeforehandthesufferingsof
Christandthegloriesthatshouldfollowthem.
Whenweinquireconcerningthefulfilmentofprophecy,itisnecessarytodistinguishbetween(1)whattheprophetmeantbyhiswordsinthefirstinstance,
accordingtotheirplainestandsimplestinterpretation(2)anyrealization,moreorlessimperfect,ofhisutterancesinIsraelitishhistory(3)anymorecomplete
realizationofthemwhichmayhavetakenplaceinChristandChristianity,consideredastheDivinelyappointedfulfilmentofJudaismand(4)anyappropriate
applicationofthepropheticwordswhichmaybemadeinsubsequentgenerationsinfurtherillustrationoftheprincipleslaiddown.Iftherebeawiseandgracious
Godwhoordersalltheeventsofhumanhistory,ifHeinspiredtheOTprophetstodeclareHiswillforsomecenturiesbeforeChrist,iftheclimaxofHisself
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Godwhoordersalltheeventsofhumanhistory,ifHeinspiredtheOTprophetstodeclareHiswillforsomecenturiesbeforeChrist,iftheclimaxofHisself
revelationwasreachedinthegiftofHisSon,JesusChristourLord,andifHeisstillworkingoutHispurposesofrighteousloveamongthenationsofthemodern
world,itistobeexpectedthatthedeclarationsoftheprophetswillreceivemanyfulfilments,manyofthemmuchwider,deeper,andmoresignificantthanthe
prophetsthemselvescouldpossiblyunderstand.Butthemeaningoftheoriginalwordsasfirstutteredshouldfirstofallbestudiedwithoutanyreferenceto
subsequentevents.ThenthenatureoftheconnexionbetweenOTandNTshouldbeclearlyunderstood,andtheprinciplesonwhichtheNTwritersfindacomplete
realizationofthepromisesoftheOldCovenantintheNew.Andafterwardsitwillnotbedifficulttoseeinwhatsenseperpetuallynewapplicationsoftheprophets
wordsmaybelegitimatelymadetothesubsequenthistoryoftheKingdomofGodintheearth.
EveryreaderoftheNTmusthavenoticedthatthewordsthatitmightbefulfilledwhichwasspokenbytheprophetareusedveryfreelybytheseveralwriters,
andnotalwaysinpreciselythesamesense.ChristHimselfledthewayandtheApostlesfollowedHimindeclaringthatHisworkonearthwastofulfilboththe
Lawandtheprophets,andthatthewholeoftheOTScripturespointedtoHimandtestifiedofHim.Itwasnotsomuchthatminutecoincidencesmightbediscerned
betweenthephraseologyoftheOTandtheeventsofHislife,thoughitwasnaturalthatsuchshouldbenotedbytheEvangelists.ButJesusspeciallyinsistedupon
thefactwhichitismostimportantforthestudentoftheBibletoobserve,viz.thatwhattheLawfailedtoaccomplish,andwhattheprophetsandthosewholooked
forthefulfilmentoftheirwordshadfailedtorealize,Hehadcomecompletelyandperfectlytoachieve.Theemphasislies,asmighthavebeenexpected,uponthe
spiritual,ratherthantheliteral,meaningoftheScripturesandthe
mostcompletefulfilmentofOTwordsliesnotinaprecisecorrespondencebetweencircumstantialforecastsmadelongbeforewiththedetailsofHispersonal
history,butinaspiritualrealizationofthatgreatendwhichlawgivers,kings,prophets,andrighteousmenundertheOldCovenantdesiredtosee,butwerenotable.
OTprophecy,then,isbestunderstoodwhenitisviewedasoneremarkablestageinalongandstillmoreremarkablehistory.Someofitsutteranceshavenot
been,andneverwillbefulfilled,inthesensethatmanyofitsstudentshaveexpected.Alargeproportionofthemhavealreadybeenfulfilled,thoughinstrangeand
unlookedforfashion,byHimofwhomithasbeensaidthatthetestimonyofJesusisthespiritofprophecy(Rev19:10).InthePerson,life,sufferings,death,and
resurrectionofJesustheChrist,andintheestablishmentofHisKingdomontheearth,istobefoundthefullestrealizationoftheglowingwordsoftheprophetswho
preparedthewayforHiscoming.Forastillmorecompletefulfilmentoftheirhighesthopesandfairestvisionstheworldstillwaits.Butthosewhobelieveinthe
accomplishmentofGodsfaithfulwordthusfarwillnotfinditdifficulttobelievethatourLordswordsconcerningtheLaw(Mt5:18)maybeadapted,andthatin
thehighestspiritualsensetheywillbeatlastrealizedTillheavenandearthpassaway,onejotoronetittleshallinnowisepassawayfromtheprophets,tillall
thingsbeaccomplished.
W.T.DAVISON.
PROPHET(inNT).1.Thespiritofprophecy,asitmeetsusundertheOldDispensation,runsonintotheNew,andthereareprophetsintheNTwhoare
properlytobedescribedasOTprophets.SuchasAnnatheprophetess(Lk2:36cf.Miriam,Deborah,andHuldahintheOT)Zacharias,whoisexpresslysaidto
haveprophesied(Lk1:67ff.)Simeon,whoseNuncDimittisisanutteranceofanunmistakablypropheticnature(2:25ff.)ButaboveallthereisJohnthe
Baptist,whowasnotonlyrecognizedbythenationasagreatprophet(Mt14:5,21:26,Mk11:32,Lk20:6),butwasdeclaredbyJesustobethegreatestprophetof
theformerdispensation,whileyetlessthantheleastintheKingdomofheaven(Mt11:9ff.=Lk7:26ff.)
2.JesusHimselfwasaprophet.ItwasinthischaracterthattheMessiahhadbeenpromised(Dt18:16,18cf.Ac3:22,7:37),andhadbeenlookedforbymany
(Jn6:14).DuringHispublicministryitwasasaprophetthatHewasknownbythepeople(Mt21:11cf.Lk7:16),anddescribedbyHisowndisciples(Lk24:19),
andevendesignatedbyHimself(Mt13:57,Lk13:33).AndaccordingtotheteachingoftheNT,theexaltedChriststillcontinuestoexerciseHispropheticfunction,
guidingHisdisciplesintoallthetruthbytheSpiritwhomHesends(Jn16:7,13),andbuildingupthebodybybestowinguponitApostles,prophets,andteachers
(Eph4:8ff.).
3.FromthepropheticofficeofherexaltedHeadthereflowedthepropheticendowmentoftheChurch.Joelhadforetoldatimewhenthegiftofprophecy
shouldbeconferreduponall(2:28f.),andatPentecostweseethatwordfulfilled(Ac2:16ff.).Ideally,alltheLordspeopleshouldbeprophets.Forthetestimony
ofJesusisthespiritofprophecy(Rev19:10),andinproportionasChristiansarefilledwiththePentecostalSpirittheywilldesire,likethemembersofthenewborn
Church,tobeartestimonytotheirMaster(cf.Nu11:29,1Co14:5).
4.ButevenintheSpiritfilledChurchdiversitiesofgiftsquicklyemerged,andaspecialpowerofpropheticutterancewasbestoweduponcertainindividuals.A
propheticministryarose,aministryofDivineinspiration,whichhastobedistinguishedfromtheofficialministryofhumanappointment(seeart.MINISTRY).Ina
moregeneralsense,allthosewhospokethewordofGod(He13:7)wereprophets.Theministryoftheword(Ac6:4)wasapropheticministry,andsowefindSt.
PaulhimselfdescribedasaprophetlongafterhehadbecomeanApostle(Ac13:1).
5. ButinamorepreciseuseofthetermwefindthespecificNTprophetdistinguishedfromotherswhospeakthewordofGod,andinparticularfromthe
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5.ButinamorepreciseuseofthetermwefindthespecificNTprophetdistinguishedfromotherswhospeakthewordofGod,andinparticularfromthe
Apostleandtheteacher(1Co12:28f.,cf.Eph4:11).ThedistinctionseemstobethatwhiletheApostlewasamissionarytotheunbelieving(Gal2:7,8),the
prophetwasamessengertotheChurch(1Co14:4,22)andwhiletheteacherexplainedorenforcedtruththatwasalreadypossessed(He5:12),theprophetwas
recognizedbythespiritualdiscernmentofhishearers(1Co2:15,14:29,1Jn4:1)astheDivinemediumoffreshrevelations(1Co14:25,30,31,Eph3:6cf.Did.
iv.1).
ThreemaintypesofprophesyingmaybedistinguishedintheNT(a)First,thereiswhatmaybecalledtheordinaryministryofprophecyintheChurch,
describedbySt.Paulasedificationandcomfortandconsolation(1Co14:3).(b)Again,thereis,onspecialoccasions,theauthoritativeannouncementofthe
Divinewillinaparticularcase,aswhentheprophetsofAntioch,inobediencetotheHolyGhost,separateBarnabasandSaulfortheworkofmissionary
evangelization(Ac13:1ff.cf.22:21,16:5ff.).(c)Rarelythereisthepredictionofafutureevent,asinthecaseofAgabus(11:28,21:10cf.v.4).
OfChristianprophetsinthespecificsenseseveralarementionedintheNT:JudasandSilas
(Ac15:32),theprophetsatAntioch(13:1),AgabusandtheprophetsfromJerusalem(11:27f.,21:10),thefourdaughtersofPhiliptheevangelist(v.9).Butthese
fewnamesgiveusnoconceptionofthenumbersandinfluenceoftheprophetsintheApostolicChurch.Forlightuponthesepointswehavetoturnespeciallytothe
PaulineEpistles(e.g.1Co12:28f.,14,Eph2:20,3:5,4:11).ProbablytheyweretobefoundineveryChristiancommunity,andtheremightevenbeseveralof
theminasinglecongregation(1Co14:29).Certainofthem,possessednodoubtofconspicuousgifts,movedaboutfromchurchtochurch(Ac11:27f.,21:10Cf.
Mt10:41,Did.xiii.1).Others,endowedwithliterarypowers,wouldcommittheirvisionsandrevelationstowriting,justassomeprophetsoftheOThaddone,
thoughofthisliterarytypeofprophecywehaveonlyoneexampleintheNTtheBookofRevelation(cf.Rev1:3,22:7,9,10,19).
QuiteafloodoflightissheduponthesubjectoftheNTprophetsbytheevidenceoftheDidache.Weseetherethatabouttheendofthefirstcenturyorthe
beginningofthesecondtheprophetisstillheldinthehighestestimation(xi.7,xiii.),andtakesprecedence,whereverhegoesofthelocalministryofbishopsand
deacons(x.7).ButwealsoseethepresenceintheChurchofthoseinfluenceswhichgraduallyledtotheeliminationofthepropheticministry.Oneinfluenceisthe
abundanceoffalseprophets(xi.8ff.cf.Mt7:15,24:11,24,1Jn4:1),tendingtomaketheChurchsuspiciousofallpropheticassumptions,andtobringprophecy
assuchintodisrepute.Anotheristhegrowingimportanceoftheofficialministry,whichbeginstoclaimthefunctionspreviouslyaccordedtotheprophetsalone(xv.
1).IntothehandsoftheofficialclassallpowerintheChurchgraduallypassed,andinspiteoftheoutburstoftheoldpropheticclaims,duringthelatterhalfofthe
2ndcent.,inconnexionwiththeMontanistmovement,theprophetinthedistinctiveNTsensedisappearsentirelyfromtheCatholicChurch,whiletheministryof
officetakestheplaceoftheministryofinspiration.
J.C.LAMBERT.
PROPHETESS.1.Thecourtesytitleofaprophetswife(Is8:3).2.TheOTtitleofwomeninwhomthepromisewasfulfilled:yourdaughtersshallprophesy
(Jl2:28cf.Ps68:11RV).Thetermisofcoursenottobemisunderstood,asifitreferredmerelytopredictionsrelatingtothefuture:thereferenceisingeneralto
inspiredinstructioninmoralandreligioustruth(Driver,Camb.Bible,inloc.)ThetitleisgiventoMiriam(Ex15:20),Deborah(Jg4:4),Huldah(2K22:14,2Ch
34:22),andNoadiah(Neh6:14).3.TheNTgiftofprophecywasbestowedonwomen(Ac21:9,1Co11:6).Anna(Lk2:35)istheonlyprophetessmentionedby
name,exceptJezebel(Rev2:20),whowasprobablynotthewifeoftheangelofthechurch(RVm),butatemptressoftheChristiansatThyatiratowhomwasgiven
thenameofIsraelswickedqueen.
J.G.TASKER.
PROPITIATION.TheideaofpropitiationisborrowedfromthesacrificialritualoftheOT,andthetermisusedintheEVoftheNTinthreeinstances(Ro
3:25,1Jn2:2,4:10)ofChristasofferingthesacrificeforsinwhichrendersGodpropitious,ormerciful,tothesinner.Inthefirstofthesepassagesthewordis
strictlypropitiatory(answeringtotheOTmercyseat),andRVmrenderswhomGodsetforthtobepropitiatory,without,however,essentialchangeofmeaning.
InthetwoJohanninepassagesthenounisdirectlyappliedtoChrist:Heisthepropitiationforoursinsandnotforoursonly,butalsoforthewholeworld(2:2)
Hereinislove,notthatwelovedGod,butthathelovedus,andsenthisSontobethepropitiationforoursins(4:10).Inoneotherpassage.He2:17,theRV
renderstomakepropitiationforthesinsofthepeople,insteadof,asinAV,tomakereconciliation.
1.IntheOT.IntheOT,towhichwegobackforexplanation,theHeb.wordkipper,whichcorrespondswithtomakepropitiation,isordinarilyrenderedto
makeatonement,sometimestoreconcile(e.g.Lv6:30AV,butinRVtomakeatonement)thewordhasprimarilythesensetocover,butinactualusagehas
themeaningoftoconciliateanoffendedparty,ortohideorexpiateanoffence.Apersonmaybeconciliatedbyagift(Gn32:20)maybemadepropitiousby
intercession(Ex32:30)anoffencemaybeatonedforbyanactofzealforrighteousness(Nu25:13).Inritualusageitisthepriestwhomakesatonementforthe
offender,astouching,orconcerning,hissin(cf.Lv1:4,4:35,5:13,18etc.).Bothideasseemtobeimpliedheretheoffenceiscancelledorannulled,hiddenfrom
Godssight,andGodisrenderedpropitious:Hisdispleasureisturnedaway.ThemeansbywhichthiswaseffectedundertheLawwasordinarilysacrifice(burnt
offering,sinoffering,guiltofferingtheIdeawasdoubtlesspresentinthepeaceofferingaswell).Thebloodofanunblemishedvictim,obtainedbyslaughter,was
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offering,sinoffering,guiltofferingtheIdeawasdoubtlesspresentinthepeaceofferingaswell).Thebloodofanunblemishedvictim,obtainedbyslaughter,was
sprinkledonthealtar,orotherwisepresentedtoJehovah(cf.Lv17,andseeATONEMENT).OntheannualDayofAtonementexpiationofthesinsofthepeople
waseffectedbyanelaborateceremonial,whichincludedthecarryingofthebloodintotheHolyofHolies,andthesprinklingofituponthemercyseat(Lv16).The
significanceoftheseritesisconsideredintheartt.ATONEMENTandATONEMENT[DAYOF].
2.IntheNT.TheseanalogiesthrowlightuponthemeaningofthetermintheNTinitsapplicationtoChrist,andfurtherIllustrationisfoundinSt.Pauls
wordsinRo3:25.TheApostle,havingshownthatnoonecanattaintorighteousness,orbejustifiedbeforeGod,byworksoflaw,proceedstoexhibittheDivine
methodofjustification,withoutlaw,byarighteousnessofGodobtainedthroughfaithinJesusChrist.Beingjustifiedfreelybyhisgracethroughtheredemption
thatisinChristJesus:whomGodsetforthtobeapropitiation,throughfaith,byhisblood,toshowhisrighteousness,becauseofthepassingoverofthesinsdone
aforetime,intheforbearanceofGod.Theideasinthispassageincludethefollowing:(1)thatChristsdeathisapropitiatorysacrifice(2)thatsincannotbe
righteouslypassedoverexceptonthegroundofsuchasacrifice(3)thatChristspropitiatorydeathisthevindicationofGodsrighteousnessinpassingoversins
undertheolderdispensation(cf.He9:13)(4)thatthevirtueofChristspropitiationisappropriatedbyfaith(5)thateveryonethusappropriatingChrists
propitiation,freelysetforth,becomespossessedofarighteousnessofGodwhichperfectlyjustifieshim.Itisseen,therefore,thatChristsdeathishereregardedas
havingatruepowertoexpiateguilt,redeemthesinnerfromcondemnation,sethiminrighteousrelationswithGod,andmakehimanobjectofGodsfavour.Itis
nototherwisethatChristsmanifestationisconceivedofbySt.John,whoinhisEpistleemphasizesthecleansingpowerofChristsblood(1:7),extolsChristasthe
propitiationforthesinsoftheworld(2:2),anddeclaresthattheloveofGodisseeninthis,thatHesentHisSontobethepropitiationforoursins(4:10cf.totake
awaysins,3:5).Thislastpassageraisesthedifficultywhichwillnaturallybefeltaboutpropitiation.Assuming,ascanhardlybedenied,thatthetermincludesthe
ideaofrenderingGodpropitious,orfavourable,howisthistohereconciledwiththestatementthatthepropitiationitselfproceedsfrom,andisademonstrationof,
theloveofGod?CanitbesupposedthatGod,whoHimselfsendstheSon,needstobeappeased,conciliated,orinanywaymademoregraciousthanHeis,byHis
Sonsdeath?Thatidea,whichbelongstotheheathenishconceptionofpropitiation,mustcertainlybeexcluded.Yettheparadoxholdsgoodthat,whileGodloves
thesinner,andearnestlyseekshissalvation,thereisanecessaryreactionoftheholinessofGodagainstsin,manifestingitselfindispleasure,withdrawal,judgment,
wrath,whichhinderstheoutflowofHisfriendshipandfavourtotheworldasHewoulddesireittoflowforth.Thesinnercannottaketheinitiativehereitmust
comefromGodHimself.YetitmustcomeinsuchawayasfurnishesanadequategroundfortheextensionofHismercy.Christsworkinournaturewasonewhich
enteredintothedeepestneedofGodsownbeing,aswellasintotheimperativesofHisjustgovernmentoftheworld.InthePersonofHisownwellbelovedSona
reconciliationwastrulyeffectedwithhumanity,whichextendstoallwhoreceivetheSonasSaviourandLord.Thisistherealityinpropitiation.SeeATONEMENT.
JAMESORR.
PROSELYTE
1.Thecharacterandthehistoryoftheproselyte.Thecharacterandthehistoryoftheproselytearesomewhatobscuredbythefactthatthename
proselyteoccursonlyintheNT,andthereinthefinalmeaningofaconverttoJudaism,asifhewereaproductofNTtimesalone.ButthesameGreekwordthat
standsforproselyteIntheNTisverylargelyusedintheLXX,whereEVhasstranger.EventheHebrewsthemselvesaredescribedbytheLXXasproselytes
inEgypt(Ex22:21,23:9,Lv19:34,Dt10:19).ThestrangeroftheOTbecomestheproselyteoftheNT.Forthehistorythatliesbehindtheuseofthewordsee
art.S TRANGER.Bythe4thcent.
B.C.thestrangerhadbecomeamemberoftheJewishChurchaproselyteinthetechnicalsense(Bertholet,StellungderIsraeliten,p.178).
OtherexpressionsareusedintheNTtoindicateamoreorlessclosesympathywithJewishreligiousthoughtandlifewithoutimplyingabsoluteidentitywithand
inclusioninJudaism.ThesearefearersofGod(phoboumenoitonTheon,Ac10:2,22,13:16,26,50etc.),andworshippersofGod(sebomenoitonTheon,Ac
16:14,17:4,17etc.).TheyweresuchasweredrawnfromheathenismbythehigheridealsandpurerlifeofJudaism.Theyweredissatisfiedwiththereligious
teachingoftheirnation,andfoundinJudaismanIntellectualhomeandareligiouspowertheysoughtinvainelsewhere.ButastudyofAc10:11,esp.11:3,shows
thatthesewerenotproselytestheyrefusedtotakethefinalstepthatcarriedthemintoJudaismviz.circumcision(EGTvol.ii.p.250f.Ramsay,Expositor,1896,
p.200Harnack,ExpansionofChristianity,i.p.11).TheylivedonthefringeofJudaism,andwere,itseems(Lk7:5,Ac10:2),oftengeneroushenefactorstothe
causethathadliftedthemnearertoGodandtruth.
2.ProselytizingactivityoftheJews.UptothetimeoftheExileandforsometimeafter,theattitudeoftheHebrewstowardsstrangerswaspassive:they
didnotinvitetheirpresenceintotheircommunity,anddidnotencouragethemtobesharersoftheirfaith.Butbeforethe3rdcent.B.C.achangeofoutlookand
nationalpurposehadtakenplace,whichhadconvertedthemintoactivepropagandists.Thereappeartohavebeenthreereasonsforthischange.(1)TheHebrews
werenolongerconcentratedinonenarrowlandwhereahomogeneouslifewasfollowed,butwerescatteredoverallpartsofthecivilizedworld,andfound
themselvesincontactwithpeopleswhowerereligiouslyfarinferiortothemselves,howeverotherwisetheymightbeplaced,andwhoexcited,itmaybe,their
disdain,butalsotheirpity.(2)ManyofthoseintheGentileworldwhoweredissatisfiedwiththeintellectualresultsandthereligiousconditionsoftheirtimesaw
inJudaism,aslivedandtaughtbeforetheireyes,somethingfinerandnoblerthantheyhadfoundelsewhereandweredrawntoitspracticalteachingandlife
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inJudaism,aslivedandtaughtbeforetheireyes,somethingfinerandnoblerthantheyhadfoundelsewhereandweredrawntoitspracticalteachingandlife
withoutcommittingthemselvestotheritualthatoffendedtheirsenseoffitnessanddecency(cf.Harnack,op.cit.i.10f.).(3)TheHebrewsthemselvesseemto
haverespondedtotheiropportunitywithaquickenedenthusiasmforhumanityandahigheridealoftheirnationalexistence,intheprovidenceofGod,amongthe
nationsoftheearth.ItdoesnotappearthattheHebrewshaveeverbeensopowerfullymovedtowardsthepeopleslyingindarknessasinthistimesubsequenttothe
Exile(Harnack,op.cit.i.11,12).TheywereconvincedoftheclaimofGodtothehomageofmeneverywhere,theuniversalismoftheirrevelationoftruthand
duty,andtheirownfitnesstobringtheworldtoGod.Theneedsoftheworldmovedthempowerfully,andthethoughtsthatfoundexpressioninsuchpassagesasPs
33:8(LetalltheearthfeartheLord,letalltheinhabitantsoftheworldstandinaweofhim)36:79,64:10,65:8etc.,filledthemwithaburningzealtomakethe
worldtheirofferingtoGod.(Bertholet,op.cit.p.191f.).PerhapswemaynotbewronginregardingtheSeptuagintasaproductof,asitcertainlywasanaidto,
thismissionaryeffort.
ThisspiritualenthusiasmforGodshonourandmanssalvationcontinuedtillaboutthetimeoftheMaccabees,whenthetendererspringsoftheJewishspirit
weredriedup,andtheswordbecametheinstrumentofnationalidealism,andwholecitiesandtribesweregiventheoptionofcircumcisionorexile,ifnotslaughter
(1Mac2:46,13:48,14:14,36Jos.Ant.XIII.ix.1,xi.3,xv.4).Ofcourse,thiswasameansthatwasnotavailableoutsidetheirhereditaryhome.Thispropaganda
wentontillthe1stcent.ofourera,whenthedissatisfactionoftheJewswiththeRomansupremacyculminatedininsurrection.IntheirconflictwithRometheir
numbersweregreatlyreducedbyslaughter,andtheirpowerofreligiousexpansionwascheckedbythedecreeofHadrian,modifiedlaterbyAntoninus,in
forbiddingcircumcision.Bythistime,however,Judaismhadwonalargefollowingineverytownofsizeandimportance(cf.Ac2:911Jos.BJVII.iii.3,c.Apion.
ii.11,40Seneca,ap.August,deCivitateDei,vi.11cf.victivictoriouslegesdederuntHarnack,op.cit.i.14Schrer,HJPII.ii.304ff.).Butnowbloodshed
andpersecutionproducedthetwofoldresultofclosingandsteelingtheheartofJudaismtotheoutsideworld,sothatproselyteswerenolongersoughtbytheJews,
andthetenetsandthepracticesofJudaismbecamecrystallizedandlessamenabletoHellenisticinfluences,andsolessfittedtowintheGentilespirit.
3.Admissionoftheproselyte.TheritualconditionsimposedontheproselyteonenteringJudaismwerethree:(1)circumcision,(2)cleansingorbaptism,(3)
sacrifice.Baptismtookplaceafterthehealingofthewoundcausedbycircumcision.SomehavesoughttodiscoverinitanimitationofChristianritual.Butthereis
nofoundationforsuchaclaim.CleansingorbaptismlayintheverynatureofJudaism,theheathenwasuncleanandsohadtobecleansedbywashinginwater
beforeadmissionintoJudaism.SacrificewasbothanexpressionofthanksgivingandanindividualparticipationinJewishworship.WiththefalloftheTemple
sacrificelapsed,thoughatfirstitwasmadeaburdenontheproselytetolayasideenoughtopayforthesacrifice,shouldtheTempleagainberestoredbuteventhis
demandwasincourseoftimeallowedtolapse,astheprospectofrestorationvanished.Thesethreeconditionsseemofearlyorigin,thoughwemaynothave
specificreferencetothemtillthe2ndcent.A.D.
AmongindividualJewishteacherstherewasdifferenceofopinionastothenecessityofcircumcisionandbaptism,butallearlyusageseemstoconfirmtheir
actualobservance.ItistruethatIzates,kingofAdiahene,foratimerefrainedfromcircumcisionundertheguidanceofhisfirstJewishteacher,Ananias,butthis
counselwasgiven,notbecauseitwasatthetimedeemedunnecessaryforaproselytetobecircumcised,butbecausecircumcisionmightalienatethesympathiesof
hispeoplefromIzatesandendangerhisthrone.AndAnaniaswiselylaidgreaterstressuponthemoralthanupontheritualsideofconversion.Allthroughthe
DispersionwefindthesamedispositiontoconciliatetheGentileswhowerewillingtoshareintheJewishfaithinanymeasure,byrelaxingtheritualdemands.And
wecannotwithholdourappreciationoftheactionoftheJews,fortheywiselydiscriminatedbetweentherealandtheformalsideoftheirreligion.Theyneverdid
anything,however,tolowerorcompromisethemoraldemandsoftheirfaith.TheyrigorouslyinsistedontherecognitionofGodfromalltheirproselyteswithallHis
claimsupontheirservice(Harnack,op.cit.i.72).Itdoesnotappearthatconversionenhancedthereputationoftheproselytesforalthoughtheycouldnotbutwin
theesteemofthefinermindsoftheirnationbytheirhighermorallife,yettheyseemedtothepeopletodisplayatypeofdailylifelackingindomesticreverenceand
civicandnationalpatriotism(Tac.Hist.v.5.8Juv.Sat.xiv.1034).
4.PlaceoftheproselyteinthegrowthoftheChristianChurch.ThoseproselyteswhohadembracedJudaisminitsentiretyseemtohaveacceptedthe
attitudeoftheJewsgenerallytowardsChristianity.Mostofthemwouldopposeit,andthosewhoaccepteditwouldmaketheLawthenecessaryavenuetoit,andso
theyactedratherasahindrancethanasahelptotheprogressofthegospel.IftheexperienceofJustinbeanyindicationofthegeneralattitudeoftheproselytesto
theChurch,theymusthavedeemeditadutytotheiradoptedfaithtomanifestaviolenceofspeechandanaggressivenessofactionunsurpassedbytheJews
themselvesforhesays,theproselytesnotonlydonotbelieve,buttwofoldmorethanyourselvesblasphemeHisname,andwishtotortureandputtodeathuswho
believeinHim(Dial.122).
ButtheproselytesmustalwayshaveformedaverysmallminorityofthoseamongsttheGentileswhohadlentaneartoJewishteaching.Thereweremanywho
wereattractedtothesynagoguebythehelpfulnessofitsworshipandthepurityofitsteaching,whohadnosympathywithitsritual.Amongstthesethegospelhada
differentreceptionitwasreadilyacceptedandeagerlyfollowed.Theyfoundinitallthatdrewthemtothesynagogue,andagreatdealmore.Withhistorical
Judaismtheyhadnothingtodo,andloyaltyandnationalitydidnotappealtothemasmotivestomaintainitagainstChristianity.AmongsttheJewsboththe
proselyteandthedevoutworshipperoccupiedaninferiorplace,butherewasafaiththatmadenodistinctionbetweenJeworGentile,afaithwhoseconceptionof
Godwastendererandwhoseethicalstandardswerehigher,thatmadeloveandnotlawtheinterpreterofdutyandtheinspirationofservice,thatlivednotinan
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Godwastendererandwhoseethicalstandardswerehigher,thatmadeloveandnotlawtheinterpreterofdutyandtheinspirationofservice,thatlivednotinan
eveningtwilightofanticipationofagloriousMessianicmorning,butinwarmfellowshipwithaPersonalitythatwastheevidenceofitspowerandtruth.Itiseasyto
understandhowquicklythegospelwouldbeadoptedbytheseadherentsofJudaism.EverysynagoguewouldbecometheseedplotofaChristianchurch.Andsoit
wasspeciallytothesethatSt.Pauladdressedhimselfonhismissionaryjourneys,andfromthemheformedthebeginningsofmanyofhischurchesandreceivedso
muchkindness(Ac13:16,42,16:14,16etc.).OnecaneasilyunderstandwithwhatfeelingsofcombinedjealousyandhatetheJewswouldseetheseworshippers
detachedfromthesynagogueandformedintoachurch.ButJudaismhadnothingtooffertheGentilethatwasnotbetterprovidedbytheChristianChurch,andsoit
recoiledfromtheattackonChristianitylikethespentwavesfromtherockboundcoast,angrybutbaffled.FailuredrovetheJewsinsullennessuponthemselves.
TheyleftthefieldtoChristianity,restrictedtheirvisiontotheirownpeople,andlefttheouterworldalone.
J.GILROY.
PROSTITUTION.SeeCRIMESANDP UNISHMENTS,3.
PROVENDER.1.misp(Gn24:25,32,42:27,43:24,Jg19:19,21),ageneralnameforcattlefood.2.bll,Job6:5fodderbllchmts,Is30:24clean
(AVmandRVsavoury,RVmsalted)provender,i.e.foddermixedwithsaltoraromaticherbs.TheordinaryfoodofcattleinPalestinebesidespasturageis
tibn(brokenstraw),kursenneh(thevetch,Viciaervilia),bran(forfatteningespecially),andsometimeshaymadefromthefloweringherbsofspring.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
PROVERB
1.Meaning.IntheBiblethereisnoessentialdifferencebetweentheproverbandtheparable(wh.see).TheHeb.mshlandtheGr.parabol,meaning
resemblance,wereappliedindiscriminatelytoboth.Thevaluearisingfromthislikenesswastwofold.Inthefirstplace,asthemoraltruthseemedtoemergefrom
theobservedhabitsofanimals,objectsinnature,familiarutensils,oroccurrencesindailylife,suchjuxtapositiongavetotheethicalpreceptorfactofconductthe
surpriseandchallengeofadiscovery.Thusthewholeinfluenceofexampleandenvironmentiscompressedintotheproverb,Asisthemother,soisherdaughter
(Ezk16:44).Thesurprisewasintensifiedwhentheparableproductcontradictedordinaryexperience,asinthestatement,Onesowethandanotherreapeth(Jn
4:37).Definitelabourdeservesadefinitereward,yettheunexpectedhappens,and,whilemanproposes,thereremainsanareainwhichGoddisposes.Outofsuch
corroborationgrewthesecondvalueoftheproverb,namely,authority.Thetruthbecamearuleentitledtogeneralacceptance.Theproverbusuallyhasthe
advantageofputtingtheconcretefortheabstract.AmongthemoderninhabitantsofPalestine,whenaletterofrecommendationisasked,itiscustomarytoquote
theproverb,Youcannotclapwithonehand.Ofadullworkmanwithoutinterestorresourceinhisworkitissaid,Heislikeasleve,hecandoonlyonething.
2.Literaryform.(1)Nexttothefactofresemblancewastheessentialfeatureofbrevily.Suchacombinationatoncesecuredcurrencytotheunpremeditated
exclamation,IsSaulalsoamongtheprophets?(1S10:11,12).Whentheproverbconsistedoftwoparts,rhetoricalemphasiswassecuredeitherbyrepeatingthe
samethoughtindifferentwords(Pr3:17)orbytheintroductionofcontrastingparticulars(3:33).(2)Rhythmicmeasurewasalsostudied,andtherewasoftenan
untranslatablefelicityofbalanceandrepeatedsound.Thefinalmarkofliterarypublicitywasconferredbyarhetoricaltouchofpicturesquehyperbole,asinthe
referencetoacamelpassingthroughtheeyeofaneedle(Mt19:24).(3)Thefactthatawisesayingwasmeantforthewiseencouragedtheuseofellipticalform.
Thiscarriedthecomplimentarysuggestionthatthehearerwasabletounderstandareferencethatwasconfessedlyobscure.Onthisaccountproverbswerecalled
thewordsofthewise(Pr22:17).HencethenoteofsurpriseandunexpectednessinChristswords,whenHesaidthatthemysteriesoftheKingdomhadbeen
hiddenfromthewiseandunderstandingandrevealeduntobabes(Mt11:25,Lk10:21).(4)Theobscurityreferredtowassometimesmadetheleadingfeatureand
motiveoftheproverb,anditwasthencalledanenigmaordarksaying(Ps49:4,Pr1:6,30:1531).Itssolutionthenbecameachallengetotheingenuityofthe
interpreter.BoththeprophetsandChristHimselfwerechargedwithspeakinginthisproblematicalmanner(Ezk20:49,Jn16:29).Riddleswereintroducedatfestive
gatheringsascontributinganelementofcompetitiveacutenessandfacetiousexhilaration.InstancesresemblingPr30:1531arecommonamongthemodernArabs
andJewsinSyria,aswhenitissaid:Therearethreechiefvoicesintheworld,thatofrunningwater,oftheTorah,andofmoney.Anenigmaforthestudyof
booksis:Blackseedsonwhiteground,andhewhoeatsofthefruitbecomeswise.
3.Subjectmatter.ThisissummarizedinPr1:18.Thereferenceisgenerallytotypesofcharacter,theemotionsandthedesiresoftheheart,andthejoys
andsorrows,thelossesandgains,thedutiesandtherelationshipsofhumanlife.Amidthesetheproverbcastsasearchinglightupondifferentclassesofmen,and
pointsoutthepathofwisdom.Henosthenamewordsoftruth(Pr22:21).
4.Authority.ProverbialliteratureismorehighlyesteemedintheEastthanintheWest.Whilethepopularityofproverbsispartlyduetoliterarycharmand
intellectualforce,andthedistinctionconferredbythepowerofquotingandunderstandingthem,theprincipalcauseoftheiracceptanceliesintheirharmonywith
Orientallife.Theproverbispatriarchalgovernmentintheregionofethics.Itisanorderfromthegoverningclassthatadmitsofnodiscussion.Theproverbisnot
thepleadingofthelawyerinfavourofacertainviewandclaim,butthedecisionofajudgewhohasheardbothsidesandadjudicatesonbehalfofgeneral
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thepleadingofthelawyerinfavourofacertainviewandclaim,butthedecisionofajudgewhohasheardbothsidesandadjudicatesonbehalfofgeneral
citizenship.Suchauthorityisatitsmaximumwhenitnotonlyisgenerallycurrentbuthasbeenhandeddownfrompreviousgenerations.Itisthenaparableofthe
ancients(1S24:13).Thequotationofanappropriateproverbinacontroversyalwayscarriesweight,unlesstheopponentcanquoteanotherinsupportofhis
claims.Thus,tothecarelessandinattentivemaninbusinesswhosays
ProsperityisfromGod,itmayberetortedHethatseekethfindeth.Beneathsomecommendablesocialqualitiesbelongingtothisattitudethereisamental
passivitythatseekstoattaintoresultswithoutthetroubleofpersonalinquiry,andprefersthebenefitsconferredbytruthtoanysacrificeorservicethatmightbe
renderedtoit.
G.M.MACKIE.
PROVERBS,BOOKOF.ThesecondbookamongtheWritingsisthemostcharacteristicexampleoftheWisdomliteratureintheOT.1.Wemayadoptthe
divisionofthebookmadebytheheadingsintheHebrewtextasfollows:
I.19,TheproverbsofSolomon,sonofDavid,kingofIsrael(headingformorethanthissection).Seebelow.
II.1022:16,TheproverbsofSolomon.
III.22:1724:22,thewordsofthewise(22:1721formsanintroductorypoem).
IV.24:2334,Thesealsoarethesayingsofthewise.
V.2529,ThesealsoaretheproverbsofSolomonwhichthemenofHezekiahcopiedout.
VI.30,ThewordsofAgur,etc.
VII.31:19,ThewordsofkingLemuel,etc.
VIII.31:1031,Withoutheading,butclearlydistinctfromVII.
SectionsI.,II.,andIII.formthebodyofthebooksectionsIV.andV.areadditionstotheearlierportion,andVI.,VII.,andVIII.arestilllateradditions.
WeconsidersectionII.first,becauseherethetypicalHebrewproverbisbestseen,especiallyifchs.1015aretakenbythemselvesasIIa.Thesechaptersconsist
ofaphorismsintheformofcoupletsshowingantitheticparallelism(seeP OETRY).Thecoupletsarewhollydetached,andlittleorderisobservableintheir
arrangement.Incontenttheycomenearestbeingpopular,eveniftheyarenotsoactually.Ingeneraltheyshowacontentedandcheerfulviewoflife.Thewiseare
mentioned,andwithadmiration,butnotasaclassorasformingaschoolofthoughtorinstruction.Theyarethesuccessful,upright,prosperousmen,safeexamples
inaffairsofcommonlife.InIIbthelinesarestillarrangedindistiches,buttheantitheticparallelismhaslargelygivenwaytothesynonymousorsyntheticvariety.
Thisformgivesalittlemoreopportunityforclassifyinganddevelopingthesentimentoftheproverb.Mysonisaddressedafewtimes,butnotregularly.Section
III.againmarksanadvanceoverIIaandIIb.Theverses22:1721areahortatoryintroduction.Therefollowsacollectionofquatrains,insteadofcouplets.They
aremaximswithproverbsamongthem.Consecutivethoughthasdeveloped.Thetruthsstatedarestillthesimpleeverydayones,buttheyshowmeditationaswell
asobservation.SectionIV.isanappendixtothethird,bothcomingfromtheWise.Itisverydefectiveinrhythm,andseeminglythetexthassufferedcorruption.
Inthefewversesthreethemesaretreated,chieflythesluggard.SectionV.iseasilysubdivided.Chs.2527:22containproverbsintheformofcomparisons.Chs.
2829areinthestyleofsectionII.Betweenthetwoalittlepiece(27:2327)praisesthelifeofafarmer.SectionVI.consistsofseveralindependentdiscourses.The
heading(30:1)separatesthechapterfromthepreceding,butotherwiseaddslittletoourknowledgeoftheorigin,foritiswellnighunintelligible,Evenifitconsists
ofpropernames,asismostlikely,thereisnogainfromknowingthemandnothingmore.Invv.15ff.areseveralstanzasofpeculiarnumericalstyle:thereare
threethingsthatandfournamelySectionVII.isabriefmanualforakingorjudge,thoughthemaximsareratherrudimentaryandhomely.Ifthereisa
temperancelesson,itisonlyforthekingtheadvicetothepoorandoppressedisverydifferent(seevv.6and7).Theremainderofthechapter,sectionVIII.,is
noticeablefortwothings:itsalphabeticalstructure,eachcoupletbeginningwithanewletterinregularorder,andtheunusualsubject,thecapablehousewife.A
mostdelicatetributeisintheomissionofanyreferencetohervirtue,whichistacitlyassumed,andnotevenmentioned.
Thereremainstheimportantsectionchs.19.Itspositionattheheadofthebookdoesnotshowthatitwasfirstinpointoftime.Itisclearlyapreface,orhortatory
introduction.Itdoesnotsomuchgivewisecounselofaconcretekind,aspraisethewisdomillustratedintheconcretecounselsofthefollowingsections.Itis
studied,philosophical,flowinginstyle.ItaddressesMysonatthebeginningofanewparagraph,exactlyasateacheraddressesMyhearersashebeginsa
lecture.Inonechapteratleast,theeighth,theadorationofwisdomiscarriedtothelimit,andinspiteofthefinepersonificationonefeels,regretfully,farremoved
fromtheplainpracticalpreceptsofsectionsII.andIII.InthiscosmogonichymnwisdomisassignedadignityintheuniversehardlyinferiortothatoftheCreator.
Amongthevariousattemptstoexplaintheforminwhichthebookcomestous,perhapsthefollowingwillbefoundassimpleasany.Wemaysupposethatthe
proverbsofSolomoninIIaandIIbwerecollectedseparatelyandthencombinedinII.thatthewordsofthewiseinIII.atfirststoodbythemselves,andwere
supplementedbyIV.thatthetwogroups,II.andIII.IV.,werethenjoinedtogether,becomingknownastheproverbsofSolomonthatthecollectioninV.was 130/144
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supplementedbyIV.thatthetwogroups,II.andIII.IV.,werethenjoinedtogether,becomingknownastheproverbsofSolomonthatthecollectioninV.was
attachedthattothisbooksectionI.wasthenprefixedasanintroduction,whichwasthusstampedastheliteratureoftheschoolofWisdom.Thefewremaining
chapters,sectionsVI.,VII.,andVIII.,wereaddedlaterfromthemassofWisdomliteraturewhichmusthavebeeninexistence,orlatercameintoexistence.
2.Asforthedateofthebook,thetraditionalascriptionofpartsofittokingSolomonmust,ofcourse,bediscarded.Andwiththisrejectiontheredisappears
anyreasonforseekinganearlydateforit.Thetimewhen,allthingsconsidered,thecompilationisbestexplained,isbetweenB.C.350and150.Fromthenatureof
thecaseitisimpossibletofixevenapproximatelythedateoftheoriginofindividualcouplets.Manyoftheargumentsvalidagainstanearlydateofcompilationare
valuelesssofarasthesingleproverbsareconcerned.
3.TheauthorsoftheWisdomliteraturedonotclaimrevealedwisdomtheirteachingsareonlypracticalcommonsense.Theyarehumanists,basingtheir
moralityupontheuniversalprinciplesunderlyingallhumannature.Fromthispracticalinteresttheviewbroadenstothewidesweepofch.8.Proverbsmaybe
regardedasamanualofconduct,or,asBruchcallsit,ananthologyofgnomes.Itsobservationsrelatetoanumberofformsoflife,toaffairsdomestic,
agricultural,urban(thetemptationsofcitylife),commercial,political,andmilitary(Toy,Proverbs,p.x.).
O.H.GATES.
PROVIDENCE.1.ThewordisnotfoundintheOT.IntheNTitisusedonlyonceintheexordiumofhisaddresstoFelix,theoratorTertullussays:Bythy
providenceevilsarecorrectedforthisnation(Ac24:2).Hereprovidencesimplymeansforesight,asin2Mac4:6thekingsprovidence.
2.Thefirstappearanceofthewordprovidence(Gr.pronoia)inJewishliteratureisinWis14:3,whereGodisrepresentedasmakingforashipawayinthe
seatheJewishauthor,borrowingtheexpressionfromtheStoicphilosophers,says:Thyprovidence,OFather,guidethitalong.Inalaterpassage,recognizingthe
sterneraspectofthetruthtowhichtheOTalsobearswitness,hecontraststhedestiniesoftheIsraelitesandEgyptiansanddescribesthelatter,whentheywere
prisonersofdarkness,asexiledfromtheeternalprovidence(17:2).
3.AlthoughtheOTdoesnotcontainthewordprovidence,itisacontinuousandprogressiverevelationofHimwhoseneverfailingprovidenceorderethall
thingsbothinheavenandearth.HistoriansnarratethegradualaccomplishmentofHisredemptivepurposeconcerningtheChosenPeopleandtheworldatlarge
(Gn50:20,Ex8:22,Dt32:8ff.cf.Ps74:12ff.)poetsdelighttoextolHimwhosetendermerciesareoverallhisworks(Ps145:9cf.29:3ff.,104,136)prophets
pointtotheproofsofGodsguidanceinthepastinorderthatthepeoplemaygainwisdomforthepresentandcourageforthefuture(Dt32:7ff.,Hag2:9,Is51:2,
Mal4:4ff.).TheBookofJobhasbeencalledthebookofProvidence,becauseitnotonlygivestheauthorssolutionofperplexingproblems,butalsofurnishes
reasonsforbelievingintherighteousprovidenceofGodfromtheconsiderationofHischaracterandHisdominionovernature(Oehler,TheologyofOT,ii.474cf.
Job27,34:10,36:22,37:21).
4.BeliefinProvidencestandsorfallswithbeliefinapersonalGod.ItisincompatiblewithmechanicalorpantheistictheoriesofCreation.Ancientproblems
whichperplexedGreekphilosophersandHebrewsagespressheavilyuponthemodernmindasitstrivestoreconcileitstrustinDivineprovidencewiththereignof
lawintheuniverseandwiththeexistenceofpainandevil.JesusChristtaughtthatthelawsofnaturearetheestablishedmethodsofHisHeavenlyFathersworking,
andthattheyfulfilaswellasrevealHiswill(Mt6:25ff.,10:29ff.,Jn5:17).BeliefinProvidencemeanstotheChristian,trustintheGodandFatherofourLord
JesusChrist,whohassoclearlyrevealedHiswillinHisSonastomakeitplaintoHischildrenthatnaturallawsmaynotonlysubservemoralandspiritualendsin
thispresenttime,butmayalsofurtherHisunerringpurposeswhicharenotboundedbythismortallife(Ro8:28,2Co4:11ff.,1P1:6ff.).
J.G.TASKER.
PROVINCE.Thisword,ofunknownderivation,originallymeantsimplyasphereof(magisterial)duty,andwasapplied,forexample,tothedutyofthe
prtorurbanus,whowasneverpermittedtoleaveRome.WiththeextensionoftheRomanEmpire,andtheconsequentlymuchincreasednumberofspheresof
dutyoutsideRomeandItaly,thewordcamegraduallytohaveaterritorialapplicationalso.Itisinthisderivedsensethatthewordistakenhere.Itwaspartofthe
Romanpolicythroughouttobeinnounnecessaryhurrytoacquireterritoryandtheresponsibilityconnectedwithit,anditwasnottilltheyearB.C.227hundreds
ofyearsafterthefoundationoftheRomanStatethatthefirstprovincewastakenover.InthatyearSardiniaandCorsicabecameoneprovince,WesternSicily
another,andeach,afterthedetailsofgovernmenthadbeensettledbyspecialcommissioners,wasputunderanadditionalprtorelectedforthepurpose.Behindthis
step,asbehindtheannexationofmostRomanprovinces,therelaylongyearsofwarfare.Provinceafterprovincewasannexed,untilinthetimeofChristthe
RomanswereinpossessionofthewholeofEurope(excepttheBritishIsles,Norway,Sweden,Denmark,Germany,andRussia),allAsiaMinor,Syria,Egypt,and
thenorthwestofAfrica.MostofthisvastterritoryhadbeenacquiredduringtheRepublic,butcertainportionshadnotbeenannexedtillthetimeofthefirst
Emperor,Augustus.DuringtheRepublicthegovernorsoftheseprovinceswereappointedbytheRomansenatefromamongtheirownnumber,generallyaftera
periodofserviceasprtororconsul,asthecasemightbe.Theywereunpaid,andhadheavyexpensestobear.Fewresistedthetemptationtorecoupthemselvesat
theexpenseofthelongsufferingprovincials,andthevastsumsacquiredbyanextortionategovernorinhisoneyearsgovernorshipmaybeestimatedfromthefact
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theexpenseofthelongsufferingprovincials,andthevastsumsacquiredbyanextortionategovernorinhisoneyearsgovernorshipmaybeestimatedfromthefact
thatCicero,ajustandhonestman,acquired18,000duringhistenureoftheprovinceCilicia.
DuringtheEmpiretheprovincesweretreatedaccordingtoanotablesettlementmadebetweentheSenateandtheEmperorAugustusonJanuary1,B.C.27.On
thatdayitwasarrangedthatthoseprovinceswhichwerepeacefulanddidnotrequirethepresenceofanarmyshouldbeunderthecontrolofthesenate,whowould
appointtheirgovernorswhilethedisturbedprovincesthatdidrequirethepresenceofanarmyweretobeundertheEmperorhimself,whowasgeneralissimoofall
theforcesoftheState.AtthesametimetheEmperorretainedfinancialinterestseveninsenatorialprovinces.Thefollowingthusbecamesenatorial(orpublic)
provinces:Asia(i.e.roughlythewesternthirdofAsiaMinor),Africa(i.e.practicallyTunis),GalliaNarbonensis,HispaniaBtica,Achaia,Cyprus,Cretaet
Cyrenaica,Macedonia,Sicilia,Bithynia,Illyricum,SardiniaetCorsica.Thefirsttwoweresenatorialprovincesofthefirstrank,andweregovernedeachbyanex
consulwiththetitleofproconsul,andthreelegatiunderhim.Theothersweresenatorialprovincesofthesecondrank,andweregovernedeachbyanexprtor,also
withthetitleproconsul.AlltherestoftheRomanworldoutsideItaly,namely,threefourthsofthewhole,wasmadeupofImperialprovinces,includingthe
following:Egypt(wheretheEmperors,assuccessorsofthePtolemys,ruledaskings),Juda,SyriaCiliciaPhnice,Galatia(establishedB.C.25),Thracia,
Pamphylia(establishedB.C.25),Gallitres(Aquitania,Lugudunensis,Belgica),Britannia(establishedA.D.43).Everynewprovincenaturallycameunderthe
Emperorsauthority.Hegovernedhismoreimportantprovinces(e.g.Syria,Galatia)throughalegatusproprtoreineachamanofconsularorprtorianrank,
whowaspaidafixedsalaryinandafterthetimeofTiberiusandhislessimportantprovincesthroughaprocurator(e.g.Juda)orprfectus(e.g.Egypt).The
periodofsenatorialgovernorshipswasoneyear,thatofImperialindefinite.Eachprovincewasgovernedaccordingtoadefinitestatute,whichdeterminedthe
administrativeprocedureanddefinedtheprivilegesofindividualcitiesinit.Theinhabitantsweredisarmedandtaxed.Theoppressiveandunjustruleofthe
RepublicwasexchangedforamuchbetterduringtheEmpireandtheprovinces,atleastduringthefirstthreecenturiesofourera,wereprosperousandcontented.
A.S OUTER.
PROVOKE.Toprovokeisnowtotrytocallforthevilpassions,butinAVitisusedinthesenseofincitingtoanyaction,goodorevil,as2Co9:2Your
zealhathprovokedverymany.Provocation,however,alwaysoccursinabadsense.ItisusedinPs95:8oftheconductofthechildrenofIsraeltowardsGodin
thewilderness.
PSALMS
1.TitleandplaceinCanon.TheBookofPsalmsisacollectionofsacredpoems,inlargepartliturgicalincharacterandintendedtobesung.The
bookbelongstotheKethubimorWritings,i.e.thethirdandlastgroupoftheJewishScriptures.TheorderoftheWritingswasmuchlessfixedthantheorderof
theLawandtheProphets,theothertwogroupsofScripturesbutthePsalmsinallcasescomenearthebeginningofthisgroup,andinthemodernHebrew
printedBibles,whichfollowthegreatmajorityofGermanMSS,theystandfirst.InplacingthePsalms,togetherwiththerestoftheWritings,beforethe
(Latter)Prophets,theEVhasfollowedtheGreekversionbutintheinternalarrangementoftheWritings,theEnglishandGreekversionsdifferfromone
another.
ThetitleofthiscollectionofpoemsisderivedfromtheGreekversion,inwhichthebookisentitledinsomeMSSPsalmoi,inothersPsalterion(inNTPsalms,
andBookofPsalms,Lk20:42,24:44,Ac1:20).psalmosinclassicalGreeksignifiedthetwangingofstrings,andespeciallythemusicalsoundproducedby
pluckingthestringsofastringedinstrumentasusedhereitmeanspoemsplayedtothemusicof(stringed)instruments.TheGreekwordthuscorrespondscloselyto
theHeb.mizmr,ofwhichitisthetr.inthetitlesofindividualPsalms(e.g.3:1).TheJewishtitleforthewholebookwasBookofPraises:thisreferreddirectlyto
thesubjectmatterofthepoems,andlessdirectlythantheGreektitletotheirmusicalcharacter.Bothtitlestakeintoaccountthemajorityofthepoemsratherthanthe
wholenotallthePsalmsweresungtomusicalaccompaniment,andnotallofthemconsistofpraise.
ThePsaltercontains,accordingtothedivisionoftheHebrewtextfollowedbyEV,150poemstheGreekversioncontains151,butthelastoftheseisdescribedasoutsidethe
number.Thisnumberdoesnotexactlycorrespondwiththenumberofdifferentpoems.Ontheonehand,thereareoneortwoclearcases,andtheremaybeotherslessclear,ofa
singlePsalmhavingbeenwronglydividedintotwothusPsalms9and10areshownbythecontinuanceoftheacrosticschemethroughthelatterPsalm(cf.ACROSTIC,andsee
Expositor,Sept.1906,pp.233253)tohaveonceformed,astheystilldointheGreekversion,asinglepoem.SoPss42,43areshownbytherecurrenceofthesamerefrain(42:5,
11,43:5)tobeonepoem.ButtheGreekversionisscarcelytruetotheoriginalinmakingtwodistinctPsalmsoutofeachofthePsalmsnumbered116and147respectivelyinthe
HebrewtextandEV.Probablyinalargernumberofcases,owingtoanoppositefortune,twopoemsoriginallydistincthavebeenjoinedtogetherunderasinglenumber.Aclear
instanceofthiskindisPs108,whichconsistsoftwoPsalmsorfragmentsofPsalms(viz.57:711,60:512).Amongthemoregenerallysuspectedinstancesofthesamekindare
Pss19(=vv.16+714)24(=vv.16+710)27(=vv.16+714)and36(=14+512).AverymuchlargernumberofsuchinstancesareinferredbyDr.Briggsinhis
Commentary(ICC).
ThePsalterdoesnotcontainquitethewholeofwhatsurvivesofJewishliteratureofthistype.AfewpsalmsnotincludedinthePsalterarefoundinotherbooks:
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ThePsalterdoesnotcontainquitethewholeofwhatsurvivesofJewishliteratureofthistype.AfewpsalmsnotincludedinthePsalterarefoundinotherbooks:
see,e.g.,1S2:110,Is12,38:1020,Hab3.Andwehaveanotherimportant,thoughmuchsmaller,collectionofpsalmsinthePsalmsofSolomonwrittenabout
B.C.63.These,withsuchNTpsalmsasLk1:4655,6879,areimportantasshowingthattheperiodofpsalmcompositionextendedbeyondthecloseoftheOT.
2.Originandhistory
(1)ReceptionintotheCanon.ThehistoryofthePsalmsandthePsalterisobscureandmanyconclusionswithregardtoitrest,andforlackofother
independentevidencemustrest,onpreviousconclusionsastotheoriginandliteraryhistoryofotherHebrewandJewishliterature.Conclusiveexternalevidencefor
theexistenceofthePsalterinitspresentextentdoesnotcarryusveryfarbackbeyondthecloseoftheJewishCanon(seeCANONofOT)butthemodeofallusion
tothePsalmsintheNTrendersitveryunlikelythatthebookwasstillopentoadditionsinthe1stcent.A.D.andthefactthatnoneofthePsalmsofSolomon(see
1,end)gainedadmission,andthatthiscollectionbyitstitleperhapspresupposesthecanonicalPsalmsofDavid,rendersitprobablethatthePsalterwas
complete,andnotopentofurtheradditions,sometimebeforeB.C.63.Otherevidence(cf.HastingsDBiv.147),suchasthatderivedfromthesubstantialagreement
oftheGreekversionwiththeHebrewtext,doesnotcarrytheprooffortheexistenceofthePsalterinitspresentextentmuchfurther.Thenetresultisthat,ifnot
impossible,itisunsafe,toplacethecompletionofthePsaltermuchbelowB.C.100.
(2)Previoushistory.BehindthatdateliesalonghistoryforthePsalterrepresentstheconclusionofacomplexliterarygrowthordevelopment.Wemaynote,
first,twothingsthatprovethisgeneralfact,thatthePsalterisneitherasimpleeditionofthepoemsofasinglemanorasingleage,northefirstcollectionofitskind.
(1)AtthecloseofPs72standthewords:TheprayersofDavidthesonofJesseareended.Thisisintelligibleiftheremarkonceclosedanindependentcollection,
andwastakenoverwiththecollectionbythecompilerofalargerwork.Butapartfromsomesuchhypothesisasthisitisnotintelligiblefortheremarkisnottrueof
thePsalteraswehaveittheprayersofDavidarenotended,otherPsalmsactuallyentitledprayersanddescribedasofDavidarePss86and142andseveral
subsequentPsalmsassignedtoDavidare,withoutbeingsoentitled,actuallyprayers.(2)ThesamePsalmisrepeatedindifferentpartsofthePsalterwithslight
textualoreditorialvariations:thusPs14=Ps5340:1317=70108=57:711+60:512.ThePsalter,then,wascomposedbydrawingon,andinsomecases
incorporating,earliercollectionsofPsalms.
Ournextquestionsare:HowmanycollectionsearlierthanthePsaltercanbetraced?Howfarcanthemethodsoftheeditorwhodrewonorcombinedthese
earliercollectionsbediscerned?Thefirstcluetothefirstquestionmaybefoundinthetitlesreferringtopersonsandtheirdistributionthemoresignificantfeatures
ofthisdistributionmaybeshownthus
1.Pss12arewithouttitle.
2.Pss341areallentitledofDavid,exceptPs10,whichisacontinuationofPs9(seeabove),andPs33.
3.Pss4249areallentitledofthesonsofKorah,exceptPs43,whichisacontinuationofPs42(seeabove).
4.Ps50isentitledofAsaph.
5.Pss5172areallentitledofDavid,exceptPss66,67,71,72.
6.Pss7383areallentitledofAsaph.
7.OfPss8489,four(Pss84,85,87,88)areentitledofthesonsofKorah,one(Ps86)of
David,andone(Ps69)ofEthan.
8.Pss120134areallentitledSongs(soratherthanAsongRV)ofAscent.
Theremaining46Psalms(90119,135150)areeitherwithouttitle,orthetitlesarenotthesameinanyconsiderablenumberofconsecutivePsalms(butnote
108110and138145entitledofDavid).
Now,ifitstoodbyitself,thestatementatthecloseofPs72couldbeexplainedbyasingleprocesstheincorporationofapreviouscollectionconsistingofPss
172byaneditorwhoaddedthesetoPss73150derivedfromothersources.ButwithinPss172wehavetwooccurrencesofthesamePsalm(Ps14=Ps53),
whichinitselfindicatesthatinPss172atleasttwohymnbooksarecombined.Again,Ps53differsfromPs14bytheentireabsencefromitofthenameJahweh
andtheuseinfourplacesofthenameGod,wherePs14usesJahweh(EVtheLORD).SoalsoinPs70=Ps40:1317Jahwehistwiceretained,butthriceitis
replacedbyGod.ButtheeditorialactivitythusimpliedprovesonexaminationtohaveaffectedtheentiregroupofPss4283forthedifferenceintheuseofthe
namesJahwehandGodbetweenPss141andPss4283isremarkable:inPss141Jahwehoccurs272times,God(absolutely)15timesinPss4283
Jahweh43times,butGod200times(seeDriver,LOT 6371).NowthisElohisticPsalter,asPss4283aretermedonaccountofthemarkedpreferencewhichis
showninthemforthetermElohim=God,isoneoftheearliercollectionsembodiedinourPsalterbutitisitselfinturnderivedfromdifferentsourcesforit
includesthegroupofDavidsPsalmswhichcloseswiththestatementthatthePrayersofDavidareendedastatementwhich,thoughnottrueofthewholePsalter,
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includesthegroupofDavidsPsalmswhichcloseswiththestatementthatthePrayersofDavidareendedastatementwhich,thoughnottrueofthewholePsalter,
istrueofthisearlierPsalter,forbetweenPss7383noprayerofDavidoccurs.ItalsoincludesPsalmsofthesonsofKorahandofAsaph.Verypossiblythis
ElohisticPsalterhasnotreachedusinitsoriginalconditionfor(1)theuntitledPsalmsmayhavebeensubsequentlyinsertedand(2)thePsalmsentitledofAsaph
mayhaveoncestoodalltogether:atpresentPs50standsisolatedfromtherest(Pss7383).
InadditiontotheoccurrencesofPsalmsintworecensionsandtheoccurrenceofsimilartitlesorgroups,anotherfeaturepointstoearlierindependentbooksof
Psalms:thisistheoccurrenceofadoxologyorsuitableconcludingformulaatcertainpointsinthePsalter,viz.41:13attheendofthefirstgroupofPsalmsentitled
ofDavid72:18,19immediatelybeforethestatementthatthePrayersofDavidareendedand89:52.Seealso106:48and150,whichlastPsalminitsentirety
maybetakenasanenlargeddoxologyatthecloseofthecompletedPsalter.ThedoxologiesattheendofPss41and72occuratpointswhichwehavealready
foundreasonforregardingasthecloseofcollectionsthatat89:52,however,occursnotatthecloseoftheElohisticPsalms,butsixPsalmslater.Nowfiveofthese
sixPsalmsaredrawnfromthesamesourcesassuppliedtheElohisticeditor,viz.fromtheprayersofDavid(Ps86)andthebookofthesonsofKorah.InPss42
89wenotimprobablyhavetheoriginalElohisticPsalter(Pss4283),enlargedbytheadditionofanappendix(Pss8489),inwhichthenameJahwehwasleft
unchanged,andconsequentlytheformElohimceasestopredominate.
From the evidence thus far considered or suggested (it cannot here be given in greater detail), we may infer some such stages as these in the history of the
PsalmsbeforethecompletionofthePsalter:
1.CompilationofabookentitledofDavidandincludingPss341(excepttheuntitledPs33).
2.CompilationofasecondhymnbookentitledofDavid(Pss5172,withexceptions).
3.CompilationofabookentitledofAsaph(Asaphbeingthenameofaguildofsingers,Ezr2:11).
4.CompilationofabookentitledofthesonsofKorah(alsoprobablyaguildofsingerscf.2Ch20:19).
5.CompilationoftheElohisticPsalteroutofPsalmsderivedfrom2,3,4byaneditorwhogenerallysubstitutedElohim(God)forJahweh(EVthe
LORD).
6.Enlargementof5bytheadditionofPss8489.
7.CompilationofabookentitledSongsoftheAscents.
CanwedetecttheexistenceofotherearlierPsalters?Sofarwehavetakenaccountmainlyoftitlesofonetypeonlyandoftitleswhichoccuringroups.Dr.
BriggscarriestheargumentfromtitlestotheexistenceofcollectionsofPsalmsfurther.HeinfersthattherewasacollectionofMichtamsorchosenpieces,whence
Pss16,5660andIs38:920weredrawnanothercollectionofMaschilsormeditations,whencePss32,4245,5255,74,78,88,89,142werederivedanother
collectionofPsalmsproper,ofpoemssettomusic,whencethe57PsalmsdescribedinthetitlesasMizmor(EVpsalm)werederivedandyetanothercollection
whichborethenameofthemusicaldirectororchoirmaster(EVthechiefmusician),whencethe55Psalmssoentitledwerederived.Ifthisbethecase,thenthe
compositetitlesenableustoseethatmanyPsalmsstoodsuccessivelyintwoorthreecollectionsbeforetheyobtainedtheirplaceinthecompletedPsaltere.g.Ps19
entitledof(orbelongingto)thechiefmusician,aPsalm,of(orbelongingto)DavidhadpreviouslybeenincludedinthreedistinctcollectionsandsoalsoPs
44entitledofthechiefmusician,ofthesonsofKorah,Maschil.PerhapsthestrongestcaseforthesefurthercollectionsisthatofthechiefmusiciansPsalterin
anycase,theEnglishreadermustbewarnedthattheprepositionprefixedtothechiefmusicianisthesameasthatprefixedtoDavidorAsaphorthesonsof
Korah,thoughinthefirstcaseRVrendersforandinthelattercasesof.Consequently,sinceinmanycasesitisimpossible,owingtointerveningwords(e.g.in
Pss12,45),tointerpretsuchacombinationasofthechiefmusician,ofDavid,ofthechiefmusician,ofthesonsofKorahofjointauthorship,wemustseein
themeitherconflictingascriptionsofauthorshipplacedsidebyside,or,farmoreprobably,asjustsuggested,thetitlesofcollectionsofPsalmsorhymnbooksto
whichtheyhadpreviouslybelonged.ItisthenhighlyprobablethatinthefirstinstancesuchtitlesasofDavid,ofAsaph,ofthesonsofKorah,wereneither
intendednorunderstoodtonametheauthorofthePsalminquestion.Butifthiswasso,wecanalsoseethatbeforethefinalstageinthegrowthofthePsalterthey
weremisunderstoodforthetitleofDavidclearlyimpliedauthorshiptotheauthor(s)ofthelongertitlesinPss7and8:itisscarcelylessclearthatthetitleimplied
authorshiptotheauthorsofothertitlesthatsuggestanhistoricalsetting(see,e.g.,Pss3,57).
TitlesofthePsalms.InasmuchasthetermsoccurringinthetitlestothePsalmsarenotexplainedelsewhereinthisDictionary,itwillbeconvenienttogiveherebriefnoteson
thosewhichhavenotalreadybeendiscussed.Itmaybesaidingeneralthatgreatobscurityenshroudsthesubject,andthat,inspiteofthemanyingeniousspeculationstowhichthe
termsinquestionhavegivenrise,itishazardoustobase,onanyparticulartheoriesofinterpretation,farreachingconclusions.Withfewexceptionsthetitlesofthelatterpartofthe
Psalter(Pss90150)arefreefromtheseterms.
ApparentlywehaveinthetitlesnotonlynotesindicatingthesourcewhencethePsalmwasderived(seeabove),butalsoinsomecasesnotesdefiningthecharacterofthePsalm
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ApparentlywehaveinthetitlesnotonlynotesindicatingthesourcewhencethePsalmwasderived(seeabove),butalsoinsomecasesnotesdefiningthecharacterofthePsalm
(seebelow,Nos.12and13and[?)No.18),orsomecircumstancesofitsuse.ThusPs92wastobeusedontheSabbath,Ps30attheFeastoftheDedication(1Mac4:56,Jn
10:22),celebratedfromthetimeoftheMaccabeesonwardand
Pa100ontheoccasionofofferingthankofferingsoalsotobringtoremembrance(EV)inPss38and70mayrathermeanatthetimeofmakingtheofferingcalledazkarah(RV
memorial,e.g.Nu5:26)seealsoNo.5(below).ThistypeofnoteismorefrequentintheLXX,whichassignsPs24fortheuseofthefirstdayoftheweek,Pa48forthesecond,
Pa94forthethird,Ps93forthedaybeforetheSabbath.Othertitles,itissupposed,name,bytheopeningwordsofsongssungtoitorotherwise,thetunetowhichthePsalmwas
tobesung(seeAijelethhashshahar,Altashheth,Jonathelemrehokim,Shoshannimseebelow),ortheinstrumentswhichweretoaccompanythesingingofthePsalm(?Nehiloth,
Neginoth).
Foreaseofreferencewegivethetermsinalphabeticorder.
1. Aijelethhashshahar(Ps22)isatransliterationofHeb.wordswhichmeanthehindofthemorningtheHeb.consonantsmightequallywellmeanthehelpofthe
morning.ThesewordsareprecededbytheHeb.prepositional,which,amongmanyothers,hasthemeaninginaccordancewith,andhereandinothersimilartitlesnot
improbablymeanssetto(AV).Thewholenote,then,maymeanthatthePsalmwastobesungtothetunetowhichthesongbeginningthehind(orthehelp)ofthemorning
hadbeenaccustomedtobesung.TherenderingsuponAijelethShahar(AV)andconcerningAijelethhashshahararealsolegitimate,butlessprobable.Withthistitlecf.below
Nos.3,7,9,10,14,19(notallequallyprobableinstances).
2. Alamoth(Ps46).ThistermandSheminith(Pss6,12)mustbetreatedtogether.TheyareprecededbythesameprepositionaldiscussedunderNo.1,andaccordinglyRV
renderssettotheSheminith,etc.Butitishardlylikely,inviewof1Ch15:1921,thatthesetermsarenamesoftunes,thoughtheyobviouslyhavesomereferencetothemusic.
TheusualmeaningofsheminithinHeb.iseighth,ofalamothyoungwomensothatthetitlesrunuponoraccordingtoorsettotheeighthorthemaidens.The
maidens,itisconjectured,meansthevoicesofmaidens,andthat,itisfurtherconjectured,standsforthefalsettovoiceofmalessothatthewholephrasesettothemaidens
wouldmeantobesungwithsopranovoices.Thence,itisinferred,settotheeighthmeanssungwiththebassvoice.Allthis,thoughithasfoundconsiderableacceptanceand
hassometimesbeenstatedwithlittleornoqualification,possessesnomorethanthevalueofanunverifiedandperhapsunverifiableguess.
3. Altashheth(Pss57,58,59,75).Thewordsmeandestroynot,andmaybethebeginningofavintagesongcitedinIs65:8Destroyitnot,forablessingisinit.Then
thenotepresumablydirectsthatthePsalmsshallbesungtothetuneofthissong(cf.No.1).Buttheomissionoftheprepositionalusedinsimilarcasesissuspicious.
4. TheChiefMusician.Seepreced.column.
5. Ascents(RVdegreesAV),asongof(Pss120134).TheHeb.mayalsobethepluralofacompoundexpression,andmeanSongsofAscent.Inthelattercasethetitle
ofthewholecollectionhasbeenprefixedtoeachPsalm(seeabove).SongsofAscentmightmeanSongsoftheAscent(cf.Ezr7:9),fromBabylon,butmoreprobablySongsof
theAscenttoJerusalemontheoccasionofthegreatyearlyfestivals.OnthesuppositionthatthemeaningisAsongofAscents(pl.),thephrasehasbeenexplainedwithreference
tothe15ascentsorsteps(suchisthemeaningoftheHeb.wordinEx20:23,1K10:19f.),thatledfromtheWomensCourttothatofthemenintheTempleareaithasbeen
inferredthatoneofeachofthese15Psalmswassungoneachofthe15steps.Otheringeniousbutimprobablesuggestionshavebeenoffered(cf.,mostlately,J.W.Thirtle,Old
TestamentProblems).
6. DedicationoftheHouse,i.e.theTemple(Ps30).Seeaboveandart.DEDICATION[FEASTOFTHE].
7. Gittith(Pss8,81,84).Thewordisthefem.oftheadj.derivedfromGath.Inthethreetitlesitisprecededbytheprep.al(seeunderNo.1),andthephrasehasbeen
supposedtomeanthatthePsalmwastobesungtotheaccompanimentoftheGittiteinstrument(cf.Nos.15and?16),whateverthatmayhavebeen,ortotheGittitetune(cf.No.
1).IfthewordwasoriginallypronouncedGittoth(pl.ofgath,awinepress),thenotemaydirectthatthePsalmsweretobesungtosomevintagemelody(cf.No.3).
8. Higgaion.Thewordthustransliteratedin9:16(RV)istranslatedin92:3asolemnsound(RV),murmuringsound(Driver),andin19:14.meditation.In9:16it
seemstobeamusicalnote.
9. Jeduthun.OntheanalogyofofDavid,etc.(seeabove),thetitleinPs39shouldrunofthesonsofKorah,ofJeduthun.InPss62,77theprepositionprefixedtothe
termisal(cf.No.1),andbyanalogyJeduthunmightbethenameofatuneoraninstrument.Butthisisveryuncertainseeart.
JEDUTHUN.
10. Jonathelemrehokim(Ps56).TheHeb.consonantsaremostnaturallytranslatedthedoveofthedistantterebinthslessprobably,butasthetraditionembodiedinthe
vocalizedHeb.textsuggests,thedoveofthesilenceofthemthataredistant.ThenoteistobeexplainedasNo.1.
11. Mahalath(Ps53),MahalathLeanooth(Ps88).Thewordsareveryambiguousandobscure,butthefactthatinbothPsalmstheprep.alprecedes,relatesthesenotesto
thegroupofwhichNo.1istypical.
12. Maschil(Pss32,4245,5255,7478,88,89,142).Thetermdescribesthecharacterofthepoem,butwhetheritsprecisemeaningisameditation(Briggs)oracunning
Psalm(Kirkpatrick),orsomethingelse,cannotbedeterminedwithcertainty.Seealsop.771a.
13. Michtam(Pss16,5660,alsoperhapsintheoriginaltextofIs38:9)isatermlikethelast,butofstillmoreuncertainmeaning.TheRabbinicalinterpretationagolden
(poem)thoughadoptedbyBriggs,isquiteunconvincing.
14. Muthlabben(Ps9).TheHeb.consonantsmaymeanDeathwhitens,andthismayhavebeenthecommencementofasongwhichgaveanametoatunecf.No.1.Butit
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14. Muthlabben(Ps9).TheHeb.consonantsmaymeanDeathwhitens,andthismayhavebeenthecommencementofasongwhichgaveanametoatunecf.No.1.Butit
isnotunreasonabletosuspectthetext,asmanyhavedone.
15. Neginoth(AVinPss4,6,54,55,67,76)andNeginah(Ps61).Thewordsthus,inexcessofcaution,transliteratedbyAV,arecorrectlytranslatedbyRVstringed
instruments(Ps61song),andsoevenbyAVinHab3:19.
16. Nehiloth(Ps5),oftensupposedtomeanwindinstruments(cf.No.15).Butthisisquitedoubtful.Uncertain,too,istheviewthatthewordindicatesatunethe
preposition(el)thatprecedesisnotthesameasthatwhichgenerallyintroduceswhatappeartobenamesoftuneselsewhere(cf.No.1)butcf.No.19.
17. Sheminith.SeeNo.2.
18. Shiggaion(Ps7).Thepl.ofthisword(Shigionoth)occursinHab3:1,possiblybyerrorforNeginoth(cf.No.15),whichperhapsstoodinthetextfromwhichtheGreek
versionwasmade.Therootfromwhichthewordisderivedmeanstogoastrayortoreel(as,e.g.,fromdrunkenness).Hence,sinceEwald,manyhaveconjecturedthat
Shiggaionmeansawild,passionatesong,withrapidchangesofrhythm(Oxf.Lex.).Themeaningreallyremainsentirelyuncertain.
19. Shoshannim(Pss45,69),Shushaneduth(Ps60),andShoshannimeduth(Ps80)appeartobedifferentwaysofcitingthesamesongtothetuneofwhichthesePsalms
weretobesung.Theprepositionusedbeforethesewordsisal(cf.No.1),exceptinPs80,whereitisel,whichinsomecasesisusedinterchangeablywithal.Itiscuriousthat
Psalmssodifferentas45and69shouldbesettothesametune.Ps80citesthefirsttwowordsofthepoem,(Like)lilies(orratheranemones)istheTestimony(orLaw)Pss45,
69thefirstwordonlyandPs60apparentlywasvariant,(Like)alily(singularforplural),etc.
3.Datesofthevariouscollections.IsitpossibletodeterminethedatesatwhichanyofthesecollectionsofPsalmsweremade?Obviouslytheyareearlier
thanthecompletionofthePsalter,i.e.thanaboutB.C.100(seeabove)obviouslyalsothecollectionswerelaterthanthelatestPsalmwhichtheyoriginally
contained.OneormorePsalmsinallthecollectionsshowmoreorlessgenerallyadmittedsignsofbeingpostexilic.Thevariouscollectionsthereforewhichwe
haveinthePsalterwerecompiledbetweenthe6thandthe2ndcenturiesB.C.Byargumentswhichcannotherebereproduced,RobertsonSmith(OTJCch.vii.)
reachedthefollowingconclusionsindetail.ThefirstDavidiccollection(Pss341)wascompiledaboutthetimeofEzraandNehemiahthesecondDavidic
collection(Pss5772)inthe4thcent.theAsaphite(Pss50,7383)andKorahite(Pss4249)collectionsbetweenB.C.430and330.Dr.
BriggsplacestheKorahiticandAsaphitecollectionssomewhatlaterafterB.C.332theElohisticPsalter(Pss4283)andthechiefmusicianscollectioninthe3rd
cent.B.C.Butwhateverthevalueofthesedetailedconclusions,whicharenotallverysecure,onegeneralfactofmuchimportancealreadystandsout:theperiod
betweentheExileandthe1stcent.B.C.wasmarkedbymuchactivityinthecollectionandeditingofPsalmsandthis,apartfromthedatesofindividualPsalms,is
significantforthepartplayedbythePsalmsinthereligiouslifeofthepostexiliccommunity.
4.DatesofindividualPsalms.FromthecollectionswepasstothedifficultandmuchdiscussedquestionofthedatesoftheindividualPsalms.Allthatwill
bepossiblehereistopointoutcertaingenerallinesofevidence,withoneortwoillustrationsindetail.Ifthedetailedconclusionswithreferencetothecollections
aresound,aminimumdateisfixedformanyPsalms:e.g.Pss341(excepttheuntitledPs33)arenotlaterthanaboutthetimeofEzraandNehemiahPss4249
and50,73and83notlater(onRobertsonSmithstheory)thanB.C.330,andsoon.Thecollectionsareindeedpostexilic,butinitselfthatneednotpreventeven
thewholeofthePsalmsbeingpreexilic:thecollectionsmightbepostexilichymnbookscomposedentirelyofancienthymns.Asamatteroffact,notallthe
PsalmsarepreexilicmanyoftheindividualPsalmsaresomewhatclearlyofpostexilicoriginindeed,thereisafairlygeneralconsensusofopinionthatthe
majority,aconsiderablebodyofopinionthatthegreatmajority,ofthePsalmsarepostexilic.Signsofexilicorpostexilicoriginare:(1)AllusionstotheExileor
thedesolationofZion,asapresentorpastfact,asthecasemaybe:seee.g.51:18f.,89:4451,102:13,16,106:47,107:3ff.,126:1,137:1,147:2.Theprofanation
oftheTemplebytheheathenalludedtoinPss7479mayreferrathertotheeventsofMaccabantimes(B.C.165)thanto586.(2)Otherallusionstosocialand
politicalconditions,suchasthefrequentdivisionoftheJewsintoreligiousparties,withtheuseoftermslikethepoor,thepious(Chasdm)aspartynamesbut
thisandothersuchallusionsaredifferentlyinterpretedandweighedbydifferentscholars.(3)Languagesuchasthatof,e.g.,Pss116,139styleandlanguagein
manyotherPsalmsislessconclusivethough(grantedcertainpreviousconclusions)notwithoutweight.(4)Dependenceuponexilicandpostexilicwritings:e.g.
Pss93,96100almostcertainly,andPs57mostprobably,implyfamiliarityonthepartofthewriterwithmuchofIs4066.(5)Thepresenceofcertainreligious
ideaswhichwerenotdevelopedtilllateinthehistoryofIsraelsreligion.ThereismuchvarietyofjudgmentastothenumberofPsalmsandtheparticularPsalms
shownbythesecriteriatobelate,but,aspreviouslystated,itisadmittedlylarge.Strictlyspeaking,indeed,thesecriteriadeterminethedateofthosesectionsonlyto
whichtheyapply,notnecessarilythatoftheentirePsalmandifitcanbeshownthattheobviouslypostexilicsectionsinanyparticularPsalmareinterpolations,the
restofthePsalmmaybe(but,ofcourse,bynomeansnecessarilyis)preexilic.Dr.BriggsinhisCommentaryhascarriedthehypothesisofinterpolationfar,using
ashistestcertaintheoriesofmetreandstrophe.
What,then,arethepositivecriteriaforpreexilicPsalmsorpreexilicelementsinPsalmswhichmayshowinpartsobvioussignsofpostexilicorigin?Failing
suchcriteria,thePsalmscannotbeshowntobeconsiderablyearlierthanthepostexiliccollectionsinwhichtheyhavecomedowntous.Thecriterionofpreexilic
datemostreliedonisanallusiontothekingfromthefallofJudahinB.C.586downtoB.C.105,whenAristobulusI.assumedthetitleofking,therewasnonative
kingofJudah.Now,sincein,e.g.,Pss20,21theallusiontothekingcannotsatisfactorilybeexplainedofaforeignmonarch,andthesePsalmscannotbethrownas
lateasB.C.105,itappearstofollowthattheyoriginatedbefore586.OtherPsalmsalludingtoakingwhocannotwellbeaforeigner,orhavelivedsolateasB.C.105
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kingofJudah.Now,sincein,e.g.,Pss20,21theallusiontothekingcannotsatisfactorilybeexplainedofaforeignmonarch,andthesePsalmscannotbethrownas
lateasB.C.105,itappearstofollowthattheyoriginatedbefore586.OtherPsalmsalludingtoakingwhocannotwellbeaforeigner,orhavelivedsolateasB.C.105
,arePss2,18,28,45,61,63,72.Yettherestillremainsaquestionofinterpretation:isthekinginthesePsalmsanactualcontemporaryindividual,ortheMessianic
kingwhetherregardedasanindividualorastheroyalpeopleofIsrael(cf.JQR,1895,p.658ff.)?Ifthelatterinterpretationiscorrect(as,e.g.,inthecaseofPs2at
least,itprobablyis),thevalueoftheallusionasacriterionofpreexilicdatevanishesforareferencetoakingwhoisnotapersonofhistorybutanideal
conceptionisnotlessprobableinapostexilicthaninapreexilicpoem.Further,apurelyproverbialallusiontotheking,suchasoccursinPs33:16,furnishesno
validcriterionforpreexilicorigin,nordoesanallusiontokingsintheplural(e.g.Ps119:46,148:11).
If,asthepreviousremarksshouldhavesuggested,itisinmostcasesonlypossibletodeterminewhetheraPsalmispreexilicorpostexiliconevidence
somewhatwidelyapplicable,andinmanycasesimpossibletodetermineeventhisquitedecisively,itshouldbeclearthattheattempttofixtheauthorshipordatesof
Psalmsverypreciselymustgenerallyprovefruitless.Arethereanythatcanbereferred,evenwithgreatprobability,toaparticularoccasionasthatoftheirorigin,or
toaparticularwriter?ThemerefactthataPsalmmayappeartoussuitabletoaparticularoccasion,as,e.g.,Ps46tothedeliverancefromSennacheribin701,does
notnecessarilyprovethatitevenreferstoit,stilllessthatitwaswrittenatthetimethequestionarises,istheoccasioninquestiontheonlyonetowhichthetermsof
thePsalmareapplicable,orarethosetermssufficientlyspecifictorenderitimprobablethatthePsalmmighthavefittedotheroccasionsunknowntous,orbut
partiallyknown?ThusPss44,74,79,118presupposeconditionswhichresemblewhatisknownoftheperiodoftheMaccabanrevolt(cf.1
Maccabees),morecloselythanwhatisknownofanyotherperiod,andonthatgroundtheyhavebeenassignedbymanytotheMaccabanperiodthequestionis.
Arethedescriptionssospecificthattheymightnotalsocorrespondtotheconditionsofthemiddleofthe4thcent.B.C.(towhichotherscholarshavereferredPss
44,74,79)ifwewereequallywellinformedwithregardtothese?
5.ThequestionofDavidicPsalms.ThequestionofauthorshipretainsaninterestonlywithreferencetoDavid.ThetheorythatDavidwastheauthorof
Psalmscanbetracedbackasfarasthetime(nottobedatedveryprecisely,butcenturiesatleastafterDavidstime)whenthehistoricalnoteswereaddedincertain
PsalmstothetitleofDavid(seeabove).Whetheritgoesbackfurther(exceptinthecaseofPs18=2S22seebelow)tothetimeoftheoriginofthecollection
entitledofDavidislessclear,foritisbynomeanscertainthatthesimilartitleofthechiefmusicianreferredtoauthorship(seeabove).Still,wemayconsiderthe
argumentwhich,basedontheassumptionthatitdid,istotheeffectthatifsomanyPsalms(as73intheHebrewtext,moreintheGreektext,andallinlaterJewish
tradition)wereattributedtoDavid,somemustactuallybehis,thoughmanysoentitledaredemonstrablyandadmittedlynot.Inaword,wherethereismuchsmoke,
theremusthavebeensomefire.TheargumentatbestdoesnotseemtojustifymorethanastrongprobabilitythatDavidwrotepsalmsandpossiblythefactthat
Davidwasafamouspoet,eventhoughallhispoemsmorenearlyresembled2S1:1927thanthePsalms,coupledwithhisfameasazealousworshipperof
Jahweh,maybetheextentofthehistoricalfactunderlyingthelatetraditions.Butevengrantedthattheevidencewerestrongenoughtojustifythestatementthat
somePsalmsofDavidarepreservedinthePsalter,themostimportantproblemstillremainstobesolved,viz.whichPsalmsinparticularareDavids?Itwillbe
foundonanexaminationthatthepositivereasonsassignedforregardinganyparticularPsalmasDavidsareinconclusive:theyoftenamounttonothingmorethan
anargumentthatthereisnothinginsuchandsuchPsalmswhichforbidsustoascribethemtoDavid.TherearesomePsalmswhichinwholeorinpartmaynotbe
incompatiblewithwhatweknowofDavidslife,buttheallusionsaretoogeneraltoenableustodenythattheyareequallyapplicabletomanyotherlives.The
PsalmwhichismostgenerallyclaimedforDavidbythosewhogobeyondthegeneralargumentandspecifyparticularPsalmsashis,isPs18butmanywhohold
thistobeinthemainDavidsfeelcompelledtotreatvv.2027aslater.AnexternalargumentinfavouroftheDavidicauthorshipofthisPsalmhasoftenbeen
soughtinthefactthatitappearsin2S22aswellasinthePsalterbuttheargumentisoflittlevalueitcarriesusback,indeed,beyondtheevidenceofthePsalm
titles,buttheBooksofSamuelwerecomposedlongafterDavidstime,and2S22occursinasection(2S2124)whichshowssignsthatentitleustoconclude
thatitwasinsertedafterthemainworkwascomplete.Wemaysafelyconcludethus:TherearePsalmsinthePsalterofwhich,ifwemayremovecertainpartsas
laterinterpolations,aresiduumremainsofwhichitwouldbeunjustifiabletoassertthatitwasnotwrittenbyDavid.
6.Characterofthecontents:theIofthePsalms.ButifwecannotdeterminetheauthorsofthePsalms,ortheparticularoccasionsoutofwhichthey
sprang,wemayyetask,andoughttoask,Whattypeofpersonswrotethem,whattypeofexperiencesdotheyembody,withwhattypeofsubjectdotheydeal?In
ordertoanswerthesequestions,itwillbenecessarytodiscussbrieflyanimportantprincipleofinterpretation.
AconsiderableproportionofthePsalmsdescribe,fromthewritersstandpoint,theexperiencesoraspirationsorthereligionsfaithofthenationorofthe
religiouscommunitywhetherthiscommunitybecoextensivewiththenationoragrouporpartywithinit.ThePsalmswhichmostobviouslybelongtothisclass
arethoseinwhichthepronounofthefirstpersonpluralisused.Thesearesome27innumber(seePss21,33,46,47,48,50,60,[bothvv.14and512=108:6
13]65.[inv.3aVulg.andLXXreadusforme]67,79,80,81,90,95,98,99,
100,105,113,115,117,124,126,132,136,144,147).Inanothergroupof25Psalms(viz.Pss
8,17,22,40,44,59,62,66,68,71,74,75,78,84,85,89,94,103,106,116,118,122,135,137,141)thepersonalpronounissometimesinthefirstsingular,
sometimesinthefirstpluralthisinterchangeisnotperhapstobealwaysaccountedforinthesamewaybutinsomeofthesePsalmsitisobviouslythemain
purposeofthewritertodescribetheexperiencesofthenation(cf.e.g.,Pss44,74,78).AnothergroupofPsalms,notsoeasilydefinedasthetwopreceding,but
includingsome22Psalmsatleast(Pss1,12,14,(=53)15,19:16,24,29,34,72,76,82,93,96,97,107,112,114,125,127,133,134,148,149,150),areas137/144
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includingsome22Psalmsatleast(Pss1,12,14,(=53)15,19:16,24,29,34,72,76,82,93,96,97,107,112,114,125,127,133,134,148,149,150),areas
littlelimitedtoindividualexperienceasthefirst:theyare,forexample,callstopraiseGodforHisgoodness,ordescriptionsofthecharacterwhichispleasingto
God.TheremainderofthePsalms,about(yetbarely)halfthewholenumber,appearsuperficially,incontrasttotheforegoing,todescribetheexperiencesor
aspirationsofsomeindividual.Theyarewritteninthefirstpersonsingular.ButinonePsalm,owingtoitspeculiarstructure,thePsalmistsuppliestheinterpretation
ofthepronounoffirstsingular,andinthiscasethesingularpronounrefers,nottoanindividual,buttothenation(seePs129:1).Thepersonificationofthenation
asanindividualwhichunderliesthisusageoccursofteninHebrewliterature(seeS ERVANTOFTHELORD,5).HowfardoesitextendinthePsalter?isthemuch
afflictedsubjectofotherPsalmswritteninthefirstpersonanindividual,or,likethemuchafflictedsubjectofPs129,Israel?Forinstance,doestheauthorofthe
words,ThouwiltnotabandonmysoultoSheol,norsufferthyholyonetoseecorruption(Ps16:10),expresstheconvictionthathehimselfwillneverseedeath
(foritisthisandnotresurrectionthatthewordsimply),orthatIsraelwillneverceasetobe?DoestheauthorofPs51makeconfessionofpurelypersonalsins(vv.
15),andlookforwardasanindividualtoamissionarycareer(v.13),or,liketheauthorsofLa1:1822,Is63:764:12,doeshe,identifyinghimselfwithhis
people,makeconfessionofnationalsins?Itisimpossibleeithertodiscussthisfullyhere,ortoattempttodeterminehowfartheuseofI=Israelextendsbeyond
Ps129.OneotherfeatureofthePsalmswhichsuperficiallyappeartodescribetheexperiencesoftheindividualmaybenoted:manyofthembreakoffintoperfectly
obviousprayersforthenation(e.g.Ps25:22,28:9),orintoappealstothecommunityasawholetoparticipateinthewritersexperienceoraspirations(cf.e.g.Ps
30:4f.,32:11).ThesedeparturesfromtheapparentlyindividualtenoroftherestofthePsalmaresometimestreatedasglossesandtheymaybesuch.Notallof
thesePsalmsneedhavethesameorigin:somemayhavebeenoriginallywrittenasnationalconfessions,some,originallyofamoreexclusivelyindividualcharacter,
mayhavebeenfittedforusebythecommunity,bytheadditionofliturgicalversesandtheeliminationofwhatwastoolimitedtobeofgeneralapplicability.
Summary.TheconclusiontobedrawnevenfromthisbriefsurveyoftheoriginofthePsalterandthecharacterofthePsalmsmaybestatedthus:ThePsalms
aswehavereceivedthemaresacredpoemsthatreflectmoreorlessclearlytheconditionsofthepostexilicJewishcommunityandexpressitsvaryingreligious
feelingsandaspirationsinoriginsomeofthesePsalmsmaygobacktothepreexilicperiod,somemayoriginallyhavesprungoutofcircumstancespeculiartoan
individualbutinconsequenceofeditingbythesuccessivecompilersofthepostexilichymnbooksthroughwhichthePsalmshavecomedowntous,mostofthe
peculiarlypreexilicorindividualcharacteristicswhichmayhavedistinguishedthemoriginallyhavebeenlargelyobliterated.
7.ReligiousvalueandinfluenceofthePsalter.ProbablynobookoftheOThasexercisedamoreprofoundandextensiveinfluenceoversucceedingages
thanthePsalms.AmongtheJews,indeed,theLawhasreceivedamorepersistentandgreaterattentionbuttheplaceofthePsalmsinthehistoryoftheChristian
ChurchandinChristianexperienceistypifiedbythefrequencywithwhichtheyarequotedintheNT.Totracethisinfluence,ortoillustrateitasMr.Protherohasso
excellentlydoneinhisvolumeentitledThePsalmsinHumanLife,fallsoutsidethescopeofthisarticle.Allthatcanbeattempted,andeventhatbutvery
inadequately,istoindicatesomeoftheleadingreligiousideas,someofthestrikingreligiousqualitiesofthePsalms.Andindoingthisitisnecessarytoemphasize
clearlythefactthatsuchideasandqualitiesarebynomeanscommontoallthe150ormorepoemswhichwerewrittenbyanindefinitenumberofwriters,andwere
gatheredtogetherinourPsalter.Whataloneisaimedathereistodrawattentiontosomeofthequalitiesthatareatleastfrequentlypresent,andsomeoftheideas
whichfrequentlyorstrikinglyappeartotheideasandqualitieswhichhaveinlargemeasurebeenthecauseofthegreatandpersistentinfluencewhichthePsalms
haveexercised.
(1)ThePsalmsoccupyapeculiarpositionintheOTliteratureinconsequenceoftheircharacter.TheLawcodifiesthecustomsofIsraelwhichhadreceivedthe
approvalofJahwehtheHistoricalNarrativesrelateJahwehsdealingswithIsraeltheProphetsdeliverJahwehsmessagetoIsrael,andinthePsalmsIsraelreplies.
Thesedistinctionsareofcoursebroadlydrawn,andwemayfind,forexample,inJeremiah(e.g.20:7ff.)contentionswithJahwehthatmaybesomewhatclosely
paralleledinthePsalmsor,again,thefactsthatfacedtheauthoroftheBookofJobarediscussed,forexample,inPss37,49,73,thoughmorebriefly,andinthe
caseofPss37and49lesspenetratingly.YetitistruethatinthemainthePsaltercontainstheprayersandpraisesofIsrael,andthattheyhavebecomeclassicaland
stimulatingexamplesforlatergenerations.
(2)ButifinthePsalmsIsraelspeakstoGod,itspeaksasonewhohasbeentaughtbytheProphets.TheProphetsstoodalone,orsupportedbybutasmall
companyofdisciples,addressingadeaforgainsayingnationthePsalmistsidentifythemselveseitherwiththeirwholepeopleoratleastwithanumerous,if
oppressed,community.TheProphetsupbraidthepeoplewithforgettingJahweh,withforsakingHimforothergodsthePsalmistsfinddifficultyinaccountingfor
thecalamitiesthathavecomeupontheirnation,whichhasnotforgottenGod,butsuffersforitsveryloyaltytoHim(e.g.Ps44:20[renderIfwehadforgotten,
etc.]).TheprophetoftheExileendeavourstoawakenIsraeltoitsdestinyasamissionarynation(Is4055cf.art.
S ERVANTOFTHELORD)theIsraelofmanyofthePsalmshasacceptedtherole(e.g.47,51,100).ButafulldiscussionofthemanifoldinfluenceoftheProphetson
thePsalmistsisimpossiblehere.
(3)WeturnnowtothePsalmistsbeliefinGod:andhereitmustsufficetodrawattentiontotwofeaturesthebreadthoftheconception,andtheintensityof
theconsciousness,ofGod.TheearlybeliefofIsraelthatothergodsbesidesJahwehexistedhaslefttracesinthePsalter,butisprobablynowherepresentasaliving
belief.SomeofthePsalmistsusephrasesthatoriginallysprangfromabeliefinothergods(e.g.77:13,95:3),butthemereuseofsuchphrasesprovesnothingasto
theactualbeliefofalatergenerationthatmaycontinuetoemploythemwecontinuetousethemourselvesandoftenthePsalmistsrefertoothergodsonlyinorder
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theactualbeliefofalatergenerationthatmaycontinuetoemploythemwecontinuetousethemourselvesandoftenthePsalmistsrefertoothergodsonlyinorder
toemphasizeJahwehssupremacy(89:68,96:4),ortoimitatetheargumentswithwhichtheDeuteroIsaiahhadridiculedthegodsofthenationsoutofexistence
(e.g.115,135).AdeepereffectoftheearlierbeliefmayprobablybeseeninwhatisinanycaseaconspicuousandpermanentlyinfluentialfeatureofthePsalms
theintimacyoftheconsciousnessofGod.InIsraelthemonotheisticideasprang,notfromanabstractionofwhatwascommontomanygodspreviouslyorstill
worshipped,butfromtheexpansionofthethoughtofthesameoneGodwhomaloneIsraelhadpreviouslyworshipped.WhileIsraelbelievedthegodsofother
nationstoberealbeingssetoveragainstJahweh,itwasnaturalforthemtofeelapeculiarlycloserelationtoJahweh,tolookuponHimastheirpossessionthe
beliefinothergodsperished,thesenseof
JahwehasacloseandintimatePersonalitysurvivedandnotalittleoftheenduringpowerofthePsalmsisduetothevividapprehensionofGodthatresulted.
JahwehisthelivingGodasopposedtotheunrealitiesthathavebeentakenbyotherpeoplesasgods.SupremeinNature(Pss8,104,93)asinHistory(andsuch
HeistomanyatleastofthePsalmists),Jahwehneverthelessremembersandvisitsman(Ps8)Heabidesthoughallelseperishes(e.g.Pss46,102),andtothose
whopossessHimallelsesinksintoinsignificance(Ps73:25ff.).
Attimes,indeed,thissenseofpossessingJahwehobscuresforthePsalmiststhefullmeaningofJahwehastheoneandonlyGodofthewholeworldandofall
mankind.NotalltheimprecatoryPsalms,astheyaretermed,showasenseoftheuniversalityofJahwehsrelations.
Butinotherstheuniversalnoteringsclear(see,e.g.,Pss47,65,67,100).
(4)ThisbringsustoanotherfeatureofthePsalmswhichhascontributedtotheinfluenceexercisedbythemthehopethatisinthem,theirMessianicoutlook.
Theylookbeyondthepresentwhichforthewritersisoftenfullofoppressionandaffliction,toafuturewhichissometimesdescribedwithsomefulness(e.g.Ps72),
butisoftenmerelysuggestedbythecallonGodtoarise,toawake,torevealHimselforbysomeotherbriefbutpregnantphrase.Wecannotherediscusshowfar
thePsalmsanticipateaparticularMessianicindividualitmustsufficetosaythattheoriginalsenseofmanypassageshasbeenobscuredbyspecificapplicationsto
thelifeofChristapplicationswhichinsomeinstanceshavebeenbuiltonaveryquestionableHebrewtextoranillegitimatetranslation,andthatinsomePsalms
(e.g.Ps2)theMessiahisperhapsratherthenationofIsrael,supremeamongthenationsoftheworld(cf.Dn7),thananindividualrulerordeliverer,whetherof
Israeloroftheworld.Butwherefullerexpressionisgiventothehope,itoftentakestheformoftheestablishmentoftheKingdomofGod,withoutreferencetoany
otherkingthanGodHimselftheoverrulingthoughtisofthemanifestationofHissupremesovereigntyandtheconsequentpromotionofrighteousnessandequity
amongallpeople(sopreeminentlyPss96100).Eveninthebroadestformofthisthought.itistruethatIsraeloccupiesacentralpositionandZionistobecomefor
thewholeworldwhatithaslongbeenforIsraelthecentreofreligion,theplacewhereJahwehwillbeworshipped(cf.esp.Ps87).NoPsalmisthasattainedtothe
standpointofourLordsteachinginJn4:21f.
(5)FromthethoughtofthePsalmistsaboutGodandtheirhopeinHim,wemayturntotheirthoughtofmen,whichisforthemostpartprimarilyofIsrael,and
inparticulartotheirsenseofsin.
Judgedbytheirattitudetowardssin,thePsalmsfallintotwogreatgroups:theextremerepresentativesofeachgroupareverydifferentinthought,tone,and
temperthelessextremeapproximatemoreorlesscloselytooneanother.Intheonegroupthewritersclaimforthemselves,and,sofarastheyidentifythemselves
withIsrael,fortheirnation,thattheyarerighteous,andinconsequencehaveaclaimonGodsrighteousnesstodeliverthemfrompresentafflictions(so,e.g.,Pss7,
17,26,28,44,86).Intheothergroup,confessionismadeofgreatiniquity:theappealforhelp,ifmade,canbemadetoGodsmercyandlovingkindnessalone(see
Pss25,32,40,51,65,85.etc.).ThefirstgroupstandfarremovedfromtheearlyProphetsbuttheyhaveconsiderableresemblanceinthoughttoHabakkukthe
secondgroup,again,differfromtheearlyProphetsforthoughbothrecognizethesinfulnessofIsrael,yettheProphetscomplainthatIsraeldoesnotrecognizeits
sin,whereasthesePsalmsmakeconfessionofsinonbehalfofthenation(cf.thelateconfessioninIs63:764:12).
(6)TheviewtakenofsininbothgroupsofPsalmsisbestappreciatedbynoticinghow,withalltheirdifference,theyareyetrelated.Somesenseofsinis
perhapsneveraltogetherabsentfromthePsalmsthatlayclaimtorighteousness,andastrongsenseofrelativerighteousnessgenerallyaccompaniesthemostfervent
confessionofsin.EveninsuchPsalmsasthe32ndandthe51st,wherethedifferenceismostclearlyfeltbetweenGodsstandardandmansperformance,thesense
isalsopresentofasharpdifferencebetweenthosewho.Inspiteofsin,yetpursueafterrighteousness,andthosewhoconstitutetheclassofthewickedorthe
transgressors.ThisattitudetowardssinmightdoubtlesswithoutmuchdifficultybecomethatofthePhariseeintheparablebutitisalsocloselyakintothehighest
Christianconsciousness,inwhichtheshadowofsinshowsdarkestinthelightoftherighteousnessandloveofGodasrevealedinChrist,andwhichleadsthetruest
followersofChrist,withallhonesty,toaccountthemselvesthechiefofsinners.AnditisbecausethepenitentialPsalmsareconfessions,notsomuchofgrosser
sinsopentotherebukeofman,butofthesubtlersinswhicharecommittedinthesightofandagainstGodonly,ofthesinswhichstandinthewayofthenation
calledofGodfulfillingitsmissionarydestiny,thatthesePsalmshaveplayedsoconspicuousapartinformingthehabitandmouldingtheformoftheconfessionof
theChristianmanandtheChristianChurch.
OnthepoeticalformofthePsalms,seePOETRYandACROSTIC.ThefirsteditionofT.K.CheynesBookofPsalms(1882)withitsfineoriginaltranslationandtersenotesfull
ofinsight,isoneofthebestbooksthestudentcanuseinthesecondeditionthetranslationisbasedonaveryradicalreconstructionoftheHebrewtext,whichhasnotobtained
generalapproval.OthertranslationsareWeilhausenFurnesssinthePolychromeBibleandS.R.DriversParallelPsalter(PrayerBookversionandarevisedversionbasedthereon).
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generalapproval.OthertranslationsareWeilhausenFurnesssinthePolychromeBibleandS.R.DriversParallelPsalter(PrayerBookversionandarevisedversionbasedthereon).
ThemostimportantCom.inEnglishisbyC.A.Briggs(ICC,19067).OtherusefulcommentariesareW.F.Cobb(withindependenttranslation),KirkpatrickonAV(inCambridge
Bible),andW.T.DavisonandT.W.DaviesonRV(CenturyBible).ThemostexhaustivetreatiseontheliterarycriticismandreligiousthoughtofthePsalterisT.K.Cheynes
OriginofthePsalter(1891:manydetailsimplicitlywithdrawnorcorrectedintheauthorslaterwritingssee,e.g.,art.PsalmsinEBi).Forbriefertreatmentoftheliterary
questionsseeW.R.Smithschapter(vii.)onthePsalterinOTJC,andS.R.
DriversLOT.
G.B.GRAY.
PSALMSOFSOLOMON.SeeAPOCALYPTICLITERATURE,3.
PSALTERY.SeeMUSIC,etc.,4.
PSYCHOLOGY.TheBibledoesnotcontainascienceofpsychologyinthemodernsensebutthereisadefiniteandconsistentviewofmansnaturefromthe
religiousstandpoint.Thisbeingrecognized,theolddispute,whetheritteachesthebipartiteorthetripartitenatureofman,losesitsmeaning,forthedistinctionof
soulandspiritisnotadivisionofmanintosoulandspiritalongwithhisbodyorflesh,butadifferenceofpointofviewtheoneemphasizingmansindividual
existence,theotherhisdependenceonGod.TheaccountinGn2:7makesthisclear.ThebreathorspiritofGodbreathedintothedustofthegroundmakesthe
livingsoul.Thelivingsoulceaseswhenthedustreturnstotheearthasitwas,andthespiritreturnstoGodwhogaveit(Ec12:7).Thesoulisnot,asinGreek
philosophy,aseparatesubstancewhichtakesupitsabodeinthebodyatbirth,andisreleasedfromitsbondageatdeath,butismatteranimatedbyGodsbreath.
Hencenopreexistenceofthesoulistaught(exceptinWis7:16,20),noristhefuturelifeconceivedasthatofadisembodiedsoul.Manistheunityofspiritand
matterhencethehopeofimmortalityinvolvesthebeliefintheresurrectionofthebody,eventhoughinSt.Paulsstatementofthebeliefthebodyraisedis
describedasspiritual(1Co15:44).TheOThasnot,infact,atermforthebodyasawholethemattertowhichthespiritgiveslifeisoftenreferredtoasflesh.This
termmaybeusedformanasfiniteearthlycreatureincontrastwithGodandHisSpirit.Manisflesh,orsoul,orspirit,accordingtotheaspectofhispersonality
itisdesiredtoemphasize.Thevariedsensesinwhichthesetermsareusedarediscussedintheseparatearticlesuponthemhereonlytheirrelationtooneanotheris
dealtwith.Thesearethethreeprincipalpsychologicaltermsbutthereareafewotherswhichclaimmention.
Heartisusedfortheinnerlife,theprinciples,motives,purposes(Gn6:5,Ps51:10,Ezk36:26,Mt15:19,2Co3:3),withoutprecisedistinctionofthe
intellectual,emotional,orvolitionalfunctionsbutitcannever,astheprecedingterms,beusedforthewholeman.St.Paul,influencedprobablybyGreek
philosophy,usesnousformindasmansintellectualactivity(Ro7:2325),andevencontrastsitwiththeecstaticstate(1Co14:14,15),andadoptsothertermsused
intheGreekschools.AnotherGreekterm,syneidsis.renderedconscience,isusedintheNTconsistentlyforwhatKantcalledthepracticalreason,mansmoral
consciousness(Ac23:1,
24:16,Ro2:15,9:1,13:6,1Co8:7,10,12,10:25,27,28,29,2Co1:12,4:2,1Ti1:5,19,3:9,4:2,2Ti1:3,Tit1:15,He9:9,14,10:22,13:18,1P2:19,3:16,
21),andisaninstanceoftheinfluenceoftheStoicethicsonthemoralvocabularyofthecivilizedworldatthetimeoftheChristianera.Thisdistinctionofthe
intellectualandthemoralfunctionsofpersonalityisthenearestapproachintheNTtothemodernsciencebuttheanalysisisnotcarriedfar.Itmustbeobservedthat
inpoeticparallelismssoul,spirit,heartareoftenusedassynonymous,incontrasttoflesh(Ps63:1,84:2,Ec11:10,12:7,Ezk44:7,9).TheBibledistinguishes
thematerialandtheimmaterial,thecreaturelyandthecreature,maninhisindividualityandhisdependenceonGod,butalwaysinthereligiousinterest,thathemay
recognizehisowninsufficiency,andhissufficiencyinGod.
ALFREDE.GARVIE.
PTOLEMAIS(Ac21:7).ThesameasAcco(Jg1:31),nowtheportAkka,calledintheWest,sinceCrusadingtimes.AcreorSt.JeandAcre.Accoreceived
thenamePtolemaissometimeinthe3rdcentB.C.,probablyinhonourofPtolemyII.,butalthoughthenamewasincommonuseformanycenturies,itrevertedto
itsSemiticnameafterthedeclineofGreekinfluence.AlthoughsoverycasuallymentionedinOTandNT,thisplacehashadasvariedandtragicahistoryasalmost
anyspotinPalestine.Onacoastpeculiarlyunfriendlytothemariner,theBayofAkkaisoneofthefewspotswherenaturehaslentitsencouragementtothe
buildingofaharbouritsimportanceinhistoryhasalwaysbeenastheportofGalileeandDamascus,oftheHauranandGilead,whileinthedaysofWestern
dominationtheRomanPtolemaisandtheCrusadingSt.JeandAcreservedasthelandingplaceofgovernors,ofarmies,andofpilgrims.Sostrongafortress,
guardingsofertileaplain,andaportonthehighroadtosuchrichlandstonorth,east,andsouth,couldneverhavebeenoverlookedbyhostilearmies,andsowe
findtheEgyptianThothmesIII.,SetlI.,andRamesesII.,theAssyrianSennacherib,Esarhaddon,andAshurbanipal,andseveralofthePtolemysengagedinits
conquestordefence.ItismuchinevidenceinthehistoryoftheMaccabees,aqueenCleopatraofEgyptholdsitforatime,andheresomedecadeslaterHerodthe
GreatentertainsCsar.DuringtheJewishrevoltitisanimportantbasefortheRomans,andbothVespasianandTitusvisitit.Inlatertimes,suchwarriorsasBaldwin
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GreatentertainsCsar.DuringtheJewishrevoltitisanimportantbasefortheRomans,andbothVespasianandTitusvisitit.Inlatertimes,suchwarriorsasBaldwin
I.andGuydeLusignan,RichardCurdeLionandSaladin,NapoleonI.andIbrahimPashaareassociatedwithitshistory.
IntheOTitismentionedonlyasoneofthecitiesofAsher(Jg1:31),whileinAc21:7itoccursastheportwhereSt.Paullanded,salutedthebrethren,and
abodewiththemoneday,onhiswaytothenewandpowerfulrivalport,Csarea,whichafewdecadespreviouslyhadsprunguptothesouth.
ThemodernAkka(11,000inhabitants)isacity,muchreducedfromitsformerdaysofgreatness,situatedonarockypromontoryoflandattheN.extremityof
thebaytowhichitgivesitsname.ThesealiesontheW.andS.,andsomewhattotheE.TheancientharbourlayontheS,andwasprotectedbyamolerunningE.
fromtheS.extremity,andonerunningS.fromtheS.E.cornerofthecity.Shipsofmoderatedimensionscanapproachnearthecity,andthewaterisfairlydeep.
Thewalls,partiallyCrusadingwork,whichstillsurroundthecity,areintheruinedstatetowhichtheywerereducedin1840bythebombardmentbytheEnglish
fleetunderSirSidneySmith.ExtendingfromCarmelinthesouthtotheLadderofTyreinthenorth,andeastwardtothefoothillsofGalilee,isthegreatandwell
wateredPlainofAcre,aregionwhich,thoughsandyandsterileclosetothesea,isofrichfertilityelsewhere.ThetwomainstreamsofthisplainaretheNahr
Namn(R.Belus),justsouthofAkka,andtheKishonnearCarmel.
Undermodernconditions,Haifa,withitsbetteranchorageformodernsteamships,anditsnewrailwaytoDamascus,islikelytoformasuccessfulrivaltoAkka.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
PTOLEMYV.(Epiphanes).PtolemywasthedynasticnameoftheMacedoniankingswhoruledoverEgyptB.C.30531duringthewholeofthisperiod
EgyptwasanindependentcountryitwasnotuntilthegreatvictoryofAugustusatActium(B.C.31)thatEgyptagainlostherindependenceandbecameaprovince,
thistimeunderRomanrule.Ptolemyv.reignedB.C.205182.HemarriedCleopatra,thedaughterofAntiochusIII.theGreatthismatrimonialalliancebetweenthe
PtolemysandtheSeleucidsisalludedtoinDn2:43.DuringhisreignPalestineandCleSyriawerelosttoEgypt,andwereincorporatedintothekingdomofSyria
underAntiochusIII.thisisprobablywhatisalludedtoinDn11:1318seeJos.Ant.XII.iii.3,iv.11.
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
PTOLEMYVI.(VII.)(Philometor).Sonoftheforegoing,whoreignedB.C.182146in170thekingdomwasdividedbetweenhimandhisbrotherPtolemy
VII.(Physcon)peacewasmadebetweenthembytheRomans,andtheycontinuedasjointkings.Intheyear170,whilePtolemyVI.wasstillsoleking,heattempted
toreconquertheSyrianprovinceswhichhadbeenlostduringhisfathersreigntheattemptwas,however,abortive,andhewasdefeatedbyAntiochusIV.Itwas
onlythroughtheinterventionoftheRomansthatAntiochuswaspreventedfromfollowingupthisvictorybyfurtherconquests.ReferencestoPhilometoraretobe
foundin1Mac1:18,10:51ff.,11:118,15:1623,Dn11:2530andseeJos.Ant.XIII.iv.59.
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
PUAH.1.OneoftheHebrewmidwives(Ex1:15).2.FatherofTola(Jg10:1).InGn46:13,Nu26:23[Puvah],1Ch7:1,heisTolasbrother.
PUBLICAN.ThistermisatransliterationofaLatinword,whichstrictlymeantamemberofoneofthegreatRomanfinancialcompanies,whichfarmedthe
taxesoftheprovincesoftheRomanEmpire.TheRomanStateduringtheRepublicrelieveditselfofthetroubleandexpenseofcollectingthetaxesoftheprovinces
byputtingupthetaxesofeachinalumptoauction.Theauctioneerwasthecensor,andthebuyerwasoneoftheabovecompanies,composedmainlyofmembers
oftheequestrianorder,whomadethebesttheycouldoutofthebargain.Theabusestowhichthissystemgaverisewereterrible,especiallyasthegovernorscould
sometimesbebribedtowinkatextortionandinoneparticularyeartheprovincialsofAsiahadtopaythetaxesthreetimesover.Thesecompaniesrequired
officialsoftheirowntodothebusinessofcollection.ThepublicansoftheGospelsappeartohavebeenagentsoftheImperialprocuratorofJuda,withsimilar
duties(duringtheEmpiretherewasStatemachineryforcollectingthetaxes,andtheEmperorhadaprocuratorineachprovincewhosebusinessitwastosupervise
thecollectionofrevenue).Theywereemployedincollectingthecustomsduesonexports.SomeJewsfounditprofitabletoservetheRomanStateinthisway,and
becameobjectsofdetestationtosuchoftheirfellowcountrymenasshowedanimpotenthatredoftheRomansupremacy.TheGospelsshowclearlythattheywere
coupledhabituallywithsinners,awordofthedeepestcontempt.A.S OUTER.
PUBLIUS,orPoplius.ThefirstmanofMalta,whosefatherwascuredbySt.Pauloffeveranddysenterybylayingonofhands(Ac28:7f.).ThetitlePrtos(
firstman)atMaltaisattestedbyinscriptionsitoccursalsoatPisidianAntioch(Ac13:50,cf.25:2).
A.J.MACLEAN.
PUDENS.MentionedbySt.PaulassendinggreetingsfromRometoTimothy(2Ti4:21:
PudensandLinusandClaudia).Forthesuggestedrelationshipofthesepersonsandidentificationofthefirstandofthelast,seeart.CLAUDIA.Pudensisa
commonRomanname.
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A.J.MACLEAN.
PUL.1.SeeASSYRIAANDBABYLONIA,p.66a.2.InIs66:19Putisprob.aslipforPut(wh.see).
PULSE(zrm,Dn1:12zrnm,v.16RVmherbs,cf.Is61:11EVthingsthataresown)mayhavebeenanygardenproduce.TheEng.wordpulse
belongstoleguminousgrainsspecially,butitisdoubtfulwhetherthemeaningoftheHeb.canbesorestricted.In2S17:28pulseissuppliedafterparched,but
grainwouldbebetter.SeealsoFood,3.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
PUNISHMENTS.SeeCRIMESANDP UNISHMENTS,811,
PUNITES.ThegentilicnamefromPuvah,Nu26:23.SeeP UAH,No.2.
PUNON.AstationoftheIsraelites(Nu33:42,43).Cf.alsoart.P INON.
PUR.SeeP URIM.
PURAH.GideonsservantorarmourbearerJg(7:10f.).
PURGE.To purge in AV is simply to cleanse orpurify, as Ps 51:7 Purge me with hyssop and I shall be clean Mk 7:19 purging all meats, i.e.
makingallfoodceremoniallyclean.
PURIFICATION.SeeCLEANANDUNCLEAN.
PURIM
1.IntheOT.Onthe14thand15thofthemonthAdar(March)fellthecelebrationoftheFeastofPurimorLots.Thiscommemoratedthedeliveranceofthe
JewsfromHaman,whoin
B.C.473hadplottedtheirexterminationthroughoutthePersianempire(Est3:7,9:1532).In2Mac15:36itiscalledMordecaisday.Theobservanceofthis
festivalwasprobablynotatfirstuniversal,butJosephusmentionsitsoccurrence,anditheldanestablishedpositionbeforethetimeofChrist.Atfirstnospecial
religiousserviceswereenjoinedtomarkit,norwasthereanyprohibitionoflabour.Itwasatimeoffeastingandjoy,ofthegivingofpresentsandalms.Inlater
timesitwascelebratedbyasynagoguemeetingontheeveningofthe13thandthemorningofthe14th,whentheBookofEstherwasreadthrough,specialprayers
andthankswereoffered,andthecongregationejaculatedcursesonHamanandblessingsonEstherandMordecai.Therestofthefeastwasgivenuptogoodcheer
andboisterousenjoymentofanalmostBacchanaliancharacter.In1Mac7:49and2Mac15:36,asalsoinJosephus,the13thofAdarisrecordedasafeastdayin
commemorationofthedefeatoftheSyriangeneralNicanorinB.C.161.ButlateragesobserveditastheFastofEsther(cf.Est9:31,4:3),thecelebrationtaking
placeonthe11th,ifthe13thhappenedtobeaSabbath.
TheoriginofthePurimfeastisamatterofdispute.ItisdifficulttoidentifyanyknownPersianwordwithpur(Est3:7,9:26),whichgavethefestivalitsname.
Varioustheorieshavebeenputforward,ofwhichthemostnoteworthyare:(a)thatwhichderivesitfromaPersianspringfestival(b)thatwhichregardsitasa
transformationofanoldZoroastrianfestivalofthedead(c)thatwhichtracesitsorigintoaBabylonianNewYearsfestival.
2.IntheNT.SomehavesupposedthatthenamelessfeastmentionedinJn5:1wasPurim.Butthisisnotconvincing,for(a)Purimwasneveroneofthe
greatnationalsolemnitieswhichcalledforattendanceatJerusalem:itwasobservedlocallyandnotonlyatthecapital(b)Christwouldnaturallygoupforthe
Passoverinthenextmonth.AnditismoreprobablethatthePassoveristhefeasthereintended.Cf.art.CHRONOLOGYOFNT,I.2.
A.W.F.BLUNT.
PURITY.1.Ceremonialpurityisacquiredbythedueobservanceofexternalrites.TheJewishlawprescribedvariousregulationsbymeansofwhichoutward
defilementmightberemovedandtheuncleanpersonberestoredtofellowshipwithGod.ButtheOTrecognizesthatmoralpurityisessentialtoacceptableworship
oftheHolyGod(Ps24:4)thequestionofEliphazexpressestheconvictionofthosewhoknowhowabsoluteistheDivineholiness:Shallamanbepurebeforehis
Maker?(Job4:17RVm)onlytothemanwhopurifieshimselfcansuchaGodrevealHisglory(Ps18:26,theverbisreflexive).ThewriteroftheEp.tothe
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Maker?(Job4:17RVm)onlytothemanwhopurifieshimselfcansuchaGodrevealHisglory(Ps18:26,theverbisreflexive).ThewriteroftheEp.tothe
HebrewsremindsChristianswhowerefamiliarwiththeOTceremonialofpurificationthatthevoluntarysacrificeoftheSonofGodisthemeansofpurification
underthenewandbetterCovenantthebloodofChristremovestheinwarddefilementwhichunfitssinfulmenfortheserviceofthelivingGod(9:13f.).
2.IntheNTpurehasthemorerestrictedmeaningofchasteinafewpassages.Underlyingthetruereadingof2Co11:3,thesimplicityandthepuritythatis
towardChrist,isthemetaphorofv.2(RV),Iespousedyoutoonehusband,thatImightpresentyouasapurevirgintoChrist(cf.Tit2:5,1P3:2).Thesamenoun
istr.purenessin2Co6:8(RV)cf.1Ti4:12,5:2also,forthewidermeaningoftheverb,Ja4:8,1P1:22,1Jn3:3andoftheadjective,Ph4:8,1Ti5:22,Ja
3:17.See,further,art.HOLINESS.
J.G.TASKER.
PURPLE.SeeCOLOURS,5.
PURSE.SeeBAG.
PUT,PHUT.ApeoplecountedamongstthesonsofHam(Gn10:6,1Ch1:8),andfrequentlymentionedintheprophetsasanallyofEgypt(Jer46:9,Ezk
27:10,30:5,38:5,Nah3:9).Ithasbeensuggestedthatitrepresents(1)thepeopleofPunt(ratherPwoneinEgyp.),i.e.theAfricancoastoftheRedSeawith
Somaliland,etc.:warriorsmayperhapshavebeenobtainedthenceforEgyptor(2)Libya,whosepeoplewerecalledbytheEgyptiansPaiat(inthetimesofthe
HebrewprophetstheLibyanswerethebackboneoftheseminativearmy)or(3)thebowbearingalliespidati(?)(4)beinggenerallyassociatedwithLud=Lydians
(onceinNah.Lubim),itisthoughtthatPutmaybeanamefortheCariansorotherpreHellenicpeoplesofAsiaMinorortheganislands.
F.LL.GRIFFITH.
PUTEOLI(modernPozzuoli).Inancienttimesanimportantharbourandemporium,especiallyforEasterntrade,ontheW.coastofItalynearNaples.Itwas
foundedbyGreeksataveryearlyperiod.SuchcitieswerespeciallysoughtbyJewsandotherforeigners,andChristianswouldearlybelivingthere,asSt.Pauland
hispartyfoundthemonreachingthisportattheendoftheirvoyagefromtheEast(Ac28:13).
A.S OUTER.
PUTHITES.AfamilyofKiriathjearim(1Ch2:53).
PUTIEL.ThefatherinlawofEleazar(Ex6:25).
PUVAHSeeP UAH.
PYGARG(dshn).Acleananimal,Dt14:5only.Fromitsassociatesinthesameverseitmaybeinferredthatitwasadeerofsomekind.TheLXXtr.is,on
whatgroundsisnotknown,pygargos,i.e.whiterumped(hencetheEng.pygarg).Thisdescriptionandaprocessofexclusionthehart,roebuck,etc.,allbeing
otherwiseaccountedformakeitprobablethatthedshnwastheaddax(A.nasomaculatus),anantelopewithawhitetailandlong,backwardcurved,twisted
horns.ItisrareinPalestinetoday,butisknowntotheBedouin.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
PYRRHUS.AmanofBera,fatherofSopater,accordingtothebesttext(Ac20:4RV).
Fortheunusualinsertionofthepatronymic,seeart.S OPATER.
A.J.MACLEAN.
PYTHON.InAc16:16wereadofayounggirlatPhilippiwhohadaspirit,aPython(thisisthereadingofallthebestMSS).Pythowasadistrictcloseto
DelphiandPythonwastheserpentatthatplaceslainbyApollo,whothereforewascalledthePythian.HencethepriestessatDelphiwascalledthePythian.This
seemstobetheconnexionofthenamewithdivination.Plutarchsaysthatventriloquistsinhisday(1stcent.A.D.)werecalledPhythons.Theirpowerswere
consideredtobeduetospiritualinfluence,andtoincludeprediction.ThegirlatPhilippi,then,wasprobablyaventriloquist,whobroughthermastersgainby
sootbsaying.SheproclaimedaloudformanydaysthatPaulandhiscompanionswereslavesoftheMostHighGod,andtheApostleatlastdroveoutthespiritin143/144
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sootbsaying.SheproclaimedaloudformanydaysthatPaulandhiscompanionswereslavesoftheMostHighGod,andtheApostleatlastdroveoutthespiritin
thenameofJesusChrist.Hermastersthereupon,havinglosttheirsourceofprofit,denouncedPaulandSilastothemagistrates.
A.J.MACLEAN.
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QUAIL(slw,Ex16:13,Nu11:31f.,Ps105:40).Thisbird(Coturnixcommunis),thesmallestofthepartridgefamily,migratesannuallyfromAfricato
Europe,crossingtheSinaiticpeninsulaandPalestineenrouteitreachesthelatteraboutMarch.Itmigratesinvastnumbers,alwaysflyingwiththewind,andoften
settling,afteralongflight,especiallyacrossthesea,insuchanexhaustedconditionastobeeasyofcapture.Thefleshisfatty,andapttodisagreeiftakentoexcess,
especiallyifinefficientlypreserved.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
QUARREL.TheoriginalmeaningofthisEng.word(fromLat.quereta)isacomplaint.ThisisitsmeaninginCol3:13AVIfanymanhaveaquarrel
againstany.Thenitcametomeananycauseofcomplaint,oranycasethathadtobestatedordefended,asMk6:19Herodiashadaquarrelagainsthim:soLv
26:25,2K5:7.
QUARRY.InthestoryoftheslaughterofEglonbyEhud(Jg3)wearetold(v.19)thatEhudturnedbackfromthequarriesthatwerebyGilgal,whileafter
theassassinationhe
escapedwhiletheytarried,andpassedbeyondthequarries(v.26).Analternativetranslation
gravenimagesisgiveninAVmandRVm,whileotherversions,e.g.LXXandVulg.,read
idols.TheHeb.wordpslmisappliedtoimagesofgodsinwood,stone,ormetal(Dt7:5,25,12:3,Is21:9,30:22,2Ch34:4).Mooresuggeststhetranslation
sculpturedstones(probablyrudeimages).ProbablythestonessetupbyJoshuatocommemoratethecrossingoftheJordan(Jos4)arewhatisreferredto.
QuarryoccursalsoinRVof1K6:7.ThestonesusedfortheTemplebuildingaresaidtohavebeenpreparedatthequarry.AVreadsbeforeitwasbrought
thither,RVmwhenitwasbroughtaway.Thetranslationquarryisprobablycorrect.
W.F.BOYD.
QUARTUS.MentionedasjoininginSt.PaulsgreetingtotheChurchofRome(Ro16:23).
QUATERNION.Aguardoffoursoldiers(Ac12:4).
QUEEN.Thefunctionsofaqueenreigninginherownrightwouldbeidenticalwiththoseofaking(wh.see).ThequeenasthewifeofamonarchinIsrael
heldapositionofcomparativelylittleimportance,whereasthatofadowagerqueen(queenmother)commandedgreatinfluence(cf.thecasesofBathsheba,
Jezebel,Athaliah).
QUEENOFHEAVEN(Heb.melekhethhashshmaym).AnobjectofworshiptothepeopleofJerusalem(Jer7:1620)andtheJewishexilesinEgypt
(44:1530).TheMassoretesevidentlytookthefirstwordasmelekheth(work,creation)supposingthatthesilentaleph()hadbeenomittedandconsidered
theexpressionasynonymforHostofHeaven(tsebhhashshmaym ,Jer8:2,19:13,Zeph1:5,Dt4:19,17:3etc.).Inapparentconfirmationofthisviewwehave
thefactthatthistermseemstobeusedinacollectivesenseasequivalenttoothergods.Ontheotherhand,manymodernscholarsregardmalkath(queen)asthe
correctreading,andsupposethecultustobeaworshipoftheSemiticMothergoddess,thePhnicianAshtart=theAssyr.Ishtar(seeASHTORETH).Indeed,Ishtaris
calledinAssyr.inscriptionsBlitSham(ladyofheaven)andSharratSham(queenofheaven)butMalkatSham(whichisthecognateofthetermunder
discussion,andwhichinAssyr.meansprincessofheaven)isnotoneofhertitles.Thefactthatcakeswereofferedinthisworshiphaslittleevidentialvalue,aswe
findthisriteafrequentfeatureinSemiticworship.InArabia,cakeswereofferedtothegoddessoftheeveningstarandtothesungodandtheIsraelitesoffered
breadandcakestoJahweh(seeMealofferingandShewbreadinart.S ACRIFICE).Cf.themodernJewishmazzth.
W.M.NESBIT.
QUICK,QUICKEN.InAVquickfrequentlymeansliving,andquickenmeansbringtolife.ThephrasethequickandthedeadoccursinAc10:42,2
Ti4:1,1P4:5.
QUICKSANDS(Ac27:17,RVSyrtis).TheSyrtes,MajorandMinor,aresituatedontheN.coastofAfrica,inthewidebaybetweentheheadlandsofTunis
andBarca.TheyconsistofsandbanksoccupyingtheshoresoftheGulfofSidraonthecoastofTripoli,andthatofGabesonthecoastofTunisorCarthage.They
havebeenconsideredasourceofdangertomarinersfromveryearlytimes,notonlyfromtheshiftingofthesandsthemselves,butowingtothecrosscurrentsofthe 1/3
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havebeenconsideredasourceofdangertomarinersfromveryearlytimes,notonlyfromtheshiftingofthesandsthemselves,butowingtothecrosscurrentsofthe
adjoiningwaters.
QUIRINIUS(AVCyrenius).InLk2:13wearefirstmetbyagrammaticaldifficulty.V.
2maybetranslatedeither:thiswasthefirstenrolmentthattookplace(andittookplace)whileQuiriniuswasgoverningSyria:or:thiswasthefirstoftwo(or
more)enrolmentsthattookplacewhileQuiriniuswasgoverningSyria.Thefirststatementisprobablytrue,butitislikelythatthesecondiswhattheauthormeant,
becauseitiscertainthatacensustookplaceduringthegovernorshipofSyriabyQuirinius(A.D.69),whenJudawasincorporatedintheprovinceSyria.This
lattercensuswasabasisoftaxation,andwasmadeaccordingtotheRomanmethod:itthusarousedtherebellionofJudas(Ac5:37).Thefactthatenrolmentstook
placeeveryfourteenyearsinEgypthasbeenabsolutelyprovedbythediscoveryofnumerouspapyrithere,containingreturnsmadebyhouseholderstothe
government.OneofthedatesthusrecoveredisA.D.20.Thereisalsoevidenceintheancienthistoriansofenrolmentsheldincertainotherprovinces.Thetruthof
Lukesstatementin2:2neednotthereforebedoubted.TherealdifficultyliesinthestatementthatQuiriniuswasgoverningSyriaatthetimethefirstcensusofall
wasmade.ItisquitecertainthathecouldnotbegoverningSyria,inthestrictsenseofthetermgoverning,bothatthetimeofthebirthofChristandinA.D.69.
Thisiscontrarytoallancientprocedure,andtherulesastosuchappointmentswererigid.Further,wehaveancientauthoritythatthegovernorofSyriafromB.C.9
to7wasSentiusSaturninus,andfromB.C.6to4wasQuinctlliusVarus.AfterB.C.4weknownothingtillthesuccessionofP.SulpiciusQuiriniusinA.D.6,butitis
possiblethataninscribedstonemayyetturnuptoenableustofillthegap.Yetaninscriptionexists,whichallauthoritiesagreereferstoP.SulpiciusQuirinius,
statingthathegovernedSyriatwice.MommsenconsideredthatthemostprobableperiodforhisearliergovernorshipwasB.C.31,butadmittedseriousdoubts.
Ramsayhasdiscussedthewholeproblemafresh,followingoutthecluesofferedbytheancienthistorians,andhasadoptedasmostprobabletheconclusionthat
QuiriniuswasgivencommandoftheforeignrelationsofSyriaduringthecriticalperiodofthewarwiththeCilicianhilltribetheHomonadenses.Romanhistory
providesanalogiesforsuchadualcontrolofaprovinceatatimeofcrisis.ThedateatwhichthispositionwasheldbyQuiriniuswasaboutB.C.6.TheGreekword
used(governing)isageneraltermappliedtotheEmperor,aproconsul,aprocurator,etc.,andisquiteconsistentwiththisview.ThementionofQuiriniusbyLukeis
merelyintendedtogiveadate.Theenrolmentitself,asittookplaceinHerodskingdom,wouldbesuperintendedbyhim,attheordersofAugustus,whohad
suzeraintyoverthekingdomofHerod,whichconstitutedpartofthe
ImperiumRomanuminthefullsenseoftheterm.Thecensus,however,wasnotcarriedoutby
theRomanmethod,butbytribes,amethodlessalientoJewishfeelingthantheRomanmethodbyhouseholds.Cf.alsop.559b.
A.S OUTER.
QUIT.Theadj.quit(fromLat.quietus)meansfreefromobligation,asEx21:19Thenshallhethatsmotehimbequit.Thevb.toquit(fromLat.
quietare)isusedinAVreflexivelyquitoneself,i.e.dischargeonesobligations,as1Co16:13Quityoulikemen.
QUIVER.SeeARMOUR,1(d).
QUOTATIONS(INNT).TheNTwritingscontainquotationsfromfoursources:(1)theOT(2)noncanonicalJewishwritings(3)nonJewishsources(4)
letterstowhichtheauthorofaletterisreplying,orotherprivatesources.ItissignificantoftherelationoftheNTwritingstotheOTScripturesandoftheattitudeof
theNTwriterstotheseScriptures,thatthequotationsofthefirstclassfaroutnumberallthoseoftheotherthreeclasses.Swetecounts160passagesdirectlyquoted
fromtheOTbywritersoftheNT,includingthosewhicharecitedwithanintroductoryformula,andthosewhich,bytheirlengthoraccuracyofquotation,are
clearlyshowntobeintendedasquotations.WestcottandHortreckonthetotalnumberofNTquotationsfromtheOTat1279,includingbothpassagesformerly
citedandthoseinwhichaninfluenceoftheOTupontheNTpassageisotherwiseshown.Eventhislistisperhapsnotabsolutelycomplete.Thus,whileWH
enumerate61passagesfromIs139,H.Osgood,inhisessayQuotationsfromtheOTintheNT,findsexactlytwiceasmany122.Againstthislargenumberof
quotationsfromtheOTtherecanbecitedattheutmostonlysome24quotationsbyNTwritersfromnoncanonicalJewishsources(seeRyle,art.Apocryphain
SmithsDB2Zahn,Com.onGal3:10,5:3,6:15Woods,art.QuotationsinHastingsDB).Ofquotationsfromnon
Jewishsourcesthefollowingaretheonlyprobableinstances:Tit1:12,Ac17:28,1Co12:1227,15:33.TothisshortlistitshouldbeaddedthatLukespreface
(1:14)isperhapsconstructedonclassicalmodels(cf.Farrar,LifeandWorkofPaul,Excursus3Zahn,Enl.2i.p.51).Ofquotationsfromprivatesourcesthereare
severalunquestionableexamplesinthePaulineletters1Co7:1,8:1,11:2,17f.,12:1,Ph1:3,2:25f.,4:1418cf.alsoPhilem57.
OfthenumerousquotationsfromtheOTbyfarthelargestnumberarederiveddirectlyfromtheLXX,eventhefreedomofquotation,whichtheNTwritersin
commonwithothersoftheirtimepermittedthemselves,innowayobscuringtheirdirectdependenceupontheGreekversion.AmongtheNTbookstheEpistleto
theHebrewsshowsthestrongestandmostconstantinfluenceoftheLXX.AccordingtoWestcott(Com.p.479),15quotationsagreewiththeLXXandHebrew,8
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theHebrewsshowsthestrongestandmostconstantinfluenceoftheLXX.AccordingtoWestcott(Com.p.479),15quotationsagreewiththeLXXandHebrew,8
withtheLXXwhereitdiffersfromtheHebrew,3differfromLXXandHebrew,3arefreerenderings.WestcottaddsthatthewriterregardedtheGreekversionas
authoritative,andnowhereshowsanyimmediateknowledgeoftheHebrewtext.TheGospelofMatthew,ontheotherhand,exhibitsthelargestinfluenceofthe
Hebrew.InthequotationsfromtheOTwhicharecommontotheSynopticGospels(occurringchieflyinthesayingsofJesus)theLXXclearlyexertsthedominant
influence.ButinthosepassageswhicharepeculiartothisGospelbeingIntroducedbythewriterbywayofcommentoneventsthoughthewriterisnot
unacquaintedwithoruninfluencedbytheLXX,theHebrewisthedominantinfluence1:23,2:15,18,23,4:15f.,8:17,12:18ff.,13:35,21:5,27:9f.cf.also2:6.
ThisdifferenceinthetwogroupsofquotationstendstoshowthatwhilethecommonsourceoftheSynopticGospelswas,intheforminwhichitwasusedbythe
Evangelists,inGreek,andshapedunderHellenisticinfluence,theauthoroftheFirstGospelwasaChristianJewwhostillreadhisBibleinHebrew,ordrewhis
seriesofpropheticcommentquotationsfromaspecialsourcecompiledbyaJewofthiskind.ThequotationsintheGospelofJohnandtheEpistlesofPaul,while
derivedmainlyfromtheLXX,showalsoanacquaintanceoftheirauthorswiththeoriginalHebrew.(OnthesingularfactthattheNTquotationsfromtheLXXshow
aspecialsimilaritytothetypeofLXXtextfoundinCod.A,cf.Staerh,Ztschr.f.wiss.Theol.Nos.XXXV,XXXVI,XXXVIII,XLand
Swete,Introd.toOTinGreek,p.395.)
AsregardsthenatureandextentoftheInfluenceexertedbytheOTinpassageswhichmaybecalledquotationsinthebroadsenseindicatedabove,thereare
severaldistinguishableclasses,thoughitissometimesdifficulttodrawthelinesharply.Wemayrecognize:(1)Argumentativequotations.TheOTpassageisquoted,
withrecognitionofitssource,andwithintentiontoemploythefactorteachingorprophecyforanargumentativepurpose.Passagessoquotedmaybe:(a)
historicalstatementswhicharesupposedtocontaininthemselvesanenunciationofaprincipleorprecept,ortoinvolveaprediction,ortotendtoproveageneral
ruleofsomekindcf.Mk2:25f.,Mt2:18,Jn19:24,Mt15:79,He7:110(b)predictionscf.e.g.Ac2:17ff.(c)imperativeprecepts,quotedtoenforceateaching
Mk12:29ff.,1Co9:9or(d)affirmationsinterpretedasinvolvingageneralprincipleofDivineactionorageneralcharacteristicofhumannatureMk12:26,Mt
9:13,Lk4:11,Ac7:48f.,Ro3:4,1018,Ja1:10f.,1P1:24f.,(2)Quotationsmadethebasisofcomment.InthiscasethelanguageoftheOTisnotcitedas
supportingthestatementofthespeakerorwriter,butisitselfmadethebasisofexpositionorcomment,sometimeswithdisapprovalofitsteachingoroftheteaching
commonlybasedonItMt5:21,27,31,etc.,Ro4:9f.,Ac8:32,(3)Quotationsofcomparisonoroftransferredapplication.TheOTlanguageisemployed,with
recognitionofitascomingfromtheOTandwiththeintentionofconnectingtheOTeventorteachingwiththeNTmatter,butforpurposesofcomparisonrather
thanargument.ThelanguageitselfmayreferdirectlyandsolelytotheOTevent,beingintroducedforthesakeofcomparingwiththiseventsomeNTfact(simile)
ortheOTlanguagemaybeapplieddirectlytoaNTfact,yetsoastoimplycomparisonorlikenessofthetwoevents(metaphor)Mt12:40,41,Lk11:29f.,Ac
28:26f.,Mt21:42f.,1Co10:7f.,Closelyalliedtothese,yetperhapsproperlybelongingtotheclassofargumentativequotations,arecasesofquotation
accompaniedbyallegoricalinterpretationcf.e.g.Gal4:2131.(4)Literaryinfluence.Inthecaseswhichfallunderthisheadthelanguageisemployedbecauseof
itsfamiliarity,andapplicabilitytothematterinband,butwithoutintentionofaffirminganyotherconnexionthanthisbetweentheOTthoughtandtheNTfactor
teaching.ThewritermaybeconsciousofthisinfluenceoftheOTlanguageornot,andtheinterpreteroftencannotdeterminewithcertaintywhichisthecaseMt
5:5,10:35,Gal6:16,Eph1:20,Rev5:1,7:1,9:14,14:8,21:11.
AsconcernsthemethodofinterpretationandtheattitudetowardstheOTthusdisclosed,thereisawidedifferenceamongthespeakersandwritersoftheNT.Itis
anindirectbutvaluabletestimonytothehistoricalaccuracyoftheSynopticGospelsthattheyalmostuniformlyascribetoJesusamethodofinterpretationquite
differentfromthatwhichtheythemselvesemploy.JesusquotestheOTalmostexclusivelyforitsmoralandreligiousteaching,ratherthanforanypredicative
elementinit,andinterpretsalikewithinsightandwithsobrietythepassageswhichHequotes.TheauthoroftheFirstGospel,ontheotherhand,quotestheOT
mainlyforspecificpredictionswhichheconceivesittocontain,andcontrolshisinterpretationofthepassagesquotedratherbythepropositionwhichhewishesto
sustain,thanbytheactualsenseoftheoriginal.TheonequotationwhichiscommontothefirstthreeGospels,andnotincludedintheteachingofJesus,hasthe
samegeneralcharacter(Mk1:3andparallels).IngeneralitmaybesaidoftheotherNTwritersthattheystandinthisrespectbetweenJesusandMatthew,less
uniformlysoberanddiscerningintheirinterpretationoftheOTthanJesus,yetinmanyinstancesapproachingmuchnearertoHismethodthanMatthewcommonly
does.TheApocalypse,whileconstantlyshowingtheliteraryinfluenceoftheOT,containsnoexplicitorargumentativequotationfromit.
ERNESTD.BURTON.
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RAAMAHiscalled(Gn10:7=1Ch1:9[Raama])asonofCush,andfatherofShebaandDedan(Gn10:28).ThelocalityofthisArabiantribeisnotyet
ascertained.OpinionisdividedbetweentheRegmaofPtolemy,ontheW.ofthePersianGulf,andtheRammanitofStraboin
S.Arabia,N.W.ofHadramaut(seeHAZARMAVETH)andE.oftheancientSheba.Thelatteristhemoreprobableidentification.Raamahisalsoassociatedwith
ShebainEzk27:22astradingwithTyre.
J.F.MCURDY.
RAAMIAH.OneofthetwelvechiefswhoreturnedwithZerubbabel(Neh7:7=Ezr2:2[Reelaiah],1Es5:8[Resaias]).
RAAMSES,RAMESES.OneofthetreasurecitiesbuiltbytheIsraelitesinEgypt,andthestartingpointoftheExodus(Ex1:11,12:37,Nu33:3,5).Thesiteis
notquitecertain,butitwasprobablyoneofthecitiescalledinEgyp.PRamesse,HouseofRamesse,afterRamessesII.InGn47:11Joseph,byPharaohs
command,givestoJacobsfamilyapossessioninthelandofEgypt,inthebestoftheland,inthelandofRameses.ItthuslayintheLandofGoshen(wh.see),
andistobelookedforinthefirstplaceintheWadyTumilat.PetrleidentifiesitwithTellRotab,wherehehasfoundsculpturesoftheageofRamessesII.
F.LL.GRIFFITH.
RABBAH.1.ThecapitalcityoftheAmmonites(wh.see).RabbahwassituatedontheupperJabbokonthesiteofthemodernAmmn.Itwasdistantfromthe
Jordanabout20miles,thoughthedistancebywayoftheJabbokismuchgreater,forthestreamatRabbahflowstowardstheN.E.andreachestheJordanonlyafter
awidedetour.TheAmmonitecitywassituatedonthehilltoptotheN.oftheriver.Fromitspositionitcommandedawideviewinalldirections,butespecially
extensivetotheN.E.RabbahismentionedinDt3:11astheplacewhereOgsbedsteadmightstillbeseen.Thisisthoughtbysometobeareferencetoalarge
dolmenstillvisiblenotfarfromAmmn.InJos13:25RabbahismentionedindefiningtheboundariesofthetribeofGad.ThechiefeventconnectedwithRabbah
whichtheOTrelatesisitssiegebyJoab,inconnexionwithwhichUriahtheHittite,bytheexpressdirectionofkingDavid,losthislife(see2S11:1,12:26,27,29
and1Ch20:1).Thecitywasatthistimeconfinedapparentlytothehillmentionedabove:andsincethesidesofthehillareprecipitous(seethephotographin
BartonsYearsWanderinginBibleLands,opp.156),thetaskofcapturingitwasdifficult,andthesiegewasstubbornandprolonged.TheseconditionsgaveJoab
hisopportunitytocarryoutDavidsperfidiousorder(2S11:15ff.).
From2S12:2629itappearsthatthecityconsistedoftwoparts,oneofwhichwascalledthe
royalcityorthecityofwaters.ThisJoabcaptured,afterwhichDavidcameandcapturedRabbahitself.WhatrelationthisroyalcityboretoRabbahproper,itis
difficultnowtoconjecture.Itisprobable,however,thatthetextofSamueliscorruptthatweshouldreadcityorcisternofwatersandthatJoab,like
AntiochusIII.andHerodinaftercenturies,capturedthecoveredpassagebywhichtheywenttoacisternforwater,orthefortwhichdefendedit,andsocompelled
asurrendertoDavid.ThiscisternwasdiscoveredbyConder(seeSurveyofEasternPal.p.34ff.).
TheIsraelitesdidnotoccupyRabbah,butleftitinthepossessionoftheAmmoniteking,whobecameDavidsvassal.WhenDavidlaterfledtoMahanaim,east
oftheJordan,becauseofAbsalomsrebellion,theAmmonitekingwasresidinginRabbah(2S17:27).
InthetimeofAmos(c.B.C.750RabbahwasstillthecapitaloftheAmmonites(Am1:14),andsuchitcontinuedtobedowntothetimeofNebuchadnezzar,
who,ifwemayjudgefromthepropheciesofJeremiahandEzekiel(Jer49:2,Ezk21:20,25:5),punishedRabbahforarebellionoftheAmmonitesbyasiege.
Whetherthesiegeresultedinacapturewedonotknow,butitprobablydid.OnlycitiessituatedlikeTyre,whichwaspartlysurroundedbywater,couldwithstand
themightofthatmonarch.
Foratimethecity(oneoftheDecapolisgroup)borethenamePhiladelphia,giventoitbyPtolemyPhiladelphia(B.C.285247),butfinallyreceiveditsmodern
name,Ammn.Itistodayquiteaflourishingcity,inhabitedpartlybyArabsandpartlybyCircassians.Thelatterformamoreenergeticelementthanisfoundin
mostSyriancities,andgiveAmmnagreaterairofprosperity.TheHajrailway,fromDamascustoMecca,passesnearAmmn,whichhasastationontheline.
2.AcityinJudah(Jos15:60)siteunknown.
GEORGEA.BARTON.
RABBI.ThetransliterationofaHeb.wordmeaningmymaster.InMt23:7itisreferredtoastheusualformofaddresswithwhichthelearnedweregreeted
(Dalman,WordsofJesus,p.331)inthefollowingverseitisregardedassynonymouswithteacher.JohntheBaptistisoncecalledRabbibyhisdisciples(Jn
3:28).ElsewhereintheGospelsitisourLordwhoisthusaddressed:byHisdisciples(Mt26:25,49,Mk9:5,11:21,14:45,Jn1:38,49,4:31,9:2,11:8),byothers
(Jn3:2,6:25).RabboniisthetransliterationofthePal.Aram.formoftheworditoccurstwice,namelyinMk10:51andJn20:16.
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J.G.TASKER.
RABBITH.AtownofIssachar(Jos19:20),probablythemodernRba,ontheS.ofGilboa.
RABBONI.SeeRABBI.
RABMAG.ThetitleofNergalsharezer,aBabylonianofficialpresentatthetakingofJerusalem(Jer39:3,13).Forvariousconjecturesastotheoriginofthe
title,seeHastingsDB,s.v.Tentativelyadoptingtheoldestandmostobviousaccount,thatitmeanschiefmagus,wenoteherethatthenamemagusmayverywell
havebeenappliedtoasacredcasteemployedinBabylonlongbeforeitbecameassociatedwithZoroastrianism,towhichthesilenceoftheAvestashowsitwas
originallyforeign.SeeMAGI.
JAMESHOPEMOULTON.
RABSARIS.1.ThetitleofanAssyr.officialwhowassentbySennacheribtoHezekiahtodemandthesurrenderofJerusalem(2K18:17).2.Thetitleborne
bytwoBab.officials,oneofwhomisrecordedtohavebeenpresentatthecaptureofJerusalembyNebuchadnezzar,whiletheotherismentionedamongthe
officialswhoorderedthereleaseofJeremiahafterthecaptureofthecity(Jer39:3,13).Rabsarisisthetranscription,bothinHeb.andAram.,oftheAssyr.andBab.
titlerab(orrub)sharshu,bornebyahighcourtofficial,whomayperhapshavebeenthechiefeunuch,thoughhisofficecannotbedeterminedwithabsolute
certainty.
L.W.KING.
RABSHAKEH.ThetitleofanAssyr.officer,whowiththeTartanandtheRabsariswassentbySennacheribtoHezekiahtodemandthesurrenderof
Jerusalem(2K18f.,Is36f.).ThewordistheHeb.transcriptionoftheAssyr.rabshaqatitlebornebyamilitaryofficerofhighrank,subordinatetotheTartan.
L.W.KING.
RACA.AtermoccurringonlyinMt5:22.ItisaSemiticword,probablyapopularpronunciationoftheRabbinicrq,anounformedfromtheadjectiverq
empty.SeveralinstancesofitsuseoccurintheTalmudasatermofcontemptappliedtoapersondevoidofeducationandmorals.FromMt5:22itmaybeinferred
thatitwasemployedasatermofabuseinthetimeofChrist.
WhilethegeneralforceofourLordswordsinMt5:21,22isclearenough,thesignificanceofthejudgmentsreferredtoisobscuredinthepresenttext.A
distinctionhasbeendrawnbetweenRacaasdenyingintellectualcapacity,andthoufoolasdenyingamansreligiousworth,whichcannothesustained.Our
LordsreferencetotheCouncil(i.e.thesupremeJewishCourt,theSanhedrin)inv.22,implyingitspossessionofthepoweroflifeanddeath,isespecially
difficult.TheSanhedrinpossessednosuchpowerinfact,norisitatalllikely,thatourLordwouldrecognizethevalidityofsuchaclaimonitsbehalfevenintheory.
ItwasafterallonlyaprovisionalinstitutiondevisedbytheRabbiswhereastheGehennaoffireisaMessianicjudgment.
Thetruemeaningandrealantithesisemergeclearlyifaslightrearrangementofthetext,firstsuggestedbyJ.P.Peters(inJBLx.(1891)131f.,xv.(1896)103:
adoptedintheEBi,s.v.Raca,vol.iv.col.4001),isaccepted.TheclauseaboutRacashouldbetransferredtov.21.Readthen:Yehaveheardthatitwassaidto
theancients,Thoushaltnotmurder,andwhosoevermurdersisliabletothejudgment,andwhosoeversaysRacatohisbrotherisliabletotheSanhedrin:butIsay
untoyou,whosoverisangrywithhisbrotherisliabletothe(Divine)judgment,andwhosoeversaysthoufoolisliabletotheGehennaoffire.Rabbiniclawis
verystringentagainstlibellousexpressions,whichweretobetreatedasseriousoffencesliableforpunishmenttothesupremecourt(likemurder).
G.H.BOX.
RACALIn1S30:29isprob.amistakeforCarmel(No.1).
RACE.SeeGAMES,p.282b.
RACES.ThefollowingisalistoftheracesmentionedintheBible,sofarastheyareIdentified.Theyareclassifiedaccordingtomodernethnological
principles.InGn10,citiesarefrequentlyclassedastribesorpatriarchalpersonages.
I. A (sonsofJapheth,Gn10).1.Greeks(Ro1:14etc.).2.Javan(IonianGreeks).3.Parthians(Ac2:9).4.Persians(Est1:19etc.).5.Medes(Madai).2/40
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I.ARYANS(sonsofJapheth,Gn10).1.Greeks(Ro1:14etc.).2.Javan(IonianGreeks).3.Parthians(Ac2:9).4.Persians(Est1:19etc.).5.Medes(Madai).
6.Romans(Jn11:48etc.).
II.HAMITES.1.Egyptians(Mizraim).2.Cushites(Nubians,Ethiopians).3.Libyans(Put[Somaliland]).
III.S EMITES.1.NorthSemites:(a)Babylonians(Shinar,Accad,Bahel,Erech)(b)
Assyrians(Asshur,Nineveh,Calah)(c)Aramans(Syrians)(d)Canaanitishpeoples(1)
Ammonites,(2)Amorites,(3)Canaanites,(4)Edomites,(5)Hivites,(6)Israelites,(7)Jebusites,
(8)Moabites,(9)Phnicians(Tyre,Sidon,Arvad,etc.).2.SouthSemites:(a)NorthArabs(1)Amalekites,(2)Ishmaelites(Kedar,Nebaioth,Tema,etc.),(3)
Midianites(b)SouthArabs(Sheba).
IV.UNCLASSIFIEDRACES.1.Cimmerians(Gomer,GimirraiofAssyr,inscriptions).2.
Elamites.3.Hittites.4.Horites.5.Philistines.6.Tubal(theTabaliofAssyr.inscriptions).7.Meshech(MuskiofAssyr.inscriptions).
GEORGEA.BARTON.
RACHEL(RahelinJer31:15AV,ewe).TheyoungerdaughterofLaban,andfavouritewifeofJacob(Gn29:2830),whomarriedherafterhersisterLeah.
InthequarrelbetweenJacobandLaban,she,aswellasLeah,tookthepartofJacob(31:1416).Whenleavingherfather,shestolehishouseholddivinities,the
teraphim(31:19)anincidentwhichsuggeststhelaxityinworshipandinideasofpropertycharacteristicofthetimes.HersonswereJosephandBenjamin:she
diedingivingbirthtoBenjamin.
Rachelsgrave.Thelocationofthisisdisputed.ItwasnearEphrath.Gn35:16,19,20,1S10:2,Jer31:15indicatethatitwasontheN.borderofBenjamin
towardsEphraim,abouttenmilesN.ofJerusalem.Inotherplaces,however(Ru1:2,4:11,Mic5:2),EphrathisanothernameforBethlehem,asitisalsoexplained
inGn35:19,48:7.Inaccordancewiththislattergroupofpassages,traditionfromatleastthe4thcent.hasfixedthespot4milesS.ofJerusalemand1mileN.of
Bethlehem.Eitherthenorthernlocationiscorrect,orthereareheretwovariantaccounts.Theformerviewisprobablytobepreferred,sinceRachelhasno
connexionwithJudah.InthatcasethatisBethlehemisanincorrectgloss.Cf.alsoRAMAH,3.
GEORGER.BERRY.
RADDAI.ThefifthsonofJesse(1Ch2:14).
RAFTS.SeeS HIPSANDBOATS.
RAGAU.Seefollowingarticle.
RAGES.ThemodernRei,6milesS.E.ofTeheran,oneoftheseatsoftheancientIraniancivilization,butnowamassoffallenwallsandstupendousruins
coveredwithmoundsofdbris.ItspositionneartheCaspianGatesgaveitgreatstrategicimportance.ItwasthecapitalofMediabeforeEcbatana,andhasthe
distinctionofhavingbeenthehomeofthemotherofZoroaster.ItisfrequentlymentionedintheApocrypha.InTobit(1:14,4:1,20,5:5,6:13,9:2)itwasvisitedby
theangelRaphael,andthereherecoveredforTobiasthedepositofsilverwhichhisfatherhadplacedthere.InJudith(1:5,15)itissaidthatinRagau(evidentlythe
sameplace)
NebuchadnezzarslewinbattleArphaxadprinceoftheMedes.InTo6:9readEcbatanaforRages.
J.F.MCURDY.
RAGUEL.1.SeeREUEL,2.2.ThefatherofSarah,thewifeofTobias(To3:7,17,18,14:12).
RAHAB(wide).1.Thestoryofthiswoman,calledaharlot,ofJerichoisgiveninJos2.
ThetwospiessentoutbyJoshuatoviewthePromisedLandcomefirsttothehouseofRahab,inJericho.Thekinghearsofit,andbidsRahabbringthemforthbut
sheassertsthattheyhaveleftherhouseandthatshedoesnotknowwheretheyhavegoneshehad,however,previouslyhidthemamongstalksofflaxuponthe
roof.Aftertheirpursuershaveleft,Rahabcomestothem,professesherbeliefinJahweh,andadjuresthemtospareherandherkinsfolkwhentheattackonJericho
ismadethistheypromiseshallbedoneandafterarrangingthatascarletthreadistobehungfromherwindow,inordertodenotewhichhouseistobespared
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ismadethistheypromiseshallbedoneandafterarrangingthatascarletthreadistobehungfromherwindow,inordertodenotewhichhouseistobespared
whenthesackofthecitytakesplace,thetwospiesescapefromherhousebyarope(Jos2).Thepromiseisdulykept,andJoshuasparesherwhenthecityisburned
(6:2225).InMt1:5RahabismentionedinthegenealogyofourLord.
2.AnamefortheDragon,appliedalsotoEgypt.Thisnameisnotthesameasthatjustconsidered,whichiswrittenRachabinHebrew,whilethisiswritten
Rahab.ItisthenamegiventoamythologicalmonsterwhoisfrequentlyreferredtointheBible.InIs30:7theoldmyththatJahwehinthebeginningsubdued
Rahab(=Thm,theGreatDeep,theBab.Tiamat)isemployedtoshowthatJahwehwillinlikemannersubdueEgypt(cf.Ps87:4),andthatitisthereforevain
forJudahtotrusttoit.ThewordsinRV,Rahabthatsittethstill,implythatRahabhadbeensubjugated,butnotannihilated,i.e.itwasbelievedthatRahabwasstill
livingsomewhereinthedepthsoftheseathefinaldestructionisreferredtoinRev21:1AndIsawanewheavenandanewearth:forthefirstheavenandthefirst
eartharepassedawayandtheseaisnomore.ThenextreferencetoRahabisinIs51:9,10,averyimportantpassage,whichshowsdistinctlythatRahab,the
Dragon,theseaortheGreatDeep(Thm),areallnamesforoneandthesamemonster.Thebeliefisalsoexpresslystatedthatinthedaysofoldtherewasa
conflictbetweenJahwehandRahab,andthatthelatterwasovercome.FurtherreferencestotheRahabmytharetobefoundinPs89:9,10,Job9:13,26:10,11itis
importanttonotehowinallthesepassagesthemythistreatedaswellknown,itistakenforgrantedthatthereferenceisperfectlyunderstood.[See,further,
DRAGON,LEVIATHAN,S EA.]
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
RAHAM.AdescendantofCaleb(1Ch2:44).
RAHEL.SeeRACHEL.
RAIMENT.SeeDRESS.
RAIN.ThePalestineyearisdividedroughlyintotwopartstherainyandthedry.ThefirstrainsafterthesummerbegintofallinNovember,thoughshowers
inOctoberarenotunknownandtheweathercontinuesintermittentlywetuntilthefollowingMarch,orsometimestillApril.Asarulethefirstrainfalls,whichare
accompaniedbyheavythunderstorms,arefollowedbycomparativelyfineweather,brokenbyoccasionalwetdays,afterwhich,towardstheendoftherainyseason,
thereareagainheavysuccessionsofrainstorms.Theagriculturalvalueofthisdivisionisobvious,anditisrecognizedbytheexpressionsformerandlatterrains
whichwemeetwithintheBiblicalwritings.Thefirstrainssoftentheironboundsoil,bakedhard,sotospeak,bythesummerheat,andsomakeitfitforploughing
thecomparativelyfineintervalsgivethehusbandmantimetosowandthesecondshowerswatertheseed.TheaverageannualrainfallinJerusalemisabout28
inches,thoughthisissubjecttomuchvariation.Inthewinterof19041905nearly40inchesfell.Suchverywetwintersarenearlyalwaysfollowedbyanepidemic
ofmalariainthesucceedingsummer.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
RAINBOW.InGn9:1117(P)therainbowappearsasthetokenofthecovenantbetweenGodandNoah.Asthecovenantisuniversal,soisitssign.The
Heb.ofv.13isambiguousastowhethertherainbowisconceivedofascreatedforthefirsttime(seeRVm).Thoughfromascientificpointofviewthisisabsurd,it
maywellhavebeenpartoftheprimitivetradition.Perhaps,however,allthatismeantisthattherainbowreceivedanewsignificanceasthesymbolofmercy.Its
appropriatenessisobvious:thestormpasses,andthesuncastsitsbeamsoverthestillcloudedsky,markingitsreturnbyoneofthemostbeautifulphenomenaof
nature.SoGodrenewsHisfavourafterHehashiddenHisfaceforaseason.Buttheremaybeafurthermythologicalsignificance.TherainbowmaybeJswar
bow(Ps7:12,Hab3:9,11)whichHehaslaidasidetheHeb.wordisthesame.SoitistotheHinduthebowofRama,andtotheFinnthebowofTiermesthe
Thunderer,whoslayswithitthesorcererswhohuntaftermenslives(Tylor,PrimitiveCulture3,i.p.298).Itis,indeed,prominentinallmythology.TotheGreekit
isaportent,orIris,themessengerofthegodsintheIcelandicEddaitisthebridgeconnectingheavenandearth(cf.Wagner,Rheingold).Itisuncertainwhetheritis
alludedtointheBabyloniannarrativeoftheFlood(seeDriver,adloc).InSir43:11therainbowisoneofthewonderfulworksofGodin50:7itisatypeofthe
gloryofSimon.InEzk1:28itsurroundsthethroneofGodsoRev4:3.IfthereisareferencetotheGenesisnarrative,itwillbethesymbolofmercy,possibly
typifiedalsobytheemeraldtowhichitiscompared,assumingthatagreenstoneismeant(seeSwete,adloc.).Butinsteadofthewordforbowfoundinthe
LXX,IrisissubstitutedinRev4:3,asin10:1.Hereevidentlyitissimplypartofthepicture,unlessthereisanallusiontotheGreekconceptionofIrisasthe
messengerofthegods.
C.W.EMMET.
RAISINS(tsimmqm,Nu6:3[EVdriedgrapes],1S25:18,30:12,2S16:1,1Ch12:40shshm,Hos3:1RV,etc.seeF
http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/r.htm ).Raisinsarenow,asof 4/40
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RAISINS(tsimmqm,Nu6:3[EVdriedgrapes],1S25:18,30:12,2S16:1,1Ch12:40shshm,Hos3:1RV,etc.seeFLAGON).Raisinsarenow,asof
old,preparedingreatquantitiesintheHolyLandthebunchesaredippedinastrongsolutionofpotashbeforebeingdried.EsSalt,acrosstheJordan,haslongbeen
famousfortheexcellenceofitsstonelessraisins.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
RAKEM.SeeREKEM,3.
RAKKATH.AfencedcityofNaphtali(Jos19:35).ThelaterRabbisplaceditatornearTiberias.
RAKKON.ThisnameinJos19:46isprob.duetoatextualerroradittographyfromthelatterhalfofMejarkon.
RAM.1.AnancestorofDavid(Ru4:19,Mt1:3,4inLk3:33Arni).In1Ch2:9heiscalledthebrother,butinvv.25,27thesonofJerahmeel.2.The
familytowhichElihubelonged(Job32:2).SomehavesupposedthatRamisacontractionforAram.
RAM.SeeS HEEP,and(forbatteringram)F ORTIFICATIONANDS IEGECRAFT,6(c).
RAMAH.ThenameofseveralplacesinPalestine,socalledfromtheirloftiness,thatbeingtheradicalmeaningoftheword.Theseareasfollows:
1.AcityofNaphtali(Jos19:36)nototherwiseknown,perhapsRmehbetweenAkkaandDamascus,8milesW.S.W.ofSafed.2.AcityofAsher(Jos19:29)
notelsewherementioned,andIdentifiednotimprobablywithRmia,nearTyre.3.AcityofBenjamin(Jos18:25)betweenwhichandBethelwasthepalmof
Deborah(Jg4:5)oneofthealternativeswhichtheLeviteofBethlehemhadtochooseforalodgingonhisfataljourney(Jg19:13)yieldedwithGeba621mento
thepostexiliccensusofEzra(Ezr2:26)resettledbyBenjamites(Neh11:33).ItsplaceisindicatedbetweenGebaandGibeahinIsaiahspictureoftheAssyrian
advance(10:29).AtraditionplacedherethesiteofRachelstomb:thisexplainstheallusionsin1S10:2,Jer31:15(quotedinMt2:18).HereJeremiahwasloosed
fromhischains(40:1).Thename,andnotimprobablythesite,ofthisplaceispreservedbyalittlevillageonahillsidenorthofJerusalemknownaserRm,which
answersthegeographicalrequirementsoftheseincidents.Nearitaresomeremarkableancientmonuments,knownlocallyasTheGravesoftheChildrenofIsrael,
whichpossiblyarethetombofRacheloftheancienttradition.ThistownwasprobablythehomeofShimei,theRamathite,Davidsvinedresser(1Ch27:27).4.
AplaceinthedistrictcalledRamathaimzophim(1S1:1),a(corrupt)nameprob.=thetwoheightsoftheZuphites.Thelatterethniccanhardlybedissociated
fromthenameofthegreathighplaceofMizpah
(NebySamwl).ItschiefdistinctionisitsconnexionwithSamuel.ItwasInthehillcountryofEphraim,butmighthavebeenovertheS.borderofthetribe.Here
Elkanahlived,andherewastheheadquartersofSamuelthroughouthislife(1S1:19,2:11,7:17,8:4,15:34,16:18,19:1823,
20:1,25:1,28:8).ThisisprobablytheRamahfortifiedbyBaashaagainsttheJudahitekingdom
(1K15:17,2Ch16:1),ratherthantheBenjamiteRamah:thelatterbeingactuallywithin
Judahiteterritorywouldnothavebeenaccessibletohim.ThisRamahappearsalsoin1Mac11:34asRamathaim.NosatisfactoryIdentificationoftheEphraimite
Ramahhasyetbeenproposed.ItmaybeidenticalwithNo.3.Rmallah,alargevillageabout12milesN.of
Jerusalem,wouldfairlywellsuittherequirementsofthehistory,buttherearenodefiniteIndicationsofantiquitiesthere.5.BythenameRamahallusionismadeto
Ramothgilead(wh.see)in2K8:23andtheparallelpassage2Ch22:6.6.Ramathlehi,thesceneofSamsonsvictoryoverthePhilistineswiththejawbone(Jg
15:17),isunknown.SeeLEHI.Ramathhereisprobablyacommonnoun,andweoughttorenderittheheightofLehi.7.Ramathmizpeh(Jos13:26).See
MIZPAH,No.4.8.Ramah(orRamoth)oftheSouth(Jos19:8).AtowninthetribeofJudah,giventoSimeontowhichDavidsentthespoilofZiklag(1S30:27).
Itisquiteunknown.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
RAMAH(RAMOTH)OFTHESOUTH.SeeRAMAH,No.8.
RAMATHAIM,RAMATHAIMZOPHIM.SeeRAMAH,4.
RAMATHITE.SeeRAMAH,No.3.
RAMATHLEHI.SeeR
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RAMATHLEHI.SeeRAMAH,No.6.
RAMATHMIZPEH.SeeMIZPAH,No.4.
RAMESES.SeeRAAMSES.
RAMIAH.OneofthesonsofParoshwhohadmarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:25[1Es9:26Hiermas]).
RAMOTH.1.AGershoniteLeviticalcityinIssachar(1Ch6:58,(73)),apparently=RemethofJos19:21andJarmuthofJos21:23,2.ForRamothofthe
southseeRAMAH,No.
8,3.ForRamothinGilead(Dt4:43,Jos20:8,21:38,1Ch6:65(80))see
RAMOTHGILEAD.
RAMOTHGILEAD,orRamothinGilead(cf.RAMAH,5),wasoneofthecitiesofrefuge(Dt4:43,Jos20:8),assignedtotheMerariteLevitesofGad(Jos
21:38,1Ch6:80).ItwasintheadministrativedistrictofSolomonslieutenantBengeber(1K4:13)thesceneofAhabslastfightwiththeSyrians(1K22,2Ch
18)andofanotherbattlewiththemfoughtbyAhabssonJehoram,wherehewaswounded(2K8:28,29,2Ch22:5)theplacewhereElishasmessengeranointed
Jehu(2K9:1ff.).Thatitwasaplaceofsomesanctityisprobablefromitsname(thehighplacesofGilead),andarguments,notaltogetherconclusive,havebeen
offeredinfavourofitsidentificationwithMizpeh,theplaceofthereconciliationofJacobandLaban.
TheattempthasplausiblybeenmadetoidentifyitwithGerasa,themodernJerashanextensivetownintheancientterritoryofGilead,ofunknownorigin,
whoseruinsarestillamongthemoststrikingeastoftheJordan.Forthisidentificationseveralforcibleargumentscanbebroughtforward.Anidentificationwith
anotherplace,Reimun,restssolelyonthesuperficialsimilarityofthename,whichisalwaysanunsafeguide.EsSaltisanothersuggestion.Onthewhole,however,
Jerashisperhapsthemostprobable,thoughfinaldecisionmust,asusual,belefttothetestofexcavation.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
RAMPART.SeeF ORTIFICATIONANDS IEGECRAFT,3.
RANGESinAVof2K11:8,15,2Ch23:14=ranks(RV).
RANSOM.SeeREDEEMER,REDEMPTION.RAPE.SeeCRIMESANDP UNISHMENTS,3.
RAPHA.1.ABenjamite(1Ch8:2).2.SeeREPHAIM.
RAPHAEL(Godhashealed)isthegoodangelofTobit.In3:17heissenttohealTobit,byrestoringhissighttogiveSarah,daughterofhiskinsmanRaguel,
tohissonTobiasforwifeandtopreventthedemonAsmodusfromaddinghimtothesevenhusbandshehasalreadykilled.In5:4ff.heappearsasbrother
AzariastoaccompanyTobiasonhisjourneytoMedia.TobitdespatchesthemwiththepartingMay[Gods]angelgowithyou(v16,cf.v.21),andtheystart
withtheirdog(afavouritesubjectwiththegreatpainters).In6:3ff.hedirectsTobiastotaketheheart,liver,andgallofafish,managesthemarriage,bindsthe
demon,fetchesmoneyfromRages,andhealsTobit.12:1220giveshisdescriptionofhimself,apassagewhichprobablybecamethegroundworkoflater
speculations.(1)Heisoneofthesevenangelsofthepresence(Lk1:13,Rev8:2[1:4?],Enoch90).SoinEnoch20.3heisoneofthewatchers,theangelofthe
spiritsofmen.TheconceptionisusuallytracedtoPersianinfluencecf.thesevenprincesoflightofZoroastrianism.(2)Heisanintermediary,bringingthe
memorialofprayersbeforeGod(Rev8:3).ThedoctrineoftheDivinealoofnessmadeithardtoconceivethatmancouldhavedirectaccesstotheearofGod,any
morethanasubjectcouldenterintothepresenceofanOrientalmonarch,orthatHecouldinterferedirectlyinthepettyaffairsofmen.SeeANGELS.(3)Heisalsoa
guardianangel,beingpresentatTobitsgooddeeds,andthecompanionofTobias.Thelongmaintaineddisguiseisauniquefeaturetheeatinganddrinkingis
explainedasanillusion(12:19).(4)Heistruetohisname,thehealercf.Enoch10.7,whereheisorderedtobindAzazel(so54),andhealtheearthwhichthe
angelshavedefiledand40.5,whereheissetoverthediseasesandwoundsofthechildrenofmen.(5)InEnoch22heisaguideinSheolin32,inParadise.
C.W.EMMET.
RAPHAH.SeeR
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RAPHAH.SeeREPHAIAH,4.
RAPHAIM.AnancestorofJudith(Jth8:1).
RAPHON.AcityofBashan(1Mac5:37),theRaphanaofPliny(HN,v.16)thesitehasnotbeenrecovered.
RAPHU.ThefatheroftheBenjamitespy(Nu13:9).
RASSES.ApeoplesubduedbyHolofernes(Jth2:23).
RATHUMUS.SeeREHUM,2.
RAVEN(rb,Arab.ghurb).Anuncleanbird(Lv11:15,Dt14:14),numbersofwhichmayalwaysbeseengathered,togetherwiththedogs,aroundthe
carrionthrownoutintothevalleyofHinnom(cf.Pr30:17).ItsglossyplumageisreferredtoinCa5:11itoftendwellsinthewilderness(Is34:11),andyetGod
caresforandwatchesoverit(Job38:41,Ps147:8,Lk12:24).Thenamerbisdoubtlessgeneric,andincludesalltheeightspeciesoftheCorvidknownin
Palestine.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
RAVIN.Thevb.toraven,i.e.preyupon,andthesubst.ravenorravin,i.e.prey,bothoccurinAV.Wefindalsotheadj.ravening(Ps22:13,Mt7:15)as
wellastheformravenous(Is35:9,46:11,Ezk39:4).Raveningisusedasasubst.inLk11:39Yourinwardpartisfullofraveningandwickedness(RV
extortion).
RAZIS.Theheroofanarrativein2Mac14:37ff.
RAZOR.SeeHAIRandKNIFE.
REAIAH.1.ACalebitefamily(1Ch4:2),calledin2:52Haroeh(wh.see).2.AReubenitefamily(1Ch5:5).3.ANethinimfamilyname(Ezr2:47=
Neh7:50=1Es5:31Jairus).
REAPING.SeeAGRICULTURE,3.
REBA.OneofthefivekingletsofMidianslainbyMoses(Nu31:8,Jos13:21).
REBEKAH(inRo9:10Rebecca).ThedaughterofBethnel,thesonofNahor,Abrahamsbrother,andhiswifeMilcah(Gn22:23).Shewasalsothesisterof
LabanandbecamethewifeofIsaac.ThewellknownstoryofthefactsleadinguptothemarriageofIsaacandRebekahistoldinGn24,andgivesvaluable
informationastoearlymarriagecustoms.Isaacisnotconsulted.AbrahamsservantEliezer(Gn15:2)issenttoseekforawifeamonghismasterskinsfolk.The
servantproceedstothecityofNahor(Haran),and,arrivingatthegateofthecity,waitsbythewelltillthewomencomeouttodrawwater(v.11).Hepraysthat
GodmayprosperhimandgivehimasignbywhichhemayrecognizethewomanProvidencehassetapartforIsaac.Rebekahcomesoutandofferstodrawwater
forthestrangerandhiscamels.Theservantloadsherwithgifts,andherfamily,ledbyherbrotherLaban,beingconvincedofAbrahamswealth,andrecognizing
thewillofHeavenintheselection,agreestothemarriage.RebekahreturnswiththeservantandbecomesIsaacswife(v.67).
InGn25:21wearetoldthatRebekah,likemanyotherfavouritewivesoftheOT(e.g.Sarah,Rachel,Hannah),wasatfirstbarren,butinanswertoIsaacsprayer
JacobandEsauwereborn(Gn25:2426).BeforetheirbirthRebekahreceivedtheoraclefromJehovah,thattwonationswereinherwombandthattheelder
shouldservetheyounger.NodoubtthisstoryisalateJewishlegend,arisingfromthedesiretofindthehistoryofthetwopeoplesIsraelandEdomforeshadowedin
thelivesoftheirprogenitors.
RebekahagaincomesbeforeusduringIsaacssojourninGerar(Gn26:611).FearinglestthebeautyofhiswifemightexcitethedesireofthekingofGerar
andsoleadtohisowndeath,IsaacpassedheroffashissisteracourseofactionwhichledhimintodifficultieswithAbimelech(Gn26:10).
ThedestinyofJacob,herfavouriteson,wasstronglyinfluencedbyhisstrongmindedmother.ShewastheauthorofthetreacherousplanbywhichJacob
deprivedEsauofhisfathersblessing(Gn27).SheadvisedhimtofleefromhishometoherbrotherLaban(Gn27:4345).InGn28:1f.,however,themotiveof
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thejourneyisthathemighttakeawifefromthefamilyofhismother,incontrasttoEsau,whohadgrievedhisparentsbytakingawifefromamongtheCanaanites
(Gn26:34,35).RebekahdiedbeforeJacobsreturnfromHaran,andherburialatMachpelahismentionedinGn49:31.ThedeathandburialofDeborah,thenurse
ofRebekah,whohadfollowedherfromHaran(24:59),arereportedtohavetakenplaceafterJacobhadreturnedtoCanaan(Gn35:8).
ThecharacterofRebekahhasapeculiarcharmandfascination.Appearingfirstasapure,unselfish,lovinggirl,shebecomesawomanofgreatstrengthofmind
anddepthofcharacter.Sheisclever,active,energetic.Shecanmakeplansandcarrythemout,giveordersandexpectthemtobeobeyed,buthermasterfulspirit
cannotbrookoppositionorcontradiction.Esauswivesvexherbeyondmeasure.Whensheloves,sheloveswithallhersoul,andwillsparenopains,considerno
consequences,orgrudgeanysacrificeforthosesheloves.Uponmebethycurse,myson(Gn27:13),isheranswertoJacobwhenhefearsthatacursewillfallon
hisdeception.Althoughthatcursefellandherbelovedsonhadtofleeandshesawhisfacenomore,yetweforgetthescheming,plottingwomaninthelovingwife
andselfsacrificingmother.
W.F.BOYD.
RECAH.Aplacename(1Ch4:12)quiteunknown.
RECEIPTOFCUSTOM.SeeCUSTOM(S),TRIBUTE.
RECHAB,RECHABITES
1.Jehonadab,thesonofRechab,appearsin2K10:1528asaferventsupporterofJehusattackonthehouseofAhabandhisendeavourtorootoutthe
idolatrousworshipwhichthatdynastyhadallowed.Thathisinfluencewasamatterofsomeimportanceisclearfromtheprominentplacewhichthenewrulergave
him(2K10:16,23).TheprincipleswhichactuatedhimaretobegatheredfromJer35,wherehisdescendantsrefusetodrinkwinebecausehehadbiddenthem
abstainfromit,buildnohouses,sownoseed,plantnovineyard,butdwellintentsalltheirdays.Heevidentlyheldthatcivilizationandsettledlifeinevitablyledto
apostasyfromJahweh,theancestralDeityofhistribe.Andtheperilwasaveryrealone,becauseoftheinveteratepopularbeliefthatthelocalbaalswerethe
dispensersofallblessingspertainingtofieldandvineyard(Hos2:5,1012).Henceitseemedtomorethanoneoftheprophetsthattheearly,simpleperiodofthe
nationslife,ereitbecameimmersedintheCanaanitecivilization,waspreferabletoalllaterdevelopments(Jg2:2,Hos10:1).Again,theselfrestraintofthe
RechabitesremindsusoftheNaziritevow(seeNAZIRITE).Butthelatterdidnotincludesomanytaboos.Itpermittedthecultivationoflandandthebuildingof
houses.Itwasnotbindingonanentireclan.AgenuinetraditionisprobablyembodiedintheChroniclersstatement(1Ch2:55),thattheclanoftheRechabiteswas
connectedwiththeKenites,andthiswouldsquareadmirablywiththeviewthattheJahwehreligionwascommunicatedtoIsraelbyKeniteinfluence.
SubsequentlytoJeremiahwedonotfindmorethantwoBiblicalallusionstotheclaninquestion,andoneoftheseisdoubtful.Neh3:14reportsthatMalchijah,the
sonofRechab,therulerofpartofBethhaccerem,assistedinrefortifyingJerusalem.ButifhewasaRechabitebydescent,hemusthaveabandonedtheirprinciples.
The men whom Jeremiah approached were but temporary sojourners, driven into the city through dread of the invader. This Malchijah was doubly a townsman,
living in a country town, and interested in the metropolis. The title of Ps 71 in the LXX is: Belonging to David. Of the sons of Jehonadab and of the earliest
captives, as though the exiles and the Rechabites agreed in appropriating this poem of sorrow and hope. Finally, it may be noted that later Rabbis found the
fulfilmentofJer35:19inthosemarriagesofRechabitemaidensintopriestlyfamilies,fromwhichlaterpriestssprang.HegesippusrelatesthatoneoftheRechabite
priestsintercededinvainforthelifeofJamestheJust(Euseb.HEII.23).
2.RechabandhisbrotherBaanah,twoguerillacaptains,treacherouslymurderedIshbosheth,theirking,andmetwiththeduerewardoftheirdeedatDavids
hands(2S4).
J.TAYLOR.
RECONCILIATION.Thewordreconciliation,withitscognates,isaPaulineone,andisnotfoundintheGospels,orotherNTwritings.Thechiefpassages
inwhichitandrelatedtermsareemployedareRo5:10,11(RV),2Co5:1820,Eph2:16,Col1:20,21.InHe2:17,wheretheAVhastomakereconciliationfor
thesinsofthepeople,theRVreads,morecorrectly,tomakepropitiation.OTusage,wherethewordoccasionallytr.reconcile(Lv6:30etc.)isagainmore
correctlyrenderedinRVmakeatonement,throwslittlelightontheNTterm.TheeffectofpropitiationistoremovethevariancebetweenGodandman,andso
bringabout
reconciliation.ThemeansbywhichthisresultisaccomplishedintheNTisthereconcilingdeathofChrist(Col1:2022).Onthespecialquestionsinvolved,see
artt.ATONEMENTand
REDEMPTION.
Perhapsbetterthananyother,thistermbringsoutinvividformSt.Paulsconceptionofthegospel.Asproclaimedtomen,thegospelisamessageof
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Perhapsbetterthananyother,thistermbringsoutinvividformSt.Paulsconceptionofthegospel.Asproclaimedtomen,thegospelisamessageof
reconciliation(2Co5:1820).ItisamisunderstandingoftheApostlesmeaninginsuchpassagestosupposethattheneedofreconciliationisonmanssideonly,
andnotalsoonGods.Man,indeed,doesneedtohereconciledtoGod,fromwhomheisnaturallyalienatedinhismindinevilworks(Col1:21).Themindofthe
fleshisenmityagainstGod(Ro8:7),andthisenmityofthecarnalheartneedstobeovercome.Onthisside,theministryofreconciliationisabeseechingofmen
tobereconciledtoGod(2Co5:20).ButtheverygroundonwhichthisappealisbasedisthatGodwasinChristreconcilingtheworlduntohimself,notreckoning
untothemtheirtrespasses(v.19).ItisanessentialpartoftheApostlesteachingthatsinnersaretheobjectsofaDivinejudicialwrath(Ro1:18).Theylieundera
condemnationthatneedstoberemoved(3:19ff.).Theyaredescribedasenemiesintwopassages(5:10,11:28)wherethewordisplainlytobetakeninthepassive
senseofobjectsofwrath(cf.inRo11:28,thecontrastwithbeloved).ItisthisbarriertoGodsreconciliationwithmenthat,intheApostlesdoctrine,Christ
removesbyHispropitiatorydeath(Ro3:25,Col1:20).ThegroundonwhichmenarecalledtobereconciledtoGodis:Himwhoknewnosinhemadetobesinon
ourbehalfthatwemightbecometherighteousnessofGodinhim(2Co5:20,21).Believersreceiveareconciliationalreadymade(Ro5:11RV).Thegospel
reconciliation,inotherwords,hasatwofoldaspectaGodwardandamanwardandpeaceismadebytheremovalofthevarianceonbothsides.Seeartt.above
referredto.
JAMESORR.
RECORDER.SeeKING,2(6)(c).
RED.SeeCOLOURS,3.
REDHEIFER.Theashesofaredheifermorecorrectlyaredcowaddedtorunningwater,formedthemostpowerfulmeansknowntotheHebrewsof
removingthedefilementproducedbycontactwithadeadbody.Themethodofpreparingtheashesandtheregulationsfortheapplicationofthewaterofimpurity
(seebelow)arethesubjectofaspecialsectionofthePriestsCode(Nu19).Itwillbeadvisabletosummarizethecontentsofthechapter,inthefirstplace,and
thereaftertoinquireintothesignificanceoftheriteinthelightofrecentanthropologicalresearch.
1.Thechapterabovecitedconsistsoftwopartsthefirstpart,vv.113,givesinstructionsforthepreparationoftheashes,and(vv.1113)fortheremovalby
theirmeansofthedefilementcontractedbyactualcontactwiththedeadbody.Thesecondpart,vv.1422,isanexpansionofvv.12f.,extendingtheapplicationof
thewaterofimpuritytouncleannessarisingfromavarietyofsourcesconnectedwithdeath.
Theanimalwhoseashesacquiredthisspecialvirtuehadtobeofthefemalesex,ofared,orratherreddishbrown,colour,physicallywithoutblemish,andone
thathadneverbornetheyoke.Thedutyofsuperintendingtheburning,whichtookplacewithoutthecamp,wasentrustedtoadeputyofthehighpriest.Theactual
burning,however,wascarriedthroughbyalayassistant,whichfact,takenalongwiththedetail(v.5)thateveryparticleoftheanimal,includingtheblood,was
burned,showsthatwehavenottodoherewitharitualsacrifice,asmightbeinferredfromtheEVofv.9.Thewordthererenderedsinofferingproperlydenotes
inthisconnexion(cf.8:7)apurificationforsin(Oxf.Heb.Lex.310acf.S ACRIFICE,14).Thepriestsshareintheceremonywasconfinedtothesprinklingof
someofthebloodtowardthefrontofthetentofmeeting(v.4RV),intokenofthededicationoftheanimaltoJ,andtothecastingintotheburningmassofa
pieceofcedarwoodandabunchofhyssopboundwithapieceofscarletcloth(such,atleast,istheregulationoftheMishnatreatisedealingwiththissubject).
AthirdpersonthepriestandhisassistanthavingthemselvesBecomeuncleanthroughcontactwiththesesacredthings(seebelow)nowgatheredtheashes
andlaidthemupwithoutthecampinacleanplace,tobeusedasoccasionrequired.Thespecialnamegiventothemixtureofrunningwater(v.17,lit.living
water,i.e.waterfromaspring,notacistern)andtheashesisproperlywaterofimpurity(v.9,13,20,21soRVmAmer.RVwaterforimpurityEVwaterof
separation),i.e.waterfortheremovalofimpurityoruncleanness.Thispowerfulcatharticwasappliedtothepersonorthingtobecleansed,eitherbybeingthrown
overthem(seeGray,Com.onv.13),orbybeingsprinkledwithasprinklerofhyssop(v.18).Thiswasdoneonthethirdandseventhdays,afterwhichthedefiled
personwashedhispersonandgarments,andwasthenrestoredtotheprivilegesofthecultandthecommunity.Theonlyotherreferencetothewaterofimpurityis
inthelatepassage,Nu31:23.
2.Thecluetothesignificanceoftheriteabovedescribedisfoundintheprimitiveconceptionofuncleanness,asthishasbeendisclosedbymodern
anthropologicalresearch(seeCLEANANDUNCLEAN).Inallprimitivesocietiesadeadbodyinparticularisregardedasnotonlyuncleaninitself,butascapableof
infectingwithuncleannessallwhocomeincontactwithitorareeveninproximitytoit.TheSemitessharedtheseideaswithprimitivecommunitiesineverypartof
theworld.Hence,althoughtheliteraryformulationoftheriteoftheRedHeiferinNu19maybelate,theideasandpracticesthereofarecertainlyolderthanthe
Hebrewsthemselves.
Whilethecentralideaoftheritetheefficacyofashesasacathartic,dueprobablytotheirconnexionwithfire(cf.Nu31:23,andFarnell,TheEvolutionof
Religion,101n.)hasitsparallelselsewhere,theoriginalsignificanceofseveralofthedetailsisstillveryobscure.Thisapplies,forexample,totheredcolourofthe
cow,andtotheadditiontoherashesofthecedarwoodandhyssopandscarlet(forvarioussuggestionssee,inadditiontoGray,op.cit.,HastingsDBiv.208ff. 9/40
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cow,andtotheadditiontoherashesofthecedarwoodandhyssopandscarlet(forvarioussuggestionssee,inadditiontoGray,op.cit.,HastingsDBiv.208ff.
BewerinJBLxxiv.(1905)42ff.,whosuggeststhatthecowmayhavebeenoriginallyasacrificetothedead).
ThevalueofthechapterforthestudentofHebrewritualliesintheillustrationitaffordsoftheprimitiveconceptionsofuncleanness,especiallyofthe
uncleannessofthedead,andofthecontagiousnessofholiness,thenatureofwhichhasbeensoclearlyexpoundedbyRobertsonSmith(seeRS2446ff.Holiness,
Uncleanness,andTaboo).Theashesoftheredheiferandthewaterofimpurityhereappear,invirtueoftheirintenseholiness,asaconductingvehicleofa
dangerousspiritualelectricity(Farnell,op.cit.95),andhavethesamepowerasthedeadbodyofrenderinguncleanallwhocomeincontactwiththem(seevv.
7ff.,21f.andart.CLEANAND
UNCLEAN).
Therearenoinventionsinritual,ithasbeensaid,onlysurvivals,andintheriteunderreviewwehaveoneofthemostinterestingofthesesurvivals.Theremarks
madeinapreviousarticle
(ATONEMENT[DAYOF])areequallyapplicabletothepresentcase.AsreinterpretedbythecompilersofthePriestsCode,theriteconveys,instrikingsymbolism,
theeternaltruththatpurityandholinessaretheessentialcharacteristicsofthepeopleofGod.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
REDSEA.Thebodyofwater,over1000milesinlength,whichdividesAfricafrom
Arabia.TheBiblicalinterestofthenamecentresatitsnorthernendinitstwoprojections,theGulfofSuez,runningnorthwest,andtheBayofAkabahalmostdue
north.Theformeronceextendedmuchfarthertothenorth,alongtherouteofthepresentSuezCanal.AncientlyitwasknownastheGulfofHeroepolis,running
asfarnorthastheBitterLakes.InthisregionitisprobablethatthepassageoftheseadescribedinEx14tookplace,thoughithasbeenlocatedbysomeatthe
presentSuez,andbyothersstillfarthersouth.
Thisprimitiveextensionofthegulftothenorth,theregionofweeds,probablyaccountsforitsname,YamSuph,seaofweeds(Ex10:19,15:4),whichwas
laterappliedalsototheeasternextension,theBayofAkabah(Nu21:4),totheentirebodyofwaternowknownastheRedSea,stretchingfromtheRasMohammed
southwardtothestraits,andperhapseventothePersianGulf(Ex23:31).Nosatisfactoryexplanationofthetermred(Gr.Erythra,Lat.Rubrum)hasbeenfound.
Biblicalhistoryisconcernedwiththewesterngulf(Suez,130m.long)onlyinconnexionwiththeExodus.ThosewholocateMt.Sinaiinthepeninsulabetween
thetwogulfs,eitheratMt.SerhaloratJebelMusa,tracetherouteofthewanderingsdowntheeasternshoreofthiswaterasfarasRasAbuZenimeh,or(withShaw,
Pococke,etc.)asfarasTor,andthenthroughthemountainwadystoSinai.ThosewholocatethemountainoftheLawfarthernorthintheregionnorthofAkahah,
tracethewanderingsdirectlyeastwardfromthesea(Jg11:16).
TheBayofAkabah,90m.long,liesinthesouthernendofthelongtrenchwhichextendsfromtheRedSeapropernorthwardtotheLehanons,theupperportion
ofwhichisoccupiedbytheJordanandtheDeadSea.BetweenthelatterandtheBayofAkabahliestheArabah.Atthenorthernendwasanimportantmaritime
highwayinthereignofSolomon.AttheharbourofEziongeber(nearto,orperhapsthesameas,Elath),atitsnorthernend,Solomonbuilthisnavy,withthehelp
ofPhnicianseamen(1K9:26),andsentoutexpeditionstoIndia.Jehoshaphatwaslesssuccessful(1K22:48).
H.L.WILLETT.
REDEEMER,REDEMPTION.Redemptionmeansinstrictnessdeliverancebypaymentofapriceorransom,hence,metaphorically,atanygreatcostor
sacrificebutintheOT,outsidetheLaw(especiallyinDeut.,Psalms,Isaiah),isoftenusedalsoofdeliverancesimply,asfromoppression,violence,sickness,
captivity,deathredemptionbypower.ThetypicalredemptionintheOTwasthedeliveranceofIsraelfromEgypt(cf.Is51:911).
Twowords,withtheirderivatives,areusedintheOTtoexpresstheidea.Theone,gal(fromwhichgl,redeemer),isusedtechnicallyofredemptionofantinheritance,of
tithes,andthelike:inawidersenseitisafavouriteterminthelaterPsalmsandDeuteroIsaiah.Theother,pdhh,isfrequentinDeut.andintheearlierPsalms.Thegelisthe
kinsmanwhohastherighttoredeemthetermisusedalsooftheavengerofblood(Nu35:12etc.)elsewhere,asinJob19:25,Ps19:14etc.,butespeciallyinDeuteroIsaiah,it
denotesJehovahasthevindicator,deliverer,andavengerofHispeople(cf.Is40:14,
43:14etc.).TheNT,likewise,employstwowordsoneagoraz,tobuyorpurchase(1Co6:20,7:23,2P2:1,Rev5:9,14:3,4St.PaulusesacompoundforminGal3:13,4:5)
theother,andmoreusual,lutroumai(fromlutron,aransom),anditsderivatives.ThespecialPaulinewordforredemptionisapolutrsis(Ro3:24,8:23,1Co1:30,Eph1:7etc.).
InRo11:26DelivererisusedfortheOTRedeemer(Is59:20).
InpiouscirclesinIsraelthecomingMessianicsalvationwasviewedasaredemption(Lk2:38),inwhich,possibly,politicaldeliverancewasIncluded,butin
whichthemainblessingswerespiritualknowledgeofsalvation,remissionofsins,holiness,guidance,peace(Lk1:7479).InChristsownteachingthepolitical
aspectaltogetherdisappears,andthesalvationHebringsinissomethingwhollyspiritual.HeconnectsitwithHisPerson,andincertainwellknownpassageswith
Hisdeath(Jn3:1416,6:5156,Mt20:28||and26:2628||etc.).IntheApostolicteaching(Acts,Paul,Peter,Heb.,Rev.)Christsworkisdistinctivelya
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Hisdeath(Jn3:1416,6:5156,Mt20:28||and26:2628||etc.).IntheApostolicteaching(Acts,Paul,Peter,Heb.,Rev.)Christsworkisdistinctivelya
redemption.Redemption,moreover,isnotusedheresimplyinthegeneralsenseofdeliverance,butwithdefiniteemphasisontheideaofpurchase(Ac20:28,1
Co6:20,Eph1:7,1Ti2:9,1P1:18,19,Rev5:9etc.).ThisglancesbacktoChristsownsayingthatHecametogivehislifearansom
(lutroncf.antilutronin1Ti2:6)formany(Mt20:28).Further,ransom,price,purchase,redeem,arenottobetakensimplyfiguratively,inthesensethat
Christhasprocuredsalvationforusatthecostofgreatsuffering,evenofdeath,toHimself.ThisistruebuttheconsensusofApostolicteachinggivesamuchmore
definiteinterpretationtothelanguageoneinaccordancewithChristsownintimation.Hisdeathwasanexplatorysacrificebywhichthosewhoavailthemselvesof
itareliterallyredeemedfromthewrathofGodthatrestedonthem,andfromallothereffectsofsin.ItisSt.Paulwhoworksoutthisideamostsystematically(cf.Ro
3:2326,2Co5:1821,Gal3:1013,4:4,5,Tit3:14,etc.),thoughalltheNTwritersshareit.TheimmediateeffectofChristsredeemingdeathistofreefrom
guiltandannulcondemnation(Ro8:1,33,34),butitcarriesinitstraindeliverancefromsinineveryform(fromsinsdominion,fromthetyrannyofSatan,froman
evilworld,fromalliniquity,Ro6,Gal1:4,Tit2:14,He2:14etc.)ultimatelyfromdeathitself(Ro8:23).Itnotmerelyredeemsfromevil,butputsinpossessionof
thehighestpossiblegoodeternallife(Ro6:23,Eph1:3etc.).Itisaredemptionineverywaycomplete.See,further,artt.ATONEMENT,P ROPITIATION,
RECONCILIATION,
S ALVATION.
JAMESORR.
REED.1.qneh,tr.reed,1K14:15,2K18:21,Is36:6,42:3stalk,Gn41:6,22sweetcane(RVmcalamus),Is43:24,Jer6:20calamus,Ca4:14,
Ezk27:19spearmen,Ps68:30(AV,butRVreeds)alsometaphoricallyusedforabone,Job31:22thearmofabalance,Is46:6andbranchesofa
candlestick,Ex25:31,32.Theqnehisprobablythefamiliarqasb(Arundodonax),whichflourishesonthebanksofallthestreamsandlakesoftheJordan
Valley.MilesofitaretobeseenattheAinFeshkhahoasisontheDeadSeashore,andattheHulehmarshes.Itisaloftyreed,often20feethigh,brilliantlygreenin
thelatesummer,whenallaroundisdryandbarebutdeadlooking,fromadistance,inthespring,whenitstandsinfullflowerandtheloftystemsarecrownedby
beautifulsilkenpannicles.Inthedistrictmentionedthereedsareclearedfromtimetotimebyfire,thattheyoungandtendershootsmaygrowuptoaffordfodder
forcattle.Thecovertofthereedsisoftentheonlypossibleshade(Job40:21).Thebruisedreed,which,thoughstanding,atouchwillcausetofallandlie
bedraggledontheground,isafamiliarsight(2K18:21,Is36:8,Ezk29:67).Areedformsamostconvenientmeasuringrod,beingstraightandlight(Ezk40:3,5,
Rev11:1etc.).Incertainpassageswhereqnehistr.calamus,orsweetcane,someimportedaromaticcaneorharkismeant.Fortheuseofreedsaspens,see
WRITING,6.
2.rth,Is19:7(AVpaperreeds,RVmeadows).SeeMEADOW.
3.gammm,lit.pools(seeP OOL),isinJer51:32tr.reeds.ForbulrushesseeRUSH.
4.ch,Job8:11EVflag,RVmreedgrass.SeeMEADOW.
5.beh,Job9:26(RVmreed).Thereferenceistolightskiffsofpapyrus.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
REELAIAH.SeeRAAMIAH.
REELIAS,1Es5:8,correspondsinpositiontoBigvaiinEzr2:2,Neh7:7theformofthenamemaybeduetoaduplicationofReelaiahinthesameverseof
Ezra.
REFINER,REFINING.TheancientEgyptianspurifiedgoldbyputtingitintoearthencrucibleswithlead,salt,alittletin,andbarleybran,sealingthe
crucibleswithclay,andthenexposingthemtotheheatofafurnaceforfivedaysandnights.Refiningsilverbycupellationisaveryoldprocess.Thesilvermixed
withleadisputintoacruciblemadeofboneearth,andplacedinareverberatoryfurnace.Astheoxideofleadforms,itisblownoffbybellows,andtowardstheend
oftheprocessthethincoveringofoxidebecomesiridescentandsoondisappears,andthepurebrightsurfaceofthesilverflashesout.Thisprocessofrefiningsilver
isreferredtoinJer6:29.ThereferenceinMal3:2f.istothepurifyinginfluenceofafflictiononthepeopleofGodtheirsinfulImpuritiesgraduallydisappear,andat
lasttheDivineimageisreflectedfromthesoul,asthefaceoftherefinerfromthesurfaceofthepurifiedsilver.
REFUGE,CITIESOF
1. Originoftherightofasylum.Thecityofrefugewastheproductoftwoprimitivereligiousideasthatwereemployedtoneutralizeoneanother,the
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1.Originoftherightofasylum.Thecityofrefugewastheproductoftwoprimitivereligiousideasthatwereemployedtoneutralizeoneanother,the
sacrednessofbloodorlifeandthesacrednessoflocalitybothwerebasedonthepresenceoftheDivineinthebloodandthelocality.Therewasacommunityof
bloodorlifebetweenthegodandhispeoplethatmadeitanunpardonableoffencetoslayoneofhispeopleitmatterednotwhethertheslayerwaswithinorwithout
hispeople,whetherthedeedwasintentionaloraccidental.Awronghadbeendonethatcouldbeatonedforonlybyblood(RobertsonSmith,RS,[1907]p.32ff.).
Ontheotherhand,thegodchosecertainplacesforhismanifestation,andthereitwascustomaryforhispeopletomeetandworshiphim.Withintheprecincts
claimedbyhispresencealllifewassacred,andsoitcameaboutthatevenamurderer,ifheescapedtothehauntsofagod,wouldbesafefromthosetowhomhe
hadforfeitedhislife,solongasheremainedwithintheirsacredlimits(ib.p.148f.).Themurdererthusescapedthepenaltyofhiswrong,butheremainedan
ineffectiveunitforhistribeimmediatelyhelefttheasylumofthegodhewasatthemercyoftheavengerofblood,andsobothtribeandindividualwereina
measurepunished.Thisprimitiveusagestillprevailsinsavagecommunities,andhasbeenwidenedbyextendingtheprivilegeofasylumtoplacesoccupiedby
formerkingsandtothegravesofformerrulers(Frazer,Fort.Review,1899,pp.
650654).
2.DevelopmentofasyluminOT.InthisabsoluteformtherightofasylumisnotrecognizedanywhereintheOT.Itisextendedonlytoonewhohaswithout
intentioncommittedhomicide(Ex21:13).OnewhohastreacherouslysulliedhishandswithbloodcanfindnorefugeatthealtarofGodhemaybetakenfromit
todeath(Ex21:14),orhemayevenbestruckdownatthealtar,aswasthefateofJoab(1K2:30,31,34).Thecommunitycamebetweenthefugitiveandthe
avengerofblood,anddeterminedwhetherheshouldbehandedovertodeath.Thiswaslikelytheresultofthefusionofdifferenttribesandthenecessityof
recognizingonecommonauthority.WecantracethreestagesofdevelopmentofthisrightofasylumintheOT.
(1)Everyaltarorsanctuaryinthelandcouldextenditsprotectiontoonewhohadwithoutintentiontakenthelifeofanother.Hehadtojustifyhisclaimtoprotectionby
showingtotheauthoritiesofthesanctuarythathisdeedwasunpremeditated.Butafterthefugitivehadsubmittedsatisfactoryevidence,hewasallowedtoremainwithinthesacred
precincts.Hecouldnot,however,returnhome,andhadevidentlytopasstheremainderofhislifeintherefugetowhichhehadfled.Hecouldnotappeasetheavengerbymoney.
Hiswantofprudencemustentailsomepunishment,andsohecouldnotpassbeyondthecityboundarieswithoutriskofdeathatthehandsoftheavengerofblood.Whatprovision
wasmadeforhismaintenanceisnotrevealed,butverylikelyhehadtowinhissubsistencebyhiswork.Whetherhisfamilycouldjoinhiminhisasylumisaquestionthatisalso
unanswered.ThisisthestageofdevelopmentinEx21:13,14,1K1:50,2:28,34.ItisnotatalllikelythatJoabsdeathwasbroughtaboutatthealtarinJerusalembecauseofsome
exceptionalauthorityexercisedoveritbytheking.Joabevidentlyknewhecouldbeputtodeaththere(1K2:30).
(2)WhentheprovincialhighplacesandaltarsweresuppressedbyJosiahinB.C.621,therightofasylumtherefellwiththem,andprovisionhadtobemadefor
thecontinuanceofancientusageonamodifiedbasis.Verylikelytherewaslessneedforit,asthepoweroftheCrownhadbeengrowing.Citiesofrefuge,situated
atconvenientdistances,weresetapartforthemanslayer(Dt19:27),anditmayevenbethattheroadsthitherwerespeciallykeptandmarkedtomakeescape
easy(Dt19:3butcf.Steuernagel,Deut.p.71f.).Thefugitivehadtojustifyhisclaimtoprotectionbyshowingtotheeldersofthecitywhitherhehadfledhis
innocenceofmurderousmotives.Anyonewhofailedtoconvincethemofthevalidityofhisdefencewashandedovertotheeldersofhisowncity,andtheyinturn
surrenderedhimtotheavengerofblood.Practically,then,thecommunityadministeredjustice,butwhenthedeathpenaltywastobeexacted,itwasexactednotby
thecommunity,butbytheavengerofbloodinaccordancewithprimitiveusage(Dt19:12,13).
(3)InpostexilictimesthecitiesofrefugeestablishedundertheDeuteronomicCoderemained,andthejudicialprocedurefollowedwasverymuchthesame,
onlythecommunitypresumablyatJerusalemandnottheeldersofthecityofrefuge(Nu35:12,24,25)wastodeterminetheguiltortheinnocenceofthe
fugitive.Jos20:4,however,contemplatesaprovisionalinquirybytheeldersofthecitybeforeprotectionisgranted.Thelawwasmitigatedsofarthattheunwitting
manslayerwasnolongerdoomedtospendallhisdaystherebutwasfreetoreturntohishomeonthedeathofthehighpriestofthetime(Nu35:25,23,Jos20:6).
Thispointstothepostexilicoriginofthismodification.ThehighpriestwasthentheonlyconstitutedauthoritythatJewishlawcouldrecognize.
3.Numberofcitiesofrefuge.Thestatementsbearingonthenumberofthecitiesofrefugeareconflicting(Nu35:11,1315,Dt4:4143,19:710,Jos20:2,
7,8cf.Driver,Deut.pp.78,233Gray,Num.p.469).Ultimatelythereweresix,butatfirstthereappeartohavebeenonlythree(Dt19:2,7).Theywere
establishedfirstinthetimeofJosiahwhentheboundariesandthepopulationoftheJewishStatewouldbecomparativelysmall,andJewishauthoritydidnotlikely
crosstheJordantotheeast.Insuchconditionsthreecitieswouldbeample.ButwheninpostexilictimestheJewscoveredawiderarea,therewouldnaturallybe
needformorecitiesandsowefindthenumberinNumbersandJoshuastatedatsix,andadditionsmadetothetextinDt4:4143and19:3tosuggestthatthe
numbersixhadbeencontemplatedfromthebeginning.ThesesixcitieswereKedesh,Shechem,andHebrononthewest,allwellknownsanctuariesfromearly
times,andGolan,Ramoth,andBezerontheeast.OfthesituationoftheselastweknownothingdefinitelyeventhesiteofRamoth,towhichreferenceismade
elsewhereintheOT(1K4:13,22:3ff.),isasubjectofdoubt(seeG.A.Smith,HGHLp.587Driver,Deut.xviii,xix),buttheyprobablysharedthesacredcharacter
ofthecitiesonthewest.
J.GILROY.
REFUSE.Thevb.torefusehaslostmuchofitsvigour.InAVitoftenmeanstoreject.ThusPs118:22Thestonewhichthebuildersrefused.Cf.Tindales12/40
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REFUSE.Thevb.torefusehaslostmuchofitsvigour.InAVitoftenmeanstoreject.ThusPs118:22Thestonewhichthebuildersrefused.Cf.Tindales
trans.ofMt24:40Thentwoshalbeinthefeldes,theoneshalbereceaved,andtheothershalberefused.
REGEM.TheeponymofaCalebitefamily(1Ch2:47).
REGEMMELECH.OneofthedeputationsenttotheprophetZechariah(Zec7:2).
REGENERATION.Inthelanguageoftheology,regenerationdenotesthatdecisivespiritualchange,effectedbyGodsHolySpirit,inwhichasoul,naturally
estrangedfromGod,andruledbysinfulprinciples,isrenewedindisposition,becomesthesubjectofholyaffectionsanddesires,andentersonalifeofprogressive
sanctification,theissueofwhichiscompletelikenesstoChrist.Theterm,however,towhichthiswordcorresponds(Gr.palingenesia),occursonlytwiceintheNT
(Mt19:28,Tit3:5),andinthefirstinstancedenotes,nottherenewaloftheindividual,buttheperfectedconditionofthingsattheParousia(cf.Ac3:21,2P3:13
seeRESTORATION).Intheotherpassage(Tit3:5),theexpressionthewashing[laver]ofregenerationconnectstherenewingoftheHolyGhostwiththeriteof
baptism,whichisitsoutwardsymbolandseal(seebelow).Thedoctrine,nevertheless,isathoroughlyScripturalone,andthechangeinquestionisexpressedbya
greatvarietyoftermsandphrases:born,bornanew,anewcreation,renewed,quickened,etc.,towhichattentionwillimmediatelybedirected.The
fundamentalneedofregenerationisrecognizedintheOTaswellasintheNT(e.g.Ps51:10,11),though,necessarily,thepropheciesspeakmorefrequentlyof
nationalrenewal(Jer31:31ff.,32:3840,Ezk36:2528,Hos6:13etc.)thanofindividual.
TheclassicalpassageontheneedofregenerationisJn3:3ff.Spirituallife,itistaught,cancomeonlyfromaspiritualsource,andman,naturally,hasnotthatlife
(v.6).Hencethedeclarations:Exceptamanbebornanew,hecannotseethekingdomofGodExceptamanbebornofwaterandtheSpirit,hecannotenterinto
thekingdomofGod.MarvelnotthatIsaiduntothee,Yemustbebornanew(vv.3,5).ThemiracleiswroughtbytheSpiritofGod,whoseactionissovereign(v.
8).Manydomarvel,likeNicodemus,atthestrangenessanduniversalityofthisdemandofChristyetthestrangenesswilldisappear,andtheneedofasupernatural
agenttoeffectthechangewillbefelt,ifdueconsiderationisgiven(1)tothevastnessofthechange,and(2)totheconditionofthehumannatureinwhichthe
changeistobemade.
(1)Itissufficient,toshowthevastnessofthischange,toreflectthathere,andelsewhere,regenerationmeansnothinglessthanarevolutionofsuchakindas
resultsinthewholemanbeingbroughtroundfromhisordinaryworldlywayoffeeling,andthinking,andwilling,intoharmonywithGodsmindandwilltruly
broughtroundtoGodspointofview,sothathenowseesthingsasGodseesthem,feelsaboutthingsasGodfeelsaboutthem,judgesofthingsasGodjudgesof
them,loveswhatGodloves,hateswhatGodhates,setsGodsendsbeforehimashisown.Whocandoubt,ifthisisthenatureofthechange,thatitdoesnotliein
mansownpowerstoproduceitthatitcanbeeffectedonlythroughahigherpowerenteringhisbeing,andworkingthechange?
(2)Theneedofasupernaturalagencyinthechangeisfurtherevidentfromtheconditionofthehumannatureinwhichthechangeiswrought.Thetestimonyof
ScriptureisuniformthatmanhasturnedasidefromGod(Ps14:13,Ro3:9ff.),andthathisnaturehasundergoneaterribledepravation(Gn6:5,8:21,Ps51:5,Is
1:24,Ro7:14ff.,Eph2:13,4:17,18etc.)thatthebentofthewillisawayfromGod(Ro8:7,8)thattheloveofGodhasbeenreplacedbyloveoftheworld,and
theselfseekingprinciplesconnectedtherewith(1Jn2:15,16,cf.Jn5:42,44)thatthebetternatureisinbondagetoalawofsin,whichworkslawlessnessin
thought,feeling,anddesire(Ro7:22,23,1Jn3:4RV).Isitnotobvious,leavingoutofaccountaltogetherthedarkerformsinwhichevilmanifestsitself,thatthisis
aconditionofsoulwhichonlyaDivinepowercanrectify?
Nothing,therefore,ismoreplainlytaughtinScripturethanthatthisspiritualchangewecallregenerationisonewhichnothingshortofDivinepowercaneffect.
ItisspokenofasabeingbornofGod(Jn1:12,13,3:5,1Jn3:9etc.)asanewcreation(2Co5:21)asabeingraisedfromthedead(Eph2:5,6).Itiscomparedto
thatgreatworkoftheomnipotenceofGodinraisingChristHimselffromthedead(Eph1:19,22,2:1,6).Itisacompleterenewal,transformation,oftheinnerman
(Ro12:2,Eph4:23,Col3:10,Tit3:15,1P1:22,23).Yet,whilesodistinctivelyasupernaturalwork,itismadeequallyclearthatitisnotamagicalworknotawork
boundupwithritesandwords,sothat,whentheseritesandceremoniesareperformed,regenerationisipsofactoeffected.Thisistheerrorofsacerdotalism,which
bindsupthisspiritualchangewiththeriteofbaptism.Itwouldbewrongtosaythatbaptismhasnoconnexionwiththechange,foritisoftenbroughtintomost
intimaterelationwithit(Ro6:4,Tit3:5,1P3:21perhapseveninChristswords,Jn3:5withthehistoricalexamplesoftheconnexionofthereceivingoftheSpirit
withbaptism,Ac2:38,19:28etc.).Baptismisconnectedwithregenerationasoutwardlyrepresentingit,andbeingasymbolofitasconnectedwithprofession(1
P3:21),andpledgingthespiritualblessingtofaithbutitneitheroperatestheblessing,norisindispensabletoit,norhasanyvirtueatallapartfromtheinward
susceptibilityinthesubjectsofit.InsomecaseswereadofthoseonwhomtheSpiritofGodfell,thattheywerebaptizedafterwards(Ac10:44,48),andinallcases
faithispresumedtobealreadypresentbeforebaptismisadministeredthatis,theinwarddecisivestephasalreadybeentaken.
Ontheotherhand,whenwelooktothemeanstheinstrumentalitybywhichtheHolySpiriteffectsthischange,wefinditalwaysinScripturedeclaredtobe
onething,namely,theword.Thisiswhatismeantbysayingthatregenerationiseffected,notmagically,butbytheuseof.rationalmeans.Itisconnectedwiththe
outwardcallofthegospel(hencetheolderdivineswerewonttotreatofthissubjectundertheheadofvocation,oreffectualcalling).Wespeak,ofcourse,only 13/40
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outwardcallofthegospel(hencetheolderdivineswerewonttotreatofthissubjectundertheheadofvocation,oreffectualcalling).Wespeak,ofcourse,only
ofadults,ofthosewhoarecapableofhearingandunderstandingthecall,andarefarfromlimitingthegraceofGodininfants,orotherswhomthiscalldoesnotor
cannotreach.Whatisaffirmedis,asregardsthosewhohavecometoyearsofintelligence,thatGodsdealingwiththemisthroughtheword,andthisistheconstant
representation.TheOTequallywiththeNTextolsthesaving,converting,quickening,cleansing,sanctifyingpowerofthewordofGod(e.g.Ps19:7ff.,119).Jesus
declaresthewordtobetheseedoftheKingdom(Lk8:11).Heprays:
Sanctifytheminthetruththywordistruth(Jn17:17).Conversion,regeneration,
sanctification,areconnectedwiththeword(Ac11:1921,Eph1:13,Col1:5,1Th2:13,2Th2:13,Ja1:18,1P1:2325[Begottenagain,notofcorruptibleseed,
butofincorruptible,throughthewordofGod,etc.])
Ifthisisthenature,generally,ofregeneration,thenithaswhatmaybetermedapsychologythatis,thereisaprocesswhichthemindgoesthroughinthe
experienceofthisspiritualchange.TheSpiritofGod,doubtless,hasinnumerablewaysofdealingwithhumansoulsstill,ifwelookclosely,itwillbefoundthat
therearecertainelementswhichdoinsomedegreeenterintoallexperienceinregeneration,andfurnish,sofar,atestoftherealityofthechange.Thereisfirst,of
necessity,theawakeningofthesouloutofitscustomaryspiritualdormancyoutofthatdeepinsensibilitytospiritualthingsinwhichordinarilythenaturalmindis
held(Eph5:14,cf.Ro14:11,12).Especiallytherecomesintoviewherethepeculiarawakeningofthesoulthroughtheconscience,whichtakestheformofwhat
wecallconvictionofsintowardsGod(cf.Ac16:29,30).Probablynoonecanundergothisspiritualchangewithoutinsomedegreebeingbroughtinwardlytothe
realizationofhissinfulconditionbeforeGod,andtothesincereconfessionofit(Ps51:4).ThelawofGodhasitsplaceinproducingthisconvictionofsinbutlaw
alonewillnotproducespiritualcontrition.SeeREPENTANCE.Forthisthereisneededtheexhibitionofmercy.Hencethenextstageinthisspiritualprocessisthat
describedasenlightenmentgrowingenlightenmentintheknowledgeofChrist,Thisalso,liketheprecedingstages,isaDivinework(Jn16:14,15,2Co4:4).
Evenwiththis,however,theworkofregenerationisnotcomplete.ThewillofGodformanssalvationhasnotonlytobeunderstood,ithasalsotobeobeyed.
Thereisthewilltobelaidholdofthewill,thecentreandcitadelofthebeing.SotheworkoftheHolySpiritisdirected,finally,totherenewingofthewill.Itis
directedtotherenewingofthewill,firstofall,intheformofpersuasion,fortheHolySpiritdoesnoneofHisworkbyviolence.EverythingthatGodaccomplishes
isaccomplishedinaccordancewiththenatureHehasgivenusbutGodmostgraciously,mostlovingly,bringsHispersuasionstobearuponourwills,andbythe
powerofappropriatemotivesdrawsustotheacceptanceofChrist(Jn6:44).Withthistheregoeswhat,inthenextplace,maybecalledthepotentiationofthewill
theenablingofit,orimpartingtoitthepowerneedfulinordertolayholdonChristwithfullandfastfaith(Eph4:16).Lastofall,thisworkofregenerationis
completedwhenthesoulisbroughttothepointofabsolutesurrenderofitselftoChristwhen,drawnandpersuaded,andatlengthenabledbytheSpirit,ityields
itselfupentirelytoChristasitsSaviour,andlaysholdonChristforacompletesalvation.ThereisnowunionwithChristbyfaith,and,withthat,entranceintothe
lifetheexperienceofthenewbornchildofGod.IfanymanisinChrist,heisanewcreaturetheoldthingsarepassedawaybehold,theyarebecomenew(2
Co5:17).
JAMESORR.
REGISTER(i.e.genealogicalrecord).SeeGENEALOGY,2.
REHABIAH.ALeviticalfamily(1Ch23:17,24:21,26:26).
REHOB.1.AtownatthenorthernendofthevalleyoftheJordan(Nu13:21,2S10:3),mostprobablythesameasBethrehob,ofwhichtheexactsiteis
unknown.2,3.TwoAsheritetowns,neitherofwhichhasbeenidentified(Jos19:28,21:31,1Ch6:75,Jos19:30,Jg1:31).4.
ThefatherofHadadezer(2S8:3,12).5.Asignatorytothecovenant(Neh10:11).
REHOBOAM,sonofSolomon,issaidtohavereignedseventeenyears.ThestatementthathismotherwasNaamah,theAmmonitess(1K14:21),hasnothing
improbableaboutit.TheLXXmayevenberightincallingheradaughterofNahash,theAmmoniteking.InthehistoryofRehoboamthechiefpointishis
indiscreettreatmentofthetribesathisaccessiontreatmentwhichresultedintherevoltofthebestpartofthenationandtheestablishmentofarivalkingdom(1K
12).ThecoherenceofthetribeswasevidentlyimperfectunderSolomon.
Ephraim,whichhadalwaysbeenconsciousofitsownstrength,wasnotmindedtorecognizetheyoungkingwithoutsomeconcessionsonhispart.Forthisreason
RehoboamwenttoShechemtobecrowned.Herethehereditarychiefsdemandedthatheshouldlightentheyoke.Inthistheyhadreferenceparticularlytothe
forcedlabourexactedbySolomon.Rehoboamsarrogantansweriswellknown,andtheresult.
Itwasnaturalthataneffortshouldbemadetoreducetherebeltribestosubjection.ButRehoboamseemsnottohavehadeitheradequateresourcesormilitary
capacity.ThebriefnoticethattherewaswarbetweenRehoboamandJeroboamcontinuallyisallthatwearetold.Besidesthis,theBiblicalauthordescribesthe
religiousconditionofthepeopleinthisreignindarkcolours.Thiscondition,however,isnomorethanprevailedunderSolomon.Thechiefeventinthesecular
historyofthetimewastheinvasionofthecountrybyShishak,kingofEgypt.Thismonarchclaimstohavereducedthewholecountrytosubjection,probably
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historyofthetimewastheinvasionofthecountrybyShishak,kingofEgypt.Thismonarchclaimstohavereducedthewholecountrytosubjection,probably
revivingancientclaimstosuzerainty.TheauthorofourBooksofKingsischieflyconcernedattheEgyptiansplunderingtheTemple(1K14:26),whilethe
Chronicler(2Ch12)asusualisreadytomakeanedifyingstoryoutoftheincident.ItwouldinterestustoknowwhetherEgyptmaintaineditsclaimsonthe
successorsofRehoboam,butonthispointweareleftinthedark.
H.P.S MITH.
REHOBOTH.1.AwelldugbytheservantsofIsaacandfinallyconcededtohim,aftertwoothers,dugalsobythem,hadbecomeasubjectofquarrelwith
Abimelech,kingofGerar(Gn26:22).Severalidentificationshavebeenproposed,ofwhichthemostprobableisthatmadebyPalmerwitherRuhaibeh,about20
milesS.ofBeersheba.2.ThenameofakingofEdominGn36:37,whereheiscalledRehobothoftheRiver.TheRiverheremaynotbe,asusually,the
Euphrates,buttheRiverofEgypt(seeEGYPT[RIVEROF]).
J.F.MCURDY.
REHOBOTHIR(lit.broadplacesofthecity).OneofthefourcitiesinAssyriabuiltbyNimrod(Gn10:11).ItimmediatelyfollowsNineveh,andmight
meanasuburbofthatcity,originallyseparatefromit,butlaterannexedandcontainingsomeofitsmostspaciousstreetsormarketplaces.Asuitableidentification
hasbeenfoundintheAssyr.rbtNin(broadplacesof
Nineveh),mentionedbykingEsarhaddon(B.C.681668).Thisistheexactequivalentofthe
Biblicalname.Intakingitover,thecitywassubstitutedforNineveh.
J.F.MCURDY.
REHUM.1.OneofthetwelveheadsoftheJewishcommunity(Ezr2:2inNeh7:7,perhapsbyacopyistserror,Nehumin1Es5:8Roimus).2.The
chancellor(Ezr4:8,9,17,23in1Es2:16Rathumus).SeeBEELTETHMUS.3.ALevitewhohelpedtorepairthewall(Neh3:17).4.Oneofthosewhosealedthe
covenant(Neh10:25(26)).5.Theeponymofapriestlyfamily(Neh12:3).SeeHARIM,2.
REI(Jisafriend).ThenameisgiventooneofthesupportersofSolomonatthetimeof
Adonijahsattempttosecurethethrone(1K1:8).HeismentionedalongwithShimei,andwaslikelyanofficerintheroyalguard.Thesetroopsseemtohavehad
anenormousinfluenceindeterminingthesuccessiontothethrone.
Thereading,however,isnotabovesuspicion,andJos.(Ant.VII.xiv.4)readsShimei,thefriendofDavid,andthusgetsridofReiasapersonalname(so
Lucian).Severalattemptshavebeenmadetoidentifyhimwithotherfigures,asIraorJair(Winckler,Gesch.ii.247)orRaddai(Ewald,Gesch.iii.p.266note).
W.F.BOYD.
REINS.SeeKIDNEYS.
REKEM.1.OneofthefivekingletsofMidianslainbyMoses(Nu31:8,Jos13:21).2.ACalebitefamily(1Ch2:43).3.AclanofMachir(1Ch7:16[AVand
RVRakem,butthisissimplythepausalformoftheHeb.name]).4.AnunidentifiedcityofBenjamin(Jos18:27).
RELIGION.Thewordreligion,whereveritoccursinAV,signifiesnottheinnerspiritofthereligiouslife,butitsoutwardexpression.Itisthususedofone
formofreligionasdistinguishedfromanotherasin2Mac14:36,wherethesamewordistranslatedinthemiddleoftheverseJudaism,andintheendofitthe
religionoftheJews.ItisalsousedbySt.James(1:26,27)tocontrastmoralactswithritualforms.
REMALIAH.ThefatherofPekah(2K15:25ff.,16:1,5,2Ch28:6,Is7:1ff.,8:8).
REMETH.SeeRAMOTH,1.
REMNANT.SeeISRAEL,p.387b.
REMPHAN.SeeREPHAN.
REPENTANCE.Repentance,inthesenseofturningfromapurpose,isfrequentlypredicatedofGodintheOT(Gn6:6,7,Ex32:14etc.).Repentanceforsin15/40
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REPENTANCE.Repentance,inthesenseofturningfromapurpose,isfrequentlypredicatedofGodintheOT(Gn6:6,7,Ex32:14etc.).Repentanceforsin
iscommonlyexpressedbyturnorreturn(e.g.Dt4:30,Is55:7,Ezk3:2,Hos14:2).RepentancehasaprominentplaceintheNT,alone(Mt4:17,Lk15:7,Ac
2:38etc.),orinconjunctionwithfaith(Mk1:15,Ac20:21etc.),asanIndispensableconditionofsalvation.Thewordordinarilyused(metanoia)meansliterally
changeofmind.Thechange,however,isoneinwhichnottheintellectonly,butthewholenature(understanding,affections,will),isinvolved.Itissuchanaltered
viewofGodandsinascarrieswithitheartfeltsorrowforsin,confessionofit,anddecisiveturningfromittoGodandrighteousness(Lk15:17,18,Ro6:17,18,2
Co7:10,11etc.).
Itsrealityistestedbyitsfruits(Mt3:8,Lk6:4346).Fromthisgodlysorrow,whichworks
repentanceuntosalvation(2Co7:10,11),isdistinguishedasorrowoftheworldwhichworkethdeath(v.10),i.e.asorrowwhichhasnorelationtoGod,orto
theintrinsicevilofsin,butonlytosinsharmfulconsequences.Theremaybekeenremorse,andblamingofonesselfforonesfolly,yetnorealrepentance.
Disputeshavearisenintheologyastothepriorityoffaithorrepentance,butunnecessarily,forthetwo,rightlyviewed,arebutthepositiveandnegativepolesof
thesamestateofsoul.Therecanbenoevangelicalfaithwhichdoesnotspringfromaheartbrokenandcontriteonaccountofsinontheotherhand,therecanbe
notruerepentancewhichhasnotthegermoffaithinGod,andofhopeinHismercy,init.TheLawalonewouldbreakthehearttheGospelmeltsit.Repentanceis
theturningfromsinGospelfaithistheturningtoChristforsalvation.Theactsareinseparable(Ac20:21).
JAMESORR.
REPHAEL.Afamilyofgatekeepers(1Ch26:7).
REPHAH.AnEphraimitefamily(1Ch7:25).
REPHAIAH.1.AJudahite(1Ch3:21).2.ASimeonitechief(1Ch4:42).3.AdescendantofIssachar(1Ch7:2).4.AdescendantofSaul(1Ch9:43)called
in8:37Raphah.5.Oneofthosewhohelpedtorepairthewall(Neh3:9).
REPHAIM.AnamegiveninseveralBiblicalpassagestosomepreIsraelitishpeople.InGn14:5theyaresaidtohavedweltinAshterothkarnaim.Gn15:20
classesthemwithHittitesandPerizzites(similarlyJos17:15).Dt2:11,20callscertainpeoplesRephaimwhomtheMoabitesandAmmonitescalledrespectively
EmimandZamzummin.Dt3:11saysthatOg,kingofBashan,aloneremainedoftheRephaim(soalsoJos12:4,13:12),whileDt3:13saysthat
ArgobwasalandofRephaim.AvalleynearJerusalemwasalsocalledtheValeofRephaim
(see2S5:18,22,23:13,1Ch11:15,14:9,Is17:5).BecauseDt2:11countsthemwiththeAnakim,whoweregiants,and2S21:1822saysthatthesonsofa
certainRapha(seeRVm)weregiants,ithasbeensupposedbysomethatRephaimmeansgiants,andwasgiventoaraceastheirnamebytheirneighbours
becauseoftheirstature.Cf.art.GIANT.
ThewordrphminHebrewmeansalsoshadesordisembodiedspirits.Atleastitisusedtodescribethedead,asinPs88:10.Schwallyisprobablyright,
therefore(LebennachdemTode,64ff.andZATW,xviii.127ff.),inholdingthatthewordmeansshades,andthatitwasappliedbytheIsraelitestopeoplewho
weredeadandgone,andofwhomtheyknewlittle.
GEORGEA.BARTON.
REPHAN(AVRemphan).AwordwhichreplacesChiunoftheHebrewtextofAm5:26,bothintheLXXandinthequotationinAc7:48.Thegenerally
acceptedexplanationofthis
wordisthatRephan(thepreferableform)isacorruptionandtransliterationofKewan(Kaiwan,KaawanseeCHIUN)rhavingsomehowmistakenlyreplacedk,
andw(theHebrewwauorvav)havingbeentransliteratedph(theGr.phi).
W.M.NESBIT.
REPHIDIM.AstageintheWanderings,betweenthewildernessofSinandthewildernessofSinai(Ex17:1,8,19:2cf.Nu33:14f.).Herewaterwas
miraculouslysupplied,andIsraelfoughtwithAmalek.ThosewhoacceptthetraditionalSinalgenerallyplaceEliminWdyGharandel,andRephidiminWdy
Feirn,aboutfourmilesN.ofMt.Serbal(Palmer,DesertoftheExodus,Index).Thetribesmenwouldnaturallywishtodefendthespringsinthevalleyagainstsuch
ahostasIsrael.MosesmighthavesurveyedtheconflictfromtheheightofJebelTahneh,ontheN.ofthevalley.OnlyweshouldhardlyexpecttheAmalekitesso
fartothesouth.IfthescholarswhoplaceSinaieastoftheGulfofAkabah,identifyingElathandElim,areright,thenRephidimmustbesoughtsomewhereinthat16/40
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fartothesouth.IfthescholarswhoplaceSinaieastoftheGulfofAkabah,identifyingElathandElim,areright,thenRephidimmustbesoughtsomewhereinthat
district.(Sayce,HCM,p.269.)
W.EWING.
REPROBATE.TheHeb.wordsorenderedinJer6:30(AVRVrefuse)hasitsmeaningexplainedbythecontext.Refusesilvershallmencallthem,because
theLordhathrejectedthem.Likemetalprovedtobeworthlessbytherefinersfire(v.29),theyarethrownaway(cf.Is1:22).IntheNT,inaccordancewiththe
meaningoftheGr.word(adokimos),reprobateisusedofthatwhichcannotabidetheproof,which,onbeingtested,isfoundtobeworthless,had,counterfeit,and
isthereforerejected.AreprobatemindinRo1:28(withtacitreferencetothepreviousclause,theydidnotapprovetohaveGodintheirknowledge)is,asthe
contextshows,aminddepravedandpervertedbyvilepassions.TosuchamindGodabandonedthosewhowilfullyexchangedHistruthforalie(v.25).In1Co
9:27,St.Pauldeclaresthathebuffetshisbodyandbringsitintobondage,lest,havingpreachedtoothers,hehimselfshouldberejected(reprobate).Thefigure
isthatofanathletewho,throughremissnessintraining,failsintheraceorfight(fortheoppositefigure,cf.2Ti2:15).In2Co13:67,theword(reprobates)
occursthreetimes,ineachcaseasopposedtogenuine,true.Christisinthem,excepttheybereprobates,i.e.falsetotheirprofession,hencerejectedbyGod.Let
themprovethemselvesbythistest(v.5).St.Paultruststhattheywillknowthatheabidesthistest(v.6)butletthemthinkofhimwhattheywill,ifonlythey
themselvesdowhatishonourable(v.7).Reprobatehereiscontrastedwithwhatisapproved,honourableitisidentifiedwithdoingevil.In2Ti3:8,certain
aredescribedascorruptedinmind,reprobateconcerningthefaith,wherebothmoralcorruptionandfalsespeculationastheresultofthiscorruptionseem
intended.Theyfail,broughttothetestofsoundorhealthfuldoctrine(1:13,14,4:3).SimilarlyTit1:16speaksofthosewho,denyingGodbytheirworks,are
untoeverygoodworkreprobate.Theirhypocrisyisbroughthometothembytheirwickedlives.ProfessingthattheyknowGod,theyareprovedbytheirworks
tobecounterfeits,imposters.Thewordoccurs,finally,inHe6:8,wherethosewhomitisimpossibletorenewagaintorepentancearecomparedtogroundwhich,
receivingtherainoftuponit,andbeingtilled,bringsforthonlythornsandthistles,andisrejected.Fromallthiswemayconcludethatreprobate,generally,
denotesamoralstatesohadthatrecoveryfromitisnolongerpossiblethereremainsonlyjudgment(cf.He6:8).Itisonlytobeaddedthatthetermhasnorelation
inScripturetoaneternaldecreeofreprobationatleast,tononewhichhasnotrespecttoathoroughlyhadandirrecoverableconditionofitsobjects.Cf.
P REDESTINATION.
JAMESORR.RESAIAS.SeeRAAMIAH.
RESEN.ThelastofthefourcitiesbuiltbyAsshur,or,accordingtotheRV,byNimrod,anddescribedaslyingbetweenNinevehandCalah(i.e.Kouyunjikand
Nimroud),ontheE.bankoftheTigris(Gn10:12).FromitspositionthesitereferredtoshouldbeatornearthepresentSelamyeh,whichliesbetweenthetwo
pointsnamed.ResenseeminglyrepresentstheAssyrianplacenameRshni,fountainhead,butisprobablynottobeconfusedwiththeRshnimentionedby
SennacheribintheBavianinscription,whichisregardedasbeingthemodernRselAinalittleN.ofKhorsabad.Thatthewordsthesameisagreatcityshould
refertoResenaloneseemsunlikelymoreprobablyNineveh,Rehobothir,andCalahareincluded,thetwolatterforming,withResen,suburbsofthefirst.
T.G.P INCHES.
RESH.ThetwentiethletteroftheHebrewalphabet,andassuchemployedinthe119thPsalmtodesignatethe20thpart,eachverseofwhichbeginswiththis
letter.
RESHEPH.AnEphraimitefamily(1Ch7:25).
REST.TheconceptionofrestasagiftofGodrunsthroughtheBible,theunderlyingideabeingnotidleness,butthefreedomfromanxietywhichisthe
conditionofeffectivework.ItispromisedtoIsraelinCanaan(Ex33:14,Dt3:20),andZionistherestingplaceofJ(Ps132:8,14),theTemplebeingbuiltbya
manofrest(1Ch22:9acontrastisimpliedwiththedesertwanderingsinNu10:3336).AtthesametimenoearthlytemplecanbetherealrestingplaceofJ(Is
66:1,Ac7:49).TherestoftheSabbathandtheSabbaticalyearareconnectedwiththerestofGodaftercreation(Gn2:2,Ex20:11,Lv25:4seeart.S ABBATH).The
individualdesiresrest,asdidthenation(Ps55:8)itisnottobefoundinignobleease(Gn49:15Issachar),butinthewaysofGod(Ps37:7,Jer6:10)itisthegiftof
Christ(Mt11:28).Sinnersfailtofindit(Is28:12,57:20),asIsraelfailed(Ps95:11).He4developsthemeaningofthisfailure,andpointstothesabbathreststill
tocome.Thisheavenlyrestincludesnotonlyfreedomfromlabour,asinOT(Job3:13,17[inPs16:9,seeRV]),butalsotheopportunityofcontinuedwork(Rev
14:13).
C.W.EMMET.
RESTITUTION.SeeCRIMESANDP UNISHMENTS,8.
RESTORATION.Inavarietyofphrasesregeneration(palingenesia,Mt19:28),restitutionofallthings(Ac3:21),summingupallthingsinChrist,the
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RESTITUTION.SeeCRIMESANDP UNISHMENTS,8.
RESTORATION.Inavarietyofphrasesregeneration(palingenesia,Mt19:28),restitutionofallthings(Ac3:21),summingupallthingsinChrist,the
thingsintheheavens,andthethingsupontheearth(Eph1:10),newheavensandanewearth(2P3:13,Rev21:1),makeallthingsnew(Rev21:6)theNT
pointsforwardtoaperfectedconditionwhichshallsuperveneuponthepresentimperfectconditionofmingledgoodandevil(cf.Mt13:39,40,49,50),includinga
renewalofnature,thequellingofallevil(Ph2:10,11),andrestorationoforderandharmonyintheuniverse,withChristasHead.ThehopeisconnectedwithOT
prophecy(Ac3:21,2P3:13),andthetransformationitselfisinvariablyassociatedwiththeParousia(cf.Mt
19:28etc.).Thequestionofchiefinterestis,howfarthesepredictionsofacomingrestitution(apokatastasis)ofallthingspointforwardtoafutureuniversal
salvation.Gladlyasonewouldreadthismeaningintothem,soberexegesisshowsthattheywillnotbearsolargeaninterpretation.Thepassagewhichspeaksof
restitutiontellsalsoofthosewhowillnothearken,andshallbedestroyed(Ac3:23).TheParousia,whenthenewstateofthingsisrepresentedasintroduced,is
alwaysconnectedintheNTwithanawfuljudgment.St.PaulspeaksofallthingsbeingsummedupinChrist,ofChristsubduingallthingstoHimself,etc.(Eph
1:10,1Co15:2428,Ph2:10,11)butunbiassedstudyofthepassagesandtheircontextshowsthatitisfarfromtheApostlesviewtoteachanultimate
conversionorannihilationofthekingdomofevil.Itmustbeowned,however,thatthestrainoftheselastpassagesdoesseemtopointinthedirectionofsome
ultimateunity,beitthroughforciblesubjugationorinsomeotherway,inwhichactiveoppositiontoGodsKingdomisnolongertobereckonedwith.
JAMESORR.
RESURRECTION
1.InOT.InourstudyoftheOTdoctrineoftheresurrectionwerecognizetheneedfortakingintoconsiderationthechronologicalorderofthedifferent
documentsofwhichitiscomposed.Nootherbelief,perhaps,presentsahistoryintowhichtheprocessofslowandhaltingdevelopmententerssovisiblyand
consistently.ThatthelaterorthodoxJewsadvocatedtheexistenceintheirearlierScripturesoftheprincipleswhichgivevitalityandarationalbasistothisdoctrine,
isseenintheirsatisfactionwiththeanswerofJesustotheSadduceancavilsofHisday(seeMk12:28cf.Lk20:39,Mt22:34).Thegradualawakeningofhuman
consciousnessinthisrespectisthebestattestationtotheDivineselfaccommodationtotheneedsandlimitationsoftherace.Beginningwiththevaguebeliefinthe
existenceofagerminalprincipleofDivinelifeinman(cf.Gn2:7),thelatestpassagesoftheOTdealingwiththesubjectembodyacategoricalassertionofthe
resurrectionofindividualIsraelites(cf.Dn12:2f.).BetweenthesetwoutteranceswehavethespeculationsofPsalmistsandProphets,whiledeathbecamegradually
shornofmanyofitsterrorsandmuchofitspower.ThecommonJewishbeliefinthetimeofJesusfindsexpressioninthewordsofMarthaconcerningherbrother
Lazarus(Jn11:24),whilethisformedoneofthedeeplinesofreligiouscleavagebetweenthePhariseesandtheSadducees(Ac23:6ff.cf.Jos.BJII.viii.14
Schrer,HJPII.ii.13).
ApeculiarfeatureofJewishthoughtastohumanlife,markingitoffclearlyfromsomeoftheethnicspeculationsandphilosophicconceptions,consistsintheir
habitofregardingthebodyasessentialtomansfullexistence.ThetraditionsembodiedinthestoriesofthetranslationsofEnochandElijah(Gn5:24,2K2:11)
receivetheirexplanationontheassumptionthatinthiswayalonewouldtheybeenabledtoenjoythecontinuanceofafullandcompletelifebeyondthegrave.It
wasthisideaalsothatgavesuchastrongfeelingoftheincompletenessoftheexistenceinHades,andinspiredthePsalmistsassurance,Thouwiltnotleavemy
soultoSheol,neitherwiltthousufferthineHolyOnetoseecorruption(Ps16:10,cf.Job14:13ff.,19:25f.).
ThefirstspecificmentionofthehopeofaresurrectionisfoundinHosea,wheretheprophetswordsareratherofthenatureofanaspirationthanthedistinct
announcementofafutureevent(6:2,cf.13:14).Thisis,however,theexpressionnotofanindividualwholooksforwardtobeingraisedfromthedead,butofone
whoseeshisnationoncemorequickenedandbroughtupagainfromthedepthsoftheearth(Ps71:20cf.Kirkpatrick,ThePsalms,adloc.).Asimilarhopefinds
expressioninEzekielsvisionofthevalleyofdrybones(Ezk37:114).Adistinctadvanceontheseutterancesisfoundinthepostexilicprophecy,Is26:19,where
theprophetbreathesaprayerfortheresurrectionoftheindividualdead.Whenthispassageiscontrastedwiththeconfidentassertionofv.14itisseenthatasyet
therewasnothoughtofaresurrectionsavefortheIsraelite.Thesamerestrictionisalsofoundtoexistatthelaterdate,whentheBookofDanielwaswritten.Inthis
bookthereisaclear,unambiguousassertionoftheresurrectionofindividuals,andatthesametimeanolessclearannouncementthatthereisaresurrectionofthe
wickedaswellasoftherighteous(Dn12:2).ItistruethatthesewordsnotonlyhavenomessageofaresurrectionhopefornationsotherthanIsrael,butevenlimit
itsscopetothoseofthatnationwhodistinguishthemselvesonthesideofgoodorofevil(cf.Driver,Daniel,adloc.,inCamb.Bible).Atthesametimeitiseasy
toseethatagreatstrideforwardhadbeentakenalready,whentheatrocitiesofAntiochusEpiphanesbroughtreligiousdespairtotheheartsofalltrueIsraelites,and
rousedthefervidpatriotismofJudasMaccabusandhisfollowers.
2.IntheApocrypha.ThedevelopmentofthisdoctrineinthedeuterocanonicalandapocryphalliteratureoftheJewspresentsavariedandinharmonious
blendofcolours.Inconsistenciesabound,andcanbeexplainedonlyonthegroundthateachwritingwasinfluencedbytheindividualexperienceaswellasbythe
theologicalIdiosyncrasiesofitsauthor.
Sirach.TheoldestofthedeuterocanonicalbooksisthatofbenSira,andinhisworkwelookinvainfortheideaofaresurrection,eithernationalor
individual.Ontheotherhand,theeschatologicalconceptionsofthisauthordonotseemtoadvancebeyondthoseofEcclesiastes(cf.Sir17:30).
BookofEnoch.Verydifferentfromtheforegoingaretheideasprevalentinthiscompositeapocalypticwriting.Theoldestportioncontainsanelaboratetheory18/40
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BookofEnoch.Verydifferentfromtheforegoingaretheideasprevalentinthiscompositeapocalypticwriting.Theoldestportioncontainsanelaboratetheory
ofSheol,andteachestheresurrectionofallrighteousIsraelites,andsomanyofthewickedashaveescapedwithoutincurringjudgmentintheirlifetime(22.10f.).
Thesinnerswhohavesufferedherewillnotberaisedfromthence(22.13),inasmuchasretribution,inpartatleast,hasovertakenthem.Anotherwriterofa
somewhatlaterdatespeaksoftheresurrectionofrighteousIsraelitesonly.Theseshallberaised,afterjudgmentandretributionhavebeenmetedouttosinners,to
shareinthegloriesoftheMessianicKingdom(90.2933).Asimilaropinionisexpressedinanotherpartofthiswriting.Nonebuttherighteousshallrise(91.10)
buttheauthorseemstointerprettheresurrectionasthatofthespiritonly,andnotofthebody(103.3f.).
ThemostimportantandbestknownsectionoftheBookofEnoch(chs.3770),whichisknownastheSimilitudes,containsanexplicitassertionofageneralresurrection(51.1).
Whether,however,thewriterintendedtoconveytheideaofaresurrectionoftheGentilesissomewhatdoubtful.Thewordsofthispassage,iftakenliterally,wouldcertainlyconvey
theimpressionthatauniversalresurrectionismeant.AtthesametimewemustrememberthatthisthoughtwouldbequitecontrarytothewholehabitofJewisheschatological
thinking,andwouldstanduniqueinJewishpreChristianliterature.(FordiscussionsofthisquestionseetheadmirablecriticaleditionoftheBookofEnochbyR.H.Charles,
passim.)
PsalmsofSolomon.Theseareprobablytheproductofthe1stcent.B.C.Here,too,aresurrectionoftherighteousaloneistaught(3:16,13:9,cf.4:6).
Moreover,noresurrectionofthebodyismentionedexplicitly,thoughitwouldberashtoassumefromhiswordsthattheauthordidnotholdthisdoctrine.
2Maccabees.Averydefinitedoctrineoftheresurrectionistaughtinthisbook,thoughtheauthorexpresslydeniesitsapplicabilitytotheGentiles(7:14,cf.2
Es7[79f]).Theresurrectionofthebodyisstronglyheld,asaffordingapowerfulincentiveandaglorioushopeforthosewhounderwentacruelmartyrdom(14:46,
7:11,cf.7:9,14).Attimesthewriterseemstobecontrovertingthedenialofaresurrection,aswhenhestopstopraisetheactionofJudasinofferingsacrificesand
prayersforthosewhohadfalleninbattle,onthegroundthathedidsobecausehetookthoughtforaresurrection(12:43).Iftherewerenoresurrectionofthe
dead,suchacourseofactionwouldbesuperfluousandidle(12:44).
BookofWisdom.ItisonlynecessarytosayofthiswritingthatitisanAlexandrianwork,writtenaboutthebeginningoftheChristianera,andthataccordingto
itthebodyisanincubusdraggingthesoul,whichisdestinedforincorruption(2:23,3:1),earthwards(9:15[cf.art.
Wisdom,Bookof,inHastingsDBiv.930f.]).
3.PositionofthedoctrineatandimmediatelysubsequenttothetimeofJesusChrist.Itmightbesaid,andsaidwithjustice,thattheforegoing
viewswererepresentative,notofcontemporarypopularbeliefsandideas,butofconceptionsprevalentamongtheeducatedandthinkingclasses.Itis
reasonable,however,toexpectthatbythetimeofJesustheselinesofthoughtwouldhavepenetratedtothemasses,withsuchmodificationsastheywerelikely
toassumeinandduringtheprocess.Thisexpectationisfoundtobeinharmonywithwhatweobservetohaveactuallyexistedfor,withoneortwoexceptions,
whenHefeltcalledontomakeaspecificdeclaration(cf.Mk12:1827=Mt22:2332=Lk20:2738,Jn5:28f.).JesuseverywhereinHisteachingassumed
thetruthof,andbeliefin,theresurrectionofthedead.Weknowthatmaterialisticviewsofthisdoctrinewereheldsidebysidewiththemorespiritualideasso
prominentintheBookofEnoch(cf.51.4,104.4,8,62.15f.etc.).
IntheApocalypseofBaruch,forexample,thequestionswereasked,Inwhatshapeshallthoselivewholiveinthyday?Willtheythenresumethisformofthepresent,and
putontheseentrammellingmembers,whicharenowinvolvedinevils,andinwhichevilsareconsummated,orwiltthouperchancechangethesethingswhichhavebeeninthe
world,asalsotheworld?(49.2f.).Tothesetheanswerisgiven,thatthebodiesofthedeadshallberaisedexactlyastheywerewhencommittedtotheground,inorderthatthey
mayberecognizedbytheirfriends(50.2ff.).Afterthisobjecthasbeenachieved,agloriouschangewilltakeplace:theyshallbemadelikeuntotheangels,andbemadeequaltothe
stars,andtheyshallbechangedintoeveryformtheydesire,frombeautyintoloveliness,andfromlightintothesplendourofglory(51.10,cf.Mk12:25=Lk20:36=Mt22:30).
EveninRabbinicalcirclessensuousconceptionswerefrequent,sothateventheclothesinwhichonewastobeburiedbecameasubjectofanxiouscare(seeTheApoc.ofBaruched.
R.H.Charles,notesonchs.5051,andIntrod.p.lxxx).
Atthisperiod,too,theideasofauniversalandofafirstandasecondresurrectionwereheldandtaught(Apoc.Bar30.25,2Es7:28,3137).Forourpurpose
itisnotnecessarytodomorethanrefertotheHellenisticorPythagoranspeculationsoftheEssenestowhichJosephusmakesreference(seeBJII.viii.11
Schrer,HJPII.iii.205).TheonlyformofJudaismwhichcontainedprinciplesofcontinuityandlifewasrepresentedbyPharisaism.Theviewofthis,themost
religionsandthemostorthodoxoftheJewishsects,withregardtotheresurrection,limitedittotherighteous,forwhomtheypostulatedanewandaglorifiedbody
(seeBJII.viii.14,cf.Ant.XVIII.i.3).WhilethisdoctrineofapersonalresurrectionseemstohavemademuchmoreheadwayintheJudaismofthisagethanthe
otherideasreferredtoabove,italsoclearlyappearsthatthelimitationofitsscopetotherighteouswasmoreuniversallyheldthanitsextensiontothewicked,in
spiteoftheteachinginDaniel(12:2),Apoc.ofBaruch(30.25),and2Esdras(7:3237).Moreover,adifferenceofopinioncontinuedtoexistastothetimewhenit
wassupposedtotakeplace,somewritersplacingitimmediatelybefore(cf.En51.1f.)andothersimmediatelyafterthecloseoftheMessianicera(cf.En91.10,
92.3,Apoc.Bar4042,2Es4:41,PsSol3:16,13:9etc.).
4. TeachingofJesus
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4.TeachingofJesus
(a)TheSynoptics.ManyofthepassagesinwhichJesusteachingontheresurrectionisrecordedbytheSynoptistsmightbeinterpretedasleavingnoroom
forthedoctrinethatthewickedshallriseagainfromthedead.Themostconspicuous,perhaps,oftheseisthatIncorporatedintheLukannarrativeofHis
controversywiththeSadducees(Lk20:35f.).Theformoftheexpressiontheresurrectionfromthedead,ashasbeenpointedout,impliesthatsomefromamong
thedeadareraised,whileothersasyetarenot(seePlummer,St.LukeinICC,adloc.).Theotherexpression,sonsoftheresurrection,isremarkablefora
similarreason.Thereseemstobeanimpliedantithesisbetweenthosewhosesonshipresultsinimmortalityandthosewhocanhavenosuchhope(cf.Plummer,op.
cit.Lk20:36n.).Otherinstances,whichmightbeconsideredaslendingcountenancetothisview,speakoftheresurrectionofthejust(Lk14:14),andcontain
promisesofrestorationinthegloryofHisKingdomtohiselect(Mk13:27=Mt24:31).When,ontheotherhand,wetakeageneralsurveyoftheeschatological
teachingofJesus,wefindthatthedoctrineofageneralbodilyresurrectionoccupiesaveryassuredpositionevenintheSynopticrecords.Notonlydowefind,as
alreadynoted,thatHisteachingonthissubject,asagainstSadduceannegations,waspleasinginPharisaiccircles(cf.Lk20:39),butHeisalsoseentorefertothis
questionintermsofcurrentJewishorthodoxy.Thefuturelifeispersonalinthefullestsense,anditisnotincorporeal,formanyshallcomefromtheeastandthe
westandshallsitdownwithAbraham,Isaac,andJacobinthekingdomofheaven(Mt8:11,cf.Lk13:29).
(b)TheFourthGospel.TheJohanninerecordofJesuseschatologicalteachingrevealsaprofounderviewoftheresurrectionlifethanthatcontainedinthe
Synoptics,foritistheredealtwithasaspiritualprocessintimatelyconnectedwiththequickeninglifewhichisgiventotheSon(Jn5:26cf.17:2,1:4).When
Marthaexpressesherassurancethatherbrothershallriseagainintheresurrectionatthelastday(Jn11:24),Jesusatoncelaysbroaderanddeeperthefoundations
uponwhichthisbeliefistorestforthefuture.Whiletacitlyacquiescinginherconvictionasasureandcertainhope,Heestablishesanorganicrelationship,
immediateandspiritual,betweenHimselfandthosecommittedtoHim.Thislivingrelationship,inwhichallbelieversshare,containsthegermofthatresurrection
lifewhichspringsintobeingatpresent,andwillbeperfectedatthelastday(Jn11:26,cf.6:40,44,5:21,3:36).
ItistruethatJesusseemstohavegivennothoughttothedifficultyofconceivingaresurrectionofthewickedonthegroundthatallresurrectionlifehasitsorigininHimselfat
thesametimenodoubtcanbereasonablyentertainedthatHelookedfortheresurrectionofallmen(seeJn12:48cf.thosepassageswhichspeakofthebodybeingcastwiththesoul
intoGehenna,Mt10:28,5:29f.).PerhapsHeconsideredthatasufficientexplanationconsistedinassertingtheomnipotenceoftheFatherafterthemanneroftheOTTheFather
raiseththedeadandquickeneththem(Jn5:21cf.Dt32:38,2Co1:9).IntheLukanversionofJesusargumentwiththeSadduceeswemayunderstandareferencetotheideaofthe
resurrectionofallmenbasedonthetruththatallliveuntohim(Lk20:38,cf.aslightlydifferentexpressioninAc17:28).
ItmaybepointedoutherethatJesusseemstohavemadenoattempttoanswertheoftendebatedquestionofthecuriousastothenatureoftheresurrection
body.Hecomparedtheconditionofthosewhohadarisentothatoftheangels(Mk12:25),acomparisonwhichisnoteworthyforwhatitimpliesaswellasforthe
reservewhichJesususedwhenspeakingonthissubject.Atthesametime,wemustrememberthatcertainincidentsinthepostresurrectionlifeofJesusonearth
appeartohavebeendesignedtomeetwhatislegitimateinspeculationofthiskind.HewasanxioustoprovethatHiswasabodilyresurrection(Lk24:41ff.,Jn
20:20cf.Ac10:41),andthatHisrisenbodywascapableofbeingidentifiedwiththebodytowhichHisdiscipleshadbeenaccustomedforsolong(Jn20:27).On
theotherhand,theconditionsofHisexistenceunderwentacompletealteration.ForHimnowphysicallimitations,asregardstimeorspace,didnotexist(Mt28:2,
Jn20:19,25,Lk24:15,cf.24:34)andthisfreedomfromtemporalconditionsresultedinalifewhichtranscendedordinaryexperience.SometimesHeremained
unrecognizeduntilawellknowncharacteristicphraseoractrevealedHispersonality(Jn20:14f.,21:4,Lk24:16cf.theauthorscommentbutsomedoubtedIn
Mt28:17).
5.Apostolicteaching
(a)TheActs.AlthoughtheApostlesdonotseematfirsttohaveshakenthemselvesfreefromJudaisticconceptionsoftheMessianicKingdom(Ac1:6),itis
plainthattheylookedonthefactofJesusresurrectionasofprimaryimportance(seeAc1:22).Atallcoststhismustbeplacedintheforefrontoftheirevangelistic
work,andtheprincipalelementoftheirApostolicclaimstotheattentionoftheirJewishhearerslayintheirpower,aseyewitnesses,toofferirrefragableproofof
theresurrectionofJesusfromthedead(Ac2:24,32,3:15,4:10,33,5:30,32cf.10:40f.).WhenwecomparethefragmentaryreportsofPetrineteachinginthe
Actswiththedoctrineof1Peter,wefindthatinthelatterdocumenttheApostleisnolessinsistentonthefact(1P1:21),whilehehaslearnedtoassigntoitthe
powerofpenetratingthepresentlifeandrenewingituntoalivinghope(1:3).ChristianBaptismforhimreceivesitsspiritualvaliditythroughtheresurrectionof
JesusChrist,whichenablesustosatisfytheappealofagoodconsciencetowardGod(3:21).Atthesametimewemustnotforgetthatelementsofthispowerare
recognizedmorethanonceinhisdiscoursesinActs.ThePentecostaloutpouring,theworkofhealing,thegiftsofrepentanceandforgivenessofsins,areall
describedas(flowingfromtherisenlifeofJesus(seeAc2:33,4:10,5:31cf.5:20,wheretheangelicmessengerspeaksoftheApostolicteachingashaving
referencetothislife).
(b)St.Paul.WhenweturntotheteachingofSt.PaulasitgraduallycomesintocontactwithHellenicandGentilethought,wefindthedoctrineofthe
resurrectionassuminganewanddevelopedprominenceinconnexionwiththeresurrectionofJesus.WhenaddressingJewishaudiences,heemphasizesthefactthat
GodraisedupJesusaccordingtocertainpromisesrecordedintheOT(of.Ac13:32f.,26:6ff.),andatthesametimebaseshisdoctrineoftheresurrectiononits
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GodraisedupJesusaccordingtocertainpromisesrecordedintheOT(of.Ac13:32f.,26:6ff.),andatthesametimebaseshisdoctrineoftheresurrectiononits
necessity,andontherelationshipofJesusandthehumanrace.When,however,hecamefacetofacewiththeGreekmind,hisexperiencewasentirelydifferent.The
philosophersofAthensmethiscategoricalassertionoftheresurrectionofJesusnotmerelywitharefusaltocredithisstatement,butwithaplainderisionofthevery
idea(Ac17:32,cf.26:8).ItwasdoubtlessthecalmmockeryoftheAthenianStoicsthatmadehimfeelthathismissiontothemwashopeless(Ac18:1),andcaused
him,whenwritingafterwardstotheessentiallyGreekcommunityofCorinthianChristians,toexpoundfullyhisdoctrineoftheresurrection.Inthefirstofthetwo
lettersaddressedtothisChurchheestablishesthefactoftheresurrectionofJesus,byrevealingitsharmonywiththeDivineplansetforthtotheJewsintheOT,and
showingthatitwasattestedbynumerouswitnessesofHispostresurrectionexistence.Henextgoesontodemonstratetheorganicconnexionbetweenthis
resurrectionandthatofthosewhoarefallenasleepinChrist(1Co15:16ff.),andthenecessityofacceptingthedoctrineasfundamentallyessentialtoChristian
beliefandhope(15:3f.,19,cf.He6:1).
St.Paulseschatologicaldoctrineincludedabeliefinarealbodilyresurrection.Thisisquitecertainnotonlyfromthechapterwehavebeenconsidering,but
alsofromincidentalreferencesscatteredthroughouthisEpistles(cf.theexpression,Heshallfashionanewthebodyofourhumiliation,Ph3:21seeRo8:11,4:14,
2Co5:15etc.).PerhapsthemostremarkablefeatureoftheApostlescontributiontothisdoctrineiscontainedinhisconceptionofthenatureoftheresurrection
body.Itisevidentfromtheanalogiesheemploysthatheintendedtoestablishtheidentityofthemortalandtheglorifiedbodies(1Co15:3541).thisideaheputs
onarational,thoughanapparentlyparadoxical,basisbypostulatingtheexistenceofaspiritualbodyasdistinctfromanaturalbody(v.44),andatthesametime
byinsistingontheirstrictcontinuity(cf.therepeateddoubletsitissownitisraised,v.42ff.).Doubtlesshispresentmentofthisspeculativeandmysterious
questionwasfoundedonwhathehadalreadylearnedregardingthenatureofthetraditionalappearancesoftherisenJesus.ThebodyofhisgloryPh3:21)isthe
ultimateattainablegloryofthosewhosecitizenshipisinheaven(Ph3:20cf.Col3:10,Ro8:20,1Jn3:2,1Co15:49).
Sidebysidewiththedoctrineofaliteral,bodilyresurrection,St.Paulswritingsarerichwithanotherconceptionwhichismoreespeciallyconnectedwiththe
presentlife.FollowingtheteachingofJesus,whoclaimedtobethepowerbywhichresurrectionlifewasalonepossible,theApostledeclaresthatChristgivesthis
newandgloriouslifehereandnow.Itisrooted,sotospeak,intheearthlylifeofmen,anditsfinalgrowthandfruitareconsummatedhereafter(cf.Col2:12,3:1,Ph
3:10f.,Ro6:5).ThisinchoativeresurrectionlifehasitsorigininthespiritualunionofbaptizedChristianswithChrist(cf.Ro6:3f.,Col2:12,Gal3:27),andthe
tremendouspossibilitiesofdevelopmentare,accordingtoSt.Paul,duetoatranscendentfellowshipwiththeglorifiedJesus(seeEph1:202:10,19ff.).His
resurrectionisthepowerbywhichthisunion,inallitsaspects,isperfected(Ph3:10f.,cf.Ro1:4).ItwasdoubtlesstheonesidedpresentationofPauline
eschatologythatledtotheheresyofHymenusandPhiletus(2Ti2:18),andtheApostleseemstohavefeltthenecessityofbalancinghismysticalinterpretationby
anemphaticinsistenceontheliteraltruththattheresurrectionisafutureobjectivefactintheprogressivelifeofman.
ThatSt.PaulheldthedoctrineoftheresurrectionofthewickedaswellasoftherighteousisevidentnotonlyfromthewordsofhisdefencebeforeFelixat
Csarea(Ac24:15,cf.Lk14:14),butalsofromincidentalremarksinhisEpistles(see1Th4:16and1Co15:22f.,wheretheemphasiswhichislaidonthefirst
resurrectionimpliesasecondandaseparateeventcf.Ac26:7f.andPh3:11,wherethesameimplicationmaybeobserved).Whattheconnexionis,however,
betweenthesetwodistinctresurrectionsdoesnotappeartohaveoccurredtotheApostlesmind,andthereseemstobelittlegroundforthesuppositionthathe
believedinadistinctionbetweenthemasregardstime.Indeed,theparticularpassageuponwhichmillenariansrelytoprovetheaffinityofthePaulineand
ApocalypticdoctrinesinthisrespectsaysnothingofanyresurrectionexceptthatofthosethatareChrists(cf.1Co15:22ff.).Theresurrectionofthewicked
occupiesaverysubordinateplaceinPaulineeschatology,andweneednotbesurprisedatthescantynoticetakenofit,whenwerememberhowconstantlyheis
pressingonhisreadersattentionthepowerbywhichtheresurrectiontolifeisbroughtabout(Ro8:11,1Co15:45cf.Jn6:40,44,54,5:21fortheteachingthatit
isthequickeningSpiritofChristwhichcausestheresurrectionatthelastday).Itissufficientforhimtourgementotheattainmentofthisresurrectionwhichwas
thegoalofhisownaspirations(cf.Ph3:11),andtowarnthemofthefateattendantontherejectionofChrist(notetheexpressionsdayofwrathandrevelationof
therighteousjudgmentofGod,Ro2:5eternaldestructionfromthefaceoftheLord,2Th1:9cf.
1Th1:10,Ph3:19etc.).
6.TheApocalypse.Theprincipalcontributionoftheapocalypticeschatologytothedoctrineoftheresurrectioniscontainedinch.20.Althoughthereisno
specificreferencetotheresurrectionofthewicked,thisisimpliedintheexpressionthefirstresurrection(20:5),aswellasintheconnexionestablishedbetween
theResurrectionandtheJudgment.Rewardsandpunishmentsaremetedouttoallastheystandbeforethethrone,fordeathandHadesgaveupthedeadwhich
wereinthemandtheywerejudgedeverymanaccordingtotheirworks(v.12f.).Whatpreciselyistheinterpretationbywhichthemillennialreignofthemartyrs
andloyalfollowersofJesusistobeadequatelyexplaineditisdifficulttoconjecture.See,further,artt.
CHILIASM,MILLENNIUM.
FortheResurrectionofChrist,see,further,JESUSCHRIST,p.456ff.
J.R.WILLIS.
REU.SonofPeleg(Gn11:1821,1Ch1:25,Lk3:35).
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REU.SonofPeleg(Gn11:1821,1Ch1:25,Lk3:35).
REUBEN.ThefirstbornofJacobbyLeah,Gn29:32(J)35:23(P)46:8(R).ThepopularetymologyconnectsthenamewithLeahsdistress,becauseofJacobs
previousdislikeofher.ShecalledhisnameReuben:forshesaid,becauseJahwehhathlookeduponmyaffliction(rhbeonyi).This,however,isclearlya
paronomasia,thoughevidentlyintendedseriouslyotherwisethepassagehasnomeaning.TheHebrewword=Beholdyeason.InJosephustheformisRubel,
andinSyriacitisRbl.Lengthydiscussionshavebeengivenofthename,andnumeroustheoriesadvancedbywayofsolutionoftheproblemsitraises,butno
conclusionthatcanheacceptedhasbeenreached.CheyneregardsReubelasthecorrectform,andmakesbothitandReuelcorruptionsofJerahmeel,butthis
conclusionisbaseduponhisownpeculiartheoriesofthehistoryofIsraelandoftheHebrewtext.
TheremarkablethingaboutReubenisthathewasofsolittleimportanceinthehistoryofIsrael,andyetinallthetraditionsheisrepresentedasthefirstborn.He,
however,losthisbirthright,thereasonforwhichisapparentlygivenbyJ(Gn35:22),viz.,becausehehadlainwithhisfathersconcubine,Bilhah.Unfortunately,
theremainderofthestory,whichprobablytoldwhatIsraeldidwhenheheardofit,hasbeendropped.TheBlessingofJacob(Gn49:3,4)attributeshisdecadence
tothecursepronounceduponhimfortheact:
Reuben,thouwastmyfirstborn,
Mystrength,andthefirstofmyvirility
Overimpetuous,exceedinglypassionate,
Seethinglikewater,thoushaltnotexcel
Forthoudidstascendthyfathersbed,
ThencursedImycouchthoudidstascend.
[ReadingthefirstpartofthelastlinewithGunkel(p.434)andthesecondpartwithLXX.]IntheBlessingofMoses(Dt33:6)thecursehassealedhisdoom,
andapitifulremnantdepletedinstrengthisallthatremains:
LetReubenlive,andlethimnotdie,Yet,lethismenbeveryfew.
Themeaningofthisallegedincest,statedinthelanguageoftribalhistory,seemstobethattheReubenitescommittedsomeoutrageupontheBilhahclans,which
wasresentedandpunishedbyIsrael,Dan,andNaphtaliandperhapsothertribes.AsDanandNaphtaliweresettledtogetherinthenorth,itisnotimprobable(and
therearesomeindicationsofthis)thatatanearliertimetheymayhavebeenneighboursinthesouth,andtherehavecomeintoconflictwithReuben.
ItisworthnoticinginthisconnexionthattwoofthedescendantsofReubengiveninthegenealogyofReuben(Gn46:9etc.),viz.HezronandCarmi,reappearasJudahites
HezronasthegrandsonofJudah
(Gn.46:12etc.)andCarmiinJos7:1,18.Moreover,ShimeiisaReubenite1Ch5:4,aSimeonite1Ch4:27,andaLeviteEx6:17.InJos15:6P,indescribingthelotofJudah,
makesthenorthbordergoupbythestoneofBohan,thesonofReuben.Either,then,asitwouldseem,ReubenmusthavefirstsettledintheWest,orelseReubeniteclansmigrated
thitherfromtheEast.Thesefactsarenotconclusive,buttheysupportthetheorythatReubenwasfirstsettledintheWest.Anotherexplanationisgiven,e.g.byStade(GVI,p.151),
totheeffectthattheReubenBilhahstorymayrefertothecustominvogueamongtheheathenArabsofinheritingthefathersconcubineswithhisotherpossessions,andthatthe
tribeofReubenmayhaveheldtoit,beinglessadvancedculturallythantheothers.Inthisway,therefore,itisimplied,theymayhavebroughtuponthemselvesthedispleasureofthe
othertribeswhostooduponahighermoralplane.ThisisnotinharmonywiththetraditionwhichmakesReubensoffenceoneagainstIsrael.Besides,itisanillustrationofOT
writinginwhichthevirtuesofalaterageareascribedtotheearlier.BathshebadidnotscrupletoaskAbishagforAdonijah,andSolomondidnotobjectonmoralgrounds(1K2).
PinhisSinaicensus(Nu1:21,2:11)enumeratesthetribeat46,500fightingmen.AtMoabithaddecreasedto43,730(26:7).
ReuhenislinkedwithGad(Nu32)inconnexionwiththeconquest.TheinvitingpasturageoftheEastJordanissaidtohavedeterminedthesepastoraltribesto
settleontheeast.Moses,however,requiresofthemthattheyshallfirstcrossoverandaidtheothertribesingettingpossessionoftheirrespectivelots.Whenthis
waseffected,wearetoldinJos22:7ff.thatJoshuasentthembackwithgreatrichesofspoilstotheirtents(seeGAD).Nothingissaid,however,oftheprevious
settlementofJudahnor,indeed,arewetoldofthatanywhere.
TheterritoryofthetribeissaidinNu32:37,38(P)tohaveincludedsixcities,whichappeartohaveformedasortofenclavewithinGaditeterritory.The
childrenofReubenbuiltHeshbon,andElealeh,andKiriathaimandNebo,andBaalmeon(theirnamesbeingchanged),andSibmah:andgaveothernamesunto
thecitieswhichtheybuilded.Thenamesgivenheremustbetheoriginalnames,asitisimprobablethattheauthorwouldallowtheworshippersofJahwehto
couplewiththenamesoftheircitiesthegodsNeboandBaal.Butwenowherereadofthenewnames.TheirlistofcitiesisincreasedinJos13:15ff.withoutregard
totheabovelist,KiriathaimandSibmahbeingtheonlyonesinitthatarementioned.ThreecitieselsewhereassignedtoGadandfourassignedelsewheretoMoab
areheregiventoReuben.
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ReubenisrebukedhitheSongofDeborah,becauseitdidnotparticipateinthewaragainst
Sisera,inwordsthatreflectthepastoraloccupationofitspeople.ItistherefollowedbyGilead(Gad).IntheMeshainscription(9thcent.),thoughthemenofGad
arereferredtoashavingdweltinAtarothfromofold,thenameofReubenisomitted,thoughsomeofthecitiesascribedtothetribeinthegenealogiesaresaidto
havebeentakenorrebuilt.AswehaveseenintheabovereferencetotheBlessingofMoses(probablyaboutthefirsthalfofthe8thcent.),thetribewasapparently
reducedatthattimetoaninconsiderableremnantmenofnumber,i.e.sofewthattheymighteasilybecounted.Itis,however,stillmentionedin2K10:32as
thoughitmaintaineditsseparateorganizationwhenHazaelofDamascusoverranandsmotetheeasternIsraelites.Itsnameappearsmorethanonehundredyears
later,whenTiglathpileserIII.deportedthetribestoAssyriain734(1Ch5:26).Inallprobability,however,ithadlongbeforeceasedtoexistasanindependentunit
(seeGAD).SeealsoTRIBES.
JAMESA.CRAIG.
REUEL.1.AsonofEsau(Gn36:4,10,13,17,1Ch1:35,37).2.Ex2:18,Nu10:29(AVinthelatterRaguel).SeeHOBABandJETHRO.3.Thefatherof
Eliasaph(Nu2:14called
[probablybymistakingrford]Deuelin1:14,7:42,47,10:20).4.ABenjamite(1Ch9:8).
REUMAH.TheconcubineofNahor(Gn22:24).
REVELATION
1.Meaningofrevelation.TheEnglishword,whichcomesfromtheLatin,impliesthedrawingbackofaveil,theunveilingofsomethinghidden.Itisthe
almostexactequivalentoftheNTwordapocalypseoruncovering(Rev1:1).ForourpresentpurposethewordisspeciallyappliedtotherevelationofGod,the
unveilingoftheunseenGodtothemindandbeartofman.Theapplicationofthewordisveryvaried.ThewidestsenseisthatinwhichitisusedbyGwatkin
(KnowledgeofGod,vol.i.p.5):Anyfactwhichgivesknowledgeisarevelation,therevelationandtheknowledgeofGodarecorrelativetermsexpressingtwo
sidesofthesamething.Thefollowingspecificusesofthetermneedconsideration:(a)TherevelationofGodthroughnature.Thisreferstotheindicationsof
wisdom,power,andpurposeinthematerialworldaround(Ro1:20).(b)TherevelationofGodinman.ThisappliestothetracesofGodinmansconsciencewithits
senseofobligation,inhisemotionalnaturewithitsdesireandcapacityforfellowship,inhispersonalitywhichdemandspersonalityforitssatisfaction.(c)The
revelationofGodinhistory.Thismeansthemarksofanoverrulingprovidenceandpurposeintheaffairsofmankind,ofaDivinitythathasshapedmansends,the
tracesofaprogressandonwardsweepinhistory.Alltheseaspectsofrevelationareusuallysummedupinthetermnaturalreligion,anddonottouchthespecific
meaningofrevelationwhichisassociatedwithChristianity.(d)TherevelationofGodinJudaismandChristianity.Byrevelation,asappliedinthisway,wemeana
special,historical,supernaturalcommunicationfromGodtoman.NotmerelyinformationaboutGod,butarevelationadisclosureofGodHimselfinHischaracter
andHisrelationtoman.Inadditiontorevelationthroughnature,conscience,andreason,ChristianityimpliesaspecialrevelationinthePersonofChrist.
2.Problemofrevelation.ThestatementofthefullcontentoftheChristianrevelationisnaturallyexcludedfromthisarticle,butforourpurposewemaysay
brieflythatitsessenceistheselfmanifestationofGodinthePersonofChristfortheredemptionofmankind.ChristianityistherevelationofGodsgraceforman
throughthehistoricPersonalityofChrist.Theproblemistocorrelatethissupernaturalcontentwiththehistoricalprocessbymeansofwhichithasbeenrevealed,
andtodojusticeatoncetothesuperhumanfactandcontent,andthehumanmediaandconditionsoftherevelation.Insodoingweshallbebroughtfacetoface
withtheantithesesofrevelationanddiscovery,ofrevelationandspeculation,ofrevelationandevolutionand,whilewerecognizetothefullthehistoricalprocesses
bywhichChristianityhascometous,weshallseethatthegospelofChristisnotadequatelyaccountedforexceptbymeansofapersonalrevelationofGod,using
andguidinghistoryforthepurpose,andthatitcannotbeexplainedmerelyintermsofhistory,discovery,philosophy,andevolution.
3.Possibilityofrevelation.Wearguethisontwogrounds.(a)FromtheBeingofGod.GrantedaGodasaSupremeBeing(whichforourpresentpurposewe
assume),HemustnecessarilybeabletorevealHimselftoman.GivenGodaspersonal,thisincludesthepowerofselfrevelation.BeliefinaDivineBeingatonce
makesrevelationpossible.Abaretheismhasneverbeenapermanentstandingground,formeneitherhaverecededfromitorhavegoneforwardinthedirectionof
theChristianrevelation.(b)Fromthenatureofman.Thefactofpersonality,withallitspossibilities,impliesmanscapacityforcommunionwithaBeinghigherthan
himself,orhigherthananyotherhumanpersonality.ThouhastmadeusforThyself,OLord,andourheartisrestlessuntilitrestsinThee(Augustine).
4.Probabilityofrevelation.Thisalsoweargueontwogrounds:(a)fromthenatureof
God,and(b)fromtheneedsofman.GrantedaSupremePersonalBeing,webelievenotonlyinHisability,butinHiswillingnesstorevealHimselftoman.Beliefin
Godpreparesustoexpectarevelation.HumanpersonalitywithitscapacityforGodpreparesustoexpectarevelation,whichthusbecomesantecedentlyprobable.
Thedesireforitisanargumentforexpectingit.Man,asman,needsarevelationtoguidehim,anauthorityaboveandgreaterthanhimselfinthingsspiritualand
Divine.StillmoredoesmanasasinnerneedsuchaDivinerevelation.Amidthesinsandsorrows,thefearsandtrials,thedifficultiesandperplexitiesoflife,man
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Divine.StillmoredoesmanasasinnerneedsuchaDivinerevelation.Amidthesinsandsorrows,thefearsandtrials,thedifficultiesandperplexitiesoflife,man
needssomeDivinerevelationthatwillassurehimofsalvation,holiness,andimmortality.Noonecansaythatthelightofnatureissufficientfortheseneeds,and
thatthereforearevelationcouldaddnothing.Mostmenwouldagreethatthereisatleastroomforarevelationinviewofthesinandsufferingintheworld.Our
deepestinstinctscryoutagainstthethoughtthatsinisfinalorpermanent,andyetitisequallyclearthatnothingbutaninterpositionfromabovecandealwithit.Itis
impossibletoconceiveofGodleavingmantohimselfwithoutadefinite,clear,andsufficientmanifestationofHisowncharacter,Hiswill,Hislove,Hisgrace.
5.Credibilityofrevelation.TheproofsofaDivinerevelationaremany,varied,converging,andcumulative,(a)Speculatively,wemayarguethatthe
universepointstoidealism,andidealismtotheism,andtheismtoarevelation(Illingworth,ReasonandRevelation,p.243).(b)Historically,theChristianrevelation
comestouscommendedbyitswitnessesin(1)miracle,(2)prophecy,and(3)spiritualadaptationtohumannature,(c)Behindallthesearethepresuppositionsof
naturalreligionasseeninnature,man,andhistory,(d)ButultimatelythecredibilityofChristianityasarevelationrestsonthePersonofitsFounder,andall
evidencesconvergetowardsandcentreinHim.ChristisChristianity,andChristiansbelieveprimarilyandfundamentallyinthefactandtrustworthinessofChrist.
HereinliesthefinalproofofthecredibilityofChristianityasaDivinerevelation.IfithesaidthatGodhasmadeothermanifestationsofHimselfinthecourseof
history,wedonotdenyit.Alltruth,howevermediated,mustnecessarilyhavecomefromtheprimalSourceoftruth.ThegenuinenessofChristianitydoesnot
necessarilydisprovethegenuinenessofotherreligionsasbrokenlights.Eachsystemclaimingtobearevelation,whetherpartialorfinal,mustbetestedbyitsown
evidence,andadecisionmadeaccordingly.TherealcriterionofallreligionsclaimingtoheDivineistheirpowertosave.Itisnottruthinitself,buttruthas
exemplifiedinhumanlifeanddeliveringfromsin,thatconstitutesthefinalproofofareligion.Nottheideal,buttheidealpracticallyrealizedinhumanexperience,
isthesupremetest.Whenthisisapplied,thetruerelationofChristianitytoothersystemsisatonceseen.
6.Methodsofrevelation.(a)TheChristianrevelationisfirstandforemostarevelationoflife.Christianityisprimarilyareligionoffactsratherthanof
truths,thedoctrinesonlyarisingoutofthefacts.AllthroughthehistoricperiodGodsmanifestationhasbeengiventolife.Whetherwethinkofthepatriarchs,
kings,andprophetsoftheOT,orofChristandHisApostlesintheNT,revelationhaseverbeenconnectedwithhumanlifeandpersonality.(b)Butmediatelyithas
beengiveninword,firstoralandthenwritten.BothintheOTandintheNTwenoticefirstwhatGodwasanddidtomen,andafterwardswhatHesaid.Wecanand
mustdistinguishbetweentherevelationandtherecord,theformerbeingnecessarilypriortothelatter,butneverthelesstherevelationneededtherecordfor
accuracyandavailability.AtthesametimeitisessentialtorememberthatScriptureisnotsimplyarecordofarevelation,butthatthehistoryitselfisarevelationof
God.Ontheonehand,theBibleisaproductoftheDivineprocessofselfmanifestationand,ontheother,theBibleitselfmakesGodknowntoman.Christianity,
therefore,likeJudaismbeforeit,isabookreligion(thoughitisalsomuchmore),asrecordingandconveyingtheDivinemanifestationtoman.Arevelationmustbe
embodiedsomewheretohemadeavailableforallgenerations,andofthethreepossiblemediahumanreason,anecclesiasticalinstitution,andahook,thelast
namedisbyfarthemosttrustworthyasavehicleoftransmission.ItmattersnothowGodrevealsHimself,solongaswecanhesureoftheaccuracyofthatwhichis
transmitted.Christisoursupremeandfinalauthority,andouronerequirementisthepurest,clearestformofHishistoricpersonalmanifestation.Wedonotsetaside
reasonbecauseitishuman,oraninstitutionbecauseitisliabletoerror,nordoweacceptthebookmerelyasabookhutwebelievethatthetwoformerdonot,and
thelatterdoes,enshrineforustherecordofChristsrevelationinitsbestavailableform.
7.Developmentofrevelation.Revelationhasbeenmediatedthroughhistory,andhasthereforebeenprogressive,(a)Primitiverevelationisthefirststage.
HowmenfirstcametoconceiveofGodmustremainamatterofconjecture.Asthereissolittleknownaboutprimitiveman,soalsotheremustbeaboutprimitive
religion.Onething,however,isquiteclear,thatthetermssavageandprimitivearenotsynonymous,forthesavagetodayoftenrepresentsadegenerationfrom
primitiveman.AllanalogyfavourstheideathatprimitiverevelationwassuchamanifestationofGodwhenmanwascreatedaswouldhesufficienttomaintaina
truerelationwithHim,thatattheCreationmanhadanimmediatecapacity,howeverimmature,ofenteringintofellowshipwithGodandwiththisreligions
endowmentwemayassumeameasureofDivinerevelationsufficienttoenablemantoworshipinanelementaryway,andtokeeptruetoGod.Nooneisableto
provethis,hutthereisnoreasontodenyitspossibilityorprobability.Withoutsomesuchassumption,allideaofrevelationvanishes,andreligionisresolvedinto
merelyhumanconceptionsofGod.RevelationismorethanthesoulsinstinctiveapprehensionofGod,forthesimplereasonthattheinstinctiveapprehensionitself
hastoheaccountedfor.Thedifficultiesurgedbysomewritersonthephilosophyofreligionagainstprimitiverevelationariseoutoftheassumptionthatall
revelationsaremerenaturalprocesses.Thereisnoargumentagainstprimitiverevelationwhichisnotvalidagainstallrevelation,Christianityincluded.Thepower
andpossibilityofmansselfdevelopmenttowardsGodareinconsistentwiththefactofsinandmansbenttowardsevil.(b)OTrevelation.Howeverandwhenever
theOTcameintoexistence,wecannothelpbeingconsciousofsomethinginitbeyondthatwhichismerelyhumanandhistorical.ThereisthatintheOTcharacters
andrecordwhichcannotbeexplainedsolelyintermsofhistoriccontinuity.TheOTdoesnotmerelyrepresentanendeavourtoobtainaneverworthierideaofGod
itrecordsatrueideaofGodimpressedonthepeopleinthecourseofhistory,underaDivinedirectionwhichwecallarevelation.TheOTconceptionofGodisso
vastlydifferentfromthatwhichobtainedinthesurroundingnations,thatunlesswepredicatesomethingsupernatural,thereisnopossibilityofaccountingforso
markedadifferencebetweenpeoplewhowereinotherrespectssoverymuchalike.AsWellhausentrulysays,WhydidnotChemoshofMoah,forinstance,
developintoaGodofRighteousness,andtheCreatorofheavenandearth?ItispossibletogiveasatisfyinganswertothisquestiononlybypredicatingaDivine
revelationintheOT.(c)TheNTrevelation.Thehistoricalrevelationculminatedinthe
manifestationofJesusChrist.Itwasgivenataparticulartimeandplace,mediatedthroughOnePerson,andauthenticatedbysupernaturalcredentials.InChristthe 24/40
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manifestationofJesusChrist.Itwasgivenataparticulartimeandplace,mediatedthroughOnePerson,andauthenticatedbysupernaturalcredentials.InChristthe
selfdisclosureofGodreacheditsclimax,andtheNTisthepermanentwitnessoftheuniquenessofChristianityintheworld.God,whoinancientdaysspoketo
ourforefathersinmanydistinctmessagesandbyvariousmethodsthroughtheprophets,hasattheendofthesedaysspokenuntousthroughaSon(He1:1,
Weymouth).AndthePersonofChristisutterlyinexplicableintermsofhistory,ordiscovery,andrequiresthehypothesisofrevelation.
Thisbriefsketchofthehistoricaldevelopmentofrevelationwillenableustounderstandtheimportanceofthetruthoftheprogressivenessofrevelation.God
taughtmenastheywereabletobearit,leadingthemstepbystepfromthedawntothenoondayofHisselfdisclosure.Whileeachstageoftherevelationwas
adequateforthattime,itwasnotnecessarilyadequatewithreferencetosucceedingstages.Thisprincipleofprogressenablesustoavoidatwofolderror:itprevents
usfromundervaluingtheOTbyreasonofthefullerlightoftheNTanditpreventsusfromusingtheOTinanyofitsstageswithoutguidancefromthecompleter
revelationoftheNT.Wethusdistinguishcarefullybetweenthedispensationaltruthintendedabsolutelyforimmediateneedateachstage,andthosepermanent
elementsintheOTwhichareofeternalvalidity.Itisnecessarytorememberthedifferencebetweenwhatiswrittenforusandtous.AllScripturewaswrittenfor
ourlearning,butnotallwaswrittentousdirectly.Ifitbesaidthatrevelationshouldbeuniversal,andnotlimitedtoonetimeorplaceornation,theansweristhat
thehistoricalmethodisinexactaccordancewiththemethodofcommunicatingandreceivingallourknowledge.Itisobviousthatinthecourseofhistorysome
nationsandmenhaveinfluencedmankindmorethanothers,andthisfactconstitutesananalogy,andarguesthepossibilitythataspecialrevelationmightalsobe
mediatedthroughsomeparticularraceandperson.Further,bylimitingrevelationinthisway,Godtookthebestmeansofpreservingtherevelationfromcorruption.
Continuousanduniversaltraditionhasveryfewsafeguardsagainstdeterioration,astheJewishhistoryonlytooclearlyshows.Ouracceptanceoftherevelation
enshrinedintheNTisbasedonthebeliefthatitcomesthroughmenuniquelyauthorizedandequippedtodeclareGodswill.Itsauthoritydependsonthefactthat
theirspecialrelationtoChristandtheirexceptionalpossessionoftheSpiritgavethemthepowertoreceiveanddeclareGodstruthformankind.Notfitnesstoedify,
orage,orthepossessionoftruth,butwiththese,andunderlyingthem,thepresenceofaDivineelementinthemenwhosewritingswepossess,givesthebookstheir
authorityforusasarecordandvehicleofDivinerevelation.Thisuniquenessmaybeseenbyasimpleappealtofact.ThecomparisonoftheApostolicandsub
ApostolicagesshowstheuniquenessoftheNT.Betweenthefirstandsecondcenturiesthereisachasmsheer,abrupt,abysmal(Schaff),andnotransitionexists
whichwassosilent,andyetsosuddenandremarkable.Themostbeautifulproductofthesecondcentury,theEpistleofDiognetus,isincomparablyinferiortoany
bookoftheNT.ThereisnosteeperdescentinhistorythanthatwhichdirectlyfollowstheApostolicage.Wepassatoncefromwritingsunsurpassedincreative
powertowritingsofmarkedintellectualpoverty,thedistinctioncommonlymadebetweenthebooksoftheCanonandtherestisfullyjustified(Gwatkin,
KnowledgeofGod,ii.80).ThisdifferencemarksthedistinctionbetweentheSpiritofGodinrevelationandinillumination.SincethecloseoftheNTtimestherehas
beenstrictlynoadditiontotherevelation,butonlyitsmanifoldrealizationandapplicationintheChristianChurchandtheworld.Itshouldbecarefullynotedthat
webelieveintheDivinerevelationcontainedintheScriptures,withoutholdinganyparticulartheoryofinspiration.Thesupremequestioniswhethertheycontaina
revelationofDivinetruth.Aretheytrueandtrustworthyforourspirituallife?Ifso,theyareauthoritativewhatevermayhavebeentheprecisemethodoftheir
delivery.Theprimaryquestionisnotthemethodofinspiration,butthefactofauthority.Yet,howeverdifficultitmaybetodefineitscharacterorlimits,webelieve
inaspecialinspirationoftheBiblebasedontheauthorityofitsauthorsandontheiruniquepowertorevealGodswill.Thisspecialinspirationis(1)testifiedtoby
theScripturesthemselves,(2)haseverbeenheldintheChristianChurch,and(3)constantlyauthenticatesitselftotheChristianconsciencethroughtheages.
8.Purposeofrevelation.Theessentialpurposeofrevelationislife:thegiftofthelifeofGodtothelifeofman.Itspracticalcharacterisstampedonevery
part.Thechiefendofrevelationisnotphilosophy,thoughithasaphilosophyprofoundandworthy.Itisnotdoctrine,thoughithasadoctrinesatisfyingand
inspiring.Itisnotenjoyment,thoughithasitsexperiencespreciousandlasting.Itisnotevenmorality,thoughithasitsethicuniqueandpowerful.
Christianityhasallthese,butisfarmorethanthemall.Itisthereligionofredemption,includingsalvationfromsin,equipmentforholiness,andprovisionforlifeto
belivedinfellowshipwithGodandforHisglory.ThechiefendofrevelationistheunionofGodandman,andinthatunionthefulfilmentofallGodspurposes
fortheworld.Theelementsofsonship,worship,stewardship,fellowship,heirship,practicallysumupthepurposeofDivinerevelationasitconcernsmanslifea
lifeinwhichhereceivesGodsgrace,realizesGodswill,reproducesGodscharacter,rendersGodservice,andrejoicesinGodspresenceintheKingdomofgrace
belowandtheKingdomofgloryabove.
W.H.GRIFFITHTHOMAS.
REVELATION,BOOKOF.Thissinglerepresentativeoftheliteratureofapocalypse(Gr.apokalypsis,whencethealternatingname,TheApocalypse)
preservedintheNTbelongstoalargegroupofChristianwritingsofasimilarsort.ItwascharacteristicoftheearlyChurchtobuildupaliteratureaboutthenames
ofthevariousApostles.Normallythisliteratureconsistedofanarrative,anapocalypse,andsomeformofdoctrinalwritingas,forexample,theGospelofPeter,the
ApocalypseofPeter,andthePreachingofPeter.Withtheexceptionofthepresentbook,noChristianapocalypseisheldtobeevenpossiblyauthentic.
1. Canonicity.TheRevelationwasnotuniversallyacceptedbytheearlyChurchascanonical.Thereisnoevidenceofitsexistenceworthyofconsideration 25/40
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1.Canonicity.TheRevelationwasnotuniversallyacceptedbytheearlyChurchascanonical.Thereisnoevidenceofitsexistenceworthyofconsideration
inthewritingsoftheApostolicFathers,althoughitisjustpossiblethatPapiasmayhaveknownofit.Bythemiddleofthe2ndcent.,however,Revelationiswell
known,andisdeclaredbyJustintohebytheApostle
John(Dial.lxxxi.15).Itisalsoused,amongothers,byMelito,Tertullian,Clementof
Alexandria,andOrigen,andattributedtotheApostleJohnbythefirstnamedaswellasbyIrenus.ThefactthatitappearsintheCanonoftheMuratorian
Fragmentisevidencethatbythemiddleofthe2ndcent.itwasacceptedintheWest.AfteritsdefencebyHippolytusitspositionwasneverseriouslyquestioned
exceptintheEast.Jeromeis,infact,theonlyWesterntheologianofimportancewhodoubtsit,andheputsitamongthosebookswhichareunderdiscussion,
neithercanonicalnorapocryphal.
IntheEast,asmightbeexpected,itwasrejectedbyMarcion,and,becauseofdisbeliefinitsApostolicauthorship,byDionysiusofAlexandria(middleofthe
3rdcent.).PalestinianandSyrianauthors(e.g.CyrilofJerusalem)generallyrejectedit,inlargemeasurebecauseofthestrugglewiththeMontanists,bywhom
Revelationwasusedasabasisofdoctrine.ItdoesnotappearinthelistsoftheSynodofLaodicea,theApostolicConstitutions,GregoryofNazianzus,Chrysostom,
theChronographyofNicephorus,theListoftheSixtyBooks,orinthePeshittaversionoftheNT.ItwasincludedbytheGelasianDecreeattheendofthe5th
cent.ascanonical,andwasfinallyrecognizedbytheEasternChurch.Yetaslateas692aSynodcouldpublishtwodecrees,theoneincludingtheApocalypseinthe
Canon,theotherexcludingit.ItwasnotheldinhighreputebythereformersCarlstadt,Luther,Zwingli,allofwhomdoubteditsApostolicity,orapparentlyby
Calvin,whoomittedtocommentuponit.Atmost,thefirsttwoofthesetheologianswereapparentlyinclinedtorecognizeadivisionofsacredwritingssimilartothat
ofJerome.
2.Authorship.Thetitle,RevelationofJohn,whichoccursinseveralMSS,includingtheCodexSinaiticus,isanobviousexpressionofabeliefregarding
authorship.ThisJohnwasbelievedbymanyintheearlyChurchtobetheApostle.Whetherthisviewwascorrectornotistodayasubjectoflivelydebate.The
bookitselfcontainslittleinternalevidenceservingtosubstantiatethisclaim,fortheauthorsimplystatesthatheisnamedJohn(1:1,4,9,22:8).Justin(Dial.lxxxi.
15)distinctivelystatesthatRevelationisbyJohn,oneoftheApostlesofChrist,andTertullianalongwiththeWesternChurchgenerallyheldtoitsApostolic
authorship.Eusebius,however,suggeststhatitmayhavebeenwrittenbyJohnthePresbyter,mentionedbyPapiasbutotherwiseunknown.Atthepresenttime
thebeliefisdividedastowhethertheauthorofRevelationisJohntheApostleorJohnthePresbyter.ThechiefargumentagainsttheviewthattheauthorisJohnthe
ApostleliesinthedifferencesexistingbetweenRevelationandtheGospelandtheEpistlesofJohn,bothinstyleandinmethod.Notwithstandingtheuseoftheterm
Logos(19:13),thesedivergencesaretooobvioustoneedspecifying.IfJohannineauthorshipbeassignedtheGospelandEpistles,itisdifficulttoclaimitfor
Revelationbut,ontheotherhand,itisdifficulttobelieveittobeeitherpseudonymousorwrittenbythemysteriousJohnthePresbyter.Asthecasenowstands,
criticismseemstohavereachedanimpasse,andtheplainreadermaybestusethebookindisregardofquestionsofauthorship,aprocedurethemorejustifiable
becauseitsteachingisindependentofpersonalmatters.
3.Date.AlthoughthefixingofthedateofRevelationpresupposesconclusionsastoitscompositionandpurpose,itmayherebesaidthatinallprobability
thebookreacheditspresentforminthelatterpartofthereignofDomitian(A.D.8196).
4.Composition.Theprevailinghypothesesmaybegroupedinthreeclasses.
(1)ThecurrentlyacceptedviewthatitwaswrittenentirelybytheApostleJohn.Suchaviewis,however,opentoseriousobjections,becauseofthesimilarities,
ifnotidentities,existingbetweenRevelationandotherapocalypticliteratureoftheperiod,aswellasbecauseoftheevidencesofcompositecharacterofthewriting,
implyingsourcesofdifferentoriginsanddates,suchasthevariousbreaksintheprocessofthevision(thelackofanysinglehistoricalpointofviewisseenbya
comparisonof12:3,13:1,17:3,inanefforttoidentifyhistoricallythetwobreaks,orinacomparisonof11:113with17:11).
(2)Theviewthatthework,whileessentiallyaliteraryunit,isaChristianredactionofa
Jewishwriting.ThisviewwouldattributetotheChristianredactorthefirstthreechaptersandimportantsectionslike5:914,7:917,13:11ff.,22:621,inaddition
toseparateverseslike12:11,14:1,5,12:13,15,16:15,17:14,19:9,10,13b,20:46,21:5b8.Thedifficultieswiththispositionarenotonlythosewhichmustbe
urgedagainstanyviewthatoverlookstheevidencesofthecompositeauthorshipofthework,butalsotheimpossibilityofshowingthatch.11isJewishincharacter.
(3)Theoriesofcompositeorigin.Theseareofvariousforms(a)Thetheoryaccordingtowhichanoriginalworkhasbeeninterpolatedwithapocalyptic
materialofvariousdates(7:18,917,11:113,12:111,1217,13:17)andsubjectedtoseveralrevisions.(b)TheviewthatRevelationisaChristianbookin
whichJewishapocalypseshavebeenframed.(c)ThetheoryaccordingtowhichRevelationiscomposedofthreesources,eachofwhichhassubdivisions,all
workedtogetherbyaChristianredactor.(d)Notwithstandingthedifficultyindeterminingthesources,criticsareprettythoroughlyagreedthat,asthebooknow
stands,ithasaunitywhich,thoughnotinconsistentwiththeuseofoldermaterialbyitsauthor,isnonethelesseasilyrecognized.Someofthisoldermaterial,itis
nowheld,undoubtedlyrepresentsthegeneralstreamofapocalypticthattookitsriseinBabylonianmythology.Thestructuralunityofthebookappearsinthe
repetitionofsevenfoldgroupsofepisodes,aswellasinageneralgrammaticalandlinguisticsimilarity.Inachievingthisremarkableresult,theredactorso
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repetitionofsevenfoldgroupsofepisodes,aswellasinageneralgrammaticalandlinguisticsimilarity.Inachievingthisremarkableresult,theredactorso
combined,recast,andsupplementedhismaterialastogivethebookanessentiallyChristianratherthanJewishcharacter.
5.Analysis.Asitnowstands,literaryandcriticalanalysesdonotaltogethercoincide,butuntilcriticismhasfinisheditstask,literaryanalysismustbeof
primaryImportance.Authoritiesherediffer,butthefollowinganalysisdoesnotdifferfundamentallyfromthatofotherwriters.i.Introduction(ch.1).
ii.ThemessageoftheSpirittotheSevenChurches(chs.2,3).iii.Theperiodofstruggleandmisery(chs.47).iv.The
finalMessianicstruggle(chs.814).
v.ThevictoryoftheMessiah(chs.1520).
vi.ThevisionoftheMessianicKingdom(chs.2122:5).
vii.Epilogue(22:621).
6.Interpretation.NoBiblicalwriting,withthepossibleexceptionoftheBookofDaniel,hasbeensosubjectedtothevagariesofinterpretersas
Revelation,(a)Ontheoneextremearethose(Futurists)whohaveseeninitspicturesaforecastofuniversalChristianhistory,aswellasalltheenemiesof
Christianity,bothwithinandwithouttheChurch.TosuchinterpretersthebookhasbeenathesaurusofthatchiliasticdoctrinewhichtheGreekaswellasthe
modernscientificattitudeofmindhasfoundsorepugnant.(b)AttheotherextremetherearethoseinterpreterswhoseeinRevelationsimplyareferencetothe
historicalconditionsofthefirstcenturyoftheChristianera.(c)Thereisameasureoftruthineachofthesetwomethods,buttherealmethodofinterpretation
mustbeindependentofdogmaticpresuppositions.Asnarrativemattermustbeinterpretedbythegeneralprinciplesapplicabletoallliteratureofitsclass,somust
Revelationbeinterpretedinaccordancewiththegeneralprinciplesapplicabletoapocalypsesasaformofliteraryexpression.Thefundamentalprinciplesofsuch
interpretationinvolvetherecognitionofthefacts(i.)thatapocalypsesaretheoutgrowthofdefinitehistoricalsituations(ii.)thattheyattempttostimulatefaithby
anexpositioninsymbolictermsofthedeliverancewhichGodwillgiveHissufferingpeoplefromactuallyexistingsufferings(iii.)thatthemessageofdeliverance
gainsauthoritybecauseofitsclaimtosuperhumanoriginreinforcedbypseudonymousauthorship(iv.)thatthedeliverancewhichisthussupernaturallyportrayed
isdependentupontheintroductionofanewagewhoseconditionsaresetmiraculouslybyGodratherthanbyevolvinghistoricalforces,andisnotdescribedwith
thesamedetailasaretheconditionsfromwhichGodistodeliverHispeople.
AnapplicationoftheseprinciplestotheinterpretationofRevelationdemands(1)thatanhistoricalinterpretationbegiventhepicturesdescribingthemiseriesof
theChurch.TheconditionsofsuchinterpretationaremostnaturallyfulfilledinthepersecutionunderDomitian(8196),althoughtheremaybereferencestothat
underthedeadNero.ThepersecutingforceisclearlyRome,asrepresentedbothbytheEmperorandbyEmperorworship,whatevertheoriginofthepictureswith
whichtheoppressionoftheChurchissetforth.ApointofdeparturefortheidentificationofthehistoricalfigureswhoaretobesubjectedtotheMessianic
punishmentmightbethoughttobethenumberoftheBeast666thatistosay,theEmperorNero,whowasexpectedtoreturnfromthedead(seeBEAST[IN
APOC.]).PseudoNerodid,infact,appearinAsiaMinorinA.D.69,andamongtheParthiansin7981and88.Theidentification,however,isnotaltogether
satisfactory,astheHebrewletters,whosenumericalequivalentsgivebytheprocessofGematria666,arenotpreciselythoseinCsarNero.Ifthecorrectreadingbe
616,theequivalentisGaiusCsar.AnotherinterpretationwouldmaketheLatinortheRomanEmpire.Thebestthatcanbesaid,however,isthatifthe
interpretationbyGematriaisunsatisfactory,theinterpreterisforcedbackuponthegeneralreferencesofthehills,thecity,andthehornsorkings,asabasisfor
regardingRomeasthegreatenemyoftheChristianandhisChurch.
Afurtherdifficultyinformulatingpreciselythehistoricalsituation,arisesfromthefactthattheauthor,thoughproducingabookofgreatliteraryunity,has
embodiedsourceswhichrefertoconditionsofdifferenttimes.Thus11:113wouldnaturallyinfertheexistenceoftheTemple,whichwasdestroyedin70ch.13
mayhavecomefromthedaysofCaligula17:10mostnaturallyimpliessometimeinthereignofNero17:11apparentlyimpliesDomitian,theeighthemperor17:8
wouldalsoarguethatthebookwaswrittenduringtheperiodthatbelievedinNeroredivivus.Theredactor(orredactors)has,however,socombinedthesematerials
astogiveaunifiedpictureoftheapproachingMessianicstruggle.
(2)Ontheotherhand,thedeliveranceoftheChurchis,likeallapocalypticdeliverances,miraculous,anddescribedtranscendentally.Besidesthemartyrs,the
onlyidentificationpossibleinthisconnexionisthatoftheconqueringLambwithJesustheChrist.ThefallofRomeisforetolddefinitelyinch.17,buttheseeris
truetothegeneralapocalypticforminthathemakesRomeanditsreligiontheagentsofSatan.TheultimatevictoryoftheChurchissimilarlyportrayedasthe
victoryofGod,andisidentifiedwiththereturnofJesustoestablishHisMessianicKingdom.
Suchamethodofinterpretation,basedupongeneralcharacteristicsofapocalypses,preservestheelementoftruthinboththefuturistandthehistoricalmethods
ofinterpretation,thepicturesofpersecutionsymbolizingactualhistoricalconditions,buttheforecastofdeliverancerevertingtothegeneralMessianicexpectation
ofeventslyingoutsideofhistory.
ThesublimethemeofRevelationthusbecomesevidentthevictoryoftheMessiahovertheRomanEmpire,togetherwiththemiseriestobeinflictedonHis
enemiesandtheblessingstobeenjoyedbyHisfollowers.
7.Religiousvalue.Ifproperlyinterpreted,Revelationisofreallyprofoundreligiousvalue.Itcannotserveasabasisoftheology,but,likeanypieceof
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7.Religiousvalue.Ifproperlyinterpreted,Revelationisofreallyprofoundreligiousvalue.Itcannotserveasabasisoftheology,but,likeanypieceof
imaginativewriting,willservetostirtheemotionandthefaithoftheChristian.Itsliteraryformissoremarkable,thepassagesdescriptiveofthetriumphofthe
MessianicKingdomaresoexquisite,itsreligiousteachingissoimpressive,asnotonlytowarrantitsinclusionintheCanon,butalsotomakeitoflastingvalueto
thedevotionallife.MoreparticularlytheLetterstotheChurchesareofvalueascriticismandInspirationforvariousclassesofChristians,whileitspicturesofthe
NewJerusalemanditsinsistenceuponthemoralqualificationsforthecitizensoftheMessianicKingdomareinthemselvesnotableincentivestorightliving:Stript
ofitsapocalypticfigures,thebookpresentsanobleidealofChristiancharacter,anassuranceoftheunfailingjusticeofGod,andaprophecyofthevictoryof
Christianityoverabrutalsocialorder.
S HAILERMATHEWS.
REVENGE.SeeAVENGEROFBLOOD,KIN[NEXTOF].
REVISEDVERSION.SeeENGLISHVERSIONS,35.
REVIVE.In1K17:22,2K13:21,Neh4:2,Ro14:9,toreviveisliterallytocometolifeagain,asinShaks.1HenryVI.I.i.18Henryisdead,andnever
shallrevive.WethusseetheforceofRo7:9Whenthecommandmentcame,sinrevived,andIdied.
REZEPH.AcitymentionedinthemessageoftheRabshakehofSennacheribtoHezekiah(2K19:12,Is37:12).ItistheRatsappaorRatsapioftheAssyrian
inscriptions,themodernRasafa,betweenPalmyraandtheEuphrates.ThisdistrictbelongedforseveralcenturiestotheAssyrians,andmanyofthetabletsshowitto
havebeenanimportanttradecentre.BetweenB.C.839and737theprefectswhohadauthorityintheplacewere,toallappearance,Assyrians,onlyone,of
unknownbutapparentlylatedate,havinganamewhichmaybeWestSemitic,namely,Abda,possiblyaformofAbdaorObadiah.
T.G.P INCHES.
REZIN.FromtheancientversionsandthecuneiforminscriptionsitisclearthattheformshouldbeRazonorRazin.
1.ThelastkingofDamascus.Towardsthecloseofthe8thcent.B.C.DamascusandIsraelwereunderthesuzeraintyofAssyria.TiglathpileserIII.enumerates
thearticlespaidhimintributebyRasunnuofDamascusandMenahemofIsrael(B.C.738).Pekah,oneofMenahemssuccessors,joinedRezinintheattemptto
throwofftheyoke.FailingtosecurethecooperationofAhaz,theyturnedtheirarmsagainstJudah(B.C.734).2K16:6mentions,amongtheincidentsofthe
campaign,thatRezinrecoveredElathtoSyria,anddravetheJewsfromElath.[Thisstatementoriginatedinascribalerror,therinAram(Syria)havingbeen
accidentallysubstitutedforthedofEdom,andRezinsnamebeingaddedstilllaterforthesakeofcompleteness(cf.2Ch28:17).]Thetwoalliesbesieged
Jerusalem,greatlytothealarmofthepopulace,andIsaiahstroveinvaintoallaytheterror(Is79).AhazimploredaidfromTiglathpileser,towhomhebecame
tributary(2K16:8).OntheapproachoftheAssyrians,Pekahwasmurderedbyhisownsubjects.Damascussustainedasiegeofmorethanayearsduration,but
waseventuallytaken(B.C.732),andRezinwasslain(2K16:9).Rawlinsonfoundaninscriptiononwhichthiswasrecorded,butthestonehasunfortunately
disappeared.ItisnotquitecertainwhothesonofTabeel(Is7:6)is.Winckler(Alttest.Untersuch.,p.74f.)failstocarryconvictioninhisattempttoidentifythis
manwithRezln.MoreprobablyhewasthetoolwhomtheconfederatesproposedtoseatonthethroneofJudah.
2.ThechildrenofRezinarementionedasafamilyofNethinim(Ezr2:48,Neh7:50).LiketheNethinimgenerally,theywereverylikelyofforeigndescent.
In1Es5:31theyarecalledsonsofDaisan,anotherinstanceoftheconfusionofrandd.
J.TAYLOR.
REZON.AccordingtotheHeb.textof1K11:2325,Rezon,sonofEliada,wasoneofthemilitaryofficersofthatHadadezer,kingofthelittlerealmof
Zobah(cuneiform,Subiti),S.ofDamascusandnotfarfromtheSeaofTiberias,whomDavidoverthrew(2S8:3ff.).Forsomeunknownreasonhedeserted
Hadadezer,gatheredabandoffreebooters,seizedDamascus,andfoundedtherethedynastywhichcreatedthemostpowerfuloftheSyriankingdoms.Hewasa
thorninSolomonsside,andhissuccessorswerebitteradversariesofIsrael.Unfortunately,thetextpresentsasuspiciousappearance.Vv.2325ahaveevidently
beeninterpolatedbetween22and25b,andinthebestMSSoftheLXXthestory,withsomevariations,followsv.14.Ineitherpositionitinterruptsthecourseofthe
narrative,andthebestsolutionofthedifficultyistoregarditasagloss,embodyingahistoricalreminiscence.Thereisnotsufficientevidencefortheview
maintainedbyTheniusandKlostermann,thatthenameshouldbespelledHezronandidentifiedwithHezion(1K15:18).
J.TAYLOR.
RHEGIUM(nowReggio)wasanoldGreekcolonynearthesouthwesternextremityof
Italy,andclosetothepointfromwhichthereistheshortestpassagetoSicily.Messana(modern
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Italy,andclosetothepointfromwhichthereistheshortestpassagetoSicily.Messana(modern
Messina)ontheoppositesideisbut6or7milesdistantfromRhegium.ThewhirlpoolofCharybdisandtherockofScyllaareinthisneighbourhood,andwerea
terrortotheancientnavigatorswiththeirsmallvessels.Rhegiumwasinconsequenceaharbourofimportance,wherefavourablewindswereawaited.Thesituation
ofthecityexposedittochangesofgovernment.Inthe3rdcent.B.C.Romeenteredintoaspecialtreatywithit.InNTtimesthepopulationwasmixedGrcoLatin.
St.PaulsshipwaitedhereonedayforafavourablesouthwindtotakehertoPuteoli.Ac28:13describeshowtheshiphadtotacktogetfromSyracuseto
Rhegium,owingtothechangingwinds.
A.S OUTER.
RHEIMSVERSION.SeeENGLISHVERSIONS,29.
RHESA.AsonofZerubbabel(Lk3:27).
RHODA.ThenameofthemaidservantinthehouseofMary,JohnMarksmother,whenSt.Petercamethereonhisreleasefromprisonbytheangel(Ac
12:13).
A.J.MACLEAN.
RHODESwasoneofthemostimportantandsuccessfulcitiesinancientGreece.ItwasfoundedinB.C.408,attheN.E.corneroftheislandofthesamename,
whichis43mileslongand20mileswideatitswidest.Thesituationwasadmirable,andthepeoplewereabletotakeadvantageofitandtobuildupasplendid
positionintheworldofcommerce.Itreachedthesummitofitssuccessinthe2ndcent.B.C.,afterthesettlementwithRomein189madeitmistressofgreatpartof
CariaandLycia.Romestradeinterestswereseriouslyinterferedwithbythispowerfulrival,andinB.C.166RomedeclaredtheCarianandLyciancities
independent,andmadeDelosafreeport.ItsconspicuousloyaltytoRomeduringthefirstMithradaticWarwasrewardedbytherecoveryofpartofitsformerCarian
possessions.IttookthesideofCsarinthecivilwar,althoughmostoftheEastsupportedPompey,andsufferedsuccessivemisfortunes,whichreducedittoa
commonprovincialtown,thoughitremainedafreecityinSt.Paulstime,andretaineditsfineharbours,walls,streets,andstores.St.Paultouchedhereonhisway
fromTroastoCsarea(Ac21:1),asitwasaregularportofcallonthatroute.Rhodesismentionedin1Mac15:23asoneofthefreeStatestowhichtheRomans
sentlettersinfavouroftheJews.Ezk27:15,accordingtotheLXX,readssonsoftheRhodians:thisisanerrorthementionoftheminGn10:4(LXX)and1Ch
1:7(LXX)isprobablycorrect.ThefamousColossuswasastatueofthesungodattheharbourentrance,105feethigh.ItstoodonlyfromB.C.280to224.
A.S OUTER.
RHODOCUS.AJewishtraitor(2Mac13:21).
RIBAI.ThefatherofIttai(2S23:29=1Ch11:31).
RIBLAH.1.Animportanttown(mod.Ribleh)andmilitarystationontheeasternbankoftheOrontes,50milesS.ofHamath.ItismentionedintheBibleonly
intheliteratureoftheChaldanperiod,andwasapparentlytheheadquartersofNebuchadrezzartheGreatforhisSouthSyrianandPalestiniandominions.From
thispositionthePhniciancitiesofthecoastwerewithineasycommand,asalsowereCleSyriaandthekingdomofDamascus,alongwiththelandroutesleading
farthersouth.HerejudgmentwaspronounceduponZedekiahandhisofficers(2K25:6,20,21,Jer39:5f.,52:9ff.).
Thestatementof2K23:33,thatPharaohnechoputJehoahazinbondsatRiblahinthelandofHamath,istobecorrectedbytheparallelpassage2Ch36:3,wherethe
transactionissaidtohavetakenplaceinJerusalemitself.Thetruereadingis,andPharaohnechoremovedhimfromreigninginJerusalem(cf.alsotheLXX).Itwasthelater
actionofNebuchadrezzarwithregardtoZedekiah,abovereferredto,thatsuggestedthechangeinthetext.ThephraseinthelandofHamath(2K25:21)istobecomparedwith
thenineteendistrictsofHamathenumeratedintheAnnalsofTiglathpileser III.
RiblahshouldbereadforDiblahinEzk6:14.SeeNo.2.
2.Riblah(withthearticle)is,itthereadingiscorrect,mentionedasoneoftheeasternboundarymarksofIsraelinNu34:11.TheplaceintendedwasnotfarN.E.
oftheSeaofGalilee,buttheexactsiteisunknown.
Itwas,ofcourse,nottheRiblahontheOrontes.Itisremarkable,however,thatthisRiblahismentionedinconnexionwiththeapproachtoHamath(v.8).which,asWinckler29/40
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Itwas,ofcourse,nottheRiblahontheOrontes.Itisremarkable,however,thatthisRiblahismentionedinconnexionwiththeapproachtoHamath(v.8).which,asWinckler
hasshown,wasontheS.W.ofMt.Hermon,andthecentreofthekingdomofHamathofthetimeofDavid.Cf.Ezk6:14asabovecorrected.
J.F.MCCURDY.
RIDDLES.SeeGAMES,andP ROVERB,2.
RIE(theAVspellingofrye)occurstwice(Ex9:32,Is28:25)inAVasrenderingofkussemeth,whichinEzk4:9isrenderedfitches.InallthreepassagesRV
hasspelt,Whateverkussemethwas,itwasneithertruerye,whichisacerealunknowninPalestine,norspelt.See
F ITCHES.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
RIGHTEOUSNESS
I.InOT.
Righteousness,righteous(exceptinafewpassages)standinEVforsomeoffshootoftheSemiticroottsdqwhichismetwithasearlyastheTellelAmarnalettersinthe
senseoftobeinnocent.TheHeb.derivativesaretheadjectivetsaddqandthenounstsedeqandtsdqh(whichseemtobepracticallyindistinguishableinmeaning),andthe
verbalformstsdaq,hitsdq,etc.ThisgroupofwordsisrepresentedinEVinabout400passagesbyrighteousness,righteous,etc.intheremainder,aboutonefifthofthewhole,
byjust,justice,justify,right.Whethertheprimarynotionwasstraightnessorhardnessisuncertain,andquiteimmaterialforthepresentinquiry.
Thematerialcanbeconvenientlyarrangedundertwoheads:(1)righteousnessincommonspeech(2)righteousnessinreligiousterminology.Theorderisnot
withoutsignificance.IthasbeenjustlyremarkedthatthedevelopmentoftheideaofrighteousnessinOTmovesintheoppositedirectiontothattraversedbythe
ideaofholiness.WhilstthelatterstartsfromtheDivineandcomesdowntothehuman,theformerbeginswiththehumanandascendstotheDivine.
1.Righteousnessincommonspeech.(a)Itisperhapssafesttobeginwiththeforensicorjuristicapplication,Theplaintiffordefendantinalegalcasewho
wasintherightwas
righteous(Dt25:1,Is5:23)andhisclaimrestingonhisgoodbehaviourwasrighteousness(1K8:32).Ajudgewhodecidedinfavourofsuchapersongave
righteousjudgment,lit.judgmentofrighteousness(Dt16:18),judgedrighteously(Dt1:16).TheMessianicKing,whowouldbetheidealjudge,wouldhe
swifttodorighteousness(Is16:5),wouldjudgethepoorwithrighteousness(11:4),andwouldhaverighteousnessforthegirdleofhisloins(v.5).Acourtof
justicewas,intheory,theplaceofrighteousness(Ec3:16).ThepurifiedJerusalemwouldbeacityofrighteousness(Is1:26).Ontheotherhand,corruptjudges
castdownrighteousnesstotheearth(Am5:7),andtakeawaytherighteousnessoftherighteousfromhim(Is5:23).(b)Fromtheforensicuseisreadily
developedthegeneralmeaningwhatisright,whatoughttobe[somescholarsinverttheorderofaandb,startingwiththeideaofrightness].InPr16:8we
read:Betterisalittlewithrighteousness(i.e.,alittlegotbyrightconduct)thangreatrevenueswithinjustice.Balances,weights,andmeasureswhichcameupto
therequiredstandardwerejustbalances,etc.,lit.balancesofrighteousness(Lv19:36),whilsttheirconversewerewickedbalances,lit.balancesof
wickedness(Mic6:11)orbalancesofdeceit(Am8:5).(c)Righteousspeechalso,i.e.truthfulspeech,cameunderthecategoryofrighteousness.Righteous
lips,lit.lipsofrighteousness,arethedelightofkings(Pr16:13).
2.Righteousnessinreligiousterminology.(a)FortheancientHebrew,righteousnesswasespeciallycorrespondencewiththeDivinewill.Thethoughtof
God,indeed,wasperhapsneverwhollyabsentfromhismindwhenheusedtheword.Note,forthisconceptionofrighteousness,Ezk18:59,wheredoingwhatis
lawfulandright(tsdqh)isillustratedbyanumberofconcreteexamplesfollowedupbythegeneralstatement,hathwalkedinmystatutesandkeptmy
judgmentstodealtruly,Themanwhothusacts,addstheprophet,isjust,rather
righteous(tsaddq).TheBookofEzekielhasmanyreferencestorighteousnessthusunderstood.(b)AstheDivinewillwasrevealedintheLaw,righteousness
wasthoughtofasobediencetoitsrules(Dt6:25).NotealsothedescriptionofarighteousmaninPs1(cf.v.1f.withv.5bandv.6a).Theexpressionwasalsoused
ofobedienceinasingleinstance.Restoringapledgeatsundownwasrighteousness(Dt24:13).TheavengingdeedofPhinehaswascountedtohimfor
righteousness(Ps106:31).Sowefindthewordintheplural:TheLordisrighteous:helovethrighteousdeeds(Ps11:7RVm).(c)Inmostofthepassages
quoted,andinmanyplacesinEzk.,Job,Prov.,andEccles.,therighteousnessoftheindividualisreferredtobutinothersIsrael(Ps14:5,97:11,118:20etc.,Is
41:811,andotherpartsofDeuteroIsaiah,Hab1:13etc.),oraportionofIsrael(Is51:1,7etc.),isrepresentedasrighteous.(d)Sincerighteousnessis
conformitytotheDivinewill,andtheLawwhichrevealsthatwillisrighteousinthewholeanditsparts(Ps119:7,62,75,172etc.),GodHimselfisnaturally
thoughtofasessentiallyrighteous(Dt32:4wherejust=righteousJer12:1,Is42:21,Ps7:9(10)11(12),Histhroneisfoundedonrighteousnessandjudgment
(Ps89:14,(15)),andallHiswaysexhibitrighteousness(Ps145:17).As,however,Israelwasoftenunrighteous,therighteousnessofJehovahcouldthenberevealed
toitonlyinjudgment(Is1:27,5:18,10:22).Inlatertimesitwasrevealedinjudgmentontheirheathenoppressors(Ps40:9f.,98:2etc.).(e)Soinanumberof 30/40
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(Ps89:14,(15)),andallHiswaysexhibitrighteousness(Ps145:17).As,however,Israelwasoftenunrighteous,therighteousnessofJehovahcouldthenberevealed
toitonlyinjudgment(Is1:27,5:18,10:22).Inlatertimesitwasrevealedinjudgmentontheirheathenoppressors(Ps40:9f.,98:2etc.).(e)Soinanumberof
passages,especiallyinIs4066,righteousnessisalmostsynonymouswithjustification,salvation(Is45:8,46:13,51:6f.,58:6,59:9,61:11,62:1manypassages
inPsalms[22:31(32)
24:5etc.],Mal4:2[Heb3:19]).Formoreonthissubjectcf.art.JUSTIFICATION.
II.InNT.
TheGreekequivalentsoftsaddq,tsedeq,etc.,aredikaios(81times),righteous,justdikais(5t.),justly,righteously dikaiosyn(92t.),righteousnessdikaio(39t.),
justifydikaima(10t.).righteousness(4t.[AV]righteousact,judgment,ordinance,justification])dikaisis(2t.),justificationdikaiokrisia,righteousjudgment(Ro
2:5).
IntheteachingofJesus(Mt5:6,10,20,6:1,33,21:32,Jn16:8,10),andinNTgenerally,righteousnessmeans,asinOT,conformitytotheDivinewill,but
withthethoughtgreatlydeepenedandspiritualized.IntheSermonontheMountrighteousnessclearlyincludesrightfeelingandmotiveaswellasrightaction.In
Mt6:1(wheredikaiosynisunquestionablythetruereading)theremaybeanechoofthelatermeaningacquiredbytsdqh,itsAramaicequivalent,the
beginningsofwhichcanbetracedinLXX(Dt6:25and8otherpassages)andtheHeb.SirachaboutB.C.200(3:14,40:17)benevolence,almsgiving.If,as
cannotbereasonablydoubted,theSermonontheMountwasoriginallyinAramaic,thewordforrighteousnesscanhardlyhavebeenusedinsuchaconnexion
withoutasideglanceatacommonpopularapplicationofit.Still,itisnotsafetofindmorethanahintorecho.
InMt3:15,Zahnhasobserved,dikaiosynseemstobeusedinthesenseofdikaima,ordinance.InthePaulineEpistles,wheredikaiosynanddikaioaremostfrequentlyused
(85timesoutof131),theformerinaconsiderablenumberofcasesdescribesnottherighteousnessrequiredbyGod,buttherighteousnessbestowedbyGodandacceptedbyfaithin
Christ(Ro1:17etc.).
Forfullertreatmentcf.art.JUSTIFICATION.
W.TAYLORS MITH.
RIMMON(god).RimmonistheHebraizedformofRammn,theBab.air,weather,andstormgodassimilatedbypopularetymologytothewordfor
pomegranate.Heismentioned,however(in2K5:18),notasaPalestinianorBabylonian,butasaSyrian,deity,whowashonouredasthechiefgodofDamascus.
ElsewheretherearemanyIndicationsthatthechiefAramandivinitywascalledbythatpeoplenotRimmonorRammn,butHadad(wh.see).Rammn(meaning
thethunderer)was,infact,indigenousinBabylonia,whereheplayedagreatmythologicalandreligiousrle,inhistwofoldaspectofabeneficentdeity,asthegiver
ofrain,andofamaleficent,asthemakerofstormsandthewielderofthethunderbolt.Hissymbolwastheaxeandabundleoflightningdarts.Hewasthusinsome
featurestheanalogueofZeusorJupiterandThor.
InAssyria,boththeAram,andtheBab.formsofthenamewerecurrent(seeHADAD).ThecurrencyofthelatteramongtheHebrews(asRimmon)istobeattributedtothe
longBabylonianoccupationofPalestinebeforeAramantimes.ThesamecombinationastheAssyrianisindicatedintheBiblicalHadadrimmon(wh.see).
J.F.MCCURDY.
TheemblemofRammnwasthebull,andthewidespreadcultoftheairgodmayhavehadsomethingtodowithnationalizingtheworshipofJahwehas
representedbythatanimal.Cf.alsothenameTabrimmon.
J.F.MCCURDY.
RIMMON.1.ABeerothite(2S4:2,5,9).2.TherockwhithertheremnantsoftheBenjamitesfled(Jg20:45,21:13).Ithasbeenidentifiedwithaloftyrockor
conicalchalkyhill,visibleinalldirections,onthesummitofwhichstandsthevillageofRummn,about3milesE.ofBethel.3.AcityinthesouthofJudah,
towardstheborderofEdom,Jos15:32in19:7countedtoSimeonInZec14:10namedaslyingtothefarsouthofJerusalem.See,further,ENRIMMON.4.InJos
19:13oneoftheboundariesofZebulunisgivenasRimmonwhichstretchethtotheNh(AVwronglyRemmonmethoartoNeah).In1Ch6:77[Heb.62]the
nameappearsasRimmono,andinJos21:35asRimmonah(forwhich,byatextualerror,MThasDimnah).ThisRimmonisthemodernRummneh,northof
Nazareth.
RIMMONAH,RIMMONO.SeeRIMMON,No.4.
RIMMONPEREZ.Astation(unidentified)ofthechildrenofIsrael(Nu33:19f.).
RING.SeeO
http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/r.htm ,2,4.InCa5:14RVmcylinderispreferabletoEVring,thecomparisonbeingprobablywiththefingersofthehand. 31/40
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RING.SeeORNAMENTS,2,4.InCa5:14RVmcylinderispreferabletoEVring,thecomparisonbeingprobablywiththefingersofthehand.
RINGSTRAKED.SeeCOLOURS,6.
RINNAHAJudahite(1Ch4:20).
RIPHATH.OneofthesonsofGomer(Gn10:3).Theparallelpassage1Ch1:6,byascribalerror,readsDiphath.
RISSAH.AstationoftheIsraelites(Nu33:21f.).
RITHMAH.AstationoftheIsraelites(Nu33:18f.).
RIVER.Forthemeaninganduseofphq,yer,andnachal,sometimesrenderedriver,seeart.BROOK.ybal(Jer17:8),bal(Dn8:2,3,6),arefromthe
rootybal,toflow.peleg,division,signifiesanartificialwaterchannel,usedforirrigation(Ps1:3etc.),bywhichthewaterfromcisternorstreamisledtothe
variouspartsoffield,garden,ororchardrequiringmoisture.Itisusedpoeticallyofthestreambringingtherainfromthegreatstorehousesonhigh(Ps65:9).telh
(Ezk31:4)isproperlyachannelorconduit(so2K18:17,20:20,Is7:3,36:2,alsoJob38:25RV).TheusualwordforriverinOTisnhr(Job40:23,Ps46:4
etc.).Itisoftenusedofriversthatarenamed:e.g.theriversofEden(Gn2:10etc.),theEuphrates(Gn15:18etc.),theriversofDamascus(2K5:12).TheEuphrates
iscalledtheriver(Gn31:21etc.),andthegreatriver(Gn15:18,Dt1:7),atitlegivenalsototheTigris(Dn10:4).Aramnaharaim(Ps60[title],alsoHeb.Gn
24:10,Dt23:4),Aramofthetworivers,isMesopotamia.ThewordappearstohavebeenusedliketheArab,nahr,onlyofperennialstreams.Itisapplied,indeed,
totheChebar(Ezk1:1)andtheAhava(Ezr8:21),whileinPs137:1,Nah2:7,Ex7:19,8:5,canalsseemtobeintended.Butinallthesecasestheywereprobably
notmeretemporaryconduits,buthadbecomeestablishedaspermanentsourcesofsupply,sothat,aswithChebarandAhava,theymighthavenamesoftheirown.
TheNTwordispotamos(Mk1:5etc.).
Inthefig.languageofScripturetherisingofariverinfloodsignifiesthefuriousadvanceofinvadingarmies(Jer46:7f.,47:2,Is8:7).Thetrialsofafflictionare
likethepassageofdangerousfords(Is43:2).Theriverissignificantofabundance(Job29:6etc.),andofthefavourofGod(Ps46:4).Totheobedientpeaceis
exhaustlessasariver(Is48:18,30:28).Prevailingrighteousnessbecomesresistlessasanoverflowingstream(Am5:24).
Palestineisnotrichinriversinoursenseoftheterm.TheJordanisperhapstheonlystreamtowhichweshouldapplythename.Apartfromthelargerstreams,
thewdyofthemountainissometimesthenahroftheplain,beforeitreachesthesea,ifinthelowerreachesitisperennial.Bearingthenamenahrinmodern
Palestine,thereare:inthePhilistineplain,theSukreirandtheRbntotheN.ofJaffa,elAuj,elFlik,Eskanderneh,elMefjir,ezZerk,andedDiflehtotheN.
ofCarmel,elMuqatta(theancientKishon),Namein(theBelus),andMefsh.ThestreamsthatunitetoformtheJordanintheN.areNahrelHasbni,Nahrel
Leddn,andNahrBnis.TheonlynahrflowingintotheJordanfromthewestistheJald,nearBeisn.FromtheeastNahrYarmkdrainstheJaulnand
Haurn,andatitsconfluencewiththeJordanisalmostofequalvolume.NahrezZerkisalsoanimportantstream,drainingawideregion.
Theriversarecrossedtoday,asinancienttimes,almostentirelybyfords.Whentheriversareinflood,tragediesatthefordsarenotinfrequent.Theriversthat
openintotheMediterraneanhavetheirmainfordsatthemouth.Thesandwashedupbythewavesformsabroadbank,overwhichthewaterofthestreamspreads,
makingawideshallow.
W.EWING.
RIVEROFEGYPT.SeeEGYPT[RIVEROF].
RIZIA.AnAsherite(1Ch7:39).
RIZPAH.DaughterofAiah,concubineofSaul,seizedbytheambitiousAbnerafterhehadplacedIshbosheth(Ishbaal)onthethrone.Whenaccusedbythe
king,Abner,whowastherealrulerofIsrael,promptlyprofferedtheNorthernKingdomtoDavid(2S3:6f.).Athreeyearsfaminewasdivinedtobeduetothe
displeasureofJehovahattheslaughteroftheGibeonitesbySaul.WhenDavidinquiredwhatexpiationheshouldmake,theGibeonitesrefusedmoney
compensation,butdemandeddescendantsofSaultoexposebeforeJehovah.ThekinggavethemtwoofRizpahs,andthreeofMichals(Merabs)sons,whowere
slainandexposedonMountGibeah(2S21:114).Rizpahspreadsackclothontherock,asignthatthelandrepented,andwatchedthedeadtilltheangerof
Jehovahrelentedandtheraincame.Hervigilended,shewasatlibertytoperformtheriteofburial.
J.H.S TEVENSON.
ROADSANDTRAVEL.SeeT
http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/r.htm C .BywaysinJg5:8shouldratherberoundaboutways.InJer18:15bypaths(RV)areopposedtothe
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ROADSANDTRAVEL.SeeTRADEANDCOMMERCE.BywaysinJg5:8shouldratherberoundaboutways.InJer18:15bypaths(RV)areopposedtothe
oldtracks.
ROBBERSOFCHURCHES.SeeCHURCHES[ROBBERSOF].
ROBE.SeeDRESS.
ROCKrepresentsvariousHeb.words,which,generallyspeaking,havethesameideasastheEng.strength,security,height,etc.(cf.Stanley,SP,Appendix).
TherocksnamedinOTare
Oreb(Jg7:25,Is10:26),Etam(Jg15:8),Rimmon(20:45,21:13),thecragsBozezandSeneh(1S14:4),Selahammahlekoth(23:28).In2K14:7,Is16:1,42:11
theRock(RVSela)isapropername.SelaorPetra,therockcityparexcellenceinJg1:36(RVmSela)theidentificationisdoubtfulesSafieh,abareand
dazzlingwhitesandstonepromontory1000ft.high,nearthesouthoftheDeadSea,isprobablyintended.Rockswerethehauntoftheeagle(Job39:28),ofthe
wildgoat(v.1),ortheconey(Pr30:28)cf.Ps104:18,Ps30:19referstothemysteriousglidingoftheserpentoverarockAm6:12,totheproverbialimpossibility
ofhorsesrunningovercrags.Dt32:13emphasizesthefactthatinPalestineeventherocksarethehomeofbees(Ps81:16,Is7:19),andtherockysoilproduces
olives(Job29:6).Besidesthisnaturalmarvel,wehavethemiraclesofEx17:6,Nu20:8etc.In1Co10:4St.PaulfollowsawidespreadJewishhaggdh,which
canbetracedtothe1stcenturyA.D.,accordingtowhichtherock(perhapsoriginallythewell)followedIsraelwhentheTabernaclewaspitched,thewatergushed
outafresh,theprincessingingthesongofNu21:17.TheepithetspiritualdoesnotdenytheliteralrealityofthattowhichitrefersthemannawasliteraltoSt.Paul,
andthewaterandrockmusthavebeensotoo.HeseesintheliteralfactaforeshadowingoftheChristiansacraments.Further,heidentifiestherockwithChrist,
implyingHispreexistenceandcareforHispeoplecf.PhilosidentificationofitwiththeWisdomandWordofGod.
Rocks,particularlythesoftsandstoneofEdom,wereprimitivedwellingplaces(Job24:8,30:6cf.cavedwellersofDt2:12),andwereusedforsepulchres(Is
22:16,Mk15:46).Job19:24referstothepermanenceoftherockinscription28:9(asomewhatunusualword,flintyrockRV)tomining.InJg6:20,13:16the
rockisanaturalmonolithicaltarin6:26tr.strongholdwithRV.RocksasdangerstoshipsarementionedinAc27:29,andmetaphoricallyinJude12RV[butRVm
andBiggretainspotsofAV,whichhasthesupportoftheparallel2P2:13].ThebarrennessanddesolationofarockisthepointofEzk26:4,14,withapunon
Tyre(=rock)cf.theunfruitfulrock(Lk8:6),orrockyplaces(Mt13:5RV)oftheparableoftheSoweri.e.rockwithathinlayerofearth.Therockmeetsus
continuallyasaplaceofrefuge,literalormetaphorical(Nu24:21,1S13:6,Is2:19,Jer48:28,49:16,Ob6)cf.feetonrock(Ps27:5,40:2)InIs32:2itisashade
fromtheheat.AndsoitisafrequenttitleforGod,astheunvaryingstrengthandsupportofHispeople(Dt32:4ff.[6times],Ps18:2etc.,Is17:10,30:29,Hab1:12).
ItisoftenrepresentedbyGod,andvagueterms(help,etc.)intheancientversions,aswellasAVandPr.Bk.(e.g.Ps95:1).Asufficientexplanationoftheuseis
foundinthenaturalsceneryofPalestine.ItisdoubtfulhowfarRock(Zur)wasadefinitenameforGod.IthasbeenfoundincompoundsintwoS.Arabian
inscriptions,andoccursinthepropernamesofNu1:5,6,10,3:35.GreatRockisacommontitleofAsshurandBelinAssyria.InDt32:31,Is31:9thetitleis
giventoheathengods,butinthelatterpassagethewordselaisused.Andthefactthatthiswordisfreelyemployedinthisconnexionsidebysidewithzurrather
contradictsthesuppositionthatthelatterwastechnicallyapropername.ConvulsionsofnatureandthepowerofGodareconnectedwithbreakingtherock(1K
19:11,Job14:18,Jer23:29,Nah1:6,Mt27:51),andinJer5:3itisasymbolofobstinacy.InMt7:24itrepresentsthesurefoundationcf.Mt16:18andart.P OWER
b
OFTHEKEYS,p.742 .ThenamePeterisatr.oftheAram.Cephas,theHeb.formofwhichisusedJer4:29,Job30:6(seeart.P ETER).Fortherockofoffenceor
stumbling,seeIs8:14,28:16,Ro9:33,1P2:6.Precipitationfromarockwasaformofexecution(2Ch25:12[?2S21:8,10],cf.Lk4:29).
C.W.EMMET.ROCKBADGER(Lv11:6RVm)isHyraxsyriacus.SeeCONEY.
ROD.Therods,sticks,staves,andclubscarriedorotherwiseusedbytheHebrewswereprobablyasvariedinsizeandshapeasthoseinuseamongthe
inhabitantsofPalestineatthepresentday,ofwhichaminutedescription,withillustrations,isgivenbyBaldenspergerinPEFSt,1905,35ff.Nohardandfast
distinctioncanbemadeoutbetweenthematteh,theshbet,andthemaqqlallthreerenderedinEVbyrodorstaff.Thecontextmustgenerallydecidewhich
ofthetwoisthebetterrendering.Forexample,thetwigswhichJacobpeeledinthedevicerecordedinGn30:37ff.aretruerodsbutin32:10thesameword
(maqql)isproperlyrenderedstaff.Ontheotherhand,Mosesrod(soEV)isratherhisshepherdsstaff(Ex4:2etc.).
Fortherodasaninstrumentofpunishment,shbetismorefrequentlyemployedthanmatteh,asPr10:13,13:24,26:3,althoughbotharenotseldomemployed
inparallellines(Is10:24,30:31f.etc.).Theformeralsodenotestheshepherdsclub(describedandfiguredinHastingsDBiv.291a,PEFSt,1905,36),asinPs
23:4,Lv27:32etc.(EVrod).SeealsoS CEPTRE.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.RODANIM.SeeDODANIM.
ROE,ROEBUCK.1.zbandzbyyh.SeeG
http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/r.htm 2.yalh,Pr5:19,RVdoeseeWildGoatinart.G .3.pher,Ca4:5,7:3,AVyoungroe, 33/40
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ROE,ROEBUCK.1.zbandzbyyh.SeeGAZELLE2.yalh,Pr5:19,RVdoeseeWildGoatinart.GOAT.3.pher,Ca4:5,7:3,AVyoungroe,
RVfawn.4.yachmr(lit.red),Dt14:5,1K4:23,AVfallowdeer,RVroebucks.ThetruefallowdeeristheayylorhartseeHART.IntheLXXyachmris
tr.boubalos,thebubalebutitismuchmoreprobablethatitistheroebuck(Cervuscapreolus),stillcalledtheyahmurbysomeArabs.Itisagazellelikeanimalwith
threebrancheduprighthorns.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
ROGELIM.ThenativeplaceofBarzillaitheGileadite(2S17:27,19:31).Theexactsiteisunknown.
ROHGAH.AnAsherite(1Ch7:34).
ROIMUS(1Es5:8).SeeREHUM,1.
ROLL.SeeWRITING,6.
ROMAMTIEZER.AsonofHeman(1Ch25:4,31).
ROMANS,EPISTLETOTHE
1.Time,occasion,andcharacter.ThelettertotheRomansbelongstothecentralgroupwhichincludesalsoGalatians,andthetwoletterstothe
CorinthiansofSt.PaulsEpistles.MarcionsorderGal.,Cor.,Rom.Isnotunlikelytobetheorderofwriting.Acomparisonofthedatatobefoundintheletter,
withstatementsinActs,suggeststhatRom.waswrittenfromCorinthatthecloseofthesocalledthirdmissionaryjourney(i.e.theperiodofmissionaryactivity
describedinAc18:2321).AftertheriotsinEphesus(Ac19:2340)St.PaulspentthreemonthsinGreece(20:3),whitherTimothyhadprecededhim.Hewasthus
carryingoutapreviousplansomewhatsoonerthanhehadoriginallyintended.Ac19:21,22informsusthattheApostlewishedtomakeatourthroughMacedonia
andAchaia,andafterwards,havingfirstvisitedJerusalemoncemore,toturnhisstepstowardsRome.FromtheletteritselfwelearnthathewasstayingwithGains
(16:23),whoisprobablytobeidentifiedwiththeGainsof1Co1:14.Atthetimeofwriting,PaulandTimothyaretogether,forthelattersnameappearsinthe
salutation(16:21).Sosipater,whosenamealsoappearsthere,mayheidentifiedwiththeSopatermentionedinAc20:4.Phbe,thebeareroftheletter,belongsto
Cenchre,oneoftheportsofCorinth.TheallusionsintheletterallpointtothestayinCorinthimpliedinAc20.Aboveall,theletteritself,apartfromsuch
importantpassagesas1:10,11and15:22,30,isampleevidenceofSt.PaulsplanstovisitRome,theplansmentionedinAc19:21,22.Itisthenmorethan
probablethattheletterwaswrittenfromCorinthduringthethreemonthsstayinGreecerecordedinAc20:3.
AcomparisonofRo15:22,30withAc19:21,22bringsoutoneofthemoststrikingofPaleysundesignedcoincidences.TheparallelreferencestoJewishplotsinRo15:31
andAc20:3arealsonoteworthy.Itshould,however,bementionedthatifoncriticalgroundsch.16hastobedetachedfromtheoriginalletter,andregardedaspartofalostletterto
theEphesians,muchoftheevidencefortheplaceanddateofRomansisdestroyed,thoughtheremainingindicationssufficetoestablishthepositionlaiddownabove.
ThedatetowhichtheletteristobeassigneddependsonthechronologyofSt.Paulslifeasawhole.Mr.Turner(HastingsDB,s.v.ChronologyofNT)
suggestsA.D.5556.Butforfurthertreatmentofthissubject,readersmustconsultthegeneralarticlesonCHRONOLOGYOFNTand
P AUL.
TheimmediateoccasionfortheletterisclearlytheprospectivevisittoRome.St.Paulispreparingthewayforhiscoming.Thisexplainswhyhewritestothe
Romansatallitdoesnotexplainwhyhewritestheparticularletterwenowpossess.Ashorterletterwouldhavebeensufficientintroductiontohisfuturehosts.
Howarewetoaccountforthelengthydiscussionofthecentralthemeofthegospelwhichformsthelargerpartoftheletter?Somesuspectacontroversialpurpose.
TheChurchatRomecontainedbothJewsandGentilesthroughPriscillaandAquilaandothersSt.PaulmusthaveknownthesituationinRomehecould,and
doubtlessdid,accommodatehismessagetotheconditionoftheChurch.Theobjectionshediscussesmaybedifficultiesthathaveariseninthemindsofhisreaders.
Butthestyleoftheletterisnotcontroversial.St.PaulwarnstheRomansagainstfalseteachers,asagainstapossibleratherthananactualdanger(16:1720).
Similarly,thediscussionofthereciprocaldutiesofstrongandweak(ch.14)ismarkedbyacalmconciliatorytonewhichsuggeststhatthewriterisdealingwith
problemswhichareprobableratherthanpressing.Infact,St.PaulseemstobegivinghisreaderstheresultofhiscontroversialexperiencesinCorinthandGalatia,
notsomuchbecausetheChurchinRomewasplacedinasimilarsituation,asbecausehewishedtoenablehermemberstoprofitfromthemistakesofother
Churches.Iftheletterisnotcontroversial,itisnot,ontheotherhand,adogmatictreatise.Comprehensiveastheletteris,itisincompleteasacompendiumof
theology.ThetheorythatSt.PaulishereputtinghisleadingthoughtsintosystematicformdoesnotaccountfortheomissionofdoctrineswhichweknowPaulheld
andvaluedhiseschatologyandhisChristology,forinstance(Garvie).Romansisatrueletter,andtheselectionoftopicsmusthavebeeninfluencedbytheinterest
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andvaluedhiseschatologyandhisChristology,forinstance(Garvie).Romansisatrueletter,andtheselectionoftopicsmusthavebeeninfluencedbytheinterest
oftheChurchtowhichhewaswriting.
ButapartfromthepositionoftheRomanChristians,andapartfromthewishoftheApostletopreparethewayforhisvisittothem,theformandcharacterof
theletterwereprobablydeterminedbytheplaceRomeheldintheApostlesmind.St.PaulwasproudofhisRomancitizenship.Hewasthefirsttograspthe
significanceoftheEmpireforthegrowthoftheChurch.ThemissionarystatesmanshipwhichledhimtoseizeonthegreattradecentreslikeEphesusandCorinth
founditshighestexpressioninhispassionatedesiretoseeRome.Romefascinatedhimhewasambitioustoproclaimhisgospelthere,departingevenfromhis
wontedresolvetoavoidthescenesofothermenslabours.
ItshouldbenotedthattheChurchatRomewasnotanApostolicfoundation.TheChristiancommunitycameintoexistencetherebeforeeitherSt.PaulorSt.Petervisitedthe
city.
Heexplainshisgospelatsomelength,becauseitisallimportantthatthecapitaloftheEmpireshouldunderstandandappreciateitsworth.Heisanxiousto
impartsomespiritualgifttotheRomanChristians,justbecausetheyareinRome,andtherefore,lestJewishplotsthwarthisplans,heunfoldstothemtheessentials
ofhismessage.Indeed,hisRomancitizenshiphelpedtomakeSt.Paulagreatcatholic.TheinfluenceoftheEternalCitymaybetracedinthedoctrineoftheChurch
developedinEphesians,whichwaswrittenduringtheRomancaptivity.TheverythoughtofRomeleadsSt.Paultoreflectontheuniversalityofthegospel,andthis
isthethemeoftheletter.HeisnotashamedofthegospelorafraidtoproclaimitinRome,becauseitisasworldwideastheEmpire.Itcorrespondstoauniversal
need:itistheonlyreligionthatcanspeaktotheconditionoftheRomanpeople.Itistrueheisnotwritingforthepeopleatlarge.Hisreadersconsistofasmallband
ofChristianswithstrongJewishsympathies,andperhapseventendingtowardsJewishexclusiveness.Hisaimistoopentheireyestothedignityoftheposition,and
totheworldwidesignificanceofthegospeltheyprofess.
JlicherfurtherpointsoutthatRomewastobetoSt.PaulthestartingpointforamissionarycampaignintheWest.Consequentlytheletterisintendedtowinthe
sympathyandsupportoftheRomanChurchforfuturework.ItistosecurefellowworkersthattheApostleexplainssofullythegospelwhichheiseagerto
proclaiminSpainandinneighbouringprovinces.
2.Argumentandcontent.Romans,likemostofthePaulineletters,fallsintotwosections:doctrinal(chs.111)andpractical(chs.1216).Inthedoctrinal
section,itisusualtodistinguishthreemaintopics:justification(chs.14),sanctification(chs.58),andtherejectionoftheJews(chs.911).Itisnoteasytodraw
anysharplinebetweenthefirsttwo.Thefollowingisabriefanalysisoftheargument:
Thesalutationisunusuallylong,extendingtosevenverses,inwhichSt.PaulemphasizesthefactthathehasbeensetapartfortheworkofanApostletoalltheGentiles.Then
followsabriefintroduction.TheApostlefirstthanksGodforthefaithoftheRomanChristians,andthenexpresseshisearnestdesiretovisitthemandtopreachthegospelinRome.
ForheisconfidentandherehestatesiscentralthemethatthegospelisthepowerofGoduntosalvationforallmen,iftheywillonlybelieve(1:117).
Salvationforallthroughthegospelthatisthethoughttobedeveloped.Andfirstitisnecessarytoshowthatsuchasavingpowerisauniversalneed.Theevidenceforthisis
onlytooabundant.NowherehavemenattainedGodsrighteousness:everywherearethesignsofGodswrath.ThewilfulignorancewhichdeniestheCreatorhasledtotheawful
punishmentofmoraldecaywithwhichSt.PaulhadgrownsadlyfamiliarinthegreatcitiesoftheEmpire.Indeed,sofarhascorruptionadvancedthattheconsciencesofmanyhave
beendefiled.Theynotonlycommitsinwithoutshametheyopenlyapplaudthesinner(vv.1832).Norcananyonewhostillperceivesthisfailureholdhimselfexcused.Thevery
factthatherecognizessinassuch,condemnshiminsofarashecommitsit.Hiskeenerconscience,ifitleaveshimunrepentant,willevoketheheavierpenalty.Godwilljudgeall
menaccordingtotheirdeeds.BothJewandGentilewillbejudgedalike,theconscienceintheGentilecorrespondingtotheLawinthecaseoftheJew(2:116).Thispassageis
usuallyreferredtotheJews,whosehabitofjudgingandcondemningothersisrebukedinMt7:1.Itmayhaveawiderapplication.TheremainderofthechapterdealswiththeJews.
Theprincipleofjudgmentaccordingtodeedswillbeappliedwithoutdistinctionofpersons.TheprivilegesoftheJewwillnotexcusehimintheeyesofGod.NeithertheLawnor
circumcisionwillcovertransgression.ThetrueJewmustbeaJewinwardly:theactualJewshavebytheircrimescausedthenameofGodtobeblasphemed.AGentilewhodoesnot
knowtheLawandyetobeysitisbetterthantheJewwhoknowsanddisobeys(2:1729).ButisnotthiscondemnationadenialoftheJewsprivileges?No,theprivilegesarereal,
thoughtheJewsareunworthyofthemandthemercyof
Godismagnifiedbytheiringratitude.Yetevenso,ifGodsmercyisbroughttothelightbytheirsin,whyaretheycondemned?Thefulldiscussionofthisdifficultyisreservedto
chs.911.HereSt.PaulonlylaysdownthebroadtruththatGodmustjudgetheworldinrighteousness,andapparentlyhefurtherrepliestoJewishobjectorsbyatuquoque
argument.Whydotheycondemnhimif,astheysay,hisliehelpstomakethetruthclearer?(3:18).St.Paulnowreturnstohismainpoint,theuniversalityofsin,whichhere
statesandreenforcesinthelanguageoftheOT.ThewholeworldstandsguiltyinthesightofGod,andtheLawhasbutintensifiedtheconvictionofsin(3:920).
Tomeetthisutterfailureofmen,GodhasrevealedinChristJesusanewwayofrighteousness,allembracingastheneed.Heretooisnodistinctionofpersonsallhavesinned,
andsalvationforallstandsinthefreemercyofGod,sealedtomeninthepropitiatorysacrificeofHisSon,wherebyweknowthatourpastsinsareforgiven,andweenterthenew
life,justifiedinthesightofGod.TherighteousnessofGodisthusassuredtomenwhowillreceiveitinfaith.Faithisnotdefined,butitseemstomeanahumbletrustintheloving
GodrevealedinJesus.TherecannolongerbeanyquestionofestablishingaclaimonGodbymerit,orofsuperiorityoverourfellows.Allneedgrace,andnonecanbesavedexcept
byfaith.JewandGentileherestandonthesamelevel(3:2130).
DoesnotthisrighteousnessthroughfaithmakevoidtheLaw?St.Paulscarcelyanswersthegeneralquestion,butatoncegoesontoprovethatthefatheroftherace,Abraham, 35/40
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DoesnotthisrighteousnessthroughfaithmakevoidtheLaw?St.Paulscarcelyanswersthegeneralquestion,butatoncegoesontoprovethatthefatheroftherace,Abraham,
wasjustifiedbyfaith,i.e.byhumbletrustinGod,inwhosesighthecouldclaimnomerit.HistrustinGodwasreckoneduntohimforrighteousness.Hisblessednesswasthe
blessednessofthemanwhosesinsarehidden,St.Paulhereintroducingtheonlybeatitudefoundinhisletters.ThisblessingcametoAbrahambeforecircumcision,onwhichclearly
itdidnotdepend.Similarly,thepromiseofinheritingtheearthwasgiventohimapartfromtheLaw,andtheseedtowhomthepromisedescendsarethefaithfulwhofollowtheir
spiritualancestorinbelievingGodevenagainstnature,asAbrahamandSarahbelievedHim.Surelyitwasforoursakesthatthephrasewasreckoneduntohimforrighteousness
wasusedinthestoryofAbraham.ItenablesustobelieveinsalvationthroughourfaithinHimwhoraisedJesusfromthedead(3:314:25).
Atthispointopensthesecondmainstageinthedoctrinalsectionoftheletter.Thefactofjustificationbyfaithhasbeenestablished.Itremainstosaysomethingofthelifewhich
mustbebuiltonthisfoundation.JesushasbroughtusintotouchwiththegraceofGod.HisdeathistheunfailingproofofGodslovetoussinfulmen.Whatcanliebeforeussave
progresstoperfection?ReconciledtoGodwhileyetenemies,forwhatcanwenothope,nowthatweareHisfriends?ChristisindeedasecondAdam,thecreatorofanewhumanity.
HispowertosavecannotbelessthanAdamspowertodestroy.Cannotbeless?Nay,itmustbegreater,andinwhatJlicherrightlycallsahymn,St.Paulstrivestodrawoutthe
comparisonandthecontrastbetweenthefirstAdamandtheSecond.Gracemustreigntillthekingdomofdeathhasbecomethekingdomofanundyingrighteousness(5:121).
DoesthistrustinthegraceofGodmeanthatwearetocontinueinsin?Farfromit.Theverybaptismalimmersioninwhichwemakeprofessionofourfaithsymbolizesour
dyingtosinandourrisingwithChristintonewnessoflife.IfwehavebecomevitallyonewithHim,wemustshareHislifeofobediencetoGod.Thefactthatweareundergrace
meansthatsinsdominionisended.Ifwedonotstrivetoliveuptothiswefailtounderstandwhatisinvolvedinthekindofteachingwehaveaccepted.Ifwearejustifiedbyfaith,
wehavebeensetfreefromsinthatwemayserveGod,thatwemaywinthefruitofourfaithinsanctification,andenjoythefreegiftofeternallife(6:123).Thenewlifelikewise
bringswithitfreedomfromtheLawitisascompleteabreakwiththepastasthatwhichcomestoawifewhenherhusbanddies.SoweareredeemedfromtheLawwhichdidbut
strengthenourpassions(7:16).NotthattheLawwassinbutasamatterofexperienceitisthroughthecommandmentthatsindeceivesanddestroysmen(7:712).Is,then,the
holyLawthecauseofdeath?No,buttheexceedingsinfulnessofsinliesinitsbringingmentodestructionthroughtheuseofthatwhichisgood.Andtheninapassageofintense
earnestnessandnobleselfrevelationSt.PauldescribeshispreChristianexperience.Herecallsthetorturingconsciousnessofthehopelessconflictbetweenspiritandflesh,a
consciousnesswhichtheLawonlydeepenedandcouldnotheal.Theweaknessoftheflesh,soldundersin,broughtdeathtothehigherlife.Butfromthislawtoo,thelawofsinand
ofdeath,Christhassethimfree(7:1325).FortheChristianisnotcondemnedtoendurethishopelessstruggle.God,insendingHisSon,hascondemnedsinintheflesh.Thealien
power,sin,isnolongertorule.TherealityandthestrengthoftheSpiritofGodhavecomeintoourliveswithJesus,sothatthebodyisdead,toberevivedonlyatthebiddingof
theindwellingSpirit(8:112).Wearenolongerboundtosin.GodhasputitintoourheartstocallHimAbba,Father.WeareHislittleonesalready.Howgloriousandhow
certainisourinheritance!Thatredemptionforwhichcreationgroansmostsurelyawaitsus,farmorethanrecompensingourpresentwoesandpatiencebecomesuswhohave
alreadyreceivedthefirstfruitsoftheSpirit.TheSpiritofGodpraysforusinourweakness,andweknowthatwestandinGodsforeknowledgeandcalling.Allmustbewell
(8:1231).AndtheninafinaltriumphsongSt.Paulasks,IfGodbeforus,whocanbeagainstus?ThevictoryoftheChristianliferequiresanewword:wearemorethan
conquerors.NothingcanseparateusfromtheloveofGodinChristJesusourLord(8:3137).
AlmostabruptlySt.Paulturnstohisthirdmainquestion.TherejectionoftheJews,bywhichthegraceofGodhascometotheGentile,grieveshimtotheheart.HowisGods
treatmentoftheJewstobejustified?TherewasfromthefirstanelementofselectivenessinGodsdealingswiththeraceofAbraham.Thepromisewasnotthenecessaryprivilege
ofnaturaldescent.ItwastoIsaacandnottoIshmael,toJacobandnottoEsau(9:113).Godsmercyisinscrutableandarbitrarybutitmustbejust.WhomHewills,Hepities:
whomHewills,Hehardens.Ifitbesaid,ThenGodcannotjustlyblamemenhowcantheclayresistthepotter?,St.Pauldoesnotreallysolvetheproblem,butheassertsmost
emphaticallythatGodsrighttochooseindividualsforsalvationcannotbelimitedbyhumanthought(9:1421).ThejusticeofGodsrejectionoftheJewscannotbequestioneda
priori.Butwhatarethefacts?TheJews,inseekingtoestablishtheirownrighteousness,havefailedtofindtherighteousnessofGod.Theyhavefailed,becausethecomingofChrist
putsanendtolegalrighteousness,afacttowhichMoseshimselfbearstestimony.Theyoughttohaverealizedthis,andtheycannotbeexcusedonthegroundthattheyhavehadno
preachers.Theyareresponsiblefortheirownrejection:theyhaveheardandknownanddisobeyed(9:3010:21).ButthoughGodhastherighttorejectHispeople,andthoughthe
Jewsarethemselvesresponsiblefor,theirrefusaltoacceptthegospel,yetSt.Paulcannotbelievethatitisfinal.Evennowaremnanthasbeensavedbygraceandthepresent
rejectionofIsraelmusthavebeeninteodedtosavetheGentiles.WhatlargerblessingwillnotGodbestowwhenHerestoresHispeople?TheGentilesmustseeinthefallofIsraelthe
goodnessofGodtowardsthemselves,andthepossibilitiesofmercyfortheJews.Thisisenforcedbytheillustrationofthewildoliveandthenaturalbranches(11:1724).TheJews
areenemiesnow,inorderthatGodmayblesstheGentiles.Buttheyarestillbeloved,forthesakeofthefathers.No,GodhasnotdesertedHispeople.Iftheyareatpresentundera
cloud,itisGodsmercyandnotHisangerthathaswilleditso.AndthesameunsearchablemercywillonedayrestorethemtoHisfavour(11:2536).
WiththethoughtoftheinfinitemerciesofGodsostrikinglyevidenced,St.Paulbeginshispracticalexhortation.SelfsurrendertoGodisdemandedasmansservice.Thou
mustloveHimwhohaslovedtheeso.Agreathumilitybecomesus,afullrecognitionofthedifferinggiftswhichGodbestowsonus.Awillingnesstobearwrongwillmarkthe
Christian.Hemusthemerciful,sincehisconfidenceisinthemercyofGod.Theconclusionofch.11underliesthewholeofch.12.St.Paulgoesontourgehisreaderstoobeythe
governingpowerstopaytoallthedebtoflove,whichalonefulfilstheLawtoputoffallslothandvice,sincethedayisathand(ch.13).Thedutiesofstrongandweaktowards
eachotherwillcallforbrotherlylove.Wemustnotsurrendertheprincipleofindividualresponsibility.EachstandethandfallethtotheLord.Wehavenorighttojudge,andwe
mustnotforceourpracticesonourfellows.Ontheotherhand,wemustnotpushourindividuallibertysofarastooffendourbrothers.Letusgiveupthingswefeeltoberight,if
wecausestrifeanddoubtbyassertingourliberty.Thestrongmustbeartheinfirmitiesoftheweak.EvenChristpleasednotHimself.Maywefindourjoyandpeaceinfollowing
Him!(1415:12).
St.Paulthenconcludesbyexplainingwhyhewassoboldastowritetothematall,andbyunfoldinghisplansandhopesforthefuture(15:1333).Thelastchaptercontainsa
recommendationofPhbewhobringstheletter,andanumberofdetailedsalutationstoindividualmembersoftheChurch,andtosomehousechurches.Abriefwarningagainst
teacherswhocausedivision,greetingsfromSt,Paulscompanions,andanelaboratedoxologybringthelettertoaclose(ch.16).
Thetheologyandleadingideasofthelettercannotbetreatedhere.Inasense,however,theimportanceofRomansliesratherinitsreligiouspowerthaninits
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Thetheologyandleadingideasofthelettercannotbetreatedhere.Inasense,however,theimportanceofRomansliesratherinitsreligiouspowerthaninits
theologicalideas.TheletterisboundtogetherbySt.PaulscentralexperienceofthemercyofGod.InGodsgracehehasfoundthestrengthwhichcanarrestthe
decayofasinful,carelessworld.InGodsgracehehasfoundalsothesecretofovercomingforthemanwhoisconsciousoftheawfulnessofsin,andofhisown
inabilitytosavehislifefromdestruction.TheproblemoftherejectionoftheJewsisreallyraised,notsomuchbytheirpreviousprivilegesasbyGodspresent
mercy.St.PaulcannotbesatisfiedtillhehasgraspedtheloveofGod,whichhefeelsmustheattheheartofthemystery.TherealityandnearnessofGodsmercy
determinetheChristiancharacterandrenderitpossible.Itisnoteworthythat,thoughSt.PaulseldomreferstothesayingsofJesus,hearrivesatthemindofChrist
throughthegospelofthegraceofGod.AcomparisonoftheSermonontheMountwithRo1214makestheantithesis,JesusorPaul,appearridiculous.Above
all,theglowingearnestnesswithwhichinchs.48heseekstosharewiththeRomanChristians(notetheuseofwethroughoutthatsection)thehighestand
holiestinspirationshehaslearntfromChrist,revealsaheartinwhichtheloveofGodisshedabroad.AsDeissmannsuggests,wedonotrecognizethespecial
characteristicofSt.PaulifweregardhimasfirstandforemostthetheologianofprimitiveChristianity.Romansisthepassionateoutpouringofonewhohascome
intolivingtouchwithhisheavenlyFather.
3.Sometextualpoints:integrityandgenuineness.TheomissioninmanuscriptGofthewordsenRmin1:7,15isaninterestingindicationofthe
probabilitythatashortenededitionofRomans,withthelocalreferencessuppressed,mayhavebeencirculatedinquiteearlytimes.ThelettertotheEphesiansseems
tohavebeentreatedinthesameway.Thisshortereditionmayhaveconcludedat14:23,wherethefinaldoxology(16:2527)isplacedinseveralMSS(ALP,etc.).
Buttheshiftingpositionofthisdoxologyinourauthoritiesperhapsindicatesthatitisnotpartoftheoriginalletteratall(seeDenney,intheEGT).Butthereis
furtherevidencetoshowthatsomeearlyeditionsoftheletteromittedchs.15and16.Marcionapparentlyomittedthesechapters.Tertullian,Irenus,andCyprian
donotquotethem.Thereisalsosomeinternalevidenceforthinkingthatch.16atleastmaybepartofalettertoEphesus.ThereferencetoEpnetusin16:5would
bemorenaturalinalettertoEphesusthaninalettertoRome.InviewofAc18:2itisdifficulttosupposethatAquilaandPriscillahadreturnedfromEphesusto
Rome.Moreover,itisnotlikelythatSt.Paulwouldhavesomanyacquaintancesinachurchhehadnotvisited.Ontheotherhand,noneoftheseconsiderations
affectsorexplainsch.15,andthetwochapterscannotbeseparatedveryeasily.Further,SandayandHeadlamhavecollectedanimposingarrayofevidenceto
provethepresenceatRomeofpersonswithsuchnamesasarementionedinch.16(RomansinICCxxxivf.).Thequestionmuststillberegardedasopen.
Butwhilethereissomeprobabilitythatch.16ispartofadistinctletter,thetheoriesofdismemberment,orrathertheproofsofthecompositecharacterof
RomansadvancedbysomeDutchscholars,cannotbeconsideredconvincing.TheviewsofthelateProf.W.C.vanManenhavereceivedperhapsundueattention,
owingtothefactthattheart.onRomansintheEBiisfromhispen.Hiscriticismwascertainlyarbitrary,andhispremisesfrequentlyinaccurate.Thushequotes
withapprovalEvansonsstatementthatthereisnoreferenceinActstoanyprojectofSt.PaulstovisitRomeastatementmadeindirectcontradictionofAc19:21
(EBi,vol.iv.col.4137).TheyearA.D.120isregardedastheprobabledateofRomans,infaceoftheexternalevidenceof1Clement(ib.col.4143).Thegeneral
argumentagainstthegenuinenessofRomans,whichweighsmostwithvanManen,liesinthefactthatithaslearnedtobreakwithJudaism,andtoregardthe
standpointofthelawasonceforallpastanddonewith.Thisisaremarkableforwardstep,arichandfarreachingreformofthemostancienttypeofChristianity
now,amandoesnotbecomeatoneandthesamemomenttheadherentofanewreligionanditsgreatreformer(ib.col.4138).OfthisdisproofofPauline
authorshipitisquitesufficienttosaywithProf.Schmiedel,PerhapsSt.Paulwasnotanordinaryman.Indeed,Prof.SchmiedelsarticleonGalatians(ib.vol.ii.
col.1620f.)isafinalrefutationoftheDutchschoolrepresentedbyvanManen.Theyhaveadvancedasyetnosolidreasonfordoubtingthegenuinenessof
Romans.
H.G.WOOD.
ROME.ThebeginningsofRomeareshroudedinobscurity.ThecitywassituatedontheleftbankoftheTiber,about18milesfromitsmouth.Theoriginal
Romewasbuiltononehillonly,thePalatine,buttheneighbouringhillsweresuccessivelyincluded,andaboutthemiddleofthesixthcenturyB.C.,accordingto
tradition,awallwasbuilttoenclosetheenlargedcity.Thewholecircuitofthiswallwasabout5miles,anditwaspiercedbynineteengates.Withinthesewasalarge
areaofvacantspaces,whichweregraduallybuiltonlater,andatthebeginningoftheEmpire(roughlymiddleof1stcent.B.C.)notonlywasthecitycongestedwith
buildings,butlargeareaswithoutthewallwerealsocoveredwithhouses.TheRomanForum,anopenspacemeasuringover300ft.inlength,andabout150ft.in
breadth,wasthecentreofpolitical,legal,andcommerciallife.Atoneendwastherostraorplatform,fromwhichspeechesweredeliveredtothepublicattheother
endwereshops.Itwasflankedbythesenatehouseandlawcourts.OnthetopoftheCapitolineHillwastheCapitolium,orgreattemplededicatedtoJupiter,Juno,
andMinerva,andonthePalatineHilltheprincipalresidenceoftheEmperor,andtheTempleofApollo,containingthepubliclibraries,GreekandLatin.Inthe
Imperialperiodfouradditionalforawerebuilt,devotedentirelytolegal,literary,andreligiouspurposestheForumIuliumbegunbyJuliusCsar,theForum
AugustumbuiltbyAugustus,theForumTransitoriumcompletedbyNerva,andtheForumTraianibuiltbyTrajanthemostsplendidworkofImperialtimes.
VariousestimatesofthepopulationofRomeinthetimeofChristhavebeengiven:2,000,000seemsnotunlikely.AllnationalitiesintheEmpirewererepresented
amongthemmanyJews,whowereexpelledbyClaudiusinA.D.50,butreturnedathisdeathfouryearslater.Theslavepopulationwasverylarge.
TheRomansbeganasoneofthemembersoftheLatinleague,ofwhich,havingbecomepresidents,theyeventuallybecamemasters.AfterconqueringLatium 37/40
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TheRomansbeganasoneofthemembersoftheLatinleague,ofwhich,havingbecomepresidents,theyeventuallybecamemasters.AfterconqueringLatium
theywereinevitablybroughtintoconflictwiththeotherracesofItaly,overmostofwhichtheyweresovereignaboutthemiddleofthe3rdcent.B.C.Theextension
ofRomanterritorysteadilycontinueduntil,inthetimeofChrist,itincluded,roughly,Europe(excepttheBritishIsles,Norway,Sweden,Denmark,Germany,and
Russia),thewholeofAsiaMinor,Syria,Egypt,andthenorthwestofAfrica.
TheRomanStatewasatfirstruledbykings,butthesegaveplacetotworulers,knownlaterasconsuls.Theirpowersweregraduallycircumscribedbythe
devolutionofsomeoftheirdutiesonothermagistrates.Theperiodofsteadyaccessionofterritorywascoincidentwithabitterstrugglebetweenthepatricianandthe
plebeianclasses,bothofwhichcomprisedfreecitizens.Thecontestbetweentheorderslastedforabouttwocenturies,andattheendofthatperiodalltheofficesof
Statewereequallyopentoboth.Thiswasnot,however,theestablishmentofarealdemocracy,butthebeginningofastrugglebetweenthegoverningclassandthe
massofthepeople,whicheventuallybroughttheRepublictoanend.Thecivilwars,whichduringthelastcenturyofitsexistencehadalmostdestroyedit,had
shownclearlythatpeacecouldbereachedonlyundertheruleofoneman.TheneedofthetimewassatisfiedbyAugustus,whoruledasautocratunder
constitutionalforms:theappearanceofarepublicwasretained,buttherealitywasgone,andtheappearanceitselfgraduallydisappearedalso.ForthecityofRome
theEmpirewasatimeofluxuryandidleness,buttheprovincesentereduponaneraofprogressiveprosperity.TheEmperorwasresponsibleforthegovernmentof
allprovinceswhereanarmywasnecessary(forinstance,Syria),andgovernedthesebypaiddeputiesofhisown.Theolderandmoresettledprovinceswere
governedbyofficialsappointedbythesenate,buttheEmperorhadhisfinancialinterestsattendedtobyprocuratorsofhisowneveninthese.UndertheEmpirethe
provincesweremuchmoreprotectedagainsttherapacityandcrueltyofgovernorsthaninRepublicantimes.TheEmperorsthemselvesstoodforjustaswellas
efficientadministration,andmostofthemgaveanobleexamplebystrenuousdevotiontoadministrativebusiness.
TheresidentRomansinanyprovinceconsistedof(1)theofficialsconnectedwiththeGovernment,whoweregenerallychangedannually(2)membersofthe
greatfinancialcompaniesandlesserbusinessmen,whoseinterestskeptthemthere(3)citizensofcoloni(ormilitarysettlements),whichwerereallypartsof
Romeitselfsetdownintheprovinces(4)soldiersofthegarrisonandtheirofficers(5)distinguishednativesoftheprovince,who,forservicesrenderedtothe
RomanState,wereindividuallygiftedwiththecitizenship.SuchmusthavebeenoneoftheancestorsofSt.Paul.Thehonourwasnotconferredonallthe
inhabitantsoftheEmpiretill212A.D.,andinNTtimesthosewhopossesseditconstitutedthearistocracyofthecommunitiesinwhichtheylived.
TheRomanshaveleftagreatlegacytotheworld.Asadministrators,lawyers,soldiers,engineers,architects,andbuilderstheyhaveneverbeensurpassed.In
literaturetheydependedmainlyontheGreeks,asinsculpture,music,painting,andmedicine.Intheartstheyneverattainedmorethanarespectablestandard.
A.S OUTER.
ROOF.SeeHOUSE,5.
ROOM.SeeHOUSE,2.Fortheupperroom,seeib.5,andforthenowobsoleteuseofroominthesenseofplaceattable,asthechiefroom(Lk14:7),
thehighestroom(v.8RVinbothcaseschiefseat),ortheuppermostroom(Mt23:6,Mk12:39,RVchiefplace),see
MEALS,6.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
ROPE.SeeCORD.
ROSE.1.chbazzeleth[Heb.],Ca2:1[roseofSharon],Is35:1.Allauthoritiesareagreedthatthetr.roseadoptedintheEVisincorrect.Thechbazzeleth
appearstohavebeenabulbedflower.TheRVmsuggestsautumncrocus(Colchicumautumnale)ontheotherhand,manygoodauthoritiessuggestthemuch
morestrikingandsweeterscentedplantthenarcissus,whichisagreatfavouritetodayinPalestine.TwospeciesareknownN.TazettaandN.serotinus.InWis
2:8,Sir24:14,39:13,50:8wehavementionofrhodon(Gr.).Whetherthisis,asTristrammaintains,theRhododendronorthetrueroseisuncertainbothoccurin
partsofPalestine.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
ROSH.1.AdescendantofBenjamin(Gn46:21[textdoubtful]).2.InEzk38:2f.,39:1thewordRoshisthoughtbymanyinterpreterstorefertoapeople,
otherwiseunknown,butcoupledwithMeshechandTubal(wh.see).Itispossible,however,thatthewordmeaningbeadisusedasaprepositionover,sothatthe
phrasehereappliedtoGog(wh.see)simplymeans,princeoverMeshechandTubalcf.AVm.
J.F.MCCURDY.
RUBY.SeeJ
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RUBY.SeeJEWELSANDP RECIOUSS TONES.

RUDDER.SeeS HIPSANDBOATS,2(2).
RUE(Lk11:42).TherueofPalestineisRutachalepensis,avarietyoftheofficinalplant,whichiscultivatedasamedicine.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
RUFUS.1.ThebrotherofAlexanderandsonofSimonofCyrene(Mk15:21only).2.AChristianatRomegreetedbySt.Paul(Ro16:13)asthechosenin
theLord,togetherwithhismotherandmine.Ithasbeenconjecturedthatthesetwoarethesameperson,thatSimonswidow(?)hademigratedtoRomewithher
twosons,wheretheybecamepeopleofeminenceintheChurch,andthatthisisthereasonwhythebrothersarementionedbySt.Mark,whoprobablywrotein
Rome.
A.J.MACLEAN.
RUGJg4:18(RV).Thetr.isdoubtful.
RUHAMAH.Thesecondchild(adaughter)ofGomer,Hoseaswife,wascalledLoruhamah,unpitied(Hos1:6,8).Thenamewasgivensymbolicallyto
indicatethatGodhadceasedtopityIsrael,andgivenherovertocalamity.ThereturnofGodsmercyisindicatedinHos2:1Sayyeuntoyourbrethren,Ammi(i.e.
mypeople,inoppositiontoLoammi,notmypeople)andtoyoursisters,Ruhamah(i.e.yearepitied).AsimilarplayonthewordisfoundinHos2:23Iwill
havemercyonherthathadnotobtainedmercy(Loruhamah).
W.F.BOYD.
RULE.SeeARTSANDCRAFTS,1.
RULEROFTHEFEAST.SeeGOVERNOR,MEALS,6.
RULEROFTHESYNAGOGUE.SeeS YNAGOGUE.
RULERSOFTHECITY.EVtr.inAc17:6,8oftheGr.politarchai,whichwasthespeciallocaltitleofthemagistratesofThessalonica.
RUMAH.ThehomeofPedaiah,thematernalgrandfatherofJehoiakim(2K23:36).
Josephus(Ant.X.v.2)readsAbouma,nodoubtascribalerrorforArouma,whichmaybetheArumahofJg9:41nearShechem.TherewasanotherRumahin
Galilee(JosBJIII.vii.21),perhapsthemodernRumehnearNazarethandPedaiahmayhavebeenaGalilan.
W.F.BOYD.RUNNERS.SeeF OOTMAN,GUARD.
RUSH,RUSHES.1.gme,Ex2:3(EVbulrushesRVmpapyrus),Job8:11,Is18:2
(AVbulrushes,RVpapyrus)35:7.Thiswasprobablytheoncefamousplantthepapyrus(Cyperuspapyrus,Arab,babr),whichnowflourishesintheHuleh
swamps.Thebulrush(Scirpusmaritimus)andotherspeciesmayhavebeenincludedintheHeb.namegme.2.
agmn,Job41:2(AVhook,RVrope,RVmHeb.aropeofrushes)41:20(AVcaldron,RV[burning]rushes),Is9:14,19:15,58:5(AVbulrush).Thereare
sometwentykindsofrushesinPalestine,butitisimpossibletofitthereferencestoanyonekind,and,indeed,somekindofreed(wh.see)isquiteasprobable,
especiallyinIs58:5.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
RUTH(meaninguncertain).AwomanofMoab,who,likehermotherinlawNaomi,andhersisterinlawOrpah,wasleftawidow.OnNaomidesiringto
returntoherownpeopleinBethlehemJudahwhichshehadleftwithherhusbandowingtoafamineRuthrefusedtoleaveher,andthetworeturnedtogetherto
Bethlehem.HereshebecamethewifeofBoaz,andborehimObed,whobecamethefatherofJesseshethereforefiguresinthegenealogyofChrist(Mt1:5).See,
further,thenextarticle.
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W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
RUTH(Bookof)
1.Contents.Thebookisreallythenarrativeofafamilystory,toldinacharminglyidyllicway.Thefactofmostfarreachinginterestwhichitcontainsisthat
theMoabitessRuth,i.e.onewhoisnonIsraelite,isrepresentedastheancestressofthehouseofDavidthisisveryimportant,astestifyingtoaspiritwhichisvery
differentfromordinaryJewishexclusiveness,andasfarastheOTisconcernedcanbeparalleledonlybytheBookofJonah.Apointofsubsidiarybutyet
considerableinterestinthebookisitsarchologythenoticesconcerningthelawsofthemarriageofnextofkin(2:20,4:1ff.),andofthemethodoftransferring
property(4:7,8),andofthecustomoftheformalratificationofacompact(4:11,12),areallevidentlyechoesofusageswhichbelongedtoatimelonganteriorto
thedateatwhichthebookwaswritten,thoughinpartstillinvogue.
2.Date.ThelanguageofthebookhasanAramaicizingtendencyitimplicitlyacknowledgesitselftohavebeenwrittenlongafterthetimeoftheeventsit
professestodescribe(1:1,4:7)intheHebrewCanonitisplacedamongtheHagiographatheseconsiderationsleadtotheconclusionthatthebookmustbeoflate
date.Thatitispostexiliccannotadmitofdoubtbuttoassigntoitadatemoredefinitethanthiswouldbeprecarious.Thismuch,atleast,maybesaid:thethird
portionoftheHebrewCanonwascompleted,attheearliest,afterthecloseofthe3rdcent.B.C.Nowitisnotlikelythatabookwhichpurportedtocontainafuller
genealogyofDavidthanthatof1SamuelwouldhavebeenlonginexistencewithoutbeingadmittedintotheCanon.
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
RYE.SeeRIE.
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SABACHTHANI.SeeELOI,ELOI,etc.
SABANS.SeeS HEBA.
SABANNEUS(1Es9:33)=Zabad,Ezr10:33.
SABANNUS(1Es8:53)=Binnui,Ezr8:35.
SABAOTH.SeeGOD,2(h),andLORDOFHOSTS.
SABATEUS(1Es9:48)=Shabbethai,Neh8:7.
SABATHUS(1Es9:28)=Zabad,Ezr10:27.
SABBATEUS(1Es9:14)=Shabbethai,Ezr10:16.
SABBATH
1.OriginoftheSabbath.ThenameSabbath(Heb.shabbth,fromaverbshbath,meaningtodesist)mightbeappliedtoanysacredseasonasatimeof
cessationfromlabour,andissousedoftheDayofAtonement,whichwasobservedannuallyonthetenthdayoftheseventhmonth(Lv16:31,23:32).Butinusage
itisalmostconfinedtothedayofrestwhichclosedeachweekofsevendays,thecyclerunningcontinuouslythroughthecalendarwithoutregardtothemonthor
theyear.Theoriginofthisinstitution,anditsearlyhistoryamongtheIsraelites,areinvolvedinmuchobscurity.ThatithasaffinitieswithcertainBabylonian
observancesisobviousbutthedifferencesareverymarked,andadirectdependenceoftheoneontheotherisdifficulttounderstand.Itisknownthatintwo
months(possiblyinall)the7th,14th,21st,and28thdays(thoseinwhichthemoonentersanewphase),andalsothe19th(the[77th=]49thfromthebeginning
ofthepreviousmonth),wereregardedinBabyloniaasunluckydays,onwhichcertainactionshadtobeavoidedbyimportantpersonages(king,priest,physician).
Thenameshabattuhasalsobeenfoundintheinscriptions,whereitisexplainedasmnlibbi=dayoftheappeasementoftheheart(ofthedeity),inthefirst
instance,therefore,adayofprayeroratonement.Butthatthefiveunluckydaysmentionedabovewerecalledshabattuhasnotbeenproved,andis,indeed,
renderedimprobablebythemorerecentdiscoverythatshabattuwasanameforthedayofthefullmoon(the15thofthemonth).Whenweturntotheearly
referencestotheSabbathintheOT,wefindastateofthingswhichseemsatfirstsighttopresentaparalleltotheBabylonianusage.Itisasingularfactthatexcept
intheexpansionsoftheFourthCommandmentinEx20:911andDt5:1315(whichareevidentlynopartoftheoriginalDecalogue),thereisnothinginthepre
exilicliteraturewhichexplicitlyindicatesthatthewordSabbathdenotedaweeklydayofrest.InthekerneloftheDecalogue(Ex20:8,Dt5:12),theobservance
oftheSabbathisenjoinedbutneitherthemannerofitsobservancenortheperiodofitsrecurrenceisprescribed.Where,ontheotherhand,theweeklyrestis
inculcated(Ex23:12,34:21),thenameSabbathdoesnotoccur.InthepropheticandhistoricalbooksSabbathandnewmoonareassociatedinsuchawayas
tosuggestthatbothwerelunarfestivals(Am8:5,Ho2:11,Is1:13,2K4:23)andtheattempthasbeenmadetotracethetransitionfromtheBabylonianinstitution
totheHebrewSabbathbythehypothesisthatoriginallytheSabbathinIsraelwasthefeastofthefullmoon,justasinBabylonia.Thistheory,however,islittlebut
aningeniousparadox.ItisarbitrarytodenytheantiquityofEx23:12or34:21andifthewordSabbathisnotfoundinthesepassages,yettherelatedverb
shbathisusedinboth,asisrarelythecaseexceptinconnexionwiththeSabbath.Moreover,thewayin
whichtheSabbathisisolatedfromallothersacredseasons(Decalogue,2K11:5ff.,16:18)goesfartoshowthateveninthepreexilicperioditwasafestivalsui
generis,andhadalreadyacquiredsomethingoftheprominencewhichbelongedtoitinlatertimes.Howlittleforcethereisintheargumentfromtheconnexionof
newmoonandSabbathmaybeseenfromIs66:23,Col2:18f.ThemostreasonableconclusionisthattheweeklySabbathiseverywherepresupposedintheOT,
andthat,ifitbeconnectedhistoricallywithBabylonianinstitutions,thedevelopmentliesbehindtherangeofIsraelitetradition,andinallprobabilitywasafeature
ofCanaanitishcivilizationwhentheHebrewssettledinthecountry.Itmustberemembered,however,thatthehypothesisofaBabylonianorigindoesnotexhaust
thepossibilitiesofthecase.Althougharegularlyrecurringdayofrestisneithernecessarynorpossibleforpastoralnomads,itisquiteconceivablethatsomeformof
Sabbathobservance,dependingonthephasesofthemoon,waspractisedbytheHebrewsinthedesert,andthatthetransformationofthisprimitivelunarfestival
intotheSabbathaswefinditintheOTwasduetothesuppressionofitssuperstitiousassociationsundertheinfluenceofthenationalreligionofIsrael.
2.ReligioussignificanceoftheSabbath.ThedistinctivecharacteristicsoftheHebrewSabbathweremainlythesetwo:itwas,first,adaysacredtoJahweh,
andsecond,adayofrest.Intheearlierperiodcessationfromlabourmayhavebeenmerelyaconsequenceofthefestalcharacterofthedayalthoughthe
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andsecond,adayofrest.Intheearlierperiodcessationfromlabourmayhavebeenmerelyaconsequenceofthefestalcharacterofthedayalthoughthe
reinforcementoftheceremonialsanctionbyhumanitarianmotivesinthelegislation(Ex23:12,Dt5:14)showsthatalreadythereligiousmindofthenationhad
graspedthefinaljustificationoftheSabbathasaninstitutionmadeforman,andnotoneforwhichmanwasmade.ThisconceptionoftheSabbathunderwenta
radicalmodificationintheageoftheExile.ItishardlyaccuratetosaythatthechangewasentirelyduetothefactthattheSabbathwasoneofthefewreligious
ordinancesbywhichtheIsraeliteinaforeignlandcouldmarkhisseparationfromheathenism.TheideaoftheSabbathasacovenantbetweenJahwehandIsrael,
whichiselaboratedinEzekielandthecodecalledtheLawofHoliness,isforeshadowedinDt5:15andeventhemoreimposingconceptionofitasamemorialof
theCreationfindsexpressioninEx20:11,whichisquitepossiblyofolderdatethanthePriestlyaccountofCreationinGn1.Thetruthisthatinthis,asinmany
othercases,therealturningpointwasnotthedeportationofthepeoplebutthesuppressionofthepopularritualbyJosiahsreformation.Nonethelessitis
importanttoobservethat,forwhateverreason,aprofoundtransformationofthecharacteroftheSabbathemergesinwritingsoftheExilicandpostexilicperiod.
Theobligationofrest,frombeinganecessaryconcomitantofactsofworship,orameanstoahigherend,becomesanendinitself,aformofselfdenial,pleasingto
theDeityasanactofimplicitobediencetoHispositivecommand.Thewholeofthesubsequentlegislationproceedsfromthispointofview.InEzekielandtheLaw
ofHolinesstheSabbath(ashasjustbeenobserved)isconceivedasanarbitrarysignofthecovenantbetweenJahwehandIsrael,andoftheindividualsfidelityto
thatcovenant.ThePriestlyCodenotonlyexaltstheSabbathbybasingitssanctionontheexampleoftheCreator(Gn2:24,Ex31:17),butseekstoenforceits
observancebytheimpositionofthedeathpenalty(Ex31:14,Nu15:3236),andsetstheexampleofguardingitssanctitybyprohibitiveregulations(Ex35:3).The
memoirsofNehemiahrevealatoncetheimportanceattachedtotheSabbathasamarkofthedistinctionbetweenthefaithfulJewsandtheirheathenneighbours
(10:31,13:15),andthesterndeterminationwhichwasnecessarytocompelobedience(13:17ff.).InpostexilicpropheciesthereareseveralallusionstoSabbath
observanceasasupremereligiousduty,andaconditionofthefulfilmentoftheMessianicexpectations(Jer17:19ff.,Is56:2ff.,58:13f.,66:23).Atthe
commencementoftheMaccabanrevolt,regardfortheSabbathwassoingrainedinthemindofthepeoplethatstrictJewsallowedthemselvestobeslaughteredby
theirenemiesratherthanusearmsfortheirowndefence(1Mac
2:31ff.)thoughafteroneincidentofthiskindthemaximwaslaiddownthatdefensiveoperationsinwarwerelegitimateontheSabbath(v.41).
3.TheSabbathintheNT.TheGospelsshowthatbythetimeofChristthecasuistryofthescribeshadhedgedroundtheSabbathwithmanyofthosepetty
andvexatiousruleswhicharepreservedintheRabbinicalliterature,andwhichcompletelyevisceratedtheinstitutionofanylargeprincipleofreligionorhumanity.
AccordinglytheSabbathlawwas(nexttoHisownMessianicclaims)thechiefsubjectofcontentionbetweenourLordandthePharisees(seeMt12:1ff.,10f.,Lk
13:14ff.,14:1ff.,Jn5:5ff.,7:23,9:14ff.,etc.).AsregardsourLordsownattitude,itisenoughtosaythatitcombinedreverencefortheordinance,insofarasit
servedreligiousends(Lk4:16etc.),witharesolutevindicationoftheprinciplethattheSabbathwasmadeformanandnotmanfortheSabbath(Mk2:27).
Similarly,inthePaulineEpistlestheSabbathisrelegated,eitherinferentially(Ro14:5f.,Gal4:9ff.)orexpressly(Col2:16f.),tothecategoryofthingsmorally
indifferent,withregardtowhicheachmanmustfollowthedictatesofhisconscience.ItissignificantalsothatthedecreeoftheCouncilofJerusalemdoesnot
imposetheobservanceoftheSabbathontheGentileChurches(Ac15:29).OnthelaterChristianobservanceofthefirstdayoftheweek,anditsassimilationtothe
JewishSabbath,seeLORDS
DAY.
J.S KINNER.
SABBATHDAYSJOURNEY.SeeWEIGHTSANDMEASURES,I.
SABBATICALYEAR(includingyearofJubilee)
1.OTreferences.InaconsiderationoftheregulationsconnectedwiththeSabbaticalandJubileeyears,itisofthegreatestimportancetokeepdistinctthe
variousstagesoftheJewishlegislationonthesubject.Thevariousordinancesdiffergreatlyincharacteranddetailandinordertocomprehendthisdiversityitis
necessarytoassumeasgrantedthemainconclusionsof
OTcriticism,andtoadmitatanyratethataseparationintimeanddifferenceinspiritcharacterizetheseveralpartsoftheMosaicLaw.
Exodus.In23:10,11anentirecessationofallfieldworkisorderedtotakeplaceinevery7thyear.Thisissaidtobedictatedbyaregardforthepoorandthe
beastsofthefield.Ineffectthegiftofoneyearsproducetothepoorisprescribed,thatthelandlessmayreceivetheusufructofthesoil.In21:26itislaiddown
thataHebrewslavecanbekeptinbondageonlyforsixyears.Afterthisperiodhewasautomaticallyemancipated,thoughhiswifeandchildrenmustremainin
servitude,ifhehadmarriedafterhistermofservicebegan.Butprovisionwasmadeforcaseswhereaslavemightdesiretoremaininthiscondition.Apublic
ceremonytookplacewhichsignifiedhisacceptanceofthepositioninperpetuity.Nothingisheresaidwhichleadsustosupposethattherewasonesimultaneous
periodofemancipationalloverthecountry,andnoreferenceismadetoredemptionoflandorremissionofdebts.
Deuteronomy.In15:13the7thyearisassignedastheperiodatwhichalltheliabilitiesofaJewweresuspended(orpossibly,asJosephussupposes,entirely
cancelled)thisprovisionwastobeofuniversaloperation.15:1218repeatstheordinancesofEx21withregardtotheemancipationofslaveshereagainno
simultaneityofredemptioncanbeinferred.31:1013prescribesthattheLawistobereadevery7thyear(theyearofrelease)attheFeastofTabernacles(cf.Neh2/116
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cancelled)thisprovisionwastobeofuniversaloperation.15:1218repeatstheordinancesofEx21withregardtotheemancipationofslaveshereagainno
simultaneityofredemptioncanbeinferred.31:1013prescribesthattheLawistobereadevery7thyear(theyearofrelease)attheFeastofTabernacles(cf.Neh
8:1318).NothingissaidinDeuteronomyaboutapossibleredemptionofland.
Leviticus.In25:155provisionismadeforaseventhyearfallowbutthereisnomentionofthepoor.Thereasonassignedisthattheland,beingJehovahsland,
mustkeepSabbath,i.e.theSabbathprincipleisextendedtocovernatureaswellasman.Wealsofindherethejubileeordinances.After49yearshadelapsed,every
50thyearwastobeinauguratedasajubileebytheblowingofthetrumpetontheDayofAtonement.Allslavesweretobeemancipated(thismaybeamodified
substitutefortheearlierprovisionswithregardtoemancipationafter7years)nomentionismadeofthepossibilityofperpetualslavery,butitisordainedthatthe
Hebrewslaveofaforeignermayberedeemedbyarelative,allJewsbeingessentiallyJehovahsservants.Thelandwastoliefallow,andprovidentialaidis
promisedtoensuresufficiencyofproduceduringtheperiodofthreeyearswhennoharvestcouldbegathered,viz.the49thyear,whichwouldbeasabbatical
fallow,theyearofjubilee,andthefollowingyear,whentillagewouldberesumed.Herealsowefindelaboratedirectionsfortheredemptionoflandinthejubilee
year.Theymaybethussummarized:(1)Nolandedpropertymaybesold,butonlytheusufructofitsproduceuptothenextjubilee,andthepricemustbe
calculatedbythedistancefromthatperiod.(2)Akinsmanmayredeemlandthusmortgaged,or(themeaningmaypossiblybe)exercisearightofpreemptionupon
it.(3)Themortgagermayredeematthesellingprice,lesstheyearlyproportionforthetimeelapsedsincethesale.(4)Housepropertyinwalledtowns(notin
villages)maybesoldoutright,andisredeemableonlyduringoneyear.Suchpropertywaspresumablyregardedashumanandartificial,whilstalllandwas
essentiallythepropertyofJehovah.(5)TheLeviticalpossessionswereredeemableatanytime,anddidnotcomeunderthejubileeprovisions.(6)Nothingissaidin
Lev.astotheremissionofdebts,butthereisageneralprohibitionofusury.(7)InLv27:1625afielddevotedtoJehovahmustbevaluedatonceatafixedrate,
andmightberedeemedatthisprice,plusafineof20percent.,uptotheyearofjubilee.Ifnotredeemedbythenitbecamesacredproperty:noredemptionofitwas
thereafterpossible.
2.PurposesoftheSabbaticalrules.Thepurposesunderlyingtheordinancesabovecataloguedmaybeclassifiedunder4heads:butitispractically
impossibletoassignanycertainpriorityoftimetoanyoneoftheclasses.(a)Theperiodicalfallow.Thisisaverycommonprovisioninagriculture,andtheseven
yearsperiodisstillobservedinSyria.Sincethefallowyearwasnotatfirsteverywheresimultaneous,theearlierhistoricalbooksaresilentaboutit:andindeedit
cannothavebeengenerallyobserved.Forthe70yearscaptivityanddesolationofthelandwasregardedasmakingupfortheunobservedSabbathsoftheland(2
Ch36:21,cf.Lv26:34,43).ThereferenceinNeh10:31maybetotheperiodicalfallowortotheremissionofdebts.But1Mac6:49,63showsthatthefallowyear
wasobservedlater.(b)Theemancipationofslaves(cf.Jer34:8,9).Suchaprovisionmusthavebeenverydifficulttoenforce,andwefindnootherpossible
referencetoit.(c)Theremissionorsuspensionofdebts.TheonlyreferenceisthedubiousoneinNeh10:31.(d)Theredemptionofrealproperty.Thekindof
tenurehereimpliedisnotuncommonlyfoundinothercountries,andJer32:6ff.,Ru4,Ezk7:13showthatsomethingakintoitdidexistinPalestine(cf.alsoEzk
46:17).ButthatitwasinnosenseuniversalmaybeinferredfromIsaiahsandMicahsdenunciationsoflandgrabbingontheotherhand,1K21:3,4furnishesan
instanceoftheinalienabilityofland.Cf.LEVITICUS,p.543b.
IngeneralwehavenosignthatthesabbaticalandjubileeprovisionswereeverstrictlyobservedinBiblicaltimes.Theirprinciplesofrestandredemption,though
neverpractisedasapieceofsocialpolitics,werepreachedasideals,andmayhavehadsomeeffectindiscouragingslaveowning,landgrabbing,andusury,andin
encouragingamoremercifulviewoftherelationsbetweenJewandJew.ThusIs61:13issteepedinthejubileephraseology,andChristadoptedthispassageto
explainHisownmission(Lk4:18ff.).
A.W.F.BLUNT.
SABBEUS(1Es9:32)=Shemaiah,Ezr10:31.
SABI(1Es5:28)=Shobai,Ezr2:42,Neh7:45.
SABIAS(1Es1:9)=Hashabiah,2Ch35:9.
SABIE.ThechildrenofPocherethhazzebaim,Ezr2:57,Neh7:59,appearasthesonsofPhacereth,thesonsofSabiein1Es5:34.
SABTA,SABTAH.InthegenealogicallistofGn10:7asonofCush,namedbetweenHavilahandotherArabiandistricts.Itwasprobablyaregiononornear
theeastcoastofArabia,butinspiteofseveralconjecturesithasnotbeenidentifiedwithanyhistoricaltribeorcountry.TherelationshipwithCushistobe
accountedforonthegroundthattheCushiteswereheldtohaveextendedacrosstheRedSeafromNubianortheastwardoverthegreatpeninsula.
J.F.MCCURDY.
SABTECA.TheyoungestsonofCushaccordingtoGn10:7.TheonlyidentificationatallplausiblehasbeenmadewithSamydakeontheE.sideofthe
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SABTECA.TheyoungestsonofCushaccordingtoGn10:7.TheonlyidentificationatallplausiblehasbeenmadewithSamydakeontheE.sideofthe
PersianGulf.Butthisisimprobable,sincethatregiondidnotcomewithintheCushitedomain,asjudgedbythenamesoftheothersonsofCush.PossiblySabteca
isamiswritingforSabtah(wh.see).
J.F.MCCURDY.
SACAR.1.ThefatherofAhiam(1Ch11:35=2S23:33Sharar).2.Afamilyofgatekeepers(1Ch26:4).
SACKBUT.SeeMUSIC,etc.,4(c).
SACKCLOTH.ThesackclothofOTwasacoarsedarkclothmadeontheloomfromthehairofgoatsandcamels.Intheextantliteratureitisalmostalways
associatedwithmourningforthedead(Gn37:34,2S3:31andoft.):andespeciallywiththepublicexpressionofhumiliationandpenitenceinviewofsome
nationalmisfortune,presentorimpending(1K21:27,Neh9:1,Jon3:5etc.).Forothertokensofgriefandpenitence,associatedwiththedonningofsackcloth,such
asashesordustonthehead,andtherendingofgarments(thisbeingalatersubstitutefortheirentireremoval),seeMOURNINGCUSTOMS.Insuchcasesthepersonor
personsconcernedaregenerallysaidtogirdthemselveswithsackcloth,ortohavesackclothabouttheirloins,fromwhichitisevidentthatthesackclothwasworn
intheformofaloinclothorwaistcloth,tiedintheancientmannerinaknotinfront(cf.Is20:2loosethesackcloth,lit.untietheknot).Itwaswornbywomenas
wellasbymen(Is32:11,Jth9:1).Theputtingofituponcattle,however,asmentionedinJon3:8andJth4:10,andevenuponanaltar(4:11),is,fromthenatureof
thepassagescited,ratheraliterarythanahistoricalextravagance.
Inthiscustommostmodernscholarsrecognizeanillustrationofconservatisminreligiouspractice.Thewaistclothisknowntohavebeentheoldestarticleof
dressamongtheSemites(seeDRESS,2),andassuchitappearstohavebeenretainedinmourningcustomsandinhumiliationbeforeGod,andperhapsinthe
exerciseofthecultus,longafterithadceasedtobetheonlygarmentofthepeople.TheihramorwaistclothstillwornbytheMoslempilgrimsduringtheirdevotions
atthesacredshrineatMecca,hasoftenbeencitedasamodernparallel.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
SACRAMENTS
1.Theterm.AlthoughappliedbycommonconsenttocertaininstitutionsoftheNT,thewordsacrament(Lat.sacramentum)isnotaScripturalone.In
classicalLat.sacramentum(fr.sacrare,toconsecrate)isusedesp.intwosenses:(a)passively,asalegalterm,todenoteasumofmoneydepositedbytheparties
toasuit,whichwasforfeitedbytheloserandappropriatedtosacreduses(b)actively,asamilitaryterm,todenotetheoathtakenbynewlyenlistedsoldiers.When
itcametobeappliedtoChristianuses,thewordretainedthesuggestionsofbothofthoseearlieremployments.Asacramentwassomethingsetapartforsacred
purposesitwasalso,incertaincases,ofthenatureofavowofselfconsecration,resemblingtheoathoftheRomansoldier(cf.Tertullian:Wewerecalledtothe
warfareofthelivingGodinourveryresponsetothesacramentalwords,adMart.iii.).ButtheapplicationandhistoryofthewordintheChristianChurchwere
determinedchieflybythefactthatintheOldLat.andVulg.VSSitwasrepeatedlyemployed(mysterium,however,beingemployedmorefrequently)torenderthe
Gr.mystrion,amystery.[ThusVulg.tr.St.PaulsThismysteryisgreat(Eph5:32)bySacramentumhocmagnumestarenderingthathadnotalittletodo
withthesubsequenterectionofmarriageintoasacrament.]ThisidentificationoftheideaofasacramentwiththatofamysterywascarriedstillfurtherbyTertullian,
andwasgreatlyfosteredbythefactthataboutthistimeatendencywasrapidlygrowingintheChurchtoanassimilationofChristianworshiptotheMystery
worshipoftheGrcoRomanworld(seeart.MYSTERY).Tertullian(endof2ndcent.andbeginningof3rd)isthefirstwritertoapplythenamesacramentto
Baptism,theEucharist,andotherritesoftheChristianChurch.
WhenPliny(c. A. D.112),inhisaccountoftheworshipoftheChristiansofBithynia,describesthemattheirmorningmeetingsasbindingthemselvesbyasacramentumto
commitnokindofcrime(Ep.x.96),ithasbeensuggestedbysomethathewasusingthewordintheChristiansense,andwasreferringeithertothebaptismalvoworto
participationintheEucharist.Thefact,however,thatwedonotfindsuchauseoftheword,eveninChristianwriters,fornearlyacenturyafterwardsmakesthisextremelyunlikely
andtheprobabilityisthatPlinyintendeditintheoldRomansenseofanoathorsolemnobligation.
2.Natureandnumber.(1)ThoughusedespeciallyofBaptismandtheEucharist,theapplicationofthetermbyChristianwriterswasatfirstexceedingly
loose,foritwastakentodescribenotonlyallkindsofreligiousceremonies,butevenfactsanddoctrinesoftheChristianfaith.Thevaguenessofprevailingnotions
isillustratedbyAugustinesremarkthatsignspertainingtothingsDivinearecalledsacraments,andbyhiswellknowndefinitionofasacramentasthevisible
formofaninvisiblegrace.ItisotherwiseillustratedbythefactthatHugoofSt.Victor(12thcent.)enumeratesabout30sacramentsthathadbeenrecognizedinthe
Church.TheCouncilofTrentdefinedthenatureofasacramentmoreclosely,bylayingitdownthatnotallsignsofsacredthingshavesacramentalvalue,andthat
visibleformsaresacramentsonlywhentheyrepresentaninvisiblegraceandbecomeitschannels.Itfurtherdelimitedthesacramentalareabyreenactinginits7th4/116
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visibleformsaresacramentsonlywhentheyrepresentaninvisiblegraceandbecomeitschannels.Itfurtherdelimitedthesacramentalareabyreenactinginits7th
session(1547)adecisionoftheCouncilofFlorence(1439)inwhicheffectwasforthefirsttimeauthoritativelygiventothesuggestionofPeter
Lombard(12thcent.)andotherSchoolmenthatthenumberofthesacramentsshouldbefixedat
7,namely,Baptism,Confirmation,theEucharist,Penance,ExtremeUnction,Orders,andMatrimonyasuggestionthatwasevidentlyinfluencedbythebeliefthat
7wasasacrednumber.
(2)IntheReformedChurchescriticismofthisschemewasbasedonthefactthatitproceedsonnosettledprinciple.Thenumber7isperfectlyarbitrarywhile
thedefinitionofasacramentisstillsovaguethatanythingbutanarbitraryselectionofparticularsisimpossible.While,therefore,theReformersretainedtheterm
sacramentasaconvenientonetoexpressthegeneralideathathastobedrawnfromthecharacteristicsoftheactsclassedtogetherunderthisnameaterm,
moreover,thatissanctionedbytheusageoftheChurchfromthedaysofTertulliantheyfoundthedistinguishingmarkofasacramentinthefactofitsbeing
institutedbyChristHimselfandenjoinedbyHimuponHisfollowers.AndasBaptismandtheLordsSupperaretheonlytworitesforwhichthiscanbeclaimed,
itfollowsthatthereareonlytwosacramentsinthepropersenseoftheword.TheuniquenessthatbelongstotheseasrestinguponChristspersonalappointmentand
beingboundupwithHisownwords(Mt28:19,Mk16[16]Mt26:26,29||,1Co11:2325)justifiesusinseparatingthemfromallotherritesandceremonies
whatsoever,howeverseemlyandsuggestiveanyofthesemayappeartobe,andraisesthemtothedignityofforminganintegralpartofthehistoricalrevelationof
GodinChrist,andsoofbeingnotsignsmerely,butinverytruth,inAugustinesphrase,thewordmadevisible.AjustificationofthissegregationofBaptismand
theLordsSupperfromallotherrites,andtheirassociationtogetherunderacommonname,isfurnishedintheNTbyAc2:41,42and1Co10:14.Afurther
justificationmayperhapsbefoundinthefactthatSt.Paultracesananalogybetween
CircumcisionandthePassoverthetwomostdistinctiveritesoftheOldCovenantontheonehand,andBaptism(Col2:11)andtheLordsSupper(cf.1Co5:7
with11:26)respectively,ontheother.
3.Efficacy.AccordingtotheRomanview,sacramentsareefficaciousexopereoperato,
i.e.byapowerinherentinthemselvesasoutwardacts.TheReformeddoctrine,ontheotherhand,maintainsthatthoughtheyareDivinelyappointedchannelsofthe
heavenlygrace,theirbenefitstotherecipientarecontingentuponsubjectivespiritualconditions,andaboveallupontheexerciseoffaithinChristHimself.See,
further,BAPTISM,CONFIRMATION,EUCHARIST,
LAYINGONOFHANDS.
J.C.LAMBERT.
SACRIFICEANDOFFERING
1.TERMINOLOGYOFSACRIFICE.(a)General.Sinceeverysacrificewasanoffering,butallofferingswerenotsacrifices,thispreliminarystudyoftheusageof
thesetwoimportanttermsinourEVmaystartfromthemorecomprehensiveoffering.Itistruethatinthemajorityoftheoccurrencesofoffering,bothinAV
andinRV,itissimplyasynonymofsacrifice(cf.GermanOpfer).Thisisthecasemoreparticularlyintheextensivenomenclatureofthevarioussacrifices,as
burntoffering,whichalsoappearsinAVasburntsacrifice,meal(AVmeat)offering,etc.(InAVandRVthenamesofthesacrificesareprintedseparately,in
Amer.RVtheyaremorecorrectlyjoinedbyahyphen,burntoffering,etc.)Aswillpresentlyappear(2),thecompoundexpressioninsuchcasesrepresentsbuta
singlewordintheoriginal,whichisthetechnicaltermfortheparticularsacrifice.
Intheremainingoccurrences,however,offering,oritssynonymoblation,isusedinamoreextendedapplicationtodenoteagiftofferedtoGod,asopposed
toaseculargift,intheformofapresent,bribe,orthelike,toafellowcreature.Suchholygifts(Ex28:38)orofferingsmaybedividedintothreeclasses,namely,
(1)altarofferings,comprisingallsuchofferingsaswerebroughtintocontactwiththealtar(cf.Mt23:19),mostlyforthepurposeofbeingconsumedthereon(2)
thestatedsacreddues,suchastithes,firstfruits,etc.and(3)specialvotiveofferings,e.g.thosespecifiedinNu7.Inthiscomprehensivesenseoftheterm,
offering,orasalmostuniformlyinRVoblation,correspondstotheHeb.qorbn,awordpeculiartoEzekielandthepriestlylegislation.Itisthecorbanof
Mk7:11,thatistosay,GiventoGod(RVAVagift),andmeanssomethingbroughtnear,i.e.tothealtar,oratleastpresentedatthesanctuary,inotherwords,a
presenttoGod.Theterm,ashasbeensaid,appearslateinthehistoryofOTsacrifice(Ezk20:28,40:43andthevariousstrataofPpassim),thenearest
correspondingtermintheolderliteraturebeingminchh,forwhichsee2.
TheclassificationofOTofferingsabovesuggestedserves,further,tobringintorelieftherelationofsacrificetooffering.Theformermaybedefinedasan
offeringwhichisconsumed,inwholeorinpart,uponthealtar,or,morebriefly,asanaltaroffering.Itisinthismorerestrictedsenseofaltarofferingthatsacrifice
andofferingareemployedsynonymouslyinourEnglishnomenclatureofsacrifice.
Butthereisstillanotheruseofthesetermsinwhichtheyarenotsynonymousbutcontrastedterms.InthesacrificialsystemofOT,altarofferingssacrifices,in
thesenseabovedefinedareoftwokinds,animalofferingsandcerealofferings,usingthelattertermafortioriforallnonbloodyaltarofferings,includingnot
merelycerealoblationsinthestrictsense(flour,cakes,etc.),butalsoofferingsofwine,oil,andtheindispensablesalt.NowthecharacteristicandsignificantHeb. 5/116
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merelycerealoblationsinthestrictsense(flour,cakes,etc.),butalsoofferingsofwine,oil,andtheindispensablesalt.NowthecharacteristicandsignificantHeb.
designationofananimal,or,asitisoftentermed,abloody,offeringiszebach,lit.slaughter,fromtheverbzbach,originallytoslaughtergenerally,thenspecially
toimmolatethesacrificialvictim,tosacrificehencealsothewordforaltar,mizbach,lit.theplaceofslaughter(forsacrifice).Thecomplementofzebachinthis
senseofanimalsacrificeisminchh,inthelaterspecializedsenseofcerealoffering(see,further,forbothterms,2),sothatsacrificeandofferingcametodenote
thewholecategoryofaltarofferings(Ps40:6,1S2:29,Am5:25alsoIs19:21sacrificeandoblation).Inthissense,also,theyaretobeunderstoodinthetitleof
thisarticle.Theresultsnowreachedmaybethussummedup:sacrificeisusedasaconvenienttermforbothkindsofOTaltarofferings,butintheEV,andinstrict
usage,itcorrespondstotheHeb.zebach,whichisalwaysusedofanimalsacrifice,whileofferingisusedinthreedifferentsensesforallsacredgifts(qorbn),
forsuchgiftsonlyascameupuponthealtar,and,finally,inthespecialsenseofcerealoffering.
2.TERMINOLOGYOFSACRIFICE.(b)Special.Totheforegoingstudyofthemoregeneraltermsmaynowbeaddedabriefreviewofthemorespecific
renderingsofthenamesoftheprincipalaltarofferings,reservingforlatersectionstheexaminationoftheircharacteristicfeatures.Followingtheorderofthemanual
ofsacrifice,Lv15,wehave(1)theburntoffering,soRVuniformly,AValsoburntsacrificeHeb.lh,lit.thatwhichgoesup(onthealtar).Thenameis
supposedtopointtothefeaturebywhichthelhwasdistinguishedfromallothersacrifices,viz.,theburningofthewholevictimasaholocaustuponthealtar.
Thischaracteristicismoreexplicitlybroughtoutbytheraredesignation(2)kll,thewholeburntofferingofDt33:10RV(AVwholeburntsacrifice)andPs
51:19.Wholeofferingwouldbeamoreexactequivalentof(1)and(2).
(3)Mealoffering(RV)andmeatoffering(AV)aretheequivalentsofminchhinitsrestrictedsenseofcerealorvegetableoffering,asalreadyexplained.The
Heb.worddoesnotexpresstheneutralideaofagift,butdenotesapresentmadetosecureorretaingoodwill(Driver,art.Offering.inHastingsDBiii.587),
suchasJacobspresenttoEsau(Gn32:13,18),andthepresentswhichsubjectswereexpectedtooffertotheirsovereigns(1S10:27).Fromthelatterusage
thereisbutasteptothefurthersenseofanofferingtotheDivinesovereign.Intheolderliterature,minchh,asapresentorofferingtoJ,includesbothanimal
andcerealofferings,asinthecaseoftheofferingbroughtbyAbelandCainrespectively(Gn4:3ff.)InthelaterPriestsCode,however,minchhisrestrictedto
thecerealoffering.ForthisthemealofferingofRVisbetterthantheolderrendering,meatbeingnowobsoleteinthesenseintended,butisstillnotsufficiently
comprehensivehencecerealofferingorcerealoblationistherenderingnowgenerallypreferred.Withthecerealofferingmaybetaken(4)thedrinkoffering,
firstmetwithinGn35:14.
(5)Peaceoffering(RVmthankoffering).Themeaningofthespecialnameofthissacrifice(shelemAm5:22,elsewherealwayspluralshlmm)isstill
uncertain,afactreflectedinthealternativesofRV.Mostscholars,followingtheLXX,connectthewordwithshlm,peace,asreflectingtheharmonious
relationsofworshipperandworshippedbroughtaboutbythesacrifice.Others,withgreaterprobability,wouldderivethenamefromanothermeaningofthesame
roottorecompense,repay,payonesvows(seePr7:14).Onthisview,recompenseofferingisperhapsasgoodarenderingasany,andleaves(6)thank
offering(2Ch29:31,tdhh,lit.thanksgiving,hencetheexpressionasacrificeofthanksgiving,Am4:5,Ps50:14,23RV)foranimportantvarietyofthe
recompenseoffering(cf.Lv7:13RVthesacrificeofhispeaceofferingsforthanksgiving).Othertwovarieties,namedtogetherLv7:16,Nu15:3etc.,are(7)the
votiveoffering(EVvow),definedinthelatterpassageasasacrificetoaccomplishavow,and(8)thefreewilloffering(RV),whichexplainsitself.
Theprobablemeaningofthedifficulttermsrendered(9)sinoffering,and(10)trespass(AV)orguilt(RV)offeringwillbemoreprofitablydiscussedwhenthe
precisenatureandobjectoftheseofferingsareunderconsideration(14f.)Allthevariousofferings(1)to(10)areexplicitlyorimplicitlyincludedinafavourite
termofthePriestlylegislation,namely(11)ishsheh,fireoffering,inEVtheoffering(orsacrifice)madebyfire.ThefireofferingisalsomentionedinDt18:1and
1S2:28(aDeuteronomicpassage).
Twoothersignificanttermsmaybetakentogether,namely,theheaveofferingandthewaveoffering.Theformeristherendering,inthisconnexion,of(12)
trmh,whichetymologicallysignifiesnotsomethingheavedup(soEx29:27),butratherwhatisliftedoffalargermass,orseparatedfromitforsacred
purposes.TheHeb.wordisusedinavarietyofapplicationsgiftsofagriculturalproduce,ofthespoilsofwar,etc.,andinthesecasesisrenderedofferingor
oblation(seeDriver,DBiii.588,andCom.onDeut.142,whoconsidersthatcontributionisperhapstheEnglishwordwhichbestsuggeststheideas
expressedbytheHeb.trmh).Inconnexionwithsacrifice,however,itdenotescertainportionstakenorliftedofffromtherestandassignedtothepriestsas
theirdue,inparticulartheheavethigh(Lv7:34RV),orthethighoftheheaveoffering(Ex29:27f.).Heaveofferingaccordinglyinthesacrificialterminologyis
theequivalentofpriestsportion(cf.Lv6:17,where,however,adifferentwordisused).
(13)Withthetrmhiscloselyassociatedthetnphhorwaveoffering.TheHeb.worddenotesamovementtoandfro,swinging,waving,thepriest
liftinghisshareofthevictimandmovingittoandfrointhedirectionofthealtar,thussymbolizingthepresentationofthepartofJ,andJsreturnofittothe
priest.Itisappliedspeciallytothebreastofthesacrificialvictim,hencetermedthebreastofthewaveoffering(Ex29:26f.),ormoreterselythewavebreast(Lv
7:34,10:14f.).Further,liketrmh,tnphhisalsousedinthemoregeneralsenseofoffering(Ex35:22cf.Nu8:11,13oftheLevites,wherethechangefrom
offering(AV)towaveoffering(RV)isnotanimprovement).
(14) ThelastentryinthisvocabularyofOTsacrificeisreservedfortheobscuretermazkrh,memorialoffering,appliedespeciallytothehandfulof 6/116

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(14)ThelastentryinthisvocabularyofOTsacrificeisreservedfortheobscuretermazkrh,memorialoffering,appliedespeciallytothehandfulof
thecerealofferingburntbythepriestuponthealtar(Lv2:2,9,16etc.,EVmemorial).Accordingtotheusual,butuncertain,derivationoftheterm(zkar
remember),theazkrhisunderstoodasanofferingdesignedtobringtheofferertoJsremembrance.
3.S ACRIFICEANDOFFERINGINTHEPREEXILICPERIOD.ThehistoryofOTsacrifice,likethehistoryofthereligionofIsraelofwhichitisthemostcharacteristic
expression, falls into two main divisions, the first embracing the period from Moses to the end of the monarchy (B.C. 586) , the second the period from the
BabylonianexiletothedestructionoftheTemplein A.D.70.Forthelatterperiodwehavetheadvantageofthemoreorlesssystematicpresentationofthesubject
inthevariousstrataofthecomplexlegislationofP(esp.Lv17)fortheformerwemusthaverecoursetothenumerousreferencestosacrificeinthenonPriestly
sourcesofthePentateuch,intheearlynarrativesofthehistoricalbooks,andinthewritingsofthepreexilicprophets.
Now,accordingtoJ,sacrificeasaninstitutionisasoldasthehumanraceitself(Gn4:2ff.).Inthissignificantnarrative,sacrificeappearsasthespontaneous
expressionofmansneedofGod,whomadeofoneeverynationofmenthattheyshouldseekGod,ifhaplytheymightfeelafterhimandfindhim(Ac17:26f.
RV).OurstudyoftheterminologyofsacrificehasshownthatthedominantconceptionofsacrificeintheOTfromfirsttolastisthatofagift,present,oroffering.
Theobjectofthegift,reducedtoitssimplestterms,maybesaidtobethreefoldtosecureandretainthefavourofJ,toremoveHisdispleasureincurred,andto
expressgratitudeforbenefitsreceived.Inthis,Hebrewsacrificedifferedfromsacrificeelsewhere,eveninthelowestreligions,onlyinrespectofthedeitytowhom
itwasoffered.
Thesacrificialworshipoftheearlierdiffersfromthatofthelaterperiodmainlyinthegreaterfreedomasregardstheoccasionandinparticulartheplaceof
sacrifice,inthegreatersimplicityoftheritual,andinthejoyousnessofthecultascomparedwiththemoresombreatmosphereofthepostexilicworship,duetoa
deepenedsenseofsinandtheaccompanyingconvictionoftheneedofexpiation.
Asregards,firstofall,theplaceofsacrifice,everyvillageappearstohavehaditssanctuaryorhighplacewithitsaltarandotherappurtenancesofthecult,on
whichtherecentexcavationshavethrownsomuchnewandunexpectedlight(seeHIGHP LACE).Notthatsacrificecouldbeofferedatanyspottheworshippermight
chooseitmustbeonehallowedbythetraditionofatheophany:ineveryplacewhereIrecordmynameIwillcomeuntotheeandIwillblessthee(Ex20:24RV).
WiththeabolitionofthelocalsanctuariesbyJosiahinB.C.62221,theTempleatJerusalembecame,andhenceforthremained,theonlylegitimateplaceof
sacrifice,asrequiredbythelegislationofDeuteronomy(12:2ff.).
Theoccasionsofsacrificeweremanifold,andinthedaysofthelocalsanctuaries,whichpracticallymeansthewholeoftheperiodunderconsideration,these
occasionswerenaturallytakenadvantageoftoanextentimpossiblewhensacrificewasconfinedtotheTempleofJerusalem.Onlyafewofsuchoccasions,whether
statedorspecial,canbenotedhere.OftheregularorstatedoccasionsmaybenamedthedailysacrificesoftheTempleaburntofferinginthemorningfollowedby
acerealofferingintheafternoon(2K16:15,cf.1K18:29,36,which,however,mayrefertooneormoreofthelargesanctuariesoftheNorthernKingdom.e.g.
BethelorSamaria),theyearlysacrificeofthevariousclans(1S20:6),thoseattherecurringfestivals,suchasthenewmoonandthethreeagriculturalfeasts(Ex
23:14ff.,34:22ff.),atwhichtheoldestlegislationlaiddownthatnoneshallappearbeforemeempty(23:15,34:20),thatis,withoutanofferingintokenof
gratitudeandhomage.Stillmorenumerouswerethespecialoccasionsofsacrificetheinstallationofaking(1S11:15,thearrivalofanhonouredguest,family
eventssuchastheweaningofachild,acircumcision,amarriage,thededicationofahouse(Dt20:5):
nocompactoragreementwascompleteduntilsealedbyasacrifice(Gn31:54etc.)attheopeningofacampaignthewarriorswereconsecratedbyasacrifice(1S
13:9ff.,Is13:3RV).Oneofthemostfruitfuloccasionsofsacrificewasundoubtedlythedischargingofavow,ofwhichthoseofJacob(Gn28:2022),Jephthah
(see5),Hannah(1S1:11),andAbsalom(2S15:7)maybecitedastypicalspecimens,justasinSyriatoday,amongfellahinandbedouinalike,similarvowsare
madetothewelysofthelocalshrinesbyoronbehalfofsickpersons,childlesswomen,ortoavertorremoveplagueorotherthreatenedcalamity.
4.THEVARIETIESANDMATERIALOFSACRIFICEINTHISPERIOD.ThreevarietiesofsacrificearemetwithintheolderHebrewliterature,viz.theburntoffering,
thepeaceoffering,andthecerealormealoffering.Thetwoformer,appearingsometimesasburntofferingsand
sacrifices(Ex18:12,Jer7:22etc.),sometimesasburntofferingsandpeaceofferings(Ex24:5,1S13:9etc.),exhaustthecategoryofanimalsacrifices,the
specialsinandguiltofferingsbeingfirstdefinitelynamedbyEzekiel(see1315).Thetypicalanimalofferinginthepreexilicperiodisthatnowtermed
sacrifice(zebach)simply,nowpeaceoffering(Am5:22)todifferentiateitmoreclearlyfromtheburntoffering,nowstillmoreexplicitlysacrificeofpeace
offerings(perhapsratherofrecompense,shlmm,2).Almostallthespecialofferingsandmostofthestatedoneswereofthistype.Itsdistinguishingfeature
wasthesacrificialmeal,whichfollowedthesacrificeproper.AfterthebloodhadbeenreturnedtotheGiveroflife(wehavenodetailsastothemanipulationofthe
bloodintheearliestperiod,butsee1S14:3234),andthefatburneduponthealtar(1S2:15cf.Is1:11),thefleshofthevictimwaseatenatthesanctuarybythe
sacrificerandhisfamily(1S1:37)or,inthecaseofacommunalsacrifice,bytherepresentativesofthecommunity(9:2225).Thelastpassageshowsthata
specialguestchamberwasprovidedatthehighplaceforthispurpose.
Theunderlyingideaofthis,byfarthecommonest,formofsacrificewasthatofsharingacommonmealwiththedeity.Theworshippersweretheguests(Zeph7/116
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Theunderlyingideaofthis,byfarthecommonest,formofsacrificewasthatofsharingacommonmealwiththedeity.Theworshippersweretheguests(Zeph
1:7)ofGodatHissanctuary,andassuchsecureofHisfavour.TothisdayamongtheArabstheactofeatingtogetherisregardedassomethingparticularlysolemn
andsacred,and,asiswellknown,createsasolidarityofinterestbetweenguestandhost,andimposesuponthelatterthedutyofprotectinghisguestsolongas,in
Arabphrase,hissaltisinhisbelly(seeJaussen,CoutumesdesArabes[1908],8688).Thisideaoftablecommunion,asitistermed,isaccordinglyonewhich
maybereckonedacommonpossessionoftheSemiticstock.EventoSt.Paultheeatingofmeatthathadbeensacrificedtoheathendeitiesappearedasanactof
communion(AVfellowship)withdemons(1Co10:20Amer.RV).Referencestothissolemnonemightalmostsaysacramentaleatingofthesacrificearetoo
frequenttorequirecitation,butwemayrecallthefavouriteexpressionofDeuteronomy,yeshalleat(anddrink)beforetheLordyourGod(12:7etc.),often
followedbytheequallycharacteristicyeshallrejoicebeforetheLordyourGod.HerewemeetwiththedominantnoteofHebrewworshipinthisperiod,thenote
ofjoyousnessabovereferredtoanelementwhichnotinfrequentlyledtotheexcessesdeploredbytheprophets.
Muchlessfrequentintheolderdocumentsisthementionoftheburntoffering,morepreciselythewholeoffering(seeabove,2).Thefactthatthewhole
wasconsumeduponthealtarenhanceditsvalueasaholygift,andaccordinglywefinditofferedwhentheoccasionwasoneofspecialsolemnity(Gn8:20,1K
3:4etc.),orwasotherwiseextraordinary,ase.g.1S6:14.Inmostcasestheburntofferingappearsinconjunctionwiththeordinarysacrificeabovedescribed(Ex
18:12,1S6:17,2S6:17,2K16:13,15cf.Is1:11,Jer7:22,17:26).
Apartfromthespecialofferingofthefirstfruits,thecerealormealoffering(AVmeatoffering2)israrelymentionedasanindependentofferinginthis
period,butisfrequentlynamedalongwiththetwomoreimportantofferingsdiscussedabove,asJg13:23,Am5:22,Jer14:12(withtheburntoffering),1S2:29,
3:14,Is19:21(EVoblation),andoften.WhentheHebrewateflesh,heatebreadwithitanddrankwine,andwhenheofferedfleshonthetableofhisGod,itwas
naturalthatheshouldaddtoitthesameconcomitantsthatwerenecessarytomakeupacomfortableandgenerousmeal(RS2222).Thevariousformswhichthe
mealofferingmightassumeareattestedforalaterperiodbyLv2,forwhichsee11.Oneformoccurringthereisundoubtedlyancient,viz.parchedearsofcorn
(2:14cf.F OOD,2).
Anotherveryancientformofoffering,althoughnotanaltarofferinginthestrictsense(yetstrangelyreckonedamongthefireofferings,Lv24:9),isthatnamed
thepresencebread(EVshewbread),whichperpetuatestheprimitiveideaofanofferingasamealforthedeity(1S21:46,1K7:48).Thementioninalater
passageoftheflagonsthereofandthebowlsthereoftopouroutwithal(Ex25:29,see,further,S HEWBREAD)showsthat,asforanordinarymeal,theholybread
wasaccompaniedbyaprovisionofwine,inotherwordsbyadrinkoffering.ThisspeciesofofferingoccursasanindependentofferingonlyinGn35:14.The
skinsofwinementionedin1S1:24,10:3doubtlessservedinpartforadrinkorwineoffering(Hos9:4),inpart,liketheaccompanyingflourandloaves,forthe
sacrificialmeal.MoreexplicitreferencetothewineofthedrinkofferingasanaccompanimentofanimalsacrificeisfoundinDt32:38(cf.theearlyreference,Jg
9:13,towinewhichcheerethGod).Fortheritualofthelaterdrinkoffering,see11.Itissignificantofthepredominantpartplayedbythedrinkofferinginearly
Babylonianritual,thatthewordforlibation(niqu)hastherebecometheusualtermforsacrifice(KAT 3595).
Abriefreferencemustsufficeforoilinearlyritual(Gn28:18,Jg9:9,Mic6:7forthelaterritual,see11).Awaterofferingappearsonlyintheisolatedcases
1S7:6,2S23:16,butemergesasaninterestingsurvivalintheritesoftheFeastofTabernacles(wh.see).Honey,althoughofferedamongthefirstfruits(2Ch
31:5),wasexcluded,alongwithmilk,fromthealtar(Lv2:11),onthegroundthatbothwereliabletofermentation(seealsoLEAVEN).
5.MATERIALANDRITUALOFSACRIFICEINTHISPERIOD .FromthedetailsjustgivenitisevidentthatamongtheHebrewofferingsdrawnfromthevegetable
kingdom,meal,wine,andoiltakethechiefplace,andthesewerealsothechiefvegetableconstituentsofmansdailyfood(RS2219).Thesameremarkholdsgood
oftheanimalsacrifices,whichweredrawnchieflyfromtheherd,i.e.neatcattle,andfromtheflock,i.e.sheepandgoats.Excludedfromthealtar,ontheother
hand,werenotonlyalluncleananimals,butalsogameandfish,which,notbeingrearedbyman,wereprobablyregardedasGodsspecialproperty,andtherefore
inadmissibleasapresentfromman.ThisideathatonlywhatwasamansveryownconstitutedanappropriatesacrificeisreflectedinDavidswordstoAraunah,2
S24:24(offeringswhichcostmenothingRV).Malesofthevariousspecies,aheiferismentionedinconnexionwithordinarysacrificeonly1S16:2(Gn15:9,
Dt21:3ff.,1S6:14donotbelongtothiscategory),andofthese,yearlings,asinthelaterlegislation,weredoubtlessthecommonestvictims,althoughwereadof
abullockofthreeyearsold(1S1:24,seeRVmJg6:25iscorrupt,sevenyearsold).
Thequestionofhumansacrificecannotbepassedover,eveninthisbriefsketchofavastsubject.TherecentexcavationsatGezerandelsewhere(seeHIGH
P LACE,3)haverevealedthesurprisingextenttowhichthispracticeprevailedamongtheCanaanites(cf.2K3:27),andwellattestedinstancesarerecordedeven
amongtheHebrews(Jg11:3040,1K16:34RV,forwhichseeHOUSE.3),apartaltogetherfromthechildsacrificestoMolech.Indeed,thefamiliarstoryof
AbrahamsfrustratedsacrificeofIsaacisnowregardedasapolemicagainstthisinhumancustom,whichcertainlyhadnosanctioninthereligionofOT.
Asregardstheritualofsacrificeinthisperiod,wehavelittleinformation,1S2:1316beingtheonlypassagethattouchesdefinitelyonthissubject.Thismuch
iscertain,thatmuchgreaterlatitudeprevailedwhilethelocalsanctuariesexistedthanwasafterwardsthecaseandalso,thatthepriestplayedamuchless
conspicuouspartintheritethanhedoesinthedevelopedsystemofthePriestsCode.Thechieffunctionofthepriestintheearliesttimeswastogivedirection
(trh)bymeansoftheoracle,andtodecideinmatterspertainingtothesphereofcleanandunclean.Thelaymanasfatherofthefamilyorheadoftheclan,still
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(trh)bymeansoftheoracle,andtodecideinmatterspertainingtothesphereofcleanandunclean.Thelaymanasfatherofthefamilyorheadoftheclan,still
moretheanointedkingofferedhissacrificewithouttheinterventionofthepriest.Thelatter,however,asthecustodianofthesanctuary,wasentitledtohisdue
(see1Sl.c.,Dt18:3).AtthemorefrequentedsanctuariesJerusalem,Bethel,Beersheba,etc.amoreorlesselaborateritualwasgraduallyevolved,forwhichthe
priest,asitsdepositary,becameindispensable.
Butevenfromthefirstthedeityhadtobeapproachedwithdueprecaution.Theworshipperssanctifiedthemselvesbyablutions(1S16:5),andbywashing(Ex
19:10)orchangingtheirgarments(Gn35:2)foronlythosewhowereceremoniallycleancouldapproachthealtarofJ.Thesacrificerthenenteredthehighplace
andimmolatedthesacrificialvictim,originally,itwouldappear,uponthealtaritself(Gn22:9,1S14:33f.),sothatthebloodranoveritlater,neartothealtar,care
beingtakenthatthebloodwascaughtandpouredoutatitsbase.Thevictimwasnextcutupandthefatofthevisceraremoved.Inthecaseofanordinarysacrifice
(zebach),tojudgefrom1S2:16,thefleshwasboiledforthesacrificialmeal,andnotuntilthelatterwasreadywasthefat,Jsspecialportion,burneduponthe
altar.BythissimultaneousconsumptionofthesacrificethetablefellowshipofJandHisguestswasmorestrikinglyrealized,thelattereatinganddrinkingbefore
theLord,asthesweetsmoke(qtreth)ascendedfromthealtar,anodourofsoothing(EVsweetsavour)untotheLord.
Whilethenormalattitudeoftheworshippersonsuchoccasionswasoneofrejoicings,asbecamethosewho,bythusrenewingtheircovenantrelationtoJinthe
wayappointed,feltthemselvessecureofHisfavourandprotection,amoreseriousnote,implyingasenseofalienationandtheneedofpropitiation,isnot
infrequentlyfoundeveninpreexilicsacrifice,aswillappearinalatersection(13).
6.THEDEVELOPEDSACRIFICIALSYSTEMOFTHEPOSTEXILICPERIODITSGENERAL
FEATURES.Inanearliersectionitwasshownhowintimatelyconnectedwiththeeverydaylifeofthefamilywerethefree,joyoussacrificesatthelocalsanctuaries.
TheabolitionofthelatterbyJosiah,inaccordancewiththedemandsofDeuteronomy(forthejustificationofthismeasure,seeHIGHP LACE,6),marksanepoch
inthehistoryofOTsacrifice.Hithertoeveryslaughterofadomesticanimalfortheentertainmentofaguest,ortocelebrateafamilyevent,wasaformofsacrifice
(foraremarkablelistanddescriptionofsuchimmolationsaspractisedbytheArabsofMoabatthepresentday,seeJaussen,CoutumesdesArabesaupaysde
Moab[1908],337363).Henceforwardthiswasnolongerso.TherestrictionoflegitimatesacrificetotheonedistantsanctuaryatJerusalemmeantinpracticethe
divorcefromcommonlifeoftheprincipalriteofreligion.TheTemple,frombeingonlyone,althoughcertainlythemostimportant,ofthelocalsanctuariesofJudah,
becametheonenationalsanctuarythecultusassumedanofficialcharacter,whileitsdignitywasenhancedbythepresenceofanumerouspriesthoodandamore
elaborateritual.Sacrifice,inshort,lostitsformerspontaneityandbecameastatutoryobligation.TheJewishnationhadtakenthefirststeptowardsbecomingthe
JewishChurch.
Astillmorepotentfactor,makingforchange,soonappearedintheshapeofthecrushingcalamityoftheExile.Then,atlast,thewordsoftheprophetscame
hometomensheartsandminds,anditwasrecognizedthatthenationhadreceivedtheduerewardofitsdeeds.Adeepenedsenseofsinandaheightened
conceptionoftheDivineholinessweretwoofthemostpreciousfruitsofthedisciplineoftheExile.TheconfidentassuranceofJsprotectionandgoodwill,which
markedtherelationsofworshipperandworshippedinthedaysofIsraelsprosperity,hadpassedaway.Initsplacearoseaconvictionoftheneedofexpiationand
propitiationaconvictionreflectedinthewholesacrificialsystem,asgraduallysystematizedandelaborated,onthebasisoftheusageoftheTemple,bysuccessive
generationsofPriestlywritersfromEzekielonwards.Initsfullydevelopedform,aswefinditinthemiddlebooksofthePentateuch,weseehowthecultusasa
wholehasbecometheaffairofthecommunity:theoldsacralunits,thefamilyandtheclan,havedisappeared.
Greatoneistemptedtosay,themainstressisnowlaidonthetechniqueofsacrifice,ontheproperobservanceoftheprescribedritual:theslightestwantof
conformitytheretoinvalidatesthesacrificetheoldlatitudeandfreedomaregoneforever.Thenecessarycorollaryistheenhancedstatusandimportanceofthe
priestastheindispensableintermediarybetweentheworshipperandtheDeity.Beyondimmolatingthevictims,thelaityarenolongercompetenttoperformthe
sacrificialrites.Therelativeimportanceofthetwoolderanimalsacrifices,thelhandthezebach,isnowreversed.Thetypicalsacrificeisnolongerthelatterwith
itsaccompanyingmeal,butthecontinualburntoffering,anactofworshipperformedeverymorningandeveningintheTempleinthenameofthecommunity,
whosepresenceisunnecessaryforitsdueperformance.Stillmorecharacteristicofthelaterperiod,however,istheemergenceofspecialpropitiatorysacrifices
(piacula)thealliedsinofferingandguiltoffering.Theoldervarietiesofsacrifice,althoughstillretainingtheirpropitiatoryefficacy,arenolongersufficientto
expressandadequatelytosatisfythenewconsciousnessofmanssinfulness,or,moreaccuratelyexpressed,ofGodsexactingholiness.
7.THEFIVEKINDSOFALTAROFFERINGSIN P.ThenumerousaltarofferingsmentionedinthevariousstrataofthePriestlylegislationaredividedbyJosephus
intotwoclasses:(i)thoseofferedforprivatepersons,and(ii)thoseofferedforthepeopleingeneral,aclassificationcorrespondingtotheRomansacraprivata
andsacrapublica(Ant.III.ix.1).Thepublicsacrificeswereeitherstatedoroccasional,theformerandmoreimportantgroupcomprisingthedailyburntoffering
(see10)andtheadditionalsacrificesatthestatedfestivalsSabbath,NewMoon,NewYear,thethreegreatfeasts,andtheDayofAtonement.
Sinceitisimpossiblewithinpresentlimitstoattempttoenumerate,muchlesstodiscuss,themultifariousvarietiesandoccasionsofpublicandprivatesacrifices,
itwillbemoreconvenienttofollow,asbefore,theorderofthefivedistinctkindsasgiveninthesystematicmanual,Lv17.Theseare(1)theburntoffering,(2)the
cerealormeal(AVmeat)offering,(3)thepeaceofferingandthetwopropitiatorysacrifices,(4)thesinoffering,and(5)theguilt(AVtrespass)offering.Arranged
accordingtothematerialoftheoffering,thesefellintotwogroupsrepresentedbythetermssacrificeandoffering(1)inotherwords,intoanimaland
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cerealormeal(AVmeat)offering,(3)thepeaceofferingandthetwopropitiatorysacrifices,(4)thesinoffering,and(5)theguilt(AVtrespass)offering.Arranged
accordingtothematerialoftheoffering,thesefellintotwogroupsrepresentedbythetermssacrificeandoffering(1)inotherwords,intoanimaland
vegetableorcerealofferings(includingthedrinkoffering).Thefouranimalorbloodyofferingsmaybeclassifiedaccordingtothedestinationofthefleshofthe
victim,thus(cf.therelativebelow)
(i)Thefleshentirelyconsumeduponthealtartheburntorwholeoffering.
(ii)Thefleshnotconsumeduponthealtarthepeaceofferingsandthetwopropitiatoryofferings.
Thesecondgroupmayagainhesubdividedthus
(a)Thefleshapartfromthepriestsdues,assignedtotheoffererforasacrificialmealthepeaceoffering.
(b)Thefleshassignedtotheprieststobeeatenwithinthesanctuarytheguiltofferingsandthelessimportantofthesinofferings.
(c)Thefleshburnedwithoutthesanctuarythemoreimportantsinofferings.
8.THEMATERIALOFSACRIFICEINP.Holyandmostholy.Thematerialofalltheseremainsthesameasinthepreexilicperiod(5),withtheadditionof
pigeonsandturtledovestomeettheneedsofthepoor,butthevictimforeachspecialkindofsacrifice,anditsqualifications,arenowdefinitelyprescribed.As
regardsneatandsmallcattle,thevictimsmustbemalesforthemostpart,entireandwithoutblemish(seeLv22forlistofimperfectionsanexception,however,
wasmadeforthefreewilloffering,v.23).Forthepeaceofferingbothsexeswereequallyadmissible(3:1),andafemalevictimisspeciallyprescribedfortheless
importantsinofferings(4:28,32).Theanimalswereeligibleforsacrificefromtheeighthdayonwards(22:27),butthetypicalsacrificewastheyearling.Forthe
materialofthecerealofferingseebelow.
Heremaybenotedaninterestingcontrastbetweensuchofferingsaswereregardedasmerelyholyandthosereckonedmostholy.Thelimitsoftheformer
categoryaresomewhatvague,butitcertainlyincludedfirstlingsandfirstfruits,thetitheandtheportionsofthepeaceofferingsfallingtothepriests,whereasthe
shewbread(Lv24:9),thesacredincense(Ex30:36),themealoffering(Lv2:3),andthesinandguiltofferings(6:25,29,7:1,6)areallclassedasmostholy.One
practicaleffectofthedistinctionwasthatthemostholythingscouldbeeatenonlybythepriests,andbythemonlywithintheTempleprecincts(6:16,26,Nu
18:10cf.Ezk42:13,46:20).Aschargedwithaspecialpotencyofholiness,whichwashighlycontagious,themostholythingsthereweremanyotherentriesin
thecategory,suchasthealtarandthehighpriestsdressrenderedallwhocameincontactwiththemholy,inmodernphrasetaboo(Lv
6:18,27).Theholythings,ontheotherhand,mightheeatenbythepriestsandtheirhouseholds,ifceremoniallyclean,inanycleanplace,i.e.practicallyin
Jerusalem(10:14,22:3,1016,Nu18:11ff.).
9.THERITUALOFPOSTEXILICSACRIFICE.Thisisnow,likeallelse,matterofcarefulregulation.Theritual,asawhole,doubtlesscontinuedanddevelopedthat
ofthepreexilicTemple,wherethepriesthadlongtakentheplaceofthelayoffererinthemostsignificantpartsoftherite.Aftertheoffererhaddulysanctified
himselfasexplainedin5,andhadhissacrificeexaminedandpassedbytheTempleofficials,theprocedurecomprisedthefollowingactions:
(1)Theformalpresentationofthevictimtothepriestofficiatingatthealtar.
(2)Thesmkhhorlayingonofhandstheoffererleanedhisrighthandinthelaterpraxis,bothhandsupontheheadofthevictim,intokenofitsbeing
withdrawnfromthesphereofthecommonandtransferredtothesphereofholythings(cf.forthetwospheres,1S21:4),andofhispersonalassignationofitto
theDeity.Thereisnosuggestioninthisactofthevictimbeingtherebymadethesubstituteinapenalsenseofitsowneranddonor(seetheComm.,and,forrecent
discussions,thereff.inDBExt.Vol.720b).
(3)Theimmolationofthevictim,onthenorthsideofthealtar(Lv1:11,6:25),byseveringthearteriesoftheneck.Inprivatesacrificesthiswasalwaysdoneby
thepersonpresentingthem.
(4)Themanipulationofthebloodbythepriest.This,thecentralactionofthewholerite,variedconsiderablyforthedifferentsacrifices.Afterbeingcaughtby
thepriestinalargebasin,thebloodwasinmostcasestossedagainstthesidesofthealtar(sprinkleofEV,Lv1:5,3:2etc.,ismisleading,beingtheproper
renderingofadifferenttermoccurring4:6,16:14,andelsewhere).Generallyitmaybesaidthatthemorepronouncedthepropitiatorycharacterofthesacrifice,the
nearerthebloodwasbroughttothepresenceofthedeity(see14),theclimaxbeingreachedinthebloodriteoftheDayofAtonement(16:14,seeATONEMENT
[DAYOF]).
(5)Theskinninganddismembermentoftheanimal,includingtheremovaloftheinternalfat,asspecified3:3,4and4:8f.Thehidefelltotheofficiatingpriest,
exceptinthecaseofthesinoffering,whenitwasburnedwiththeflesh(Ex29:14).
(6)Thearrangementofallthepiecesuponthealtarinthecaseoftheburntoffering,ofthespecifiedportionsoftheinwardsinthecaseoftheothersand
finally
(7)Theburninglit.theturningintosweetsmokeoftheseuponthealtarofburntoffering,thefireonwhichwaskeptcontinuallyburning(Lv6:13).
Of these various elements of the ritual, those requiring contact with the altar as a most holy thing, viz. (4), (6), and (7), represent the priests, the rest the10/116
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Of these various elements of the ritual, those requiring contact with the altar as a most holy thing, viz. (4), (6), and (7), represent the priests, the rest the
laymans,shareintheriteofsacrifice.
10.Theburntoffering(Lv1:117,6:813,Ex29:1518).Thefirstplaceinthemanualofsacrifice,Lv17,isoccupiedbythesacrificewhichalonewas
entirelyconsumeduponthealtar,hencetheolderandmorecorrectdesignationwholeoffering(2)afeaturewhichconstituteditthetypicalhonorificsacrifice,
thefullestexpressionofhomagetoJonthepartalikeofthecommunityandoftheindividual.Thevictimfromtheflockandtheherdwasalwaysamaleyoung
bull,ram,orhegoat.Theturtledoveandtheyoungpigeonofthepoorhadtheirspecialritual(1:1417).Themostimportantofthestatedsacrificesintheperiod
underreviewwasthecontinualburntoffering(Ex29:3842,Nu28:38),socalledbecauseitwaspresentedeverymorningandeveningalongwithacereal
oblationbytheparticularcourseofpriestsondutyintheTemple.Thevictimwasayearlinglamb,whichwasofferedonbehalfofthewholecommunityofIsrael
throughouttheworld.Aninterestingsurvivaloftheprimitiveanthropomorphicconceptionofsacrifice,asaffordingacompletemealtothedeity,isseeninthe
provisionthateveryburntoffering(asalsoeverypeaceoffering)mustbeaccompaniedbybothamealofferingandadrinkoffering(seenext).
11.Themeal(AVmeat)offering(Lv2,6:1423,Nu15:116etc.).Aspointedoutinanearlysection,thetermminchh,whichoriginallywasapplicable
bothtoananimalandtoacerealoffering,isinthelaterlegislationlimitedtothelatterspecies.Assuchitappearsinalargevarietyofforms,andmaybeeitheran
independentoffering,ascontemplatedinLv2,or,asinmostcases,anaccompanimentoftheburntandpeaceofferings(Nu15:116).Oneoftheoldestformsof
theminchhwas,undoubtedly,themealofferingoffirstfruits,asdescribedLv2:1416anotherantiqueformsurvivedintheuniqueofferingofbarleymealin
thejealousyoffering(Nu5:15).Asanordinaryaltarofferingtheminchhconsistedoffineflour,andwaspresentedeithercookedoruncooked,asprescribedin
detailinLv2:17.Inthelattercasetheflourwasplacedinavesselandmixedwithoil,theequivalentofourbutterinmattersculinary.Thedoughwasthen
coveredwithfrankincense,whenitwasreadyforpresentationatthealtar.Thepriesttookoffallthefrankincense,thenremovedahandfulofthedough,whichhe
putintoanothervessel,addedsalt,theunfailingaccompanimentofeveryspeciesofaltaroffering(2:13,Mk9:44),andthefrankincense,andproceededtoburnthe
wholeuponthealtar.Theportionburnedwastermedtheazkrh(2),ormemorial(soEVfromVulg.memoriale).Theremainderoftheofferingfelltothe
priests,bywhomitwaseatenasathingmostholy(8).
Thepriestsownmealofferings,ontheotherhand,werewhollyburned(Lv6:23).
InNu15:116andelsewhere,minuteinstructionsaregivenastothepreciseamountsoffineflour,oil,andwinewhichshouldaccompanytheburntandpeace
offerings(cf.Ezk46:514andthetabularcomparisonofthequantitiesinthetwopassagesinGray,Numbers[ICC],170).
Thesewereregulatedbytheimportanceoftheanimalsacrificed,thedrinkorwineoffering(Hos9:4),forexample,beinguniformly1/2hinforabullock,1/3hin
foraram,and1/4hinforalamb,thehinmaybetakenapproximatelyas12pints.
Noinstructionshavebeenpreservedastohowthewinewastobeoffered,butfromlaterevidenceitappearsthat,liketheblood,itwaspouredoutatthefootof
thealtar(Sir50:15cf.
Jos.Ant.III.ix.4).Fortheimportanceofincenseinthelaterritual,seeINCENSE.
12.Thepeaceorthankoffering(Lv3:116,7:1121,2834,17:19,22:2133etc.).Thelatterrendering,whichisthatofRVm.isnearerwhatweconsider
tobethemeaningoftheoriginalterm,sacrificeofrecompense(2).Itsdistinguishingfeaturecontinuedtobethesacrificialmealwhichfollowedtheactual
sacrifice.Threevarietiesarenamed(a)thethanksgivingoffering(7:13,15tdhh,alsorenderedthankofferinginthenarrowersense,2Ch29:31),in
recognitionofsomespecialmercy(b)thevotiveoffering(EVvow,Lv7:16),indischargeofavowand(c)thefreewilloffering,aspontaneousand
unprescribedrecognitionofGodsgoodness.Thelastwasclearlyoflessimportancethantheothers,sinceforitaloneimperfectvictimswereadmittedtothealtar
(22:23).Asafourthvarietymaybereckoned(d)thepriestsinstallationoffering(Ex29:1926).
Themodusoperandiwasessentiallythesameasfortheburntoffering,femalevictims,however,beingadmittedequallywithmales.Specialinstructionsare
givenastotheremovalofthefatadheringtotheinwards(seethecolouredillustrationsinSBOT,Levit.,inloc.),alongwiththecauloftheliver,i.e.thecaudate
lobe(G.F.MooreseeEBiiv.col.4206,andtheref.inOxf.Heb.Lex.1124b),andthetwokidneys.Thepartsfallingtothepriests,thebreastandtherighthindleg,
thesevariedatdifferenttimes,cf.Dt18:3withEx29:26,Lv7:31f.weresymbolicallypresentedtoandreturnedbyJ,bybeingwavedtowardsthealtar(see
2forthisceremony,andfortheexpressionsheavethighandwavebreast).Thefatwasthensaltedandburned,whiletheremainderofthefleshfurnishedthe
characteristicmeal.Bothsexes,ifceremoniallyclean,mightpartakeofthismeal,butonlyonthedayofthesacrificeorthedayfollowing(Lv7:1618,19:58).The
fleshofthespecialthanksgivingoffering(tdhh),however,hadtobeeatenonthedayitwasoffered(7:15,22:29f.).
13.THESPECIALPROPITIATORYSACRIFICES
Thesinofferingandtheguiltoffering.Oneofthecharacteristicfeaturesofthelaterperiod,ashasalreadybeenpointedout,isthestresslaidonthe
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Thesinofferingandtheguiltoffering.Oneofthecharacteristicfeaturesofthelaterperiod,ashasalreadybeenpointedout,isthestresslaidonthe
propitiatoryaspectofsacrifice.Itisnot,ofcourse,tobesupposedthatthiselementwasabsentintheearlierperiod.Suchpassagesas1S3:14,26:19,2S24:25,
Mic6:6,7andothersprovethecontrary,evenwereitnotthefactthattheideaofpropitiatingtheunseenpowersisonelyingattherootofallsacrifice(seeabove,
3).But,asshownbythepassagesnowcited,expiatiooandpropitiationweresoughtthroughthemediumoftheordinarysacrifices.Thespecialpropitiatory
sacrificeswithwhichwehavenowtodealprobablymadetheirappearanceinthedarkdayswhichprecededthefalloftheJewishmonarchy,although,sofarasour
literaryevidencegoes,Ezekielisthefirsttodifferentiatethembyname,asthechattth(sin)andtheshm(guilt),fromtheoldertypesofoffering(40:39,42:13
etc.).
Thestudyofthesenewersacrificesiscomplicated,inthefirstplace,bythedivergentregulationsfoundinthedifferentsectionsofthecompletedPentateuch,
whichseemtoreflectthepracticeofdifferentperiods,orperhapstheviewsofdifferentschoolsand,inthesecondplace,bytheconsequentdifficultyofdetectinga
clearlineofdemarcationbetweenthetwoalliedofferings(see15).Fromthepointofviewofritual,thechiefpointsofdifferencearethese:(1)
Intheguiltofferingthemanipulationofthebloodagreeswiththatprescribedfortheoldersacrificesinthesinoffering,ontheotherhand,thebloodritualismore
complicatedandvariesinintensityaccordingtothetheocraticandsocialpositionoftheofferer.Thisfeaturealoneissufficienttodistinguishthesinofferingaspar
excellencethesacrificeofexpiationandatonement.(2)Fortheguiltofferingthevictimisuniformlyaram(theramofatonement,Nu5:8)forthesinofferingthe
victimvariesaccordingtothesameprincipleasthebloodritual,thehigherthepositionoftheoffererinthetheocraticcommunitythemorevaluablethevictim.On
theotherhand,bothagreeascomparedwiththeoldersacrifices:(1)inthedisposalofthefleshofthesacrificeinsofarasitwasneitherentirelyburnedonthealtar
asinthewholeoffering,norassignedtotheoffererforasacredmealasinthepeaceoffering,butwasotherwisedisposedof(seenext)and(2)intheabsenceof
thecerealandwineofferingswhichweretheregularaccompanimentsoftheotheranimalsacrifices.
14.Thesinoffering(Lv4:15:13,6:2430,Ex29:1114,Nu15:2229etc.).Leavingasidethequestionoftherelationofthesesectionstoeachotherasto
originanddateallimportantasthisisfortheevolutionofthesinofferingwefindfromacomparisonofLv4,5:713,themostsystematicasitisprobablythe
latestexpositionofthesubject,withothersectionsofthecodewherethisspecialsacrificeisrequired,thatthelatterwastheprescribedmediumofexpiationfortwo
mainclassesofoffences.Theseare(1)sinscommittedinignoranceorbyinadvertence(4:2,13,22,Nu15:2429)asopposedtosinscommittedwithanhigh
hand(v.30RV),i.e.inconsciousandwilfuldefianceoftheDivinelaw,forwhichnosacrificecouldatone(2)casesofdefilementoruncleanness,contractedin
variouswaysandhavingnoconnexionwithsininthemodernsenseofabreachofthemorallaw,suchasthedefilementofchildbirthandofleprosy,the
uncleannessofthealtarandthelike.
Atthispointitwillrepayustoexaminetheoriginofthetermchattth,omittedfrom2,aslikelytoaffordacluetothetruesignificanceofthesacrifice.Derivedfromthe
verbsignifyingtosininthesenseoftomiss(themarkortheway),chattthdenotessinthenasacrificeforsin.Itmaybequestioned,however,whetherthistransferenceof
meaningwasasdirectasisusuallyimplied.Theintensivestemsoftherootverbarerepeatedlyusedintheprivativesensebestexpressedbytounsin(Germ.entsndigen)by
someriteofpurification,asLv8:15,Ezk43:2023,ofunsinning.i.e.purifyingorpurgingthealtarNu19:19,ofunsinningapersondefiledbycontactwithacorpse8:21the
Levitesunsinnedthemselves(RVpurifiedthemselvesfromsin)andwashedtheirclothes,wherethesinofRVrefersonlytoceremonialuncleanness.Fromthisuseoftheverb,
chattthitselfacquiredthesecondarysenseofpurification,e.g.Nu8:7(AVrightlywaterofpurifyingRVexpiation)and19:917,wheretheredheiferandherashesare
describedasachattth,thatis,asthemeansofremovingtheuncleannesscausedbythedead.Itfollowsfromtheabovethatpurificationofferingbetterexpressestothemodern
mindthepurposesofthechattththandoessinoffering.withitsmisleadingassociations.
Theseconsiderationsleadusdirectlytotheheartofthesacrificialdoctrine,ifthetermmaybeallowed,ofEzekielandthePriestsCode.SacrificeistheDivinelyappointed
meansbywhichtheidealholinessofthetheocraticcommunityistobemaintained.Godsalldevouringholinessrequiresthatthepeopleshallkeepthemselvesfreenotonlyfrom
moralimperfection,butalsofromeveryceremonialdefilementthatwouldinterrupttherelationsbetweenthemandGod.Inthesphereofmoralsonlyunwittingfaultsare
contemplated,forthesearetheonlyfaultsofwhichtheredeemedandrestoredpeoplewillbeguilty(A.B.Davidson),and,insofarastheritualofthesinofferingprovidesfor
theirexpiation,thesesinsofinadvertenceareconceivedasdefilingthesinnerwho,becauseofhisuncleanness,becomesasourceofdangertothecommunity.Fromthispointof
viewthegradationinthevictimsprescribedfirstbecomesintelligibleforthehigherthetheocraticrankofthesinner,thegreater,accordingtotheantiqueviewofthecontagionboth
ofholinessandofuncleanness,washispowerofcontamination.Itistobenoted,finally,thattheorderisfirsttheremovalofthedefilementbymeansofthesacrifice,andthenthe
Divineforgivenessofhissinasamoraloffence(seeLv4:20,26,31,35).
ReturningtoLv4:15:13,wefindthat,apartfromthegradationoftheprescribedvictimsalreadyreferredto,thedistinguishingfeatureintheritualofthesin
offeringisthemoreintenseapplicationoftheblood.Inthisrespecttwogradesofsinofferingaredistinguished,ahigherandalower.Inthehighergrade,which
comprisestheofferingofthehighpriestandthatofthewholecongregation,thebloodiscarriedbytheofficiatingpriestintotheHolyPlaceoftheTentofMeeting
InpracticetheTemple.Theresomeofitissprinkledwiththefingerseventimesbeforetheveil,andsomeappliedtothehornsofthealtarofincense,whilethe
restispouredoutatthebaseofthealtarofburntoffering.Thevictiminbothcasesisayoungbull,thefleshofwhichissosacrosanctthatithastobeburned
withoutthecamp.
Inthelowergrade,partofthebloodwassmeareduponthehornsofthealtarofburntoffering,whiletherestwaspouredout,asbefore,atitsbase.Itis
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Inthelowergrade,partofthebloodwassmeareduponthehornsofthealtarofburntoffering,whiletherestwaspouredout,asbefore,atitsbase.Itis
interestingtonote,asbearingontheevolutionoftheritual,thatinapresumablyolderstratumofP(Ex29:1114),thebloodritual,evenforthehighpriests
offering,doesnotexceedthatofthelowergradeofLv4.Thefleshofthelatter,whichwasalsomostholy,waseatenbythepriestswithinthesanctuary(6:2430).
Tomeettherequirementsofthepoorman,provisionwasmadefortheadmissionoftwoturtledovesortwoyoungpigeons,andincasesofextremepovertyof
thetenthpartofanephahoffineflour(about7pints),offeredwithoutoilandwithoutincense(5:1113).
Iftheconclusionreachedabovebeaccepted,thatthechattthisessentiallyasacrificeofpurification,itisevidentthatthevictimcannotberegardedhere,any
morethanintheothersacrifices,asthesubstitutefortheofferer,presumedtohaveincurredthepenaltyofdeath(see,further,forthedoctrineofthepnavicaria,
16).
15.Theguiltortrespassoffering(Lv5:146:7,7:17,Nu5:58).
TheHeb.wordshmsignifiesgenerallyawrongdonetoanotherandtheguilttherebyincurred,andspeciallythepropertyofanotherwilfullywithheld(Nu5:7,8).Inthe
earlierperioditcametodenotealsothegift(1S6:3f.)ormoneypayment(2K12:16f.)bywhich,inadditiontorestitution,itwassoughttomakeamendsforthewronginthe
laterperiod,finally,shmisthesacrificewhichaccompaniedtheactofrestitution.
ThereferencesinthePentateuchtotheguilt(RV)ortrespass(AV,RVm)offeringarenotentirelyconsistentintheirrepresentationofitsnatureandpurpose.The
guiltofferingoftheleper,forexample(Lv14:12ff.),canscarcelybedistinguishedfromthesinoffering(cf.5:1719).Takingthemostexplicitofthepassages,
however,Lv6:17,weseethattheguiltofferingdealswiththemisappropriationofthepropertyofanother.In5:1416thismisappropriationtakestheformof
unwittinglywithholdingpartofthesacreddues,theholythingsoftheLord.Inbothcasestheoffenderhastorestorethepropertyorduewithheld,togetherwitha
fineamountingtoonefifthofitsvalueascompensationforthelosssustained,andtoofferasacrificeasexpiationofhisbreachoffaith(5:15,EVtrespass).
Provisionisalsomadeforapublicconfession(Nu5:7).Thevictiminthesetypicalcasesisinvariablyaram,andtheritualisthatoftheordinarysacrifices,except
thatthefleshcanbeeaten,likethatofthelowergradeofsinofferings,onlybythepriestsinaholyplace.
Forthevariousoccasionsonwhichoneormoreofthefivevarietiesofsacrificeaboveenumeratedhadtobeoffered,see,amongothers,thefollowingarticles:
ATONEMENT[DAY
OF],CLEANANDUNCLEAN,COVENANT,F EASTS,NAZIRITE,TITHE,VOW,etc.
16.THESIGNIFICANCEOFSACRIFICEINOT.Theoriginandsignificanceofsacrificeisaproblemonwhichstudentsofreligionarestillgreatlydivided.Sofaras
theOTstudentisconcerned,thequestionoforiginsdoesnotnecessarilyarise,fortheinstitutionofsacrificehadalreadyalonglifebehinditwhentheHebrewtribes
firstentereduponthestageofhistory.Onefact,atleast,seemstobewellestablished.TheancestorsoftheHebrews,liketheArabsofthepresentday,hadno
offeringsmadebyfire,butwerecontenttopourthebloodoverthesacredstonewithoutburninganypartoftheflesh.(FortheviewthattheHebrewsofthe
historicperiodstillretainedarecollectionofthisoldercustom,seeKittel,Studienzurheb.Archdologie[1908],96108.)Fortherestthewisestwordrecently
spokenonthissubjectisthatofthelateProfessorStade(Bibl.Theol.d.AT,156):ThesacrificialworshipofancientIsraelisaverycomplicatedphenomenon,
whichhasgrownupoutofdifferentconceptionsandcustoms,andisbynomeanstobederivedfromasinglefundamentalidea(auseinemGrundgedanken).Let
usproceedtoillustratethiswordofwisdom.
(a)InthewholeperiodcoveredbytheOTliterature,sacrifice,astheterminologyproves(see1),wasthoughtofasagiftorpresenttoGod.Themotives
whichpromptedthegiftsarenowherestatedinsomanywords,butmaybeclearlyinferred.Intheearliestperiod,atleast,thegiftsareoffered,nowastoanearthly
rulerintokenofhomage,nowasanexpressionofgratitudeforbenefitsreceivedagain,particularlyintheverynumerouscasesofvows,withaviewtoobtaina
covetedboon,foramongtheHebrewsasamongtheGreeksitwasbelievedthatgiftspersuadethegods,giftsthereveredkings.Wearenotsurprised,therefore,to
findintheoldestHebrewlawcodesthecommandthatnoneshallappearbeforeJempty,thatis,withoutagift(Ex23:15,34:20).Fromfirsttolast,theOT
witnessestothisconvictionthatthegiftofpietyreallyproducesagratifying,propitious,andintheendconciliatoryeffectonGod(Schultz,Significanceof
SacrificeinOT,AJThiv.284).
Theformwhichthesegiftsofpietyassumedwaschieflythatoffood.TheHebrewofferedtoGodofthethingswithwhichhisowntablewasfurnished,and
theseonlyofthebest.Thisnaveconceptionofsacrificeasthefood(EVbread)ofGodisstillfoundasaninterestingsurvivalinthelaterliterature(Ezk44:7,Lv
3:11,21:6etc.).Cf.myfood(Nu28:2),thetableoftheLord(Mal1:7,12),andtheinstitutionoftheshewbread.Inthehistoricalperiod,aswehaveseen,this
foodofGodwasalwaysetherealizedbybeingconvertedintosweetsmokeuponthealtaritthusbecame,intherecurringphrase,asoothingodour(EVasweet
savour)untotheLord.Cf.1S26:19lethimaccept(lit.smell)anoffering(asapropitiation).
(b)ButthisantiqueconceptionofsacrificeasthefoodofthedeitybynomeansexhaustsitssignificancetotheHebrewmind.Thetypicalsacrificeinthepre
exilicperiodwasthepeaceoffering,ofwhichthecharacteristicfeaturewasthecommonmealwhichfollowedtheactualsacrifice.TheOTissilentregardingthe
significancetotheHebrewworshipperofthispartofthesacrificialworship.RobertsonSmith,aseverystudentknows,wouldhaveusseeinthisactofcommunion
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significancetotheHebrewworshipperofthispartofthesacrificialworship.RobertsonSmith,aseverystudentknows,wouldhaveusseeinthisactofcommunion
inwhichthegodandhisworshippersunitedbypartakingofthefleshandbloodofasacredvictim(RS2226f.,andpassim),theunconscioussurvivalofthe
sacramentaleatingoftheirgodbythemembersofthetotemclanofprehistoricdays.Thisisnottheplacetoenumeratethedifficultiesofthistheorywhenapplied
toSemiticsacrifice,theabsenceofconvincingproofoftheexistenceoftotemismintheSemiticfieldbeingnottheleastofthese.
Itismorenatural,assuggestedabove(4),torecognizeintheHebrewsacrificialfeastatransferencetothesphereofreligionoftheSemiticideaofthe
friendshipandfellowshipwhichareformedandcementedbypartakingofacommonmeal.Bythussharing,astheguestsofGod,thecommonmealofwhichthe
worshippedandtheworshipperspartookwithinthesanctuary,thelatterrenewedthebondwhichunitedthemtotheircovenantGodtheyateanddrankbeforethe
Lordinfullassuranceofthecontinuanceofalltheblessingswhichthecovenantrelationimplied.
(e)InthelaterperiodofJewishhistory,thisconceptionofsacrificeasatablecommunionwiththedeityrecededinfavourofanothertowhichlessprominence
wasgivenintheearlyperiod,andinwhich,ashasbeenpointedout(14),sacrificewasregardedasthemostimportantoftheDivinelyappointedmeansbywhich
theidealrelationofaholyGodtoaholypeoplewastobemaintainedunimpaired.Forinadvertentomissionsandtransgressions,andforallcasesofserious
ceremonialdefilements,whichinterruptedthisidealrelation,sacrificeinallitsformsnotthespecialpropitiatoryofferingsmerelyissaidtomakeatonement.
TheHeb.iskipper,ofwhichtheoriginalsignificationisstilluncertain.Butwhetherthisbuttocoverortowipeoff,itgiveslittlehelpindecidingthespecialmeaningofthe
wordintheterminologyofsacrifice.Thereitisusedinneitherofthesensesgivenabove,butalwaysincloseconnexionwiththeverbssignifyingtopurify(tihar)andtounsin
(chitt)termsbelongingspeciallytotheterminologyofpurification(see14).Appliedtomaterialobjects,suchasthealtar,kipperislittlemorethanasynonymoftiharand
chittappliedtopersons,itisthesummaryexpressionoftheritesbywhichtheoffenderagainsttheholinessofGodismadefittoreceivetheDivineforgivenessandtobere
admittedtothefellowshipandworshipofthetheocraticcommunity.Theagentisthepriest,whoperformsthepropitiatoryritesonbehalfoftheoffender.Thewordsinitalics,
clumsythoughtheyare,fairlyexpressthemeaningofthismuchdiscussedtermoftheHeb.ritual(see,further.Driversexhaustivestudyunder
PropitiationinHastingsDBiv.esp.p.131,onthedifficultyoffindingasatisfactoryEnglishrendering).See,further,thesmallprintin14.
Now,althoughitistrue,asG.F.Mooreremindsus(EBiiv.4220),thatthewholepubliccultusisameansofpropitiatingGodandobtainingremissionforsin
anduncleanness(Ezk
45:15,17),itisequallytruethatthepropitiatoryefficacyofsacrificeisrepresentedbythePriestlywritersasespeciallyboundupwiththebloodofthesacrificial
victim.Whenweaskthequestion,invirtueofwhatpropertydoesthebloodmakeatonement?,wefindtheanswerincidentallyintheoftquotedpassageLv17:11.
Wesayincidentally,becausev.11reallycontainstheanswertoanentirelydifferentquestionWhyisbloodtabooasanarticleoffood?NowtheverserunsinRV:
Forthelifeofthefleshisintheblood:andIhavegivenittoyouuponthealtartomakeatonementforyoursouls:foritisthebloodthatmakethatonementby
reasonofthelife(thatisinit).Strictlyspeaking,therefore,itisnotthebloodbutthelifethatis
initthatisthemediumofpropitiation.BeyondthiswecannotgoinoursearchfortheexplanationofthehowofatonementonOTground.
AlongotherandextraBiblicallinesstudentshavediligentlysoughtfortheultimatebasisofthisefficacyofblood.Itisdoubtlesstobeconnectedwiththe
almostuniversalbeliefthatbloodisafluidinwhichinheresamysteriouspotency,nolessdangerouswhenmisusedthanefficaciouswhenproperlyemployed(G.
F.Moore,EBiiv.4218cf.Trumbull,TheBloodCovenant,passimandFarnell,TheEvolutionofReligion,94f.).Justbecauseofitsmysteriouspotency,andits
associationwiththegreatprimevalmysteriesoflifeanddeath(Farnell),bloodwasfelttobetoosacred,andindeedtoodangerous(see1S14:33f.),tobeused
otherwisethanastheproperdueoftheAuthorofalllife.ItwasatoncethemostpersuasiveofgiftsatHisaltar,andthemostpotentcatharticbywhichthesinner
waspurgedofuncleannessandsin.
Thetraditionalviewthatthebloodofthesacrificeatonedforthesinsoftheofferer,becausethevictimsufferedthedeathwhichthesinnerhadincurred,isnow
rarelymaintained.Thistheoryofapnavicariaisuntenablefortheseamongotherreasons:(1)ThesinsforwhichtheOTsacrificesmadeatonementwerenotsuch
asinvolvedthepenaltyofdeath(14).(2)Hadtheguiltoftheoffererbeentransferredtothevictimbythelayingonofhandsforthemeaningofthisrite,see
9thefleshofthesacrificewouldhavebeeninthehighestdegreeunclean,andcouldnothavebeeneatenbyeitherpriestsorpeople.(3)TheideathattheDivine
forgivenesswasprocuredbythebloodofthevictimasitsownerssubstituteisexcludedbytheadmission,forthepropitiatorysacrificeparexcellence,ofa
bloodlessofferingintheshapeofanoblationofflour(14,end).Nevertheless,althoughthedoctrinethatthedeathofthevictimwasavicariouspunishmentforthe
sinoftheoffererisnottobefoundinthelegislationitself,thethoughtwasonethatcouldscarcelyfailtosuggestitselftothepopularmindaconclusiontowhichit
wasdoubtlessassistedbytherepresentationofthevicarioussufferingsoftheServantinIs53.
SumminguptheconclusionsofthissectiononthesignificanceofsacrificeinOT,wefinditrepresentedinallperiodsasagift,mainlyofhomagetotheDivine
Sovereign,intheearlierperiodalsoasariteoftablecommunionwiththecovenantGodofIsrael,andfinallyinthelaterperiodaspreeminentlytheappointed
meansofpurificationandexpiationasthepreliminarytoforgiveness,inotherwordsofatonement.
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OftheultimaratioofsacrificenoexplicitstatementisfoundinOT.TheexplanationofthePriestlywriterswoulddoubtlesshavebeenGodhathsoappointed
it.Beyondthiswecannotgo.TheconclusionofthewholemattermaythereforebegiveninthewordsofJesusbenSira:Seethatthouappearnotinthepresence
oftheLordemptyforallthesethingsaretobedonebecauseofthecommandment(35:4)Thefinalgroundofthesinnerspardonandrestorationisthusnotthe
precedentsacrificebutthefreegraceofamercifulandlovingGod.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
SADDUCEES.ProbablythenameSadduceeisderivedfromthenameZadok,anotablepriestinthetimeofDavidandSolomon(2S8:17,15:24,1K
1:34).Hisdescendantslongplayedtheleadingpartamongthepriests,sothatEzekielregardedthemastheonlylegitimatepriests(Ezk40:46,43:19,44:15,48:11).
ThenameindicatesthefactthatismostdecisivefortherightunderstandingoftheSadducees.Abouttheyear200B.C.,whenpartylineswerebeginningtobe
drawn,thenamewaschosentopointoutthepartyofthepriests.ThatisnotsayingthatnopriestcouldbeaPhariseeoraScribe.Neitherisitsayingthatallthe
priestswereSadducees.InourLordstimemanyofthepoorpriestswerePharisees.ButthehigherpriestlyfamiliesandthepriestsasabodywereSadducees.With
themwerejoinedthemajorityofthearistocraticlayfamiliesofJudaandJerusalem.Thisfactgivesusthekeytotheircareer.Itiswrappedupinthehistoryofthe
highpriesthood.FortwocenturiesaftertheExilethehighpriesthoodearnedtherighttotheleadershipoftheJewishnation.ButinourLordstimeitsleadershiplay
farbackinthepast.Itsmoralgreatnesshadbeenunderminedontwosides.OnonesideithadlosttouchwithwhatwasdeepestinthebeingoftheJews.Forthe
mostpartthiswasduetoitsaristocraticbias.TheLeviticalpriesthoodwasaclosecorporation.Nomannotbornapriestcouldbecomeapriest.Moreandmore,as
theinterestsofthenationwidenedanddeepened,thehighpriesthoodfailedtokeeppace.Itsalliancewiththearistocraticfamiliesmadethingsworse.Thehigh
priesthoodandthepeopledriftedapart.Nogreatinstitutioncandothatandremaingreat.
Fromanothersidealsothepoliticalthehighpriesthoodwasundermined.OwingtothemixtureofChurchandStatethehighpriestswerenecessarilyin
politicsallthetime.Consequentlythehistoricalprocess,whichendedbyincorporatingPalestineintheRomanEmpire,suckedoutofthehighpriesthoodallthe
moralizinginfluencesinvolvedinthehandlingoflargeaffairs.So,underminedontwosides,thehighpriesthoodlosttherighttolead.Andthepartybuiltuparound
ittheSadduceesbecamethepartyofthosewhocaredmorefortheirownwellbeingandforthemaintenanceofthingsastheywerethanfortheKingdomof
God.
WhenweturntothetenetsoftheSadducees,itisstillthecontrastwiththePhariseesthatputstheminanIntelligiblelight.Pharisaism,withallitsfaults,wasthe
heartandsoulofthenation,thestewardofitstreasurestheHolyScripturesthetrusteeofitsvitalizinghope.TheSadduceesstoodforthetenaciously
conservativetendenciesinthenation.Theylayunderthecursewhichrestsuponallaristocracies,theinabilitytorealizethatthebestthingsmustgrow.
TheydeniedthePharisaicdoctrineoftheresurrectionofthebody(Mk12:18,Mt22:23,Lk
20:27,Ac23:8).TheNTisabetterguideinthisfieldthanJosephus,whoaffirms(BJII.viii.14,Ant.XVIII.i.4)thattheydeniedtheimmortalityofthesoul.
JosephusoverstatedthingsinhisdesiretomaketheJewishpartieslooklikethephilosophicalschoolsofGreece.TheSadduceesdidnotdenytheimmortalityofthe
soul.Buttheylingeredinthepast,theperiodwhenthebeliefinImmortalitywasvague,shadowy,andhadnotyetbecomeaworkingmotiveforgoodness.Theydid
notacceptthedevelopedfaithinimmortalitywhichwaspartandparcelofthePharisaicteachingregardingtheKingdomofGod.Andthismeantthattheirnation
hadoutgrownthem.TheSadduceesalsodeniedthePharisaicdoctrineregardingangelsandministeringspirits(Ac23:8).Therebytheymaintainedacertain
sobriety.TheyevenemancipatedthemselvesfromaconsiderableamountofsuperstitionhoundupwithPharisaism.Buttheypaidforitbyawhollydisproportionate
sacrificeofvitalpiety.
FromthissketchwecanseewhyourLordhadalmostnodealingswiththeSadduceesduringHisministry.Hisinterestswerewiththecommonpeople.This
broughtHimintocontinualconflictwiththePharisees.ItwasnotuntilHispopularityseemedtothreatenthepeaceofJerusalemthatthehighpriest,withthe
Sadduceesathisback,wasmovedtodecisiveaction.WecanalsoseewhytheApostolicChurch,inherfirstyears,hadmosttofearfromtheSadducees(Ac4and
5).Seealsoartt.P HARISEES,S CRIBES.
HENRYS.NASH.
SADDUK(1Es8:2)=Zadok,Ezr7:2.
SADOC.1.(2Es1:1)=Zadok,Ezr7:2.2.AnancestorofJesus(Mt1:14).
SAFFRON(Ca4:14).TheHeb.karkmisidenticalwiththeArab,kurkumorzafarn)(whenceisderivedtheEng.saffron),thenameofavarietyofcrocus
(Crocussativus),ofwhichtheyellowstylesandstigmasareusedfordyeingandforflavouringfood.Asimilardye,alsocalledsaffron,ismorecommonlyderived
fromthefloretsoftheCarthamustinctorius(Composit)cultivatedeverywhereinPalestineforthispurpose.
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E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
SAHIDICVERSION.SeeGREEKVERSIONSOFOT,11(b),andTEXTOFNT,27.
SAILS.SeeS HIPSANDBOATS,p.850b.
SAINTS.SeeHOLINESS,II.2,andS ANCTIFICATION.
SALAMIEL.AnancestorofJudith(Jth8:1).
SALAMIS,whichmustnotbeconfusedwiththesceneofthegreatbattlebetweenXerxesandtheGreeksinB.C.480,wasthefirstplacevisitedbyPauland
Barnabasonthefirstmissionaryjourney(Ac13:5).Itexistedasearlyasthe6thcent.B.C.asanimportantGreektownontheE.coastofCyprus.InRomantimesit
remainedaflourishingcommercialcity,andtheeasternhalfoftheislandwasgovernedfromthere.TherewereverymanyJewsinCyprus.Christianitywasearly
preachedthere(Ac11:19,20),andamongearlyconvertswereMnason(Ac21:16)andBarnabas(Ac4:36).
A.S OUTER.
SALASADAI.AnancestorofJudith(Jth8:1).
SALATHIEL.1.(1Es5:5,48,56,6:2)=Shealtiel(wh.see).2.AnothernameofEsdras(2Es3:1).
SALECAH(Dt3:10,Jos13:11,12:5,1Ch5:11)wasthemosteasterlyofthetownsclaimedbyIsrael.ItwasassignedtothetribeofGad,andisalways
describedasbeingontheeasternfrontierofBashan.ButitisbetterIndicatedlesstheoreticallyasbeingintheextremesoutheastoftheHauran.Onaccountofits
commandingpositionithasalwaysbeenofstrategicimportancebutitwasprobablyneverpermanentlyoccupiedbyanyoftheIsraelitishpeople.ItwasaNahatan
andRomanstronghold,andastationonthegreattradeandmilitaryroadfromGadaraandEdreleastwardthroughthedeserttothePersianGulf.Itisnowinhabited
byDruses,andbearsthenameSalkhad.
J.F.MCCURDY.
SALEM(1Es8:1)=Shallum,Ezr7:2calledalsoSalemas(?),2Es1:1.
SALEM.1.AplacementionedonlyinGn14:16asthekingdomofthemysterious
Melchizedek(wh.see).ItisnaturaltoidentifyitwithJerusalem(wh.see),especiallysincethe
TellelAmarnatabletsshowthatUrusalmexistedasanameforthatcityevenbeforethe
IsraeliteImmigration.ButtheonlyreallinksbetweenSalemandJerusalemaretwoinnumber:(1)thementionoftheKingsVale,where,apparently,
MelchizedekmetAbram,whichseemstobetheplacewhereAbsalomrearedhismemorial(2S18:18):itwouldpresumablybesomewherenearJerusalem,but,
paceJosephus,thisisnotcertain.(2)TheallusiontoJerusalembythenameSaleminPs76:2.Thispoeticalabbreviation,however,whichoccursnowhereelse,may
havebeensuggestedbySalemintheancientrecord,justaswasthenameMoriah(wh.see),andthereferencetoMelchizedekinPs110:4.Thereissomesimilarity
betweenthenameofMelchizedekandthatoftheJebusitekingAdonizedek(Jos10:1),butuponthewholetheidentificationofSalemwithJerusalemisrather
shadowy.Jeromerecordsanothertradition,connectingSalemwithSalm(Salumias)intheJordanValley,wherethereisatellwiththetombofSheikSelm.2.The
ValleyofSalem(Jth4:4),possiblytheJordanValley,orapartofit.3,TheLXXreadsSalemforShilohinJer41:5.ThismustbeaSalemnearShechem,ifthis
readingistobefollowed.ThereisaplacecalledSalm,eastofNblus.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
SALEMAS(2Es1:1)=Shallum,Ezr7:2calledalsoSalem(?)in1Es8:1.
SALIM,neartowhichwasnon(Jn3:23),layonthewestofJordan(cf.1:28,3:26,
10:40).nonisplacedbytheOnomasticoneightRomanmilessouthofScythopolis(Beisn),
neartoSalimandJordan.ThispointstotheneighbourhoodoftheruinUmmelAmdn,withTellerRidhghahonthenorth,wherethetombofSheikSelm
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neartoSalimandJordan.ThispointstotheneighbourhoodoftheruinUmmelAmdn,withTellerRidhghahonthenorth,wherethetombofSheikSelm
probablypreservestheancientname.non,placeofsprings,wemayfindinthesevencopiousfountainsnearby.InChriststimethedistrictbelongedprobably
toScythopolis,nottoSamaria.Thedifficultiesofothersuggestedidentificationscanbegotoveronlybydoingviolencetothetext(Cheyne,EBi,s.v.),ortothe
sense.
W.EWING.
SALIMOTH(1Es8:25)=Shelomith,Ezr8:10.
SALLAI.1.ABenjamite,Neh11:8.2.Apriestlyfamily,Neh12:20calledinv.7Sallu.
SALLU.1.ABenjamitefamily(1Ch9:7,Neh11:7).2.SeeS ALLAI,2.
SALLUMUS(1Es9:25)=Shallum,Ezr10:24calledSalum,1Es5:28.
SALMA.SeeS ALMON.
SALMAI.AfamilyofNethinim,Neh7:48calledinEzr2:46Shamlai,in1Es5:30Subai.
SALMANASAR(2Es13:40)=Shalmaneser(wh.see).
SALMON,orSALMA.ThefatherofBoaz(Ru4:20,21),andthereforeinthedirectlineoftheancestryofourLord(Mt1:4,6,Lk3:32).IftheSalmaof1Ch
2:51,54isthesameperson,hewasthefatherorfounderofBethlehem,butitistobenoticedthatthatSalmaisreckonedasoneofthesonsofCalebthesonof
Hur.
SALMONE.ApromontoryattheN.E.endofCrete,nowCapeSidero.St.Paulsship,afterreachingCniduswithdifficulty,wasmetbyapowerfulN.W.wind,
whichforcedthecaptaintoalterthecourse.OffSalmone(Ac27:7)hedecidedtoworkhiswaywestwardundertheleeofCrete.
A.S OUTER.
SALOAS(1Es9:22)=EIasah,Ezr10:22.
SALOM.GreekformofShallum(Bar1:7).
SALOME.1.Thedaughter(unnamedinNT)ofHerodias.whodancedbeforeHerodandreceivedasarewardtheheadofJohntheBaptist(Mt14:311,Mk
6:1720).2.Oneofthewomenwhowerepresentatthecrucifixion(Mk15:40)andwhoafterwardsvisitedthesepulchre(16:1).BycomparingMk15:40andMt
27:66ithasbeenalmostcertainlyconcludedthatSalomewasthewifeofZebedee,whoalsofiguresintheIncidentMt20:2023.TheconjecturethatSalomewas
thesisterofMarythemotherofJesushasnoadequatesupport.
W.F.BOYD.
SALT,SaltisrightlyincludedbybenSiraamongthechiefofallthingsnecessaryforthelifeofman(Sir39:26RV).TheHebrewsoftheSouthernKingdom,
atleast,hadaccesstoinexhaustiblestoresofsaltbothinthewatersoftheDeadSea,hencenamedinOTtheSaltSea(Dt3:17etc.)whenceitcouldeasilybe
obtainedbyevaporation,andinthedepositsoftheJebelUsdumatitssouthwesternextremity.Referencestosaltpitsorsaltpans,ortoboth,arefoundinZeph2:9,1
Mac11:25.OnehundredpoundsofwaterfromtheDeadSeaaresaidtoyield241/2lbs.ofsalt,comparedwith6lbs.obtainedfromthesamequantityofwaterfrom
theAtlantic.
Inadditiontoitsdailyuseasacondimentinthepreparationoffood(cf.Job6:6),anditsimportantplaceinthesacrificialritual,saltwasemployedbythe
Hebrewsinanevengreatervarietyofwaysthanitisamongourselves.Newborninfants,forexample,wererubbedwithsalt(Ezk16:4)apracticeinwhicha
religious,ratherthanahygienic,motivemaybedetected.Agrainofsaltplacedinthehollowofadecayedtoothwasconsideredacurefortheuniversalevilof
toothache(Mishna,Shabbath,vi.5).InothertreatisesoftheMishnawefindfrequentreferencestotheuseofsaltforsaltingfish,forpicklingolives,vegetables,etc.
ThesaltingofmeatforpreservationisreferredtointheEpistleofJeremy(Bar6:28).ThemodernJewishcustomoflayingallmeatinsaltforthepurposeofmore17/116
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ThesaltingofmeatforpreservationisreferredtointheEpistleofJeremy(Bar6:28).ThemodernJewishcustomoflayingallmeatinsaltforthepurposeofmore
thoroughlydrainingitofthebloodwasdoubtlessobservedinBibletimes.InPalestine,undertheSeleucids,saltformedagovernmentmonopoly(1Mac10:29,
11:35),asitdidinEgyptunderthePtolemys.
Asregardsthepresenceofsaltintheritualofsacrifice,thewordsofMk9:40AV,everysacrificeshallbesaltedwithsalt,althoughomittedbyRVfollowingthe
bestauthorities,areneverthelesstruetofact.ThelegislationofthePriestsCode,atleast,expresslyordains:withallthineofferingsthoushaltoffersalt(Lv2:13)
apassagewhichexpresslyspecifiesthatthecerealorvegetableofferings(themealofferingsofRV)hadtobesaltedaswellasthemoreimportantandmore
evidentanimalorfleshsacrifices(cf.Ezk43:24).AspecialsaltchamberismentionedamongthechambersadjoiningthePriestsCourtinthedescriptionof
HerodsTemplegivenintheMishna.Thesacredincense,also,hadtobeseasonedwithsalt(Ex30:35RV),aswasalsothecasewiththeshewbread,accordingto
thebetterGr.textofLv24:7.Theoriginalideainthisextendedritualuseofsaltwasdoubtlessthisthatjustassaltwasanindispensableaccompanimentofmans
dallyfood,soitcouldnotbeabsentfromthefoodofGod,asthesacrificesaretermedinLv21:6,17.
Inthedevelopedpriestlylegislation,however,therecanbelittledoubtthatthepresenceofsalthadasymbolicalsignificance.Fromitsuseasapreservative,
reflectedinourLordsfigure,Yearethesaltoftheearth(Mt5:13),andasanantidotetodecay,itisnaturalthatsaltshouldbecomeasymbolofpermanence,and
evenoflifeasopposedtodecayanddeath.Salt,ithasbeensaid,seemstostandforlifeinmanyaformofprimitivespeechandintheworldssymbolism
(Trumbull,CovenantofSalt).Fromthissymbolicalstandpointweprobablyreachthetrueexplanationofthestrikingexpressionaconvenantofsalt(Nu18:19,2
Ch13:5),whichdenotesacovenantthatisinviolableandvalidinperpetuity.Thepresenceofsalt,therefore,witheverysacrificemayhavecometosymbolizethe
irrevocablecharacterofJscovenantwithIsrael(cf.G.B.GraysCom.onNu18:19).
ThisseemspreferabletotheusualexplanationwhichconnectstheexpressioninquestionwiththewellknowncodeofArabhospitality,bywhichatravellerinthedesert,and
evenanenemy,ifhehasoncepartakenofanArabshospitality,hasarighttohishostsprotectionsincethisordinanceofsaltasitistermed,isvalidonlyforalimitedperiod(see
Jaussen.CoutumesdesArabes[1908],87f.).Ontheotherhand,theobligationswhichthepartakingofoneshospitalityimposesonaguestareemphasizedinthewordsofEzr4:14
becauseweeatthesaltofthepalace(RV).
Inmarkedcontrasttotheabovementionedemploymentofsaltasasymboloflife,standsitsparalleloccurrenceasasymbolofbarrenness,desolation,ordeath(Dt29:23and
elsewhere).BythisaspectofthesymbolismofsaltithasbeenusualtoexplainthetreatmentmetedoutbyAbimelechtothecityofShechemintheearlynarrative,Jg9:45:Hebeat
downthecityandsoweditwithsalt.Itismoreinharmony,however,withthefundamentalconceptionofthehan(seeBAN)toregardthestrewingofthesiteofthecitywithsalt
assymbolizingitscompletededicationtoJ(seetheparallelsadducedinEBiiv.
col.4249f.).
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
SALT,CITYOF.AcityofJudah(Jos15:61,62).ItmaybeinferredtohaveoccupiedsomepositiononthewesternshoreoftheDeadSea,betweenEngedi
andKhashmUsdum(thesaltmountain).
SALTSEA.SeeDEADS EA.
SALT,VALLEYOF.ThesceneofmemorablevictoriesofDavidovertheEdomites(2S
8:13,1Ch18:12),and,atalaterperiod,ofAmaziahoverthesameenemies(2K14:7,2Ch25:11).Itmaybeidentifiedwiththeplainextendingfromthesouthern
endoftheDeadSeatothefootofthecliffswhichcrossthevalleyfromsidetosideandformthesouthernmarginoftheGhor.
SALTWORT(Job30:4RV).SeeMALLOWS.
SALU.ThefatherofZimri(Nu25:14,1Mac2:26).
SALUM(1Es5:28)=Shallum,Ezr2:42calledSallumus,1Es9:25.
SALUTATION(orgreeting)isaseriousmatterintheEastsomeknowledgeofimmemorialpracticeisnecessaryindealingwithOrientals.Thesubjectsalutes
hiskingbyprostrationthehumblehissuperiorbytouchingthegroundwithhishand,andthenhislipsandbrow.Theyoungsalutestheaged,theriderthefootman,
etc.Incrowdedstreetsonlymenofage,rank,anddignityneedbesaluted(Mt23:7etc.).Commonformsofsalutationare,Peaceheuponyouresponse,And
uponyou:Mayyourdaybehappyresponse,Mayyourdaybehappyandblessed:and,inthehighway,Blessedbehethatcometh(Jg18:15,Mt10:12,Lk
24:36,Ps118:26,Mt21:9etc.).Salutationsarefrequentlyprolonged,andrepeatedinquiriesafterhealthandwelfareextremelytedious(1K4:29,Lk10:4).Seealso
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24:36,Ps118:26,Mt21:9etc.).Salutationsarefrequentlyprolonged,andrepeatedinquiriesafterhealthandwelfareextremelytedious(1K4:29,Lk10:4).Seealso
GESTURES,KISS.
W.EWING.
SALVATION,SAVIOUR.SalvationisthegenerictermemployedinScripturetoexpresstheideaofanygraciousdeliveranceofGod,butspeciallyofthe
spiritualredemptionfromsinanditsconsequencespredictedbytheOTprophets,andrealizedinthemissionandworkoftheSaviourJesusChrist.
1.IntheOT.TherootmeaningoftheprincipalOTwordsforsave,salvation,saviouris,tobebroad,spacioussalvationisenlargement.Asillustrations
ofthisOTmeaningofsalvationmaybetakenthewordsofMosesattheRedSea,Standstill,andseethesalvationofJehovah(Ex14:13)Heisbecomemy
salvation(15:2)ortheavowalofthepsalmist,Thispoormancried,andJehovahheardhim,andsavedhimoutofallhistroubles(Ps34:6).Jehovahissaidto
havegivensaviourstoIsraelinthetimeoftheJudges(Neh9:27).Victoryinbattleissalvation(Ex14:14,1S14:45,Ps20etc.).Salvation,ordeliverance,of
thiskindissometimesnational,butsometimesalsoindividual(cf.,ofDavid,2S22,Ps18).Suchexternaldeliverances,however,itistoheobserved,arenever
divorcedfromspiritualconditions.ItistherighteousorpenitentalonewhoareentitledtolooktoGodforHissavinghelpnootherscanclaimHimastherockof
theirsalvation(Ps18:13,cf.4:1).When,therefore,thepeoplehadturnedtheirbacksonJehovah,andabandonedthemselvestowickedness,salvationcouldcome
onlythroughachangeofheart,throughrepentance.Thechiefneedwastobesavedfromthesinitself.Intheprophets,accordingly,theperspectivesomewhat
changes.Externalblessings,deliverancefromenemies,returnfromexile,arestillhopedfor,butthemainstressislaidonachangedheart,forgiveness,restoration
toGodsfavour,righteousness.InthepicturesoftheMessianicage,itisthesethingsthatcometobedwelton(cf.Jer31:3134,Ezk36:2628,Hos14etc.).As
theideaofsalvationbecomesmorespiritual,itlikewisebecomesmoreuniversaltheGentilesaretoshareitsblessings(Is45:23,24,49:812,60:112).
TheteachingoftheprophetsborefruitintheageprecedingtheadventofJesusindeepeningideasofthefuturelife,ofresurrectionandafutureperfectedstate:
oftheconnexionofprosperitywithrighteousnessthoughmostlyinthesenseofoutwardlegalobedience,theveryerroragainstwhichtheprophetsdeclaimed
andinmoreconcreterepresentationsoftheMessiah.Butthereneverfailedagodlykernel,whocherishedmorespiritualhopes,andwaitedinpatienceandprayer
fortheconsolationofIsrael(Lk2:25).
2.IntheNT.IntheNTthewordsalvation(stria,fromstr,saviour)issometimesappliedtotemporalbenefits,likehealings(e.g.Mt9:22thyfaith
hathmadetheewhole,lit.savedthee),butmostgenerallyitisemployedasacomprehensivetermforthespiritualandeternalblessingsbroughttomenbythe
appearanceandredeemingworkofJesusChrist.ThenameJesuswasgivenHimbecauseitishethatshallsavehispeoplefromtheirsins(Mt1:21)Heis
distinctivelytheSaviour(Lk2:11)Hisworkonearthwastoseekandtosavethatwhichwaslost(Lk19:10)Hisdeathandresurrectionwereameansto
salvation(Ro5:8,10)HeisexaltedtobeaPrinceandaSaviourtogiverepentanceandremissionofsins(Ac5:31)innoneotheristheresalvation(4:12).In
Apostolicusage,therefore,salvationistheallembracingnamefortheblessingsbroughtbythegospel(cf.thegospelofyoursalvation,Eph1:13thewordofthis
salvation,Ac13:26repentanceuntosalvation,2Co7:10etc.).Toexpoundfullythecontentsofthisterm,accordingly,wouldbetoexpoundthecontentsofthe
gospel.Enoughheretosaythatitincludesdeliverancefromallsinsevils,andthebestowalofallspiritualblessingsinChrist(Eph1:3).Itbeginsonearthin
forgiveness,renewal,thebestowaloftheHolySpirit,enlightenment,guidance,strengthening,comfortandisperfectedintheblessednessandglory,inwhichbody
andsoulshare,ofthelifeeverlasting.Thefactnevertoheforgottenaboutitis,thatithasbeenobtainedattheinfinitecostoftheredeemingdeathofGodsown
Son(cf.
Rev.5:8).Forfurtherelucidations,seeartt.ATONEMENT,MEDIATOR,REDEMPTION.JAMESORR.
SAMAIAS.1.(1Es1:9)=Shemaiah,2Ch35:9.2.(1Es8:39)=Shemaiah,Ezr8:13.3.(1Es8:44)=Shemaiah,Ezr8:15.
SAMARIA.AcitybuiltonahillpurchasedbyOmri,kingofIsrael,fromacertain
Shemer,andbyhimmadethecapitaloftheIsraelitekingdom(1K16:24).Wegatherfrom1K20:34thatBenhadadI.,kingofSyria,successfullyattackeditsoon
afterwards,andhadcompelledOmritogranthimfavourabletradefacilities.AhabherebuiltaBaaltemple(1K16:32)andapalaceofivory(22:39).BenhadadII.
herebesiegedAhab,butunsuccessfully,andwasobligedtoreversethetermshisfatherhadexactedfromOmri.Jehoramattemptedafeebleandhalfheartedreform,
destroyingAhabsBaalpillar,thoughretainingthecalfworship(2K3:2)andtheashrah(13:5).ThecitywasagainbesiegedinhistimebyBenhadadII.(2K6,
7).
AfterthiseventthehistoryofSamariaisboundupwiththetroublesomeinternalaffairsofthe
NorthernKingdom,andweneednotfollowitcloselytillwereachB.C.724,whenShalmaneser
.besiegedSamariainpunishmentforkingHosheasdisaffection.ItfellthreeyearslaterandSargon,whohadmeanwhilesucceededShalmaneserontheAssyrian
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IV.besiegedSamariainpunishmentforkingHosheasdisaffection.ItfellthreeyearslaterandSargon,whohadmeanwhilesucceededShalmaneserontheAssyrian
throne,deporteditsinhabitants,substitutinganumberofpeopledrawnfromotherplaces(2K17).InB.C.331itwasbesiegedandconqueredbyAlexander,andin
B.C.120byJohnHyrcanus.Herodcarriedoutimportantbuildingworkshere,largeportionsofwhichstillremain.HechangedthenametoSebasteinhonourof
Augustus.Philippreachedhere(Ac8:5).Thecity,however,graduallydecayed,fadingbeforethegrowingimportanceofNeapolis(Shechem).TheCrusaders
establishedabishoprichere.
ExtensiveremainsofancientSamariastillexistatthemoundknownasSebustyeh(Sebaste),ashortdistancefromNblus.Itisoneofthelargestandmost
importantmoundsinancientPalestine.ExcavationsundertheauspicesofHarvardUniversitywerebegunin1908.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
SAMARITANS.ThedescendantsoftheCuthites,Avvites,Sepharvites,andHamathites,establishedbySargoninSamariaafterhehadputanendtothe
Israelitekingdom.TheywereinstructedinaformoftheHebrewreligion(whichtheygraftedontotheirownworships)inordertoappeasetheGodoftheland(2
K17:24).TothesecolonistsAshurbanipalmadeconsiderableadditions(Ezr4:9,10).TheenmitybetweenJewsandSamaritansbegantomakeitsappearance
immediatelyafterthereturnfromtheCaptivity.TheSamaritansendeavouredtopreventtherebuildingofJerusalem(Ezr4:7,Neh4:7),andfromtimetotimetheir
subsequentaggressionsandinsultstotherefoundedJewishStatearerecordedbyJosephus.AfterthebattleofIssustheSamaritansofferedassistancetoAlexander,
andwereallowedtobuildatempleonGerizim,wheretheysacrificedafterthemanneroftheJewsthoughtheywerequitereadytorepudiateJewishorigin,rite,
andprejudicewheneveroccasionarose(seeJos.Ant.XII.v.5).ThistemplewasdestroyedbyJohnHyrcanus.ThedisputesbetweentheJewsandtheSamaritans
wereatlastreferredtoRome(BJII.xii.37).ThroughouttheGospelhistorytheillfeelingisconspicuous:theSamaritanswerestrangers,(Lk17:18),andtheir
admixtureofheathenworshipseemsstilltohavepersisted(Jn4:22).Vespasianinflictedacrushingblowuponthembymassacring11,600onMt.Gerizim.From
thisandothersufferingslaterinflictedbyZenoandJustiniantheyneverrecovered.Theystillpersist,tothenumberofabout150,inNblus.Theyacknowledgethe
Pentateuchallegislationonly,andendeavourtopreserveintacttheMosaicritesandordinances.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
SAMATUS(1Es9:34)=Shallum,Ezr10:42.
SAMECH.ThefifteenthletteroftheHebrewalphabet,andassuchemployedinthe119thPsalmtodesignatethe15thpart,eachverseofwhichbeginswith
thisletter.
SAMELLIUS(1Es2:16,17,25,30)=Shimshai,Ezr4:8etc.
SAMEUS(1Es9:21)=Shemaiah,Ezr10:21.
SAMGARNEBOOneoftheBabylonianprinceswho,atthetakingofJerusalembyNebuchadnezzar,inthe11thyearofZedekiah,cameandsatinthe
middlegate(Jer39:3).Therehasbeenmuchdiscussionconcerningthisname,duetothevaryingformsoftheGreekversion.Themostprobableexplanationisthat
ofSchrader,namely,ShumgirNab,anamemeaningBegracious,ONebo.As,however,RabsarisandRabmagaretitles,thequestionariseswhetherSamgar
nebomaynotbeonealso.Ifso,itmaybeacorruptionofsanguNebo,thepriestofNebo,anofficepossiblyheldbyNergalsharezer,who,ifidenticalwith
kingNeriglissar,wascloselyconnectedwithEzida,thetempleofNeboatBorsippa.HisdaughtermarriedapriestofEzidainthefirstyearofhisreign.
T.G.P INCHES.
SAMLAH.AnEdomiteking(Gn36:36f.=1Ch1:47f.).
SAMMUS(1Es9:43)=Shema,Neh8:4.
SAMOSwasanimportantislandintheganSeaoffthecoastofIonia.Itwasacentreofluxury,art,andscience.InB.C.84itwasunitedtotheprovinceof
Asia,andinB.C.17wasmadeafreeStatebyAugustus.ThisitwaswhenSt.Paultouchedhere(Ac20:15)onhiswayhomefromhisthirdjourney.Therewere
manyJewishresidentsontheisland,anditwasoneoftheplacesaddressedbytheRomansinfavouroftheJews(1Mac15:23).
A.S OUTER.
SAMOTHRACE.AnislandS.ofThraceandN.W.ofTroas,fromwhichplaceSt.Paulhadastraightruntoit(Ac16:11).Thetownofthesamenamewason
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SAMOTHRACE.AnislandS.ofThraceandN.W.ofTroas,fromwhichplaceSt.Paulhadastraightruntoit(Ac16:11).Thetownofthesamenamewason
theN.sideoftheisland.Theislandismountainous,andhasasummitnearlyamileabovethesealevel.ItowesitsnameperhapstoitsresemblancetoSamos(wh.
see).SamothraceplayedlittlepartinGreekhistory,butwasfamousastheseatofthemysteriouscultofthedivinitiesknownasCabeiri.
A.S OUTER.
SAMPSAMES.One of the places to which the Romans wrote in favour of the Jews (1 Mac 15:23) usually identified with Samsun, a seaport town on the
BlackSea.RVm,withVulg.,hasLampsacus.
SAMSON(LXXandVulg.Heb.Shimshnprobablyderivedfromshemesh,sun,eitherasadiminutive,orbettersunman).MentionedinOTinJg1316
,andinNTinHe11:32.
1.Thestoryneednotberecapitulated,butcertaindetailsrequireexplanation.13:25seemstobethepreludetoafirstexploit,nowlost.14isnotclearasit
standsprobablyhisfatherandhismotherinvv.5,6b,10aareglossesintroducedtoavoidtheappearanceofdisobedience.Hegoesdownalone,meetsthelion
alone,returnstohishomeafterhisvisittohisbride(v.8totakeherbeinganothergloss)thenafteranintervalhegoesbacktocelebratethemarriagehehas
arrangedv.10aisparticularlyabsurdasitstands.Thethirtycompanionsofv.11arethefriendsofthebridegroom,chosenonthisoccasionfromthebrides
people(seebelow,4)thecompanionofv.20istheirleader,thebestman.Thelinengarmentsofv.12arepiecesoffinelinen,costlyandluxurious(Pr31:24,
Is3:23)thechangesaregaladresses.ThePhilistinesgiveuptheriddleafterthreedays(v.14),andappealtothewomanontheseventh(v.15LXXSyr.
fourth)yetsheweepsforthewholeweek,imploringSamsontotellher(v.17).Perhapsthefiguresofvv.14,15areinterpolations,thePhilistinesgivingupat
once.Beforethesunwentdown(v.18)isungrammaticalinHeb.,withararewordforsunwithbestmodernedd.,readbyaslightalterationbeforehewentinto
thebridalchamber(cf.15:1).Inch.16,words,variouslyrepresentedbyLXX,havefallenoutbetweenv.13andv.14thesenseisandbeatthemupwiththe
pin,Ishallbecomeweak,Sowhilehewasasleepshetookthesevenlocksandwovethemintotheweb,andbeatthemtightwiththepin,etc.Wearetoimaginean
uprightloomwithapieceofunfinishedstuffDelilahweavesthehairintothis,andheatsittightwiththepin.Samsonpullsupthepostsoftheloombyhishair
whichisfastenedtotheweb.Forv.21,cf.theblindingofcaptivesasshownonAssyr.monumentstobeputtothemillwasafrequentpunishmentofslaves.
NothingisknownoftheworshipofDagon(cf.1S5)theetymologyfishgodandtheconnexionwiththeAssyr.godDaganareuncertain.
2.Originandnatureofthestory.(a)ThenarrativeseemstobelongentirelytoJ,theJudansourceoftheearlyhistoryofIsraeltherearenotracesofa
doublesource,asinotherpartsofJudges.IthasbeenbutslightlyrevisedbytheDeuteronomiceditor.Ch.16,thoughanintegralpartoftheoriginalcycleofstories,
wasapparentlyatonetimeomittedbythecompilerseetherepeatednotein15:20,16:31.Perhapsitgavetoounfavourableapictureoftheherosloveaffairs.(b)
ThoughitissaidthatSamsonjudgedIsraeltwentyyears(15:20),andthatheshouldbegintodeliverhisnationfromthePhilistines(13:5),thereisnohintofhis
everhavingheldanyofficialposition,nordoesheappearasaleaderofhispeopleonthecontrary,heisdisownedbyhisneighboursofJudah(15:11).Hisexploits
haveonlyalocalsignificance,andareperformedsinglehandedinrevengeforhisprivatequarrels.Thestoryevidentlybelongstotheclassofpopulartales,
commontoeverycountryside.Everypeoplehasitsheroofprodigiousstrength,towhommarvellousfeatsareascribed,anditbecomesahopelesstasktodiscover
theprecisehistoricalbasisofthelegends,whichinthiscaseareundoubtedlyofgreatantiquity.(c)Itisnotnecessarytolookforafurtherexplanationinthetheory
ofasolarmyth.ThenameSamson,andtheexistenceofaBethshemesh(houseofthesun)nearhishome,offeranobvioustemptationtosuchatheory,butit
isentirelyunnecessaryandisnowgenerallyabandoned.(d)Itismoreprobablethatinch.15wefindtheworkingsoffolketymology(tiologicalmyth),i.e.
storiessuggestedbythefanciedmeaningofnames.RamathLehi(theheightofLehi)istakentomeanthecastingawayofthejawboneEnhakkore(Partridge
spring),thespringofhimwhocalledandincidentsaresuggestedtoexplainthesupposedmeanings.(e)Theparallelswithotherpopularstories,especiallythe
exploitsofHercules,areobvious,e.g.thekillingofthelion,themiraculoussatisfyingoftheherosthirst,andhisruinatthehandofawoman.Forthelionepisode,
cf.,further,thestoriesofPolydamas,David(1S17:34),Benaiah(2S23:20)forthesacredhairorlock,cf.thestoryofNisus.Ovid(Fasti,lv.
681712)hasaremarkableparalleltotheburningofthecornbythefoxes(orjackals?)attheCereaila,foxeswithlightedtorchestiedtotheirtailswereletloosein
theCircusheexplainsthecustomasoriginallyduetotheactofamischievousboy,whoburnedhisfatherscorninthesameway.Theconclusiontobedrawnfrom
suchparallelsisnotnecessarilyidentityoforigin,butthesimilarworkingofthemindandimaginationundersimilarconditions.
3.Historicalvalue.Regardedasapictureofearlyconditionsandcustoms,thenarrativeisofthegreatestsignificance.Politicallyittakesustothetimewhen
Dan,perhapsweakenedbythedepartureofits600menofwar(Jg1:34,18)acquiescesintheruleofthePhilistinesTimnahisintheirhands.Thereisnostateof
warbetweenthetwopeoples,butfreeintercourseandevenintermarriage.Asalreadypointedout,Samsonisinnosensetheleaderofarevoltagainsttheforeign
dominion,andhisneighboursofJudahshownodesiretomakehisprivatequarrelsanexcuseforarising(15:11)thereisnounionevenbetweenthetribesofthe
south.Nonetheless,hisexploitswouldbesecretlywelcomedasdirectedagainstthecommonfoe,andrememberingthatJg1721isanappendix,weseehowthe
narrativepavesthewayforthemoredefinedeffortsofSaulandDavidin1Samueltoshakeofftheforeignyoke.Sociatlythestorygivesusapictureofprimitive
marriagecustoms.Ch.14istheclearestOTexampleofasadikamarriage(seeMARRIAGE,1).Wegetagoodideaoftheproceedings,essentiallythesameasin 21/116
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marriagecustoms.Ch.14istheclearestOTexampleofasadikamarriage(seeMARRIAGE,1).Wegetagoodideaoftheproceedings,essentiallythesameasin
theEasttoday.Thefeastlastsforaweek,andismarkedbylavisheatinganddrinking,songs,riddles,andnotveryrefinedmerriment.Thewholestorygivesusa
valuableinsightintothelifeofthepeoplewenotethegrimroughhumourofitshero,soentirelynatural(ch.14,thethreedeceptionsofch.16,16:28RVm).
4.Religioussignificance.Samsonisapopularhero,andweshallexpectthedirectlyreligiousinterestofthestorytobesubordinate.Itappearsintheaccount
ofhisbirth,perhapshardlyapartoftheoriginalcycle,butaddedlatertojustifyhisinclusionamongtheJudges.Asachildofpromise,heisinapeculiarsensea
giftofGod,borntodoaspecialworkanoverrulingprovidencegovernshisacts(14:4,16:30).Thesourceofhisstrengthissupernaturalattimesitisrepresented
asduetoademonicfrenzy,aninvasionofthespiritofJ(13:25,14:6,19,15:14),butin13,16itliesinhishairheisaNaziriteofGod.TherulesfortheNazirite
aregiveninNu6:1thoseinJg13arethesame,withthegeneralprohibitionofuncleanfood.Theessenceoftheconceptionlayinavowtosacrificethehairata
sacredshrine,thelifelongvowbeingprobablyavowtodosoatstatedperiods.Thehair,liketheblood,wasregardedasaseatoflife,andwasacommonoffering
notonlyamongtheSemites,butinallpartsoftheworld.InArabiathevowtoleavethelocksunshornwasparticularlyconnectedwithwarsofrevenge(Dt32:42
RVm,Ps68:21).Assoonasavowwastaken,thelifeofthevotarybecameacontinuousactofreligionparticularlymustthebody,whichnourishesthehair(now
thepropertyofthedeity),bekeptcleanfromalldefilementthetabooofthevineanditsproductsisesp.common(cf.Am2:11,12).Inthestoryitselfnostressis
laidonanysuchprecautionsonthepartofSamson(e.g.in14:8heeatsfromacarcase),andhencenodoubtthetaboosweretransferredtohismother(13:4).There
isunfortunatelylittlebasisforthereligiousfeelingwithwhichMiltonhasinvestedthecharacterofSamson.Heisapopularhero,andthepermanentvalueofthe
storyistobesoughtinitsethicallessons.Itistrue,itsmoralityisonalowlevelrevengeisSamsonsrulingidea,andhisrelationswithwomenhavebeena
stumblingblocktoapologists.Butoncewerecognizetheoriginofthestory,weshallnotfeelboundtojustifyorexplainawaythesetraits,andthelessonsstandout
clearly.Thestoryemphasizestheevilsofforeignmarriages(14:3),oflaxityinsexualrelations,andoftoyingwithtemptation.Itteachesthatbodilyendowments,no
lessthanspiritual,areagiftfromGod,howeverdifferentmaybeourmodernconceptionofthewayinwhichtheyarebestowed,andthattheirretentiondependson
obediencetoHislaws.ButifSamsonstandsasanexampleofimpotenceofmindinbodystrong,healsostands,inMiltonsmagnificentconception,asan
exampleofpatriotismandheroismindeath,toallwho
fromhismemoryinflametheirbreasttomatchlessvalourandadventureshigh.
C.W.EMMET.
SAMUEL.ThelifeofSamuelisviewedfromwidelydifferingstandpointsindifferentsectionsofthebooksthatbearhisname.Intheoldestnarrative,found
in1S9,heappearsasaseerfromthelandofZuph,towhomSaulandhisservant,whoareseekingthelostassesofKish,Saulsfather,applyforhelp.Saulhad
hesitatedaboutapplyingtothemanofGod,onthescoreofnothavingagifttopresent,buttheservantproducedthefourthpartofashekelofsilverwithwhichto
compensatetheseer.Samuel,whohadbeenDivinelyapprisedoftheircoming,metthemwhilehewasonhiswaytoworshipatthehighplace,andaftertheyhad
partakenofhishospitalityandpassedthenightwithhim,henominatedandanointedSaulasIsraelscomingking.HefurthergaveSaulsignsbywhichheshould
knowthatthepromiseswouldhefulfilled,andcommittedhimtotheSpiritofGod.Inanothernarrative(chs.13),whichdiffersinpointofviewratherthanin
trustworthiness,arerecitedtheincidentsofSamuelsearlylifeandrelationstothekingdom.Hannah,hismother,thewifeofElkanah,wasbarren.Duringthe
celebrationoftheyearlyfeastshevowsthatifGodwillgiveherasonshewillgivehimtoJehovah.Samuelisthereforethesonofansweredprayer,andisindue
timededicatedtotheTempleserviceatShiloh,whereheassistsEli,iswarnedbyJehovahofthecomingdestructionofElishouse,andreceivesthecalltothe
propheticoffice.
AfterthedeathofEliandthereturnofthearkfromthePhilistines,SamuelbecomesjudgeofIsrael,callsthepeopletorepentanceatMizpah,andsavesthem
miraculouslyfromtheinvadingPhilistines(ch.7).Heissucceededinthejudgeshipbyunworthysons,andIsrael,outragedattheirsinfulnessandworthlessness,
demandsakingaproposition,intheestimationofSamuel,tantamounttoarejectionofJehovah,thoughnosuchsuggestionwasmadewhenhevoluntarily
appointedSaul.Neverthelessheyieldstotheirwish,hutdescribesinsombrecolourstheoppressionstheymustendureunderthemonarchy(ch.8).Accordinglythe
peopleareassembledatMizpah,againaccusedofforsakingJehovah,andSaulisselectedbylot(10:1724).Samuelnowmakeshisfarewelladdress(ch.12),
defendshisadministration,warnsthepeople,byreferencestotheirpasthistory,ofthedangerofdisobeyingJehovah,andcompelsnaturetoattesthiswordsbya
thunderstorminharvesttime.
TheinsignificantrleplayedbySamuelinthefirstnarrativecitedisverynoticeablewhencomparedwiththepositionaccordedhiminthatwhichfollows.Inthefirstheisan
obscureseer,andtakesbutaminorpartintheestablishmentofthekingdom.Inthelatterheisacommandinganddominatingfigure.Heisajudgeofthepeople,adjudicatingtheir
affairsyearlyatBethel,Gilgal,andMizpah.Saul,aswellasthemonarchy,iscontrolledanddirectedbyhim.
ThenarrativeofSamuelsprominenceissucceededbyanaccount(ch.13)fromadifferentsourceofSaulsattackonthePhilistines.Thestoryisinterrupted
at13:815byacomplaintthatSaulhaddisobeyedinofferingsacrificebeforethebattle,althoughhehadwaitedtherequiredsevendaysasinstructedbySamuel.It
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isdifficulttoseewhereinSaulwasguilty.Samuelhadnotappearedaccordingtoagreement.ThePhilistineswereclosinginuponSaul,hisarmywasfastmelting
away,itwasnecessarytogivebattle,anditwouldhavebeenconsideredirreligioustoinauguratethebattlewithoutsacrifice.ForthisrebellionSamuelinformshim
thathiskingdomisforfeit,andthatJehovahhaschosenanother,amanafterHisownheart,totakehisplace.
AgainSaulisinstructedbySamuel(ch.15)todestroyAmalekmen,women,children,andspoilbuthesparesAgagandthebestofthebooty.Allhisexcuses
arerejected,andSamuelnowattributesthelossofhiskingdomtothenewdisobedience.Thisnarrativedoesnotseemconsciousthatthekingdomwasalreadylost
toSaul.Thekingconfesseshisfault,andafterrepeatedpersuasionSamuelagreestohonourhimbeforehispeoplebyworshippingwithhim.Agagisthenbrought
beforeSamuel,whohewshimtopiecesbeforetheLord.AfterthisSamuelissenttothehomeofJessetoselectandanointasuccessortoSaul.Onebyonethesons
ofJessearerejected,tillDavid,theyoungest,isbroughtfromthefield,andprovestobethechoiceofJehovah(ch.16).WiththissignificantactSamuelpractically
disappears.WefindanaccountofhiskeepingaschooloftheprophetsatRamah,whitherDavidfleestoescapeSaul(19:1824).Laterwehaveashortaccountof
hisdeathandburialatRamah(25:1).Thereisalsoamentionofhisdeathinch.28,andthestoryofSaulsapplicationtothewitchofEndortocallupSamuelfrom
thedead.
J.H.S TEVENSON.
SAMUEL,BOOKSOF
1.Title.ThetwoBooksofSamuelarereallypartsofwhatwasoriginallyonebook.ThisisshownnotonlybythefactthatthenarrativeofBookI.is
continuedwithouttheslightestinterruptioninBookII.,andthatthestyle,tone,pointofview,andpurposearethesamethroughput,butalsobytheirappearanceas
onebookbearingthesimpletitleSamuelintheoldestknownHebrewMSS.ThedivisionoftheHebrewtextintotwobookswasfirstmadeinprintbyDaniel
BomberginhisHebrewBible(2nded.1517).IndoingsohewasinpartfollowingthetextoftheSeptuagintandtheVulgate,inwhichtheBooksofSamueland
KingsaredescribedastheFirst,Second,Third,andFourthBooksofKingdoms(LXX),orKings(Vulgate).ThetitleSamuel,lessaccuratelydescriptiveofthe
contentsthanthatofKingdomsorKings,owesitsorigintotheprominentplaceheldbySamuelin1S116.AlateJewishinterpretationregardeditasdeclaring
Samuelsauthorshipofthenarrativebutthisisimpossible,inviewofthefactthatthehistoryextendsthroughthereignofDavid,longafterthedeathofSamuel(1
S25:1).
2.Contents.TheperiodcoveredbytheBooksofSamuelextendsfromthebirthofSamueltothecloseofDavidsreign,i.e.approximatelyfromB.C.1070to
B.C.970.Thenarrativefallsintothreemaindivisions:I.:SamuelandSaul,1S115II.:TheRiseofDavid,1S162S5:3III.:DavidaskingofUnitedIsrael,2
S5:424.DivisionI.ismadeupofthreesections:(1)
ThechildhoodandyouthofSamuel,tothedownfallofElishouseandthecaptivityoftheArk(1S17:1)(2)SamuelscareerasJudge,includinghisdefeatof
thePhilistines,hisanointingofSaul,andhisfarewelladdress(1S7:212)(3)Saulsreigntillhisrejection(1S1315).
DivisionII.likewiseincludesthreesections:(1)DavidatSaulsCourt(1S16:121:1)(2)
Davidasafugitiveoutlaw(1S21:22S1)(3)DavidaskinginHebron(2S25:3).DivisionIII.formsthreemoresections:(1)establishmentofJerusalemasthe
religiousandnationalcapital,andabriefsummaryofDavidsreign(2S5:48)(2)supplementarynarratives,settingforthparticularlyDavidsgreatsinand
subsequenttroubles(2S920)(3)aseriesofappendixes(2S2124).1K12:11reallybelongsto2Sam.,sinceitrelatesthecircumstancesattendingthedeath
ofDavid,andthusbringsthenarrativetoitsnaturalclose.
3.TextandVersions.ThetextofSamuelistheworstintheOTonlyEzekielandHoseacanapproachitinthisrespect.Manypassagesareunintelligibleon
thebasisoftheMassoretictext.Thelargeamountofcorruptionmaybedueinparttotherelativelygreatantiquityofthetext,muchofthenarrativebeingamong
theoldestwritingsintheHebrewBibleand,inpart,tothefactthatthesebookswerenotusedintheordinarysynagogueservices,andsowerenotsocarefully
transmittedastheyotherwisewouldhavebeen.Unfortunately,theoldestexistingHebrewmanuscriptofSamueldatesitsoriginnofartherbackthanthetenth
centuryofourera.Witheachcopyingandrecopyingduringthemanyprecedingcenturiesfreshopportunityforerrorwasaffordedandthewonderisnotthatthere
aresomanyerrors,butthattherearenotmore.InanyefforttorecovertheoriginaltextlargeusemustbemadeoftheSeptuagint,whichisbaseduponaHebrew
textatleastasoldasthe3rdcent.B.C.,andhaspreservedtheoriginalreadinginmanycases,whileshowingtracesofitinothers.TheSyriacandVulgateversions
arealsouseful,buttoafarlessextent.
4.SourcesandDate.TheBooksofSamuel,likealmosteveryotherOTwriting,areacompilationfromvarioussources,ratherthantheresultofacareful
studyofearliersourcespresentedintheformofaunified,logical,andphilosophicalstatementoffactsandconclusions.Weareheregiventhesourcesthemselves,
andareinlargepartlefttodrawourownconclusions.Thecompositecharacterofthebooksisevidenced(1)bytheexistenceofdifferingliterarystyleswithin
them(2)bythepresenceofvaryingandconflictingtheologicalstandpoints(3)bythefactthattheyexhibitradicallydifferentattitudestowardsthefoundingofthe
monarchy(cf.e.g.1S8:122and9:110,16)and(4)bytheappearanceoftwoormorenarrativesofoneandthesameevent.Inillustrationofthislastpointwe
maycite(a)thethreeaccountsofSaulschoiceaskinggivenin1S911(b)thetwoaccountsofDavidsintroductiontoSaulin1S16:17ff.and17:55ff.(c)the
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maycite(a)thethreeaccountsofSaulschoiceaskinggivenin1S911(b)thetwoaccountsofDavidsintroductiontoSaulin1S16:17ff.and17:55ff.(c)the
twofoldannouncementofthefateofElishousein1S2:2736and3:11ff.(d)thedoublerejectionofSaulin1S13:715and15:135(e)thetwoaccountsof
Davidsflightto
Achishin1S21:10ff.and27:1ff.(f)thetwonarrativesofDavidsparingSaulslifein1S23:19ff.and26:1ff.oneofthemostmarkedexamplesofadoublet
(g)thedifferingdescriptionsofthedeathofSaulgivenin1S31and2S1(h)thevaryingtraditionsof
Absalomsfamilyfoundin2S14:25ff.and18:18(i)theinconsistencyof1S7:13f.with1314and(j)thestorythatGoliathwasslainbyDavidin1S17,butby
Elhananin2S21:19.
Phenomenaofthiskindaremuchmoreeasilyaccountedforonthesuppositionthatwearedealingherewiththeworksofdifferenthands,thanonthehypothesisof
asingleauthoruponwhomalonealltheresponsibilityforthecontentsofthebooksmustbeplaced.
ThisfactofcompositeoriginisgrantedbyallstudentsoftheBooksofSamuel.Intheattempt,however,toresolvethenarrativeintoitsoriginalelements,two
differentschoolsofanalystshavebeenformed.TotheonebelongsuchscholarsasBudde,Cornill,H.P.Smith,Driver,Nowack,Stenning,andKenttotheother,
Wellhausen,Kuenen,Lhr,Kittel,Stade,andKennedy.Buddeandhisfollowersfindtwomainsourcesrunningthroughthebooksandcoveringpracticallythesame
ground,thoughfromdifferingpointsofview.Thesesources,whichBuddehimselfassignstothesameschoolofpropheticwritersthatproducedtheJandE
narrativesoftheHexateuch,aresupposedtohaveoriginatedfromthe9thtothe8thcents.B.C.theJsourcebeingtheolderofthetwo.Thesetwosourceswerethen
supplementedandunitedbyeditorssomewhereintheearlypartofthe7thcent.B.C.andfinallythebooksweregiventheirpresentformbyaDeuteronomiceditor
whorevisedtheexistingmaterialsandaddedmaterialsofhisownsometimeintheExile.Buddesdistributionofthematerialsamongthesourcesisasfollows
[figureswithinparenthesesinJindicatelaterelementsinEtheydesignatetheolderportionsofthedocument]:
J=1S9:110:7,(10:8),10:916a,13:27a,(7b15a.)15b18,(1821)22,14:146,14:52,
16:1423,18:511,18:2030,19:1,46,7b18a,20:13,1839,22:14,610a,1118,22:2023:14a,19a,23:2024:20,25:2ff.,27:128:15,28:1931:132S
1:14,11,12,1723,2:16:23,8:814a,1618,9:121:22,23:7bff.,24:125.
E=lS1:15,728,2:1126,3:110,1521,(4:118a,5:17:1),7:28:22a,12:125,15:1,(15:223),15:2431,(15:32f.),15:34f.2S(1:610,1316),7:1
29.
P REEXILICEDITORS=1S1:6,2:22b,4:15,22,6:11b,15,17,18a,19,8:22b,9:2b,9,10:9a,
16b,2627,11:7,8b,1214,13:1922,16:113,17:12f.,18:21b,19:2f.,7a,1824,20:417,4042,21:1115,22:4,10b,23:19b,24:2123a,24,25:1,28:3,
1618,30:5,18b2S1:5,2:23b,3:6a,30,8:6b,11,12,11:21a,13:18a,38a,14:2527,20:2326,21:2b,3a,7,23:14,23a.
EXILICEDITOR=1S2:2736,3:1114,13:1,14:47512S2:10a,11,5:4f.,7:13,18:16,14b,162S12:7,8,1012,24:1a.
OFUNCERTAINORIOIN=1S2:1102S22:1ff.,23:1ff.,
This,whichwemaycallthetwosourcetheorybecauseofthepredominantplaceofthetwomainsources,isinitsgeneralfeaturestheprevailingviewatthe
presenttime.Intheassignmentofcertainpassages,however,thereisconsiderablevarietyofopinion,andintheidentificationofthetwomainsourceswithJandE,
BuddeandCornillarenotfollowedbyseveraladherentsofthetwosourceview.
Theanalysispresentedbytheopposingschool(Wellhausen,Stade,Kennedy,etal.)differsfromtheforegoingchiefly(a)indenyingtheunityofthetwo
sources,JandErespectively(b)inrefusingtorecognizeanyrelationshipofthesesourcestoJandEand(c)inproposinganotherchronologicalassignmentofthe
sources.Kennedy,e.g.,thelatestrepresentativeofthisschool,resolvesBuddesJintothreemainelements,anddatesthesethreedocumentsfromthemiddleofthe
10thcent.B.C.BuddesElikewisefallsintothreefragmentsunderKennedysexaminationoneoftheseisalifeofSamueldatingfromaboutB.C.630anotherand
largerportionisfromaDeuteronomicwriterandasmallremainderconsistsofpreexillcduplicatesofsomenarrativesappearinginBuddesJ.
TheprecisedelimitationofthevarioussourcesandtheexactwayinwhichtheBooksofSamuelassumedtheirpresentformmustremainforthefutureto
determine.Theunmistakablefactisthatthesebooksintheirpresentformareduetothelaboursoflateexiliceditorswhowroughtthemoutofexistingdocuments,
someofwhichshowDeuteronomiccolouring,whileotherscomefromearlypreexilictimes,somewhereaboutB.C.900.AscomparedwiththeBooksofKingsand
Chronicles,oreventheBookofJudges,Samuelshowsfarlessevidenceofeditorialadditionsandmodifications.Thevarioussourcesareforthemostpartallowed
totelltheirstoriesintheirownway.ThereisatotalabsenceofanysuchtheologicalstraitjacketasisfoundintheeditorialframeworkoftheBooksofKings.We
thushaveintheBooksofSamuelsomeofthefinestexamplesofthehistoricalwritingsoftheHebrewsinthevariousstagesoftheirdevelopment.
5.Historicalvalue.InestimatingthehistoricalvalueoftheBooksofSamuel,caremustbetakentodiscriminatesharplybetweenthebooksthemselvesand
thesourceswhichconstitutethem.Thebooksthemselvesaretheproductofalongliteraryhistory,theworkofvariousmenlivinginwidelyscatteredperiods.They
thusformasourcebook,ratherthanahistoryinthemodernsense.ItisforthisreasonthattheyaresoextremelyvaluabletothemodernhistorianofIsrael.Fora 24/116
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thesourceswhichconstitutethem.Thebooksthemselvesaretheproductofalongliteraryhistory,theworkofvariousmenlivinginwidelyscatteredperiods.They
thusformasourcebook,ratherthanahistoryinthemodernsense.ItisforthisreasonthattheyaresoextremelyvaluabletothemodernhistorianofIsrael.Fora
correctpictureofthetimesofSamuel,Saul,andDavid,itgoeswithoutsayingthattheoldestsourcesarethemosttrustworthy.Failuretopaintoriginalscenesand
characterswithaproperperspectiveincreasesindirectproportiontothedistanceofthenarratorfromthethingshedescribes.Hencethelaterelementsinthese
booksareprimarilyofvaluenotassourcesofinformationconcerningthetimesoftheearlymonarchy,butasreflectingthepointofviewandthebackgroundof
theirwriters.Theoldersources,however,comingfromaperiodwithinacenturyortwooftheeventstheynarrate,furnishuswithaccurateinformationandare
amongthebesthistoricalrecordsintheOT.Theyareespeciallyrichinbiographicalmaterials.TheyhelpustoseeSaulandDavidandtheircontemporariesasthey
reallywere.TheygiveusglimpsesofSamuelasthelocalseer,knownonlywithinthenarrowlimitsofhisownimmediatedistrictof
Davidasthefugitive,thefreebooter,theoutlaw,theidolofhismen,thedevotedservantofJehovah,andyetcapableofthemostdastardlydeedsofSaulasthe
bravewarrior,thepatriot,thereligiousenthusiast,themoodychieftainofhisclan.Thesemen,withJoab,Absalom,andothers,liveandmovebeforeoureyes.
AstillfurtherserviceoftheBooksofSamuelisinthelighttheythrowuponthedevelopmentofreligiouspracticesandideasinIsrael.Kennedyrightlysays:
ThestudyofthisbookhascontributedmorethananythingelsetothemoreaccurateviewsofthehistoricaldevelopmentofreligiousthoughtinOTtimes,whichare
characteristicofthepresentday.Thebooksrepresentfromfirsttolastaperiodofaboutfivehundredyears,duringwhichtimethereligionofIsraelwasadvancing
byleapsandboundsundertheleadershipoftheprophets.Theycontain,therefore,therecordofthisprogress.Instancesofthismaybeseeninthewidedifference
betweentheattitudetowardsforeigngodsascribedtoDavidin1S26:19(anearlysource),andthatappearingin12:21(alatesource)intheprimitiveconceptionof
revelationpresentedinthestoryofSamuelscall(3:1ff.)inthenarrativesdealingwiththeoriginofprophecy(9:7ff.),andthesonsoftheprophets(e.g.10:5ff.)in
theuseoftheteraphim(19:13ff.)andtheephod(23:612)andintheadvancedconceptionofGodappearinginsuchpassagesas2S7:22.TheBooksofSamuel
arethusinvaluabletothehistorianofIsraelsreligious,social,andpoliticallife.
6.Purpose.Butthepurposeofthesebooksisnottoserveasabare,coldrecordofeventsandtheircausessuchmattersareofonlysecondaryimportance
theyarebutmeanstoanend.Theirgreatpurposeistoteachreligiontheygivesermons,notannalstheyareprophecy,nothistory.IntheHebrewcanonthey
occupyaplacealongsideofthepropheticbooks,andtheentiredivisiontowhichtheybelongisentitledtheProphets.JustasAmosandIsaiahdealwiththefacts
ofthepresent,interpretingthemasexpressionsofJehovahswillandusingthemtodrivehomemoralandspiritualtruthtotheheartsandconsciencesoftheir
hearers,sothesewritershavedealtwiththefactsofthepast.Whattheyhavegivenus,then,ishistoryseenthroughtheeyesofprophets.Thehorizonofthe
prophets,however,wasfilledwithreligiontheythemselveswerenothingifnotreligioustheirwholebeingthrobbedwiththeenergyofreligion.Consequentlyitis
notsurprisingthateverythinginthenarrativesispresentedfromthepointofviewofreligion,andinsuchawayastocountmostforthefurtheranceofreligious
ideals.Thisisnotsayingthatthesewritersconsciouslyanddeliberatelychangedthecourseofevents,orshiftedtheemphasisfromonepointtoanotherinorderto
accomplishtheirpurposebutratherthattheywrotethingsastheythemselvesconceivedofthem,andthat,beingprophets,theycouldconceiveofIsraelshistoryin
nootherwaythanasthroughandthroughreligious,astheembodimentofJehovahsrevelationofHimselfandHiswilltoHispeople.Thisistheprophets
philosophyofhistory,andassuchmustcommenditselftothemindandconscienceoftheChristianChurch.
J.M.P.S MITH.
SANAAS(1Es5:23).SeeS ENAAH.
SANABASSAR,SANABASSARUS.Variantsin1Es2:12,6:18,20ofthenameSheshbazzar(wh.see).
SANASIB.AfamilythatreturnedwithZerub.(1Es5:24Ezr2:36omits).
SANBALLAT(Assyr.Sinballit=Sin,savethelife).ThemostinveterateoftheopponentsofNehemiah.HewasanativeofBethhoron,andapparently
belongedtoanoldBab.familyholdingofficeunderthePersiangovernment.WhenNehemiahcametoJerusalemtorepairthewalls,he,withhisallies(Tobiahthe
AmmoniteandGeshemtheArabian),methimwithderisionandaftertheworkwaswellunderwayhestirredupthegarrisonofSamariaandplannedanattack
againstthebuilders.ThiswaspreventedbythewatchfulnessofNehemiahandtheworkmen.SeveraldevicesaimedagainstthelifeofNehemiahwerealsothwarted
bythesagacityofthelatter.OnNehemiahssecondvisithebanishedfromJerusalemManasseh(asoninlawofSanballat,andgrandsonofEliashib),whofounded
theSamaritansect.SeeNeh2:10,19,4:1ff.,6,13:28.
J.F.MCCURDY.
SANCTIFICATION,SANCTIFY.Sanctify(Latin,fromtheVulgate)=thenativeEng.hallow(i.e.make,count,keepholy),thelatterwordbeinginuse
somewhattheloftierEVemployshallow35timesinOTandtwiceinNT(Mt6:9=Lk11:2),sanctifythriceasofteninOTand26timesinNTforidentical
HebrewandGreekterms.Forthemeaningoftherootwordholy,seeart.HOLINESS.Thenounsanctificationdenotingfirsttheactorprocessofmakingholy 25/116
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HebrewandGreekterms.Forthemeaningoftherootwordholy,seeart.HOLINESS.Thenounsanctificationdenotingfirsttheactorprocessofmakingholy
(hallowing),thentheresultantstate(hallowedness)appearsin5NTpassagesintheAV,givingwaytoholinessinothers(Ro6:19,22,1Th4:7,1Ti2:15,He
12:14)thoughtheGreeknounisthesame,whereRVmakestheneededcorrectioneverywhere,exceptin1P1:2,thestateratherthantheprocessisimplied.To
Paulbelong8outofthe10examplesofthenoun,and11outofthe28examplesoftheverbinNT(includingAc20:32and26:18)7ofthelatterarefoundin
Hebrews.AVemploysthesynonymousconsecrateforsanctifyin7OTpassages,whichtheRVemendsinthreeinstances,leavingconsecratefortheregular
Hebrewverbin2Ch26:18,29:33,31:6,Ezr3:5theconsecrateofHe7:28andof10:20iscorrectedbytheRVtoperfectanddedicaterespectively.
1.IntheIsraelite,asinotherancientreligions,thatisholywhichissetapartforDivineuse,sothatthesanctifiedistheoppositeofthecommon,secular,
profane.Is65:3ff.,66:17illustratetheapplicationofthisterminheathenism.Withthisbroadsignificationitisapplicabletowhateverisdevotedtothepublic
serviceofJtopersonspriests,Nazirites,etc.tosacrificestovessels,garments,buildings,days(especiallytheSabbath).InIs13:3,Jl3:9,Jer6:4(seeRVm),
evenawarissanctifiedandthewarriorsareJssanctifiedones,whenitisputunderJsauspices(cf.theMohammedanYihadorHolyWar)accordingly,in
Nu21:14wehearofabookofthewarsofJ.ThenumerousLeviticalandotherkindredusesoftheverbbearthisformalsense.Butasholycametodesignate
thespecificcharacterofJtheHolyOneofIsrael(seeIs.passim)indistinctionfromheathengods,sanctifyacquiredacorrespondingethicalconnotation
holinesscametoimplyacharacter(actualorideal)intheholypeople,accordantwithitsstatus.ForIsrael,beingJsservant,isbroughtneartoHim(Ex19:4ff.,
Dt4:7,Jer2:2,Ps65:4,73:27f.,148:14contrastEx19:1224,Jer2:13,Hos9:1etc.),andsuchproximitynecessitatescongenialitythatcongruityofnature
whereofcircumcisionandtheceremonialcleansingsweresymbolical(Ps15,24:36cf.Is1:4,16f.,3:8,6:38,Jer4:14,Hab1:12f.,Ezk36:1628,Ps51etc.).
TherefrainIAMJEHOVAHresoundsthroughtheLawof
HolinessinLv1726thiscodeblendstheritualandthemoralintheholinessitdemandsfromIsrael,whichisthecorollaryofJsownholiness.SuchistheOT
doctrineofsanctification.Theprophets,itissaid,taughtanethicalmonotheismwhichistosay,ineffect,theyethicizedholiness.ThesanctificationbindingIsrael
toJwas,inasense,reciprocal:Yeshallnotprofanemyholyname(cf.Ex20:7,Lv19:12,22:2,Am2:7,Mal1:11f.)butIwillbehallowedamongthechildrenof
Israel:IamJ,whichhallowyou(Lv22:32)tosanctifyJorHisnameistorecognizeandacttowardsHimasholy,tomakehimholyinonesthoughtsand
attitude(seeIs
8:13cf.1P3:15).ThisexpressionischaracteristicofIsaiah(5:16,29:23)andEzekiel(20:41,28:22,25,36:23,38:16,39:27),whoregardJassanctifiedwhen
HisaweawakeningjudgmentsbringmentoacknowledgeHisDeityandcharacterinthisconnexionsanctifyisparalleltomagnify,glorify,exalt,asinEzk
36:23,38:23.Jisevensaidtosanctifyhimself,orHisgreatname,whenHevindicatesHisholinessandmakesHimselfknowninthesightofmanynations
forwhatintruthHeis.
2.IntheNTwemustdistinguishtheusageofourLord,oftheAuthoroftheEpistletotheHebrews,andoftheApostlePaul.
(1)AdoptingthelanguageofLv22:32andoftheprophets,Jesusbidsthedisciplespray,
OurFatherhallowedbethynameonearth(Mt6:9f.=Lk11:2)theuniqueexampleofsuchuseofsanctifyintheNT,apartfromthecitationin1P3:15
elsewhereglorifythyname(Jn12:28etc.).TobringaboutthishallowingistheveryworkofJesus,whoforthisend
makesknowntheFathersname(Jn1:14,18,14:79,17:6,25f.,Mt11:27cf.Jn17:8,2Co4:6,alsoJer9:23f.,31:34).In(a)Jn10:36and(b)17:1719our
LordmakesHimselftheobjectoftheverb,inthesecondinstancethesubjectalso.(a)TheFatherconsecratedHimforHisworldmission(apreincarnate
destinationsee1:18,1Jn4:9,14cf.Jer1:5)(b)attheLastSuppertheSonendorsesthatconsecrationinviewofitsdreadissue,andproposestoshareitwithHis
disciples,asHededicatesHimselftothesacrificeofthecross.ThusinthePersonofJesusChristsanctificationassumesanewandverydefinitecharacteras
Christianholiness,generalconsecrationtotheserviceofGodbecomesaspecificconsecrationtothemissionofredemption.InMt23:1719Jesusspeaks
adhominem,appealingtotheaxiomthattheholyplacesanctifieswhateverisdevotedtoit.
(2)TheEpistletotheHebrewsbuildsupontheOTconceptionofholiness.Itsdoctrineofsanctificationisfoundin2:11,9:1113,10:1014,1922,
12:14,13:1112.Beingthecaptainofsalvationandhighpriestofmankind,itistheofficeofJesustosanctifyHisbrethren,i.e.toconsecratethemto
Godsservice,forwhichassinnerstheyhavebeendisabled(5:1,10:22).ThisHeeffectsGodwardbymakingpropitiationfortheirsins(2:17),andman
wardbycleansingtheirconsciencewiththevirtueofhisbloodbyremovingthesenseofpersonalguiltbeforeGodevenastheanimalsacrifices
sanctifiedtheIsraelitesuntothecleannessoftheflesh(9:13f.),andmadetheirritualworshippossible.Thechasmwhichsinhasopenedbetweenmanand
GodwasbridgedbythemediationofJesusChristnolongerishekeptalooffromtheDivinepresence,butisbiddentocomewithboldnessuntothethroneof
grace(4:16,10:1922).Onceforallthisaccesshasbeensecured,thisqualificationbestowedonthepeoplewhomJesussanctifiedbymeansofhisown
blood(13:12):wehavebeensanctifiedaccordingtothewillofGod,whichJesusembracedandwhosedemandsHemetonourbehalfwithperfectloyalty,
intheofferingofhisbody(10:510).BythatoneofferinghehasperfectedforeverthemthataresanctifiedHehasassured,forallwhowillacceptit,till
theworldsend,afullqualificationforfellowshipwithGod(10:14).HebrewssuppliesthelinkbetweentheIsanctifymyselfofJesus,andthattheyalsomay26/116
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theworldsend,afullqualificationforfellowshipwithGod(10:14).HebrewssuppliesthelinkbetweentheIsanctifymyselfofJesus,andthattheyalsomay
besanctifiedintruth(Jn17:19).WiththewriterofHeb.,cleansingand
sanctificationdefine,onthenegativeandpositivesides,allthatSt.Paulmeansby
justificationandsanctificationonly,thesecondtermisheremademoreprominentandwiderinmeaningthanwiththeApostle.St.Paulseesthesinner
confrontedbytheLawofGod,guiltyandimpotenthisfellowteacherseeshimstandingoutsidethetempleofGod,defiledandbanned.Sanctificationmeans,for
theformer,engagementtoGodsservice(Ro6:1222)forthelatter,empowermentforGodsworship.Thatthisgraceimports,however,inHebrewsmorethana
statusonceconferred,isevidentfrom12:14itisastatetobeincreasinglyrealized,anidealtobepursuedtotheend.
(3)St.Pauladdresseshisreadersconstantlyassaints(seeart.HOLINESS)onceas
sanctifiedinChristJesus(1Co1:2),aphrasesynonymouswithcalledsaints,i.e.madeholybyGodscallwhichtheyobeyed,whenHesummonedtheminto
HisKingdom(cf.vv.9,2630,1Th1:4,2:12).TheformerexpressionpointstothecompletedactofGodbywhichtheyhavebecomeHissaints(cf.1Co6:11,
Ac20:32,26:18).Thatsanctity,withSt.Paul,isatermofrelationship,notprimarilyofcharacter,isevidentfrom1Co7:14,wheretheunbelievinghusbandor
wifeissaidtohavebeensanctifiedintheChristianweddedpartner,sothattheiroffspringareholy:thepersonoftheunbeliever,underthemarriagebond,is
holyinthebelieverseyes,asindeedeverypossessionandinstrumentoflifemustbe(see1Ti4:35).Inthecaseofthebelieverhimself,whoinChristJesusis
broughtintoimmediatepersonalcontactwithGod(Col3:3),destinationanduseimplymoralconditionthevesselsoftheLordmustbecleanandmadeready
foreverygoodwork(2Ti2:1922cf.1above,touchingtheOTLawofHoliness)sothat,whilesanctitydoesnotdenotecharacter,itnormallyconnotesthisall
virtuecomesunderthecategoryofthatwhichbecomethsaintsorisfitintheLord(Eph5:31,Col3:12,18etc.).Accordingly,in1Th4:4,7sanctificationis
opposedspecificallytolustandsexualuncleannessbycontrast,probably,withthepaganconsecrationtoimpuredeities,asinthecaseofthehieroduloiof
Corinth(cf.1Co6:1320).
Sanctificationcompletesjustification(wh.see)together,theseconstitutethepresentworkofsalvation,thereinstatementofthesinfulmanbeforehisMaker,
hisinstatementintotheChristianstandingandcondition(see1Co6:11,andtheconnexionbetweenchs.5and6ofRo.).
Inprincipletheformerdependsonthelatter,inexperiencetheyareconcomitant(Ro6:6f.,22).
TheyarealikeactsofGod,dealingwithmeninHisgracethroughChrist(Ro8:30,33,1Th5:23f.,Jn17:17cf.Lv22:32f.).Theanointingandsealingof2Co
1:21f.,whilereferringformallytobaptism,substantiallydescribesanctification,sinceGodconsecratesthebelieverfor
HisuseandmarkshiminbaptismwithHisbroadarrow.
AsthewriterofHebrewsshowsinhisownwaysee(2)aboveChrististhemediatorofsanctificationnolessthanofjustification.Heboughtmenwiththe
priceofHisbloodthebodilylimbsalongwiththeinnerselfsothatwearenolongerourownandmaynotliveforourselves,butare,fromthehourwe
knowthis,menlivingforGodinChristJesusandChristpresentsHisredeemedtoGodasholyandmakesthemGodssurepossession,destinedforthe
praiseofHisglory(1Co6:19f.,Ro6:1114,12:1,Col1:22,Eph1:14,1P2:9,
Rev1:6etc.).Once,inrelationtotheChurchHisbride,ChristisHimselfcalledthesanctifier(Eph5:26cf.He13:12).BeingourHeadandRepresentativebefore
God,dedicatingallhisown(Jn17:10)totheFatherintheofferingofCalvary,JesusvirtuallyaccomplishedthesanctificationofHispeople,withtheirjustification,
onceforall(1Co1:30):Paulssaying,IhavebeencrucifiedwithChrist(Gal2:20,6:14),impliesthathehasbeen,byanticipation,includedintheperfect
sacrificehethusunfoldstheimplicitdoctrineofJn17:9f.and1719(see(1)abovecf.He10:14).
Collectively,believersweresanctifiedintheselfdevotionoftheirredeemingLordindividually,theyaresanctifiedwhentheyaccepttheRedeemerssacrifice
andpersonallyendorseHisaction.Fromthelatterpointofview,sanctificationisthemansowndeed:hepresentshimselftoGodasalivefromthedead(Ro6:13,
18)butthesinnerisnever,asinOTphrase,saidtosanctifyhimself,though1Ti4:36approachesthismodeofstatement.TheHolySpiritis,withmuch
emphasis,identifiedwiththeworkofsanctificationChristianbelieversaresanctifiedintheHolySpirit(Ro15:16,1Co6:11also1Th4:7f.,Eph4:30cf.1P1:2
etc.).ToreceivethegiftoftheSpiritandtobesanctifiedarethesamethingwhenGodtakespossessionofthebeliever,hisbodybecomesatempleoftheHoly
Ghost(1Co6:19)thenheisaholymanandtopossesstheSpiritis,ineffect,tohaveChristdwellingintheheart(Eph3:1619).Thistwofoldidentity
(sanctified=intheSpirit=joineduntotheLord)holdsalikeoftheChurchandoftheindividualChristian(1Co3:16f.,Eph2:21f.cf.1P2:9).Faith
conditionsthisexperience(Ac26:18,Eph1:13f.).LiketheauthorofHebrews,Paulrecognizesaprogressiveholinessbaseduponthefundamentalsanctificationof
thebeliever,theformerbeingthegrowingandfinallycompleterealizationofthelatter.Holinessisthestartingpoint,perfectholinessthegoaloftheChristiancourse
theprogressisagrowthinholinessratherthantoholiness(Bartlet).HenceinRo6:1922theaimofonesservicetoGodandrighteousnessisfoundin
sanctificationandin1Th5:23f.theApostlepraysthatGodwillsanctifytofullcompletenesshisreaders,whoarestilllackinginmanyrespects(3:10),sothat
theirspirit,soul,andbodyinfullintegritymaybepreserved,andthusfoundblamelessinholinessbeforeGodatthecomingofourLordJesus(3:13).This
supplicationtouchestheideallifeinChristbutitisanidealtothepresentChristianstate,andisnottoberelegatedtothevisionaryorthecelestial:Faithfulishe 27/116
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supplicationtouchestheideallifeinChristbutitisanidealtothepresentChristianstate,andisnottoberelegatedtothevisionaryorthecelestial:Faithfulishe
whocallethyouwhoalsowilldoit(1Th5:24).
St.JohndoesnotemployinhisEpistleseithersanctifyorsanctification,buttheirwholesubstanceisthere.1Jn1:8f.and2:1f.recallrecalltheteachingof
HebrewsinspeakingofthepropitiationmadebyourAdvocate,whosebloodcleansesfromallsinandthusbringsthesinnerintofellowshipwiththeFather.
Paulsdoctrineofholinessisresumedinsuchpassagesas3:23f.,4:18f.,5:3f.,20,settingforthunionwithChristthroughtheindwellingSpiritasthespringofa
new,eternallifefortheman,inthestrengthofwhichGodscommandmentsarekeptinlove,sinandfeararecastout,andtheworldisovercome.
G.G.F INDLAY.
SANCTUARY.SeeHIGHP LACETABERNACLE,11(b)TEMPLE.
SAND.Minuteparticlesofsilex,mica,felspar,etc.,easilyrolledbeforethewindhence,probably,itsHeb.name,chl.Itliesingreatstretchesalongthe
PalestinianandEgyptlanseaboardanaptsymboloftheincalculablyvastornumerous(Gn22:17,41:49,Jer33:22etc.).Forsand,inJob29:18,weshould
probablyread,withRVm,phnix.Howevercompactandfirm,sandatoncebecomessoftatthetouchofwater(Mt7:26etc.).
W.EWING.
SANDAL.SeeDRESS,6.
SANDFLIES.SeeLICE.
SANDLIZARD.SeeLIZARD.
SANHEDRIN.The Gr. word synedrion(EVcouncil) became so familiar to the Jews that they adopted it in the form of Sanhedrin, which occurs very
frequentlybothinJosephusandintheTalmud.
1.AccordingtoRabbinicaltradition,theSanhedrinwasoriginallycreatedbyMosesinobediencetoDivinecommand(cf.Nu11:16),anditistaughtthatthis
assemblyexisted,andexercisedjudicialfunctions,throughoutthewholeperiodofBiblicalhistoryrightuptoTalmudictimes.Thatthiscannothavebeenthecaseis
seenalreadyinthefactthat,accordingtoBiblicalauthorityitself,kingJehoshaphatismentionedashavinginstitutedthesupremecourtatJerusalem(2Ch19:8)but
thatthiscourtcannothavebeenidenticalwiththeSanhedrinoflatertimesisclearfromthefactthat,whereasthelatterhadgoverningpowersaswellasjudicial
functions,theformerwasacourtofjusticeandnothingelse.ItispossiblethattheeldersmentionedintheBookofEzra(5:5,9,6:7,14,10:8)andrulersinthe
BookofNehemiah(2:18,
4:8:(14),18(19)5:7,7:5)constitutedabodywhichtosomeextentcorrespondedtothe
Sanhedrinproperlysocalled.ButseeingthattheSanhedrinisoftenreferredtoasaGerousia(i.e.anaristocratic,asdistinctfromademocratic,body),andthatas
suchitisnotmentionedbeforethetimeofAntiochustheGreat(B.C.223187),itisreasonablycertainthat,initsmoredevelopedformatailevents,itdidnotexist
beforetheGreekperiod.TheSanhedrinisreferredtounderthenameGerousia(EVsenate)In2Mac1:10,4:44,Jth4:8,11:14,15:8andelsewhereintheApocr.,
inAc5:21,andfrequentlyinJosephus,e.g.Ant.IV.viii.41.
TheSanhedrinwasconceivedofmainlyasacourtofjustice,theequivalentHeb.termbeing
BethDn,anditisinthissensethatitisusuallyreferredtointheNT(see,e.g.,Mt5:22,26:59,
Mk15:1,Lk22:66,Jn11:47,Ac4:15,5:21,6:12,22:30etc.).SometimesintheNTthetermsPresbyterionandGerousiaareusedinreferencetotheSanhedrin(Ac
5:21,22:5).Amemberofthiscourtwascalledabouteutes(councillor).JosephofArimathawasone(Mk15:43,Lk23:50).TheSanhedrinwasabolishedafter
thedestructionofJerusalem(A.D.70).
2.AsregardsthecompositionoftheSanhedrin,thehereditaryhighprieststoodattheheadofit,andinitsfundamentalcharacteritformedasacerdotal
aristocracy,andrepresentedthenobility,i.e.predominantlytheSadducaninterestbutunderHerod,whofavouredthePharisaicpartyinhisdesiretorestrictthe
powerandinfluenceoftheoldnobility,theSadducanelementintheSanhedrinbecamelessprominent,whilethatofthePhariseesincreased.Sothatduringthe
RomanperiodtheSanhedrincontainedrepresentativesoftwoopposedparties,thepriestlynobilitywithitsSadducansympathies,andthelearnedPharisees.
AccordingtotheMishna,theSanhedrinconsistedofseventyonemembers(Sanhed.i.6)whenavacancyoccurredthememberscooptedsomeonefromthe
congregationtofilltheplace(Sanhed.iv.4),andhewasadmittedbytheceremonyofthelayingonofhands.
3. TheextentoftheSanhedrinsjurisdictionvariedatdifferenttimesinitshistorywhile,inacertainsense,itexercisedciviljurisdictionoverallJewish
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3.TheextentoftheSanhedrinsjurisdictionvariedatdifferenttimesinitshistorywhile,inacertainsense,itexercisedciviljurisdictionoverallJewish
communities,wherevertheyexisted,duringthetimeofChristthiswasrestrictedtoJudaproperitwasforthisreasonthatithadnojudicialauthorityoverHimso
longasHeremainedinGalilee.Itsorderswere,however,verysoonafterthetimeofChrist,regardedasbindingbyorthodoxJewsailovertheworld.Thuswesee
thatitcouldissuewarrantsfortheapprehensionofChristiansinDamascustothesynagoguethere(Ac9:2,22:5,26:12)buttheextenttowhichJewishcommunities
outsideofJudawerewillingtosubmittosuchordersdependedentirelyonhowfartheywerefavourablydisposedtowardsthecentralauthorityitwasonlywithin
thelimitsofJudaproperthatrealauthoritycouldheexercisedbytheSanhedrin.Itwasthusthesupremenativecourt,ascontrastedwiththeforeignauthorityof
Rometoitbelongedallsuchjudicialmattersasthelocalprovincialcourtswereincompetenttodealwith,orastheRomanprocuratordidnotattendtohimself.
Aboveall,itwasthefinalcourtofappealforquestionsconnectedwiththeMosaicLawitsdecisionhavingoncebeengiven,thejudgesofthelowercourtswere,on
painofdeath,boundtoacquiesceinit.TheNTofferssomeinterestingexamplesofthekindofmattersthatwerebroughtbeforeit:Christappearedbeforeitona
chargeofblasphemy(Mt26:57,Jn19:7),PeterandJohnwereaccusedbeforeitofbeingfalseprophetsanddeceiversofthepeople(Ac4:5ff.),Stephenwas
condemnedbyitbecauseofblasphemy(Ac7:57,58),andPaulwaschargedwithtransgressionoftheMosaicLaw(Ac22:30).Ithadindependentauthorityand
righttoarrestpeoplebyitsownofficers(Mt26:47,Mk14:48,Ac4:3,5:17,18)ithadalsothepoweroffinallydisposing,onitsownauthority,ofsuchcasesasdid
notinvolvesentenceofdeath(Ac4:523,5:2140).ItwasonlyincaseswhenthesentenceofdeathwaspronouncedthatthelatterhadtoberatifiedbytheRoman
authorities(Jn18:31)thecaseofthestoningofStephenmustberegardedasaninstanceofmobjustice.
WhiletheSanhedrincouldnotholdacourtofsupremejurisdictionintheabsence,or,atallevents,withouttheconsent,oftheRomanprocurator,itenjoyed,
nevertheless,widepowerswithinthesphereofitsextensivejurisdiction.Atthesametime,ithadsometimestosubmittothepainfulexperienceofrealizingits
dependentpositioninfaceoftheRomanpower,eveninmatterswhichmightberegardedaspeculiarlywithinthescopeofitsownjurisdictionfortheRoman
authoritiescouldatanytimetaketheinitiativethemselves,andproceedindependentlyoftheJewishcourt,astheNTtestifies,e.g.inthecaseofPaulsarrest(see
alsoAc23:15,20,28).
4.TheSanhedrinmetintheTemple,inwhatwascalledtheLishkathhaGazith(theHallofhewnstones)asageneralrule,thoughanexceptionisrecorded
inMt26:57ff.,Mk14:53ff.Thememberssatinasemicircleinordertobeabletoseeeachotherinfrontstoodclerksofthecourt,andbehindthese,threerowsof
thedisciplesofthelearnedmen.Theprisonerhadalwaystobedressedinmourning.Whenanyonehadspokenonceinfavouroftheaccused,hecouldnot
afterwardsspeakagainsthim.Incaseofacquittalthedecisionmightbeannouncedthesameday,butasentenceofcondemnationwasalwayspronouncedonthe
dayfollowing,orlaterintheformerasimplemajoritysufficed,inthelatteramajorityoftwothirdswasrequired.
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
SANSANNAH.AnunidentifiedtownintheNegeb(RVtheSouth)allottedtoJudah(Jos15:31).
SAPH.OneoffourPhilistinechampionsslainbyDavidsheroes(2S21:18,1Ch20:4[Sippai]).
SAPHAT(1Es5:34).HissonsreturnedwithZerub.[Ezr.andNeh.omit].2.1Es5:9=Shephatiah,Ezr2:4.
SAPHATIAS(1Es8:34)=Shephatiah,Ezr8:8calledSaphatin5:9.
SAPHUTHI(1Es5:33)=Shephatiah,Ezr2:57.
SAPPHIRA.SeeANANIAS,No.1.
SAPPHIRE.SeeJEWELSANDP RECIOUSS TONES.

SARABIAS(1Es9:48)=Sherebiah,Neh8:7.
SARAHorSARAI.1.SaraiistheformusedprevioustoGn17:15,andSarahafterwards,inharmonywiththechangeofnametherenarrated(byP).Itis
probablethatthereisnorealsignificanceinthechange,aibeinganoldfeminineendingfoundinSyriac,Arabic,andEthiopic,whileahisthecommonfeminine
ending.Sarahmeansprincess.TheoccurrenceofthenameSaraaainanAssyrianletter(K1274)addsnodefiniteinformation.SarahwasthewifeofAbraham,
andalsohishalfsister(Gn12:13,20:12)herparentageisnotgivenfurther.ShewastakenaswifebythekingofEgyptandalsobyAbimelechkingofGerar,and
afterwardsrestoredtoAbraham(12:1020,20).TheformerincidentisinJ,thelatterinEtheymaybedifferentversionsofthesamestory.Thestatementthatshe
wasatleast65yearsoldatthistime(Gn12:4,cf.17:17)seemsinconsistentwiththeseincidents,andespeciallywiththestatementconcerningherbeauty(12:11).It
istoberemembered,however,thatthedatesbelongtoP.Sarahwaslongbarren,butfinallyIsaacwasbornaftersupernaturalintervention,whenshewas90years29/116
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istoberemembered,however,thatthedatesbelongtoP.Sarahwaslongbarren,butfinallyIsaacwasbornaftersupernaturalintervention,whenshewas90years
old(21:17[P]).ThroughjealousySarahilltreatedHagar,herhandmaid,theconcubineofAbraham,andfinallydroveherawaywithhersonIshmael(16,21:8
21).TheincidentisinharmonywiththeregulationsoftheBabylonianCodeofHammurabi(144147).Sarahdiedattheageof127(P),andwasburiedinthe
caveofMachpelah(Gn23).IntheNTsheismentionedinRo4:19,9:9,He11:11,1P3:6,Gal4:215:1.
2.Sarah,daughterofRaguelandwifeofTobias(To3:7,17andelsewhere).
GEORGER.BERRY.
SARAIAS.SeeS ERAIAH,2.
SARAMEL(RVAsaramel).Anexpression,inAsaramel,in1Mac14:28intheinscriptionuponthememorialpillarofSimonMaccabus.Aplacenameis
indicatedbytheGreektext.Thisreading,however,isunsuitable,anditisbesttoassume,ashasbeenproposed,thattherewasoriginallywrittenaHeb.titleof
Simon,additionaltothehighpriest,meaningprinceofthepeopleofGod(Saraml).See,forotherexplanations,ExpTAug.1900,p.523ff.
J.F.MCCURNY.
SARAPH.AdescendantofShelah(1Ch4:22).
SARCHEDONUS(To1:21f.)=Esarhaddon(wh.see).
SARDISwasthecapitaloftheancientkingdomofLydiaonthewesterncoastofAsiaMinor,andinthe6thcent.B.C.oneofthemostpowerfulcitiesofthe
world.ItstoodononeofthealluvialhillsbetweenMountTmolusandthesea,about1500feetaboveandsouthofthegreatplainoftheriverHermus,andwas
inaccessibleexceptbyaneckoflandonthesouth.ThedateofitsfoundationmustbeaboutB.C.1200,andthesituationwasidealforanearlyfortifiedcapitalofa
kingdom.Astimeadvanced,extensionwasnecessary,andalowercitywasbuiltonthewestandnorthsidesoftheoriginalcity,nearthelittleriverPactolus,and
probablyalsoontheeastside.Theoldercitynowactedasacropolis,orcitadel,forthelater.ThisrichOrientalcity,whosewealthdependedonwellcultivatedland
andincessantcommerce,wasforcenturiestotheGreekthetypeofanOrientaldespotism,underwhichallmustsoonerorlaterbend.Itsabsorptionwasnotwithout
itseffectsontheconquerors,andSardisbecamethehomeofanewerHellenism,differentfromtheold.
CrsuswaskingofLydiainthesecondhalfofthe6thcent.B.C.,andplannedacampaignagainstCyrus,thePersianking.Heproceededwiththegreatest
caution,andcrossedtheriverHalys.Therehewascompletelydefeated.Hereturnedtoprepareasecondarmy,butCyruspursuedhiminhaste,andbesiegedhimin
Sardisbeforehecouldgetitready.Thecitadelwascapturedbymeansofaclimberwhoworkedhiswayupbyanobliquecreviceintheperpendicularrock.The
citywassimilarlycapturedbyAntiochustheGreatfromAchuslateinthethirdcenturyB.C.ThepatrondeityofthecitywasCybele,butsheisconceivedas
possessingdifferentattributesfromthoseusuallyassociatedwiththename.Aspecialcharacteristicwasthepowerofrestoringlifetothedead.Thecitysuffered
greatlyfromanearthquakeinA.D.17,andreceivedalargedonationaswellasaremissionoffiveyearstaxationfromtheEmperorTiberius.Thegreatnessofthe
cityundertheRomanempirewasdueentirelytoitspastreputation.Theacropolisceasedtobeinhabited,beingnolongernecessaryforpurposesofdefence.Itsuse
wasrevivedintheearlierTurkishdays,butforlongtherehasbeennosettlementatSardis.ItsplaceistakenbySalikli,above5milestotheeast.
AccordingtotheviewofSirW.M.Ramsay,SardisisalludedtointheApocalypse,asarealltheothersixchurches,asacentreofinfluenceinitsdistrict.Oneof
thecitieswithinitsspherewasMagnesia.TheletteraddressedbythewriteroftheApocalypsetoSardis,withwhich,aswiththeothersixcitiesnamedthere,hewas
obviouslywellacquainted,showsthatthechurchatSardiswaspracticallydead.Ithaddegeneratedanddecayedfromitsearlypromisetoanextentequalledbyno
othercity.Therewereinitonlyafewfaithfulsouls.Thatthereisaremarkableanalogybetweenthehistoryofthecityandthehistoryofthechurchmaybeseen
evenfromthebaldaccountoftheformerjustgiven.Theinstabilityofthecityinhistoryfindsitsparallelintheimmoralityofthechurchmembers.Mostofthe
Christianshadfallenbacktothepaganleveloflife.Thefewnobleonesshallhavetheirnamesenrolledinthelistofthecitizensofheaven.Theletterdoubtlesshad
agoodeffect.ChristianitysurvivedatSardis.ItwasthecapitaloftheprovinceLydia,institutedaboutA.D.295.ThebishopofSardiswasmetropolitanofLydia,
andsixthinorderofprecedenceofallthebishopssubjecttothepatriarchofConstantinople.NotfarfromSardistheredwellsinthepresentdayapeoplewhose
customsdiffersomuchfromthoseofMohammedanismthatitisprobabletheywouldbecomeChristianiftheydared.
A.S OUTER.
SARDIUS.SeeJEWELSANDP RECIOUSS TONES.
SARDONYX.SeeJEWELSANDP RECIOUSS TONES.
SAREA.OneofEzrasswiftscribes(2Es14:24).
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SAREA.OneofEzrasswiftscribes(2Es14:24).
SAREPTA.SeeZAREPHATH.
SARGON(Is20:1).ThefatherofSennacheribandsuccessorofShalmaneserIV.,kingofAssyria(B.C.722705).Samariawascapturedearlyinhisreign,
andSargoncarriedaway27,200ofthechiefinhabitants,thecitybeingplacedunderAssyriangovernorsSargonsadventtothethronemarkedachangeof
dynasty,andhehadtosubdueInsurrectionrightandleft.Merodachbaladan,oncekingoftheChaldanStateofBtYakn,seizedBabylon,andwassupportedby
theElamites.Sargondefeatedthelatter,butwasobligedtoleaveMerodachbaladanundisturbedfortwelveyears,whilehesubduedthenorthernrivalsofAssyria,
Armeniaanditsneighbours.In
B.C.720hefacedacombinationoftheW.StatesunderIlubihdi,whodrewHamath,Arpad,
Damascus,andPalestineintorevolt.Thiswassoonputdown,HamathwascolonizedbyAssyrians,andthePhilistinesandEgyptiansweredefeatedatRaphia.Then
Carchemishwascapturedandabsorbedintotheempire(B.C.717).ButSargonsgreatestdifficultywaswithArmenia,andtherebellionsitperpetuallystirredup.He
was,however,successfulintheend,andsubduedalltheregionS.oftheCaucasusandpartsofCilicia,aswellaspartsofMedia.InB.C.711anAssyrianarmywas
sentagainstPalestine,whereMerodachbaladanhadbeenintriguingandhaddrawnHezekiahintotheconspiracy.Ashdodwascaptured,andJudah,Moab,and
Edomsubmitted.MerodachbaladanwasexpelledfromBabylon(B.C.709),andthenchasedfromBt
Yakn,whitherhehadretreated.Sargonwaswelcomedasthedelivererofthenative
Babylonians,andbecamekingofBabylon.HesenthisstatuetobeerectedatIdalion,inCyprus.InB.C.708Commagenewasannexed.SargonwaskilledB.C.705,
howorwhereisnotyetclear.HefoundedamagnificentcityatDrSargon,themodernKhorsabad.
C.H.W.JOHNS.
SARID.AbordertownofZebulun(Jos19:10,12)ProbablySaridisacopyistserrorforSadid,whichmaybeidentifiedwithTellShadd,totheN.ofthe
plainofEsdraelon.
SAROTHIE.AfamilyofSolomonsservants(1Es5:34).
SARSECHIMseemstobethenameofaBab.official(Jer39:3),buttheversionsNabousachar,Nabousarach,Sarsacheimsuggestthatthetextwasearly
corrupt.ThereisnoknownBab.namewhichexactlycorrespondstoanyofthesevariants,anditisimpossibletoidentifythepersonintended.
C.H.W.JOHNS.
SATAN
1.IntheOT.ThetermSatanisHebrewandmeansadversary.Intheearlierusageofthelanguageitisemployedinthegeneralsenseofadversary,
personalornational:(cf.e.g.Nu22:22,2S19:22,1K5:4,11:25etc.).InsuchpassagesnotraceofadistinctbeingdesignatedSatanistobeseen.Suchabeing
meetsusforthefirsttimeintheOTintheprologue(chs.1and2)oftheBk.ofJob,inthepersonofoneofthesonsofGodwhobearsthetitleoftheSatan.Here
SatanappearsasamemberofthecelestialcouncilofangelicbeingswhohaveaccesstothepresenceofGod.Hisspecialfunctionistowatchoverhumanaffairs
andbeingswiththeobjectofsearchingoutmenssinsandaccusingtheminthecelestialcourt.Heisthusinvestedwithacertainmalevolentandmalignant
characterbutitistobeobservedthathehasnopowertoactwithouttheDivinepermissionbeingfirstobtained,andcannot,therefore,beregardedasthe
embodimentofthepowerthatopposestheDeity.InZec3:2essentiallythesameviewoftheSatanispresented.Butin1Ch21:1(AndSatanstoodupagainst
Israel,andmovedDavidtonumberIsrael)thepersonalityofthisbeingismoredistinct:heappearsnowasSatan(apropernamewithoutthearticle),thetempter
whoisabletoprovokeDavidtonumberIsrael.ThisistheChroniclers(4thor3rdcent.B.C.)readingoftheincidentwhichintheearliernarrative(2S24:1)is
ascribedtothedirectactionofGodHimself.Here(inChron.)theworkofSatanisapparentlyconceivedofasmoreorlessindependentof,andopposedto,the
Divineaction.
2.IntheextracanonicalliteratureoftheOT.Inthelater(apocryphal)literatureofpreChristianJudaismthedualistictendencybecomesmorepronounced
atendencypowerfullyaffectedbyPersianinfluence,itwouldseem,whichisalsoapparentinthedevelopmentofanelaborateJewishangelologyand
demonology.Thisismostclearlyvisibleintheapocalypticliterature.IntheoldestpartoftheBk.ofEnoch(chs.136),dating,perhaps,fromaboutB.C.180,the
originofthedemonsistracedtothefalloftheangelicwatchers,thesonsofGodwhocorruptedthemselveswiththedaughtersofmen(Gn6:1f.).Itwasfromthe
offspringofthesesinfulunionsthegiantsornephlmthatthedemonsweresprung.OfthesedemonstheAsmodusoftheBk.ofTobit(3:8,17)seemsto
havebeenregardedastheking(Bab.Pes.110a).ThenameAsmodus(orinHeb.Ashmedai)hasplausiblybeenconnectedwiththeancientPersianAeshma
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havebeenregardedastheking(Bab.Pes.110a).ThenameAsmodus(orinHeb.Ashmedai)hasplausiblybeenconnectedwiththeancientPersianAeshma
daeva,i.e.thecovetousorlustfuldemoninitsHebrewformitsuggeststhemeaningdestroyerorbringerofdestruction,andthisdemonmaybeintendedby
thedestroyerofWisdom18:25andbytheApollyon(=Destroyer)ofRev9:11.InthelatestpartoftheBk.ofEnoch,however,thesocalledSimilitudes(chs.
xxxviilxxi),whichperhapsdatesfromaboutB.C.64,thefallenwatchers(andtheirdescendants)arecarefullydistinguishedfromtheSatans,whoapparently
belongtoacounterkingdomofevilwhichexistedbeforethefallofthewatchersrecordedinGn6:1,thelatter,inconsequenceoftheirfall,becomingsubjectto
theformer.ApparentlytheseSatansareruledbyasinglechief,whoisstyledSataninonepassage(Enoch54.6).Theirfunctionswerethreefold:theytemptedto
evil(69.4,6)theyaccusedthedwellersuponearth(40.7)theypunishedthecondemned.Inthislastcharactertheyaretechnicallycalledangelsofpunishment
(53.3,56.1,62.11,63.1)(Charles).
IntheBk.ofWisdom(2:24:bytheenvyofthedevildeathenteredintotheworld)wealreadymeetwiththeidentificationoftheSerpentofGn3withSatan,
whichafterwardsbecameafixedelementinbelief,andanallusiontothesameideamaybedetectedinthePsalmsofSolomon4:11,wheretheprosperouswicked
manissaidtobelikeaserpent,topervertwisdom,speakingwiththewordsoftransgressors.ThesameidentificationalsomeetsusintheBookoftheSecretsof
Enoch(?1stcent.A.D.),where,moreover,satanologyshowsarichdevelopment(thepride,revolt,andfallofSatanaredweltupon).Cf.art.F ALL.
ThesecondaryJewish(Rabbinical)LiteraturewhichisconnectedwiththetextoftheOT(esp.theTargumsandtheMidrashim)naturallyreflectsbeliefsthat
werecurrentatalatertime.
Buttheyareobviouslyconnectedcloselywiththosethathavealreadybeenmentioned.TheSerpentofGn3becomestheoldserpentwhoseducedAdamandEve.
ThechiefoftheSatansisSammael,whoisoftenreferredtoastheangelofdeath:andintheSecretsofEnochheisprinceofthedemonsandamagician.Itis
interestingtonotethatinthelaterMidrashoneoftheworksofMessiahbenJosephistheslayingofSammael,whoistheSatan,theprimemoverofallevil.Inthe
earlierliteraturehisgreatopponentisthearchangelMichael.TheRabbinicdoctrineoftheevilimpulse(yetserra),whichworkswithinmanlikealeaven(Berak.
17a),lookslikeatheologicalrefinement,whichhassometimesbeencombinedwiththepopularviewofSatan(Satanworkshisevilpurposebytheinstrumentality
oftheevilimpulse).
3.IntheNT.IntheNT,Satanandhiskingdomarefrequentlyreferredto.Sometimesthe
HebrewnameSatanisused(e.g.Mk3:26,4:15etc.),sometimesitsGreekequivalent
(diabolos:cf.ourworddiabolical),whichistranslateddevil,andwhichmeansaccuseror
calumniator.InMt12:26,27(cf.10:25)SatanisapparentlyidentifiedwithBeelzebub(orBeelzebul),andisoccasionallydesignatedtheevilone(Mt13:19,38
etc.so,perhaps,alsointheLordsPrayer:deliverusfromtheevilone).SomescholarsareofopinionthatthenameBeelzebubmeansnotflygodbutenemy
(i.e.theenemyofGod).Heiscalledtheprinceofthedevils(ordemons)inMt12:24,justasSammael,thegreatprinceinheaven,isdesignatedthechiefof
SatansintheMidrash.
ThedemonologythatconfrontsusintheNThasstrikingpointsofcontactwiththatwhichisdevelopedintheEnochicliterature.Themainfeaturesofthelatter,
infact,reappear.Theangelswhichkeptnottheirfirstestate(Jude6,2P2:4)aretheangelicwatcherswhosefallthroughlustisdescribedinEnoch616.Their
punishmentistobekeptimprisonedinperpetualdarkness.InEnochthedemons,whoarerepresentedastheevilspiritswhichwentforthfromthesoulsofthegiant
offspringofthefallenwatchers,exerciseanevilactivity,workingmoralruinontheearthtillthefinaljudgment.Inexactlythesamewaythedemonsaredescribed
intheNTasdisembodiedspirits(Mt12:4345,Lk11:2426).Thetimeoftheirpunishmentistobethefinaljudgment(cf.Mt8:29:Artthoucomehitherto
tormentusbeforethetime?).TheybelongtoandaresubjecttoSatan.AsintheBookofEnoch,SatanisrepresentedintheNTastherulerofacounterkingdomof
evil(cf.Mt12:26,Lk11:13ifSatancastoutSatan,howshallhiskingdomstand?)heledastrayangels(Rev12:4)andmen(2Co11:3)hisfunctionsaretotempt
(Mt4:112,Lk22:31),toaccuse(Rev12:10),andtopunish(1Co5:5:impenitentsinnersdeliveredovertoSatanfordestructionoftheflesh).Itshouldbeadded
thatintheFourthGospelandJohannineEpp.thelesserdemonicagenciesdisappear.OppositionisconcentratedinthepersonsofChristandthedevil.Thelatteris
therulerofthisworld(Jn16:11),andenslavesmentohimselfthroughsin.TheSonofGodismanifestedfortheexpresspurposeofdestroyingthedevilsworks(1
Jn3:8).
BothinSt.Paul(cf.Ro16:20,2Co11:2,3)andintheApocalypseSatanisidentifiedwiththeSerpentofGn3.ItisalsonoteworthythatSt.Paulsharedthe
contemporarybeliefthatangelicbeingsinhabitedthehigher(heavenly)regions,andthatSatanalsowithhisretinuedweltnotbeneaththeearth,butinthelower
atmosphericregioncf.Eph2:2,wheretheprinceofthepoweroftheair=Satan(cf.alsoEph6:12andLk10:13IbeheldSatanfallenaslightningfromheaven).
ForSatansrleintheApocalypseseeart.ESCHATOLOGY.Cf.alsoart.DEVIL.
4.TheattitudeofourLordtowardstheSatanbelief.OurLord,asisclearlyapparentintheSynoptictradition,recognizedtheexistenceandpowerofa
kingdomofevil,withorganizeddemonicagenciesunderthecontrolofasupremepersonality,SatanorBeelzebub.Thesedemonicagenciesarethesourceofevery
varietyofphysicalandmoralevil.OneprincipalfunctionoftheMessiahistodestroytheworksofSatanandhissubordinates(Mk1:24,34,3:11,12,15etc.).
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varietyofphysicalandmoralevil.OneprincipalfunctionoftheMessiahistodestroytheworksofSatanandhissubordinates(Mk1:24,34,3:11,12,15etc.).
MaladiestracedtodemonicpossessionplayalargepartintheSynopticnarratives
(seeDEVIL,P OSSESSION).IntheexpulsionofdemonsbyHisdisciples,JesusseestheoverthrowofSatanspower(Lk10:13).TheevileffectedbySatanicagencyis
intellectualandmoralaswellasphysical(Mk4:15,Mt13:19,33cf.2Co4:4).ThatourLordacceptedtherealityofsuchpersonalagenciesofevilcannotseriously
bequestionednorisitnecessarytoendeavourtoexplainthisfactaway.Theproblemistosomeextentapsychologicalone.Undercertainconditionsandincertain
localitiesthesenseofthepresenceandpotencyofevilpersonalitieshasbeenpainfullyandoppressivelyfeltbymorethanonemodernEuropean,whowasnot
pronetosuperstition.ItisalsoliterallytruethatthelightofthegospelandthepowerofChristoperatestillinsuchcasestodestroytheworksofdarknessandexpel
thedemons.
G.H.BOX.
SATCHEL.SeeBAG.
SATHRABUZANES(1Es6:2,7,27,7:1)=Shetharbozenai,Ezr5:3,6,6:6,13.
SATRAPS.RVtr.ofchashdarpnm,Ezr8:35,Est3:12,8:9,9:3(AVlieutenants),Dn3:2,3,27,6:1ff.(AVprinces).ThetermstandsforthePers.
khshatrapvan(=protectorsoftherealm).Thesatrapwasthegovernorofawholeprovince,andbeheldthepositionofavassalking.Hispower,however,was
checkedbythepresenceofaroyalscribe,whosedutyitwastoreporttothegreatkingontheadministrationoftheprovince.
SATYR.TheHeb.wordsrmeansprimarilyhegoat,buttheplur.srmistr.inLv17:7and2Ch11:15,AVdevils,RVhegoatsinIs13:21,34:14
EVsatyrs,RVmhegoats.Probablytooin2K23:3shrm(gates)shouldbesrm,andtr.asinLv17:7.Inthesepassagessomehairydemonistobe
Inferredtowhomsacrificesweremade(Lv17:7),highplaceserected(2K23:8),andpriestssetapart(2Ch11:15).Theassociationofthesecreatureswiththe
mythologicalLilith(wh.see)inIs34:14isspeciallynoticeable.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
SAUL.1.SonofKish,aBenjamite,thefirstkingofIsrael.Wefirstmeethimabouttoabandonthesearchforhisfathersasses,whenhisservantsuggested
consultingSamuel.Asitwascustomarytobringapresenttoaseer,andthewalletwasempty,Saulhesitatedtilltheservantproducedthefourthpartofashekelof
silvertogivetothemanofGod.Theseer,Divinelypreparedfortheirarrival,metthemashewasonhiswaytothehighplacetosacrifice.Abanquetwasmade
ready,andspecialhonourpaidtoSaulbySamuel.Theseertoldtheseekersthattheasseshadbeenfound,andbroachedthematterofthekingdomtoSaul,and
anointedhimashewasleaving.SaulwasgivencertainsignsinattestationofSamuelsmessage,andafterleavingtheseershouse,whereheandhisservantspent
thenight,hemetabandofprophets,andsoonwasprophesyingamongthem,tothemarvelofhisacquaintances(1S10:10).Thisnarrativegivesnohintthatthe
peopleaskedforaking,orthathisselectionwouldbedispleasingtoeitherSamuelorJehovah.
Theaccountisinterruptedat10:17byoneofadifferenttemper.Thepeopledemandaking,whichSamuelinterpretstobearejectionofJehovah,theirtrueking,
andSaul,afterprotest,iselectedbylotatMizpah.HeremainedquietlyathometillNahashscrueldemandthatthemenofJabeshgileadshouldsurrendertohim,
andeachonelosetherighteye,rousedhim.Hewasploughinginthefieldwhenthenewsreachedhim,andimmediatelysacrificedtheoxen,sendingoutpartsof
thesacrificetohisbrethrenwiththecommandthattheyshouldfollowhim.WhenthearmywasmusteredhemarchedtoJabeshgileadandadministeredacrushing
defeattoNahash,afterwhichhisgratefulcountrymenmadehimkingatGilgal(ch.11).Astillgreaternecessityforakingappearsintheencroachmentsofthe
Philistines.SaulandJonathan,hisson,wereencampedinMichmashandGibeah(Geba),whenJonathansmotethegarrison(?)ofthePhilistinesinGeba,thus
precipitatingthestruggle.TheplanofthePhilistineswastosendoutplunderingparties,andJonathanthrewthewholecampintoconfusionbysurprisingoneofits
guerillaheadquarters(13:13,14:1f.).WhenSaulheardoftheflightoftheenemyheinquiredoftheoraclewhattodo,buttheroutwassoapparentthathejoined
pursuitwithouttheanswer.ThedestructionoftheenemywouldhavebeengreaterhadnotSaulputatabooonfood.Intheeveningthefamishedwarriorsfellupon
thecattle,andatewithoutsacrificingtillthereportedimpietyreachedtheearsofSaul,wholegitimatedthemealbysacrificingatagreatstone.Ashefailedto
receiveananswerfromtheoracle,whenheInquiredwhetherheshouldpursuethePhilistinesfarther,Saulconcludedthatsomeonehadsinned.Aninquirywas
takentotheoracle,andthefaultwasfoundtoliewithJonathan,whoconfessedtohavingtastedhoney.Hewas,however,deliveredbythepeoplefromthepenalty,
forSaulhadswornthatheshoulddie(14:1745).
Thisnarrative(chs.13,14)isinterruptedat13:815byanaccountwhichrepresentsSamuelastakingissuewithSaulforsacrificingattheendofanappointed
periodofsevendays,andannouncinghisrejection(Seeart.S AMUEL,p.823n).Wehavefromanothersource(ch.15)astoryoftheencounterwithAmalek,against
whomSamuelsentSaulwithinstructionstodestroymen,women,children,andspoil.Saul,however,sparesAgag,andpartofthebooty.Thisisnowassignedas 33/116
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whomSamuelsentSaulwithinstructionstodestroymen,women,children,andspoil.Saul,however,sparesAgag,andpartofthebooty.Thisisnowassignedas
thereasonforhisrejection.Saulacknowledgedhisfault,butbeggedSamueltohonourhimbeforethepeoplebysacrificingwithhim.Inhisimportunityhelays
holdofSamuelsgarment,whichisrent,andbecomesthesymbolofthekingdomwrestedfromSaul.
Samuelrelentsandworshipswithhim.
ThesecondstageofSaulslifeconcernshisrelationswithDavid.Saulisadvisedtoemploymusicasarelieffromadeepseatedmentaltrouble,calledanevil
spiritfromtheLord.David,askilledharperandcelebratedsoldier,isengaged.Saulloveshim,andmakeshimhisarmourbearer(16:1423).ThePhilistinesagain
assemble,thistimeatSocohGoliathissueshischallenge,butnooneresponds.TheladDavid,whohadcometothecamptovisithisbrethren,learnsofthe
profferedreward,meetstheboasterinsinglecombat,andkillshim.InthisstorySaulseemsweak,irresolute,andunacquaintedwithDavid(ch.17).Davids
growingpopularityandprowessleadSaultoattempthislife.Michal,Saulsdaughter,isofferedtohiminmarriageinreturnforonehundredPhilistines.Thehazard
involvedfailedtoaccomplishhisdeath.ThenDavidshouseissurrounded,butMichalmanagesDavidsescapethroughawindow(18:69,20:29,19:1117).
Merab,Saulselderdaughter,wasalsoofferedtoDavid,butwithdrawnwhenheshouldhavehadher.ThisseemstobeanefforttoexplainwhyDaviddidnot
receiveSaulsdaughterafterhehadslainthegiant.DavidfleestoRamah,andSaul,seekinghimthere,isseizedwiththepropheticfrenzyandrenderedpowerless
(19:1824).Davidagainflees,andreceiveshelpfromthepriestsatNob.SoenragedwasSaulthatheorderedtheslaughteroftheentirepriesthoodthere(chs.20
21).SaulhadDavidallbutcapturedinthehillsofZiph,whenaraidofthePhilistinescalledhimaway(23:1429).TwiceSaulwasinthepowerofDavid,who
refusedtoharmtheLordsanointed(chs.24,26).
ThecircumstancesconnectedwithSaulsdeatharetoldinadramaticway.ThePhilistineshadgatheredtogetheratAphek,whileSaulheldthefatefulplainsof
MegiddoatJezreel.Answercamefromneitherprophetnorpriest.ThenindespairheappliedtothenecromanceratEndor,butreceivedonlyahopelessmessage.
ThebattlejoinsSaulssonsareslainsorepressed,hecallsonhisarmourbearertoslayhim,butbeingrefusedhefallsuponhisswordanddies.Thefollowing
daythePhilistinesseveredtheheadsofSaulandhissons,andexposedthebodiesonthewallsofBethshan,whencethegratefulJabeshgileaditesbroughtthem
awaybynight(chs.28,31).AnAmalekite,whobroughtthestoryofSaulsdeathtoDavid,claimedthathehimselfslewhim,andwaspromptlyexecutedbyDavid
(2S1:116).
2.SaulofTarsus.SeeP AUL.
J.H.S TEVENSON.
SAVIAS(1Es8:2)=Uzzi,Ezr7:4.
SAVIOUR.SeeS ALVATION.
SAVOUR.ThewordsavourisusedinAVliterallyfortaste,asMt5:19Ifthesalthavelosthissavour,andforsmell,as2Es2:12anointmentofsweet
savour.Itisalsousedfigurativelyinthesenseofreputation,Ex5:21YehavemadeoursavourtobeabhorredintheeyesofPharaoh(lit.oursmelltostinkas
AVm).
Theverbtosavouriseithertotasteorsmellof,asinPref.toAVtosavourmoreofcuriositythanofwisdomortoseekoutortosearchbytastingor
smelling,usedfig.inMk8:33ThousavourestnotthethingsthatbeofGod.
SAW.SeeARTSANDCRAFTS,1.
SCAB.SeeMEDICINE,p.599b.
SCALINGLADDER.SeeF ORTIFICATIONANDS IEGECRAFT,6.
SCALL.SeeMEDICINE,p.600a.
SCAPEGOAT.SeeAZAZEL,ATONEMENT[DAYOF].
SCARLET.SeeCOLOURS,4.
SCEPTRE,astr.ofshbel,maystandeitherforashortornamentalsceptresuchasappearsinsomerepresentationsoftheAssyrianking,orforalongstaff
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SCEPTRE,astr.ofshbel,maystandeitherforashortornamentalsceptresuchasappearsinsomerepresentationsoftheAssyrianking,orforalongstaff
reachingtotheground,whichcharacterizessomeportrayalsofthePersianmonarchs.Thelongsceptreissimplyanornamentedstaff,theshortoneisa
developmentoftheClubormace.OnGn49:10SeeLAWGIVERandS HILOH.OnthedifficultyofapproachingthepresenceofthePersiankingsreferredtoinEst
4:11,cf.alsoHerod.iii.118,140.
SCEVA.AtEphesus,whereSt.Paulworkedspecialpowers(Ac19:11ff.),certainitinerantJews(RVstrollingperhapsconveystoomuchtheideaof
vagabond)endeavouredtoexorciseevilspiritsbynamingoverthemthenameofJesus.AmongthemweresevensonsofoneSceva,aJewishchiefpriest
(probablyoneofthehighpriestlyfamily).Inv.16thedemoniacovercomesbothofthem(RV).Scevahimselfisnotsaidtohavebeenpresent.Theincidentledto
manyconversions,andseveralbroughtanddestroyedtheirbooksofmagic.
Thereisadifficultyinthetext.Sevensonsarementionedinv.14,andthesearereducedtotwoinv.16.PerhapsSt.Lukeishereabbreviatingawrittensourcewhichdetailed
theincidentmorefully,andexplainedthattwooutofthesevensonstriedtoexorcisethisparticulardemon.InferiorMSS(followedbyAV)substitutethemforbothofthem,and
theBezanCodex(D)omitsthewordsevenaltogether,callsScevamerelyapriest,andaddsotherphraseswhichareexpansionsofourtext.Buttheseseemtobebutexplanations
ofadifficultoriginaltextandtheRVisprobablycorrect.ThewordsevencouldneverhavebeeninsertedifitwerenotSt.Lukes.
Prof.RamsaythinksthatthewholepassageisunworthyofLuke(St.PaultheTraveller6,p.272f.).Butitisunsafetojudgefirstcenturythoughtbythatofour
ownday.TheApostolicagefirmlybelievedinpossessionbyevilspiritsandthereisreallynothinginthischapterunlikewhatwereadelsewhereinNT.
A.J.MACLEAN.
SCHISM.SeeHERESY.
SCHOOL,SCHOOLMASTER.SchooloccursinEVonlyinAc19:9forthelectureroomofanEphesianrhetorician(cf.EDUCATION,p.204a)
schoolmasteronlyinGal3:24,25AV,forwhichRVhastutor.Theoriginalispaidaggos,lit.childconductor,pedagogueanoldandtrustyslave,who
accompaniedtheGreekchildtoandfromschoolandwasboundnevertolosesightofhim,tocarryhislyreandtablets,andtokeephimoutofmischief(Gardner
andJevons,ManualofGr.Antiq.303).Hehadnothingtodowiththeteaching,asissuggestedbyboththeEnglishrenderings.Thesamewordisrendered
instructorsin1Co4:15AV(RV,asbefore,tutors).InAVthelatterwordisfoundonlyinGal4:2asthetr.ofanentirelydifferentword,correctlyrendered
guardiansbyRV.ForthedutiesofguardiansinGr.lawseeop.cit.552f.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
SCHOOLS.SeeEDUCATION.
SCIENCE.ThewordscienceoccursinAVonlytwice(Dn1:4,1Ti6:20),andinbothplacesitsimplymeansknowledgeasinBarlowesDialoge,p.109,
Thereisnotruthe,nomercye,norscyenceofgodintheyerth.
SCIMITAR.SeeF AUCHION.
SCORPION(aqrb[Arab.samename],Dt8:15,Ezk2:6skorpios,Lk10:19,11:12,Rev9:3,10).ThescorpionbelongstotheArachnidorspiderfamily.It
occursplentifullyinPalestine,tenspeciesbeingknownitisnocturnalinitshabits,andkillssmallinsects,spiders,etc.,forfoodbymeansofthepoisonousstingat
theendofitstail.Theeffectofthepoisononhumanbeingsisseverepain,andsometimescollapseandevendeath,thelatterinyoungchildrenonly.Thescorpions
of1K12:11,14,2Ch10:11,14areclearlyusedonlyfiguratively.Itispossible,buthardlylikely(seeHastingsDCG,art.Scorpion),thatthelanguageofour
LordinLk11:12issuggestedbytheegglikeformofthescorpionwhenatrest.MoreprobablyHehasinmindsomesuchformofproverbaswascurrentamong
theGreeks:Insteadofaperch,ascorpion.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
SCOURGING.SeeCRIMESANDP UNISHMENTS,9,andCRUCIFIXION,4.
SCREECHOWL.SeeOWL.
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SCRIBE.SeeKING,p.516b.
SCRIBES.Sometimesaphrasegivesthekeytoagreathistory.Suchisthecasehere.ThescribesofthePharisees(Mk2:16)pointsustotheinseparable
connexionbetweenthePhariseesandtheScribes.InotherplacesintheGospelstheyarealsogroupedtogether(Mt12:38,Lk6:7,Mk7:5).Ifwewouldunderstand
theScribeorLawyer,wemustsethimagainstthebackgroundofPharisaism(Seeart.P HARISEES).
Foreverycommunitythatcarvesoutforitselfagreatcareerthesupremeproblemislawanditsadministration.Now,aftertheExile,thetaskbeingtohold
togetherthepartsofanationwidelyscatteredandlackingtheunifyingpowerofacommonandsacredfatherland,theMosaicTorah,theDivineLawforIsrael,
became,incourseoftime,themoralandspiritualconstitutionofIsrael,itscodeofduty,thefabricofitsright.TheTorahistheinformingprincipleofthe
community.Tograspthisprincipleandapplyittothechangingconditionsandquestionsofthenationslifewasthesupremeneedofthetime.Thisneedwas
analogoustothesimilarneedofanygreatState.Anditalwaysnecessitates,asatRome,agreatbodyoflawyers.Afundamentalneedgivesrisetoanauthoritative
function,andthefunctioncreatesforitselftheagentstoexerciseit.So,incourseoftime,appearsinJudaismanewtype,theScribe.Thereis,however,apeculiarity
inthecaseoftheScribethatsetshimapartfromtheRomanlawyerorthemodernjudge.TheTorahwhichheinterpretedandappliedwasagoodmanythingsin
one.ItwasthetextbookofasocietywhichwasbothChurchandStateitwasatoncetheconstitutionandthecatechismoftheJews.Sothemasteryand
administrationofitdevelopedintheScribeavarietyoffunctionswhichwithusareparcelledoutamongpreacher,scholar,lawyer,andmagistrate.Itiseasytosee
thathistoryowedhimafortune.HecametooccupyagreatpositionintheJewishcommunity.Bythe1stcent.hehadforcedhiswayintothataristocraticbody,the
Sanhedrin(GamalielinAc5NicodemusinJn3and7).HesatinMosesseat(Mt23:1).Hehadthepowerofbindingandloosing,i.e.ofpublishing
authoritativejudgmentsuponthelegalityandillegalityofactions.
Weseehereasituationwhichhadthemakingofgreatmeninit.TograspandadministertheMosaicLaw,tositinMosesseatandbecomethetrusteeofthe
supremeinterestsofagreatpeople,therecanbenobetterschool.Naturally,thereweremanynobleScribes,menwhosecharacterandlearningwere
commensuratewiththeirtask.SuchwereHillelandShammai,eldercontemporariesofourLord.SuchalsowastheGamalielatwhosefeetSt.Paulsat(Ac22:3),
andwhospoke,withnoblefeeling,againstthepersecutingzealoftheSadducees(5:34ff.).Asaclass,too,theyhadtheirnobleside.Theirwork,botheducational
andjudicial,wasgratuitous.Theyweretoreceivenopay.Probablythisrulegrewoutoftheideaofanimpartialjudge(Ex23:8,Dt16:19).Ofcourse,theremust
havebeenmanyexceptions.Yetthemereideawasennobling,andmusthaveservedtoenkindledevotion.But,ontheotherhand,theirpositionencouragedvast
prideandvanity.TheystoodontheirprerogativesasTeachers.TheylovedthetitleofRabbi.SoourLord,whenHebidsHisdisciplesrefusesuchtitle(Mt
23:7f.),hastheScribesinmind.
ThisleadsustothedeeperdefectoftheScribesasaclass.AlltheirtrainingwenttounfitthemforunderstandingourLord.Aswehaveseen,thesituationofthe
JewsinthecenturiesaftertheExilecalledforanewtypeofman.Theprophetpassedoffthestage.TheScribeorLawyertookhisplace.Inthe1stcent.ofourera
behadbecomeantipathetictoProphetism.SobehadnosympathywithJohntheBaptist,andtothemeaningofthecreativeforceinspiritualthingsbroughtinto
historybytheSaviourhewastotallyblind.HenceourLordsfearfuldenunciationoftheScribes(Mt23).Seealsoartt.P HARISEESandS ADDUCEES.
HENRYS.NASH.
SCRIP.SeeBAG.
SCRIPTURE.1.ThewordScripture(Lat.scriptura,awriting,somethingwritten)isusedfortheBibleasawhole,moreofteninthepluralform
Scriptures,andalsomoreproperlyforapassageoftheBible.Itappearsastr.oftheGreekgraph,whichisusedinthesingularforaportionoftheOT(e.g.Mk
12:10),andalsoforthewholeOT(Gal3:22),andmorefrequentlyintheplural(haigraphai).ThespecificideaofScripturecontainsanelementofsanctityand
authority.ThusitbecomesusualtorefertoHolyScripture,ortheHolyScriptures(engraphaishagiais,Ro1:2).
2.ThisspecificconceptionofScriptureasdistinguishedfromordinarywritingisduetothereceptionofitasarecordofthewordofGod,andistherefore
associatedwithinspiration.TheearliestreferencetoanysuchrecordisinthenarrativeofthefindingoftheBookoftheLawbyHilkiahthescribeinthetimeof
Josiah(2K22:3ff.).SincethisbookisnowknowntohavebeenDeuteronomyorpartofit,wemustreckonthatthiswasthefirstbooktreatedasScripture.Still
greatersanctitywasgiventotheenlargedandmoredevelopedLawinthetimeofEzraandNehemiah,andfromthattimethewholePentateuch,regardedasthe
LawgivenbyGodtoMoses,istreatedasespeciallysacredandauthoritative.ThespecialfunctionofthescribesinguardingandteachingtheLawrestedonthis
Scripturalcharacterattachedtoit,andinturnrendereditthemorevenerableasScripture.LaterthereceptionoftheHagiographaandtheProphetsintotheCanon
ledtothosecollectionsbeingregardedalsoasScripture,thoughneverwithquitetheauthorityattachedtotheLaw.
TheRabbischerishedgreatvenerationforScripture,andascribedtoitamechanicalinspirationwhichextendedtoeverywordandletter.Philoalsoacceptedplenaryinspiration,
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TheRabbischerishedgreatvenerationforScripture,andascribedtoitamechanicalinspirationwhichextendedtoeverywordandletter.Philoalsoacceptedplenaryinspiration,
findinghisfreedomfromthebondageoftheletterinallegoricalinterpretations.
UnliketheJerusalemRabbis,inthisrespectfollowedbymostoftheNTwriters,whoquotethevariousOTauthorsbyname,PhiloquotesScriptureastheimmediatewordof
God,andinsodoingisfollowedbytheauthorofHebrews.Thus,whileSt.Marksays,asitiswritteninIsaiah,theprophet(Mk1:2),andSt.PaulDavidsaith(Ro11:9),in
Hebrewsweread,He(i.e.God)saith(He1:7),theHolyGhostsaith(3:7),or,moreindefinitely,itissaid(3:15),whichisquiteinthemannerofPhilo.Still,thetechnical
expressionItiswritten(gegraptai)isverycommonbothintheGospelsandinSt.PaulsEpistles.AsaGreekperfect,ithasthepeculiarforceofapresentstateresultingfroma
pastaction.ThusitalwaysconveysthethoughtthatScripture,althoughitwaswrittenlongago,doesnotbelongtothepast,butisinexistencetoday,anditsinherentpresent
authorityisthusemphasizedasthatofalawnowinforce.Theimpersonalcharacterofthepassiveverbalsoaddsdignitytothecitationthusintroduced,assomethingweightyonits
ownaccount.
3.NoNTwritingsduringtheApostolicagearetreatedasScriptureatitle,withitsassociatedauthority,alwaysreservedbytheApostlesfortheOT.Thereis
anapparentexceptionin2P3:15,16,wheretheEpistlesofourbelovedbrotherPaulareassociatedwiththeotherscripturesbutthisisastrongargumentin
favourofassigning2Pet.toalateperiodinthesecondcentury.Apartfromthis,wefirstmeetwiththetechnicalphraseItiswrittenattachedtoaNTpassagein
Barn.iv.4buthereitisaGospelcitationofasayingofChrist:Asitiswritten.Manyarecalledbutfewchosen.ThustheauthorityofChristswordsleadstothe
recordofthembeingcitedasScripture.InPolycarp(Phil.xii.1)wehavethetitleScriptureappliedtothesourceofaNTquotation,butonlyintheLatintr.(his
scripturis).In2Clem.ii.4asayingofChristiscitedasScripture.But,apartfromtheserareinstances,nowriterprevioustothesecondhalfofthesecondcentury
appealstotheNTastechnicallyScripture.ClementofRome,Barnahas(withtheoneexceptionreferredto),Hermas,andevenJustinMartyrusethetitlefortheOT
only.TheophilusofAntioch(c.180)citespassagesfromSt.PaulastheDivineword(adAutol.iii.14).Irenus(180),ontheotherhand,constantlytreatsNT
passagesasthewordofGodandauthoritativeScripture.Foranexplanationofthisremarkabledevelopment,seeCANON
OFNT.
W.F.ADENEY.
SCULPTURE.SeeART.
SCURVY.SeeMEDICINE,p.599b.
SCYTHIANS.AwanderingraceoftheIndoEuropeanstockwholivedbetweentheDanubeandtheDon,andspreadovertheterritorybetweentheCaucasus
andtheCaspian.Theywereacruelandsavagepeople,ofhugebuild.TheAtheniansemployedthemaspolice.InCol3:11theyarementionedasadegreeworse
thanbarbarians.ThelatterwordsimplyconnotedthosewhospokeneitherGreeknorLatin.
A.S OUTER.
SCYTHOPOLIS.SeeBETHSHEAN.
SEAinScripturegenerallymeanstheMediterranean,whenthecontextintroducesnodistinctionbywhichtheparticularseaisdefined,e.g.inNu33:8,Jos
24:6f.etc.TheGreatSeaistheMediterranean(Nu34:6,Ezk47:10etc.).TheSeaoftheArabahistheDeadSea(2K14:25etc.).TheSeaofChinnerethis
theSeaofGalilee(Nu34:11etc.).TheSeaofthe
PhilistinesistheMediterraneanoffthePhilistinecoast(Ex23:31).YmSph,SeaofWeeds(Ex10:19etc.),isidenticalwiththeRedSeaofHe11:29,Jth5:12
etc.,andisalwayssotranslated.TheNile,asinmodernArabic(elBahr),iscalledthesea(Is18:2etc.),soalsotheEuphrates(Is21:1,Jer51:36).Theseaof
Jazerisascribalerror(Jer48:32cf.Is16:8).ym,
sea,IstheusualwordforWesttheMediterraneanformingtheW.boundaryofPalestine(Gn12:6etc.).Thephrasefromseatosea(Am8:12etc.)probably
signifiedtheendsoftheearth.TheInfluenceoftheBabylonianmythoftheconflictofthegodswiththeprimevalseamaybetracedincertainScripture
representationsofthesea(Job7:12etc.Seeart.CosmogonyinHastingsDB).Thm(EVdeep)ofGn1:2etc.resemblestheBab.Timat.Bythe
dismembermentofthismonstertheorderedworldisproduced(Gn1:6).TheturbulentanddangerouscharacteroftheseaisoftenreferredtoinScripture(Ps46:2,
89:9,Is17:12,Jer49:23etc.).FromtheseacameupthemonstersofDanielsvision(7:2ff.)soalsointheApocalypse(13:1).IfintheliteratureoftheHebrews
thereismanifestacertainhorrorof,andshrinkingfrom,thesea,whichseemstrangetoaseafaringpeople,wemustrememberthat,asanation,Israelneverknew
theseanorneedwewonderif,viewedfromtheirmountainheights,stretchingvastandmysteriousintothefarhorizons,itseemedtothemtheveryhomeofstorms
andvagueterrors.SowhentheJewishseerdepictsthefuturehomeoftheblessedthereisnomoresea(Rev21:1).Cf.DUALISM,1,RAHAB,2.
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W.EWING.
SEA(BRAZEN).SeeTEMPLE,6(c).
SEAOFGALILEE.SeeGALILEE[S EAOF].
SEAOFGLASS.OneofthefeaturesoftheheavenlylandscapedescribedinRev4:6,15:2.Byitssidestoodthosewhohadbeenvictoriousinthestruggle
withthebeast,singingtothegloryofGod.ItslocationwasapparentlybeforethethroneofGod.Justwhatthesymbolismhereintendedis,itisdifficulttostate.The
probabilityis,however,thatthereisnodistinctsymbolismwhatever,butthatthereferenceisrathertothebrilliancyofthewatersasoneelementinthesupremely
beautifullandofheaven.
S HAILERMATHEWS.
SEAH.SeeWEIGHTSANDMEASURES,II.
SEAL,SIGNET.TheexistenceofsealsisattestedfortheearlydynastiesofEgypt,andforanequallyremoteperiodinthehistoryofBabylonia.Thefirst
mentionofasealintheOTisinconnexionwiththepatriarchJudah,whofaredforthwithhisstaffinhishandandhissealhungroundhisneckbyacord(Gn38:18
RV),preciselyaswasthecustomofeveryBabyloniangentlemaninthedaysofHerodotus(i.195).ThesealshithertofoundinPalestineshowlittleinitiativeonthe
partoftheHebrewsinthisbranchofthefinearts,thegreatmajorityplainlyshowingthepredominantinfluenceofEgypt,ortoalessextentofBabylonia.
Asregardsmaterial,almosteveryvarietyofpreciousstonewasusedforthispurpose,althoughordinarylimestone,andevenbakedclay,wereusedbythose
whocouldaffordnothingbetter.Analmostequalwealthofformisattestedbytheextantseals.ThusthescarabandthescaraboidformsweredistinctiveofEgypt,as
thecylinderwasofBabylonia.Otherseals,again,wereconicalinshape,whilethesquareformisnotunknown.
MostoftheextantsealsbearingevidenceofaHebreworigin,however,areovalinoutline.Thiswasalsotheusualformforsealsintendedtobesetinthebezel
ofaring.Inthiscaseitwascustomarytoweartheringononeofthefingersoftherighthand(Jer22:24cf.Gn41:42).ThedistinctivelyJewishtypeofsealis
markedbytwofeatures:(a)theabsenceoffigures,Divineorhuman,inthefield,and(b)thepresenceoftwoparallellines,setclosetogether,whichcrossthefield
longitudinally,anddividetheinscriptionintotwoparts.Thelegend,asarule,containsthenameoftheowner,precededbytheprepositionsignifyingbelonging
tothus[theproperty]ofX,thesonofY,orofM,thedaughterofN,forwomenalsohadtheirseals.Manyseals,however,whoseowners,tojudgefromtheir
names,wereHebrews,bearfiguresandsymbolsinthefield,oneofthemshowingtheearliestexampleofthesocalledshieldofDavid.
AnotherofthisclassisthefinestknownspecimenofaHebrewseal.Itisofjasper,andovalinshapethegreaterpartofthefieldisoccupiedbyalion,ofthemostdelicate
workmanshipintheBabylonianstyle,whileaboveandbelowisthelegend:[Theproperty]ofShema,theservant[i.e.courtofficial]ofJeroboam.Thissealwasdiscoveredin1904
duringtheGermanexcavationsonthesiteoftheancientMegiddo,andisfullydescribedbyKautzschinMNDPV1904,114,8183cf.Lidzbarski.Ephemerisf.
Sem.Epigraphik,ii.140ff.,whereothersealsarealsodiscussedandPEFSt1904,287ff.,withreproductionsoftheeizeoftheoriginalandenlarged.Itisimpossibletodecide
whetherornottheShemaoftheMegiddosealisidenticalwiththeIoriginalownerofanothersealofthemoreseveretypeabovedescribed,thelegendofwhichruns:[the
property]ofShema,theservantoftheking.
AseriesofexcellentreproductionsoftypicalsealsfoundinPalestineisgivenbyBenzingerinhisHeb.Arch. 2[1907],82,179f.,225230,whileacollectionoftwentyseal
inscriptions,datingfrom9th6thcent. B. C.,withamplereferences,willbefoundinLidzbarskisAttsemit.Texte,parti.,10f.
Theengravingofsealswasdonebymeansofagraverwithadiamondpoint(Jer17:1).BenSira(c.B.C.180175)makeshonourablementionofthemthatcut
gravingsofsignets(Sir38:27RV).
Asregardsthevariedusesofthesealinantiquity,oneofthemostimportantwastoauthenticatewrittendocuments(1K21:8,Jer32:19f.),afterthemannerofa
modernsignature(cf.Neh10:1).Arollorotherdocumentintendedforpreservationwassealedupbeforeitwaspartedwith(Dn12:4)theseals,accordingly,hadto
bebrokenbeforeitcouldberead(Rev6:3etc.).Intheordinarybusinessoflifesealingwascontinuallyemployedasaprecautionagainstadepositofanysortbeing
tamperedwithbyunauthorizedpersons.Winejars,forexample,invariablyhadtheirstopperscoveredwithsoftclay,onwhichtheownerimpressedhisseal.Such
impressionsarereferredtoinJob38:14.
NewberryinhisScarabsillustratestheEgyptian(anddoubtlessHebrew)practiceofsealingdoorsbymeansofapieceofstringattachingthedoortothejamb,
andsealedwithaclayseal.Dariusdenoflions(Dn6:17)andthesepulchreofourLord(Mt27:66)werebothinallprobabilitysealedinthiswaybymeansofa
cordwhichpassedoverthestonecoveringtheentrance,andwassealedateitherendbyalumpofclayimpressedwithoneormoreseals(cf.
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cordwhichpassedoverthestonecoveringtheentrance,andwassealedateitherendbyalumpofclayimpressedwithoneormoreseals(cf.
Dn.l.c.).
Fromtheuniversaluseofthesealinratifyingandauthenticatingdocuments,andsafeguardingdeposits,thewritersbothoftheOTandoftheNThavederiveda
richvarietyoffigures.Thus,inDn9:24,sealingisafigurefortheratificationofprophecyinJn6:27thefigureisbasedonthepublicacknowledgmentoftheseal
asonenowadaysacknowledgesonessignature.St.Paulsconverts,again,arethesealofhisApostleship(1Co9:2),inotherwords,theyauthenticatehisstatus
andmissionasatrueApostle.Asadocumentorvessel,finally,issealedupuntilthetimeforopeningitarrives,sotheChristianbelieverissealedbytheHolySpirit
untothedayofredemption(Eph4:30cf.1:13,2Co1:22).
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
SEAMEW.SeeCUCKOW.
SEAMONSTER.SeeDRAGON,LEVIATHAN,RAHAB,S EA.
SEBA.TheeldestsonofCushinGn10:7(1Ch1:9),namedalongwithShebainPs72:10,andwithEgyptandCushinIs43:8,45:14.Inthelatterpassageits
peoplearereferredtoasofhighstature.AcomparisonwithIs18:2pointstoasupposedconnexionwiththetallCushitesorNubians,thoughthereisnoevidence
whichdirectlyassociateseitherthepeopleorthecountrywithNubiaproper,intheregionoftheNile.MorespecificseemtobethereferencesbyStraboand
PtolemytoaseaportSabaandSabat,nearthemodernMassowaonthewestoftheRedSea.Thislocation,nearlyoppositetheancientSheba,givessomecolourto
thehypothesisthatSebaisanAfricandifferentiationofSheba(wh.see),thelatterbeingnaturallytheparentcommunity.
J.F.MCCURDY.
SEBAM.AplaceintheeastJordanterritoryofReuben(Nu32:3).Inalltheotherpassages(Nu32:38,Jos13:11,Is16:8,9,Jer48:32)thenameappearsin
thefem,formSibmah.ThevineofSibmahismentionedbyIsaiahandJeremiahasoneofthepossessionsofMoabonwhichdestructionwastofall.Theplace
hasbeenlocatednearHeshbon.
H.L.WILLETT.
SECACAH.Atownmentioned(Jos15:61)amongthepossessionsofJudahinthewilderness(midbr).ItwasprobablyintherockydistrictabovetheW.
shoreoftheDeadSea.H.L.WILLETT.
SECHENIAS.1.1Es8:29=Shecaniah,Ezr8:32.1Es8:32=Shecaniah,Ezr8:6.
SECONDCOMING.SeeP AROUSIA.
SECT.SeeHERESY.
SECU.Aplacenamewhichappearsonlyinthelatenarrativeof1S19:22inconnexionwithRamah,Samuelshome,andespeciallywiththegreatcisternor
wellofthethreshingfloor.Perhapsthenamerepresentsawordintheoriginalbestrenderedtheheight,referringtothehighestpartofthetownofRamah.
H.L.WILLETT.
SECUNDUS.AmanofThessalonicawhoaccompaniedSt.PaulonhisjourneytoJerusalem(Ac20:4),perhapsasadelegatetocarryalmsfromhiscity.The
Greekoftheverseisobscure,butthemeaningprobablyisthatAristarchusandSecundusandthosementionedafterwardswentdirecttoTroasfromCorinthand
waitedtherefortheApostle,whocamewithSopaterbywayofMacedonia.SeeS OPATER.
A.J.MACLEAN.
SECURE.Tobesecure,inthelanguageofAV,doesnotmeantobefreefromdangeritmeansnottoanticipatedanger.Thus,Jg8:11Gideonsmotethehost,
forthehostwassecure.Thevb.tosecureoccursinMt28:14Andifthiscometothegovernorsears,wewillpersuadehim,andsecureyou,wheretheGreek
meansliterallymakeyoufreefromcare,i.e.makeitallrightforyou.
http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/s.htm SEDEKIAS.1.AnancestorofBaruch(Bar1:1).2.1Es1:46,Bar1:8=Zedekiah(wh. 39/116

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SEDEKIAS.1.AnancestorofBaruch(Bar1:1).2.1Es1:46,Bar1:8=Zedekiah(wh.
see),kingofJudah.
SEDUCTION.SeeCRIMESANDP UNISHMENTS,3.
SEED,SEEDTIME(Heb.zeraGr.sperma,sporos,spora).1.Literal.(a)Vegetable
(Gn1:11,8:22etc.).SeeAGRICULTURE,1.(b)Animal(Lv15:1618etc.).2.Metaphorical.(a)Offspring,race,family(Gn3:15,9:9,12:7etc.Mk12:19ff.,Lk
1:55,Jn7:42etc.).InNTitisespeciallyfrequentinthephrasetheseedofAbrahamafavouritePaulineequivalentforIsrael(cf.Ro11:1,2Co11:22).InGal
3:16St.Paularguesfromtheuseofthesing.seedinsteadoftheplur.seedsinGn13:15,17:8,thattheMessiahinpersonisdenotedandnotAbrahamsprogeny
ingeneral.Asaprooftheargumenthasnoforce,forthesamewordzeraoccursinthesing,formineverypassageintheOTwhereitexpressestheideaof
offspring.ItisaverbalsubtletyduetotheApostlesRabbinicaltraining.Buttheargumentasawholeisindependentofthisgrammaticalrefinement.St.Pauls
meaningisthattheMessiahwasclearlyinviewinthepromisesmadetoAbraham.IsraelwasthetypeofChrist,andinHimtheseedofAbrahamwassummedup.
Fromthisfollowsthatfurtherextensionofthefig.seedofAbrahamtodenotethoseunitedtoChristbyfaith(Gal3:7,28),thespiritualIsraelorIsraelofGod(Ro
2:29,Gal6:16).(b)Vitalenergy.In1Jn3:9seeddenotestheindwellingprincipleoftheDivinelifebywhichtheChristianiskeptfromsin.
J.C.LAMBERT.
SEER.Seepp.413a,757b.
SEETHE.Thisverb,whichmeanstoboil,occursoccasionallyinAV,especiallyinthecommand(Ex23:18etc.),Thoushaltnotseetheakidinhismothers
milk.Thepasttensewassod,asGn25:29Jacobsodpottageandthepastpart.sodden,asLa4:10Thehandsofthepitifulwomenhavesoddentheirown
children.
SEGUB.1.TheyoungestsonofHielwhorebuiltJericho(1K16:34).Hedied,orwaspossiblysacrificedbyhisfather,whenthegatesweresetup.See
HOUSE,p.369a.2.SonofHezron(1Ch2:21f.).
SEIR.1.ThenameofamountainousdistricteastoftheArabah,peopledbytheEdomites.ItwasoriginallyoccupiedbyHoritesorcavedwellers(Gn14:6).
Mt.SeirispracticallysynonymouswithEdom(cf.Gn32:3thelandofSeir,thefieldofEdom).2.Mt.SeirmentionedinJos15:10amongthepointsdefining
theboundariesofJudah.ThenamemaystillbepreservedinthatoftheruinsatSrs,S.W.ofKiriathjearim.
SEIRAH.TheplacetowhichEhudescapedafterkillingEglon,kingofMoab(Jg3:26)unidentified.
SELAmeansrock,cliff,orcrag,andasacommonnounisoffrequentoccurrenceinHebrew.Inthreeorfourpassages(Jg1:36,2K14:7,Is16:l,and,
accordingtosome,Is42:11)thewordappearstobeapropername.InJg1:36asitenearthesouthernendoftheDeadSeaisrequiredbythecontext.Suchasite
wouldalsosatisfytherequirementsof2K14:7andIs16:1.ButitisnotimprobablethatmorethanoneplacewasknownastheCliff(orCrag).Itisthereforenot
Impossible,thoughfarfromcertain,thattheSelaof2K14:7(cf.JOKTHEEL)andIs16:1is,asRVminthelatterpassagesuggests,andasmanyhaveheld,theplace
knownlaterasPetra(whichalsomeansrock).Petralayabout50milesnearlyduesouthoftheDeadSea,inavalleyenclosedoneverysidebynearly
perpendicularrocksofconsiderableheightand
composedofsandstoneofmanydifferentcolours.ItwasthecapitaloftheNahatansfromthecloseofthe4thcent.B.C.totheheginningofthe2ndcent.A.D.(
whenitbecameaRomanprovince),andduringthatperiodabusycommercialcentre.ForsomedescriptionofthebuildingsofPetraandtherockarchitecturewhich
havegiventhecitygreatfame,seeBdekersPalestine,p.206,andtheliteraturetherecited.ThegeneralcharacterofthebuildingsatPetraisthatofthedebased
Romanstyleofthe3rdand4thcenturiesA.D.ApartfromtheBiblicalstatementsenumeratedabove,thehistoryofPetrabeforetheNahatanperiodisunknown.
G.B.GRAY.
SELAHAMMAHLEKOTH.ArockorcliffinthewildernessofMaon,atwhichSaulreturnedfrompursuingafterDavid(1S23:28).Thesiteisuncertain.
SELAH.AHeb.liturgicalmusicaltermofuncertainmeaning.Itoccurs(a)intheOT,(b)inthePsalmsofSolomon,and(c)intheJewish(Synagogue)
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SELAH.AHeb.liturgicalmusicaltermofuncertainmeaning.Itoccurs(a)intheOT,(b)inthePsalmsofSolomon,and(c)intheJewish(Synagogue)
Liturgy.
IntheOTthetermoccurs74timesaltogetherintheHeb.text,viz.71timesinthePsalter,and3inthePrayerofHabakkuk(Hab3).IntheGr.tr.oftheOT(the
LXX)theGr.equivalent(diapsalma)doesnotalwaysappearinthesameplacesasintheHeb.textthenumberofoccurrencesisalsoratherlargerintheLXX.
PossiblyinsomecasesSelahhasfallenoutoftheMassoretictextaccidentally.InthePsalmsofSolomonSelahoccurstwice(17:31and18:10),andintheoldest
partsoftheJewishLiturgy(apartfromthecanonicalPsalms,whichareincorporatedinit)5times(3intheEighteenBlessingsand2inthemorningBenedictions
precedingtheShema).
Variousexplanationshavebeenproposedastotheetymologyandmeaningoftheterm.Perhapstheleastimprobableoftheseisthatwhichregardsitasa
liturgicaldirectionintendedtoindicatetheplaceforliftingupthevoicesinadoxologyatthecloseofasectionsuchadoxologymighthavebeensungattheendof
apsalmorsectionofapsalmwhichliturgicallywasseparatedfromthefollowing(cf.theuseoftheGloriaattheendofPsalmsor[inthecaseofthe119th]atthe
endofsectionsofthePsalminChristianworship).OritmayhavebeenadirectiontotheorchestraLiftup!loud!tostrikeinwithloudmusic(afterthesoft
accompanimenttothesingersvoices)duringapauseinthesinging.Othertheories,suchasthatitrepresentsaHeb.transliterationofaGreekword(e.g.psalle)or
anabbreviationofthreewords,havelittleprobability.ThemeaningoftheLXXrendering(diapsalma)isasuncertainasthatoftheHeb.worditself.
G.H.BOX.
SELED.AJerahmeelite(1Ch2:30).
SELEMIA.OneofEzrasswiftscribes(2Es14:24).
SELEMIAS(1Es9:34)=Shelemiah,Ezr10:39.
SELEUCIA.onthecoastofSyria,atthemouthoftheriverOrontes,wastheportofthegreatAntioch.Itwasstronglyfortified.SituatedontheS.sideofMt.
Pieria,andonthelevelgroundatitsfoot,itwasprotectedonthreesidesbothnaturallyandbyfortifications.ItwascapturedbyPtolemyEuergetes(1Mac11:8),and
afterwardsrecovered(inB.C.219)by
AntiochustheGreat.ItsgreatnessincreasedinRomantimes.Thenitwasafreecity.
CommerciallyitsimportanceintheLevantinetradewasofthehighest.Extensiveremainsoftheancientcityexist.
A.S OUTER.
SELEUCUS.1.SeleucusI,(Nikator),originallyacavalryofficerofAlexandertheGreat,becamesatrapofBabylononthedeathoftheking.Aftersome
vicissitudeshispositiontherewassecurelyestablishedinB.C.312,fromwhichdatetheSeleuciderawasreckoned(1Mac1:18).ThebattleofIpsus,B.C.301,
madehimmasterofSyriaandgreatpartoftheEast.HefoundedAntiochanditsfortifiedportSeleucia(1Mac11:8),andissaidbyJosephus(Ant.XII.iii.1)to
haveconferredontheJewstheprivilegesofcitizenship.Heistheoneofhis[i.e.thekingofEgypts]princes(Dn11:5).HediedB.C.280.2.SeleucusII.
(Callinicus,B.C.246226),sonofAntiochusSoter,isentitledthekingofthenorthinthepassage(Dn11:79)whichalludestotheutterdiscomfitureofthe
SyriankingandthecaptureofSeleucia.3.SeleucusIII.(Ceraunus,B.C.226223),oneofhis[SeleucusII.s]sons(Dn11:10),wasmurderedduringa
campaigninAsiaMinor:thestrugglewithEgyptwascontinuedbyhisbrotherAntiochus(Dn11:1016).4.SeleucusIV.(PhilopatorbutJos.,Ant.XII.iv.10,
callshimSoter),sonof
AntiochusTheGreat,reignedB.C.187176.HeitwaswhodespatchedHeliodorustoplundertheTemple(2Mac3:140,cf.Dn11:20).5.SeleucusV.(B.C.
125124)andVI.(B.C.9593)arenotofimportancetotheBiblicalstudent.ThefourfirstnamedbelongtothetenhornsofDn7:24.
J.TAYLOR.
SELFCONTROL.SeeTEMPERANCE.
SELFSURRENDER.1.Themilitarymetaphorunderlyingtheideaofsurrenderingoneselfissuggestive.Thekeysofthecitadelofselfarehandedoverto
therightfulLord,whosemostpowerfulweaponsofattackhavebeentheentreatiesofHislove.Thesurrenderisnotfordemolition,butforrestorationinbeautyand
strength.Itisavoluntaryact,implyingthepresentingofourselvesuntoGod,andinvolvingthepresentingofourmembersasinstrumentsofrighteousnessunto
God(Ro6:13,cf.12:1).AsimilarconceptionfindsexpressionintheGr.word(hypotassesthai)whichRVtr.tobesubjectto,lit.tosetoneselfunder.Theproof
thatinthemindtherulingelementisnotfleshbutspiritistheabsenceofhostilitytoGodthisstateoflifeandpeaceistheresultofsubjectingoneselftothe41/116
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thatinthemindtherulingelementisnotfleshbutspiritistheabsenceofhostilitytoGodthisstateoflifeandpeaceistheresultofsubjectingoneselftothe
lawofGod(Ro8:8f.cf.10:3,Ja4:7).InHe12:9thisunreservedsurrenderofourselvestoGodisrepresentedastheonlyworthyrecognitionofHisabsolute
claims,andas,therefore,thoroughlyconsistentwithadueregardtothedevelopmentofourownpersonality.TobeinsubjectiontotheFatherofspiritsisindeed
tolive.Suchabsolutesubjectioniscrownedbythehighestblessing.Truelifecomesfromcompleteselfsurrender(Westcott,Com.,inloc.).
2.ItdependsuponthepointofviewwhethertheChristianidealoflifeisdescribedasthelifeofselfsurrenderorasthelifeofselfdevelopment.Repentanceand
faitharealikeactsinwhich,atoneandthesametime,willwillissurrenderedandthehigherselfisrealized.
Ourwillsareours,weknownothow,
OurwillsareourstomakethemThine.
OurselfsurrenderistheconditionoftheDivinecooperationHisworkinginusbothtowillandtodoenablesustorespondtotheexhortation:workoutyour
ownsalvation(Ph2:12f.).Everyrealsacrificeisatthesametimeselfpreservation,namely,preservationoftheidealself(Paulsen,SystemofEthics,p.248).To
yieldoneselfupastheorganofahigherspiritwhichdisposesofusasmaybefitconstitutesthemysticidealofperfectlife(Martineau,TypesofEthicalTheory,ii.
273).TheopensecretofthatlifeisrevealedinSt.Paulsprofoundwords:IhavebeencrucifiedwithChrist,anditisnolongerIthatlive,butChristlivethinme
(Gal2:20).J.G.TASKER.
SEMACHIAH.AKorahitefamilyofgatekeepers(1Ch26:7).PerhapsthesamenameshouldbesubstitutedforIsmachiahin2Ch31:13.
SEMEI(1Es9:33)=Shimei,Ezr10:33.
SEMEIAS(Ad.Est11:2)=Shimei,Est2:5.
SEMEIN.ThefatherofMattathias(Lk3:26).
SEMEIS(1Es9:23)=Shimei,Ezr10:23.
SENAAH.ThechildrenofSenaah,ormorecorrectlyHassenaah,wereaclanorfamilywho,accordingtoEzr2:35,Neh7:38,1Es5:23[Sanaas],were
amongtheexilesofthefirstRestorationunderZerub.,andhadashareinrebuildingthewalls(Neh3:3).Theyareelsewhereunknown,unlesstheyshouldbe
identifiedwithHassenuahofBenjamin(1Ch9:7,Neh11:9).Thelatterwouldthenbethecorrectreading.Otherconjecturesarelessprobable.
J.F.MCCURDY.
SENATEisthetr.ofGr.gerousiainAc5:21,whereallthesenateofthechildrenofIsraelisintendedtoexplaintheprecedingcouncil(synedrion). See
S ANHEDRIN.ItistheJewishsenatethatismeantlikewisein2Mac1:10,4:44.TheRomansenateisalludedtoin1Mac8:17ff.
SENEH.OneofthesteepcliffsformingthewallsofthegorgeofMichmash,whereJonathansexploitoccurred(1S14:4f.).Thenamemaysignifytooth,
thoughthisisuncertain.Theprecisecliffs,calledrespectivelySenehandBozez,arenotidentified.
H.L.WILLETT.
SENIR.ThenameofHermonamongtheAmorites,accordingtoDt3:9,butinCa4:8and
1Ch5:23distinguishedfromHermon.Itwasfamousforitslargefirtrees(Ezk27:5).ThisAmoriticnamewas,naturallyenough,theoneinvogueamongthe
BabyloniansandAssyrians.
InDeut.itappears,likeHermonandSirion,todesignatethewholeofAntiLebanon.When
takenmorestrictly,itstood,wemayassume,forthenorthernportion.TheArabgeographersgavethenametothatpartoftherangelyingbetweenBaalbekand
Homs.
J.F.MCCURDY.
SENNACHERIB(Assyr.Sinakherba,i.e.Sin[theMoongod]hasincreasedthebrothers),sonofSargon,succeededhimonthethroneofAssyria,onthe 42/116
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SENNACHERIB(Assyr.Sinakherba,i.e.Sin[theMoongod]hasincreasedthebrothers),sonofSargon,succeededhimonthethroneofAssyria,onthe
12thofAb,B.C.705.HewasatoncefacedbytroublesinBabylon,whereMerodachbaladanhadreestablishedhimself.Sennacheribexpelledhimandplaced
BlibnioftheBabylonianseedroyalonthethroneasavassalking.AfterwarsagainsttheKassitesandElamitesinB.C.701,SennacheribsetouttoreducetheWest
toorder.ThekingofTyrefiedtoCyprus,SidonandtherestofPhniciaweretakenorsubmitted,andplacedunderakingEthbaal.Ashdod,Ammon,Moab,Edom
senttribute.AshkelonandEkronwerecaptured,andHezekiahhadtorestorePaditothethroneofEkronafterkeepinghimsometimeinprison.TheEgyptiansand
theirallieswhohadmovedtosupportHezekiahweredefeatedatEltekeh.ThenSennacheribdevastatedJuda,capturing46citiesand200,150prisoners.Hezekiah
seemstohaveattemptedtobribehimtoretreat,sendingimmensetributetoSennacheribwhilehewasbesiegingLachish.Lachishfell,andtheTartan,the
RabsbakehandRabsarisweresenttodemandthesurrenderofJerusalem(2K19:8ff.).ThemiraculousdispersionofhisarmycompelledSennacheribtoretreat
withoutaccomplishingthecaptureofJerusalem.ThereissomereasontothinkthattheBiblicalaccountsreferpartlytoasecondcampaignofSennacheribafterB.C.
690.Hisannals,however,donotextendsofar.TroublesinBabylonialedhimtorecallBlibniandsethisownsonAshurndinshumonthethrone.Hethenhad
oncemoretoexpelMerodachbaladanfromLowerBabylonia.BuildingafleetontheTigrisandEuphrates,hepursuedtheChaldantothemouthoftheEulus,
andtherecapturedanddestroyedtheChaldanstronghold,thusinvadingLowerElam.Hewastoofarfromhisbase,andtheElamitesfellonhisrearandcaptured
Babylon,carriedoffAshurndinshumtoElam,makingaChaldanNergalushzibkinginhissteadB.C.694.TheAssyrianssoonreassertedtheirsupremacy,but
afreshrebellionplacedaBabylonianonthethroneofBabylon.InB.C.691SennacheribbroughtbothElamitesandBabylonianstobayatKhalule.Twoyearslater
heinvadedElam.InB.C.689Babylonwascapturedandrazedtotheground.FromthattimetillB.C.681,whenSennacheribwasmurdered(2K19:37),wehave
nohistoryofhisreign.HisgreatachievementwasthecreationofNinevehasametropolisoftheEmpire.HebuiltthegreatpalaceofKouyunjikandthegreatwall
ofNineveh.Cf.ADRAMMELECH.
C.H.W.JOHNS.
SEORIM.Thenameofthefourthpriestlycourse(1Ch24:8).
SEPARATION,WATEROF.SeeREDHEIFER.
SEPHAR.MentionedasaboundaryofthedescendantsofJoktaninGn10:30.ThemostprobableidentificationisthatwithZafar,theancientcapitalofthe
Himyarites,whichisprobablytheseaportofHadramautofthesamename(SeeHAZARMAVETH).
J.F.MCCURDY.
SEPHARAD.AcountryinwhichwasacommunityofexilesfromJudahinthedaysoftheprophetObadiah(Ob20).Itisprobablytobeunderstoodas
Sparda(parda),aPersianprovinceofAsiaMinor,notdefinitelytreatedinitsearliestuse,butinthetimeoftheSeleucidemployedforAsiaMinorasawhole.
Cf.OBADIAH,p.664b.
J.F.MCCURDY.
SEPHARVAIM.1.Acitymentionedin2K18:34(Is36:19)and19:13(Is37:13)asamongthosecapturedbytheAssyrians,allapparentlyinSyria.Probably
itanswerstotheShabarainnamedintheBabylonianChronicleastakenjustbeforethefallofSamaria.SibraimofEzk47:8maythenbethesamecity.2.Aword
ofexactlythesameformastheaboveoccursin2K17:2431asthenameofaplacewhoseinhabitantsweredeportedtoSamaria.Thecontextfavoursthe
suppositionthatthefamouscitySipparinNorthBabyloniaisintended.ProbablythesimilaritybetweenthewordsledsomeearlycopyisttowriteSepharvaimby
mistake.
J.F.MCCURDY.
SEPTUAGINT.SeeGREEKVERSIONSOFOT,1.
SEPULCHRE.SeeTOMB.
SERAH.AdaughterofAsher(Gn46:17,Nu26:48(30),1Ch7:30).
SERAIAH.1.(2S8:17)SeeS HAVSHA.2.HighpriestinthereignofZedekiah.Hewasputtodeath,withotherdistinguishedcaptives,byorderof
NebuchadnezzaratRiblah,2K25:18,21,Jer52:24,27.Heismentionedinthelistofhighpriests,1Ch6:14.Ezraclaimeddescentfromhim,Ezr7:1(1Es8:1
Azarias,2Es1:1Saraias).Hisnameoccursalsoin1Es5:6Saraias.3.OneofthecaptainsoftheforceswhojoinedGedaliahatMizpah(2K25:23,Jer40:8).4.
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Azarias,2Es1:1Saraias).Hisnameoccursalsoin1Es5:6Saraias.3.OneofthecaptainsoftheforceswhojoinedGedaliahatMizpah(2K25:23,Jer40:8).4.
SecondsonofKenazfatherofJoab,andbrotherofOthniel(1Ch4:13,14)5.GrandfatherofJehu,aprinceofSimeon(1Ch4:35)6.Oneofthetwelveleaderswho
returnedwithZerubbabel,Ezr2:2=Neh7:7Azariah,lEs5:8Zaraias7.Apriestlyclan(Neh10:2,11:11,12:2,12,
1Es5:8=1Ch9:11Azariah).8.OneofthosesenttoapprehendJeremiahandBaruch(Jer36:26).9.SonofNeriahandbrotherofBaruch(Jer51:5964).Heheld
theofficeofsarmenchh(AVaquietprince,mg.orprinceofMenuchaorchiefchamberlainRVchiefchamberlain,mg.orquartermaster).
SERAPHIM.TheseraphimarementionedonlyinasinglepassageofScripture(Is6:2ff.).Inhisinauguralvision,Isaiahseesthesesupernaturalcreatures
groupedaboutJehovahsthroneinHisheavenlypalace.Theprophetfurnishesnoelaboratedescriptionoftheformofthesebeings,andapparentlyassumesthathis
readerswillbeabletofillinwhatheomitsbuthedoesmakeclearthattheyaresixwingedcreatures.WithonepairofwingstheyhoveraroundJehovahsthrone
andwiththeothertwotheycovertheirfacesandtheirfeet,actionssymbolicalofhumilityandadoration.Theseraphimarearrangedinanantiphonalchoir,
singingtheTrisagion,andtheirchorusisofsuchvolumethatthesoundshakesthefoundationsofthepalace.Intheprophetsvisiontheyhavehumanvoicesand
hands(v.6),butitcannotbeassertedwithequalcertaintythattheypossesshumanbodies.Theprophetleavesusinnodoubtaboutthefunctionofthesecreatures.
TheyareministersofJehovah,occupiedinsingingthepraisesoftheirSovereign,andinprotectingHimfromtheapproachofsinandevil.Theseraphimmaybe
tracedintheImageryandsymbolismoftheNTApocalypse,wherethefourlivingcreatures,inboththeirfunctionandtheirform,areacombinationoftheseraphim
withthecherubimofEzekielsvision(cf.Is6:2ff.,Ezk1,2,andRev4:8).
Itwascustomarywiththeprophetstotransformandpurifypopularconceptions,bybringingthemintorelationwiththeirethicalideaofGod.Theseraphimare
anillustrationofthisprocess.Thepopularmythicalseraphimwereapersonificationoftheserpentlikeflashoflightning.Theusageandmeaningofthesingular
srph(=fieryserpent,Nu21:6,Is14:29),aswellastheetymologyoftheword,suggestthisviewoftheoriginoftheseraphim.ThelaterJewishtradition,
accordingtowhichtheyareserpents,pointsinthesamedirection(Enoch20.7,61.10etal.).Thebrazenserpent,Nehushtan,whichwasremovedfromtheTemple
byHezekiah,wasarelicprobablyconnectedwiththepopularmythicalconception,anditmayhavesuggestedtheseraphimoftheheavenlypalacetoIsaiahsmind.
Twoothertheoriesoftheoriginofthepropheticconceptionhavebeenadvanced,butthereislittlethatcanbesaidintheirfavour.Somewouldderivethenamefromthe
BabylonianSharrapu,anameforNergalthefiregod,andconsequentlywouldregardtheseraphimastheflamesthatenvelopedthisdeity.Othershaveendeavouredtoassociatethem
withtheEgyptiangriffins(seref),halflionandhalfeagle,whicharerepresentedasguardiansofgraves.Accordingtothelatterview,thedutyofguardingthethresholdofthe
TemplewouldbethefunctionthatmustbeassignedtotheseraphimofIsaiahsvision.Incriticism,itmayberemarkedthattheEgyptiangriffinismoreakintotheHebrewcherub,
andthelattershouldbesharplydistinguishedfromtheseraph(cf.art.CHERUB).
JAMESA.KELSO.
SERAR(1Es5:32)=Sisera,Ezr2:53,Neh7:55.
SERED.AsonofZebulun(Gn46:14,Nu26:26(22)[gentilicnameSeredites]).
SERGIUSPAULUS.SeeP AULUS(S ERGIUS).
SERJEANTS.EVtr.inAc16:35,38ofGr.rhabdouchoi(=rodbearers),whichrepresentstheLat.lictores(RVmlictors),officialswhosedutyitwasto
attendtheRomanmagistrates,toexecutetheirorders,andespeciallytoadministerthepunishmentsofscourgingorbeheading.Forthispurposetheycarried,astheir
markofoffice,thefasces,abundleofrodswithanaxeinserted.Cf.art.P HILIPPI.
SERON.ASyriancommanderdefeatedbyJudasMaccabusatBethhoron(1Mac3:18,
23f.).
SERPENT.
1.nchsh,genericname(cf.Arab.chanash),Gn3:1,3etc.themostcommonlyusedword,occursfrequently.
2.epheh(roottogroanorhise,cf.Arab,afa)isappliedtotheviper(Job20:16,Is30:6,59:6).
3.akshb,Ps140:3adder.Therootmeaning(cf.Arab.akasa)seemstobebendingback,asaserpentdoesbeforestriking.
4.pethen,tr.asp,Dt32:33,Job20:14,Is11:8tr.adder,Ps58:4,whereitisreferredtoasthefavouriteoftheserpentcharmer.
5. shphphnGn49:17,tr.adder,AVmarrowsnake,RVmhornedsnake(cf.Arab.
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5.shphphnGn49:17,tr.adder,AVmarrowsnake,RVmhornedsnake(cf.Arab.
sheffn).
6.tsepha,Is14:29,AVcockatrice,RVbasilisk,EVmadder.
7.tsiphn,Pr23:32adderIs11:8,59:6,Jer8:17,cockatrice,RVhasllisk,mg.aradder.
8.qippz.Is34:15,AVgreatowl,RVarrowsnake.SeeOWL.
9.srph.Is14:29,30:6fieryserpent,coupledwithnchshinNu21:6,Dt8:15.
10.zchlphr,Dt32:24zchlerets ,Mic7:17somecreaturethatglidesonorintotheearth,probablythereforeaserpent.Cf.WORM,5.
11.tannn,tr.serpent,Ex7:9,10,12,RVmanylargereptilePs91:13,AVandRVdragon.SeeDRAGON.
12.(Gr.)echidnaanypoisonousserpent(Mt3:7,12:34,23:33,Lk3:7,Ac28:3).
SerpentsareverycommonintheHolyLandandinthewildernesstothesouth.Over30speciesareknown.Thoughthegreatmajorityarereallyharmless,allare
dreadedbythenatives,andseveralkindsaremostdeadly.Fatalsnakebitesarebynomeansuncommonthewriterknowsofsevencasesatfirsthand.TheEgyptian
cobra(Najahaji)isfound,butfortunatelyisnotcommon.Itisthefavouritewithsnakecharmers,andisveryprobablythepethen,tr.aspinOT.Itwasheldin
muchvenerationbytheancientEgyptians,andalittlebronzeserpentrecentlyfoundintheexcavationsofancientGezerprobablyanobjectofworshipinpre
Israelitetimeswasofthisform.Anotherverydangeroussnakeisthehornedsandsnake(Cerasteshasselguistii),supposedtobetheaspofCleopatra.Itliesin
ambush(Gn49:17)indepressionsoftheroadandbitesthepasserby.ItiscalledbytheArabsshiffn,whichcorrespondstotheHeb.shphphn.Otherpoisonous
Palestinesnakesbelonging,likethelastmentioned,totheviperfamilyareViperaeuphratica,V.ammodytes,Daboiaxanthinaalarge,nocturnalspeciesandthe
smallEchisarenicolawhichhauntssandydeserts.ThesevipersareallincludedundertheHeb.epheh(Arab.afa).TheviperofAc28:3wasprobablyVipera
aspis,whichiscommononmostofthelargerislesoftheMediterranean,thoughextinctinMalta.Theexpressionfieryserpentprobablyreferstotheburning
sensationproducedbythebiteinPs140:3theirpoisonissupposedtoresideintheirtongues.
Someofthereferencestoserpentsdonotapparentlyrefertoanynaturalobject.ThisviewistakeninthetranslationinIs14:29oftsepha,andinIs11:3,59:5,
Jer8:17oftsiphn,wherecockatriceoccursinAVandbasiliskinRV.Theformerwas,amongearlyEnglishwriters,acreaturewithaheadandbodylikea
cock,butthetailofaserpent,withastingatitsextremity.ThebasiliskosoftheLXXwasprobablythegoldenurus,theornamentoftheroyalheaddressamongthe
Egyptians.Thereisnoclearreasonwhyinthepassagesquotedthereferencesshouldnotbetoanactualspeciesofsnake.ThereferenceinAm9:3totheserpent
(nchsh)atthebottomoftheseamayhavesomereferencetotheBabylonianmythofTimat.SeealsoDRAGONandLEVIATHAN.FortheserpentofGn3See
F ALL(4),andS ATAN,p.829bf.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
SERPENT,BRAZEN.Nu21:49relatesthatMoseswascommandedbyGodtomakea
serpentofbrass(orrather,ofbronze)andtosetituponastandard(RV),thatthosewhohadbeenbittenbytheserpentsmightlookonitandbehealed.Thiswasin
harmonywithawidespreadbeliefthattheimageofahurtfulthingdrivestheevilaway.IntheabsenceofadirectstatementwecannotsaywhetheritwasJahweh
whowasworshippedundertheformofthebronzeserpentof2K18:4theNehushtan,orpieceofbronze,asitwascalled.SomethinkitrepresentedtheCelestial
Dragon,othersthespiritofanancestor,othersachthonicdeity:RobertsonSmithbelievedthatitwasthetotemofDavidshouse.Therearetracesofserpentworship
inIsrael(1K1:9Zoheleth=snakeNeh2:13).ThetwopointsofcomparisonpresenttoourLordsmindinJn3:14are(1)theliftingupoftheserpentonthe
poleandHimselfontheCross,and(2)thevoluntarylookingoftheHebrewstotheserpentfortheverbemployedmeansmorethansimplyseeingandthefaith
ofbelievers(seeSir16:57).
J.TAYLOR.
SERUG.SonofReu(Gn11:20,22,23,Lk3:35).
SERVANT.Seenextart.andS LAVE.
SERVANTOFTHELORD.Inthisphrase,asrepeatedlyintheEVoftheOT,LORDissubstitutedforJahweh,thepropernameoftheGodofIsrael,which
standsintheHebrewtext.
1. Originallythetermservantinthisphraseissimplycorrelativetosuchtermsaslord,master,whichtheancientHebrews,incommonwiththeirSemitic45/116
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1.Originallythetermservantinthisphraseissimplycorrelativetosuchtermsaslord,master,whichtheancientHebrews,incommonwiththeirSemitic
kinsmen,appliedtotheirgod.Inthefirstinstance,thephrasetheservantofJahwehmerelydefinesamanasonewhoacknowledgesJahwehashisgodit
correspondscloselytowhatwemightrathercallaworshipperofJahweh.Naturally,therefore,itmaystandinantithesistoasimilarphraseinwhichthenameof
anotherdeitytakestheplaceofthatofJahweh.ThustheservantsofJahwehandtheservantsofthe(Tyrian)Baalarecontrastedin2K10:23,thoughthefactthat
thesamewordisusedinbothphrasesisobscuredbytheRV,whichexaggeratesadistinctioncapriciouslyintroducedbythepunctuatorsintotheHebrewtext.
2.ThusitwillbereadilyunderstoodthatanyIsraelitemightbecalledtheservantof
Jahweh,andasamatteroffactalargenumberofindividualsreceivedthisphraseastheirnameitisfamiliartoEnglishreadersintheformObadiah,whichwas
originallypronounced,astheLXXindicates,Abdiyah(cf.theparallelnameAbdielservantofGod).Adherentsofothergodsreceivedsimilarpropernames,such
asEbedmelech(wh.see)=servantofthegodMelech,orAbdMelkarth,AbdEshmun,andAbdMant,typicalPhnicianandNabatannamesmeaning
respectivelyservantofthegodsMelkarth,Eshmun,andMant.
3.Butjustasmoderntermsdenotingreligionsattachment,likeChristianorbeliever,may,accordingtotheconnexioninwhichtheyoccur,differgreatlyin
thefulnessoftheirmeaning,sotheservantofJahwehmightimplyahigherdegree,ormorespecialform,ofservicethanisnecessarilyinvolvedintheproper
nameObadiah,orinthedistinctionbetweenservantsofJahwehandservantsofBaal.Suchfullersignificanceattachestothephrasewhenprophets(Am3:7,2
K9:7,Jer7:25,andoften)orpriestsandLevites(Ps134:1)arespecifiedastheservantofJahwehsoalsowhenparticularindividualsarethusdescribed.Among
theindividualsspecificallytermedtheservantofJahweh(whichinspeechesofJahwehofcoursebecomesmyservant)areAbraham(Gn26:24),Moses(Ex
14:31,Nu12:7f.,andoften),Joshua
(Jos24:29),Caleb(Nu14:24),Job(Job1:8),David(2S3:18andoften),Eliakim(Is22:20),Zerubbabel(Hag2:23),andthepersonwhoistermedtheShoot(EV
texttheBranch,Zec3:8).
4.TheuseoftheterminDeuteroIsaiah(Is4055)ispeculiar.Incertainpassagesthiswriterclearlyusesthetermtodescribethenation:theentirepeopleis
personified,spokenofasanindividual,andcalledbyJahwehmyservant,or,bytheprophetspeakinginhisownname,theservantofJahweh.Thesepassages
are41:8f.,44:21,49:3,44:1f.,45:4.ThesameuseofthetermisfoundinPs136:22,whichwaswrittenmuchlaterbutitdoesnotoccurinanyextantliteraturethat
isunquestionablyearlierthantheDeuteroIsaiah,forJer30:10(notfoundintheGreektext)=46:27f.isprobablynotasayingoftheprophetJeremiahs,andin
Ezk37:25,28:25,sometimescitedasparallel,thephraseisusedofanindividualofthepast,thepatriarchJacob,notofthenationofthepresent.
5.ButthoughtheparticularcharacteroftheservantofJahwehinwhichthenationispersonifiedmaybepeculiartotheDeuteroIsaiah,andoneortwo
writersinfluencedbyhim,similarpersonificationsarecommonenoughwithHebrewwriters,andaresometimessoremotefromourhabitsofthoughtand
expressionthattheRVhassacrificedthefiguretogainintelligibility,as,e.g.,inJos9:7,which,literallyrendered,runs,andthemanofIsraelsaiduntotheHivite,
perhapsthouartdwellinginmymidst(forfurtherexamplesseeG.B.Gray,Divine
DisciplineofIsrael,79f.,orNumbers,inICCp.265f.).OthernotableinstancesofpersonificationretainedeveninRVareHos11:1WhenIsraelwasachild,
thenIlovedhim,andcalledmysonoutofEgypt(whereson=theHebrewnation),andPs129:1ff.,whereIsraelistosay,Manyatimehavetheyafflictedme
frommyyouthup,yethavetheynotprevailedagainstme.Theplowersploweduponmybacktheymadelongtheirfurrows.
6.ButwhilethepersonificationofthenationastheservantofJahwehiscertaininthepassagescitedin4,thereareotherpassagesinwhichmostscholars
inthepast,andmanyofthepresent,haveconcludedthatthetitlehasanotherapplicationthatitreferspropheticallytoJesusChrist,ortosomeindividualknown
historicallytothewriter,suchasJeremiah,Jehoiachin,Zerubbabel,ortheEleazarof2Mac6:1831,ortothepioussectionofIsrael.Insofarasthisconclusion
restsontheindividualizingtraitsinthedescriptionoftheservantinsuchpassagesasIs50:49,52:1353:12,itisunconvincingforthefactscanbeequallywell,
and,sofarasthedeath,burial,andresurrection(cf.Ezk37)oftheservantareconcerned,farbetter,explainedbytheanalogyofthepersonificationsreferredtoin
thelastparagraph,asfiguralivedescriptionsofthehistoryofthenationinthepast,andoftheprophetshopesforitinthefuture.
7.Inonepassage(Is50:10f.),indeed,theservantofJahwehisprobablynotthenationIsraelfortheaudienceaddressedappearstoconsistofJewsifso,the
servanthereiseitheranindividualoracomparativelysmallclassnotthewholeofthepiousIsraelites,forheisdistinguishedfromthosethatfearJahweh.This
passageiscommonlyconsideredtobetheworkofalaterwriterthantheDeuteroIsaiah.
8.Themostimportantdifferencesofinterpretationareconcernedwithfourpassages,42:14,49:18,50:49,52:1353:12.Thesearecommonly,thoughnot
unanimously,heldtobetheworkofonewriter,butseveralscholarsholdthatthiswriterwasnottheDeuteroIsaiah.Thecriticalquestionislargelyanexegetical
oneiftherereallyisthewidedifference,whichsomeclaimtodiscover,betweentheuseofthetermservantofJahwehin,andthereligiousstandpointsof,these
passagesandtheDeuteroIsaiah,differencesofauthorshipmaynotunnaturallybeinferredotherwisethegroundsfordisintegrationareslight.Unfortunatelythe
interpretationofthepassagesisrendereddifficultandambiguousbythestateofthetextthatthetextistosomeextentcorrupt,especiallyin52:1353:12,isnow
generallyadmittedbutastotheexactextent,andthenatureofthecorruption,differencesofjudgmentprevail.Noconsistentinterpretationoftheservantof
Jahwehgiveninthesefourpassagesispossibleonthebasisofthepresenttextforin49:3theservantisidentifiedwiththenation,butin53:8heisdistinguished 46/116
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Jahwehgiveninthesefourpassagesispossibleonthebasisofthepresenttextforin49:3theservantisidentifiedwiththenation,butin53:8heisdistinguished
fromthenation,formypeople(ifthetextbesound)cannotbemadetomeananythingbutIsraelexceptbyveryforcedexegesis.Consequently,intheinterestsof
consistencysomescholarshavestruckoutthewordIsraelin49:3,othershavecorrectedthetransgressionofmypeoplein53:8toourtransgressions,ortheir
transgression,orthetransgressionofpeoples(allcomparativelyslightchangesintheHebrewtext).Itmaybeobservedthat53:8isinotherrespectsadmittedly
obscure,ifnotalsocorrupt.
Itmustsufficetoreferbrieflyheretooneortwoofthechiefpointsfororagainstthetwomainalternativesthatinthesepassages,aselsewhereinDeutero
Isaiah,theservantisIsrael,orsomethinglessthanIsrael(whetherasectionofthenationoranindividual).Weshallconsiderthelatteralternativefirst.
(1)TwopassageshavebeenconsideredtodemandadistinctionbetweentheservantandIsrael.Oneofthese,53:8,asalreadystated,certainlydoesdemandit,if
thetextbesoundbutthisisdoubtful.Theotherpassageis49:5,6,whichfollowsthestatementinthepresenttextthattheservantisIsrael(49:3).Theseversesas
translatedinRVimplythattheservantandIsraelaredistinct.ButthoughthetranslationofRVinv.5isgrammaticallycorrect,itisnotnecessaryother
grammaticallycorrecttranslationsare:andnowJahwehthatformedmetobehisservanthathdeterminedtobringbackJacobagaintohimself,andthatIsrael
shouldbegatheredtohim,orandnowsaithJahwehthatformedmefromthewombtobehisservantinthathebroughtJacobagaintohim,anddrewIsraelunto
him.EitherofthesetranslationsallowsoftheidentityofIsraelandtheservant.Inv.5RVisincorrect.TheHebrewisextremelyawkwardandquestionable,but
literallytranslatedv.6runs:(a)lighter(thing)thanthybeingmyservantistheraisingupofthetribesofJacobandtherestoringofthepreservedofIsrael,andI
willgivetheeforalightofthenations,etc.ThealsoinIwillalsogiveofRV,whichsuggeststhattheilluminationofthenationsisasecondfunctionofthe
servant,inadditiontoonealreadydescribed,isabsolutelyunrepresentedinandunsuggestedbytheHebrewtext.Thusv.8isambiguousastothepointatissueit
maymean(ifitmeansanything)either,YoudonotexhaustyourservicebyrestoringIsrael,youhavealsotoilluminethenationsor,Thefactthatyouaremy
servantmeansmorethanthatIshallrescueyou,itmeansthatIshallmakeuseofyouforcarryingoutmypurposeofilluminingthenations.
(2)Apartfromthepassagesjustdiscussed,whichareeithertextuallyopentosuspicionorambiguousinmeaning,thereisnothingthatdirectlyforbids
identifyingtheservantwithIsraelin
42:14,49:16,50:49,52:1353:12,asheisunmistakablyidentifiedwithIsraelbytheDeuteroIsaiahinmanypassages(see4).Inthepresenttextof49:3the
identificationisactuallymade.Butthestrongestargumentforthecorrectnessofthisidentificationistobefoundinthefactthatitdoesfullerjusticetothegeneral
tenorofthepassages:thisisperfectlyclearin
42:14heretheDivinespeechandthewritersmindarealikefilledwithtwosubjectsthe
ServantandtheNationsoftheworldtheservantistoinstructthenationsinthereligionofJahweh:grantedthattheservantisIsrael,wehavehereaconstantly
recurringcontrast,IsraelandthenationsotherwiseIsraelistotallydisregarded.In49:16theservantaddressesthenationsoftheworld,andthefunctionofthe
servant,whichonsomeinterpretations(seeabove)aloneismentioned,andonanyinterpretationalonereceivesprominence,isthatofspirituallyilluminingthe
nationsin52:1315Jahwehstatesthat,asthepasthumiliationoftheservantbyitsveryextentattractedfarspreadattention,sohiscomingexaltationwillimpress
nationsandkings.Hereagain,nothingissaidofIsrael,unlesstheservantisIsrael.In53:1ff.certainspeakersmakeaconfessionthattheyhadmisjudgedtheservant
ofJahweh,terminghimnottherighteousonebutasinner,andregardingtheunparalleledsufferingswhichtheynowperceivehadbeenhorneforthem,asdueto
thefactthathewasabandonedbyJahweh.Again,theleastdifficultviewastothespeakerswhomakethisconfessionisthattheyarethenationsreferredtoin
52:15,andthattheservantistheHebrewnation.ThatIsraelsufferedforthenationsiscertainlyaremarkableidea,butthatallthesufferingsofIsraelwerenotdueto
itsownsinsappearstobethethoughtofDeuteroIsaiahin40:2.Again,therelativerighteousnessofIsrael,whichisallthatneedbeimpliedifweseeinch.53a
confessionofthenations,isimpliedelsewhere,e.g.in40:27.
Itisimpossibleeventoindicatehereallthedifficultiesthatbeset,orthepointsthatfavour,theseveraltheoriesofinterpretation.ThecaseforidentifyingtheservantwithIsrael
throughoutIs4055hasbeenablypresentedinEnglishbyK.BuddeinAJTh,iii.pp.499ff.,andbyA.S.PeakeintheProblemofSufferingintheOT,pp.3472and180193,
whogivesonpp.4459avaluablecriticaltranslationofthechiefpassages.WithequalabilitytheidentificationoftheservantwiththeidealIsraelismaintainedbyJ.Skinnerinthe
CambridgeBibleforSchools,Isaiah4066,pp.3037and233238,togetherwiththenotesontherelevantpassages.Thecaseforinterpretingtheservantinsomepassagesasan
individualhasnotbeenfullyrestatedinEnglishoveragainsttherecentthoroughargumentsforotherinterpretationsthestudentmaybestturntoDelitzschsCom.(Eng.tr.1890),
orG.A.SmithsIsaiah,vol.ii.
(ExpositorsBible).T.K.Cheyne,inEBi43984410,offersaveryvaluableandpenetratingcriticismofallthesetheories,asapreludetohisownJerahmeelitetheory,forwhichhe
hashithertofoundnosupporters.
9.InNTsomeofthepassagesintheDeuteroIsaiaharefrequentlycitedorreferredto:andinmostcases,thoughnotinall(seeAc13:47,cf.2Ti2:24),the
servantisidentifiedwithJesus(e.g.Mt8:17,12:1821,Lk22:37,Ac8:32f.).This,ofcourse,provesnothingwithregardtotheoriginalmeaningforChristian,like
Jewish,exegesiswascapableofindividualizingtermsthatoriginallyhadawiderapplicationforaninstanceofthis,seeHe2:68,wherewhatisstatedinPs8of 47/116
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Jewish,exegesiswascapableofindividualizingtermsthatoriginallyhadawiderapplicationforaninstanceofthis,seeHe2:68,wherewhatisstatedinPs8of
maningeneralisreferredspecificallytoourLord.
G.B.GRAY.
SESIS(1Es9:34)=Shashai,Ezr10:40.
SESTHEL(1Es9:31)=Bezalel,Ezr10:30.
SET.Setatisvaluedat,as2K12:4Themoneythateverymanissetat.Setatnoughtmeanstreatwithcontempt,asLk23:11Herodwithhismenofwar
sethimatnought.Setbyistovalue,esteem,as1S18:30Hisnamewasmuchsetby.Settomeanstoaffix,asJn3:33Hethathathreceivedhistestimony
hathsettohissealthatGodistrue.
SETH.ThethirdsonofAdam,Gn4:25(J)5:3(P),1Ch1:1,Lk3:38.InthefirstofthesepassagesJassignsacharacteristicetymologyforthename,Eve
beingmadetosay,Godhathset(shth)formeanotherseedinsteadofAbel,forwhichreasonshecalledhimShth(i.e.settingorslip).InSir49:16Sethis
coupledwithShemasglorifiedamongmen.
SETHUR.TheAsheritespy(Nu13:13,(14).
SETTLE(RVmledge).Ezk43:14(only)astr.ofzrh,whichisusedofthetwoledgesbetweenthebaseandthehearthofthealtar.
SEVEN.SeeNUMBER,7.
SEVENEH(Syene).AtownattheFirstCataract,thesouthernextremityofEgyptproper:Egyp.Swn,nowAssuan(Aswan).Itliesontheeastbank,opposite
theislandofElephantine,wherelaythecapitalofthefirstnomeofUpperEgypt,andbehinditarethecelebratedgranitequarries.FromMigdoltoSyeneisthe
correcttr.inEzk29:10,30:5,asLXXandRVm.AtSyeneElephantinetherewasacolonyofJewswithasumptuoustempleofYahu(Jehovahcf.Is19:19)earlier
thanCambysesconquestin B.C.525,andthroughoutthePersianoccupation.ForthiswehavetheevidenceofpapyriwrittenthereintheAramaiclanguage.The
datesofthedocumentshithertofoundrangefrom471to410,inthereignsofXerxes,Artaxerxes,andDariusII.OneoftheseisapetitiontoBagoas,thegovernorof
Juda,fortherebuildingofthetemple,whichhadbeendestroyedbythenationsin411.Tothisafavourablereplywasgiven.Butthetemplewasprobablyswept
awayinthefinalrevoltofEgyptagainstthePersiansabout405.SincetheseventhcenturythefrontiergarrisonagainsttheEthiopianshadbeenpostedthere,andthe
militaryelementpredominated.
F.LL.GRIFFITH.
SEVENTY.SeeNUMBER,7.
SHAALABBIN.Seenextarticle.
SHAALBIM.AtownmentionedwithMt.HeresandAijalonasbeingoccupiedbytheAmorites(Jg1:35).Itwas,withMakazandBethshemesh,inthe
districtofoneofSolomonscommissariatofficers(1K4:9)andifitbethesameplaceasShaalabbin,itismentionedwithAijalonandBethshemeshinJos19:42.
ItisprobablyidenticalwithShaalbon,thehomeofoneofDavidsheroes,whoiscalledtheShaalbonite(2S23:32,1Ch11:33).Itmayperhapsbeidentified
withSelbt,about8milesN.ofBethshemesh.PossiblyShaalbimshouldbereadforShaalimin1S9:4.
SHAALBON,SHAALBONITE.SeeS HAALBIM.
SHAALIM,LANDOF.SeeS HAALBIM.
SHAAPH.1.ThesonofJahdai(1Ch2:47).2.AsonofCalebbyhisconcubineMaacah(1Ch2:49).
SHAARAIM.1.AtownofJadah,intheShephlah,mentionedinJos15:36.SomeidentifyitwithKhurbetSareh,westofBeitAtbotherswithZakarya.48/116
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SHAARAIM.1.AtownofJadah,intheShephlah,mentionedinJos15:36.SomeidentifyitwithKhurbetSareh,westofBeitAtbotherswithZakarya.
ShaaraimisperhapsmentionedagaininthepursuitofthePhilistinesafterthedeathofGoliath(1S17:52,RVmthetwogates).
2.AtownofSimeon(1Ch4:31)calledSharuheninJos19:5,andShilhiminJos15:32.
SHAASHGAZ.AchamberlainofAhasuerus(Est2:14).
SHABBETHAI.ALevitewhoopposedEzrainthematteroftheforeignmarriages(Ezr10:15)=Sabbateusof1Es9:14.Cf.Neh8:7[1Es9:43Sabateus]
11:16.
SHACHIA.ABenjamite(1Ch8:10).
SHADDAI.Seeart.GOD,2(c).
SHADRACH.ThenamegiventoHananiah(Dn1:7).
SHAFTS.SeeARMOURARMS,1(d).
SHAGE.SeeS HAMMAH,3.
SHAHARAIM.ABenjamite(1Ch8:8).
SHAHAZUMAH.AtownallottedtoIssachar(Jos19:22).Itssitehasnotbeenidentified.
SHALEM.InGn33:13wereadJacob(onhisreturnfromHaran)cametoShalemacityofShechem(RVreadsinpeacetothecityofShechemsoLuther
inhisGermantranslation).Thewordshalemmeanspeace,andtheprepositionbinmayhavefallenoutowingtothe
finalletterofJacob.OtherwisewemustsupposeShalemtobeasmalltown(intheneighbourhoodofShechem),whichhasbeenidentifiedwithavillagecalled
Salim.
W.F.BOYD.
SHALISHAH.AregionthroughwhichSaultravelledwithhisservantinsearchofthelostasses(1S9:4).Therouteasgivenprobablydescribesacircuitous
journey,totheN.W.,theE.,andfinallyS.throughBenjamin.ThiswouldplacethelandofShalishahsomewhereonthehillsW.ofShiloh.Baalshalishah(2K
4:42)wasdoubtlessaplaceinthesamedistrict.
H.L.WILLETT.
SHALLECHETH.SeeJERUSALEM,II.4.
SHALLUM,aninhabitantofJabesh,wasnominallykingofIsraelforonemonthintheperiodofanarchywhichprecededtheextinctionofthenation.Ashe
assassinatedhispredecessorZechariah,sointurnhewasremovedbyhissuccessorMenahem(2K15:10ff.).
H.P.S MITH.
SHALLUM.1.Seepreced.article,2.SeeJEHOAHAZ,2.3.Thehusband(orson,LXXin2Kings)ofHuldah(2K22:14,2Ch34:22).4.AJudahite(1Ch
2:40f.).5.Adescendantof
Simeon(1Ch4:25).6.Ahighpriest(1Ch6:12,13Ezr7:2=Salemof1Es8:1andSalemasof2Es1:1).7.AsonofNaphtali(1Ch7:13),calledinGn46:24
andNu26:49Shillem,withthegentilicnameShillemites(Nu26:49).8.Theeponymofafamilyofgatekeepers(1Ch9:17bis,Ezr2:42=Neh7:45)calledin1
Es5:23Salum,and(possibly)inNeh12:25Meshullam.9.AKorahitegatekeeper(1Ch9:19,31),calledin26:1,2,3.Meshelemiah,andin26:14Shelemiah.
Itisnotatallunlikelythatthisnameshouldbeidentifiedwiththepreceding.10.FatherofJehizkiah,anEphraimitechief(2Ch28:12).11.Oneoftheporterswho
hadmarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:24[1Es9:25Sallumus]).12.OneofthesonsofBaniwhohadcommittedthesameoffence(Ezr10:42[1Es9:24Samatus]).
13.ThesonofHallohesh(Neh3:12).14.TheuncleofJeremiah(Jer32:7).15.FatherofMaaseiah(Jer35:4).
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13.ThesonofHallohesh(Neh3:12).14.TheuncleofJeremiah(Jer32:7).15.FatherofMaaseiah(Jer35:4).
SHALLUN.ThesonofColhozeh(Neh3:15).
SHALMAN.ThisnameoccursonlyintheclauseasShalmanspoiledBetharbelinthedayofbattle(Hos10:14).Thepersonandplacereferredtoareboth
unknown.ShalmanmaybeacontractionforShalmaneser,butitisimpossibletosaywhich,ifany,ofthefourkingsofAssyriabearingthatnamesuitsthe
connexion.IthasbeensuggestedthattheMoabitekingSalmanu(mentionedinTiglathpileserstriumphalinscription,IIRawl.67,line60)maybetheperson
referredtobytheprophet.TheVulg.versionseemstothinkoftheslaughterofZalmunnabyGideon(Jg9).Seealsoart.BETHARBEL.
W.F.BOYD.
SHALMANESER(Assyr.Shulmanashardu,i.e.Shulmanu[agod]ischief).In2K
17:3,18:911theShalmaneserisobviouslyakingofAssyriawhosucceededTiglathpileser
(wh.see)andprecededSargon.ThiswasShalmaneserIV.,whoreignedoverAssyriaB.C.727722.HeruledBabyloniaasUlulai.Nomonumentsofhisare
preserved.TheEponymCanonsgivecampaignsforhislastthreeyears.ThesiegeofSamariawasprobablybeguninhisreignandfinishedunderSargon.Thename
Shalmaneserappearsin2Es13:40asSalmanasar.
C.H.W.JOHNS.
SHAMA.OneofDavidsheroes(1Ch11:44).
SHAMBLES.SeeARTSANDCRAFTS,7F OOD,11.
SHAME.1.InthefirstBiblicalreferencetothisemotion(Gn2:25,cf.3:7)shameappearsasthecorrelativeofsinandguiltitistheoverpoweringfeeling
thatinwardharmonyandsatisfactionwithoneselfaredisturbed(Delitzsch,Com.,inloc.).FromtheOTpointofviewthecrowningshameisidolatry:Asthethief
isashamedwhenheisfound,soisthehouseofIsraelashamedtheysaytoastock,Thouartmyfather(Jer2:26cf.Is41:11,42:17).Theallinclusivepromiseto
thosewhotrustinGodisnonethatwaitontheeshallbeashamed(Ps25:3RVcf.119:8,30,Is45:16f.,49:23,54:4f.,Jer17:13,Jl2:25f.,Ro5:5,9:33,10:11).
Theabsenceofshameisalwaysregardedasanaggravationofsinfulconduct:Job(19:3)reproacheshisfriendsbecausetheyarenotashamedofdealinghardly
withhimtheclimaxofJeremiahscomplaint(6:15)againstthosewhohadcommittedabominationisthattheywerenotatallashamed,neithercouldtheyblush
(cf.8:12,Zeph3:5,11).Theculminationofshamelessnessisseeninthosewhosegloryisintheirshame(Ph3:19)butinthispassage,aselsewhere(Is50:3cf.Pr
10:5,25:3),shameis,byanaturaltransferenceofideas,appliednottotheinwardfeeling,buttoitsoutwardcause.Thedegradationofthosewhosegodistheir
bellyisseenintheirboastingofconductwhichoughttohavemadethemashamedoftheirperversionofgospellibertyintosinfullicence.Thereturnofshameisa
signoftruerepentance:thenshaltthourememberthywaysandbeashamed(Ezk16:61,cf.Ezr9:6).
2.Theconsciousnessofshamevarieswiththeconventionalstandardsadoptedinanysociety.Forexample,poverty(Pr13:18),leprosy(Nu12:14),
widowhood(Is54:4)maybeviewedasinvolvingshame,thoughthereisnoblame.InthesenseofviolationofproprietySt.Paulappliesthewordtomenwho
weartheirhairlongandtowomenwhowearitshort(1Co11:6,14,cf.6:5,14:35)byananalogousadaptationofitsmeaninghedescribesGodsidealworkman
asonethatneedethnottobeashamed(2Ti2:15).
3.IntheNTsinispreeminentlytheshamefulthing(Ro6:21,Ph3:19,Eph5:12,Jude13,1Jn2:28cf.3:6).Butthedistinguishingcharacteristicoftheearly
Christianuseofthewordisthetransvaluationofvalues.Jesus,theauthorandperfecteroffaith,enduredthecross,despisingshame(He12:2).WhenSt.
PaulsaysIamnotashamedofthegospel(Ro1:16),byawellknownfigureofspeechhisnegativestatementemphaticallyassertshispositiveglorying(Gal
6:14).TosufferasaChristianandnot(to)beashamedIstoglorifyGod(1P4:16cf.
2Ti1:8f.,12,16).ThesameheighteningofthecontrastisImpliedwhen,ontheonehand,theSonofMandeclaresthatinthedayofjudgmentHewillheashamed
ofallwhoarenowashamedofHimandofHiswords(Mk8:38,Lk9:26)andontheotherhand,St.JohnsassuranceisthatthosewhoabideinChristmayhave
boldnessandnotbeashamedbeforehimathiscoming(1Jn2:28).OfthemwhodesireaheavenlycountryGodisnotashamedtobecalledtheirGodforthe
cityHehasprepared,theyarebeingpreparedbythesanctifyinggraceofHimwhoisnotashamedtocallthembrethren(He11:16,2:11).
J.G.TASKER.
SHAMGARsmote600Philistineswithanoxgoad(Jg3:31).ThereisnomentionofhisjudgingIsrael,orofthedurationofhisinfluence.Theexploitbelongs50/116
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SHAMGARsmote600Philistineswithanoxgoad(Jg3:31).ThereisnomentionofhisjudgingIsrael,orofthedurationofhisinfluence.Theexploitbelongs
tothelatestredactionofthebook4:1continuesthestoryof3:30.NothingisknownofanyPhilistinedominionatsoearlyaperiod,andinsomeGr.MSStheverse
follows16:31.HisexploitresemblesthatofShammahin2S23:11(cf.21:1622),andmayhavebeenattachedtohimasanexpansionofthereferenceinthesong
ofDeborah(Jg5:6).There,however,heappearstobeaforeignoppressor,andtheconnexionofthetwopassagesisobscure,thesonghavingtodowithCanaanite
oppressionintheNorth.Thenameisforeign,HittiteorAssyrian.HeisthesonofAnath.AnatioccursintheTellelAmarnatablets,andAnatuisanAssyr.
goddess,tracesofwhoseworshiparefoundinEgypt,Phnicia,andSyria(cf.placenamesBethanath[Jg1:33],Bethanoth[Jos15:59]).Thenamesareimportant
asshowingBabylonianinfluenceaftertheperiodoftheTellelAmarnatablets.
C.W.EMMET.
SHAMHUTH.SeeS HAMMAH,4.
SHAMIR.1.AKohathite(1Ch24:24).2.AtowninthehillcountryofJudah(Jos15:48).ItisperhapsKhurbetSmerah,westofDebr.3.Thehomeand
burialplaceofTola(Jg10:1,2).Thesiteisuncertain.
SHAMLAI.SeeS ALMAI.
SHAMMA.AnAsherite(1Ch7:37).
SHAMMAH.1.SonofReuel,sonofEsau,atribalchief(Gn36:13).2.ThirdsonofJesse,presentwhenSamuelsoughtasuccessortoSaul(1S16:9)with
SaulinthebattlefieldwhenDavidvisitedthecamp(17:13).HeisthesameasShimeah,fatherofJonadab(2S13:3),the
Shimeaof1Ch2:16,andtheShimei,fatherofJonathanwhoslewthegiant(2S21:21).In1Ch
20:7JonathaniscalledsonofShimea.3.SonofAgee,aHararite,oneofthethreemightymenof
David.AloneheheldthefieldagainstthePhilistines(2S23:11).Theparallelpassage,1Ch
11:10f.,wronglyattributesthefeattoEleazar.HeisprobablyidenticalwithShammah,the
Harodite(Hararite)of2S23:25.V.38shouldreadJonathansonofShammah,theHararite.In
1Ch11:34,sonofShageisprobablyconfusedwithsonofAgee.Read,withLucian,sonofJonathan.Shimei,sonofEla(1K4:18),shouldalsoappearhereif
weacceptLuciansreadingofElaforAgee(2S23:11).4.AnofficerinDavidsemploy,calledShammothin1Ch11:27,andShamhuthin1Ch27:8.
ProbablythesameasNo.3.
J.H.S TEVENSON.
SHAMMAI.1.AJerahmeelite(1Ch2:28).2.ThesonofRekemandfatherofMaon(1Ch2:44f.).3.AJudahite(1Ch4:17).
SHAMMOTH.SeeS HAMMAH,4.
SHAMMUA.1.TheReubenitespy(Nu13:4).2.OneofDavidssons(2S5:14,1Ch14:4calledin1Ch3:6Shimea).3.ALevite(Neh11:17)=Shemaiah
of1Ch9:16.4.Theheadofapriestlyfamily(Neh12:18).
SHAMSHERAI.ABenjamite(1Ch8:26).
SHAPHAM.AGadite(1Ch5:12).
SHAPHAN(coneyorrockbadgeranoldtotemclannamesoW.R.Smith).1.Thescribe(secretaryofstate)ofJosiahin621B.C.,sonofAzaliah,
wholaidbeforethekingthelawbookdiscoveredbyHilkiah(wh.see)intheTemple(2K22:311=2Ch34:818).Shaphanappearstohavebeenthechieflay
leaderintheexecutionofJosiahsreforms.HisfamilyfortwofollowinggenerationsplayedaworthypartasservantsofJehovah,andfriendsoftheprophet
Jeremiah:theAhikamof2K22:1214(=2Ch34:2022)andJer26:24,theGemariahofJer
36:12,25,andElasah(Jer29:3)wereShaphanssonstheMicaiahofJer36:11,12,andGedaliah(wh.see),whomtheChaldansmadegovernorofJudaafter 51/116
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36:12,25,andElasah(Jer29:3)wereShaphanssonstheMicaiahofJer36:11,12,andGedaliah(wh.see),whomtheChaldansmadegovernorofJudaafter
theCaptivityof586B.C.,hisgrandsons.2.TheJaazaniah,sonofShaphan,denouncedinEzk8:11asringleaderinidolatry,waspossibly,butnotcertainly,ason
ofthesameShaphan.
G.G.F INDLAY.
SHAPHAT.1.TheSimeonitespy(Nu13:6).2.ThefatherofElisha(1K19:16,18,2K3:11,6:31).3.AnameintheroyalgenealogyofJudah(1Ch3:22).4.
AGadite(1Ch5:12).5.OneofDavidsherdmen(1Ch27:29).
SHAPHIR.Acity,probablyonthePhilistineplain(Mic1:11).IthasbeenlocatedbysomeafewmilesS.E.ofAshdod.Attemptshavebeenmadetoidentifyit
withtheShamirofJos15:48.
H.L.WILLETT.
SHARAI.Oneofthosewhohadmarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:40).
SHARAR.SeeS ACAR.
SHAREZERwouldanswertotheAssyr.Sharusur,preservetheking,butthatisonlypartofaname.1.Itisgiven2K19:37=Is37:38asthenameofason
ofSennacheribwhowith
Adrammelech(whichsee)murderedhisfather.SharetirAshurwasthenameofasonof
Sennacherib,whoinafragmentaryletterisaddressedasmonarch,aboutthetimeof
Esarhaddonsreign.ThenamemightgiverisetoSharezer.Atpresent,however,theAssyrianaccountsmentiononlyonemurderer,anddonotnamehim.A
satisfactoryexplanationoftheHebrewnarrativeisyettobefound.2.Sharezer(thenameisprob.incomplete)appearsinZec7:2asoneofadeputationsentto
consultthespiritualheadsoftheJewishcommunity.
C.H.W.JOHNS.
SHARON.1.hashrn,lit.theplain,1Ch27:29,Ca2:1,Is33:9,35:2,65:10Gr.hoSarn,whenceAVSaron,Ac9:35.ThisisthegreatMaritimePlain
extendingfromJaffa,oralittlesouthofit,toMountCarmelinthenorth.Thoughcalledaplain,itisofanundulatingcharacter,andwasinparts,particularly
towardstheN.,aforestofoaks(Is35:2).Althoughhutpoorlycultivated,ithasagreatdepthofrichsoilandiscapableofmuchdevelopmentleftnowlargelyto
weeds,ityieldsannuallyamagnificentcropofbeautifulwildflowers.Ithasalwaysbeenapasturageofflocks(1Ch27:29,Is65:10).AroundRamlehandLuddare
forestsofolives,andtheorangegardensofJaffaaretoowellknowntoneedmorethanapassingreferencewhereverthehandofmanhasbeendiligent,therethe
soilhasbounteouslyresponded.Overagreatpartoftheplain,especiallynearthesea,watermaybetappedatnogreatdepth.ItsriversarethemarshyNahrZerka
orCrocodileRiver,justbelowCarmel,NahrelMufjir,NahrIskanderuneh,andNahrelAujeh,thelastmentionedclosetoJaffa.ThechieftownofSharonwasin
ancientdaysDor(Jos11:2,12:23,1K4:11),inNTtimesCsarea,andinlaterCrusadingtimes(12181291)thefortifiedportofAthlt.InJos12:13Lassharonis
mentionedasoneoftheroyalcitiesofCanaanasthekingofisomittedintheoriginal,thepassagemayreadkingofAphekintheSharon.ForroseofSharon
SeeROSE.
2.AsecondSharon(Saronas)ismentionedbyEusebiusandJeromeasbetweenMt.TahorandTiberias,andthisistodayrepresentedbythevillageof
SrnaintheArdelHammaN.E.ofTabor.ThismayhetheplacementionedinJos12:13(seeabove).
3.Thesuburbs(RVmpasturelands)ofSharon(1Ch5:16)arementionedasamongthepossessionsofGadalongwithGileadandBashan.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
SHARUHEN.SeeS HAARAIM,2.
SHASHAI.OneofthesonsofBaniwhohadmarriedaforeignwife,Ezr10:40=Sesisof1Es9:34.
SHASHAK.ABenjamitefamily(1Ch8:14).
SHAUL.1.AkingofEdom,Gn36:37f.=1Ch1:43f.2.AsonofSimeon(Gn46:10,Ex6:15,Nu26:13,1Ch4:24).Theclanofwhichheistheeponymwas
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SHAUL.1.AkingofEdom,Gn36:37f.=1Ch1:43f.2.AsonofSimeon(Gn46:10,Ex6:15,Nu26:13,1Ch4:24).Theclanofwhichheistheeponymwas
ofmixedIsr.andCan.descent,henceShauliscalledinGn46:10andEx6:15thesonoftheCanaanitess.InNu26:13thepatronymicShaulitesoccurs.3.An
ancestorofSamuel(1Ch6:24(9),calledinv.36(21)Joel).
SHAVEH,VALEOF.Abroadvalley(meq),knownalsoasthekingsvale(Gn14:17),whichwasnearSalem.Itisapparentlythesameplaceasthe
kingsdale(2S18:18),inwhichAbsalomsetupapillarormonument.ShavenwaspossiblythebroadopenheadofthevalleyofHinnomwhich,lowerdown,
contractstoaravine.
SHAVEHKIRIATHAIM(theplainofKiriathaim).TheplacewheretheEmimweresmittenbythealliedkingsfromtheEast(Gn14:5).Itprobablyderived
itsnamefromtheMoabiteKiriathaim(Nu32:37,Jos13:19).
H.L.WILLETT.
SHAVSHAoccursinthelistofDavidsofficersin1Ch18:15asscribe(RVmsecretary),anofficemadenecessarybythegrowthofthecourtandrelations
withotherstates.Hisname,andthefactofhisfathersnotbeingmentioned,makeitprobablethathewasaforeignerchosentodealwithforeigncorrespondence.
Hisnamewasevidentlyunfamiliarinthelistof2S20:25itappearsasShevainthatof8:1518(otherwiseidenticalwithCh.)SeraiahhasbeensubstitutedLXX
variesgreatlyinallpassages.ItisgenerallyheldthatShavshaiscorrect.ApparentlyinSolomonstimehewassucceededbyhissons(1K4:3Shishabeing
probablyonlyanothervariationofthename).
C.W.EMMET.
SHEAL(Ezr10:29).OneofthosewhohadmarriedastrangewifecalledJasaelusin1Es9:30.
SHEALTIEL(Salathielof1Es5:5,48,56,6:2,AVofMt1:12andLk3:27).ThefatherofZerubbabel(Ezr3:2,6,5:2,Neh12:1,Hag1:1,12,14,2:2,23).
Accordingto1Ch3:17,ShealtielwastheeldestsonofkingJeconiah.Inv.10theMTmakesPedaiah(abrotherofShealtiel)thefatherofZerubbabel.
SHEARIAH.AdescendantofSaul(1Ch8:33,9:44).
SHEARINGHOUSE,THE.AplaceatwhichJehu,onhiswayfromJezreeltoSamaria,metandslewthebrethrenofAhaziah,kingofJudah(2K10:12,14).
PossiblytheoriginalshouldbeleftuntranslatedandappearasaplacenameBetheked,whichhasnotbeenidentified.
SHEARJASHUB(aremnantshallreturn,Is7:3).AsymbolicalnamegiventoasonofIsaiahtosignifythereturnoftheremnanttoGodafterthe
punishmentatthehandsoftheAssyrians.See8:18,10:20,21.andcf.7:14,8:14,andart.ISAIAH,p.387b.
SHEATH.SeeARMOURARMS,1(c).
SHEBA.1.TheOTnameforthepeopleandcountryoftheSabansinS.W.Arabia,themodernYemen.InGen.andChron.theracialrelationshipsofthe
peoplearediverselygiven.Gn
10:7(P)and1Ch1:9makethemHamites,Gn10:28(J)Semites.Again,whilstGn10:28has
JoktanastheimmediateancestorofSheba,Gn25:3hasJokshan.ThesediscrepanciesaresufficientlyaccountedforbytheextensivecommerceoftheSabans,the
numberoftheirsettlementsindistantregions,andtheconnexionswhichtheywerethusledtoform.ThelanguageandscriptofAbyssinia,forinstance,provethata
SabancolonywasestablishedtherehencethegenealogyinGn10:7.
ThefollowingarethesalientpointsintheinformationwhichtheOTgivesus.Thecountrywasrichingold(Ps72:15)andincense(Jer6:20)thepeoplewere
greattraders(Ezk27:22f.),dealingincostlywares(Ezk38:13)theircaravanswerewellknownthroughouttheEast(Job6:19)theyweregiventoraiding(Job
1:15),possiblyunitingtradeandrobbery,whenconvenient(cf.Odyss.xv.415ff.)andtheywerenotaversetotheslavetrade(Jl3:8)eventually,itwashoped,
theywouldbecometributariesofIsrael(Is60:6,Ps72:10).
ThenoticesinGreekandLatinauthorscorrespondwiththeBiblicalstatements.Strabo,e.g.,mentionsmyrrh,incense,cinnamon,balsam,amongsttheproductsoftheland,and
statesthattheircommercemadethemexceedinglywealthythattheyhadabundantfurnitureofgoldandsilver,beds,tables,bowls,cups,incostlyhouses.Thepanels,walls,and
ceilingswereadornedwithivory,gold,silver,mosaics.HeaffirmsthattheyfrequentlylaidwastetheSyriandesert.
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ceilingswereadornedwithivory,gold,silver,mosaics.HeaffirmsthattheyfrequentlylaidwastetheSyriandesert.
TheSabansarealsomentionedinAssyrianinscriptions.Tiglathpileser III.(B. C.745727)enumeratesthearticleswhichhereceivedfromthemintribute:gold,silver,camels,
femalecamels,spicesofallsorts.Inaninscriptionof B. C.707,SargondeclaresthathereceivedthetributeofPiru,kingofthelandofMusuru(Egypt),Sams,queenoftheland
ofAribu(Arabia),Itamara,kingofthelandoftheSabaaa(Sabans),gold,productsofthemountains,horses,camels.
Duringthe19thcenturyafewEuropeantravellerssucceededinpenetratingYemenandbringingbackamoderatelyfullaccountofitsnaturalfeatures,anda
largeamountofmaterialforreconstructingitshistory.ItisincomparablysuperiortotherestofArabia,bothinclimateandinsoil.Thecentraldistrictisahighland
region,withmountainssome8000ft.abovethesealevel.Fertilevalleysbranchoutfromthehills,welltimberedinplaces,andthreadedbysilverystreamsof
dancingwatersslopingfields,gaywithcropsandwildflowersterracedorjunglecoveredslopes.HerearegrownthehestvinesthatArabiaproduces.Theairis
pureandcomparativelycool.ThepresentcapitalisSana,atownofabout20,000inhabitants,onthesouthernmostofthreegreatplateaux.Theancientcapital,
Marib,N.E.ofSana,liesbetweentherichvalleysofthewestandthewadysofHadramant,whichwerethesourcesofArabiangum.Inscriptionsrelatingtothe
SabankingdomhavebeenfoundinvariouspartsoftheArabianpeninsula.TheyarewritteninadialectwhichcloselyresemblesEthiopic,buttherearenovowel
letters,ormodificationsoftheconsonants,toindicatevowelsounds.ManycomefromthevicinityofMarib,wheretheruinsareofastonishingextent.Theremains
ofitsgreatdam,inparticular,areverystriking:agiganticwall,twomileslongand175paceswide,wasbuilttoconnecttwohills,andthewaterwasrunofffor
irrigationpurposesbydykeswhichwerecutatdifferentlevels.Theconstructionofthisworkliesbackinremoteantiquity,B.C.1700beingthedategivenbyone
authority,andB.C.700byanother.AboutA.D.100itseemstohaveburst,andthestreamswhichitonceservedtoretainarenowwastedinthesands.TheKoran
(Sura34)adducesthiseventasaninstanceofthepunishmentofdisobedientingratitude.Inadditiontotheinscriptions,coinshavebeenfoundandthenamesofthe
kingswhosemonogramstheybearhavebeendetermined.Fromthesetwosourcesfortyfiveroyalnameshavebecomeknown,sixkingshavingbeencalled
Itamara(seeSargonslistoftributaries).Fromsomeoftherecordsitappearsthattwokingsreignedcontemporaneously(cf.Ps72:10),andthishasbeenexplained
bythefactthattheprincenextinagetothekingwasdesignatedashissuccessor,sometimestothetemporaryexclusionofthekingsson.
ExpertshavedifferedwithrespecttothenumberofperiodsintowhichthehistoryoftheSabankingdomfalls.Allrecognizethreesuchdivisions:(1)Thatofthemkaribor
priestkings(2)thatofthekingsofSheba(3)thatofthekingsofShebaandDhRaidn.Glaser(SkizzederGesch.Arabiens)prefixestothefirstoftheseaMinanempire,and
addsafifthperiod,duringwhichthedatedinscriptionssupplyamoreexactchronology.Thesefiveagescoverthetimefromabout B. C.2000totheconquestbyAbyssiniainthe6th
cent. A. D.Manyofthestatementswhichhavebeencopiedfromtherocksandslabsrelatetowarandagriculture.Theybringbeforeusasetoftradersdisposingoftheproductsof
theirowncountry,andalsocarryinggoodsfromIndiaandAfricatothegreatemporiumTyreandthepowerfulempiresofMesopotamia.Theygiveusaglimpseofthelifeledbya
classofpowerfulnobleswhodweltontheirestatesincastlesandtowers.AndtheyfurnishaconsiderableamountofinformationrespectingtheSabanreligion,itsofferingsof
incenseandanimals,itspilgrimagestocertainshrines,itsspecialmonthforpilgrimage,DhuHijjatn.Theheavenlybodieswereworshipped,thesunasafemale,themoonasa
male,deity.Manyotherdivinitieswererecognized:amaleAthtar(cf.thefemaleAshtoreth),Almakah,Talab,Sami,Kawim,Bashir,Haubas.Theprecisesignificanceofsomeof
thesetitlesisopentodoubt.ButthecognateHeb.wordsjustifyusinsayingthatSamiistheHearer,Kawim,the
Sustainer,Bashir,theTidingsbringerandtheArabicwordofthesameformindicatesthatTalabisaspiritofthetrees.Threeothernames,Wadd(Love),Jaghuth(He
helps),andNasr(VultureorEagle),arespokenofintheKoran(Sura72)asthoughtheywereantedilnvianidols.Oninscriptionswhichdatefromthe4thand5thcenturiesof
ourera,Rahman(theMerciful)appears.ThisisduetoJewishinfluence,anditisinterestingtoobservethattheJewsnowlivinginYemenhaveatraditionthattheirancestorsleft
PalestinebeforetheChristianera.Cf.alsoart.SEBA.
2.Aworthlessadventurer,whosnatchedatwhathethoughtwasachanceofwinningthesovereigntyofNorthernIsrael(2S20:1ff.).Hisappealwasaddressed
tothedeepseatedintertribaljealousy.Davidtookaseriousviewofthesituationthuscreated(v.4ff.),buthisrivallackedthepersonalqualitieswhichmighthave
renderedhimformidable.Hetraversedtheentirecentreofthecountryseekingadherentsinvain.KnowingthatJoabandAbishaiwereonhisheels,heshuthimself
upinAbelbethmaacah(modernAbil),atownintheextremenorth.There,accordingtoaprobableemendationofthetext(v.14),hewassupportedbyhis
clansmentheBichriles(notBerites,cf.sonofBichri,v.1).Theplacewouldspeedilyhavebeencarriedbyassaulthadnotawoman,whosejudgmentwashighly
esteemedbytheinhabitants,persuadedthemtothrowShebasheadoverthewalltoJoab(vv.1622).3.AGadite,(1Ch5:13).4.TheShebaofJos19:2isoutof
placeafterBeersheba.V.6showsthatweoughttofindthirteen,notfourteen,names.TheLXXretainsthatnumberbyomittingSharuhenfromthelist.Sharuhen,
however,shouldnotbedropped,foritisidenticalwiththeShilhimof15:32.SomeHeb.MSSleaveoutSheba,asdoesalsotheparallelpassage1Ch4:28.The
ShemaoftheLXXisfromthelistof15:26.TherecanbelittledoubtthatShema,insertedbymistakeintheHeb.textandtransliteratedbytheLXX,was
subsequentlychangedtoSheba.
J.TAYLOR.
SHEBA,QUEENOF.1K10:113narratesavisitofthecontemporaryqueenofShebatokingSolomon.Atthepresentdaythereisastrongtendencyto
regardthisasalegendaryadditionmadebythelatereditorforthepurposeofemphasizingSolomonswealthandwisdom.Thereasonsadducedarenotquite
conclusive.ItisnodoubttruethattheInscriptionshithertodiscoveredfailtomentionanyqueenoftheSabans.Butthenamesaregivenofqueenswhoreigned
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conclusive.ItisnodoubttruethattheInscriptionshithertodiscoveredfailtomentionanyqueenoftheSabans.Butthenamesaregivenofqueenswhoreigned
overotherArabiancountries,and,curiouslyenough,inSargonsinscription,quotedonp.842b,Sams,queenofAribu,immediatelyprecedesItamara,kingof
Sheba.Itmustbeadmitted,however,thatthenarrativein1K10isnotfreefromdifficulties.Wecannotsatisfactorilyexplainthewordsconcerningthenameofthe
Lord(v.1):theLXXandetc.beinganobviousattempttoevadethedifficulty,andtheChronicler(2Ch9:1)omittingallthewords.Itishardtobelievethatthe
monarchofahighlycivilizedandexceedinglywealthyStatewouldbedumbfoundedbytheluxuryofthecourtofJerusalem(v.5)thatreadsasthoughthe
chieftainofapettytribeofArabswasinquestion.Moreover,itislikelyenoughthatthemotiveofthevisitwasotherthanourauthorsupposed.Riddles,proverbs,
apologues,andstoriessupplymuchofthematerialfortheleisuredconversationoftheArabs,butthequeenofShebawouldvisitherbrothermonarchwithamore
practicalobjectthanthese.Commercialintercoursebetweenthetwocountrieswasofextremeimportancefortheprosperityofboth:Kittel(DieBcherderKnige,
p.89)isjustifiedinsuggestingthatshewishedtopromotethis.
ThefantasticlegendswhichgatheredroundthisjourneymaybeconvenientlyreadinSura27oftheKoran,andthenotesonthatchapterfromMohammedansourceswhichSale
hascollected.MohammedhimselfnodoubtderivedhisaccountfromJewishsources.AlengthyhistoryofqueenBilkis,fromTalabisLivesoftheProphets,maybefoundin
BrnnowsArabicChrestomathy.Solomonmarriesthequeen,andtheAbyssinians,towhomthestorypassedfromtheArabs,callherMakeda,andtracefromthismarriagethe
lineageofalltheirkings.Inthisconnexiontwofactsshouldbenoted.First,thatAbyssiniawasundoubtedlycolonizedbytheSabans.Second,thatJos.(Ant.II.x.2)speaksof
Saba,aroyalcityofEthiopia,and(VIII.vi.5f.),withoutnamingSheba,givesanaccountofthevisittoSolomonofawomanwhowasqueenofEgyptandEthiopia.Heis
mistakenastothelocality,butitisinterestingtoobservethetraditionwhichhereports,thatwepossesstherootofthatbalsamwhichourcountrystillbearsbythiswomansgift.
J.TAYLOR.
SHEBANIAH.1.ALeviticalfamily(Neh9:4,10:10).2.ApriestorLevitewhosealedthecovenant(Neh10:4,12:14[SeeS HECANIAH]).3.AnotherLevite
whosealedthecovenant(Neh10:12).4.Apriest(1Ch15:24).
SHEBARIM.Aplacementioned(Jos7:5)inthedescriptionofthepursuitoftheIsraelitesbythemenofAi.RVmgivesthequarries,butthetextisprobably
corrupt.
SHEBAT.SeeTIME.
SHEBER.AsonofCaleb(1Ch2:48).
SHEBNA(in2K18:18,26SHEBNAH).AmajordomoorpalacegovernorofkingHezekiah,againstwhomisdirectedoneoftherecordedutterancesof
Isaiah(Is22:1525).ThepropheticdenunciationappearstohavefounditsfulfilmentinShebnasdegradationtotheofficeofscribeorsecretary,andtheelevation
ofEliakim(wh.see)tothepostofpalacegovernor(2K18:18,26,27,19:2=Is36:3,11,23,37:2).Shebnawasinallprobabilityaforeigner.
SHEBUEL.1.AsonofGershom(1Ch23:16,26:24),calledin24:20Shubael,whichisprob.theoriginalformofthename.2.AsonofHeman(1Ch25:4
[v.20Shubael]).
SHECANIAH.1.AdescendantofZeruh.(1Ch3:21,22,cf.Ezr8:3[1Es8:29Sechenias]).2.Auexilewhoreturned(Ezr8:5[1Es8:32Sechenias]).3.
Chiefofthetenthcourseofpriests(1Ch24:11).4.Apriest(2Ch31:15).5.AcontemporaryofEzra(Ezr10:2[1Es8:92Jechonias]).6.ThefatherofShemaiah
(Neh3:29).ItispossiblethatheandNo.1areidentical.7.ThefatherinlawofTobiahtheAmmonite(Neh6:18).8.Theeponymofafamilywhichreturnedwith
Zerubbabel(Neh12:3).Itisthesamenamewhich,byinterchangeofbandk,appearsasShebaniahinNeh10:4,12:14.
SHECHEM.1.Gn33:19,34:2,4etc.SeeJACOB,HAMOR.2.AManassiteclan,Nu26:31
(35),(theShechemites),Jos17:2,1Ch7:19.3.Seenextarticle.
SHECHEM.TheplaceinwhichJacobforawhileestablishedhimself(Gn33:18,Jn4:12).HereheissaidtohavedugthewellcoosecratedbyChrists
conversationwiththeSamaritanwoman,andstillshowntotravellers,withaclaimtoauthenticitywhichislackinginthevastmajorityofthesocalledholyplaces.
Itwasevidentlyaplaceofsanctity:therewasagreatoak(orterebinth)herenodoubtasacredtreewhereJacobhidhisteraphim(Gn35:4),andunderwhich
Joshuagavehispartingaddresstotheelders(Jos24).Agreatstoneunderthetreewastraditionallyconnectedwiththelatterevent(24:26).Thisisnodoubtthe
reasonwhyShechemwasaLeviticalcity,andalsoacityofrefuge(20:7).Thecity,however,remainedCanaaniteaftertheconquest,servingthelocalgodBaal
herith(Jg9:4):Gideonsconcubine,motherofAbimelech,wasaCanaanitessfromShechem,andherrelativessetuphersonasaking,tohisandtheirown
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herith(Jg9:4):Gideonsconcubine,motherofAbimelech,wasaCanaanitessfromShechem,andherrelativessetuphersonasaking,tohisandtheirown
destruction(Jg9).HereRehoboamalienatedtheNorthernKingdombyhisoverhearingspeech(1K12:1),andJeroboamforatimewasestablishedhere(12:25).It
wasnotaplaceofimportancebeforetheExile,thoughcontinuouslyinhabiteddowntoandafterthatevent(Jer41:5).ThedevelopmentoftheSamaritannationled
toitsrise.ItwasknownatthisperiodtothenativesbythenameMabortha(Jos.BJIV.viii.1),butthenamebywhichitwasgenerallyknown,afteritsrebuilding
byTitusFlavinsVespasianus,wasFlaviaNeapolis,or,morebriefly,NeapolisanamewhichstillpersistsinthemodernArabicformNblus,thoughusually
RomanorGreeknamesimposedonPalestiniansiteshavedisappeared,theoldernamespersisting.
IntheByzantineperiodtherewasabishopricatNeapolis,ofwhichweknowlittlesavethattheSamaritansinA.D.474woundedthebishop,andwerein
consequenceseverelypunishedbytheemperorZeno.ThecityfelltotheCrusadersin1099,andseveralchurchesweretherebuiltbythemoneofwhichstill
survivesinpartasamosque.In1184itwasreconqueredbySaladin.Theinhabitantshavealwaysbeennotedforturbulenceandlawlessness.Towardstheendof
the18thcenturyitwasastormcentreoftheintertribalwarsofthefellahn,theleaderofthedistrictbeingthenotoriousKasimelAhmad.
Itisnowatownofsome24,000inhabitants,allMoslemsexceptabout150Samaritansand700Christians.Theyareconcernedinextensivesoapmanufacture,
andintradeinwoolandcottonwithEasternPalestine.ThereareProtestantandRomanCatholicmissions,andanimportantEnglishhospitaldirectedbytheChurch
MissionarySociety.
InornearthetownareshownJacobswell,which,asalreadysaid,isnotimprobablyauthenticandashrinecoveringthetraditionaltombofJoseph,the
genuinenessofwhichisperhapslessunassailable.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
SHEDEUR.ThefatherofElizur(Nu1:5,2:10,7:30,10:18).
SHEEP.
1.tsn,smallcattle,suchassheepandgoats,Gn4:2etc.asinglesheeporgoat,Ex22:1.2.
seh,Dt14:4etc.,asheeporgoatcollectively,like1,inIs7:25etc.3.ayil,Gn15:9ram.4.rchl,Gn31:38,32:14,Ca6:6etc.,ewe.Seeprop.nameR ACHEL.
5.kar,Dt32:14etc.,younglamb.6.kebes,Nu7:15,Is5:17,andkeseb,Lv3:7,alambfromonetothreeyearsoldthelambofsacrifice.7.taleh(Arab.tully),1
S7:9,Is40:11,65:25,alamb,olderthanthepreceding.8.immar(Aram.),Ezr6:9lamb.9.InGn33:19AVmhaslambsastr.ofqsth.SeeKESITAH.10.(Gr.)
amnos,Jn1:29etc.,lamb.11.arn,Lk10:3etc.,lamb.12.arnionRev5:6etc.,theequivalentofHeb.keseb.13.Probaton,Jn10:1,2,3,4etc.,ageneralterm
like
Nos.1and2.
ThecommonsheepofPalestineisthefattailedsheep(Ovisaries,var.laticaudata).Themassoftailfatissometimesenormousitisthewholerump(Heb.
andArab.alyh)ofEx29:22,Lv3:9etc.Sheepareusuallypasturedwithgoatsexceptwhenthelandistoorockyandharrenfortheformer.Theflockisledby
theshepherd,thoughtheshepherdsboymaybringuptherearonajourneyashepherdofexperiencemustdrivetheflock(Gn33:13),whileanotherleads.When
awayfromvillages,thesheepareherdedatnightinfolds,whichareroughlymadeenclosuresofpiledupstonestheshepherdlivesinacaveorhutadjoining,and
isinveryintimatetouchwithhissheep,eachofwhichheknowsunfailinglyataglance.Theskinofasheep,roughlytannedwithallthewoolon,isthecommon
wioterjacket(furweh)ofashepherdorpeasant.TokillasheeporlamhforastrangersmealisoneofthefirstactsofBedouinhospitality.Inthecountry,sheepare
killedonlyinsuchcircumstancesorinhonourofsomefestiveoccasion(cf.1S25:18,1K1:19).
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
SHEEPGATE.SeeJERUSALEM,II.4.
SHEERAH.AdaughterofEphraim,who,accordingtotheMTof1Ch7:24,builtthetwoBethhoronsandaplaceofdoubtfulidentitycalled
Uzzenshesrah=portion[?lit.somethingweighed]ofSheerah.
SHEHARIAH.ABenjamite(1Ch8:26).
SHEET.SeeDRESS,4(d).
SHEKEL.SeeMONEY,WEIGHTSANDMEASURES,III.
SHEKINAH(fromHeb.shkantodwell,meaningdwelling[abstract],orthatwhichdwells).ThewordisnotfoundinOT,butoccursofteninother
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SHEKINAH(fromHeb.shkantodwell,meaningdwelling[abstract],orthatwhichdwells).ThewordisnotfoundinOT,butoccursofteninother
Jewishliterature,alwaysofGod.TheOT,particularlyincertainofitswritings,usesanthropomorphismsfreely,e.g.itspeaksofGoddwellinginaplaceorbeing
seen.Laterthoughtobjectedtothis,asmaterializingtheDivinenaturehenceintheTargums(Aram.paraphrasesoftheOTused,thoughnotintheirpresentform,
bythe1stcent.A.D.)variousdeviceswereadoptedtopreventpopular
misunderstandings.PeriphraseswereusedfortheDivinename,theWord(Memra),Spirit,orWisdombeingsubstituted.Oneofthemostimportantofthese
wastheShekinah.GoddwellsusuallybecametheShekinahreststhetempleofGodbecamethehouseoftheS.(notetheTabernaclewasthemishkn,from
thesameroot).Gn28:18becomesthegloryofthe
S.ofJisinthisplaceIs6:5myeyeshaveseenthegloryoftheS.oftheKingoftheworld.GodshidingHisfaceistheremovaloftheS.Nowthepresenceof
God(especiallyinPandrelatedwritings)wasoftenmanifestedbyafieryappearance,oralightinacloud.Itwassoinnature(Ps18:10),onSinai(Ex24:16),inthe
wildernessandintheTabernacle(16:7,29:43,40:34,Nu14:10),intheTemple(1K8:11)cf.Ezk1:28etc.ThisglorywasnotGod,butaneffluencefromHim,or
fromHisShekinah.FortheS.wasnottheglory,asisusuallyimagined,butthesourceandcentreofit.ItisastagenearertoGodHimself,and,thoughoftenused
inconnexionwiththephysicalmanifestation,representsaninvisibleanduniversalpresence.E.g.itisthesourceofinspiration.ElifailedtorecognizeHannahs
condition,becauseithadlefthim.Itwaspresentwherethreeweregatheredtoadministerjustice.Accordingtosome.itwasinseparablefromIsrael,stillhovering
overthewestwalloftheTemple.ButitwascommonlytaughtthatithadalwaysbeenabsentfromthesecondTemple,ashadbeentheglory(cf.Ezk11:23,43:2)
oragain,thatonthesuccessivesinsofAdamandhisdescendantsithadbeenwithdrawnfromearthtothefirstheaven,andfinallytotheseventh.Theconception,in
fact,varied.ItwasdisputedwhetheritwasanentitydistinctfromGod,oronlytheessenceofGodasmanifested.Thoughatfirstregardedasimpersonaland
passive,asdistinctfromtheMemra,theagentofcreation,intheTalmuditbecomesactiveandtakestheplaceofthelatter.Thetendencytopersonificationis
significant.InsistingonesidedlyonthetranscendenceoraloofnessofGod,theJewhadtobringHimtoearthagainbysuchmediatorialagencies,whichweresemi
personalandDivine,butnotGod,andbythedevelopmentofanelaborateangelology.IntheNTtheword
gloryseemsoftentorefertotheShekinah(cf.Eth.EnochLordofglory,andtheGreatGlory,astitlesofGod).Ro9:4speaksofthegloryasaJewish
privilegeHe9:5ofthecherubimofglory.ItwasbelievedthattheShekinahwouldreturnwiththeMessiahthegloryoftheLordshallheseenandthecloud(2
Mac2:8).(a)ItisconnectedwithChrist(Lk2:9,Mt17:5cf.2P1:17RVm,wheretheShekinahispersonified).In1P4:14thespiritofgloryrestsuponChrist,
asupontheTabernacleinHeisHeistheeffulgenceofthegloryinJa1:3HeisapparentlycalledtheShekinah.OfspecialsignificanceisJn1:14,which
combinestheexpressionsgloryandtabernacle(Gr.sknoun,probablyintentionallychosentorepresentShekinah,asinRev21:3).Itconnectsthepersonal
presenceofGodinChristwiththeearlierpresenceintheTabernaclewhatwasformerlysymbolisnowmanifestinflesh.ThevaguenessoftheJewishconception
givesplacetothedefinitepresenceofthepersonalChrist.Cf.withMt18:20and1Co11:11,sayingssuchaswhentwosittogetherandareoccupiedwiththe
wordsoftheLaw,theShekinahiswiththem,orthemanisnotwithoutthewoman,northewomanwithouttheman,norbothofthemwithouttheShekinah.(b)It
isconnectedwiththeChristian.ThefirstofthesixthingslostbyAdamwastheglory,i.e.thereflexionuponhimoftheDivineglory,orperfection.Ofthiswefall
short(Ro3:23),butitisinprocessofbeingrecoveredbytheChristian(5:2,8:18,30,2Co3:18,4:6cf.2Es7:97,98).
C.W.EMMET.
SHELAH.1.TheyoungestsonofJudahbyShua(Gn38:5,11,14,26,46:12,Nu26:20
(16),1Ch2:3,4:21).HegavehisnametothefamilyoftheShelanites(Nu26:20(16)).
ProbablytheShelaniteshouldbereadalsofortheShiloniteofNeh11:5and1Ch9:5.2.ThesonofArpachshad(Gn10:24bis11:13(12),14,15,1Ch1:18,
24,Lk3:35).3.Neh3:15.SeeS ILOAM.
SHELEMIAH.1.2.TwoofthesonsofBani,whomarriedastrangewife(Ezr10:39,41[Selemiasin1Es9:34(41)]).3.FatherofHananiah(Neh3:30).4.
Apriest(Neh13:18).5.ThefatherofJehucalorJucal(Jer37:3).6.ThefatherofIrijah(Jer37:13).7.1Ch26:14.SeeMESHELEMIAH.8.AncestorofJehudi(Jer
36:14).9.SonofAbdeel(Jer36:26).
SHELEPH.AsonofJoktan(Gn10:26)andthereforeatribeinSouthernArabia.Itisnotyetidentified.
J.F.MCCURDY.
SHELESH.AnAsherite(1Ch7:36).
SHELOMIFatherofanAsheriteprince(Nu34:27).
http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/s.htm SHELOMITH.1.Themotherofthemanwhowasstonedtodeathforhavingblasphemed
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SHELOMITH.1.Themotherofthemanwhowasstonedtodeathforhavingblasphemed
theName(Lv24:11).2.DaughterofZerubbabel(1Ch3:19).3.OneofthesonsofIzhar(1Ch23:18,calledin24:22Shelomoth).4.AsonofRehoboam(2Ch
11:20).5.AfamilywhichreturnedwithEzra(Ezr8:10[1Es8:36Salimoth]).
SHELOMOTH.1.(1Ch24:22)=Shelomithof23:18.2.AdescendantofMoses(1Ch26:25).3.AGershonite(1Ch23:9).
SHELUMIEL.PrinceofthetribeofSimeon,Nu1:6,2:12,7:36,41,10:19(cf.Jth8:1).SeealsoS HEMUEL.
SHEM.Thewordsignifiesname,whichcanalsodenotefame,renown(cf.themenofname,Gn6:4).Possiblyitisanabbreviationcf.Shemuel(
Samuel),nameofGod.InoneofthetwotraditionscombinedinJ(Gn6:18f.,10:2131)Shem,thesonofNoah,istheeponymousancestorofseveralpeoples,
occupying,roughlyspeaking,thecentralportionsoftheknownworld.Phasaparallellistin11:1026.ItisclearthatShem(fromwhichisformedthefrequently
usedtitleShemitesorSemites)standsmerelyforageographicaldivision,forsomeofthenationstracedtohime.g.Elam,andLud(probablyLydians)are
certainlynotSemitic.Intheothertradition(9:2027)ShemstandsforapeopleinPalestinetheHebrews,orsomeportionofthemwithwhomJaphethlivedin
closeconjunction,andtowhomCanaanwassubjugated.SeeHAM.
A.H.MNEILE.
SHEMA.1.AReubenite,1Ch5:8.SeeS HIMEI,No.5.2.OneofthosewhoputtoflighttheinhabitantsofGath(1Ch8:13,calledinv.21Shimei).3.Oneof
thosewhostoodatEzrasrighthand,atthereadingoftheLaw(Neh8:4,calledin1Es9:43Sammus).4.AtownofJudah,situatedintheNegeb.Thesiteis
unknown.ItisprobablythisShemathatappearsin1Ch2:43asasonofHebron.Cf.alsoS HEBA,4.
SHEMAAH.ABenjamite(1Ch12:3).
SHEMAIAH(Jahwehhasheard).1.TheprophetwhowithAhijahencouragedtherevolutionofthetentribesfromJeroboam.InMTheappearsafterthe
revolutionhasbegun(1K12:2224,2Ch11:24).InthesecondLXXaccount,however,heappearsatthebeginning,attheassemblyinShechem(1K12:24).He
ismentionedfurtherin2Ch12:58,andhishistoryin12:16.2.SonofShecaniah,descendantofZerubbabel(1Ch3:22).3.SonofShecaniah,keeperoftheeast
gate,andassistanttoNehemiahinrepairingthewall(Neh3:29).4.ASimeonite(1Ch4:37),perhapsShimeiofvv.26,27.5.AReubenite(1Ch5:4),apparently
calledShemainv.8.6.AMerariteLevitedwellinginJerusalem(1Ch9:14,Neh11:15).7.ALeviteofthefamilyofJeduthun(1Ch9:16),calledShammuain
Neh11:17.8.HeadoftheleviticalKohathiteclanofElizaphaninthetimeofDavid(1Ch15:8,11).9.Thescribewhoregisteredthenamesofthepriestlycourses
inthetimeofDavid,sonofNethanel(1Ch24:6).10.AKorahiteLevite,oldestsonofObededom(1Ch26:4,6,7).11.ALevite,teacheroftheLawinJudah
underJehoshaphat(2Ch17:8).12.ALeviteofthefamilyofJeduthun,engagedinpurifyingtheTempleunderHezekiah(2Ch29:14).13.ALeviteoverthe
freewillofferingsofGod(2Ch31:16).14.AchiefoftheLevites(2Ch35:9),calledSamaiasinLXXandin1Es1:9.15.AchiefmanunderEzra(Ezr8:16),
calledMaasmasandSamaiasin1Es8:43,46.16.
OneofthefamilyofAdonikam(Ezr8:18),in1Es8:39Samaias.17.ApriestofthefamilyofHarimwhomarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:21),in1Es9:21Sameus.
18.AlaymanofthefamilyofHarimwhodidthesame(Ezr10:31),in1Es9:32Sabbeus.19.Aprophet,sonofDelaiah,hiredbySanballatandTobiahtoterrify
Nehemiah(Neh6:1014).20.Oneofthe24coursesofpriests(Neh10:8,12:6,18).21.Amanpresentatthededicationofthewall(Neh12:34).22.Apriest,
descendantofAsaph(Neh12:35).23.Asinger(orclan)havingpartinthededicationofthewall(Neh12:36).24.Another,orperhapsthesame(Neh12:42).25.
FatherofUriahtheprophet(Jer26[Gr.33]20).26.Aprophet,calledtheNehelamite,carriedintocaptivityatBabylonwithJehoiachin,activelyengagedin
opposingJeremiah(Jer29:2432).Jeremiahpredictedthecompletecuttingoffofhisfamily.27.FatherofDelaiah,whowasaprinceinthereignofZedekiah(Jer
36[Gr.43]:12).28.Thegreat,kinsmanofTobias(To5:13).Inseveralcasestwoofthesemaybethesameindividual.Theidentificationhasthemostprobabilityin
referenceto2and3,8and9,and12and13.
GEORGER.BERRY.
SHEMARIAH.1.ABeojamitewhojoinedDavidatZiklag(1Ch12:5).2.AsonofRehoboam(2Ch11:19).3,4.Twomenwhohadmarriedforeignwives
(Ezr10:32,41).
SHEMEBER.KingofZeboiim(Gn14:2).
SHEMED.SeeS
http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/s.htm ,No.4. 58/116
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SHEMED.SeeS HEMER,No.4.
SHEMER.1.TheownerofthehillpurchasedbyOmri(1K16:24).2.AMerarite(1Ch
6:31(46)).3.AnAsherite(1Ch7:34,calledinv.32Shomer).4.ABenjamite(1Ch8:12).The
Heb.MSSshowheresomeconfusionbetweenranddasthefinalletterofthename.TheAV(Shamed)andRV(Shemed)retainthereadingoftheGeneva
version,whichisbasedontheVulg.Samad.
SHEMIDA.A son of Gilead, according to Nu 26:32 [P] called in Jos 17:2 [JE] a son of Manasseh his descendants are enumerated in 1 Ch 7:19.The
gentilicnameShemidaitesoccursinNu26:32.
SHEMINITH.Seeart.P SALMS,p.772a.
SHEMIRAMOTH.ALeviticalfamily(1Ch15:18,20,16:5,2Ch17:8).
SHEMUEL.1.TheSimeoniteappointedtoassistinthedividingoftheland(Nu34:20).ItisnotimprobablethattheMTshouldbecorrectedtoShelumiel,the
formin1:6,2:12,7:36,41,10:19.2.Grandsonoflssachar(1Ch7:2).
SHEN(thetoothorcrag).AwellknownplacetheShen,namedwithMizpahtoindicatethepositionofthestonewhichwassetupbySamuelto
commemoratethedefeatofthePhilistines(1S7:12).Thesiteisunknown.
SHENAZZAR.SeeS HESHBAZZAR.
SHEOL.TheSemiticequivalentoftheclassicalconceptionofHades.Thewordhasbeenderivedfromanumberofroots.Thetwomainprobableorigins
seemtobethosefromtheAssyr.rootshaal(toconsultanoracle),andshilu(chamber).Thelatterderivationseemssomewhatmoreinaccordancewiththe
synonymofpit.Inanycase,accordingtothisderivationoftheword,Sheolwasregardedasanunderworldofthedeadinwhichtheshadeslived.Hebrew
eschatology,althoughsomewhatobscureinitsearlyphase,probablytendedtoperpetuatetheanimisticconception.Thehabitofburyingthefamilyincommunal
tombsmayalsohavelentsomemeaningtotheword.InSheolthedeadcontinuedtoliveasonearth.Itseemstohavebeenasomewhatcommonbeliefthatthey
couldbesummonedbysomeprocessofnecromancy(1S2:6).IntheabsenceofanyconsistentHebreweschatology,however,itisimpossibletodetermine
whetherthedeadwerebelievedtobeconsciousoractive.Apparentlydifferentopinionsexistedonthispoint(cf.Ps88:13,94:17,30:10,Job14:3,withEzk32:27).
Fromthelatteritwouldappearthatthenonactivityofthedeadwasthemorecurrentopinion.
AccordingtoEth.Enoch22.114,Sheolwasdividedintofoursections,intendedrespectivelyforthemartyrs,therighteouswhowerenotmartyrs,sinnerswho
hadlivedprosperously,andsinnerswhohadbeentosomedegreepunished.Thesituationofthoseinthesefoursectionsvariedfromextremeblissinthefirstcaseto
lossofallhopeoftheresurrectioninthefourth.ThesoulsinthethirddivisionweretobeslainInthedayofjudgmentbutthemeaningofthisisobscure.Norisit
atallclearthatthisfourfolddivisionwascommonlyheld.Thetwofolddivisionintotheabodeoftheblessedandtheabodeofthosesufferingpunishmentseemsthe
moregenerallyheld.Attheresurrection,whichprecededthejudgment,itwasbelieved,atleastbythoseundertheinfluenceofPharisaism,thattherighteousshades
wouldrisefromSheol,and,afterreceivingnewbodies,ascendtoheaven.
TheNTconceptionofSheolisnotfundamentallyotherthanthatofJudaism,ifwemayjudgefromthefewreferences.ThemostimportantisthatofLk16:23,
theparableofDivesandLazarus.Hades(AVhell)intheNTiseitherthesynonymofdeath,orofcompletelossandmisery,althoughtheideaofpunishmentis
usuallyexpressedbyGehenna.Itwouldappearthattheideaofpurgatorialcleansing,whichRabbinicalJudaismintroducedintotheconception,wasaltogether
absentfromNTthought.Christissaid(Rev1:18)tohavethekeysofdeathandHades,andin1P3:18Heissaidtohavepreachedtospiritsinprison,i.e.in
Sheol(cf.Apoc.Baruch23.4,2Es7:85,95).Generallyspeaking,however,theNTdoesnotdevelopanynewdoctrineofSheol,andisasfaraspossiblefrom
favouringtheextremespeculationofeitherRabbinicJudaismorofPatristicChristianity.
S HAILERMATHEWS.
SHEPHAM.AplaceontheeasternboundaryofthePromisedLand(Nu34:10,11).Thesitehasnotbeenidentified.PerhapsZabdi,theShiphmite(1Ch
27:27).wasanativeofShepham.
SHEPHATIAH(Jahhasjudged).1.OneofDavidssons(2S3:4=1Ch3:3).2.AfamilywhichreturnedwithZerub.(Ezr2:4=Neh7:9)andEzra(Ezr
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SHEPHATIAH(Jahhasjudged).1.OneofDavidssons(2S3:4=1Ch3:3).2.AfamilywhichreturnedwithZerub.(Ezr2:4=Neh7:9)andEzra(Ezr
8:8).Thenameappearsin1Es5:9asSaphatandin8:34asSaphatias.3.AfamilyofthesonsofSolomonsservants(Ezr2:57=Neh7:59)=1Es5:33
Saphuthi.4.AJudahitefamily(Neh11:4).5.ABenjamitefamily(1Ch9:8).EitherthisortheprecedingshouldperhapsbeidentifiedwithNo.2above.6.A
contemporaryofJeremiah(Jer38:1).7.ABenjamitewarriorwhojoinedDavidatZiklag(1Ch12:5).8.ASimeoniteprince(1Ch27:16).9.AsonofJehoshaphat
(2Ch21:2).
SHEPHELAH.SeeP LAIN(5).
SHEPHER.AstationofthechildrenofIsrael(Nu33:23,24).Nothingisknownaboutitsposition.
SHEPHERD.SeeS HEEP.
SHEPHI(1Ch1:40)orSHEPHO(Gn36:23).AHorltechief.
SHEPHUPHAM(Nu26:39(48))orSHEPHUPHAN(1Ch8:5).ABenjamitefamily=Gn46:21Muppimand1Ch7:12,15,26:15Shuppimgentilic
ShuphamitesinNu26:39(43).
SHEREBIAH.OneoftheLeviteswhojoinedEzra(Ezr8:18,24,Neh8:7,9:4,10:12(13)12:8,24).Thenameappearsin1Es8:47asAsebebias, v. 54
Eserebias,and9:48Sarahias.Cf.MAHLI.
SHERESH.AManassiteclan(1Ch7:16).
SHERIFF.InDn3:2,8sheriffsIstheEVtr.ofAram.liphly,awordofquiteuncertainmeaning.
SHESHACH.AcrypticnameofBabel,foundinthereceivedtextofJer25:26,51:41.ItisformedbythemethodcalledAtbash,thatisasubstitutionoflaufor
aleph,shinforbeth,andsoon.Thewordis,however,nopartoftheoriginaltextofJeremiah,beingaconceitoflatereditors.InbothpassagesitislackinginLXX.
Cf.LEBKAMAI.
J.F.MCCURDY.
SHESHAI.AclanresidentinHebron,driventhencebyCaleb(Nu13:22,Jos15:14,Jg1:10).
SHESHAN.AJerahmeelite(1Ch2:31,34,35).
SHESHBAZZAR.ThisnameisofBab.origin,andappearsinLXXinseveralforms,someofwhichpointtothesungodSamas,others(e.g.Sanabassar)to
themoongodSinasthederivation,themeaningbeingOsungod[ormoongod],protectthelord[ortheson].ThepersonSheshbazzarisdescribedastheprince
ofJudah,andissaidtohavereceivedfromCyrusthesacredTemplevesselsandtohavetakenthemtoJerusalem(Ezr1:8,11,cf.1Es2:12,16).Thesamefactis
statedinEzr5:14,16,whereSheshbazzarisdesignatedthegovernor(pechh),andisalsosaidtohavelaidthefoundationsoftheTemple(cf.1Es6:18,20).Itis
probablethatthePersiantitleTirshathainEzr2:63,Neh7:65,70referstoSheshbazzar.
SomehaveidentifiedSheshbazzarwithZerubbabelonthegroundthatthelayingofthefoundationoftheTempleisinEzr3:8ascribedtoZerubbabelandin
5:16toSheshbazzar,whileinstancesofmenbearingtwodifferentnamesoccurnotinfrequently(e.g.2K23:34,24:17,Dn1:7).But,whenwecompareEzr3:8
and5:16,itdoesnotseemnecessarytoassumethatthetwomenareidentical.BothmayhavereturnedfromBabylonatthesametime,andwhileSheshbazzarwas
therulingofficial,ZerubbabelmayinalllikelihoodhavebeenthemovingspiritinbuildingtheTemple.Ezr3:8givestheChroniclersownaccountofthework,
whileEzr
5purportstobeanofficialreport,andwouldnaturallymentiontheofficialheadofthecommunityasthepersonresponsibleforwhatoccurredduringhistermof
office.Thenthepossibilityoftheonepersonbearingtwonames,whilenotimpossible,seemsunlikelyhere,because(1)bothnamesareofforeignorigin,unlikethe
doublenamesDanielandBelteshazzar,wheretheoneisHebrewandtheotherforeignand(2)asaruletheChronicleriscarefultonotetheidentificatione.g.
DanielwhosenamewasBelteshazzar.
If,then,SheshbazzarandZerubbabelweretwodifferentmen,wasSheshbazzaraJeworaforeigner?InallprobabilityhewasaJew.Itwasquiteinaccordance60/116
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If,then,SheshbazzarandZerubbabelweretwodifferentmen,wasSheshbazzaraJeworaforeigner?InallprobabilityhewasaJew.Itwasquiteinaccordance
withthepolicyofthePersianstoappointaJewtoactasgovernorinJerusalem,whilethenameSheshbazzar,beingofBab.origin,wouldnotlikelybebornebya
Persian.IthasbeenconjecturedthatSheshbazzarisidenticalwiththeShenazzarof1Ch3:18,asonofJehoiachinanduncleofZerubbabelandthiswouldjustify
thetitleprinceofJudahgiventohiminEzr1:8.Then,further,itisnotunlikelythattheyoungerman,Zerubbabel,tooktheleadingpartintheworkofrestoration,
andasaresulthisunclesmemorywouldfallintothebackground.ThistheoryismademoreprobablebythefactthatZerubbabelsucceededtothegovernorshipas
earlyasthereignofDariusHystaspis,B.C.520(cf.Hag1:1,14,2:2).
W.F.BOYD.
SHETH.InNu24:17(only)AVandRVmtr.bnshthchildren(sons)ofSheth,buttherecanbelittledoubtthatthecorrecttr.isthatofRV,sonsof
tumult.
SHETHAR.Oneofthesevenprinceswhohadtherightofaccesstotheroyalpresence(Est1:14).
SHETHARBOZENAI.OneofthosewhocorrespondedwithDariusabouttherebuildingoftheTemple(Ezr5:3,6,6:5,13).Calledin1Es6:3,7,27,7:1
Sathrabuzanes.
SHEVA.1.AsonofCaleb(1Ch2:49).2.SeeShavsha.
SHEWBREAD.InoneoftheoldesthistoricaldocumentspreservedintheOTwefind,inapassagetellingofDavidsflightfromSaul,thefirstmentionofan
offeringintheshapeofholybread,whichwaspresentedtoJinthesanctuaryatNob(1S21:16).Herethisholybreadisalsotermedthebreadofthe
presence(v.6),i.e.ofJ,whichappearsinEVasshewbreadarenderingduetoTindale,whoaddsthenote,shewbrede,becauseitwasalwayinthepresence
andsightoftheLorde(cf.v.6,whichendsliterallythus:thepresencebread,thatwastakenfromthepresenceofJ).Presencebreadisalsothenameforthis
specialofferinggenerallyusedinthePriestsCodebutcontinualbreadinNu4:7,contractedfromthefullerexpression2Ch2:4.TheChronicler,however,
prefersanotherdesignation,whichmayberenderedpilebread(1Ch9:32,23:29etc.,EVshewbread)andistobeexplainedbythearrangementoftheloavesin
twopiles(seebelowandcf.Lv24:8RVm).
AfteritsfirsthistoricalmentioninconnexionwiththesanctuaryofNob,whereitwasperiodicallyrenewedatwhatintervalsisnotstatedthepresencebread
isnextmetwithintheTempleofSolomon.Herewasanaltarofcedar(1K6:20),whichmodernscholarsregardasanaltarforthepresentationoftheofferingof
theshewbread.Itstood,accordingtotherestoredtext,infrontofthedbr,orMostHolyPlace,anditistobeidentifiedwiththetablewhereupontheshewbread
was,mentionedin7:48inasectionoflaterdate(see,forthecompositetextofthesechapters,theauthoritiescitedinart.Temple,andcf.ib.5).Thesame
interchangeofaltarandtableisfoundinEzk41:22,cf.44:16.
ThetableofshewbreadtobeprovidedfortheTabernacleofPisdiscussedintheart.
TABERNACLE,6(a)(cf.TEMPLE,9).Thepreparationoftheshewbreaditself,whichinthetimeoftheChroniclerwastheprivilegeofadivisionoftheLevites(1
Ch9:32),isprescribedinanothersectionofP(Lv24:59).Theofferingconsistedoftwelveunleavenedcakesofconsiderablesize,sinceeachcakecontaineda
fifthofanephahanephahheldmorethanabusheloffineflour.Thecakesorloaveswerearrangedonthetableintwopilesonthetopofeachpilewasplaced
anoblationoffrankincense.ThecakeswererenewedeverySabbathday(v.8RV)thoseremovedwereeatenbythepriestsalonewithinthesanctuaryprecincts,
theshewbreadbeingamongthemostholyoftheofferingsoftheLord(v.9).
Asregardstheoriginalsignificanceoftheshewbreadofferingtherecanbenodoubt.Thisantiqueformofoblationhaditsorigininprehistorictimesinthe
navedesiretopropitiatethedeitybyprovidinghimwithameal(SeeS ACRIFICEANDOFFERING,16).Thisviewisconfirmedbythefactthatitwasaccompanied,
eveninthelaterperiod,byaprovisionofwine,asisclearfromthementionoftheflagonsthereof,andthebowlsthereof,topouroutwithal(Ex25:29RV,Nu
4:7).Theanalogyoftheclassicallectisterniawillatoncesuggestitself.LessfamiliaristhesimilarofferingamongtheBabylonians,wholaidcakesofsweet,i.e.
unleavened,breadonthealtarsofvariousdeities(seeZimmernslistinKAT 3600).TheanalogybetweentheBabylonianandHebrewritualisrenderedstillmore
strikingbytheidentityofthenamebreadofthepresence(loc.cit.),andofthenumberofcakesofferedtwelveoramultipleoftwelve.Thisnumberhadprobably
anastrologicalorigin,havingreferenceoriginallytothetwelvemonthsoftheyear,orthetwelvesignsoftheZodiac.ForthelaterHebrews,atleast,thetwelve
loavesofthepresencebreaddoubtlessrepresentedthetwelvetribesofIsrael,andwereinterpretedasasymbolicalexpressionofthenationsgratitudetoGodasthe
continualsourceofeverymaterialblessing.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
SHIBAH.AnamegiventoawelldugbyIsaac(Gn26:33),whichgaveitsnametothetownBeersheba(wh.see).Thewordmeans,accordingtothewriter,61/116
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SHIBAH.AnamegiventoawelldugbyIsaac(Gn26:33),whichgaveitsnametothetownBeersheba(wh.see).Thewordmeans,accordingtothewriter,
anoathandBeershebaisthewelloftheoath,sonamedfromtheswearingoftheoathoffriendshipbetweenIsaacandAbimelech(Gn26:31).InGn21:2231
wehaveanotheraccount,accordingtowhichthewellwasdugbyAbrahamandreceiveditsnamefromtheoathbetweenAbrahamandAbimelech.Thereisalsoa
playonthewordshbah,oathandsheba,seven,asasacrificeofsevenlambswasoffered.Perhapsthename,however,wasalreadyinexistencebefore
Abrahamstime,andthewritersimplygivesamoreorlessplausibleexplanationofitsderivation.
W.F.BOYD.
SHIBBOLETH(meansbothearofcornandstream).InthestrifethatarosebetweentheGileadites,underJephthah,andtheEphraimites,anepisode
occurredwhichisrecountedinJg12:16.Accordingtothis,theGileaditeswereholdingthefordsofJordaninordertocutoffthefugitiveEphraimitesbuttheonly
wayofdifferentiatingbetweenfriendandfoewastotestafugitiveastohispronunciationofsuchawordasShibboleth,inwhichtheEphraimitepeculiarityof
pronouncingshasswouldimmediatelybenoticed.If,onutteringthisword,thefugitivepronounceditSibboleth,hewasknowntobeanEphraimite,andwas
forthwithslain.Inthiswaytherefell,accordingtotheobviouslyexaggeratedaccountinJ,fortyandtwothousand.
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
SHIELD.SeeARMOURARMS,2(a).
SHIGGAION.SeeP SALMS,p.772a.
SHIHORinIs23:3,Jer2:18seemstomeanEgypt(?),theNile(?),orthewatersofEgypt:in1Ch13:5,Jos13:3,itistheS.W.frontierofCanaan.Ifthename
isHebrewitmaymeantheBlack,inallusiontothedarkwatersoreventotheblackalluviallanditself:theEgyp.nameofEgyptisKemi,meaningblack.But,as
Brugschpointedout,ShiHristheEgyp.nameofastreamorcanal,possiblythePelusiacbranchoftheNile,onorneartheeasternborderofEgypt(seeS HUR).
TheblackalluviummightwellbecountedastheboundaryofCanaan:butelsewheretheboundaryistheBrook(orRiver)ofEgypt,i.e.theWadyelArish(see
S HUR).
F.LL.GRIFFITH.
SHIHORLIBNATH.OneoftheboundariesofAsher(Jos19:26).Itstandsapparentlyforariver,mostprobablytheNahrezZerka,theCrocodileRiver.
SHIKKERON.AplaceonthenorthernboundaryofJudah(Jos15:11).Thesiteisunknown.
SHILHI.FatherofAsaswife(1K22:42,2Ch20:31).
SHILHIM.AtownofJudah(Jos15:32).Cf.S HAARAIM,2.
SHILLEM,SHILLEMITES.SeeS HALLUM,No.7.
SHILOAH.SeeS ILOAM.
SHILOH.1.HeretheIsraelitesassembledatthecompletionoftheconquest,anderectedtheTentofMeetingportionswereassignedtothestilllandless
tribes,andcitiestotheLevites(Jos18:1etc.21:1etc.).AtShilohthecongregationdeliberatedregardingthealtarbuiltbythemenoftheeasterntribesintheJordan
Valley(22:12ff.).DuringtheperiodoftheJudges,itwasthecentralsanctuary(Jg18:31),thesceneofgreatreligiousfestivalsandpilgrimages(21:19,1S1:2).On
oneoftheseoccasionstheBenjamitescapturedaswivesthewomenwhodancedamongthevineyards(21:18ff.).HeretheyouthofSamuelwasspent,andfromthis
narrativewegatherthatthetenthadgivenplacetoapermanentstructure,atemple(hkl),underthecareofthehighpriestEliandhisfamily.Thelossofthe
arkandthedisastertohissonsprovedfataltoEli(1S4:12ff.),andShilohapparentlyceasedtorankasasanctuary.Thedestructionofitstemple,possiblybythe
Philistines,isalludedtoinJer7:12,14,26:6,9(cf.Ps78:60).ElisdescendantsareafterwardsfoundatNob(1S14:3,22:11).TheprophetAhijahwasanativeof
Shiloh(1K11:29,14:2,4).
Theoriginalname,asshownbythegentilicShilonite,wasShin.Thisformsurvivesinthemod.Seiln,aruinedsiteonahillE.oftheroadtoShechem,about
9milesN.ofBethel,and3milesS.W.ofKhnelLubbn(Lebonah,Jg21:19).AterraceontheN.ofthehill,witharockhewnquadrangle,c.400ft.80ft.,may
havebeenthesiteoftheancienttemple.Thereisanexcellentspringinthevalleytotheeast.Therearealsonumerousrockhewntombs.Theterracedslopestellof62/116
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havebeenthesiteoftheancienttemple.Thereisanexcellentspringinthevalleytotheeast.Therearealsonumerousrockhewntombs.Theterracedslopestellof
vineyards,longsincedisappeared.
2.TherealmeaningoftheclauseuntilShilohcome(Gn49:10EV)isdoubtful.IfShilohwereanameappliedtotheMessiah,itwouldhaveaspecial
significancebutthiscannotbediscovered.Noancientversionsoreadsit.TheTargg.(Onk.,Jerus.,andpseud.Jon.)allinterpretitoftheMessiah.ThePeshitta,on
theotherhand,readsuntilheshallcomewhoseit[i.e.thekingdom]is.ThreepossiblereadingsaregiveninRVm.(1)TillhecometoShilohgrammatically
correct,andsupportedbymanyscholars.ElsewhereinScripture,ShilohmeanstheEphraimitetown.ThisistakentorefertoJudahslayingdowntheleadershiphe
hadexercised,when,theconquestfinished,IsraelassembledatShiloh.Apartfromotherobjections,however,shbet,sceptre,seemstodenotesomethingmore
thanameretribalsupremacy,anditisnotcertainthatJudahpossessedeventhatpreeminence.(2)UntilthatwhichishisshallcomesoLXXtillthethings
reservedforhimcome.(3)Untilheshallcomewhoseitis(Pesh.,Targg.asabove).Whilenocertaindecisionastotheexactmeaningispossible,theMessianic
characteroftheverseisclear.ItcontemplatestheultimatepassingofthepowerofJudahintothebandsofanidealruler.
Shilonite=nativeofShilohisusedof1.Ahijah(1K11:29etc.).2.AfamilydwellinginJerusalem(1Ch9:5etc.).Inthelatterpassagethetruereadingis
prob.theShelanite(cf.Nu26:20).
W.EWING.
SHILONITE.1.SeeS HILOH,2.2.SeeS HELAH,1.
SHILSHAH.AnAsherite(1Ch7:37).
SHIMEA.1.SeeS HAMMUA,No.2.2.AMerarite(1Ch6:30(15)).3.AGershonite(1Ch6:39(24)).4.SeeS HAMMAH,No.2.
SHIMEAH.1.AdescendantofJehiel(1Ch8:32,calledin9:38Shimeam).2.SeeS HAMMAH,No.2.
SHIMEAM.SeeS HIMEAH,No.1.
SHIMEATH.AnamegiventothefatherormotherofoneofthemurderersofJoash(2K12:21,2Ch24:26).ThemurdererhimselfiscalledZabadin2Ch.
andJozacarin2Kings.ProbablyforZabadin2Ch.weoughttoreadJehozabad,andundoubtedlyJozacarand
Jehozabadareidentical,andbyscribalrepetition(dittography)wehavethetworeallyidenticalnamesandthevaryingformsShimeath,Shimrith,andShomer.
ThedescriptionsAmmonitessandMoabitessin2Ch.arecertainlylaterembellishmentsofthestory,andShimeathwasprobablythefatheroftheonemurderer,
Jehozabad,andanIsraelite.TheShimeathiteswereafamilyordivisionofthetribeofCaleb(1Ch2:55).Theymaybeincludedinthedescriptionthefamiliesof
thescribes,whichdweltatJabez,butthewholepassageleavesusuncertain.TheVulg.regardsthenameasreferringtothefunctionofasectionofthescribes
(resonantes)aftertheExile.
W.F.BOYD.
SHIMEI,SHIMEITES.ShimeiwasapopularnameamongtheHebrews,beingespeciallycommoninLeviticalcircles.Ofmostofthepersonsbearingit,
absolutelynothingexceptthenameisknown.1.Thepersonageofthisdesignation,ofwhomthehistorianhasgivenussomedetails,isaBenjamiteoftheclanof
Saul.Onaccountofhistribalandfamilyconnexions,itisquitenaturalforhimtobeDavidsbitterenemy.AsthelatterisfleeingbeforeAbsalom,Shimeimeetshim
andheapscursesandinsultsonthefugitivemonarch.Davidstriumphantreturn,however,bringshiminabjectpenitencetothefeetofhissovereign,whopardons
him(2S16:5ff.,19:17ff.).Nevertheless,DavidinhisdyingchargeisrepresentedasenjoiningSolomontobringhishoarheadtoSheolwithblood.Afterthis
ShimeiisnotpermittedtogobeyondthewallsofJerusalemonpainofdeathbutpresumingthreeyearslatertogotoGathinquestoffugitiveslaves,heisexecuted
byBenaiahatthecommandoftheking(1K2:8ff.,36ff.).2.Inthecourtintriguesconnectedwiththeroyalsuccession,acourtier,Shimei(cf.art.REI)byname,
espousedthecauseofSolomon(1K1:8).Theofficialattheheadofoneoftheprefectureswhichwereerectedbythismonarch,isprobablyidenticalwithhim(1K
4:18).3.AmasterofthevineyardsunderDavid(1Ch27:27).4.AprinceoftheJudanroyalhouse,abrotherof
Zerubbabel(1Ch3:18).5.ThenameoccursinthetribalgenealogiesofbothSimeonandReuben
(1Ch4:26,27,5:4[inv.8Shema]).6.ThegrandsonofLevi(Ex6:17,Nu3:18,21,1Ch6:17,23:7,9).7.AsonofMerari(1Ch6:29).8.Inthegenealogyof
Asaph(1Ch6:42).9.ThetenthcourseofLeviticalsingerswhowereappointedbyDavid(1Ch25:17).10.ALevitewhotookpartinthecleansingoftheTemple
underHezekiah,probablyidenticalwithonementionedlaterashavingchargeofthetithesandoblations(2Ch29:14,31:12,13).11.Inpostexilictimesthename
appearsamongthosewhohadmarriedforeignwives(Ezr10:23[1Es9:23Semeis]33.[1Es9:33Semei]38[1Es9:34Someis]).Theindividualsreferredtoin63/116
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appearsamongthosewhohadmarriedforeignwives(Ezr10:23[1Es9:23Semeis]33.[1Es9:33Semei]38[1Es9:34Someis]).Theindividualsreferredtoin
vv.33and38belongtothelaity.InZec12:13thefamilyoftheShimeitesarementionedasparticipantsinthemourningfornationalguilttheyappearinthis
connexionasrepresentativesoftheLevites.12.ThenameoccursinthegenealogyofMordecai(Est2:5[Ad.Est11:2Semeias]).13.Shammah,thebrotherof
David,appearsasShimeiin2S21:21.14.1Ch8:21=Shemaofv.18.
JAMESA.KELSO.
SHIMEON.OneofthesonsofHarim,whohadmarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:31[1Es9:32SimonChosameus]).
SHIMON.AJudahitefamily(1Ch4:20).
SHIMRATH.ABenjamite(1Ch8:21).
SHEMRI.1.ASimeonite(1Ch4:37).2.ThefatherofoneofDavidsheroes(1Ch11:45).3.Afamilyofgatekeepers(1Ch26:19).4.ALevite(2Ch29:13).
SHIMRITH.SeeS HIMEATH.
SHIMRON.1.ThefourthsonofIssachar(Gn46:18,Nu26:24(20),1Ch7:1)gentilicShimronitesinNu26:24(20).2.OneofthetownswhosekingsJabin
calledtohisassistance(Jos11:1).ItwasafterwardsallottedtothetribeofZebulun(Jos19:15).Itssiteisunknown.Cf.nextarticle.
SHIMRONMERON.ACanaanitetown,westofJordan,whosekingwasamongthosewhomJoshuasmote(Jos12:20).Comparingitspositioninthelistwith
thatofShimroninthelistgiveninJos11:1,wemayinferthatthetwoplacesareidentical.
SHIMSHAI.ThescribeorsecretaryofRehum(Ezr4:8,9,17,23),calledin1Es2:16Samellius.
SHINandSIN.ThetwentyfirstletteroftheHebrewalphabet,andassuchemployedinthe119thPsalmtodesignatethe21stpart,eachverseofwhichin
Heb.beginswiththisletterinoneorotherofitstwoforms.
SHINAB.ThekingofAdmah(Gn14:2).
SHINAR.AtermemployedintheOTforthegreaterpart,ifnotthewhole,ofBabylonia(Gn10:19,11:2,14:1,9,Jos7:21,Is11:11,Zec5:11,Dn1:2).Its
formeridentificationwithSumer,orSouthernBabylonia,neverregardedasverysatisfactory,isnowgivenup.Equallyuntenableistheviewthatitistobeidentified
withShankhar,alandordistrictthekingofwhichismentionedinaletterfromTellelAmarnaalongwiththekingofKhatti.ThereislittledoubtthatShinaristobe
identifiedwiththelandofBabylonia,buttheoriginofthenamehasnotbeendetermined.
L.W.KING.
SHION.AtownofIssachar(Jos19:19),prob.AyneshShan,about3mileseastofNazareth.
SHIPHI.ASimeoniteprince(1Ch4:37(36)).
SHIPHMITE.SeeS HEPHAM.
SHIPHRAH.OneofthetwoHebrewmidwives(Ex1:15).
SHIPHTAN.AnEphraimiteprince(Nu34:24).
SHIPSANDBOATS
1.InOTandApocrypha
(1)AmongtheIsraelites.InspiteofthelonglineofcoastbywhichPalestineisbordered,theIsraeliteswereanagriculturalratherthanamaritimepeople.In 64/116
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(1)AmongtheIsraelites.InspiteofthelonglineofcoastbywhichPalestineisbordered,theIsraeliteswereanagriculturalratherthanamaritimepeople.In
factalargepartofthecoastwasoccupiedbythePhniciansintheNorthandthePhilistinesintheSouth.Thatintheearliesttimesthepeopleasawholewere
ignorantofnavigationisshewnbytheirversionoftheFlood,inwhichanunnavigableboxtakestheplaceofthenavigatedshipoftheancientAccadianstory.
ExceptionsmoreorlesstotheruleinrelativelyancienttimeswerethetribesofAsheronthenorth,andDan,beforeitsemigration,onthesouth.
AndDan,whydidheremaininships?Ashersatstillatthehavenofthesea,Andabodebyhiscreeks(Jg
5:17).
Itisverydoubtfulwhetherboatswereoriginallyused,evenbythePhniciansandthePhilistines,exceptforfishing,andperhapsforpurelylocaltrafficand
communication.Zidon,theearliestPhniciansettlement,was,likeitssynonym,Bethsaida,derivedfromarootmeaningtocatchprey,andwasdoubtlessfirst
notedasafishingtown.Again,Dagon,thechiefgodofthePhilistines,isderivedfromtheworddag,meaningafish.
AtasomewhatlaterperiodwefindZebulundescribedasahavenofships(Gn49:18),andlaterstill,probablyafterthedivisionofthekingdom,Issacharis
mentionedwithZebulunasderivingwealthfromnavalcommerce(Dt33:19).
Inanycase,itisnottillthetimeofSolomonthatweheardefinitelyofanyimportantdevelopmentofcommercialenterprise.Underthedirection,andwiththe
cooperation,ofthePhnicians,cedarandcypresstimbersfromLebanonwerecutandfloateddowntheriverstothecoastandformedintorafts(AVfloats),
whichcarriedthesawnstonestoJoppa.Heretheywerebrokenup,andbothwereconveyedtoJerusalemforthebuildingoftheTemple(1K5:9,2Ch2:318).
SolomonhadalsoanavyofshipsnavigatedbyPhniciansailors.TheywerestationedatEziongeber,attheheadoftheGulfofAkabah,andtradedwithOphir,
probablyinthesoutheastofArabia,ingoldandpreciousstones(1K9:2628).Theivoryandapesandpeacocksof1K10:22mayhavebeenimportedintothis
regionfromIndiaandmoredistantEasternlands,ortheshipsofHiramandSolomonmaythemselveshavemademoredistantvoyages.Inadditiontothis,there
wasaregulartrademaintainedwithEgypt,whenceSolomonImportedchariotsandhorses(10:28,29).
TheconflictbetweentheNorthernandSouthernKingdomsafterSolomonsdeathputastoptothecommercialactivitiesoftheJews,andtheredoesnotappear
tohavebeenanyattempttorevivethemtillthetimeofJehoshaphat,whosefleetofshipsmadefortradingforgoldtoOphirwaswreckedatEziongeber.Anofferof
Ahaziahtojoininarenewaloftheenterprisewasafterwardsrejected(1K22:43,49).ThementioninIs2:16ofshipsofTarshishamongtheobjectsagainstwhich
Jsjudgmentwouldbedirected,makesitlikelythattherewasagainarevivalofnavalcommerceintheprosperousreignsofJothamandUzziah.Finally,inthe
timeoftheMaccabeeswereadthatSimon,thebrotherofJudas,madeJoppaaseaport(1Mac14:5).ItwasprobablyatthisperiodthattheJewsfirstbegantohave
experienceofshipsofwar(1Mac1:17,15:3cf.Dn11:30),thoughtheymusthavebeeninuseatamuchearlierperiod.Therearefiguresofsuchships,with
sharpbeaksforramming,inLayardsHistoryofNineveh,andSennacheribinhisexpeditionagainstMerodachbaladanhadshipsmannedbyTyrians.InIs33:21
theallusioniscertainlytohostileships,butthereferencemayhetoshipsoftransport,ratherthanwarships.Inanycasethedistinctionbetweenamerchantmanand
awarshipinearlytimeswasobviouslynotsodefiniteasitafterwardsbecame.
(2)Amongneighbouringnations.UnliketheIsraelites,thePhnicianswerethegreatnavigatorsoftheancientworld.Theircountrywasparticularly
favourableforsuchadevelopment.Dwellingonanarrowpieceofseaboard,unsuitedforagriculture(theyimportedcornfromPalestine,1K5:11,Ac12:20),they
hadbehindthemtheLebanonrange,famedforitsgreatcedars,andacoastwithgoodnaturalharbours.BythetimeofSolomontheywouldseemalreadytohave
hadanextensivetrade.ThephraseshipsofTarshishwhichprobablymeantoriginallyshipsaccustomedtotradewithTartessusinSpain,hadcometobeusedina
secondarysense,likeourEastIndiaman,oflargevesselssuitedforsuchatrade.ItisbelievedthatbythistimetheyhadpenetratedasfarasCornwall,andhad
evenfoundtheirwaytotheCanaries.Theirnumerouscolonies,atanyratethemostdistant,ofwhichCarthageisthebestknown,probablybegantobefounded
soonafter.Theformoftheirshipswas,itwouldappear,agradualdevelopmentfromthehollowedtrunkofatreetothevesselofthreebanksofoars,knownamong
theGreeksasatrireme(seeHastingsDB,art.Ships).WiththeAssyriansnavigationseemstohavebeenconfinedtotheTigrisandEuphrates,wheresmalltimber
boats,supportedbyinflatedskins(keleks),andcoraclesofplaitedwillow(kufas),werelargelyinuse(seeEBi,art.Ships).Ontheotherhand,theBabylonians
seemquitetohavejustifiedthephraseshipsoftheirrejoicingi.e.inwhichtheytakepride(Is43:14),havingextendedtheirvoyagestothePersianGulf,andeven
engagedincommercewithIndiasincethe7thcent.B.C.TheEgyptiansusedvesselsofpapyrusforthenavigationoftheNile(Is18:2,cf.Job9:26),butitisnot
quitecertainwhethertheywereboatsconstructedoutofpapyrus,orraftscomposedofbundlesofthesereedsboundtogether.WelearnfromEgyptianmonuments
thattheyhadalsoshipsofconsiderablesize.Wehaveverylittletoguideusindeterminingtheformorsizeofshipsduringtheseearlyperiods,butitisprobablethat
whileatfirsttheyappeartohavevariedgreatly,theygraduallyapproximatedtothetypeofvesselusedintheLevantinNTtimes.Itisnotpossibletosayatwhat
timesailswerefirstintroduced.Wefindthem,ormorecorrectlythesail,intheonegreatsailmentionedinEzk27:7inadditiontotheoars.InIs33:23thesailonly
ismentioned.Inv.21thegalleywithoarsismentioneddistinctively,andincontrasttothegallantship,whichprobablymeansthelargervesselprovidedwitha
sail.
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(3)Inliterature.ThattheIsraelites,though,generallyspeaking,unusedtonavigation,hadsomeacquaintancewithandtookaninterestinshipping,isclear
fromtheconstantreferencetoshipsintheirliterature.Is33:23,inwhichIsraeliscomparedtoadisabledvessel,hasbeenalreadyalludedto.Ezekielsfamous
comparisonofTyretoashipin27:411givesafairgeneralideaofthedifferentpartsofashipofthatperiod,thoughsomeofthemthedeckplanksofivory,the
sailoffineborderedlinen,theawningsofblueandpurpleareevidentlyidealized.ThegraphicpictureinPs107:2327oftheterrorsexperiencedbythosewho
godowntotheseainshipswasalmostcertainlywrittenbyonewhohadexperiencedastormatsea.InPs104:25theshipsare,asmuchasleviathan,thenatural
denizensofthedeep.Ofspecialbeautyisthesimileoftheshipthatpassesoverthewavesandleavesnopathwayofitskeelbehind(Wis
5:10),toexpressthetransitorinessofhumanlifeandhumanhope.ThedangerofshipfaringispointedoutinWis14:5.Thatpeopleshouldcommittheirlivestoa
smallpieceofwoodwouldbeabsurdbutforDivineProvidence.
2.IntheNT.WeareconcernedchieflywithourLordsGalilanministryandSt.Paulsvoyages.
(1)OntheSeaofGalilee.TheGalilanboatswereusedprimarilyforfishing,andalsoforcommunicationbetweenthevillagesontheLake,andprobablyfor
localtrade.AtleastfourofourLordsdiscipleswerefishermen,andwerecalledwhileengagedintheirwork.HefrequentlycrossedtheLakewithHisdisciples,and
sometimespreachedfromaboattothepeopleontheshore(Lk5:2,Mk4:1).AmongthemostpicturesqueincidentsofHislifeasrecordedintheGospelsarethe
miracleofstillingthetempestandthemiraculousdraughtsoffishes.Theboatsweresmallenoughtobeindangerofsinkingfromaverylargecatchoffish,andyet
largeenoughtocontainourLordandatleastthemajorityofHistwelveApostles,andtoweatherthestormswhicharestillfrequentontheLake.Itappearsfromthe
frequentuseofthedefinitearticle,theboat,thatoneparticularboat,probablySt.Peters,wasusuallyemployed.
(2)IntheLevant.ShipsplayedanimportantpartinSt.Paulsmissionaryjourneys.Itwasfrequentlynecessaryforhimtocrossthegan,andsometimesto
makelongervoyagestoandfromSyria.ThathewasfrequentlyexposedtogreatdangerwelearnnotonlyfromthedetailedaccountofhisshipwreckinAc27,but
fromanexpressstatementin2Co11:25,inwhich,writingbeforethisevent,hesaysthriceIsufferedshipwreck,anightandadayhaveIbeeninthedeep,which
certainlyseemstomeanthathedriftedforthisspaceoftimeuponthesparorsomepartofawreckedship.Butourinterestiscentredchieflyintheaccountofhis
voyagefromCsareatoPuteoliinAc27,28.Fromthiswelearnthatthelargervesselswereofaconsiderablesize,thatoftheshipwreckcontaining,accordingto
whatisprobablythecorrecttext,276persons(27:37accordingtoB,76).Itwasimpelledonlybysail,theonlyoarsmentionedbeingthepaddlesusedasrudders,
whichwerebracedup,probablyinordertoallowtheshiptobemoreeasilyanchoredatthestern(vv.29,40).This,acustomnotinfrequentlyresortedtowhen
somespecialpurposewasservedbyit,wastoenablethemtothrustthevesselintoafavourableplaceonshorewithoutthenecessityofturningherround.In
additiontothemainsail,thevesselhadaforesail(artemn),whichwasusedforthesamepurpose,asmoreeasilyadaptedforalteringtheshipscourse(v.40).
Thevesselhadonesmallboat,whichwasusuallytowedbehind,butwastakenupforgreatersecurityduringthestorm(v.16).Anotherremarkablepracticeisthat
describedinv.17asusinghelps,undergirdingtheship.Thesehelpsorundergirderswerechainspassedunderandacrosstheship,andtightenedtopreventthe
boardsfromspringing.Itwasacommonpracticeofancienttimes,andisnotunknowneveninmodernnavigation.Soundingsweretakentotestthenearapproach
toland,muchastheywouldbeatthepresentday.Thoughshipshadtodependmainlyononegreatsquaresail,bybracingthistheywereenabledtosailwithin
sevenpointsofthewind.Inthiscase,allowinganothersixpointsforleeway,thevesselunderanortheaster(Euraquilo,v.14)madewayfromCaudatoMalta,a
directionconsiderablynorthofwest.As,however,thevesselcouldnotsafelycarrythemainsail,oreventheyardarm,thesewerefirstloweredondeck,andthen
thevesselmusthavebeenheavedtoandbeencarriedalongandsteadiedbyasmallstormsailofsomekind.Hadshedriftedbeforethewindshewouldinevitably
havebeendrivenontotheSyrtis,theverythingtheywishedtoavoid(v.17).ThishasbeenshownveryclearlybySmithinhisclassicalwork,TheVoyageofSt.
Paul,ch.iii.ThesamewriterdrawsattentiontothethoroughlynauticalcharacterofSt.Lukeslanguage,andtheevidenceofitsaccuracybyacomparisonwith
whatisknownofancientnavalpracticeand,whatisperhapsevenmorestriking,theevidenceofskilfulnavigationtowhichthenarrativepoints.Hejustlyobserves
thatthechiefreasonwhysailinginthewinterwasdangerous(27:9,28:11)wasnotsomuchthestorms,astheconstantobscuringoftheheavens,bywhich,before
thediscoveryofthecompass,marinershadchieflytodirecttheircourse.
ThefactthattwooftheshipsinwhichSt.PaulsailedwereshipsofAlexandriaengagedinthewheattradewithItaly(27:6,38,28:11,13Puteoliwasthegreat
emporiumofwheat),isespeciallyinteresting,aswehappentoknowmoreaboutthemthananyotherancientclassofship.InthetimeofCommodusaseriesof
coinswithfiguresofAlexandriancornshipswasstrucktocommemorateanexceptionalimportationofwheatfromAlexandriaatatimeofscarcity.Oneofthese
ships,moreover,wasdrivenintothePirusbystressofweather.Lucianlaysthesceneofoneofhisdialogues(TheShiporWishes)onboardofher.Fromthecoins
andthedialoguetogetherwegetaverygoodideaoftheshipsofthattime(2ndcent.A.D.)andtheirnavigation.Luciansshipwas180ft.by45ft.,witha
calculatedtonnageofabout1200.Itisnotsurprising,then,thattheCastorandPottuxwaslargeenoughtocontain,inadditiontohercargoandcrew,the276
personsoftheshipwreckedvessel(Ac28:11).Josephuswaswreckedinashipcontaining600.Theshipshadonehugesquaresailattachedtoanuprightmast
aboutthecentreofthevessel,withaverylongyardarm.Therewasalsoasecondsmallmast,setdiagonallynearthebow,andlookingnotunlikeamodern
bowsprit,whichcarriedtheforesail.Ontheprincipalmasttherewasalsosometimesasmalltriangulartopsail.Bothendsofthevesselcurvedupwardsandwere
pointedhorizontally,andterminated,theformerespecially,insomesortofdecoration,veryfrequentlyaswan.Thetworudderpaddles,theuniversalmethodof
steeringtillaboutthe12thcent.,wereusuallyinthelargervesselspassedthroughportholes,whichcouldalsoserveashawseholeswhenthevesselwasanchored
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steeringtillaboutthe12thcent.,wereusuallyinthelargervesselspassedthroughportholes,whichcouldalsoserveashawseholeswhenthevesselwasanchored
bythestern.
(3)Inliterature.InthebooksoftheNT,shippingprovidedthewriterswithsomestrikingsimiles.IntheEp.totheHeb.(6:19),Christianhopeiscalledthe
anchorofthesoul,bothsureandsteadfast,andenteringintothatwhichiswithintheveil.Again,St.Jamescomparesthetongue,inthecontrolwhichitsconstraint
exercisesonthecharacter,totheverysmallruddersbywhichships,thoughtheybesogreat,areturnedabout(3:4).
F.H.WOODS.SHISHA.SeeS HAVSHA.
SHISHAK(Egyp.ShoshenkorSheshonkI.).Founderofthe22ndDyn.(c.B.C.950).Hereignedatleast21years.Jeroboamfledtohim(1K11:40),andhe
plunderedJerusaleminthefifthyearofRehoboam(14:25,2Ch12:2).AlonglistofPalestiniantownsofIsrael,aswellasofJudah,wasengravedbySheshonkon
thesouthwallofthetempleofKarnak,butJerusalemhasnotbeenrecognizedamongthesurvivingnamesinthelist.MaxMllersuggeststhatthesetownsmaynot
havebeenconqueredbutthattheymerelypaidtribute,hencetheappearanceofIsraelitishtownsamongthem.
F.LL.GRIFFITH.
SHITRAI.ASharonitewhowasoverkingDavidsherdsthatfedinSharon(1Ch27:29).
SHITTAHTREE(shitth,Is41:19RVacaciatreeshittimwood[tsshttm]Ex25:5,10,13,26:15,26,27:1,6,Dt10:3,RVacaciawood).shitth
wasoriginallyshinth,andisequivalenttoArab.sunt,whichistheAcacianiloticabutthewordnodoubtincludedotherdesertacacias.TheseytoftheArabs,
whichincludesthegumarabictree(A.seyat),andA.tortiliswouldbothfurnishsuitablewood.BoththesetreesareplentifularoundtheDeadSea,particularlyat
AinJidy.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
SHITTIM.1.ThenameofthelastencampmentoftheIsraelites,ontheeastoftheJordanoppositeJericho.TheretheIsraelitesbegantointermarrywith
Moabites(Nu25:1ff.),andfromthereJoshuasentoutthespiestoJericho(Jos2:1,3:1).Thenamemeansacacias,andtheplaceiscalledinNu33:49Abelshittim,
orMeadowofacacias.Josephus(Ant.IV.viii.1,v.i.1)identifiestheplacewithAbila,whichhesaysis71/2RomanmileseastoftheJordan,andwhichJerome
sayswas6mileseastofit.SeveralmodernscholarsidentifyAbilawithKhirbetKefrnattheentranceoftheWadyKefrn,atthebaseofthemountainsofMoab.
2.JoelsreferencetotheValleyofShittim(3:18)mustrefertosomevalleyleadingfromJerusalemtotheDeadSea(cf.Ezk47:1ff.)perhapstheValleyof
thebrookKidron,themodernWadyenNr.ItiscertainlynotthesameasNo.1,althoughconfusedwithitbyOchser(JExi.297f.).ThereferencetoShittimin
Mic6:5fromShittimtoGilgalisgeographicallyunintelligible,andisrightlythoughtbymanyscholarstobeagloss.
GEORGEA.BARTON.
SHIZA.FatherofaReubenitechief(1Ch11:42).
SHOA.AracenamedinEzk23:23alongwithBabylonians,Chaldans,Pekod,Koa,andAssyrians.TheSutwerenomads,frequentlynamedinthesame
companybyAssyrianandBabylonianwriters,andamongotherseatsinhabitedtheE.oftheTigris.
C.H.W.JOHNS.
SHOBAB.1.OneofDavidssons(2S5:14,1Ch3:5,14:4).2.ACalebite(1Ch2:18).
SHOBACH.ThecaptainofthehostofHadarezer,theAramankingofZobah(wh.see),whocommandedtheforcesofthatkingwhenheaidedthe
AmmonitesintheirwarwithkingDavid.Daviddefeatedhim,andShobachlosthislife(2S10:1318).In1Ch19:16thenameisspelledShophach.
PerhapsbecausesolittlewasknownofShobach,heplayedanimportantpartinlaterimaginativetradition.TheMishna(Sotah,viii.1)makeshimagiantoftheAmmonites
equaltoGoliath,whiletheSamaritanChronicle,sometimescalledthebookofJoshua.tellsalongtaleconcerninghim(chs.2638),makinghimthesonofHaman,akingof
PersiawhomJoshuahadkilled,andwhostirredupagreatcoalitiontoavengethedeathofhisfatherIAllauthenticinformationconcerningShobachiscontainedin2S10:1618,
which1Ch19:16repeats.
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GEORGEA.BARTON.
SHOBAI.Afamilyofporters(Ezr2:42,Neh7:45[1Es5:28Sabi]).
SHOBAL.1.AsonofSeirtheHorite,andoneofthedukesoftheHorites(Gn36:20,
23,29=1Ch1:38,40).2.ACalebitefamilyinthetribeofJudah.ThisShobaliscalledin1Ch4:1,2asonofJudah,andin2:50sonofCalebandfatherof
Kiriathjearim.Thenameisprobablytobeconnected,ifnotidentified,withNo.1.
SHOBEK.Asignatorytothecovenant(Neh10:24(25).
SHOBI.Accordingto2S17:27,asonofNahashthekingofAmmon,who,withMachirofLodebar,showedkindnesstoDavidwhenhefledtoMahanaim
atthetimeofAbsalomsrebellion.Thereissomedoubtaboutthename,however,asin1Ch19:1f.thesonofNahashwhosucceededhimwasHanun.S.A.Cook
(AJSLxvi.164)suggeststhatthetextof2S17:27iscorrupt,andthatitoriginallyreadandNahashcame,insteadofShobi,sonofNahash.Theveryexistenceof
Shobiseems,therefore,uncertain.If,however,thepresenttextofSamuelissound,itisabetterhistoricalauthoritythanChronicles.
GEORGEA.BARTON.
SHOCK,STACK.InJg15:5theformer,andinEx22:5thelatter,isinAVtherenderingofthesamewordRVuniformlyshocks,whichinbothplacesis
opposedtothestandingcornorstandinggrain(soAmer.RVforcornthroughout).Theformer,atleast,ismisleading,sincetheHebrewsdidnotsetuptheir
sheavesinshocks(Scoticstooks),butpiledtheminheapsforconveyancetothethreshingfloor(AGRICULTURE,3).Sointhebeautifulfigure,Job5:25,render
likeasaheapofcorncomethup(tothethreshingfloor)initsseason.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
SHOE.SeeDRESS,6,wherealsoreferenceismadetothecustom,widelyprevalentinantiquity,ofremovingtheshoesbeforeenteringatemple,orother
sacredprecinct,inordertosavethelatterfromceremonialdefilement.(FortheoriginalmotiveseeRS2453.)
Theshoeplayedapart,further,incertainsymbolicalactionsinHebrewlaw.ThusinRu4:7weareinformedthatitwasanancientcustominIsrael,on
completingapurchase,forthesellertodrawoffhisshoeandhandittothebuyer,asasymbolofthetransferenceofthepropertysold.Aparallelsymbolismis
disclosedbythefrequentoccurrence,inearlyBabyloniandeedsofsaledealingwithhouseproperty,ofthephrase,thepestle[ofthemortar]hasbeentransferred
(Meissner,Ausdemattbab.Recht,6).Intimeswhenwritingwastheaccomplishmentofthefew,suchasymbolicactinthepresenceofwitnesseswasdoubtlessheld
equivalenttothelaterformaldeeds(Jer32:9ff.).
ThesamepassageofRuthandDt25:9ff.showsthatthissymbolism,somewhatdifferentlyperformed,withanotherstillmoreexpressive,wasalsoadoptedinthe
caseofonerenouncinghisrighttohisdeceasedbrotherswife(SeeMARRIAGE,4).
Intheexpressionupon[orover]EdomwillIcastmyshoe(Ps60:8,108:9)manyauthoritiesfindareferencetoanextensionofthisshoesymbolism,theactual
takingpossessionofthepropertybeingsymbolizedbythrowingashoeoveroruponit.Others,however,renderingasRVmuntoEdom,seeinthewordsan
assertionofEdomsservitude,itbeingthepartofaslavetocarryhismastersshoes.Thecontextandthesingularshoe(notshoes)favourtheformer
interpretation.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
SHOHAM.AMerarite(1Ch24:27).
SHOMER.1.1Ch7:32.SeeS HEMER,No.3,2.2K12:21.SeeS HIMEATH.
SHOPHACH.SeeS HOBACH.
SHOSHANNIM,SHOSHANNIMEDUTH.SeeP SALMS,p.772a.
SHOVEL.1.Ex27:3,38:3,Nu4:14,1K7:40,45,2K25:14,2Ch4:11,16,Jer52:18,ofautensilforremovingtheashesfromthealtar.2.Is30:24,forthe
broad,shallow,winnowingshovelwithwhichcornafterthreshingwasthrownupagainstthewindtoclearitofthechaff.
SHRINE.SeeD
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SHRINE.SeeDIANA.
SHROUD.ThiswordisusedinEzk31:3inthegeneralsenseofsheltercovering,asin
MiltonsComus,147Runtoyourshrouds,withinthesebrakesandtrees.
SHUA.1.ThefatherofJudahsCanaanitewife(Gn38:2,12),whoappearsin1Ch2:3(RV)asBathshua.2.AdaughterofHeber(1Ch7:32).
SHUAH.AsonofAbrahamandKeturah,Gn25:2,1Ch1:32.ThetriberepresentedbythisnamemayperhapsbetheSuchuofthecuneiforminscriptions,on
therightbankoftheEuphrates.BildadtheShuhite(Job2:11,8:1,18:1,25:1,42:9)isprob.intendedtobethoughtofasbelongingtothistribe.
SHUAL.AnAsherite(1Ch7:36).
SHUAL,LANDOF.Aregionreferredtoin1S13:17asthedestinationofoneofthethreebandsofPhilistineraiders.ThecloseconnexionofOphrahwith
thedistrictnamedindicatesthatthiswasoneofitstowns.
H.L.WILLETT.
SHUBAEL.SeeS HEBUEL.
SHUHAH.AbrotherofChelub(1Ch4:11).
SHUHAM.AsonofDan(Nu26:42),calledinGn46:23HushimgentilicShuhamitesinNu26:42.
SHUHITE.SeeS HUAH.
SHULAMMITE.SeeS HUNEM,S ONGOFS ONGS.

SHUMATHITES.AfamilyofKiriathjearim(1Ch2:53).
SHUNAMMITE.Seenextarticle.
SHUNEM.AbordertownofIssachar(Jos19:18),andthecampinggroundofthe
PhilistinesbeforeSaulslastbattle(1S28:4).IthasbeenidentifiedfromearlytimeswithSlam,avillagefivemilessouthofTabor,onthesouthslopeofLittle
Hermon.ItisonthenorthoftheValleyofJezreel,andoppositetoGilboa,whereSaulwasencampedthesituationsuitsthesceneofthebattlewell.AShunemis
alsothesceneofElishasmiraclein2K4:8ff.,wheretheidentificationismoredoubtful.ThenarrativesuggestsaplaceontheroadfromSamaria,hishome(v.1),
toCarmel,andnottoofarfromthelatter(v.25ff.)Solamsatisfiesneitheroftheseconditions.Shunammiteisapplied(1)toAbishag(1K1:2),whoisperhapsthe
originaloftheShulammiteofCa6:13,theinterchangeoftandnbeingexemplifiedinthemodernSolam=
Shunem(2)totheunnamedfriendofElishain2K4:8ff.,8:16.ThenarrativegivesusapictureofHeb.homelifeatitsbest,andshowshowthelegaland
theoreticalsubjectionofthewifewasoftenmodifiedinpractice.Sheisagreatwoman,perhapsanheiress,andtakestheleadinbothstoriesbythetimeofthe
lattershemayhavebeenawidow.Forthemiracle,cf.1K17:8ff..
C.W.EMMET.
SHUNI.AsonofGad(Gn46:16,Nu26:15(24)[gentilicShunites]).
SHUPHAM,SHUPHAMITES,SHUPPIM.SeeMUPPIMandS HEPHUPHAM.
SHUR.AplaceordistrictontheN.E.borderofEgypt(Gn16:7,20:1,25:18,Ex15:22,1S15:7,27:8).ThenameinAramaicmeanswall,and,asEgyp.th
isregularlyrenderedbyshin
Aramaic,ShurisprobablytheEgyp.cityThor(thevocalizationisuncertain),afortressneartheN.E.frontier,andcapitalofthe14thnomeofLowerEgypt.This 69/116
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Aramaic,ShurisprobablytheEgyp.cityThor(thevocalizationisuncertain),afortressneartheN.E.frontier,andcapitalofthe14thnomeofLowerEgypt.This
ThorlayonastreamorcanalnamedShiHr(SeeS HIHOR),andmalefactorsweresentthitherafterhavingtheirnosescutoff.Itistemptingtoidentifyitwith
Rhinocorura(SeeEGYPT[RIVEROF]),butitwasonthebanksofafreshwatercanaland10daysmarchfromGaza.PerhapsitisthelaterSele,nearelKantara,on
theSuezCanal.
F.LL.GRIFFITH.
SHUSHAN(Dn8:2,Neh1:1etc.).TheSusa(Ad.Est11:3)oftheGreeks,nowSusorShushinS.W.Persia,betweentheShapurandtheriverofDizful(the
ancientKoprates).ItwasformanycenturiesthecapitalofElam,andafterwardsoneofthethreecapitalsofthePersianempire.Cf.alsoELAM.
SHUSHANCHITES,i.e.inhabitantsofShushan(Susa),arementionedinEzr4:9amongthecolonistssettledbyOsnappar(Ashurbanipal)inSamaria.
SHUSHANEDUTH.SeeP SALMS,p.772a.
SHUTHELAH.OneofthethreeclansofthetribeofEphraim(Nu26:35,[gentilicShuthelahite]36).Intheparallelpassage,1Ch7:20,21,thefoundation
texthasbeenexpandedandmiswritten.
J.F.MCCURDY.
SHUTTLE.OnlyJob7:6,whereitisdoubtfulwhetherthereferenceistotheshuttlerodoftheloomortotheloomitself.TheHeb.wordhasthelatter
meaninginitsonlyotheroccurrence,Jg16:14.SeeS PINNINGANDWEAVING,3and4(b).
SIA(Neh7:47)orSIAHA(Ezr2:44).AfamilyofNethinim(1Es5:29Sua)whoreturnedwithZerubbabel.
SIBBECAI.SeeMEBUNNAI.
SIBBOLETH.SeeS HIBBOLETH.
SIBMAH.SeeS EBAM.
SIBRAIM.ApointontheidealnorthernboundaryoftheHolyLand(Ezk47:16)siteuncertain.
Cf.ZIPHNON.
SICCUTH.AwordwhichisfoundinparallelismwithChiuninAm5:26.ThepresentformisprobablyduetotheMassoreticcombinationoftheconsonants
ofSakkuthwiththevowelsofshiqquts(abomination)thesamevocalizationwhichwefindinChiun.SakkutisanothernamefortheAssyr.godNinib,godofthe
planetSaturn.Kaiwanu(Chiun)isalsoanameofNinib.ThiswouldmakeChiunandSiccuthsynonymousoratleastdifferentmanifestationsofthesamedeity.
Asevidencethatthisisthecorrectreadingofthenames,RogerspointsoutthattheBabyloniansthemselvesinvokedSakkutandKaiwanutogether,justasthey
appearin
Amos.(SeeCHIUNandREPHAN.)
W.M.NESBIT.
SICK,SICKNESS.SeeMEDICINE.
SICKLE.TheHebrewsickles(Dt16:9,23:25etc.)orreapinghooksweresuccessivelyofflint,bronze,andiron,andsetinhandlesofboneorwood.In
PalestinetheflintsicklegoesbacktothelaterStoneage(Vincent,Canaandaprstexplorationrcente,388ff.withillust.)aspecimenwasfoundbyBlissat
Lachish.Similarflintsickles,withbonehafts,havebeenfoundinEgypt.Theancientsickleswereoftwokinds,accordingasthecuttingedgewasplainortoothed
themodernPalestinianreapinghookisofthelatterkindandsomewhatelaboratelycurved(illust.Benzinger,Heb.Arch.2141).InJer50:16thereaperisdescribed
ashethathandleththesickle(maggl,AVmscythe,whichisalsowronglygivenasanalternativeinAVmofIs2:4,Mic4:3forpruninghooks).Thesame
wordisrenderedsickleinJl3:18putyeinthesickle,forthevintageisripe(RVm),wherethecontext,theLXXrendering,andthesamefigureinRev14:19,20
allshowthatthereferenceistothesmallerbutsimilarlyshapedgrapeknife,expresslynamedmagglintheMishna,withwhichthegrapegatherercutoffthe 70/116
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allshowthatthereferenceistothesmallerbutsimilarlyshapedgrapeknife,expresslynamedmagglintheMishna,withwhichthegrapegatherercutoffthe
bunchesofripegrapes.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
SICYON.ThiswasoneofthenumerousplaceswrittentobytheRomansonbehalfoftheJewsinB.C.139(1Mac15:23).ItwassituatedontheGulfof
Corinth,about18milesW.ofCorinth.Itwasdistinguishedinplasticart,andwasinearlytimesveryimportantandwealthy,butsanktoinsignificanceearlyinthe
Christianera.
A.S OUTER.
SIDDIM,VALEOF.ThesceneofthedefeatofthefiveCanaaoitekingsbyAmraphelandhisthreeallies(Gn14:8ff.).Itisdescribedasfullofslimepitsor
bitumenwells,i.e.holesinthegroundfromwhichthereissuedpetroleum,which,whenexposedtotheair,hardenedintosolidbitumen.Intheroutofthefivekings
bythefour,theseholesproveddisastroustotheforcesoftheformer,hamperingthemintheireffortstoescape(Gn14:10).Thebattlefieldisdoubtlessthoughtofas
beingintheneighbourhoodoftheDeadSea,wherebitumenisstillabundant,massesofit,whichhavebeendetachedfromthebottom,beingoftenfoundfloating
onthesurfaceaftershocksofearthquakeandtheValeofSiddimisexpresslyidentifiedinGn14:3withtheDeadSeabytheexplanatoryinsertion,thesameisthe
SaltSea.IfbythisismeantthatthevalewascoextensivewiththeDeadSea,thestatementmustbeerroneous,forthegreaterpartoftheDeadSea(theN.halfof
whichhasinplacesadepthof1300feet)istheremainsofaninlandseawhichexistedlongbeforetheappearanceofmanontheearth,andconsequentlylong
beforetheageofAbraham.ButitispossiblethattheValeofSiddimisintendedtobeidentifiedwithonlyaportionoftheDeadSeaandthosewhoconsiderSodom
andtheotherfourcitiesoftheplaintohavebeensituatedattheS.endoftheDeadSea(wherethemorassofesSebkhanowis)havetakenthesiteofSiddimtobe
thesouthernportionoftheSeaitself,whichisveryshallowandmayoncehavebeendrygroundthathasbeencoveredbywaterthroughsubsidence(cf.art.
SiddiminHastingsDB).Byotherobservers,however,theshallowsatthesouthernextremityofthelakearethoughttobetheresultofelevationratherthanof
submersionandifSodomandtheotherfourcitiesassociatedwithitweresituatedatitsN.end,abarrenplain,initsN.W.corner,mayhavebeenthesceneofthe
engagementrecordedinGn14.
G.W.WADE.
SIDE,aGreekcolony,wassituatedonthecoastofPamphylia,onalowpromontoryabout10milesE.oftheriverEurymedon.Ithadtwoharboursandwas
wellfortified.Theremainsareextensiveandinteresting(EskiAdalia).ItwasoneofthecitiesaddressedonbehalfoftheJewsbytheRomansinB.C.139(1Mac
15:23).
A.S OUTER.
SIDON.SeeZIDON.
SIEGE.SeeF ORTIFICATIONANDS IEGECRAFT.
SIEVE.SeeAGRICULTURE,3.
SIGN.AnyoutwardfactwhichservesasapledgeofaDivinewordoraproofofaDivinedeedisasign,whetheritbenaturalorsupernaturalinitscharacter.
TherainbowservedasthesignoftheNoahic,astheriteofcircumcisionoftheAbrahamic,covenant(Gn9:12,17:11token,Ro4:11).ThatGodwaswith,and
workedfor,theIsraeliteswasshownintheplaguesof
Egypt(Ex10:2).GideonasksforandreceivesasignthatitisJehovahwhospeakswithhim(Jg6:17),andSaulalsoreceivessignstoconfirmthewordsofSamuel
(1S10:7).ThepropheticwordisthusprovedfromGod(Is7:14,38:7,Jer44:29,Ezk14:8).Thesignneednotbesupernatural(1S2:34,Is8:18,20:3)butthe
JewsinthetimeofChristdesiredmiraclesasproofsofDivinepower(Mt12:38,16:1,Jn4:48,1Co1:22),arequestwhichJesusrefusedandcondemned.The
messageoftheBaptist,thoughnotconfirmedbyanysign,wasseentobetrue(Jn10:41).ItisJonahspreachingthatisprobablyreferredtowhenJesusspeaksof
himasasigntohisgeneration(Mt12:39).Thebabewrappedinswaddlingclothes,andlyinginamanger,isthesimpleandhumblesigntotheshepherdsofthe
birthofaSaviour,ChristtheLord(Lk2:12)andHeiswelcomedbySimeonasasignwhichisspokenagainst(v.34).TheFourthGospelfrequentlydescribesthe
miraclesofJesusassigns(3:2,4:44),andattributestothemanevidentialvaluewhichisnotprominentinJesusownintention.Thisconfirmationofthegospelwas
foundintheApostolicChurch(Mk16:20,Ac4:16,6:3,8:6,13,15:12,2Co12:12).Thelastthingswillbeusheredinbyextraordinarysigns(Mt24:30,Lk21:25,
2Th2:9theworkingofSatanwithallpowerandsignsandlyingwonders,Rev12:1,13:13etc.).Thefaiththatdependsonsigns,ifnotaltogethercondemned(Jn
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2Th2:9theworkingofSatanwithallpowerandsignsandlyingwonders,Rev12:1,13:13etc.).Thefaiththatdependsonsigns,ifnotaltogethercondemned(Jn
6:26),isbyJesusdeprecated(4:48,cf.1Co1:22).Cf.
alsop.568b.
ALFREDE.GARVIE.
SIGNET.SeeS EAL.
SIHON.AkingoftheAmoritesatthetimeoftheconquestofCanaan.HisdominionlaybeyondtheJordan,betweenJabbokontheN.andArnonontheS.,
extendingeastwardtothedesert(Jg11:22).HerefusedtoallowIsraeltopassthroughhisland,andwasdefeatedatJahaz(Nu21:2124,Dt2:2636,Jg11:1922).
Heshbon,hiscapital,wastakenandhisland,alongwiththatofOgkingofBashan,becamethepossessionofReuben,Gad,andthehalftribeofManasseh.
Frequentreferenceismadetohisdefeat(Nu32:33,Dt1:4,3:2,6,4:46,47,29:7,31:4,Jos2:10,9:10,12:2,13:10,21,27,1K4:19,Neh9:22,Ps135:11,136:19).
SihoninJer48:45standsforHeshbon,thecityofSihon.
W.F.BOYD.
SILAS(Acts)andSILVANUS(Epistles).TherecanbelittledoubtthattheSilvanusofthePaulineEpistles(2Co1:19,1Th1:1,2Th1:1)isthesameasthe
SilasofActs.
ProbablySilasisanabbreviation,likeLucas(Luke),Hermas,Amplias,Epaphras,Nymphas.etc.In
Actswefindmanysuchfamiliarnames(cf.esp.PriscillainActs=PriscaRo16:3RV,SopaterAc20:4=SosipaterRo16:21).WemightindeedhaveexpectedSilvasnotSilas,
buttheseabbreviationsareveryirregular.IthasbeensuggestedthatSilaswastherealname,andofSemiticorigin,whileSilvanuswasadoptedforaRomannameasbeingsimilarin
soundbutthenweshouldhaveexpectedforthelatterSilanus,notSilvanus.
SilaswasaChristianprophet(Ac15:32),oneofthechiefmenamongthebrethren(thereforedoubtlessofJewishbirth),whowithJudascalledBarsabbas
wassentasadelegatefromtheApostolicCouncilwithPaulandBarnabas,toconveythedecisionoftheCouncil(15:22ff.).HewasalsoprobablyaRomancitizen
(16:37),thoughthisinferenceisdeniedbysome.ItisuncertainifhereturnedfromAntiochtoJerusalem(15:34isofdoubtfulauthenticity),butinanycasehewas
soonafterchosenbyPaultogowithhimontheSecondJourney,takingBarnabasplace,whileTimothyafterwardstookJohnMarks.ForthisworkSilasdouble
qualificationasaleadingJewishChristianandaRomancitizenwouldeminentlyfithim.HeaccompaniedPaulthroughS.GalatiatoTroas,Philippi(wherehewas
imprisoned),Thessalonica,andBera.WhenPaulwenttoAthens,SilasandTimothywereleftbehind,perhapstobringthelatestnewsfromThessalonica(incaseit
waspossiblefortheApostletoreturnthither),withinjunctionstofollowatonceandthistheyprobablydid.Buttheyseemtohavebeensentbackonamissionto
Macedonia(1Th3:1:PaulwasleftbehindatAthensalone),TimothytoThessalonica,SilasperhapstoPhilippitheyrejoinedPaulatCorinth,andareassociated
withhimintheletters,probablywrittenthence,totheThessalonians.HereSilasdisappearsfromthePaulinehistory.Butthereisnoreasonforsuspectinga
defectionlikethatofMarkthecordialreferencetohisformerpreachingin2Co1:19(writtenontheThirdJourney)contradictsthis.Weafterwardsfindhim
attendingonSt.Peter,actingasbearerandperhapsscribeofhisFirstEpistle(1P5:12)forthereisnoreasontosupposethatthePetrineMarkandSilvanuswere
otherthanthoseconnectedwithSt.Paul.WhetherthisattendancewasbeforeorafterthedeathofSt.Pauldependsonthedatewegiveto1Peterseeafull
ExcursusinDr.BiggseditionofthatEpistle.
A.J.MACLEAN.
SILK.SeeDRESS,1.
SILLA.TheservantsofkingJoashsmotehimatthehouseofMillo[readratheratBethMillo]onthewaythatgoethdowntoSilla(2K12:20).Whereor
whatSillamayhavebeenthereisnothingtoshow.TheLXXreadsGaallaorGaallad.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
SILOAM(watersofShiloah,Is8:6poolofSiloah[RVShelah],Neh3:15towerin
Siloam,Lk13:4poolofSiloam,Jn9:7probablyidenticalwiththekingspoolofNeh2:14).ThenamesurvivestodayinSilwn,thenameofthevillage
whichoccupiesthesteepE.slopesofthevalleyoftheKidronfromoppositetheVirginsFount(Gihon)tonearBrEyyub(Enrogel).Thevillageconsistsofa
northern,oldersectioninhabitedbyMoslemfellahn,andasmall,southernquarterbelongingtoimmigrantYemeniteJewsfromArabia,whilestillfartherdownthe72/116
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northern,oldersectioninhabitedbyMoslemfellahn,andasmall,southernquarterbelongingtoimmigrantYemeniteJewsfromArabia,whilestillfartherdownthe
valleyisanisolatedrowofhutsallottedtothelepers.Allthesitenowoccupiedbythefellahnhasbeenbuiltuponinancienttimes,andthewholeareaisriddled
withcavedwellings,cisterns,rockcutsteps,andancienttombs.Someofthecaveshaveapparentlyservedthepurposessuccessivelyoftombsandchapels,while
todaytheyaredwellingsorstorehouses.ItmaybeconsideredascertainthatinNTtimes,andprobablyforsomecenturiesearlier,therewasaconsiderablevillage
inthissituation.Thetowerwhichfell(Lk13:4)mayhavebeenabuildingsimilartomanytodayperchedontheedgeoftheprecipitousrocksabovetheKidron.
Immediatelyacrossthevalley,totheN.ofSiloam,intheverybedoftheKidron,istheVirginsFount(SeeGIHON),theoriginalspringofJerusalem.Inearlytimes
thewaterofthisspring,afterprobablyfillingapoolhere,randownthevalleyatalaterperiodthesurplussupplywasconductedbyanaqueductbuiltalongtheN.
sideofthevalley(partiallyexcavatednearitsW.end),toaspotwhereissituatedtodayadrypoolknownasBirketelHamra.Remainsofthisaqueducthavebeen
traced.Asthewatersupplywas,underthisarrangement,vulnerabletoattack,kingHezekiahstoppedtheupperwatercourseofGihonandbroughtitstraightdown
tothewestsideofthecityofDavid(2Ch32:30cf.32:4,2K20:20).TheworkthusdescribedisthefamousSiloamtunnel,1700feetlong.Thisrunsinan
extraordinarilyserpentinecoursefromtheVirginsFount,andopensintheTyroponValleyunderthenameAinSilwn,ortheSpringofSiloam,topourits
watersintothepoolknownasBirketesSilwn,orthePoolofSiloam.ThesemayhavebeenthewatersofShiloahthatgosoftly,agreatcontrasttothemighty
Euphrates(Is8:6,7).Closetotheloweropeningofthetunnelwasfound,in1880,aHeb.
inscriptiongivinganaccountofthecompletionofthework.Althoughundated,thereiseveryreasontobelievethatthisisacontemporaryaccountofHezekiahs
work,andifso,itistheoldestHeb.inscriptionknown.
TheoriginalPoolofSiloam,ofwhichthepresentBirketoccupiesbutapart,wasexcavatedbyDr.F.Bliss,andwasshowntohavebeenarockcutreservoir71
feetN.toS.by75feetE.toW.andjustoutsideitsW.edgewasfoundaflightofancientrockcutsteps,probablythosementionedinNeh3:15.Acoveredarcade,
12feetwide,hadbeenbuilt,probablyaboutNTtimes,roundthefoursidesofthepool,andadivisionranacrossthecentretoseparatethesexeswhenbathing.
SuchwasprobablytheconditionofthepoolatthetimeoftheeventsofJn9:7.ThesurpluswaterofthepoolleavesbyasluiceatitsS.end,andtraversesarockcut
channeltoreachthegardensoftheSiloamvillagers.S.oftheBirketesSilwnisawalledinareawhichinrecenttimeswasakindofcesspoolforthecity,the
sewagecomingdowntheTyroponValley(nowdivertedtoitsproperseweragain)beingtherestoppedbyagreatdamacrossthevalley.Onthisdam,atone
period,ranthecitywall,andDr.Blissprovedbyexcavationsthatitwassupportedbybuttressesofgreatstrength.Theareashutoffbythisdamisthesocalled
lowerPoolofSiloamorBirketelHamra,andmayhavebeenusedatonetimetostoresurpluswatersfromtheupperpool.Probablyitwasthereservoir(RV)or
ditch(AV)betweenthetwowalls,forthewateroftheoldpool(Is22:11),thatis,thereservoirtowhichthewaterfromtheoldpoolatGihonwasconductedby
theearlieraqueductreferredtoabove,whilethedamitselfiswithsomeprobabilityconsideredtobethewallofthepoolofSiloahbythekingsgarden(Neh
3:15).ThewateroftheAinSilwnisnaturally,likethatofitssource(Gihon),brackishandimpregnatedwithsewageitalsorunsintermittently.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
SILVANUS.SeeS ILAS.
SILVER.SeeMININGANDMETALS.
SILVERLING.OnlyIs7:23,wheretheoriginalreadsathousandofsilver,thedenominationtobesuppliedbeingshekels(SeeMONEY,p.628b).
SIMEON(Lk3:30,Ac13:1,15:14Symeon).1.ThesecondsonofJacobandLeah(Gn
29:33[J]).ByRhe,togetherwithLevi,iscloselyrelatedtoDinah,shebeingafullsister(cf.34).FromGn30:20(E)welearnthathehadfivefullbrothers,butwe
arenottoldhowmanyothersistersorhalfsistershehad.J(Gn37:35)speaksofallJacobsdaughters,buttheirnamesarenowhererecorded(cf.46:7[P]).J,
whoisspeciallyinclinedtoetymologizing(seeRVmofGn3:20,4:1,25,5:29,11:9,16:11,14etc.),connectsthename,asinthecaseofReuben,withJacobs
hatredofLeah:BecauseJahwehhathheard(shma)thatIamhated,etc.,andshecalledhisnameShimn(29:33).Themeaningofthenameisunknown,but
ithasbeenconnectedbymanyscholarswiththeArabicsim,thehybridoffspringofthehynaandthefemalewolf.Thiswordsimappearsasatribalnameamong
theArabs,anditiswellknownthatnumeroustribalnamesarethoseofanimalsLeahandRachelprobablybelongtothisclass.Insuchcasesthenamesprobably
pointtothetotemworshipoftheancestors.Ifthenameappears,asissupposedbysomescholars,intheinscriptionsofEsarhaddon,itmaybeofimportancein
connexionwiththehistoryofthetribe,butnolightisderivedfromtheformastoitsmeaning.
IntheBlessingofJacob(Gn49)SimeoniscoupledwithLevi(wh.see)assharinginthecurseofJacobandintheconsequentdispersionofthetribeamongthe
othertribesofIsrael.ThisisanindicationthatatthetimetheBlessingwascomposed,thetribewaspracticallydissolved.Pscensusofthetribesascribes59,300
fightingmentoSimeonatSinai(Nu1:23).AtMoabtherewereonly22,200(26:14)anotherindicationofthefuturefortuneofthetribe.Jg1:3,17makesSimeon
joinwithJudah,atthelattersrequest,inmakingthefirstattackupontheCanaanites,overwhomtheywonadecisivevictoryatBezek.Judahinreturnwastoaid 73/116
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joinwithJudah,atthelattersrequest,inmakingthefirstattackupontheCanaanites,overwhomtheywonadecisivevictoryatBezek.Judahinreturnwastoaid
Simeoningaininghispossession.TogethertheyattackedanddefeatedtheinhabitantsofZephathhormah.HormahisconnectedwithArad(Nu21:16)about17
milestotheS.E.ofHebron.HormahinJos15:30isassignedtothetribeofJudah,butreappearsin19:4asacityofSimeon.
WearenottoldinJudgesofthesettlementofSimeon,butitisimpliedintheDinahstory(Gn34)thatbothheandLevisecuredatemporaryfootholdabout
Shechem.Onaccountoftheirtreachery,however,theyweredispossessedandwellnighannihilatedbytherevengetakenuponthembytheCanaanites.Leviwas
permanentlyshatteredSimeon,however,managedtorecoversufficientlytoestablishitselfonthesouthernborderofJudah.There,howevertheycameintocontact
withnomadtribesofEdomitesandArabsacircumstancewhichdoubtlesscontributedtotheirfailuretorehabilitatethemselvesandwinapermanentabodeamong
theoriginaloccupantsoftheland.TheyarenotmentionedintheSongofDeborah(Jg5),butthismaybeaccountedforbytheirposition.Judahalsohadnopartin
thatimportantstruggle,andispassedoverinsilence.Inhistoricaltimesnothingisheardofthem,andtheconclusionisjustifiedthattheyeventuallybecamemerged
withtheneighbouringtribes,andwerelater,withthem,absorbedbyJudah,asReubenwasafterwardsbyGad.Thisconclusionissupportedbythefactthatthe
citieswhichareassignedtoSimeoninthelistgiveninJos19:19reappearelsewhereascitiesofJudah(cf.Jos15:2632,42,1K19:3,Neh11:2629,1S27:6,
30:30).InconnexionwithDavidsventurestowinovertheEdomitesandothertribestothesouth,thenameof
Simeondoesnotappear,asmighthavebeenexpectedifthetribehadpreserveditssolidarity.
Accordingto1Ch4:39ff.,SimeonitesadvancedagainstGedorandMt.Seir,inthetimeof
Hezekiahapparently,andtheresecuredpermanentpossessions.InsteadofGedor,theLXXreadsGerar,thenameofthePhilistinecityofAbimelech.Itmustbe
admittedthatoursourcesaretoouncertainand,tooindefinitetoenableustospeakdecisivelyonalmostanypointofinterestinconnexionwiththistribe.Onthe
onehand,toomuchcredenceisgiventostatementsoflatewriters,asthoughtheyfurnishedindubitableevidenceontheotherhand,farreachingconclusionsare
oftendrawnfromfragmentaryandisolatedexpressions,bothBiblicalandextraBiblical,whicharelittlewarranted.SeealsoTRIBESOFISRAEL.
2.ThegreatgrandfatherofJudasMaccabus(1Mac2:1).3.Therighteousanddevout(dikaioskaieulabs)manwhotooktheinfantJesusinhisarmsand
blessedHim,ontheoccasionofthepresentationintheTemple(Lk2:25ff.).ThenotionthatthisSimeonistobeIdentifiedwithaRabbiwhowasthesonofHillel
andthefatherofGamalielI.isveryprecarious.
JAMESA.CRAIG.
SIMON(aGreekformofSimeon).1.SimonChosameus,whowasfoundtohaveastrangewife(1Es9:32=Ezr10:31Simeon).2.Thesubjectofthe
encomiuminSir50:1ff.,sonofOnias,thegreat(orhigh)priest.ItisdoubtfulifSimonI.orSimonII.(both3rdcent.
B.C.)ismeant.3.TheMaccabanhighpriestandethnarch,sonofMattathias,slainbyhissoninlawPtolemy,B.C.135(1Mac16:16SeeM ACCABEES,4).4.A
Benjamite,guardianoftheTempleinthetimeofOniasIII.,whosuggestedtoApollonius,thegovernor,toplunderit(2Mac
3:4).5.SeeP ETER.6.SeeS IMONMAGUS.7.SimontheCananan,oneoftheTwelve(Mt10:4,
Mk3:13).ThesurnameisanAramaicequivalentofZealot(Lk6:15,Ac1:13).8.See
BRETHRENOFTHELORD.9.SimontheLeper,ourLordshostatBethany(Mt26:6,Mk14:3cf.Jn12:2),possiblyhusbandorfatherofMartha,doubtlesscuredof
hisleprosyatsometimebeforetheanointingbyMary(cf.MARY,2).10.ThePhariseewhowasourLordshostwhenthesinfulwomananointedHim(Lk7:40).
Thecontradictionsbetweenthesetwostoriesaresogreatthatitisdifficulttosupposethattheyrelatethesameeventindifferentversions.Twosuchincidentsmay
wellhavehappened,andonemayhavesuggestedtheother(cf.MARY,2).11.Father,orbrother,ofJudasIscariot,himselfsurnamedIscariot(Jn6:71,13:26Judas
ofSimon
Iscariot,13:2JudasIscariotofSimon).12.TheCyrenianwhoboreourLordscross(Mt
27:32,Mk15:21,Lk23:26)SeeALEXANDERandRUFUS.ThefollowersofBasilidesinthe2ndcent.saidthatSimonwascrucifiedinsteadofJesus.13.Thetanner,
PetershostatJoppa(Ac9:43).
A.J.MACLEAN
SIMONMAGUS.MentionedinAc8:924,anddescribedasusingsorceryinSamariaandtherebyamazingthepeople.Heclaimedtobesomegreatone,
andwasregardedbyallasthatpowerofGodwhichiscalledGreat.WhenPhilipreachedSamaria,and,preachingthegospel,gatheredmanyintotheChurch,
Simonalsofellundertheinfluenceofhismessage.Wearetoldthathebelieved,whichcannotmeanlessthanthatherecognizedthattheEvangelistexerted,inthe
nameofJesusChrist,powerstherealityofwhichhecouldnotdeny,andtheefficacyofwhichamazedhim.Hethereforesoughtbaptism,and,beingbaptized,
continuedwithPhilip.TheApostlesPeterandJohncamedowntoSamariatoestablishtheworkbegunbyPhilip,andbythelayingonoftheirhandsgavetheHoly
Ghosttotheconverts.ThiswasnodoubtevidencedbythemiraculousgiftswhichwerevouchsafedbyGodtoHisChurchduringitsearlyyears.Theshallownessof
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Ghosttotheconverts.ThiswasnodoubtevidencedbythemiraculousgiftswhichwerevouchsafedbyGodtoHisChurchduringitsearlyyears.Theshallownessof
Simonsbeliefwasnowshown,forheofferedtobuyfromtheApostlesthepowerofconferringtheHolyGhost.Peterrebukedhiminlanguageofsuchsternnessas
toleadhimtobegoftheApostletopraythatthejudgmentofGodmightnotfalluponhimforhissin.
SimonholdstheunenviablepositionofbeingtheoneoutstandinghereticintheNT:andfromthenuntilnowhischaracterhasbeenheldinparticularodium.
Ignatius,theearliestoftheFathers,callshimthefirstbornofSatan:Irenusmarkshimoutasthefirstofallheretics:andlatercenturieshaveshowntheirsenseof
thegreatnessofhissinbyusingthewordsimonytoindicatethecrimeofprocuringaspiritualofficebypurchase.JustinMartyrmentionsthreetimesinhisApology,
andonceinhisDialogue,aSimonasaleaderofanhereticalsect.HestatesthatGitta,avillageinSamaria,washisbirthplace,andspeaksofhimasvisitingRome,
andbeingsosuccessfulinhismagicalimposturesastohavesecuredworshipforhimselfasGod,andtohavebeenhonouredwithastatue,whichborethe
inscriptionS IMONIDEOS ANCTO(toSimontheHolyGod).HefurthermentionsthatalmostalltheSamaritans,andevenafewofothernations,worshippedhim
asfirstGod(cf.Ac8:10thismanisthatpowerofGodwhichiscalledGreat).HealsoaddsthatHelena,afallenwomanwhoaccompaniedhim,wasthefirst
ideageneratedbyhim.JustindoesnotspecificallyidentifythisSimonwiththeSimonoftheActs,buttherecanbenoreasonabledoubtthatheheldthemtobeone
andthesame.
TherewasdiscoveredinRomein1574thebaseofastatuebearingtheinscriptionSemoniSancoDeofidiosacrumSex.Pompejusdonumdedit.Itisthereforegenerally
assumedandnodoubtcorrectly,thatJustin,beingshownbytheSimoniansatRomethisstatueoftheSabinedeitySemoSancus,wasledtobelieveerroneouslythatithadbeen
erectedinhonourofSimon.ButthiserrorofhisregardingwhathadoccurredinRomeneednotinvalidatehisstatementsregardingSimonhimselfinSamariaandtheprogressand
tenetsofhissect,forhehimselfwasaSamaritanandthuscognizantofthefacts.IrenusdealsmorefullywithSimonandhisfollowers,thoughthereisgoodreasonforassuming
thatheisreallyindebtedtoalostworkofJustinforhisinformation.HedirectlyidentifieshimwiththeSimonofAc8,placeshimfirstinhislistofheretics,andmakeshimthe
fatherofGnosticism.FromtheaccounthegivesofthedoctrinesoftheSimonians,itisclearthatbyhistimetheyhaddevelopedintoasystemof
GnosticismbutitisverydoubtfulwhetherheisrightinmakingtheSimonoftheNTthefirstsetterforthofGnosticmyths.ThebeginningofGnosticismisveryobscure,butwe
maybefairlycertainthatithadnotarisenasearlyasthescenesdescribedinAc8.TheSimoniandoctrinesasgivenbyIrenusarethereforedoubtlessdevelopmentsoftheheretical
teachingofSimon,which,evenfromtheshortaccountintheActs,wouldseemtohavelentitselfreadilytoGnosticaccretions.Astimewentonmanyfancifuladditionsweremade
tohishistory,untilinthe4thcent.thelegendreacheditscompleteness.ThroughouttheseromancesSimonisfoundtravellingaboutfromplacetoplaceinconstantoppositionto
Peter,utteringcalumniesagainsttheApostlebutbeingpursuedbyPeterheisultimatelyvanquishedanddiscredited.Theearlierformsofthestorylaythesceneofthetravels
chieflyinAsiaMinor,anddescribethefinalconflictastakingplaceatAntioch.Thelaterforms,however,makeRome,inthedaysofNero,theultimategoalofthejourneyings.
HereSimonissaidtohavemethisdeaththroughhisconflictwithPeterorwithPeterandPaul.Byonetraditionthemagician,seeinghisinfluencewaning,desiredhisfollowersto
buryhiminagrave,promisingtoriseagainthethirdday.Theyobeyed,andheperished,for,asHippolytusadds,hewasnottheChrist.ByanothertraditionSimonisdepictedas
decidingtogivetotheEmperoracrowningproofofhismagicalpowersbyattemptingtoflyofftoGod.HeisreportedtohaveflownforacertaindistanceoverRome,but,through
Petersprayers,tohavefallenandbrokenhisleg,andtohavebeenultimatelystonedtodeathbythepopulace.AnotherformofthetraditionrepresentedPaulasacompanionof
Peterinthecontest,andasprayingwhilePeteradjuredthedemonsthatsupportedSimoninhisflight,inthenameofGodandofJesusChrist,toupholdhimnolonger.Simon
thereuponfelltotheearthandperished.
RenewedinterestinthehistoryofSimonwasarousedinmoderntimesbyBaursmaintainingthatintheClementineliterature,wherethemostdevelopedformofthelegend
occurs,SimonisintendedtorepresentnottheactualSimonoftheActs,butratherPaul,whomhe(Baur)conceivedtohavebeenfiercelyopposedtheologicallytoPeter.Full
informationonthistheorymaybefoundinHastingsDBiv.
523f.,whereitsunsoundnessisshown.Itmaybesaidtobenowgenerallyrejected.
ItshouldbeaddedthatHippolytusascribesaworkentitledTheGreatRevelationtoSimon,andquoteslargelyfromitandthatthesectoftheSimoniansdidnotlongsurvive,
forOrigeostatesthathedidnotbelievethattherewereinhisdaythirtyoftheminexistence.
CHARLEST.P.GRIERSON.
SIMPLICITY
1.IntheOTsimpleis,withoneexception,thetranslationofaword(pth),whoserootideaisopenness.Opennessofmindispraiseworthywhenitimplies
willingnesstoreceiveinstructionitbecomesblameworthywhenitconnotesadispositionequallyreceptiveofgoodandofevil,oranincapacitytodistinguish
betweenrightandwrong.InProverbsthesimplearerepresentedasneedingprudence(1:4RVm),andtheyareexhortedtounderstandprudence(8:5RVm).In
14:15,18theprudentarefavourablycontrastedwiththesimplewhobelieveeveryword,andthereforeinheritfolly.ItisthetestimonyoftheLordthat
makesthesimplewise(Ps19:7cf.119:130).In2S15:11simplicitymeansintegrity(tm).IntheLXXtheHeb.word(ysher)forstraightnessor
uprightnessistranslatedbytheNTequivalentofsimplicity(haplots).
2.IntheNTsimple(akeraios=Lat.integer)isusedtwice(Mt10:16RVm,Ro16:19)todescribethecharacterinwhichthereisnoforeignadmixturethe
RVretainssimplicityastherenderingofhaplotsonlyin2Co11:3,whereitdenotesthoseinwhosecharactertherearenofolds,whoarewholeheartedintheir
devotiontoChrist(Trench,NTSynonyms,lvi.).TheChristianidealissimplicitytowardChrist(2Co11:3).InthelifeofHisloyaldisciplesdovelikesimplicityis
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devotiontoChrist(Trench,NTSynonyms,lvi.).TheChristianidealissimplicitytowardChrist(2Co11:3).InthelifeofHisloyaldisciplesdovelikesimplicityis
blendedwiththewisdomoftheserpent(Mt10:16).Theireyebeingsingle(haplous),theirwholebodyisfulloflight(Mt6:22).ChristJesusbeingmade
untothemwisdomfromGod(1Co1:30),theyarenolongerbeguiledlikeEve,butarewiseuntothatwhichisgood,andsimpleuntothatwhichisevil(Ro
16:19).
J.G.TASKER.
SIN.TheteachingoftheBiblewithregardtothedoctrineofsinmaybesaidtoinvolveadesire,onthepartoftheleadersofJewishthought,togivearational
accountofthefact,theconsciousness,andtheresultsofhumanerror.Whateverbetheconclusionarrivedatrespectingthecompilationoftheearlychaptersof
Genesis,onethought,atleast,clearlyemerges:thenarrativesaresaturatedthroughandthroughwithreligiousconceptions.Omnipotence,sovereignty,
condescendingactivelove,andperfectmoralharmony,allfindtheirplaceinthenarrativestherepreserved,asattributesoftheDivinecharacter.Thesublime
conceptionofhumandignityandworthissuchthat,inspiteofalltemptationtothecontrarybelief,itremainstodayasafirmlyrooted,universallyreceivedverity,
thatmanismadeintheimageofGod(Gn1:27).
I.THEOLDTESTAMENT
1.Theearlynarratives.ItisremarkablethatinthestoryoftheFallthewriter(J)attributesthesintoapositiveactofconsciousdisobediencetoGod,andnot
onlyso,butheregardsitasanentitystandingoveragainstgood(2:17),ThisismoreclearlybroughtoutinthesamewritersnarrativeofthemurderofAbel,
wheresinisrepresentedascouchingatthedoor,lyinginwaitfortheoverthrowofthesullenhomicide(4:7).Theprofoundpsychologicaltruththatthepowerof
singrowsinthecharacterofhimwhoyieldstoitsdictatesisalsonoticedinthisstory.FalsehoodandselfishnessanddefianceofGodareheardinCainsanswerto
theDivinevoice.ThesestoriesarethebeginningofthehistoryofalongprocessofdevelopmentwhichresultedintheFlood.Fromindividualactsofwrongdoing
wearebroughtfacetofacewiththecondition,everyimaginationofthethoughtsofhisheartwasonlyevilcontinually(6:5).HithertoGodisrepresentedas
commanding,punishing,pleadingwithman,andevenencouraginghimwithhopesoffuturerestoration(3:15).Thegrowthandarroganceofsininthehumanrace
becamesopronouncedanduniversalthatHeissaidtohaverejectedmancompletely,andinHiswrathtohavedestroyedHiscreation,whichwasinfectedbymans
corruption.Heisgrievedathisheart,andisrepentantforhavingmademanontheearth(6:6f.).Thesamenarrator,ingivingthecurrentexplanationofthe
diversityofhumanlanguage,notesanotherracialrebellionagainstGod,whichwaspunishedbytheoverthrowofBabel(11:19).
AchangeintheDivinemethodofdealingwithsinfulmanisnownoticeable.Thewritersleadgraduallyuptothis,beginningwithNoah,whoserighteousness
(walkwithGod,cf.6:9)standsinsolitarycontrasttotheuniversaldecadence.TheeducativeelectiveprincipleentersintotherelationshipsofGodandman.A
covenantisestablishedbywhichtheserelationshipsaredefined,andbyconsequencehumanconsciousnessisgraduallydeepened.Asaresult,temptationtosin
becomesmoreformidableandmanysided.InIndividualcasesoutsidethecovenantwesee,indeed,evidencesofahigherstandardofmoralobligationthanthat
reachedbythe
Patriarchs(cf.Gn12:18f.,20:9f.).Atthesametime,thehistoryofEsaufurnishesuswithproofthatalreadyglimmeringsofamoreprofoundethicalbasisupon
whichtobuildhumancharacter,thanthatrecognizedelsewhere,hadbeguntoobtrudethemselves.IfinthecaseofAbrahamfaithwasreckonedforrighteousness
(Ro4:9),andbeliefinthefidelityofGodspromises,inthefaceofthemostuntowardconditions,constitutedthefoundationstoneofthepatriarchsnoblecharacter,
soinEsauscaseitwasthelackofthisbelief,withtheconsequentinabilitytoappreciatethedignitytowhichhewasborn,thatlayattherootofhisgreatand
patheticfailure.ThesecretofJosephspowertoresisttemptationlay,notmerelyinhisnaturalinabilitytobeguiltyofabreachoftrusttowardshismaster,butstill
moreinhisintenserealizationthattoyieldwouldbeagreatwickednessandsinagainstGod(Gn39:9).Thus,whileitistruetosaythatthedominantconception
ofsinintheOTisthatitisthegreatdisturbingelementinthepersonalrelationsofGodandman,itseemstohavebeenrealizedveryearlythatthechiefscopeforits
exerciselayinthedomainofhumanintercourse.TheforceofAbimelechscomplaintagainstAbrahamlayinthefactthattheformerwasguiltlessofwrongingthe
latter,whereashewasinseriousdangerofsinningagainstGodinconsequenceofthepatriarchsduplicity.
2.TheSinaiticLaw.ThenextgreatcriticalpointintheevolutionofhumanconsciousnessofsinisreachedinthepromulgationoftheLawfromSinai.Here
thedeterminativeprocessofDivineelectionisseeninitswidestandmostelaborateworking.ThecentralpurposeoftheLawmaybeconsideredasofatwofold
character.Notonlyaretherestrictionstabulatedinordertotheerectionofbarriersagainstthecommissionofsin(Godiscometoproveyou,andthathisfearmay
bebeforeyou,thatyesinnot,Ex20:20),butpositiveenactmentsregulatingthepersonalcommunionofGodandIsraelprovidefrequentlyrecurringopportunities
oflovingandjoyfulservice(Ex23:14ff.).Thelawofrestitution,asgiveninEx2122,mayberegardedasharshinsomeofitsenactments,hutitmaybeeasily
conceivedasanimmensestrideforwardontheroadtotheroyallaw.Thoushaltlovethyneighbourasthyself(Ja2:8).Norcanitbesaidthatrestitutionandmutual
servicebetweenGodandHispeopleareleftoutofsightinthosechaptersofExoduswhichareuniversallyrecognizedascontainingtheoldestpartoftheMosaic
Code.TheseanthropopathicconceptionsofGodabound,andareseenintheideaofHisjealousybeingrousedbyidolatrouspractices(Ex20:5),inthepromises
madetoIsraelthat,inreturnforservicestoJehovah,HewillsaveHispeopleinthefaceoftheirenemies(Ex23:25ff.).Thusitwillbeeasilyunderstoodthat,asthe
LeviticalandPriestlyCodesweregraduallyelaboratedintoasomewhatintricatesystemoflegalandceremonialobligations,thenomenclatureofsininitsvarious 76/116
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LeviticalandPriestlyCodesweregraduallyelaboratedintoasomewhatintricatesystemoflegalandceremonialobligations,thenomenclatureofsininitsvarious
aspectscametoheaccordinglyenlarged.Forexample,inoneversethreedistinctwordsoccurinconnexionwithDivineforgiveness(forgivinginiquityand
transgressionandsin,Ex34:7),andthoughthereisacertainvaguenessintheprecisemeaningtobeattachedtoeachofthesewords,whetheritbeguiltor
punishment,rebellionorsinoffering,wickednessconsideredasacondition,ortrespass,whichisinthewritersminds,thethoughtsunderlyingeachhavetodo
withtherelationsbetweenGodandHispeople.Itmustnotbeforgotten,moreover,thattheceremonialenactmentsprovidedacircleofideasofpermanent
importanceintheHebrewconceptionofJehovahscharacter.ThelawofcleananduncleananimalsandthingspavedthewayfortruerandnoblerthoughtsofGods
holiness,andoftheuncleannessofsinasbeingitscontradiction.ThetrespassofAchan,involvingasitdidthewholeofIsraelinhisguiltandpunishment,didnot
consistsomuchinhisstealingofthecommonspoiltakenfromtheenemy,asinhisappropriatingwhatwasholy,ordevoteduntotheserviceofGod(Jos7:1,
11ff.).Thepresenceofthedevotedthingwiththecommonpropertyofthearmydraggedthewholepeopleintoapositionofguilt,whichcouldbeexpiatedonly
bythedeathoftheoffender.InthiswayalonecouldtheyberestoredtoDivinefavour,andtheirarmyreceiveDivinesuccour.
3.DeuteronomyandtheHistoricalBooks.IntheDeuteronomicsummaryoftheLaw,whateverbethedateatwhichitwasedited,aloftiergroundof
obedienceisattained.Love,ofGodandoftheirfellowmen,ismoreexplicitlydweltonasthemotivepowerofhumanlife(Dt6:5,10:12etc.),andtheheartis
againandagainreferredtoastheseatofthatlove,bothpassivelyandactively(11:18,6:6,10:16).ThebasisuponwhichitisrestedisthefactofGodslovefor
themandtheirfathersevidencedinmanyvicissitudesandinspiteofmuchtohinderitsactivity(4:37,7:7f.,10:15).Thoughtherearenumerousechoesoftheolder
conceptionthatthekeepingofGodscommandmentsisonesideofabargainwhichconditionsmenshappinessandprosperity(4:24,40,6:15),yetweobservea
loftyrangeofthoughtbringinginitstraintruerideasofsinandguilt.ThesternnessofGodisinsistedon,butashavingforitsobjectivethegoodofHispeople
(10:13,6:24).ItisanecessaryphaseofHislove,compellingthemtorecognizethatsinagainstGodisdestructiveofthesinner.Theultimateaimofthe
DeuteronomististheleadingofmentohatesinasGodhatesit,andtolovemercyandrighteousnessasandbecauseGodlovesthem(cf.Dt10:18f.,Lv19:33f.),by
establishingtheclosestrelationshipandcommunionbetweenHimandHispeople(cf.Dt14:1f.,7:6,26:18f.,27:9,28:9etc.).
OnesinisspeciallyinsistedonbytheDeuteronomist,namely,thesinofidolatry.Nodoubtthisislargelyduetotheexperienceofthenationunderthejudges,
andduringthehistoryofIsraelsubsequenttothegreatschism.Thenationaldisasterswhichrecursofrequentlyduringtheformeroftheseperiodsarealways
attributedtothissinwhilethereturnofthepeople,undertheguidanceofagreatrepresentativehero,isalwaysmarkedbytheblessingsofpeaceandprosperity.So
inthestoryoftheNorthernKingdomtheconstantrefrainmeetsusineachsucceedingreign:HecleaveduntothesinsofJeroboamthesonofNebat,wherewithhe
madeIsraeltosin(2K3:3,10:29,13:2etc.).DuringthevigorousandsuccessfulreignofAhabandJezebel,theseedsofnationaldecayweresown,andthe
historianneglectsnottopointoutthesourcetowhichthelatermournfuldeclinemaybetraced(1K16:31).Ontheotherhand,thereislittlereferencetothissin
duringthereignsofSaulandDavid,and,inspiteoftheweaknessesofcharacterdisplayedbytheformer,thehistorianpicturesforusagreatadvanceinnational
vigourandgrowthunderthesekingsandtheirsuccessorsintheSouthernKingdom.ThegreatrebellionagainsttheDavidicdynastyisitselfattributedtothe
declensionofSolomoninhisoldagefromthepureJehovahworshipsozealouslyandconsistentlyadvocatedbyhisfather.Wemustrememberalsothat,sideby
sidewiththeintroductionofforeignreligiousideas,vicepeculiartoOrientaldespotisminvadedtheroyalcourtandthenationofIsrael.Wearenot,however,
altogetherlimitedtowhatishereinferentiallytaughtastonationalsin,withitsconsequentnationalpunishment.Davidhimselfisrepresentedasguiltyofasinwhich
marredhischaracterasanindividual,andofanactofindiscretionwhichseemstohavebeenregardedasabreachofthattrustheldbyhimasGodsvicegerenton
earth.Boththesecasesareofinterestforthelightwhichtheythrowonthedoctrineofsinanditsconsequences.InthecaseofBathsheba,whichwasapurely
personaltransgression,theprophetNathancomesnotonlyasthehearerofamessageofDivinepardontotherepentantsinner,butalsoasthesternjudge
pronouncingsentenceofsevereandprotractedpunishment.ThedeathofthenewlybornchildandthesubsequentdistractionsarisingoutoftheaffairofAbsalom
arelookedonasexpressionsofGodswrathandofretributivejustice(see2S12:1018).Whateverthecontemporaryreasonsmayhavebeenforregardinghis
publicactassinful,andeventherecklessJoahconsidereditanactofwantonfolly,wefindthesamefeaturesofrepentanceandforgiveness,andthesameinclusion
ofothersinthesufferingconsequentonitscommission.TheprophetGadcomestothekingastherevealerofGodswrathandthemessengerofGodspardon(2S
24:125).Intothisnarrative,however,anotherelementisintroduced,tellingofthedifficultywhichwasfelt,evenatthisearlystageofhumanhistory,astothe
originofsin.GodissaidbytheearlyhistorianofDavidsreigntohavebeentheauthorofthekingsact,becauseHisangerwaskindledagainstIsrael(2S24:1).
ItisdifficulttoavoidtheconclusionthatatonestageofHebrewthoughtGodwaslookedonas,insomerespectsatleast,theauthorofevil(cf.Ex4:21,7:3,14:8,
Jg9:23,1S16:14,18:10,19:9).Noroughtwetobesurprisedatthis,fortheproblemisonewhichwassuretopresentitselfveryearlytothemindsofthoughtful
menwhilethenumerousinstanceswherethecommissionofasinseemedtohavebeenmadesubservientbyGodtotheexhibitingofHispowerandloveafforded
presumptiveprimafacieevidencethatHeHimselfwilledtheactastheministerofHisglory(seethehistoryofJosephwiththewriterscommentsthereon,Gn45:5,
50:20,Ps105:17cf.Job1:612,2:17,Hos2).Itisinterestingtonotetheadvancemadeinspeculativethoughtwithregardtothisstillunsolved,andperhaps
insoluble,problem,betweenthetimeoftheabovementionedhistorianandthatofthelaterChronicler(1Ch21:1).HerethenameofSatanorAdversaryisboldly
insertedastheauthorofthesin,afactwhichremindsusofthecategoricaldenialoftheSonofSirach,Hehathnotcommandedanymantobeungodlyandhe
hathnotgivenanymanlicencetosin(15:20).Thattheoriginofsincontinuedtobedebatedandspeculatedupondowntoaverylateperiodisevidencedbythe
vehementwarningofSt.JamesagainstimputingtoGodthetemptationtoevil(Ja1:13),andbythecounterassertionthatGodistheAuthorofnothingbutgood(v.
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vehementwarningofSt.JamesagainstimputingtoGodthetemptationtoevil(Ja1:13),andbythecounterassertionthatGodistheAuthorofnothingbutgood(v.
17).
4.TheProphets.ByfarthemostimportantstageinthehistoryoftheOTdoctrineofsinisthatwhichismarkedbytheteachingoftheProphets.Thefour
practicallycontemporaryprophetsofthe8thcent.areAmos,Hosea,Micah,andIsaiah.Thefirstnamedrevealsawideoutlookontheworldatlarge,anda
recognitionoftheprevalenceandpowerofsininothernationsthanIsrael.Damascus,Philistia,Tyre,Edom,Ammon,andMoab,aswellasJudahandIsrael,all
comeunderthedispleasureoftheprophetAmos.EachhadbeenguiltyofcrueltyandwrongtothepeopleofJehovah.Thecharacteristicfaultsoftheseheathen
peopleslustandtyrannyofthestrongovertheweakhadinvadedIsraeltoo.Theloveofmoney,withitsattendantevilsofinjustice,androbberyofthepoorby
thewealthy,isinveighedagainstbybothAmosandHoseaasdeservingofthewrathofGod(cf.Hos12:7f.,Am4:1,8:4ff.).Thisdegeneracyofthepeopleofthe
NorthernKingdomduringthereignofJeroboamII.wasasmuchinevidenceintheranksofprophetsandpriestsasamongtheotherrulingclasses,andtoit,asthe
cause,isassignedthedownfallwhichsospeedilyfollowed(Am3:11,6:17,2:7,9:1ff.,Hos4:9,9:7f.,5:1,Mic3:5,11etc.).BothIsaiahandMicahmournover
thesamemoraldeciension(Is5:8,1:18f.,Mic2:2etc.),anditmaybesaidthatitisowingtothepreachingofthesefourprophetsthatthecentreofgravity,asit
were,ofsinischanged,andtheprinciplesofuniversaljusticeandlove,asthefundamentalattributesofJehovahscharacterandrule,areestablished.Itwasthe
propheticfunctiontodeepentheconsciousnessofsinbyrevealingaGodofmoralrighteousnesstoapeoplewhosepeculiarrelationshiptoJehovahinvolvedboth
immenseprivilegesandgraveresponsibilities(Am3:2,Hos3:5ff.,Mic3:1ff.etc.).Terrible,however,aswerethedenunciations,andemphaticaswerethe
declarationsoftheprophetsagainstthevicesofgreed,oppression,andlust,theywerenolessclearintheircalltorepentance,andinpromisesofrestorationand
pardon(Is1:18f.,Mic7:18,Hos6:1,Am9:11ff.).ThestoryofJonahofGathhepheristherevelationofagrowingfeelingthattherighteousdominionofJehovah
wasnot,intheexerciseofitsmoralinfluence,confinedexclusivelytoIsrael.Theconsciousnessofsinandthepowerofrepentancehavenowtheirplaceinthelives
ofnationsoutsidetheAbrahamiccovenant.
Hithertothepropheticteachingwaslargelyconfinedtonationalsinandnationalrepentance.ItisnottillthedaysofJeremiahthattheimportance,inthisrespect,
oftheindividualbeginstomanifestitself.ThelamentofJeremiah,itistrue,frequentlyexpressesitselfintermsofnationalinfidelity(Jer2:537,8:7,35:1417,
31:28,32:32ff.etc.).Atthesametimeanelementofindividualisticthoughtenterslargelyintohisteaching(cf.17:10,32:19).Onitsdarkersidehenoteshow
universallypresentsinisseentobe:fromtheleastevenuntothegreatest,fromtheprophetevenuntothepriestallareinfected(8:10,cf.v.8).Itisimpossibleto
findamaneitherjustortruthloving(5:1)andtheexplanationisnotfartoseek,forsinisadiseasewhichaffectstheindividualheart,andthereforepoisonsthe
wholelifeofeachman(cf.13:7,5:23,7:24etc.).Thenatureofthediseasehecharacterizesasdesperateintheawfuldeceitwhichsupervenes(17:9).Ahopeless
pessimismseemsattimestohavepervadedtheprophetsteaching,andsuchofthepeopleaswerearousedbyhisappealsweresmittenbyablankdespair(10:23,
2:25,18:12,13:23etc.).Astheprophetgrowsolder,however,andgainsawiderknowledgefromhisownbitterexperiences,hediscoversawayofescapefromthe
overpoweringinfluencesofsin.Astheheartistheseatofevil,itisfoundthatthecreativeactofGodcanprovidearemedy(31:33,32:39,24:7).Anewheart
straightfromthehandofGod,beatingwithnewandholyimpulses,isthesure,asitistheonly,hopeformen(32:40).Everyindividual,fromtheleasttothe
greatest,inwhomtheDivineactivityhasbeenatworkshallhavethefelicityofhearingtheblessedsentence,Iwillforgivetheiriniquity,andtheirsinwillI
remembernomore(31:34).
Followingupanddevelopingthistendency,Ezekielisexpressinhisdeclarationofthemoralindependenceofeachman.Repudiating,asJeremiahdid,the
doctrinethatthesinandmoralguiltofthefathersareimputedtothechildren,heelaboratesclearlyandemphaticallythetruth,whichtousseemsaxiomatic,thatthe
soulofthefatherispersonallyindependentofthesouloftheson,withtheterriblebutinevitablecorollary,thesoulthatsinneth,itshalldie(Ezk18:4,20,cf.vv.
1020).Theprofoundtruthwhichliesatthebasisoftheancientbeliefinthecloseinteractionofindividualandracialguiltis,ofcourse,validforalltime,andhas
beensanctifiedbythe
historicalfactoftheIncarnation.Thelife,work,anddeathofChristhavetheirvalueinthereestablishmentofthistruth,andintherecreation,asitwere,ofthe
concurrenttruthofthesolidarityofthewholehumanrace(cf.theexpressionweareallbecomeasonethatisunclean,Is64:6).
5.Psalms.WeturnnowtothePsalms,andtherefind,asmightbeexpected,thedeepestconsciousnessofpersonalguiltonthepartofthesinner.Ofcourse,it
istoberememberedthattheJewishPsalteristheproductofdifferentepochsinthenationalhistory,rangingprobablyfromtheheydayofpropheticreligiontothe
ageimmediatelysucceedingtheCaptivity,ifnotmuchlater.Itmaybesaid,indeed,thatthisvolumeofsacredpoetryconstitutesakindofantiphonalresponsetothe
preachingoftheProphets.Confessionofandrepentanceforsin,bothpersonalandnational,constitutetheprominentfeaturesoftheauthorsattitude.Adeeplove
forGodbreathesthrougheachpoem,andaprofoundhopethatatsomefuturedateIsraelmayonceagainberestoredtothefavourofJehovab.
ThereligiousinstinctofthecompilersdisplaysitselfintheirchoiceofthosePsalmswhichformaprefaceorintroductiontoeachofthefivesectionsorbooksconstitutingthe
entirevolume,settingthemusic,sotospeak,ofeachpart.TheFirstBook(Pss141)openswithaPsalmwhichissimplyanexpressionofthepowerofsinandoftheawfuldanger
towhichmenareexposedbydallyingwithit.ItisthuswellfittedtobethepreludetosuchoutburstsasoccurinPss6:8f.,10:1ff.,17:8ff.,22:1ff.etc.TheSecondBook(Pss42
72)commenceswithapoemwhichisthelanguageofasouldesperatelylongingforfullcommunionwithitsGod,and,inspiteofanoppressivefearheightenedbythemockeryof
sinners,triumphinginthehopethatthelovingkindnessofJehovahwillyetcallforthpraiseandjoy.Itisinthissectionthatwehaveteachingofthedeepestimporttouchingthe 78/116
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sinners,triumphinginthehopethatthelovingkindnessofJehovahwillyetcallforthpraiseandjoy.Itisinthissectionthatwehaveteachingofthedeepestimporttouchingthe
consciousnessofpersonalandracialguiltandatthesametimeadetestationofsinaccompaniedbyaspirituallongingafterinwardrighteousnesshardtobeparalleledintheOT.
Here,too,hopeconquersforgivenessandrestorationarelookedforwardtowithsublimeconfidence.Perhapsin50:715wehaveanechoofthePropheticdenunciationoflegalism
initsdegeneratedays(cf.Is1:1115,Jer7:21ff.,Am5:21,Mal1:10).TheThirdBookopenswithapoem(Ps73)inwhichtheholinessofGodisopposedtothefollyandprideof
sinners.Thedifficultyattachingtotheproblemoftherelationbetweensinandsuffering,sodramaticallydiscussedandworkedupintheBookofJob,isheredwelton.Forits
answerwearereferredtothecertainfactthatGodisthestrengthandrefugeofallthosewhoarepureinheart.InPs90.whichopenstheFourthsectionofthevolume,theauthor
putstheeternalandomniscientGodoveragainstman,withhisiniquitiesandsecretsins,astheycallforthHisterriblebutjustwrath(v.11).Thebeautyofholinessandtheconfident
trustthatGodistheultimaterefugeofallwhocometoHimareagainandagaindweltoninthePsalmsofthisbook(cf.103:11ff.).IntheFifthdivision.beginningwithPs107,the
noteofpraiseisstruck,andiskeptupalmostwithoutintermissiontotheend.ThefinalexaltationofZion,correspondingtothelastingoverthrowofiniquity(Ps107:42),is
proclaimedwithacertaintywhichcanexpressitselfonlyinsongsofloudestpraise.Withaninsightwhichcanonlybetermedinspiration.wefindoneofthepoetscoordinatingthe
forgivenessofJahandthefearofHimascauseandeffect(130:3f.,cf.ThePsalmsinTheCambridgeBible,byKirkpatrick).
6.Job,Proverbs,Ecclesiastes.Theconfidencethusexpressedisallthemoreremarkablebecauseofthegeneralbeliefintheuniversalityofsinandofits
effects(cf.Ps14:2f.,51:5),abeliefwhichwassharedbytheauthorsoftheBookofJob(14:4,15:14ff.,4:17),Proverbs(20:9),andEcclesiastes(7:20,cf.1K
8:46).IntheProverbswehavewhatmightbedescribedasanattempttoplacethemorallifeonanintellectualbasis.Theantithesisofwisdomandfollyisthatwhich
marksthelifeoftherighteousmanandthesinner.Ethicalmaxims,thecompiledresultsofhumanexperience,followeachotherinquicksuccession,butthebookis
devoidofthebright,warmhopefulnesssocharacteristicofthePsalms.Thesinnerislefttohisfate,andthewisemanishewho,orderinghisownlifearight,leaves
thefooltopursuehisfollyanddeservehisfate.
TheauthoroftheBookofJobsetshimselftosolvetheproblemoftheconnexionbetweensinandhumansuffering,andthoughhefails,ashewasboundtofail,
toclearupthedifficulty,hemakesitevidentthattheonecannotalwaysbemeasuredintermsoftheother.TheconvictionofhisowninnocenceJobsmost
treasuredpersonalpossessionupholdshisbeliefagainsttheprevalentconceptionthatsinisalwayspunishedhereandnow,andthatrighteousnessisalways
rewardedinlikemanner.Theendofthisdramatictreatise,however,emphasizesthepopularcreed,thoughtheexperienceofJobmusthaveshakenitsuniversal
validity.Theconceptionofsinis,ofcourse,entirelyethical,butisverywideinitsscope.Indefendinghimselfagainstthethinlyveiledaccusationsofhisfriends,
Jobrevealshisideasoftherangeanddepthoftheravagesofsininhumanlifeandconduct,andgivesevidenceofremarkablespiritualpenetration(e.g.ch.31,see
R.A.WatsonscommentaryonthisbookinTheExpositorsBible).Mentionmay,perhaps,beusefullymadehereofElihuscontributiontothediscussion,inwhich
heintervenesbyalengthenedargumenttoprovethatsufferingmayhelookedonnotmerelyaspunishmentforsin,butalsoasameansofdiscipline,andas
designedbyGodasawarningagainstsin(cf.chs33ff.).
II.APOCRYPHALBOOKS
SirachandWisdomofSolomon.TheintellectualismwhichischaracteristicofProverbsandEcclesiastesfindsaprominentplaceinSirachandtheWisdomof
Solomon.Thereareheretwosharplydefinedclassesofmen(twoandtwo,oneagainstanother,Sir33:15),adualisticconceptionwhichpermeatesallcreation(cf.
42:24).Thesinneristobedealtwithunmercifully(helpnotthesinner,12:4),fornogoodcancomefromhimwhorefusesinstruction.Itispossible,however,for
thesinnertoreturnuntotheLordandforsakehissins(17:25f.).Theonlywayinwhichrighteousnessmaybepursuedisbythecultivationofwisdomand
instruction,andbypayingheedtotheexperiencesofdailylife(34:9,39:18,14:20ff.).Letreasonbetheguideofhumanactionandallwillbewell(37:16,cf.
32:19).Itispossiblefortheeducatedmantoacquiresuchacommandoverhisinclinationsthatheisableofhimselftomakethegreatchoicebetweenlifeanddeath
(15:17),butforthefoolthereislittlehope(15:7).Lookingbackonthecenturiesofhumanhistorythewriterdiscoversthatsinhasbroughtinitstrainallthegreat
physicalcalamitieswhichmarkitsprogress(39:28ff.).Therelationis,however,external,andisamarkofDivinevengeanceandwrathagainstsinners(cf.40:9f.).
Thereisnotraceoftheprofoundconceptionofspiritualsympathybetweenthedifferentordersofcreation,characteristicoftheteachingofSt.Paul(cf.Ro8:19
22).
TheauthoroftheBookofWisdomdisplaysthesamefundamentalthoughtthatwisdomandsinaretotallyincompatible(Wis1:4f.).Ignoranceandfollyare
identifiedwithsin(2:21f.,4:15,5:4etc.).andnotmerelythecausesofsin.Theonlywaytoattaintorighteousnessisbythecareful,unremittingdisciplineofthe
reason(cf.2:1,17:1,6:15f.).Runninglikeathreadofgoldthroughthewholebook,however,istheconceptionoftheimmortalityofrighteousnessandofthose
whocultivatewisdom(1:15,2:23,3:4,6:18f.,8:16,17etc).InthebeautifulpersonificationofWisdom(6:128:21)wefindthewriternotonlyspeakingofthe
SpiritofGodasbeingitsAuthorandDiffuser,butpracticallyidentifyingthemwitheachother(cf.9:17,12:1,cf.2Es
14:22).Theuniversalityofsindoesnotenterlargelyintohisteaching(cf.,however,3:12,12:10,13:1),andattimeswefeelasifhebelievedthatsomewereborn
toberighteousandsometosin,thepowerofmoralchoicebeingreallyconfinedtotheformer(cf.8:19ff.,7:15f.).
III.THENEWTESTAMENT
1.Synoptists.ThepracticaloutcomeoftheteachingoftheOTisseenintheemphasislaidbythefirstoftheSynoptistsuponthefunctionwhichitwasthe
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1.Synoptists.ThepracticaloutcomeoftheteachingoftheOTisseenintheemphasislaidbythefirstoftheSynoptistsuponthefunctionwhichitwasthe
destinyofJesustodischargeinconnexionwithsin.TheangeliccommunicationtoJoseph(Mt1:21)may,withoutillegitimatecriticismoforigins,beconsideredas
oneofthoseilluminatingflashesofDivinerevelationwhichobtaintheirinterpretativevalueinthelightofsubsequenthistory.Atanyrate,thisisthefeatureof
JesusworkuponwhichtheApostleslaidparticularstress,intheirearliestasintheirlatestteaching.ItistruethatthepreparatoryworkoftheBaptistarousedinthe
breastsofthemultitudeswhothrongedtohearhimanactiveconsciousnessofsin,togetherwiththenecessityforrepentanceandthepossibilityofconsequent
forgiveness(Mk1:4).ThepreachingofJohnwas,however,necessarilylackinginoneelementwhichmakesthelifeandworkofJesuswhatitpreeminentlyisa
newpowerintroducedintotheworld,givinguntomenthegiftofrepentance(Ac5:31,cf.11:18),andenablingthemtoturnawayeveryonefromtheiriniquities
(cf.Ac3:26).ItissignificantinthisconnexionthattherecordedteachingofJesusbearscomparativelyfewtracesofdirectabstractinstructionregardingsin.Atthe
sametime,wemustnotforgetthescathingdenunciationhurledbyHimatthelegalistic,andworse,conceptionsofsinaboundingintheRabbinicalschoolsofHis
time(cf.Mt23:428,Mk7:9ff.),orthepositive,authoritativedeclarationsbywhichHedrewfromtheancientlawsofSinaitheessentialethicalideastherein
enshrined(cf.Mt5:2148,wheretheteachingmaybedescribedasanintensionratherthananextensionoftheareaofsin).ForHimthelawandtheprophetshad
anabidingsignificance(Mt7:12),buttheirregulativevaluesneededreadjustment.Sin,againstwhichtheLawwasadeterrent,andthepreachingoftheProphetsa
persistentlysolemnprotest,hasitsdomainnotinthephysicalbutinthespiritualregionofmanslife(cf.Lk11:3344).Itisbypoisoningthelifeatitsrootsthatit
destroysthewholeupwardgrowth,anditisherethatthelanguageofJesusassumesitsmostformidablepropheticseverity.Therearecertainclassesofsins,
however,againstwhichHeutteredHismostsolemnwarnings.Theircommoncharacteristicisthatofwilfulnessordeliberateness.Remarkableamongsttheseisthat
describedasblasphemyagainsttheHolyGhost(cf.Mk3:29=Lk12:10=Mt12:31f.),whichSt.Markdesignatesaneternalsin.Takingintoconsideration
thecircumstancesinwhichthewordswerespoken,itisclearthatJesuswaspointingtoaconditionofthesoulwhenitlosesallpowertoretraceitssteps,whenit
reachesaplacewhereevenGodsforgivenesscannotfollow.ThesinofunrealitywasonetowhichthePhariseeswerespeciallyaddicted,andtoit,therefore,He
drewtheirattentionconstantly(Mt23:57,Mk12:38f.,Lk20:45f.,11:43cf.Mt6:116,5:20).
Everysinisboundtoexerciseinfluence,notonlyonthelifeandcharacterofthoseimmediatelyguilty,butalsoonacircleoutside.Thereis,however,aspecies
havingforitsspecialobjectthedraggingdownofthosewhowouldotherwisebeinnocent.Thetermsoftheemphaticwarningagainstleadingothersastray,either
bypositiveinterferenceorbytheforceofexample(cf.Mk9:42,Mt18:5,Lk17:2),remindusofthesadpresagebywhichJesusforeshadowedthetraitorsend(Mt
26:24).Thewordusedtodenotethissinisalsoemployedinspeakingofsininitsrelationtotheguiltyindividual.ThefactthatJesusdealswithbothaspectsatthe
sametimeshowshowstronglyHefelttheimpossibilityofanysinremaining,initsworking,apurelypersonaloffence.Thereisalwayshereinactivityaforcewhich
maybedescribedascentrifugal,inevitablybringingharmtothosewithinthecircleofitsmovement(cf.Ro14:7f.).NordidJesusholdHimselftobefreefromthis
dangerofcontamination(thouartastumblingblockuntome,Mt16:23),whileHepointstotheidealKingdomoftheSonofManwherenothingcausingmento
stumbleshallbeallowedaplace(Mt13:41).ItisinterestingtorememberherethatSt.PaulusesthesamewordtoexpresstheresultofthepreachingofChrist
crucifiedtotheJews(1Co1:23cf.Gal5:11,Ro9:32f.,1P2:8).Thiswas,indeed,acontingencyforeseenbyJesusHimself,aswillbeseeninHisanswertothe
messengersoftheimprisonedBaptist(Mt11:6).Doubtlessthesewordswereintendedtoconveyagentlewarningtotheprisoneragainstpermittingtheuntoward
circumstancesofhislifetoovercomehisoncefirmfaithintheMessiahshipofOnewhomhehadpubliclyproclaimedastheLambofGod(Jn1:29).Adirect
referencetoanOTexampleofthissinoccursinRev2:14,wheretheconductofBalaamishelduptoreprobation.
IntheparableofthePhariseeandthePublican,Jesustaughtthenecessityfortherealizationofpersonalguiltonthepartofthesinnerinordertoforgivenessand
justificationinthesightofGod(Lk18:13).Inthesameway,itwasthelackofthissensebythePharisees,sofarastheywerethemselvespersonallyconcerned,that
constitutedthegreatobstacletotheirconversion(Jn9:41).
AprominentfeatureofJesusteachinghastodonotsomuchwithactive,deliberatesinsaswithwhatmaybetermedsinsofomission.ItseemsasifHewished
toinculcate,byrepeatedemphasis,thetruththatthebestwaytocombattemptationwithsuccessistobeactiveinthepursuitofgood.Thespiritualsideofthis
doctrineHeenshrinedintheformofaparable,inwhichHepointedoutthedangertothesoularisingfromneglecttoinvoketheactiveagencyoftheHolySpirit,
eventhoughtheuncleanspirithadbeenexorcizedandbanishedoutoftheman(seeMt12:4345=Lk11:2426).InthediscoursedescriptiveoftheGeneral
Judgment,Jesusmarksthecrucialtestbywhichmenshallbetried:Inasmuchasyediditnotuntooneoftheseleast,yediditnotuntome(Mt25:45).Thesame
thoughtisconveyedfrequentlyinparabolicform,asforexampleintheparablesoftheTenVirgins(Mt25:113),theTalents(25:1430)inwhichisemphasized
theprofoundlesson,fromhimthatbathnot,eventhatwhichhehathshallbetakenaway(cf.Mt13:12),DivesandLazarus(Lk16:1931)whilemuchofthe
teachingintheSermonontheMountisbasedonthesameprinciple(cf.Mt5:3844).
2.St.Paul.ThepresentmentofthegospelmessagetotheworldoutsidetheJewishnationledSt.Paultoreviewindetailtheorigin,cause,scope,andresultof
sin.Startingfromhisownindividualexperience,whichwasthatofasinnerprofoundlyconsciousofhisposition(cf.1Co15:9,9:27,Ro7:18ff.,1Ti1:15),and
consciousalsooftheremedyinherentinChristsgospel(2Co12:9),heinsistsontheuniversalityofthepresenceandpowerofsin,inordertoestablishtheco
ordinateuniversalityofthepresenceandpowerofthemanifestedrighteousnessofGodthroughfaithinJesusChrist(Ro3:21f.cf.theexpressionwheresin
abounded,gracedidaboundmoreexceedingly,5:20).ThecentralfeatureofSt.PaulsteachingistheactivityofGodsgraceinforgiving,restoring,andjustifying80/116
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abounded,gracedidaboundmoreexceedingly,5:20).ThecentralfeatureofSt.PaulsteachingistheactivityofGodsgraceinforgiving,restoring,andjustifying
thesinnerandforthepurposeofestablishingthereasonablenessandthenecessity(cf.1Co9:16)ofbringingthegospelbeforetheworld,itwasneedfulfirstto
establishtheguiltofallforwhomitwasintended,andtocreate,sotospeak,inmenaconsciousnessofmoralfailureandhelplessness.Thishedoesintheopening
chaptersofhisEpistletotheRomans.Here,althoughhedealsseparatelywithJewsandGentiles,hemaintainsthepropositionthatallalikearesinners(Ro5:12,cf.
Eph2:3).ItistruethattheJewwastherecipientoftheLawandassuchheoccupiedthepositionofthemoralteacherofmankind.Butinsteadofprovingthemeans
wherebyatrueknowledgeofsin(Ro3:20,cf.5:13)isgained,itbecame,throughabuse,ahindranceratherthanahelptohisspiritualadvancement(see2:17ff.).
AndjustastheJewsstultifiedtheDivinelygivenLaw,bytheexaltationofitsmerelytransitoryelementsattheexpenseofitsessentialmoralideals,sotheGentiles
defiedthelawwrittenintheirbearts,testifiedtobytheirconscience(Ro2:15).
ThisreductionofallmankindtothesamelevelinthesightofGodisfurtherincidentallypressedbytheestablishmentofadefiniterelationshipbetweenthesin
ofAdamandracialguilt
(5:12,18).WhatpreciselywereSt.Paulsopinionsastothisconnexionitisimpossibletodiscover.Itisdoubtfulwhether,infaceoftheintenselypracticalworkin
whichhewasengaged,hestoppedtoworkouttheproblemoforiginalsin.Itisenoughforhimthatsinenteredintotheworldthroughonemanandthat
throughtheonemansdisobediencethemanyweremadesinners(seeSandayHeadlam,Romans5inICC,p.136ff.).
Differentinterpretationshavebeengivenofthewordstranslatedforthatallsinned(5:12),someseeinginthemanexplicitstatementthatthewholehumanracewasinvolved
genericallyinthesinofAdam(cf.Bengel.adloc.,andLiddonEpistletotheRomans,p.103).OthersaffirmthatSt.Paulishereassertingthefreedomofthewill,andisstatingthe
plainpropositionthatallmenhavesinnedasamatteroffact,andoftheirownchoice.TheApostle,however,seemstohaveleftroomforasynthesisofthesetwoideas.Itmatters
notwhetherhehasdonesoconsciouslyornot.AstheresultofAdamstransgressionsinobtainedanentranceandasphereofactionintheworld,andnotonlyso,buta
predispositiontosinwasinherited,givingititspresentpoweroverthehumanwill.Atthesametime,thesimplestatementallsinned,explanatoryasitisoftheuniversalityof
death,includestheelementofchoiceandfreedom.Eventhosewhoseconsciousnessofsinwasweakened,ifnotobliterated,bytheabsenceofpositiveorobjectivelaw,were
subjectedtodeath.HerewehavetheassumptionofgenericguiltarisingdirectlyoutofSt.Paulsbeliefintherelationbetweensinandphysicaldeath,asthatofcauseandeffect(cf.
1Co15:22).Notonlyistheconnexionherementionedinsistedon,but,passingfromphysicaldeathtothatofwhichitisbutatype,spiritualormoraldeath,heshowstheawful
depthtowhichsinhassentitsrootsinmansnature(Ro6:21ff.,cf.v.8ff.,2:7ff.).
Mentionhasbeenmadeaboveofthepowerofchoice,wheresinisconcerned,inherentinhumanpersonality.Intotheveryseatofthispower,however,sinhas
madeanentrance,andhasfoundapowerfulallyintheflesh(7:18).Thewilltoresististhere,butitsactivityisparalyzed.ThoughSt.Paulmakesthefleshor
themembersofthebodytheseatofsin,heisfarfromteachingthathumannatureisessentiallyevil.Thefleshmaybecrucifiedwithitspassionsandlusts(Gal
5:4cf.1Co9:27,Ro6:19),andthebodilymembersinsteadofbeingservantstouncleannessmaybecomeservantstorighteousnessuntosanctification(cf.art.
FleshinHastingsDCG).AnimportantfeatureofSt.Paulsdoctrineofsinconsistsinhisexpositionofthefunctionoflawinrevealingandarousingthe
consciousnessofsin.Acuriousexpression,themindoftheflesh(Ro8:7),emergesinthisconnexion,andtheimpossibilityofitsbeingsubjecttothelawofGod
isinsistedon.Apartfromthelawsinisdead,but,oncetheLawcame,sinsprangintolife,itspresenceandpowerwererevealed(cf.1Co15:56),andbyitman
wasconfrontedwithhisownmoralweakness.
Inspiteofhisbeliefintheallpervadingcharacterandstrengthofsin,St.Paulsgospelisthereverseofagospelofdespair.If,ontheonehand,thereisadeath
whichconnotesmoralcorruptionandslaverytosin,ontheotherhandthereisadeathuntosinwhichisnotonlyarealizationof,butaparticipationinthedeathof
Christ.Thefactofhisemployingthesamewordandideainsensessocompletelycontrastedlendsamarvellousforceandfinalitytohisteachingontheremedial
andrestorativeeffectsofChristswork(cf.Ro6:214,Eph2:110).Afavouriteidea,relativetothis,isthatofcrucifixion.ThememberofChristassuchhas
crucifiedhisoldman(Ro6:6),thefleshwiththepassionsandluststhereof(Gal5:24,cf.2:20).ThisistheultimateidealresultoftheredemptiveworkofChrist.
TheexperienceofSt.Paulforbadehimtobelievethatthestateofdeathuntosinisfullyrealizedhereandnow(1Co9:27,cf.Sir37:18).Hiscontinuous
referencestotheChristianlifeasoneofwarfare,inwhichitbehovesthefollowerofChristtobearmedwithweaponsoffensiveanddefensive,showsthathis
conceptionofthestruggleagainstsinisthatofoneunceasingagelongconflict,issuinginvictoryfortheindividual,asfortherace,onlywhentheKingdomof
Christisestablishedinapeacethatiseverlasting(Eph6:1117,2Co10:4ff.,6:7,Ro13:12,1Ti1:18cf.Ph2:25,Philem2etc.).
3.St.John
(a)InordertounderstandSt.JohnspresentationofJesusteachingonsin,itwillbeusefultoseehisownindividualdoctrineasgiveninhisEpistles.Herethe
missionofChristisdweltonashavingforitsobjectivethetakingawayofsins(1Jn3:4,8cf.Jn16:11,1:29),andabidinginhimisdweltonasconstitutingthe
guaranteeofsafetyagainstsin(1Jn3:6cf.Jn15:4ff.),asitalsoaffordspowertolivetheactivefruitfullifeofrighteousness.Further,thereisalawwhich
expressestheDivineidealofmansconstitutionandgrowth,andwhoeverviolatesit,bywilfullyputtinghimselfinoppositiontothislaw,isguiltyofsin,forsinis
lawlessness(3:4).AnotheraspectofthislawhastodowiththemutualrelationshipofChristianswhoshouldbeboundtogetherbyalovewhichisthereflexionof
theeternalloveofGodformen(1Jn4:721).Ifthelawofloveisneglectedorbroken,eveninthematterofintercessoryprayerforbrethrenwhohavesinned, 81/116
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theeternalloveofGodformen(1Jn4:721).Ifthelawofloveisneglectedorbroken,eveninthematterofintercessoryprayerforbrethrenwhohavesinned,
unrighteousnessispresent,andallunrighteousnessissin(5:1317).FromthisweseehowintenselyrealwasSt.Johnsbeliefinthepresenceandpowerofsin
amongstmen.Indeed,oneofthetestsbywhichamanssinceritymaybediscoveredishispowerofrealizingthisfact.He,moreover,givesashisreasonforwriting
thisEpistle,thatyemaynotsin(2:1).TheneedofanAdvocatewhoisalsothepropitiationforoursinsisinsistedonasbeingthespecialcreationofChristin
Christianconsciousness(1Jn2:1f.cf.Jn14:16).Allthisbringsintoclearerreliefandgreaterprominencehisdoctrineofthesinlessnessoftheprofessingfollower
ofJesusChrist.TheChristianassuchcannotsin,becauseheisbegottenofGod(1Jn3:8cf.5:18,3Jn11),and,ontheotherhand,hethatdoethsinisofthe
devil(1Jn3:8).TheChristianabidesinChrist(cf.Jn15:4ff.),andbecausehedoessohesinnethnot(3:8),whereasthecommittalofsinisthesureguaranteethat
hehasneitherseennorknownHim.ThesecretofhissafetyliesinthepromiseofJesusthatHekeeps(cf.Jn17:12)Hisownsothattheevilonetouchethhim
not(1Jn5:18).TheparadoxinwhichSt.Johnthusclotheshisdoctrineofsinrevealshisprofoundconceptionofitscharacter.AnysinfulactbytheChristian
interrupts,andmarssofar,hisfellowshipwithGod.If,however,theacthenottheoutcomeofthemanshabitorcharacter,hecannotbesaidtodosininthesense
ofrealizingsininitscompleteness(seeWestcott,EpistlesofSt.John,on1Jn3:4).ThefruitofDivinefellowshipisdevelopedintheChristiansinnerorcentrallife
fromwhichsinisbanishedandthisremindsussomewhatofSt.
Paulsviewofthecrucifixionofthefleshwithitspassionsandlusts.
ApeculiarreferenceismadebySt.Johntoasinuntodeath.Thismightbetranslatedwithperhapsacloseradherencetothewritersthoughtifthearticlewereomitted.Itis
notanyspecificactoractsthathesocharacterizes.ThesayingmustratherrefertosinfuldeedsofacharacterwhichwhollyseparatesfromChrist,andthustendstodeath(see
Westcott,op.cit.,on5:16).InsofarasitspringsfromaheartwhichwilfullyandwithcontumelyrejectsChrist,insofarmayitheidentifiedwiththesinagainsttheHolyGhost
(cf.Mk3:29,Mt12:3f.,Lk2:10).ThewritersrefusaltoinsistonintercessoryprayerforonethusguiltycallstomindthewarningsintheEpistletotheHebrewsagainstthesinof
apostasyorwilfulsinafterthereceptionoftheknowledgeoftruth(cf.He6:46,10:26).ItisprobablethatSt.Johnhasinhismindaclassofsinswhichcombineswithinitself
thecharacteristicsofboththosementioned(seeart.SininHastings DBiv.p.535b).Onefeatureof1JohnconnectsthisEpistleverycloselywiththeFourthGospel,revealing
itselfinthosepassageswhichidentifysinwithfalsehood,andrighteousnesswithtruth.
ItseemsasifthewritertracedallsinbacktothespiritwhichleadsmentodenythatJesusistheChrist(1Jn2:22,4:3).Ontheotherhand,theacceptanceofthisbeliefcarries
withittheassuranceofGodsabidingpresence,whereinisthesureguaranteeoftherealizationofHispurposeinusthatwemightlivethroughhim(1Jn4:9,cf.4:2,5:1).
(b)FourthGospel.ItisthislastaspectofsinthatisthedominantnoteoftheteachingofSt.JohnsGospel.Indeed,thiswritingmayhesaidtobearecordof
thesadrejectionforeshadowedinthegeneralterms,Hecameuntohisown,andtheythatwerehisownreceivedhimnot(1:11).Thiswasmoreparticularlytrueof
theJewsofJerusalemandJuda,wherethestoryofJesusministryastoldinthisGospelisforthemostpartlaid.ItisthussignificantthatinHislastgreatdiscourse
withHisdisciples,occurringasitdidinJerusalem,thecentreoftheactivityhostiletoHisclaims,JesuslaysspecialstressonthesinofunbeliefinHim(TheHoly
Ghostwillconvicttheworldofsinbecausetheybelievenotonme,Jn16:8f.).TherevelationoftheDivinelife,withitsmanifoldevidencesofloveandmercyin
andbyJesus,tookawaywhateverexcusemenmighthaveinthepresenceofGodsjudgment.TherealreasonfortherejectionofJesusbytheJewslayintheir
hatredoftheFather(Jn15:24,cf.v.22).Indeed,itisthisveryrevelation,designedbyGodastheeternalremedyagainstsin(Jn1:29),whichinitsprocessand
achievementaffordsfurtherpossibilitiestosinanditsconsequences(Jn9:41cf.Lk12:47f.).
NormustweomittonotethatinthisGospelsinisregardedasaspeciesofslavery.Thereferencetothisaspectoccursbutonce(Jn8:34),butthatitoccupiedan
importantplaceinearlyChristianteachingisevidentfromtheincidentalnoticesfoundscatteredthroughouttheNT(cf.
Ro6:1620,Tit3:3,2P2:19,Mt6:24=Lk16:13etc.).
ThepopularbeliefintheconnexionbetweensinandphysicalsufferingisnoticedalsointheFourthGospel,whereJesusisrepresentedasdenyingitsuniversal
applicability(Jn9:3).AtthesametimeHerecognizedthatincertaincasesthebeliefwasjustified(Jn5:14).Itwas,perhaps,Hisprofoundknowledgeofasimilar
butadeeperrelationshipthanthistherelationshipofsintothewholelifethatgavetothewordsandactionsofJesusthatexquisitetendernessinHistreatmentof
individualsinnerssonoticeableinthisGospel(cf.Jn4:17f.,8:11,15)atendernesswhichHewouldfainimparttoHisfollowersintheirdealingswithfellow
sinners(cf.Jn7:24,Mt7:1ff.,Ja2:13).
WearethusenabledtoseethattheviewofsinheldandtaughtbyJesusisprofounderandgraverthananyasyetexisting,foritisanoffenceagainstOnewhois
atthesametimearighteousandlovingFatherandajustandholyGod(Lk15:18cf.Mt5:48,Jn3:16ff.etc.).ThelifeofChrististheobjectlessonwhich
Christiansareinvitedtoimitateintheirdailyrelationshipsandlife(Mt11:28,Jn13:15,1Jn2:6,Ph2:5cf.1P2:21etc.),andSt.Johnhaspointedouttous,inthe
wordsofJesusHimself,thestandardtowhichHisfollowersareaskedtoaspire,whenHedefiedHisbitterlifelongenemiestoconvictHimofsin(Jn8:46).
4.St.James.Theauthorofthiscircularletterviewssininitspracticalbearingsonthedailylifeofmen.Nevertheless,hisconceptionofitscharacterand
resultsisasfarreachingaswehaveseenittobeinboththePaulineandtheJohannineteaching.Itsoriginhetracestothesurrenderoftheindividualswillto
desire(Ja1:14f.).Initselfthedesiremaybenaturalandinnocent:itiswhenthemanresolvestogratifyitagainstwhatbefeelstobethehigherlawofduty,that
hebecomesguiltyofsinevenbeforehecarriesouthisresolveinact(J.B.Mayor,TheEpistleofSt.James,noteon1:15).ThewritercombatstheideathatGodis82/116
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hebecomesguiltyofsinevenbeforehecarriesouthisresolveinact(J.B.Mayor,TheEpistleofSt.James,noteon1:15).ThewritercombatstheideathatGodis
theauthorofevil,byinsistingonthefactthateachmanmaymakeagoodorabaduseoftemptation.Asamorallyfreeagenthestandsorhefalls,andtheresultof
thisfreedommaybethepromisedcrownoflife(1:12)orhopelessdeath(1:15).Wearehereremindedofthesinuntodeath(1
Jn5:16)referredtoalready,forsinwhenfullgrown,whenithasbecomeafixedhabitdeterminingthecharacteroftheman,bringsforthdeath(J.B.Mayor,op.
cit.p.53cf.R.J.Knowling,EpistleofSt.James,adloc.).ThisEpistlebetraysitsJewishoriginintheattitudeofthewritertotheLawforhimtheresultofthe
IncarnationhasbeenthetransmutingoftheMosaicLawintotheperfectlaw,thelawofliberty(1:25,cf.2:12),theroyallaw(2:8).Itmaybesaidthathe
sometimesmerelyechoesthewellknownopinionofcontemporaryJewishRabbinsabouttransgressingtheminutestbehestoftheLaw(seetheextractsfrom
RabbinicalwritingsquotedbyR.J.Knowling,op.cit.,noteonJa2:10).Atthesametimeitmustbeadmittedthathisconceptionofsin,evenwhenitfinds
expressionintheseeminglytrivialcaseofrespectofpersons(2:9),isfoundedonatruespiritualviewoftherelationofmantoGod(HastingsDB,vol.iv.p.
533b).ThelawofloveistheessentialguidingprincipleofallChristianlife,andwherethislawistransgressedinthesocialrelationsofthatlife,theexpressionin
ourEpistleyecommitsin(lit.yeworksin,2:9)isnottoostrongoremphatic.
AfurtherpointinconnexionwithSt.JamesteachingoccupiestheclosingpassagesofhisEpistle.Inthis,asinthewholeofhiswriting,hedealswithitfromthe
pointofviewofthedailylife.Inhisexhortationtomutualconfessionofsinsandintercessoryprayerforforgivenessheisincidentallydwellingonthetruththatall
realChristianlifeisconditionedbyitsadherence,bothinwordandindeed,totheprincipleoflove(cf.2:15f.).Thesamemayhesaidofhisadvicewithregardto
thecorporateprayeroftheChurchonbehalfofonewhoisphysicallysick(5:14f.).ItisprobablethatourauthorheldthecommonJewishbeliefthatsinanddisease
wereconnectedascauseandeffect,andhisconvictionthattheprayeroffaithreachesoutinitspowertothewholeman,extendingeventotheforgivenessofhis
sinsbyGod,isbasedonhisbeliefinthesolidarityofhumanlifeaswellasofthelawtowhichitowesitsallegiance.Asinthecaseofthememberofthecommunity
whosebodilyandspiritualneedsareministeredtobytheactiveinterventionoftheChurch,soheurgeseachindividualmembertoprayeronbehalfofhiserring
brother.Thetwofoldblessingpromisedtothisactofbrotherlylovemaywellbetakenasanexpressionofhisconvictionthattheindividuallivesofthemembersof
theChristiancommunityareknitsocloselytogetherthatnosingleactofsincanbecommittedwithoutsofarbringingdeathwithinrangeofall,andthatnoactof
lovecanbeexercisedwithoutsofarbringingmercyandforgivenesstoall,andthuscoveringamultitudeofsins(cf.1P4:8).
5.Hebrews.ItcannotbesaidthatthereisanyspecialdoctrineofsininthisEpistle.ItsreaderswerewellacquaintedwithOTconceptionsandteaching,and
thewriterdealsmainlywiththesuperiorityoftheNewCovenantovertheOldinsupplyingmeanswherebythereshallbenomoreconscienceofsins(He10:2cf.
Westcott,TheEpistletotheHebrews,Add.Noteon9:9).ThecentralfeatureofthiswritingisthestresslaidonthediscoverybyChristianityofanewandliving
way(10:20)bywhichwehavedirectaccesstoGod.ItisbytheremovalofguiltintheforgivenessofsinsbythesacrificeofJesusthatthiswayisopenedonce
forall(10:10cf.v.19,9:12etc.).SpecialemphasisisthereforelaidonthefailureoftheMosaicinstitutionstotakeawaysins(10:11,cf.9:9),andontheawful
characterofthedangerofharbouringanevilbeartofunbelief(3:12).
ThetemptationtowhichtheHebrewswereexposedwasthat,understressofpersecution,theywouldrejectthefinalrevelationofGodinChrist,orrevert,
undertheinfluenceoftheHellenisticJudaizers,tothesomewhateclecticfaithofthelatter.ThiswilfulsinthewritercharacterizesascrucifyingtheSonofGod
afresh(6:6)andastreadingHimunderfoot(cf.10:29).Inwarningthemagainstthedangerstowhichtheywouldbeexposedduringthetimeofsufferingandtrial
nowimminent,hepointsouttothemthatthesetrialsmaybecomeintheirownhandsthemeansoftheirspiritualadvancement.Insteadofbeingthesoleoutcomeof
sin,sufferingisoftenthechastisementofalovingFatherthatwemaybepartakersofhisholiness(12:10).ThegreatExample,whosesolutionofanagelong
problemweareaskedtostudy,was
Jesus,whoforthejoythatwassetbeforehimenduredthecross,despisingtheshame(12:2),andwhothoughinallpointstemptedlikeasweare,yetwithoutsin
(4:15),wasneverthelessmadeperfectthroughsufferings(2:10).
Seealsoartt.ATONEMENT,F ORGIVENESS,GUILT,P ROPITIATION,REDEMPTION,etc.
J.R.WILLIS.
SIN.Thestronghold(fortress)ofEgypt,Ezk30:15,16,mustbePelusium,theEgyp.nameofwhichisnotclearlyknown,orsomefortressinits
neighbourhood.InthelistofgovernorsappointedbyEsarhaddonandAshurbanipal,whilenativeprinceswereretainedelsewhere,Sinistheonlycityputincharge
ofanAssyrian:nodoubthewasplacedatPelusiumtokeepopenthegateofEgyptfortheAssyrianking.
F.LL.GRIFFITH.
SIN,WILDERNESSOF(nameprobablyderivedfromthemoongodSin).Aregionon
therouteoftheHebrewsfromEgypttoMt.Sinai.ItisusuallyidentifiedwiththeplainlyingS.oftheRasAbuZenimeh.Upontheviewheldinmanyquartersthat83/116
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therouteoftheHebrewsfromEgypttoMt.Sinai.ItisusuallyidentifiedwiththeplainlyingS.oftheRasAbuZenimeh.Upontheviewheldinmanyquartersthat
Mt.SinaimustbelocatedsomewhereintheNegeb,thewildernessofSinwasonthemoredirectroutefromEgypttoKadesh,neartoifnotidenticalwiththedesert
ofZin(Nu13:21,20:1,27:14,33:36,34:3,Dt32:51,Jos15:13).Cf.ZIN.
H.L.WILLETT.
SINAI(Mountain).AholymountainintheSinaiticpeninsula(whosenameissaidtobederivedfromthatofSin,themoongod).ItiscalledHorebbyEand
D,whereasJandPemploythenameSinai.HereMoseswasgrantedthevisionoftheburningbush(Ex3:1),wherebyhefirstreceivedacalltoleadtheIsraelites
toadoptJahwehastheircovenantedGodandheretookplacethetremendoustheophanywhichisthecentraleventofthePentateuch,whereinthecovenantwas
ratified.
TheidentificationofMt.Sinaiisamatterofsomedifficulty,andvariousattemptstodiscoverithavebeenmadefromtimetotime.ThetraditionalsiteisJebel
Msa,themountainofMoses,almostinthecentreofthetriangleheretherehasbeenaconventeversinceatleast A.D.385,aboutwhichdateitwasvisitedbySt.
SilviaofAquitainewhoseaccountofherpilgrimagestillsurvivesinpart.Thisidentificationhasthereforethewarrantofantiquity.Itisnot,however,whollyfree
fromdifficulty,principallyconnectedwithquestionsoftherouteoftheExodusbutitispossiblethatwithfurtherstudyanddiscoverythesedifficultiesmaybe
foundtoheevanescent.
Inrecentyearsthetraditionhasbeenquestioned,andtwosuggestionshavebeenmadecallingfornotice.ThefirstisthatoriginallysuggestedbyLepsius,who
wouldplaceSinaiatMountSerbal,somedistancenorthwestofJebelMsa.Thistheoryhasbeenchampioned,withagooddealofforce,bythelatestinvestigator,
ProfessorPetriesassistant,Mr.C.T.Currelly(seePetrle,ResearchesinSinai,ch.xvii.).Theregionappearsmoresuitablefortheoccupationofalargehostthanthe
neighbourhoodofJebelMsa,anditaccordsbetterwiththeprobablesiteofRephidim.
Thesecondviewwouldplacethemountainoutofthepeninsulaaltogether,unlessitcanbeprovedthattheLandofMidianincludedthatregion.And,indeed,
thecloseconnexionevidentbetweenSinaiorHorebandMidian,whichappears,forexample,inEx3,makesthisatheoryworthconsideration.Butwearestillin
thedarkastothelimitsofMidian:allwecansayisthatitisnotknownwhetherMidianextendedwestoftheGulfofAkabah,andthatthereforeitisnotknown
whetherSinaiwaswestofAkabah.Itmust,however,befreelygrantedthattoplaceSinaieastornorthofAkabahwouldentirelydisjointallidentificationsof
placesalongthelineoftheitineraryoftheExodus.
FortheallegoricaluseofSinaiinGal4:25,seeart.HAGAR.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
SINAI(Peninsula).ThetriangulartongueoflandinterceptedbetweenthelimestoneplateauoftheTihdesertinthenorth,andtheGulfsofSuezandAkabah,
attheheadoftheRedSea,onthesouthwestandsoutheast.Itisaruggedandwasteregion,littlewatered,andfullofwildandimpressivemountainscenery.
Exceptatsomeplacesonthecoast,suchasTor,thereisbutlittleofasettledpopulation.
Thisregionwasalways,andstillis,underEgyptianInfluence,ifnotactuallyinEgyptianterritory.Fromaveryearlyperioditwasvisitedbyemissariesfrom
Egyptiankingsinsearchofturquoise,whichisyieldedbytheminesoftheWadyMagharah.Theresculpturedsteleswereleft,andscenesengravedintherock,
fromthetimeofSemerkhetofthefirstdynasty,andSneferuofthethirddatedbyProfessorPetrieinthefifthandsixthmillenniaB.C.Thesesculpturesremained
almostintacttillrecentyearstillapartyofEnglishspeculators,whocametoattempttoreworktheoldmines,wantonlydestroyedmanyofthem(seePetrie,
ResearchesinSinai,p.46).Whatthesevandaisleftwascutfromtherockandremovedforsafety,underProfessorPetriesdirection,totheCairoMuseum.A
remarkabletemple,dedicatedtoHathor,butadapted,itwouldappear,rathertoSemiticformsofworship,existsatSerablelKhadem,notfarfromthesemines.It
wasprobablyerectedpartlyforthebenefitofthepartieswhovisitedtheminesfromtimetotime.
Geologically,Sinaiiscomposedofrocksoftheoldest(Archan)period.Theserocksaregraniteofaredandgreycolour,andgneiss,withschistsofvarious
kindshornbiende,talcose,andchioriticoverlyingthem.Manylater,butstillancient,dykesofdiorite,basalt,etc.,penetratetheseprimevalrocks.Vegetationis
practicallyconfinedtothevalleys,especiallyintheneighbourhoodofwatersprings.
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
SINCERE.TheEng.wordsincere,asitoccursin1P2:2thesinceremilkoftheword,isusedinitsoldsenseofunmixed,pure(RVwithoutguile).
SINEW(thatshrank).SeeGn32:32forthetraditionaloriginofaspecialfoodtaboo(cf.
F ,10),theresultofwhichwasthattheHebrewsabstainedfromeatingthesciaticmuscle(RVthesinewofthehip)ofanimalsotherwiseclean.The
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F OOD,10),theresultofwhichwasthattheHebrewsabstainedfromeatingthesciaticmuscle(RVthesinewofthehip)ofanimalsotherwiseclean.The
prohibitionisnotmentionedinanyofthelegislativecodesofthePentateuch.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.SINGERS.SeeP RIESTSANDLEVITES,III.1.2.
SINIM.ThelandofSinim(Is49:12)must,fromthecontext,havebeenintheextremesouthoreastoftheknownworld.Inthesouth,Sin(Pelusium,Ezk
30:15f.)andSyene(Ezk29:10,30:6)havebeensuggested.Thelatterisfavouredbyrecentdiscoveriesofpapyri(cf.S EVENEH).TheLXXfavourstheviewthata
countryintheeastwasintended,andsomemoderncommentatorshaveidentifiedSinimwithChina,thelandoftheSin.
SINITES.ACanaanitepeople(Gn10:17=1Ch1:15).Theiridentificationisquiteuncertain.
SINOFFERING.SeeS ACRIFICEANDOFFERING,14.
SION.1.AnameofHermon,Dt4:48.SionistakenbysometobeatextualerrorforSirion(wh.see).2.SeeZioninart.JERUSALEM,II.1.
SIPHMOTH.OneoftheplacestowhichaportionofthespoiloftheAmalekiteswassentafterDavidsreturntoZiklag(1S30:28).Thesitehasnotbeen
recovered.
SIPPAI.SeeS APH.
SIRACH.SeeAPOCRYPHA,13.
SIRAH,THEWELLOF.TheplaceatwhichJoabsmessengersovertookAbner(2S3:26).ItlayontheroadfromHebrontoJerusalem,andisnow
probablyAinSrah,nearHebron.
SIRION.ThenamesaidtohegivenbytheZidonianstoMt.Hermon,Dt3:9.LikeSenir,itmayoriginallyhavebeenthedesignationofaparticularpartofthe
mountain.Cf.S ION,1.
SISERA.1.InJg4:2ff.SiseraisrepresentedascaptainofthehostofJabin,aCanaanitekinghisarmyisovercomebytheIsraelitesunderBarak.Inhisflight
afterthebattle,Sisera,overcomebyfatigue,seeksrefugeinthetentofJael,whotreacherouslykillshimwhileasleep.Inanotheraccount(Jg5,theolderaccount)
Siseraappearsasanindependentruler,andJabinisnotevenmentionedthetwoaccountsdifferinanumberofsubsidiarydetails,butintwosalientpointsthey
agree,namely,astothedefeatofSiseraandastothemannerofhisdeath.Itisclearthattwotraditions,oneconcerningJabinandanotherconcerningSisera,have
beenmixeduptogetherinordertoharmonizethemSiserahasbeenmadeJabinscaptain(seeBARAK,DEBORAH,etc.).2.AfamilyofNethinim(Ezr2:53=1Es
5:32Serar).
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
SISINNES.ThegovernorofCleSyriaandPhniciaunderDarius(1Es6:3,7,27,7:1).
InEzr5:3etc.,beiscalledTattenai(wh.see).
SISMAI.AJerahmeelite(1Ch2:40).
SITH.Sith,thatissince,occursinJer15:7andotherplaceswhilesithenceoccursin2Es10:14.
SITHRI.AgrandsonofKohath(Ex6:22).
SITNAH(strife).ThenamegiventoawelldugbytheherdmenofIsaacintheregionofGerar(Gn26:21).Thesiteisuncertain.
H.L.WILLETT.
SIVAN.SeeT .
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SIVAN.SeeTIME.
SKIRT.SeeDRESS4(b).
SKULL,PLACEOFA.SeeGOLGOTHA.
SLANDER,TALEBEARING.Bothnounandverbslanderareusedofmaliciousgossipofvaryingdegreesofheinousness.Thereferencesarealltothe
slanderingofpersons,exceptNu14:36AV,whereRVhasanevilreportagainsttheland.Theexpressionwalkingwithslanders(Jer6:28,cf.9:4)isinthe
originalidenticalwithgoingaboutasatalebearer(Lv19:16,Pr11:13,20:19cf.Ezk22:9inAVandRV).Theelementoffalsehoodinthegossipisseenin2S
19:27,whereslanderedissynonymouswithfalselyaccused.OfnosinandwickednessaretheresomanycomplaintsinOTasofslanderandfalseaccusation
whereofthePsalmsarewitness(Cornill,Jeremia,89).See,further,CRIMESANDP UNISHMENTS,5.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
SLAVE,SLAVERY.TheHeb.ebhedh,usuallytr.servant,hasavarietyofmeanings,betweenwhichitisnotalwayseasytodistinguish.E.g.in2S9:2
servant=retainer,inv.10b=bondman,inv.11=apoliteexpressionofselfdepreciation(cf.2K4:1and1K9:22).InadiscussionofHebrewslaveryonlythose
passageswillbedealtwithinwhichthewordprobablyhasthesenseofbondage.
1.Legallytheslavewasachattel.Intheearliestcode(BookoftheCovenant[=BC])heiscalledhismastersmoney(Ex21:21).IntheDecalogueheisgrouped
withthecattle(Ex20:17),andsoregularlyinthepatriarchalnarratives(Gn12:16etc.).Eventhoselawswhichsoughttoprotecttheslavewitnesstohisdegraded
position.IntheBCthemasterisnotpunishedforinflictingevenafatalflogginguponhisslave,unlessdeathfollowsimmediately.Iftheslavelingersadayortwo
beforedying,themasterisgiventhebenefitofthedoubtastothecauseofhisdeath,andthelossoftheslaveisregardedasasufficientpunishment(Ex21:21).The
justalioniswasnotapplicabletotheslaveasitwastothefreeman(cf.21:26ff.with22ff.)anditisthemasteroftheslave,nottheslavehimself,whois
recompensediftheslaveisgoredbyanox(Ex21:32).IntheselasttwoinstancesBCfollowstheCodeofHammurabi[=CH](196199,252).
Inpracticetheslaveasachattelwasoftensubjecttoillusage.Hewasflogged(Ex21:20,Pr29:19),andattimesheartlesslydeserted(1S30:11ff.).Though
themasterishereanAmorite,thecasesofrunawayslavesinIsraelbeartestimonytotheirsufferingsevenatthehandsoftheirfellowcountrymencf.the
experiencesofthechurlNabal(1S25:10),ofthepassionateShimei(1K2:39),andofSarah(Gn16:6)theimplicationsastothefrequencyofsuchcasesinthe
lawofDt23:15ff.andinlatertimes(Sir33:2431).Thepositionofthemaidservantwasingeneralthesameasthatofthemanservant.IntheBCitisassumedthat
themaidservantisatthesametimeaconcubine(Ex21:7ff.cf.Hagar,Zilpah,andBilhahinthepatriarchalnarratives).EveninPtheideaoftheslavegirlas
propertyisstillretained(Lv19:20).Herethepunishmentfortheviolationofaslavegirlwasalmostcertainlyafinetobepaidtothemaster,ifwemayjudgefrom
theanalogouslawinEx22:16=Dt22:28i.e.itisanindemnityforinjurytoproperty.Inpracticethemaidservant,thoughtheconcubineofthemaster,isoftenthe
specialpropertyofthemistress(Gn16:6a,9,25:12,30:3),attimeshavingbeengiventoheratmarriage(Gn24:56,29:24,29).Sheissubjecttofieldlabour(Ru
2:8ff.)andtothelowestmeniallabour(1S25:41,figurative,butreflectingactualconditions).
Slaveswererecruited(1)principallyfromwar,atleastinearliesttimes.Captivesorsubjectpopulationswereoftenemployednotonlyaspersonalattendants,
butalsoaspublicslavesattheTemple(Jos9:23,27[21agloss],Neh7:5760,andseeart.NETHINIM)oronpublicworksinthecorve(Jos16:10,Jg1:28ff.,1K
9:2022=2Ch8:79),whilecaptivewomenwereespeciallysoughtasconcubinesorwives(Dt21:1014).(2)Fromtheslavetrade,ofwhichtheIsraelites
undoubtedlyavailedthemselves(cf.theimplicationsinGn37:26,17:12,Lv25:44).
ThistradewasmainlyinthehandsofthePhniciansandEdomites(Am1:6,9,Ezk27:13,Jl
3:6).(3)FromnativeIsraeliteswhobadbecomeenslavedasapunishmentfortheft(Ex22:14),whetherforothercrimesalsoisnotstatedJosephus(Ant.XVI.i.
1)knowsofnoother.(4)FromnativeIsraeliteswho,throughpovertyanddebt,hadbeenforcedtosellthemselves(Ex21:2,Am2:6,8:6,Dt15:12,Lv25:39,Pr
11:29[?]22:7[?])ortheirchildren(Ex21:7,2K4:1,Neh5:6,8,Is50:1,Job24:9)intoservitude.
Whetherthecreditorhadtherighttoforcethedebtorintoslaveryagainsthiswillisnotclear.Ex21:2and2K4:1(cf.Mt18:25)ratherfavourthisview.Thereflexiveverbin
Lv25:39aandinDt15:12,wherethesameverbalformshouldprobablybeagaintranslatedbythereflexive,notbythepassiveasinRV,favoursvoluntaryservitude.Butpossibly
thelatercodesaremodificationsoftheearlierpractice.Neh5:5isambiguous.
Astothenumberofslaveswehavenoadequatedata.Gn14:14cannotbeusedasevidence.Thenumbersinthecorve(1K5:13,15)arediscrepant,andin
anycaseprobablydonotrefertoslavesproper.TheprosperousretainerofSaulhas20servants(2S9:10).TheproportionofslavestofreemeninNeh7:66ff.is1
to6.Thepriceofslavesnaturallyvaried.TheBC(Ex21:32)fixestheaveragepriceat30shekels(about4).CHinthesamelawallowsbut17shekels(252,cf.
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to6.Thepriceofslavesnaturallyvaried.TheBC(Ex21:32)fixestheaveragepriceat30shekels(about4).CHinthesamelawallowsbut17shekels(252,cf.
214).Josephissoldfor20shekels(Gn37:26).InlatertimesthepriceinExodusseemstohavebeenmaintained(2Mac8:11Ant.XII.ii.3).
2.Butwhiletheslavewasachattel,neverthelesscertainreligiousandcivilrightsandprivilegeswereaccordedhim.Inlawtheslavewasregardedasanintegral
partofthemastershousehold(Ex20:17),and,assuch,anadherentofthefamilycult(cf.theinstructiveearlynarrativesinGn24and16).AccordinglytheBC(Ex
23:12)andtheDecalogue(Ex20:10)guaranteetohimtheSabbathrest.Deuteronomyallowshimashareinthereligiousfeasts(12:12,18,16:11,14),the
humanitarianviewpointbeingchieflyemphasized.InPthemoreprimitiveideaoftheslaveasamemberofthefamily,conceivedasareligiousunit,isstillretained
andutilizedintheinterestofreligiousexclusiveness.Thus,whilethegr(sojourner)cannotpartakeofthePassoverunlesscircumcised,theslavemustbe
circumcisedandsoisentitledtopartake(Ex12:44cf.thenarrativeGn17:12ff.).Again,whilethegrinapriestsfamily,oreventhedaughterofapriestwhohas
marriedintoanonpriestlyfamily,maynoteatoftheholythings,thepriestsslaveisallowedtodoso(Lv22:10ff.).
Astocivilrights:IntheBC,murderoftheslaveaswellasofthefreemanispunishablewithdeath(Ex21:12=Lv24:17thelawisInclusive).Ifdeathresults
fromflogging,themasterisalsopunished,conjecturallybyafine(Ex21:20ff.).Iftheslaveisseriouslymaimedbyhismaster,heisgivenhisfreedom(Ex21:26ff.).
AtthispointtheBCcontrastsveryfavourablywiththeCH.Thelatterdoesnotattempttoprotecttheslavespersonfromthemaster,butonlyprovidesforan
indemnitytothemasteriftheslaveisinjuredbyanother(199,213,214).Whileamancouldbesoldintoslaveryfordebt(seeabove),manstealingisprohibited
onpainofdeath(Ex21:16=Dt24:7).DeuteronomyinterpretstheExoduslawcorrectlyasaprohibitionagainststealingafellowcountryman.Deut.alsoforbids
returningaslavewhohasescapedfromaforeignmaster(Dt23:15ff.).IftheslaveinthiscasewereanonIsraelite(which,however,isnotcertain),thelawwouldbe
aremarkableexampleofthehumanetendenciesinDeut.andwouldagaincontrastfavourablywithCH,whichprescribesseverepenaltiesforharbouringfugitive
slaves(16,19).Thehumanelawfortheprotectionofcaptivewives(Dt21:1014)isalsonoticeable.
Butpracticeoftenwentfarbeyondlawinmitigatingtheseverityofservitude.Indeed,slaveryintheancientEastgenerallywasacomparativelyeasylot.The
slaveisgroupedwithwifeandchildaspartofthemastershousehold(Ex20:17).Childrenarepropertyandcanbesoldaswellasslaves(Ex21:7cf.22:16=Dt
22:28wherethedaughterisregardedasthefathersproperty).Childrenarefloggedaswellasslaves(Pr13:24).Wiveswereoriginallyboughtfromtheparents,and
wivesandconcubinesareoftenalmostindistinguishable.Hencethelotoftheslavewasprobablynotmuchharderthanthatofwifeorchild(cf.Gal4:1),andthe
lawimpliesthepossibilityofagenuineaffectionexistingbetweenmasterandman(Ex21:5=Dt15:16).Accordinglywefindmanyillustrationsoftheman
servantrisingtoapositionofimportance.Hemayheintrustedwiththemostdelicateresponsibilities(Gn24),maybetheheirofhismaster(Gn15:14),isoften
onintimatetermswithandadvisesthemaster(Jg19:3ff.,1S9:5ff.),thecustomofhavingbodyservants(Heb.naar,Nu22:22,1K18:43,2K4:12,Neh4:22
etc.)favouringsuchintimacies,andhemayevenmarryhismastersdaughter(1Ch2:34ff.cf.similarcasesinCH175ff.).Especiallyservantsofimportantmen
enjoyareflecteddignity(1S9:22,2K8:4).Theriseofservantsintopositionsofprominencewassofrequentastobethesubjectofmakingmaking(Pr14:35,
17:2,19:10,30:22a).
Whetheraservantcouldownpropertywhileremainingaservantisnotclear.Thepassagesadducedinfavourofit(1S9:8[agratuity],2S9:2ff.,16:1ff.[Zibaisaretainer],
Lv25:49b[notarealservant])arenotpertinent.Dt15:13makesagainstit,butnotnecessarily,andthefactthatinArabiaandBabylonia(CH176)theslavecouldownproperty
awakensapresumptioninfavourofthesamecustominIsrael.
Underagoodhousewifethemaidservantwouldbewelltakencareof(Pr31:15).Attimesshealsoseemstobetheheirofhermistress(Pr30:23b[?]).The
sonoftheslaveconcubinemightinheritthepropertyandthefathersblessing(Gn16:1ff.,21:13,49:1ff.),butthisdependedonthefatherswill(Gn25:5),asin
Babylonia(CH170ff.).Theeffectofoccupyingsuchpositionsoftrustwasoftenbad.Proverbsfearsit(19:10,30:2123),andsuchpassagesas2K5:20ff.,Neh
5:15,Gn16:4justifythefear.Servantsalsotendedtobecomeagentsoftheirmasterssins(1S2:1315,2S13:17).
3.Thusfarnodistinctionbetweennativeandforeignslaveshasbeenobservedeitherinlaworinpractice,exceptpossiblybyimplicationatEx21:16=Dt24:7,
andDt23:15ff.TheviewthattheprotectivelawsinEx21:20ff.,26ff.,32applyonlytothenativeslaveiswithoutexegeticaljustification,andGn17:12,Ex12:44,
Gn15:2[ifthetextcanbetrusted]39:1ff.[probablyequallyapplicabletoconditionsinIsrael],1Ch2:34ff.andGn16:1ff.showthattheforeignmanormaid
servantmayenjoyalltheadvantagesofthenativeIsraelite.
ThedistinctiondrawnbetweenthesubjectCanaanitesandtheIsraelitesat1K9:20ff.=2Ch8:7ff.isclearlyincorrect(cf.1K5:13)andbelongstoalaterdevelopmentinthe
ideasofslavery(seebelow).ThedistinctiondrawninPbetweenthehomebornslaveandtheonepurchasedwithmoney(Gn14:14,17:12etc.)doesnotrefertothetwoclasses
offoreignandnativeslaves.
Inapparentlybutoneparticular,thoughthisisofvitalImportance,thenativeslaveislegallybetteroffthantheforeignborn,namely,intherighttorelease.
AlreadyinCH(117)provisionwasmadefortherelease,afterthreeyears,ofawifeorchildrenwhohadbeensoldfordebt.IntheBC(Ex21:16)thisideawas
associatedwiththeSabbathidea,andareleasewasprescribedafter6yearsofservitude,butthelawwasextendedtocovereveryIsraelitemanservant.Yetinthe 87/116
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associatedwiththeSabbathidea,andareleasewasprescribedafter6yearsofservitude,butthelawwasextendedtocovereveryIsraelitemanservant.Yetinthe
specificationsofthelaw(vv.3,4)therightsofthemasterstillnoticeablyprecedetherightsofthehusbandandfather.Provisionisalsomadefortheslavetoremain
inservitudeifhepreferstodoso.Inthiscasetheservantistobebroughttothedoorofthemastershouse,notofthesanctuary(theritewouldthenloseits
significance),andhavehisearpiercedwithanawl(awidespreadsymbolofservitudeintheEast),whenhewouldbecomeaslaveforlife.
ThephraseuntoGod(v.6a)canscarcelyreferinthisconnexiontothelocalsanctuary,ashasusuallybeenheld.Itsignifiestheadoptionoftheslaveintothefamilyasa
religiousunit,andprobablyreferredoriginallytothehouseholdgods(orancestors?).
Inthecaseofthemaidservant(Ex21:711)noreleasewaspermittedunderordinarycircumstances(v.7),foritisassumedthattheslavegirlisatthesame
timeaconcubine,andhencereleasewouldbeagainstthebestinterestsbothofherselfandofthehome.Yetsheisnotleftwithoutprotection.Hermasterhasno
righttosellhertoafamilyorclannotherown(foreignpeople,v.8b,probablyhasthisrestrictedsignificance,saleofanIsraelitetoanonIsraelitebeingoutofthe
question),butmustallowhertoberedeemed,presumablybyoneofherownfamily.Failingthis,hemaygivehertohisson,inwhichcasesheistobetreatedasa
daughter(v.9).Ifneitherofthesemethodsisadopted,athirdwayisprovided.Hemaytakeanother(concubineorwife),butmustthenretainthefirst,providefor
hermaintenanceandrespecthermaritalrights(v.10).Ifthemasterrefusestoadoptanyoneofthesethreemethods(thesethree,v.11,referstothethreemethods
invv.810,nottothethreeprovisionsinv.10),then,andthenonly,themaidservanthasarighttorelease.
Theaboveisbutoneofseveralpossibleinterpretationsofthispassage.Further,themeaningofv.8aisdoubtful.Thetextiscorrupt.Insteadofthephrasewhohathespoused
hertohimself,weshouldreadeithersothathehathnotknownher,orwhohathknownher.Onthefirstreadingthetwomethodsofprocedureinvv.8,9areallowableifshe
bestillavirgin(inv.10sheisnolongersuch).Onthesecondreadingoneofthethreemethodsinvv.810mustbefollowedwhensheisdefactoaconcubine.Thelatterreadingis
exegeticallypreferable.Theresultantpossibilityofafathergivinghisconcubinetoasonwasprobablynotoffensive,atatimewhenwifeandconcubinewereregardedasproperty
whichasoncouldinherit.AmongtheArabsmarriagewithastepmotherwascommontilltheriseofIslam.InlatertimesthesemarriageswereforbiddenbothintheKoranandin
theHebrewlaw(Dt22:30,27:20,Lv18:8,20:11).
TheDeuteronomicreformulationoftheLawofRelease(Dt15:1218)isnoteworthy.(1)Releaseisextendedtothemaidservant.Consequentlythe
specificationsinEx21:8,4,711areallowedtolapse,andintheriteriteonlythepossibilityoftheslavecontinuinginservitudethroughloveofhismasteris
considered.Thischangeisduetotheincreasingrespectforthemarriagerelation.Theslavehusbandsrightsoverthewifearenowsuperiortothemastersrights,
anditisapparentlynolongerassumedthatthemaidservantassuchistheconcubineofhermaster.Whereconcubinagedoesnotexist,themaidservantcanbe
releasedwithoutprejudicetothemaritalrelation.(2)InDeut.theriteriteisclearlyonlyadomesticrite.Thisconfirmstheinterpretationoftheritegivenabove.The
Deuteronomist,wholocalizesallreligiousobservancesatthecentralsanctuary,consequentlydropstheuntoGodofEx21:6a.
(3)Thecharacteristichumanitarianexhortation(vv.13,14)isadded,andthereasonablenessofthelawdefended(vv.15,18).
Jer34:817describesanabortiveattempttoobservethelawinitsDeuteronomicformulation.Thelawhadevidentlynotbeenobservedinspiteofitsreasonableness,andwas
subsequentlyagainallowedtobecomeadeadletter.
AthirdversionoftheLawofReleaseisfoundatLv25:3955.Threecasesareconsidered:
(1)thatoftheIsraelitewhohassoldhimself,becauseofpoverty,tohisfellowcountryman(vv.3943).Suchanoneisnottoberegardedasarealslavebutasa
hireling,andistobereleasedintheyearofJubilee.(2)ActualslavesaretobeobtainedonlyfromnonIsraelitepeoples(cf.1K9:20).Forthemthereisnorelease
(vv.4446).(3)IfanIsraelitesellshimselftoagr,hemayberedeemedatanytimebyhisnextofkinorbyhimself(powertoacquirepropertyassumed),butin
anycasehemustbefreedattheyearofJubilee(vv.4754).Theredemptionpriceisproportionedtothenumberofyearshehadyettoservefromthetimeofhis
redemptiontotheJubileeyear,inotherwords,tothepayhewouldreceiveasanhirelingduringthatperiod.ThusthepossibilityofanIsraelitebecominganactual
slaveisagainobliterated.Thedifferencesbetweenthislawandtheearlierlegislationaremarked.(a)Itformulatesthegrowingprotestagainsttheideathatan
Israelitecouldbeaslave(cf.Neh5:5,8).(b)ThroughtheinstitutionoftheJubileeyearitprovidesthateventhequasiservitudewhichisadmittedshouldnotbefor
life,andconsequentlyitignorestheawlrite.
Adifficultyemergesatthispoint.TheLeviticallaw,whichpostponesreleasetillthe50thyear,seemstoworkagreaterhardshipattimesthantheearlierlaws,whichprescribe
releaseinthe7thyear.Herethreethingsaretoberemembered:(a)theearlierlawhadprobablybecomeadeadletterlongbeforethepresentlawwasformulated(cf.Jer34,above)
(b)theJubileelawistheresultofatheologicaltheory(cf.vv.23,42,55),andneverbelongedtothesphereofpracticallegislation(c)assuchitistobeconstrued,notinantithesis
tothe7thyearoftheearlierlaws,buttothelifelongperiodofservitudeoftenactuallyexperienced.Itwillnotlengthenthetimeuntiltheyearofrelease,butwilltheoretically
abolishalllifelongservitude.Thistheoreticalpointofviewsopredominatesthattheprolongationofthetimeofservitude,ifthelawhadeverbecomeactuallyoperative,isleftout
ofaccount.ThefactthattheIsraeliteinservitudetoanotherIsraeliteisreallyworseoffthananIsraeliteattachedtoagr,whocouldberedeemedatanytime,alsoshowsthatweare
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ofaccount.ThefactthattheIsraeliteinservitudetoanotherIsraeliteisreallyworseoffthananIsraeliteattachedtoagr,whocouldberedeemedatanytime,alsoshowsthatweare
notdealingwithpracticallegislation.
4.Inthesethreelawsofreleasewehavethreeclearlymarkedstagesintherecognitionoftheslavespersonality.TheBCprovidesforthereleaseoftheIsraelite
manservant.Deut.,withitshumanitariantendencies,extendsthisprivilegetothemaidservant.Lev.,onthebasisofitstheologicalconceptions,deniesthatany
Israelitecanbeanactualslave.Butalltheselawsremainwithinnationalisticlimitations.Onestepmoremustbetaken.Therightsoftheslaveasaman,andnot
simplyasafellowcountryman,mustberecognized.Thegrowingindividualismwhichaccompaniedthedevelopmentofthedoctrineofmonotheismpreparedthe
wayforthisfinalstep,whichwastakenbyJobinthenoblepassage31:1315.InthesamespiritJoeluniversalizestheprimitiveconceptionofthenecessary
attachmentoftheslavetothefamilycult,andmakeshimshareequallywithallfleshinthebaptismoftheSpiritofGod(2:29).
Note.TherelationshipofservanttomasterisafavouritefigureintheOTfortherelationshipofmantoGod(esp.inthePsalms).Thenation,Israel,isalsooftenthoughtofas
theservantofJehovah(cf.Is41:8ff.)athoughtwhichfindsitsmostprofoundexpressioninIs42:14,49:16,50:410,52:1353:12.Cf.art.SERVANTOFTHEL ORD.
5.IntheNTitisonlytheattitudeofJesusandSt.Paultowardsslaverythatdemandsattention.Jesuswasnotapoliticalagitator,orevenasocialreformer.In
nothingisthisfactmorestrikinglyillustratedthaninHisallusionstoslavery.Hereferstoitonlyforpurposesofillustration(e.g.Mk12:2,4,Mt24:45,Jn8:35etc.).
Henevercriticizesit,evenwhenitviolates,asHemusthaverealized,Hisownprinciplesofloveandbrotherhood(Mt18:25,Lk17:7ff.contrastthefigurative
pictureinLk12:37).But,asChristianityreachedintotheworldanddevelopedintoasocialforce,itbecameincreasinglynecessarytoconsiderwhatitsattitude
towardsslaveryshouldbe,especiallyasmanyslavesbecameChristians(inRo16:10,11,1Co1:11,Ph4:22themofthehouseholdaretheslaveretainers).Inthis
connexionSt.PaulenunciatesjustonegreatprincipleInChristallthedistinctionsofthisworlddisappearthereligionofJesusknowsneitherbondnorfree(1Co
12:13,Gal3:28,Col3:11).Buthedidnotusethisprincipletooverthrowtheinstitutionofslavery.Onthecontrary,at1Co7:2123hecounselsonewhohasbeen
called(intotheChristianlife)whileaslavenottomournhislot.Heevenadviseshim,iftheopportunitytobecomefreeisoffered,toremaininservitude(v.21,but
theinterpretationisdoubtful),thenearapproachoftheParousia(v.29)apparentlythrowingtheseexternalconditionsoflifeintoaperspectiveofinsignificancefor
St.Paul.TheApostledoesnotseektomakefreemenoutofslaves,butgoodslavesoutofbadslaves(Eph6:59,Col3:224:1cf.1P2:18).Inthesepassages
thecorrespondingdutiesofmastertomanarealsoinsistedupon,asthereisnorespectofpersonswithChrist.ItissignificantthatinthelaterPastoralEpistles(1Ti
6:1ff.,Tit2:911)theexhortationstothemastersareomitted.ItwouldseemasifsomeslaveshadtakenadvantageoftheChristianprincipleofbrotherhoodto
becomeinsurbordinate.InPhilemonwehavetheclassicalillustrationofSt.Paulsattitudetowardsslaveryexemplifiedinaconcretecase.Hereagainhedoesnot
askPhilemontofreeOnesimusanditisclearfrom1Ti6:1ff.andthesubsequenthistoryoftheChurchthatChristiansingoodstandingownedslaves.Butin
Philem16theslaveistransfiguredintoabrotherinChrist.Forfurtherdiscussionofthispointseeart.P HILEMON.
ThoughtheChurchrecognizedslavery,itisaremarkablefactthatintheepitaphsofthecatacombsthedeceasedisneverspokenofashavingbeena(humanmasters)slave,
thoughoftendescribedasaslaveofGod.Indeath,atleast,theChristianidealwasfullyrealized.TheslavebecomeswiththemasteronlytheslaveofGod.Contrastthegloomy
equalityinJob3:19.
KEMPERF ULLERTON.
SLEEVES.SeeDRESS,2(d).
SLEIGHT.Thewordtr.sleightinEph4:14,bythesleightofmen,meansliterallydiceplaying.Tindaleuseswylynes,whichismoreintelligiblenowthan
sleight.
SLIME.SeeBITUMEN,S IDDIM[VALEOF].
SLING.SeeARMOURARMS,1(e).
SMITH.SeeARTSANDCRAFTS,2.
SMYRNA(alsoandmorestrictlyZmyrna)wasfoundedasacolonyfromGreeceearlierthanB.C.1000,buttheearlyfoundation,whichhadbeenolian,was
capturedbyitssouthernneighbourstheIonianGreeksandmadeanIoniancolony.ThissecondfoundationbecameapowerfulState,possessingterritoryfartothe
E.,andaslateasthe7thcent.B.C.foughtonequaltermsagainstthegreatLydianpower(seeS ARDIS).Itgraduallygaveway,however,andwascapturedand
destroyedabout . .600byAlyattes,kingofLydia.ItnowceasedtobeaGreekcity,anditwasnottillthe3rdcent. . .thatitbecamesoagain.TherewasaState
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destroyedaboutB.C.600byAlyattes,kingofLydia.ItnowceasedtobeaGreekcity,anditwasnottillthe3rdcent.B.C.thatitbecamesoagain.TherewasaState
calledSmyrnabetween600and290,butitwasmainlyaloosecongeriesofvillagesscatteredabouttheplainandthesurroundinghills,andnotintheGreeksensea
polis(cityState).AlexandertheGreatintendedtorefoundthecity,butdidnotcarryouthisplan.Itwasleftforoneofhissuccessors,Lysimachus,who
accomplisheditinB.C.290.TheoldcityhadbeenonasteephighhillontheN.sideoftheextremeeasternrecessofthegulfthenewwasplantedontheS.E.
shoreofthegulf,about2milesaway.TheobjectofthechangewastoobtainagoodharbourandasuitablepointforthestartingofalandtraderoutetotheE.There
wereinrealitytwoportsasmallinneronewithanarrowentrance,andamooringgroundtheformerhasgraduallyfilledupthroughneglect.Itsmaritime
connexionbroughtitintocontactwiththeRomans,whomadeanalliancewithSmyrnaagainsttheSeleucidpower.InB.C.195SmyrnabuiltatempletoRome,and
everafterwardsremainedfaithfultothatStatethroughgoodfortuneandbad.Romeshowedathoroughappreciationofthisfriendshipandloyalty,andinA.D.26
thiscitywaspreferredbeforeallothersinAsiaastheseatofthenewtempletobededicatedbytheconfederacyofthatprovincetoTiberius.
Thecitywasofremarkablebeauty.ItsclaimtobethechiefcityofAsiawascontestedbyEphesusandPergamum,butinbeautyitwaseasilyfirst.Inadditionto
itspicturesquesituationitwascommendedbyitshandsomeandexcellentlypavedstreets,whichwerefringedbythegrovesinthesuburbs.Thecitywaswell
wailed,andinthepagosabovepossessedanidealacropolis,which,withitssplendidbuildingsinorderlyarrangement,wasknownasthecrownorgarlandof
Smyrna.TheprotectingdivinityofthecitywasalocalvarietyofCybele,knownastheSipyleneMother,andthetowersandbattlementsofherheaddressborean
obviousresemblancetotheappearanceofthecity.(TheGreeksidentifiedherwithNemesis,whoherealoneintheGreekworldwasworshipped,andnotasonebut
asapairofgoddesses.)TherewasonestreetknownastheStreetofGold.ItwentfromW.toE.,curvingroundtheslopinghill,andhadatempleonahillateach
end.Foritslengthandfinebuildingsitwascomparedtoanecklaceofjewelsroundtheneckofastatue.Thelifeofthecitywasandismuchbenefitedinthehottest
periodofthedaybyawestwindwhichblowsonitwithgreatregularity,dyingdownatsunset.Thiswascounterbalancedbyadisadvantage,thedifficultyof
drainingthelowestpartsofthecity,adifficultyaccentuatedbythisverywind.SmyrnaboastedthatitwasthebirthplaceofHomer,whohadbeenbornandbrought
upbesidetheriverMeles.ThisstreamisidentifiedbylocalpatriotismwiththeCaravanBridgeRiver,whichflowsnorthwardstillitcomesbelowthepagos,then
flowsrounditseasternbaseandenterstheseatotheN.E.ofit.Butthisisamistakenview.TheMelesisundoubtedlytobeidentifiedwiththestreamcomingfrom
theBathsofDianaandcalledChalkabounar,asitalonesatisfiestheminutedescriptionoftheSmyrnanoratorAristides(flourished2ndcent.A.D.)andother
ancientwriters.Itrisesintheverysuburbsofthecity,andisfedbyalargenumberofsprings,whichriseclosetooneanother.Itscourseisshapedshapedatfirst,
andafterwardsitflowsgentlytothesealikeacanal.Itstemperatureisequablealltheyearround,anditnevereitheroverflowsordriesup.Thecityhassuffered
fromfrequentearthquakes(forinstance,inA.D.180),buthasalwaysrisensuperiortoitsmisfortunes.ItdidnotbecomeaTurkishcitytillTamerlanecaptureditin
A.D.1402.EvennowtheChristianelementisthreetimesaslargeastheMohammedan,andtheTurkscallthecityInfidelSmyrna.Ithasalwaysbeenanimportant
placeecclesiastically.
ThelettertotheChurchatSmyrna(Rev2:811)isthemostfavourableofall.Thewriterputsitsmembersonahigherplanethananyoftheothers.They
haveenduredpersecutionandpoverty,buttheyarerichinrealwealth.Theyarethevictimsofcalumny,butarenottobeafraid.Someareeventobesenttoprison
asapreludetoexecution,andtohavesufferingforatime.Iftheyarefaithfultheyshallreceivereallife.Thechurchwasdeadandyetlived,likethecityinformer
days.TheJewsinSmyrnahadbeenspeciallyhostiletotheChristians,andhadinformedagainstthembeforetheRomanofficials.Mostofthemwereprobably
citizensofSmyrna,butbecamemergedinthegeneralpopulationandwerenotconfinedtoacertaintribe,sincetheRomansceasedtorecognizetheJewsasanation
afterA.D.70.ThehatredoftheJewstherecanbeexplainedonlybythesuppositionthatmanyoftheChristianswereconvertedJews.Similarlytheyhelpedinthe
martyrdomofPolycarp(A.D.155).ThecityanditsChristianityhavesurvivedallattacks.
A.S OUTER.
SNAIL.l.chmet,Lv11:30.SeeLIZARD.2.shabblul,Ps58:8Letthemheasasnailwhichmeltethandpassethaway.Thereferencehereappearstobeto
theslimytrackwhichasnailleavesbehindit,whichgivestheappearanceofmeltingaway.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
SNARES.Acordwithrunningnoose(mqsh,Am3:5etc.cf.yqshonewholayssnares,fowlerHos9:8)wasusedtocatchgroundgameandbirds.
Thefowleralsousedanet(resheth,Pr1:17,Hos5:1etc.),underwhichhetemptedbirdsbymeansoffood,andthen,concealednearby,pulleditdownuponthem.
Thepach(Ps124:7,Pr7:23,Ec9:12etc.)probablycorrespondedtotheArab.fakhkh,atrapmadeofhoneandgut,withtongueandjawsontheprincipleofthe
commonrattrap.Itislight,andthebirdcaughtbythefooteasilyspringsupwithitfromthegroundinitsvaineffortstoescape.OfthisAmosgivesavividpicture
(3:5).Inlatertimesthefowleruseddecoystolurebirdsintohiscage(Sir11:30).BothmqshandpachareseveraltimesrenderedinEVbygin.TheNTpagis(Ro
11:9etc.),andbrochos(1Co7:35),maymeansnare,net,ortrapwhateverseizesoneunawares.
W.EWING.
SNOW.EverywintersnowfallsoccasionallyinthemountainousdistrictsofPalestine,butseldomliesformorethanafewhoursatmostforadayortwo. 90/116
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SNOW.EverywintersnowfallsoccasionallyinthemountainousdistrictsofPalestine,butseldomliesformorethanafewhoursatmostforadayortwo.
Thegreaterpartoftheyear,however,snow,glisteningontheshouldersofGreatHermon,iseasilyseenfrommostofthehigherhillsinthecountry.Itisfrequently
usedasasymbolofwhitenessandpurity(Ex4:6,Ps51:7,Is1:18,Mt28:3etc.).Itstandsforthecoldagainstwhichthegoodhousewifeprovides(Pr31:21).
FromMt.Hermonsnowhasbeencarriedsinceoldentimestogreatdistances,torefreshthethirstyintheburningheatofsummer(Pr26:1).Watermithleththilj(
likethesnow)forcoolness,isthemodernArabsidealdrink.
W.EWING.
SNUFFERS,SNUFFDISHES.TheformerofthesearethetongsofEx37:23,thelatterthevesselsinwhichtheburntportionsofthewicksweredeposited.
SeeTABERNACLE,6(b).Cf.F IREPAN.
SO.ThekingofEgypt(Mizraim),HosheascorrespondencewithwhomledshortlytothecaptivityofIsrael(2K17:4).InB.C.725thekingdomofEgyptwas
probablyinconfusion(endofDyn.23),thelandbeingdividedamongpettyprinces,andthreatenedorheldbytheEthiopians.ItisdifficulttofindanEgyptian
nameofthisperiodthatwouldbespeltSoinHebrew.Assyrianannals,however,informusthatin722,shortlyafterthefallofSamaria,acertainSibi,tartan
(commanderinchief)ofMusri,wassentbyPiru,kingofMusri(i.e.
probablyPharaob,kingofEgypt),tothehelpofGazaagainstSargon.ThisSibimaybeourSo(orSeve),notking,butcommanderinchief.Ithasbeenthought
thattheHeb.So,Seve,andtheAssyr.SibimightstandforthenameoftheEthiopianShabakoofthe25thDyn.,ascrownprinceandthenking,buttheywouldbe
singularlyimperfectrenderingsofthatname.ShabakogainedthethroneofEgyptaboutB.C.713.
F.LL.GRIFFITH.
SOAP(brth)occursinEV(AVsope)onlyinJer2:22(washingoftheperson)andMal3:2(operationsofthefuller).Properlybrthdenotessimplythat
whichcleanses.Thecognatewordbriscommonlyrenderedcleanness,butinJob9:30,Is1:25RVmgiveslye.Soapinthemodernsenseofthewordwas
unknowninOTtimes,andwedonotknowwhatpreciselyisreferredtobybrth.AsinJer2:22nether(AVnitre[wh.see]),amineralalkali,issetinantithesisto
brth,itissupposedthatthelatterwassomekindofvegetablealkaliwhich,mixedwithoil,wouldservethepurposesofsoap.Thismaybeconfirmedbythefact
thatinJer2:22andMal3:2LXXrendersbrthbypoia=grass.
J.C.LAMBERT.
SOBRIETY.SeeTEMPERANCE,1.
SOCO,SOCOH(RVhasSocoheverywhere,exceptin1Ch4:18and2Ch28:18,whereithasSoco).1.AfortifiedtownintheShephlahofJudah,
mentionedinJos15:35alongwithAdullamandAzekahthePhilistines(1S17:1)pitchedbetweenSocohandAzekah:Benhesed,oneofSolomonstwelve
officers,hadchargeofit(1K4:10)itwasrefortifiedbyRehoboam(2Ch11:7)duringthereignofAhazitwastaken,alongwithotherprominentfortresscitiesof
theShephlah,bythePhilistines.ItssitewasknowntoEusebiusandJerome.ItisnowKhurbetShuweikeh(dim.ofArab.Shaukeh),aruinonaremarkableisolated
hillintheWadyesSunt(ValeofElah)nearwhereitturnswest.Thehillissurroundedonthreesidesbydeepvalleys,whileontheremaining,theE.end,anarrow,
lowneck,easilydefended,connectsitwiththehigherground.Althoughtherearefewremainsonthesurface,theancientcitywallmaybetracedroundmostofthe
circumference:thereisaplentifulspringtotheS.W.Suchadefensiblesite,lyingclosetomainroadsfromJerusalem,Bethlehem,Hebron,etc.,tothegreatPhilistine
plain,mustalwayshavebeenoffirstclassimportance.TheSuchathitesof1Ch2:55areperhapsinhabitantsofSocoh.
2.AnotherSocoh(apparently)ismentionedinJos15:48,alongwithJattirandDebir.ThesiteofthismaybeeshShuweikeh,10milesS.W.ofHebron.3.Soco
in1Ch4:18isprobablyoneorotherofthesetwotowns.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
SOD,SODDEN.SeeS EETHE.
SODI.ThefatheroftheZebulunitespy(Nu13:10).
SODOM.SeeDEADS EA,P LAIN[CITIESOFTHE].
SODOMITISHSEA,2Es5:7=theDeadSea(wh.see).
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SODOMITISHSEA,2Es5:7=theDeadSea(wh.see).
SOJOURNER.SeeS TRANGER.
SOLDIER.SeeARMY,LEGION,WAR.
SOLEMN,SOLEMNITY.Theadj.solemnfrequentlyoccursinAV,alwayswithassemblyormeetingorsomesuchword,andalwaysinitsearlysenseof
regularorpublicThusasolemnfeastmeanssimplyastatedfeastthereisnocorrespondingwordintheHebrew.Inthesamewaysolemnitymeanspublic
occasion.Howmuchthisword,asusedinAV,differsfromitsmodernmeaning,maybeseenfromShaks.,MidsummerNightsDream,v.i.376:
Afortnightholdwethissolemnity,Innightlyrevelsandnewjollity.
SOLEMNASSEMBLY.SeeCONOREGATION
SOLOMON
1.Sources.1K111(cf.11:41),withparallelsin2Ch19(addreferencesinclosingchs.of1Ch.).InChroniclesthecharacterofSolomon,asofthe
periodasawhole,isidealizede.g.nothingissaidoftheintriguesattendinghisaccession,hisforeignmarriagesandidolatry,orhisfinaltroubles,evenwith
Jeroboam.Detailsareaddedoralteredinaccordancewithpostexilicpriestlyconceptions(5:12,13,7:5,8:1115)1:3(cf.1K3:4)makesthesacrificeatGibeon
moreorthodoxthedreambecomesatheophanyin7:1,3firecomesdownfromheaven.In9:29
referenceismadetoauthorities,possiblysectionsof1K.thereisnoevidencethattheChroniclerwasabletogobehind1,2K.forhismaterials.ThebooksofOT
andApocryphaascribedtoSolomonareofvalueonlyasgivinglaterconceptionsofhiscareer.Josephus(Ant.VIII.iviii.)cannotbereliedonwherebediffersfrom
OTthesameholdsgoodofthefragmentsquotedbyEusebiusandClemensAlexandrinus.Laterlegends,JewishandMohammedan,areinteresting,buthistorically
valuelessthefactthattheyhaveinnowayinfluencedtheOTnarrativeisanevidenceofitsgeneralreliabilityonlytwodreamsandnomarvelsarerecordedof
Solomon.Archologyhassofarcontributedverylittletoourknowledgeofhisreign.
2.Chronology.Hisaccessionisdatedc.B.C.969,i.e.about50yearslaterthanthetraditionalchronology.Wehaveunfortunatelynoexactdata,thedatesof
HiramandShishak(1K11:40)nothavingbeenpreciselydetermined.Theoriginandinterpretationofthe480yearsin
6:1areverydoubtful.Thelittlechildof3:7(cf.Jer1:6)doesnotrequirethetraditionthatSolomonwasonlytwelveathisaccession(Josephus)theprobabilities
pointtohisbeingabouttwenty.The40yearsofhisreign,asofDavids(cf.Jg3:11,30,5:31,8:28etc.),wouldseemtorepresentageneration.
3.Earlyyears.SolomonwasthesonofDavidandBathsheba(2S12:24,25),presumablytheireldestsurvivingchildhispositioninthelistsof5:14,1Ch
3:5,14:4isstrange,perhapsduetoemphasis.Thenamemeanspeaceful(Heb.Shetmohcf.Irenus,Friedrich),indicatingthelongingoftheoldking(1Ch
22:9)cf.Absatom(fatherispeace).ThenamegivenhimbyNathan(2S12:25),Jedidiah(belovedofJ,thesamerootasDavid),isnotagainreferredto,
perhapsasbeingtoosacred.ItwasthepledgeofhisfathersrestorationtoDivinefavour.Wehavenoaccountofhistraining.TheLordlovedhim(2S12:24)
impliesgreatgiftsandv.25and1K1suggesttheinfluenceofNathan.Hismotherevidentlyhadastrongholdoverhim(1K1,2).
4.Accession.TheappointmentofasuccessorinEasternmonarchiesdependedonthekingschoice,whichinIsraelneededtoberatifiedbythepeople(1K
12)wherepolygamyprevails,primogeniturecannotbeassumed.1:13impliesapreviouspromisetoBathsheba,perhapsacourtsecretthepublicproclamationof
1Ch22:219,ifatallhistorical,mustbemisplaced.Adonijah,averygoodlyman(1K1:6),relyingonthefavourofthepeople(2:15)[itisdoubtfulwhetherhe
wastheeldestsurvivingson],madeabidforthethrone,imitatingthemethodofAbsalomandtakingadvantageofDavidssenility.Hewaseasilyfoiledbythe
promptactionofNathanandBathshebaSolomonhimselfwasevidentlyyoung,thoughsoonabletoasserthimself.Thecarefulandimpressiveritualofthe
coronationwascalculatedtoleavenodoubtinthepeoplesmindastowhowastherightfulheir.Theyoungkinglearnedquicklytodistinguishbetweenhisfriends
andenemies,aswellastorelyontheloyaltyoftheCherethites,hisfathersforeignbodyguard.ThesparingofAdonijah(1K1:53)suggeststhathewasnotavery
formidablecompetitorhisplotwasevidentlybadlyplanned.HisrequesttoBathsheba(2:13)mayhavebeenpartofarenewedattemptonthekingdom(asheirhe
claimshisfatherswives),ormayhavebeenduetorealaffection.Atanyratethekingssuspicionorjealousywasaroused,andhisrivalwasremovedCanticles
suggeststhatSolomonhimselfwasbelievedtohavebeentheloverofAbishag.ThedepositionofAbiathar,andtheexecutionofJoabandShimei,werenatural
consequencesandinthecaseofthetwolast,Solomonwasonlyfollowingtheadviceofhisfather(2:5,8).Hethusearlyemphasizedhispowertoact,andasa
resulthiskingdomwasestablishedgreatlyatacheapcost.Weshallhardlycriticisetheremovalofdangerousrivalswhenwerememberthefatewhichhehimself
wouldhavemetifAdonijahhadsucceeded(1:21),andtheincidentscommonatthebeginningofanewreign(2K11:1cf.Pr25:5).
5. Policy.TheworkofSolomonwastodeveloptheideasofhisfather.Heconsolidatedthekingdom,weldingitsdisorganizedtribaldivisionstogetherintoa
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5.Policy.TheworkofSolomonwastodeveloptheideasofhisfather.Heconsolidatedthekingdom,weldingitsdisorganizedtribaldivisionstogetherintoa
shortlivedunity,bythepowerofanOrientaldespotism.ThesubjugationoftheCanaaniteswascompleted(9:20).ThepositionofJerusalemasthecapitalwas
securedbythebuildingoftheTempleandpalacesandbythefortificationofMillo(9:24,11:27).Achainofgarrisonandstorecitieswasestablished(9:15),
togetherwithastandingarmywhichincluded12,000horsemenand1400chariots(4:26,10:26).Theextentofhisdominions(4:21,24)mayrepresenttheideaofa
laterage,andEasternmonarchswerereadytoclaimsuzeraintywheretherewasbutlittleeffectivecontrol.Butinscriptionsshowushowkaleidoscopicwerethe
politicsoftheperiodkingdomsroseandfellveryquickly,andthesurroundingStateswereallatthetimeinastateofweakness.Itwasthisthatenabledhisreignto
beagenerationofpeace.Histroubles(11:940)wereveryfewforsolongalife.ThehostilityofHadad(v.14ff.)wasalegacyfromDavid,butthereisno
evidencethathebecamekingofEdom.Rezon(v.23)conqueredDamascusandfoundedadynasty,butwehearnothingofanyseriouswar.Nothingisknownof
theHamathzobahwhichSolomonsubdued(2Ch8:3).MorethananyotherJewishking,herealizedtheimportanceofforeignalliances,whichwereclosely
connectedwithhiscommercialpolicy.(a)EarlyinhisreignhemarriedPharaohsdaughter(1K3:1),whobroughtashermarriageportionGezer(9:16).This
PharaohwasapparentlythelastoftheTanite(21st)dynastyaconfusedperiodofwhichlittleisknownwehavenoothernoticeoftheconnexionbetweenEgypt
andPalestineatthisperiod.Solomonwasabletocontrol,andnodoubtprofitedby,thecaravantradebetweentheEuphratesandtheNile.Thecaravanseraiof
Chimham(Jer41:17cf.2S19:37,1K2:7)mayhavebeenestablishedatthisperiodinconnexionwiththattrade.FromEgypt(unlessaN.SyrianMusriis
intended)camehorsesandchariotsforSolomonsownuse,andforthepurposesofaSyriantrade(10:28,29).Thealliancewasapparentlynotdisapprovedatthe
time(cf.Ps45),butitwasnotcontinuedShishakprotectsJeroboam(1K11:40).(b)ThealliancewithHiramofTyre(accordingtoClem.Alex.,Solomonalso
marriedhisdaughter,cf.11:1,5)wasacontinuationofthepolicyofDavid[butunlessthisHiramwasthesonofDavidsallythebuildingofthepalacein2S5:11
isputtooearly].Thiswasinconnexionwithhisbuildingoperations(5:112).TimberfromLebanonwasbroughtbyseatoJoppa,togetherwithskilledworkmen
fromTyre,especiallytheGebalites(v.18,cf.Ezk27:8)Hiram,aworkerinbrass,isparticularlymentioned(1K7:13).Theyearlypaymentconsistedofagricultural
commodities(5:11noteexaggerationsin2Ch2:10).AgrantoftwentycitiesinGalileewasunsatisfactorytoHiram,thoughheapparentlypaidforthem(1K9:10
14).AmoresubstantialreturnwasthesecuritywhichSolomonwasabletooffertoPhniciantradewiththeE.,and,aboveall,accesstotheportof
EziongeberontheRedSea,madepossiblebyhissuzeraintyoverEdom.Tamar(1K9:18RV[AVTadmor])inS.Judahapparentlyprotectedtheroutetotheport.
Alucrativetradewascarriedonbythetwokingsinpartnership,ingold,spices,sandalwood,apes,peacocks,etc.(9:26,10:11,22).Theextentoftheirvoyagesisa
mystery,thesituationofbothOphirandTarshishbeingunknown.AssumingthattherewasonlyoneTarshish,andthatintheWest,itisstillverydoubtfulwhether
SolomoncanhavebeenallowedanyshareintheMediterraneantradeshipsofTarshishmaybeonlyanameforaparticulartypeofvessel.TheOphirtrademust
havebeenconnectedwithS.ArabiahencenodoubtthevisitofthequeenofSheba(10:1)thepresentsexchangedwouldbereallyofthenatureofbarter,as
illustratedbytheTellelAmarna
tablets.TheJewsnevertookkindlytothesea,and,exceptfortheabortiveattemptofJehoshaphat(22:48),Solomonspolicyfoundnoimitators.
6.Internalconditionofhiskingdom.Theimpressionisgivenusofgreatwealth.ThoughthesumsleftbyDavid(1Ch22:14)areincredible(equaltoa
thousandmillionpounds),Solomonsownrevenue(fourmillions,1K10:14)ispossibleforanexceptionalyear.Butthegoldwasusedchieflyinunproductive
formsofdisplay(v.16ff.),andprobablybutlittlewasincirculationamongthepeoplehehadadifficultyinpayingHiram(9:11).Hispassionforbuildingswas
extravaganttheTemplewassevenyearsinbuilding(6:38)hisownhousethirteen(7:1)therewasalsothepalaceforhiswife(v.8).Hehadanenormouscourt
(notelistofofficersin4:2)andharem(11:1),necessitatingaluxuriousdailyprovision(4:22).Thecountrywasdividedintotwelveparts,undertwelveofficers,each
responsibleforamonthssupplies(v.7)thesedidnotcoincidewiththetribaldivisions,andJudahwasexempt.Forthebuildingoperationsamasorforcedlevy
wasorganizedunderAdoram(5:13,cf.2S20:24)withnumeroussubordinates(5:16,9:23)30,000menweresenttoLebanon,10,000amonththerewerecarriers
andhewers(5:15),andtheaborigineswereusedashelots(9:20,Ezr2:55mentionstheirdescendants).ThemaswastheverywordusedofthelabourinEgypt,and
beneaththeapparentprosperity(4:20,25)wasagrowingdiscontentandjealousyofJudah,whichbrokeoutintherebellionofJeroboam.Byhispersonal
popularityandextravagantdisplaySolomonwonagreatname(4:31,10:1,7),andgaveIsraelapositionamongthenations.Hisreigncametobeidealized,but
hispolicywasclearlyeconomicallyandsociallyunsound,andcouldonlyleadtoruin.Fromthereligiouspointofviewtheoutstandingfeatureisthebuildingofthe
Temple.ItisananachronismtorepresentitasthecentralizationoftheworshipofJaccordingtothestandardofDeut.,totheexclusionofthehighplaces,andits
effectwaslargelyneutralizedbythehonourpaidtoothergods(11)nonethelessitselaboratemagnificencewasavisibleproofofthetriumphofJovertheBaal
worshipofCanaan,andofHisexaltationassupremeGodofthenation.ItcannotbemaintainedthatthematerialandlocalconceptionoftheDeitywhichit
suggestedmadeentirelyforspiritualreligion(Is1:13,Jer7:4,Ac7:48)itmeantaconcentrationofpowerinthehandsoftheJerusalempriesthoodatthecostofthe
prophets,whohadnoinfluenceduringSolomonsreign(Nathanin4:6isprobablyhisbrother),andtheattitudeofNathan,Ahijah,andShemaiahmakesitprobable
thattheylookedwithsuspiciononthenewdevelopments.Itwas,however,anecessarystepinthereligioushistoryofthenation,andthePsalmsprovethatitmade
Zionthecentreofitsenthusiasticpatriotism.
7. HiswisdomwasthespecialgiftofGod(3:5).Hisjudgment(v.18ff.)isthetypicalinstance.Itpresumablytookplaceearlyinhisreign(cf.the
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7.HiswisdomwasthespecialgiftofGod(3:5).Hisjudgment(v.18ff.)isthetypicalinstance.Itpresumablytookplaceearlyinhisreign(cf.the
contemptuouslaughterofthepeopleinJos.Ant.VIII.ii.2),andsimplyshowsashrewdknowledgeofhumannaturemanyparallelsarequoted.Itproveshisfitness
forjudicialfunctions,and4:2934givesthegeneralideaofhisattainments.HewasregardedasthefatherofJewishproverbial(orgnomic)wisdomwisdom
booksexistedinEgyptlongbefore,butitseemsimpossibletodistinguishinourpresentProverbs(c.B.C.250)whatelementsmaybeduetohim.Sirachand
Wis.havenotitletohisname.1K4:20,33suggestgeneralandpoeticalculture,parablesdrawnfromnature,ratherthanthebeginningsofscience.Ps72may
possiblybelongtohisage,butnotPs127orCanticles.
LatertraditionaddedmuchthesolvingofriddlesheldalargeplaceinthewisdomoftheEast,andwehearofthehardquestionsofthequeenofSheba(10:1),
andofacontestbetweenSolomonandHiram(Jos.Ant.VIII.v.3).JosephusalsospeaksofhispoweroverdemonsRabbinicallegendofhiscontroloverbeastsand
birds,ofhismagiccarpet,andknowledgeoftheDivinename.ExamplesofthelegendarymaterialareaccessibleinFarrarsSolomon.
8.Character.Solomonevidentlybeganhisreignwithhighideals,ofwhichhisdream(3:5)wasanaturalexpression.HissacrificeatGibeon(v.4)gives
anotheraspecthisreligionwasassociatedwithexternaldisplay.SothemagnificenceoftheTemple,thepageantryandholocaustsofitsdedication(8),certainly
ministeredtohisownglory,nolessthantoGods.Hisprayer,however,ifitheinanysenseauthentic,islulloftruepiety,andheseemstohavehadarealdelightin
religiousobservances(9:25).Hisfallisconnectedwithhispolygamyandforeignwives(11,cf.Neh13:26).Henotonlyallowedthemtheirownworship,a
necessaryconcession,butsharedinitthememoryofhishighplaces,withinsightofhisownTemple,waspreservedinthenameMountofOffence.This
idolatrywas,infact,thenaturalsyncretismresultingfromhishabitualforeignintercourse.Selfindulgenceandtheprideofwealthevidentlyplayedtheirpartinhis
deterioration.Ofhisactualendnothingisknownhewasanoldman(1K11:4)atsixtyyears,butJeroboamsflightsuggeststhathecouldstillmakehisauthority
felt.EcclesiastesgivesagoodimpressionofthemoralofhislifebutwhetherheactuallyrepentedandwassavedwaswarmlydebatedbytheFathers.Dt17:16f.
criticiseshisEgyptianallianceandharem,hisloveofhorsesandofwealth,andSir47:1221isafairsummaryofthecareerofonewhoseheartwasnotperfect
withtheLordhisGod,aswastheheartofDavidhisfather(1K11:4).Hiswisdomcouldnotteachhimselfcontrol,andtheonlylegacyofaviolatedhomelifewas
asonampleinfoolishnessandlackinginunderstanding.
C.W.EMMET.
SOLOMONSPORCH.SeeTEMPLE,11(a).
SOLOMONSSERVANTS.SeeNETHINIM.
SOMEIS(1Es9:34)=Shimei,Ezr10:38.
SOMETIME,SOMETIMES.ThereisnodifferenceintheuseofthesetwoformsinAV,andexceptinSir37:14(Foramansmindissometimewonttotell
him,etc.),wherethemeaningisoccasionally,asnow,bothformsareusedinthesenseofonceuponatime.
SON.SeeCHILD,F AMILY.
SONOFGOD,SONOFMAN.SeeP ERSONOFCHRIST,I.3.4.
SONGOFSONGS(orCANTICLES)
1.PlaceintheCanon,interpretation,structure.(a)TheSongofSongsisoneoftheKethbm,Hagiographa,orWritings,thethirdofthethreeclassesinto
whichtheJewishCanonwasdivided.PrintedcopiesoftheHeb.OTfollowthearrangementoftheGermanandFrenchMSSinplacingitattheheadofthefive
MegillthorRollstheshortbookswhicharereadatthegreatannualsolemnitiesofPassover,Pentecost,the9thAb,FeastofBooths,Purim.Probablyitowesits
premierpositiontothefactthatPassoveristheearliestfestivaloftheyear.ButthereisreasonforbelievingthatamoreancientordersurvivesintheLXX,whereit
standsbythesideofProv.andEccles.,thetwootherworkstowhichSolomonsnamewasattached.
GravedoubtswerelongentertainedbytheRabbisrespectingthecanonicityofCanticles(acommonnameofthebook,fromVulg.CanticumCanticorum).
TheSynodofJamnia(A. D.90100),aftersomediscussion,decidedinfavourofitsreception,andRabbiAkiba( A. D.135)lenttothisconclusiontheweightofhisgreat
influence:AlltheHagiographaareholy,buttheSongofSongsisthemostholy,andthewholeworldisnotofsuchimportanceasthedayinwhichitwasgiven.Theopening
wordsoftheTargumareequallystrong:SongsandpraiseswhichSolomontheprophet,thekingofIsrael,spakebytheHolySpiritbeforeJahweh,theLordofthewholeworld.
Tensongsweresunginthatday,butthissongwasmoretobepraisedthantheyall.TheMidrashassertsthatCanticlesisthemostexcellentofsongs,dedicatedtoHimwhooneday
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Tensongsweresunginthatday,butthissongwasmoretobepraisedthantheyall.TheMidrashassertsthatCanticlesisthemostexcellentofsongs,dedicatedtoHimwhooneday
willcausetheHoly
GhosttorestonusitisthatsonginwhichGodpraisesusandweHim.
(b)ItwasevidentlyadmittedintotheOTbecauseitwassupposedtotreatofareligioustheme.ThisisimpliedbyitstitleintheSyriacVersion:Wisdomof
Wisdoms,whichisSolomons:thebookwhichiscalledinHebrewShirathShirim(i.e.SongofSongs).Thethemewassupposedtobethereciprocalloveof
JahwehandIsrael,andthestoryofthatloveinthehistoryoftheChosenPeople.ThiswashereenshrinedinanallegorysomewhatanalogoustoHos13andEzk
16.TheChurchadoptedthislineofinterpretationfromtheSynagogue:Christisthebridegroom,theChurchorthesoulisthebride.
TherubricsprefixedtomanyversesinCod.AmiatinusoftheVulgateillustratethemannerinwhichthiswasworkedout:VoiceoftheSynagogue,VoiceoftheChurch,
VoiceofChrist,VoiceofMaryMagdalenetotheChurch,Christcallstogetherthenations.TosomewriterstheVirginMarywasthebride,andCanticlestoldthestoryofthe
incarnation.LutherreadhereSolomonsthanksgivingsfortheblessingsbestowedonhiskingdom.Theschoolofallegoristshaslostgroundconsiderablyinmoderntimes,butisnot
yetextinct.Therewere,however,almostfromthebeginning,exegeteswhosawthatthesubjectreallytreatedofinCa.isthemutualloveofmanandwoman.IntheearlyChurch
thegreatnameofTheodoreofMopsuestiastandsoutonthisside,andamongtheJewsthatofIbnEzra.CastelliowasdrivenoutofGenevabyCalvinforassertingit,andLuisde
LeonwasthrownintoprisonbytheInquisitionforthesamecause.
(c)Thequestionofformiscloselyconnectedwiththatofsubject.Origenwasthefirsttopointoutitsaffinitytothedrama,buttheearliestattempttoworkthis
outthoroughlywasmadeaslateas1722byaGerman,G.Wachter.Hehasfoundmanyfollowers.Solomonandacountrymaidenweresupposedtobethetwo
leadingcharacters.Hemarriedher,andhisloveforherledhimtoadoptasimplermodeoflife.Butistherenotathirdimportantcharacterintheplay?Later
studentsansweredintheaffirmative.TherevisedexplanationwasthatSolomoncarriedofftheShulammitetohisharem,and,abettedbythewomenalready
there,thedaughtersofJerusalem,soughttodivertheraffectionsfromhershepherdlover:failinginthis,heatlastmagnanimouslyresignedhertotheshepherd.
Leavingasidealldetailedobjections,theconsiderationwhichisfataltotheseandallconceivableformsofthetheoryisthatthedramahasnoplaceinSemitic
literature.IfCa.hadbeenanexceptiontotherule,howisitthatthereisnotasinglestagedirection,notanoteofanykindtoidentifythespeakerorregulatethe
action?
CertainimportantMSSoftheLXXshowhowkeenlythisdefectwasfelttoeachlongerorshortersectiontheyprefixTheBridegroom,TheBride,AsecondtimetheBride
adjuresthemaidens,orthelike,andoneMS(23)runstothefollowinglength,before5:7,Nothavingfoundthebridegroom,thebridewentout,and,asonefoundbythecity
watchmeninthenight,sheiswoundedandthekeepersofthewalltakeherveil.
Andhowisitthatthereis,withinthepoemitself,nomovementtowardsaclimax,noknotunitedorcut,nodnouement?Mattersareasfaradvancedat1:4,2:4
asat8:5.
Evenduringtheperiodwhenthedramatheorywasmostvigorouslymaintained,somedistinguishedscholarsheldthatCa.ismadeupofanumberoforiginally
detachedpieces,whichwereeventuallybroughttogetherbecausetheyalltreatofLove.WetzsteinsDieSyrischeDreschtafet(1873)furnishedastrong
reinforcementofthisopinion.Hehadobserved,whilstresidentinSyria,thatthepeasantbridegroomandbrideareentitledkingandqueenforthefirstweekof
marriedlife[acontemporaryArabicepithalamiumhassincethenbeencited(ZATWxxiv.p.42)inwhichthemanactuallybearsthenameofthereigningSultan,
AbdilHamd]theyareattendedbyavizier,havetheirthroneonthethreshingfloor,andreceivethehomageofthewholecountryside.Songsanddancesare
executedbythefriendsofthebridegroom,thebystanders,andthenewlymarriedpair.Someoftheseditties,especiallythosewhichenumeratethecharmsofthe
bride,ateofexactlythesamecharacterascertainsectionsofCanticles,and7:1ff.correspondspreciselywiththewasf(description)whichthebridesingsasshe
goesthroughthesworddanceontheweddingnight.ThesefactshaveinducedalargenumberofexpositorstobelievethatCa.isacollectionoflovesongs,
composedexpresslyfor,oratanyratesuitableforuseat,marriagefestivals.
Budde,whostronglyadvocatesthisview,admitsthatthebookisnotwithoutmarksofunity,butholdsthatthesearesufficientlyaccountedforonthesuppositionthatallthese
folksongsoriginatedinasingledistrictandperiod.Hauptentirelyrejectstheideaofaunity,and,lookingonthebookinitspresentstateasadisorganizedmass,rearrangesitinto
twelvepoems.TheextenttowhichhecarriesthelibertyofrecastingmaybeseeninhisNo.3,BrothersoftheBride,whichismadeupof6:3,7:11,2:1,1:56,8:810,8:12.
EvenBuddeslessdrastictreatmentecarcelydoesjusticetothetokensofplanandunitywhichthebookpresents.Therecurrenceofcertainphrases(2:7,3:6,8:42:17,4:6,8:14)is
meanttoindicateconnexionsandtransitionsofthought,andthereisnooverwhelmingreasonagainstourascribingthemtotheoriginalwriter.
Thesentimentsandthestylearesosimilarthroughoutastojustifyourthinkingofasingleauthorwhocomposederoticandnuptialpiecesforseveraloccasions,
andafterwardswovethemintoagarlandofverse(cf.2:5,5:81:16,4:14:2,6:62:16,6:36:4,6:102:9,8:14).Afewofthesmallerpartshaveprobablybeen
removedfromtheirintendedplace,andithardlyadmitsofdoubtthat4:8isabelatedfragment,unintelligiblewhereitnowstands.Butwhenwerememberthe
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removedfromtheirintendedplace,andithardlyadmitsofdoubtthat4:8isabelatedfragment,unintelligiblewhereitnowstands.Butwhenwerememberthe
apparentirrelevanceoftheoccasionalversessunginPalestinetoday,weshallbeslowtodenythatthesingersandauditorsofCa.graspedallusionsandperceived
afitnesswhichwefailtoapprehend.AndinstudyingthesongfromthispointofviewitiswelltobearinmindthefactscollectedbyDalman(Palst.Divan,p.xii.).
Hepointsoutthatthewasfisnotlimitedtoweddingfestivities,butissungbythetentfire,inthevillageinn,inthecoffeehousewheretownsmengatheratnight
thatitisusuallybriefwhendescriptiveofthebeautyofbrideorbridegroomthatinPalestineitselfhowevertrueWetzsteinsaccountofDamascusandtheHauran
therearebutscantytracesofthetemporaryroyaltyofthebridalpair,andnoneofthethreshingsledgethrone.
2.Contents.Thesefallintowhatwemaycallsevencantos.I.(1:22:7):in1:24thebridedeclaresheraffectionInv.6f.deprecatesunfavourablecriticism
inv.7f.inquiresforherbeloved.In1:92:8wehavetheirpraiseofeachotherin2:47herexperienceoflove.II.(2:82:17):vv.814aspringvisit,v.16the
foxes,v.16f.closeofthecanto.III.(3:13:11):vv.15adream,vv.611interlude.IV.(4:15:1):in4:17hesetsforthhercharmsv.8afragment,vv.911his
ecstasyoflove,4:125:1agarden.V.(5:26:9):5:28adream,5:86:8wasfsungbybridevv.49hispraiseofher.VI.(6:108:4):6:10inquirybywomen,v.
11f.herrapture,6:137:10wasfsungduringsworddance(danceofcamps,7:1),7:118:4songsofthebride.VII.
(8:514):v.6areminiscence,v.6f.thepoweroflove,vv.810thesolicitudeofthebrothers,v.
11f.anapologue,v.13f.conclusion.
WecannotregretthatthesecanticlesofhumanlovehavebeenpreservedforusintheOT.
ThemutualattractionofthesexesisDivinelyordained.ThelovewhichfindsexpressioninCa.Isregulatedbymarriage.Theimageryistoolusciousandthedetail
toocompleteforourtaste,buttheywereproducedbyanOrientalforOrientals.Morereticencedoesnotnecessarilymeanmoregenuinepurity.Weshouldindeed
havebeengladtofindsomerecognitionoftheloftiersideofmarriage,orsomethingtoremindusofPr.31.Buttheoccasionsforwhichtheseverseswere
composedandacomparisonoftheeffusionswhicharestillcurrentonlikeoccasionseffectuallydisarmcriticism.Dalman(Pal.Divan,p.xiii.)remarksjustly
concerningthefolksongswhichhehasbroughttogether:Thefactthatthepoemsdwellonlyonthephysicalexcellencesofthebelovedcorrespondswiththedegree
ofcivilizationtowhichthePalestinianpopulacehasattained.ItdoesnotfollowthattheOrientalascribesnovaluetoawomansexcellencesofdispositionand
character.
3.Authorshipanddate.Thetitle(1:1),accordingtowhichSolomonwasthepoet,isentirelydestituteofauthority.Itslateandartificialoriginisbetrayedby
theabsenceofthefullformoftherelativepronoun,whichoccursnowhereinthepoemsthemselves.Theascriptionoftheauthorshiptothefamouskingisdue
partlytohisbeingmentionedin1:5,8:12(3:7,11aredoubtful),andpartlytohisreputationasthetypicallywiseman,thecomposerofsongsathousandandfive(1
K4:32).Butthecanonicityofthebookwouldnothaveremainedanopenquestionuntilthe1stcent.oftheChristianeraifithadthenbeenextantathousandyears
asanacknowledgedproductofhishand.Moreover,thelanguageinwhichitiswrittenbelongstotheverylateststratumofBiblicalHebrew.Theexclusiveuseof
theabbreviatedpronounoccursinnoearlydocument,andcannotbeexplainedasapeculiarityofthenortherndialect.Andthereisnoproofthatthewriterwas
speciallyconnectedwiththeNorthifhementionsLebanon,Amana,
Shenir,Hermon,Tirzah,healsoknowsEngedi,Heshbon,thewilderness(ofJudah),thedaughtersofJerusalem.Consideringthebrevityofthebook,thereisa
veryconsiderablenumberofwordswhichareseldomorneverfoundelsewhere,orareemployedhereinplaceofmorecommonones,oraretobeseenonlyinlate
writings.Oneofthempards,isZendanother,gz,isPersianappirynmaybetheGr.phoreionseveralareAramaic.Weshouldnotlookforthesephenomena
earlierthantheperiodwhenHebrewwasyieldingplacetoAramaic,andiftheexactagecannotbedetermined,the3rdcent.B.C.isatleastapproximatelycorrect.
4.Style.Itwouldbeadulleyethatshouldmissthebeautyofthesepoems.Theversemoveslightlyandgracefully,theimageryischarming.Ourpoetwas
deeplysusceptibletothelovelinessofnature,andfullycapableofappreciatingtheartofhistime.Hecarriesuswithhimintotheopenair,tothevineyards,the
villages,themountains.Heisawakeatdaybreak,toinhalethescentoftheforesttrees,togathertheapplesandthepomegranates,tolistentothetinkleoftherills.
Flocksofwildpigeons,timidandswiftgazelles,fieldsembroideredwithlilies,thebreathofspringallappealtohim.Ontheotherhand,heisstirredbythepomp
ofacourt,themagnificenceofaroyallitter,theglitteringwhitenessofanivorytower,martialtrophies,therichattireofwomen,theirjewelsandperfumes.Asa
poemthereisnothingelseintheBibletocomparewiththis.HaditindeedbeenSolomons,itwouldhavebeen,asthetitleasserts,hisSongofSongs,thefinefleur
ofhispoetry.
5.Text.Thisisnotinasatisfactorystate,butthecriticshouldproceedwithmuchcaution.Therearemanypassageswhereourviewoftheinterpretationsuggestsalterations
(1:2,4,8,9,2:9,3:10,4:14,16,5:1,6,6:2,6,8,7:8,8,13),butitisobviouslyeasytoallowourselvestoomuchlicence.Bearinginmindwhatmightbeadvancedonbothsides,
whoshalldeterminewhetherNergalistobesubstitutedfornidhgaloth(banners)at6:10?TheVersions,especiallyLXXandSyr.,supplyafewbetterreadings(1:3,4,7,10,2:17,
3:1,6,10,4:8,12,5:11,13,6:6,7:1,8:2).Thereareobviouserrorsoftranscription:nardshouldnotfollownards(4:13f.).Emendationssuggestedbythemetredeserveattention
(1:15,3:9,11,7:8),butthishasbeencarriedmuchtoofar,notonlybyBickell,butalsoinKittelseditionoftheHeb.Bible.Littmann(ZATWxxiv.p.43)pertinentlyremarksthat
inmanyofthepopularArabicpoemswhichhehascollectedthereisanabsenceofdefiniteversemeasure,andconsidersthatintheOTalso,versesofthatkind,withoutdefinite
metre,areatleastpossible.Therehasbeenalsoalittletoomuchreadinesstodeleteverses,sentences,orwords,onthegroundthattheyoccurinotherpartsofthepoeminmore 96/116
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metre,areatleastpossible.Therehasbeenalsoalittletoomuchreadinesstodeleteverses,sentences,orwords,onthegroundthattheyoccurinotherpartsofthepoeminmore
suitablecontexts.Martineauwouldomit3:15becauseofitsresemblanceto5:2ff.Wemustnotforgetthatcatchwordsandrefrainsarecharacteristicofthisclassofpoetry.
J.TAYLOR.
SONGOFTHETHREEHOLYCHILDREN.SeeAPOCRYPHA,6.
SONSOFGOD.SeeCHILDRENOFGOD.
SONSOFTHEPROPHETS.SeeP ROPHECY,p.758a.
SOOTHSAYER.SeeMAGICDIVINATIONANDS ORCERY.
SOP.SeeMEALS,5.
SOPATER,SOSIPATER.ThesearetwoformsofthesamenameSt.Luke,asusual,adoptsthemorecolloquial.1.InAc20:4wereadthatSopater,sonof
Pyrrhus(RV),ofBera,accompaniedSt.PaulonhisjourneytowardsJerusalemasfarasAsia(iftheselastwordsarepartofthetruetext),i.e.Troas[see
S ECUNDUS].Thementionofthefathersname,unusualinNT,isthoughtbyBlasstodenotethatSopaterwasofnoblebirthbyAlford,tobeintendedtodistinguish
himfrom2.Akinsman,i.e.fellowcountryman[seeJASON],ofSt.Paul,whosendsgreetingsinRo16:21.Itseemsunlikely,butnotimpossible,thattheseare
thesameperson.
A.J.MACLEAN.
SOPE.SeeS OAP.
SOPHERETH.AfamilyofNethinim,Neh7:67=Ezr2:55Hassophereth,1Es5:33Assaphioth.
SOPHONIAS(2Es1:40)=Zephaniahtheprophet.
SORCERY.SeeMAGICDIVINATIONANDS ORCERY.
SOREG.SeeTEMPLE,11(b).
SOREK,VALLEYOF(perh.=valleyofthesoreqvine[cf.art.V INE]).ThevalleyorwdyinwhichDelilahlived(Jg16:4).EusebiusandJeromeconnect
thevalleywith
Capharsorec,avillagetothenorthofEleutheropolisandnearSaraa,thatis,Zorah,thehomeofSamsonsfather.CapharsorecisnowKhurbetSurk,tothenorthof
WdyesSurr,whichisidentifiedwiththevalleyofSorek,andnotfarfromSurah.SeealsoZORAH.
SORREL.SeeCOLOURS,3.
SOSIPATER.SeeS OPATER.
SOSTHENES.1.RulerofthesynagogueatCorinth,whomtheyall(RV)laidholdonandbeatwhenGalliodismissedthecaseagainstSt.Paul(Ac18:17).
HeprobablysucceededCrispusasrulerwhenthelatterbecameaChristian(v.3),andthehostilityoftherabbletotheJewsshoweditselfwhentheywereworstedin
thecourts.2.ThebrotherassociatedwithSt.PaulinaddressingtheCorinthians(1Co1:1),andthereforeprobablyanativeofCorinthwhohadspecialrelations
withtheChurchthere.Ifbothreferencesaretothesameman,hemusthavebeenconvertedaftertheGallioincident.
A.J.MACLEAN.
SOSTRATUS.ThegovernorofthecitadelatJerusalemunderAntiochusEpiphanes(2Mac4:27(28),29).
SOTAI.AfamilyofSolomonsservants(Ezr2:55=Neh7:67).
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SOTAI.AfamilyofSolomonsservants(Ezr2:55=Neh7:67).
SOUL.TheuseofthetermintheOT(Heb.nephesh)foranyanimatedbeing,whetherhumanoranimal(Gn1:20life,2:7),mustbedistinguishedfromthe
Greekphilosophicalusefortheimmaterialsubstancewhichgiveslifetothebody,andfromtheuseintheNT(Gr.psyche)wheremorestressislaidonindividuality
(Mt16:26RVm).AstheBibledoesnotcontainascientificpsychology,itisvaintodisputewhetheritteachesthatmansnatureisbipartite(bodyandsoulorspirit)
ortripartite(bodyandsoulandspirit):yetacontrastbetweensoulandspirit(Heb.rach,Gr.pneuma)mayberecognizedwhilethelatteristheuniversalprinciple
impartinglifefromtheCreator,theformeristheindividualorganismpossessedoflifeinthecreature(Gn2:7breathoflifeandlivingsoul).Insomepassages
thetermsareusedasequivalent(Is26:9,Lk1:46,47,Ph1:27RV),inothersadistinctionismade(He4:12,1Th5:23).Thedistinctionisthis:soulexpressesman
asapartfromGod,aseparateindividualspiritexpressesmanasdrawinghislifefromGod(cf.Jn10:11,life=soul,and19:30).Thisseparateindividuality
mayrenounceitsdependenceandrefuseitssubmissiontoGod.Hencetheadjectivepsychicalmayberenderedsensual(Ja3:15,Jude19[RVmOr,natural.Or,
animal]),ornatural(1Co2:14,15:4446).Probablysensualinthetwopassagesconveysmoremoralmeaningthanthetermpsychicaljustifies,andnaturalis
thebetterrendering,asexpressingwhatbelongstotheoldunregeneratelifeincontrastwiththecharacteristicofthenewlifeinChrist,thespiritual(pneumatic).A
parallelchangeintheuseofthetermfleshanditscorrespondingadjectivemaybenoted.
ALFREDE.GARVIE.
SOUTH.SeeNEGEB.
SOWER,SOWING.SeeAGRICULTURE,1.
SPAIN.TheextentofcountrytowhichinNTtimesthenameSpain,ormorestrictlytheSpains,wasgiven,waspracticallyidenticalwithmodernSpain.In
theearliesttimesofwhichwehaveanyknowledgeitwasinhabited,atleastinpart,byaracesupposedtobeamixtureoftheaboriginalIberianpopulationwith
immigrantCelts.InB.C.236,Hamilcar,fatherofthegreatHannibal,invadedthecountryfromCarthage,andafternineyearsofconquestwassucceededbyhisson
inlawHasdrubal,whointurnwassucceededbyHannibal,underwhomaboutB.C.219theconquestofthecountrywaspracticallycompleted.Hannibaluseditas
hisbaseintheSecondPunicWaragainstRome.TheRomansfirstinvadedSpainin218,andaftervarioussuccessesandreversesconstitutedtwoprovincestherein
197,knownforcenturiesafterwardsasHispania
Citerior(Tarraconensis)andHispaniaUlterior(Btica),separatedfromoneanotherbythe
Ebro.ThemountainousdistrictsintheNW.werenotactuallysubduedtillthetimeoftheEmperorAugustus(B.C.20).Thecountrywasvaluedforitsagricultural
products,aswellasitspreciousmetals.ItbecamethemostthoroughlyRomanizedofalltheRomanprovinces,andinnothingisSt.PaulsRomanattitudemore
evidentthaninhisdeterminationtoproceedfromRometoSpain,ratherthantoAfricaortoGaul(Ro15:24).Itisnotknownwhetherhecarriedouthisplan.Spain
claimsmorehonourednamesinRomanliteraturethananyothercountryinthe1stcent.A.D.,havingbeenthebirthplaceofthetwoSenecas,Columella,Mela,
Lucan,Martial,andQuintilian.
A.S OUTER.
SPAN.SeeWEIGHTSANDMEASURES.
SPARROW(tsippr,Ps84:3,102:7).TheHeb.wordisprobablyequivalentofArab.asfr,andincludesanytwitteringbirdsgenerallytr.birdorfowl.
SeeBIRD.IntheNTreferences(Mt10:29,Lk12:6,7)strouthionevidentlyreferstothesparrow,whichtodayissoldforfoodascheaplyasinNTtimes.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
SPARTA,SPARTANS.SeeLACEDMONIANS.
SPEAKING,EVIL.SeeEVILS PEAKING.
SPEAR.SeeARMOURARMS,1.
SPECKLEDBIRD.Jer12:9(only).IftheMTofthispassageiscorrect,thetr.canhardlybeotherthanIsmineheritageuntome(i.e.tomysorrow[adativus
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SPECKLEDBIRD.Jer12:9(only).IftheMTofthispassageiscorrect,thetr.canhardlybeotherthanIsmineheritageuntome(i.e.tomysorrow[adativus
ethicus,Cheyne,adtoc.])(as)aspeckledbirdofprey?Are(the)birdsofpreyagainstherroundabout?(so,substantially,
RV).ThepeopleofIsraeliscomparedtoabirdofprey,justas,onaccountofitshostilitytoJehovah,itiscomparedinv.3toalion.But,asaspeckledbirdattracts
thehostileattentionofotherbirds,Israelbecomesapreytotheheathen.Therenderingproposedbysome,mineheritageisuntometheravenoushyna,cannot
beobtainedfromthepresenttext,which,however,ispossiblyincorrect.
SPELT.SeeF ITCHES,RIE.
SPICE,SPICES.1.bsm,Ca5:2,RVmbalsambsem[once,Ex30:23,besem],plur.bsmm.InEx30:23isalistofvariousaromaticsubstances
Includedunderthenamebsmm.ThesewerestoredintheTemple(1Ch9:29),andinHezekiahstreasurehouse(2K20:13)theywereusedforanointingthe
dead(2Ch16:14),andalsoasperfumesfortheliving(Ca4:10etc.).2.sammim,Ex30:34sweetspicesand,alongwithincense,Ex30:7,40:27,Lv4:7,Nu
4:16etc.Inthefirstpassagethesweetspicesareenumeratedasstacte,onycha,andgalbanum(allofwhichsee).3.nkth,Gn37:25spicery(RVmgum
tragacanthorstorax),43:11(RVspicery).ThegumtragacanthistheproductoftheAstragalusgummifer,ofwhichseveralspeciesareknowninSyria.The
storax(Styraxofficinalis),ashrubwithbeautifulwhiteflowers,alsoaffordsanaromaticgumvaluedbytheancients.Whethernkthcorrespondeddefinitelyto
oneofthese,orwasagenerictermforperfumes,isanopenquestion.4.5.Gr.armata(Mk16:1,EVspices)andammon(Rev18:13,RVmamomum,RV
spice,AVomits)areprobablybothgeneric.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
SPIDER.1.smmthSeeLIZARD(7).2.akkbsh(cf.Arab.ankabt),Job8:14,Is59:5,6.Bothreferencesaretothefrailnessofthespidersweb.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
SPIKENARD(nrd,Ca1:12,4:13,14alsoGr.nardospistike,Mk14:3,Jn12:3).ThefragrantoilofanIndianplant,Nardostachysjatamansi,whichgrows
withaspike.TheArab,namesunbulhindi,Indianspike,preservesthesameidea.Theperfumewhenpurewasveryvaluable(Jn12:3).
AboutthemeaningoftheGr.epithetpistiktherehasbeenmuchspeulation.SeenoteinRVmatMk14:3,andcf.art.SpikenardinHastingsDCG.
E.W.MASTERMAN.
SPINDLE.SeeS PINNINGANDWEAVING,3.
SPINNINGANDWEAVING
1.Therawmaterial.InallperiodsofHebrewhistorythechieftextilematerialswerewoolandflax,andtoalessextentgoatshair.Asforthelastnamed,it
willberememberedthatSt.Paulwasproudofbeingchargeabletonoman(2Co11:9)invirtueofhistradeasaweaveroftentcurtains(Ac18:3),doubtlessfrom
thegoatshair(cilicium)forwhichhisnativeprovincewasfamed.Thepreparationofthevariousmaterialsfortheloomdifferedaccordingtothenatureofeach.
Wool,beforebeingspun,wasthoroughlyscouredandcarded,probably,asnowintheEast,bymeansofabowstring.Inthecaseofflax,thestalkswererippled
andexposedtothesuntillthoroughlydry(Jos2:6)thereafterbyrepeatedprocessesofsteeping,drying,andbeating,thefibreswerereadyforthehecklingor
combing.RepresentationsoftheseprocessesarepreservedinthetombsofEgypt.Is19:9alsoreferstotheflaxindustryonthebanksoftheNiletheemendedtext
runs:Andconfoundedshallbetheworkersinlinenthecombingwomenandweaversshallgrowpale,andtheythatlaythewarpshallbebrokeninspirit(even)
allthatworkforhireshallbegrievedinsoul.
2.Spinning.Thespinningwasdone,asalltheworldover,bymeansofthedistaffandspindle,andwaspreeminentlywomenswork(Ex35:25f.,2K23:7,
Pr.31:19).Bothmenandwomen,ontheotherhand,pliedtheloom.Thedistaffprobablyconsisted,aselsewhere,ofapieceofcaneslitatthetoptoholdthewool.
Thespindleeverywhereconsistsofaroundshankofwood,912inchesinlength,furnishedwithabookatthetopforcatchingthewoolorflax,andhavingits
lowerendinsertedintoacircularorsphericalwhorlofclay,stone,orotherheavymaterialtosteadytherotarymotionofthespindle(seeRich,Dict.ofRom.andGr.
Ant.s.v.Fususcf.Colus).ManyspindlewhorlshavebeenfoundinthecourseoftherecentexcavationsinPalestine(forillust.seeBlissandMacalister,
Excavations,etc.,pi.LXX.viii.PEFST1902,391904,324andoft.).Sometimesapieceofbrokenpotteryservedasawhorl(id.1902,338).Distaffandspindle
arenamedtogetherinPr31:19,RV,however,rightlyreversingtherenderingsofAV.In2S3:29foronethatleanethonastaffrecentscholarsrenderonethat
holdethaspindle,expressiveofthewishthatJoabsdescendantsmaybewomanishandeffeminate.
3. Thethreevarietiesofloom.LoomdoesnotoccurinAVinRVitwronglyappears(Is38:12)forthrum(soRVm).Itisalmostcertain,however,that
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3.Thethreevarietiesofloom.LoomdoesnotoccurinAVinRVitwronglyappears(Is38:12)forthrum(soRVm).Itisalmostcertain,however,that
DelilahsloomismeantbythewordrenderedbeaminJg16:14(see4(c)).ThreevarietiesofloomwereinusearoundtheMediterraneaninancienttimesthe
horizontalloomandtwovarietiesoftheuprightloom,distinguishedbytheRomansasthetelapendulaandthetelajugalis.
(a)ThehorizontalloomisatleastasoldasthetwelfthEgyptiandynasty,andprobablygoesbacktoprehistorictimes.ThattheHebrewswereearlyfamiliar
withitisevidentfromtheincidentofSamsonandDelilahabovereferredto,thetrueinterpretationofwhichwillbegiveninalatersection,4(c).Itisstill,with
somemodifications,theloominusetodayfromMoroccototheGangesandthefartherEast.
(b)Theoldestvarietyoftheuprightloomisthatfamiliartoclassicalstudentsfromthewellknownrepresentation,onaGreekvase,ofPenelopesloom.It
consistedoftwouprightsjoinedatthetopbyacrossbeam,fromwhich,orfromasecondbeambelowit,dependedthethreadsofthewarp.Thesewerekepttautby
havingsmallstoneweightsattachedtotheirlowerends,hencethenametelapendula.InviewofthenumerousweaversweightsrecentlyunearthedatGezerand
elsewhere(illust.PEFSt1903,311,plateiv.cf.1904,324),itcannolongerbedoubtedthatthisformoftheuprightloomwasalsoinuseinPalestine,evenasfar
backasthelaterStoneAge(Vincent,Canaandaprslexplorationrcente,405).
(c)Thesecondandlatervarietyoftheuprightloomhadforitsdistinguishingfeatureasecondcrossbeamatthefootoftheuprights,whichservedasayarn
beamorasaclothbeam,accordingasthewebwasbegunatthetoporatthebottomoftheloom.Byprovidingathirdcrossbeamcapableofrevolving,awebof
muchgreaterlengthcouldbewoventhanifthelatterwereconfinedtotheheightoftheloom.TheloominordinaryuseinNTtimeswasofthistype,asisevident
frommanypassagesintheMishna.
4.OTreferencestotheprocessesofweaving.Initssimplestformtheartofweavingconsistsininterlacingaseriesofparallelthreads,calledthewarp,with
anotherseriescalledtheweftorwoof,insuchawaythateachthreadoftheweftpassesalternatelyoverandundereachthreadofthewarp.Inthebeginningsofthe
artthisinterlacingwaslaboriouslydonebythefingersofthespinnerasinplaiting,ofwhichweavingisonlyamorecomplicatedvariety.Nowthefirstprocessisto
stretchthethreadsofthewarp(Lv13:48ff.)evenlybetweentheupperandlowerbeamsoftheloom.Thisprocessofwarpingismentionedintheliteralsenseonly,
Is19:9(1),butiselsewhereusedinametaphoricalsense,asJob10:11(RVknittogether),Ps139:13RVm,andthedifficultpassageIs30:1.Ofthefour
alternativesheregivenbytheReviserstheonlyadmissiblerenderingisthefirstofRVmweaveaweb,or,stillbetter,warpawarp,anappositefigurefor
commencinganewwebofpoliticalintrigue(cf.thesimilarmetaphor59:8).TheHeb.lawforbadetheuseofwoolandlinen,theoneaswarp,theotheraswoof,in
thesameweb.
Intheprocessofunitingwarpandwooftherearethethreeprimarymovements,astheyarecalled,tobeconsidered.Theseare(1)shedding,i.e.dividingthe
warpintotwosetsofoddandeventhreadsforthepassageoftheweft(2)passingtheweftthroughtheshedbymeansofarodorashuttleand(3)beatingupthe
wefttoformwiththewarpawebofuniformconsistency.Thesethreeprocesses,sofarasapplicabletotheEgyptianandHebrewlooms,arethesubjectofaspecial
studybythepresentwriterinthearticleWeavinginEBiiv.528287(withillustt.),towhichthecuriousstudentisreferred.Itmustsufficeheretomentiononly
suchofthedetailsasbearoncertainOTreferences,mostofthemmisunderstoodhitherto.
(a)Theformationoftheshedwaseffectedbyatleasttwoleashrodsorshafts,theRomanliciatoria,suspendedfromtheuppercrossbeam(seeillust.
Wilkinson,Anc.Egyp.ii.171)orotherwise,connectedbyloopsorleasheswitheachoftheoddandevenwarpthreadsrespectively.Thetwosetsofthreadswere
alternatelybroughtforward(orraisedinthehorizontalloom)bypullingtheleashrods,thusformingashedforthepassageoftheshuttlerodcarryingtheweft.
Now,withaheavywarp,therodsmusthavebeenofconsiderablethickness,astoutbranchofatreeservesasaleashrod,forexample,inamodernAnatolian
loomfiguredinSmithsDict.ofGr.andRom.Anl.3ii.179.Accordingly,whentheshaftofGoliathsspeariscomparedtoaweaversmnr(1S17:7,2S21:19,
1Ch20:5cf.11:23),itisnottoeitherofthebeamsoftheloombuttoaweaversshaftorleashrodthatthecomparisonapplies.Theoriginaltermabovegiven,
itmaybeadded,isfromthesamerootasnr,oneoftheMishnatermsfortheleashrod(cf.Jeromestruerendering,quasiliciatoriumtexentium).
(b)Theweftorwoof(Lv13:48ff.)waspassedthroughtheshedbymeansofastafforrodonwhichtheyarnwaswound.Homer,however,wasalreadyfamiliar
withashuttlerodatoneendofwhichwasarevolvingspoolfromwhichtheweftthreadunrolleditselfinitspassage.ItisuncertainwhetherJob7:6,theonlyEV
occurrenceofshuttle,referstoashuttlerod,ortotheloomasawhole.
(c)Theweftwasbeatupateachpassageoftherodrodbyathinlatheorbatten,or,aslater,byaspecialcomb.
InEgypt,however,undertheMiddleEmpire,itwouldappearthatthemoreefficientreed,stillusedinmodernweaving,hadalreadybeeninventedforthispurpose(Garstang,
BurialCustomsofAnc.Egyp.
[1907],133ff.withillust.)thetworeedstherefiguredare27and29inchesinlength,showingapproximatelythewidthoftheweb.TheBedouinwomenofMoabtodayweave
theirtentcurtainsinstripsabout5yardslongandfrom16to20incheswide,accordingtoJaussen(CoutumesdesArabes,etc.
[1908],74).
TheHebrewsinearlytimesusedabattensimplytobeatuptheweftwithal,aswelearnfromthetruetextofJg16:13f.whichreadsthus:Ifthonweavestthesevenplaitsofmy
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TheHebrewsinearlytimesusedabattensimplytobeatuptheweftwithal,aswelearnfromthetruetextofJg16:13f.whichreadsthus:Ifthonweavestthesevenplaitsofmy
headwiththewarplandbeatestthemupwiththebatten,thenshallIbecomeweakandbeasothermenandshemadehimsleep,andwovethesevenplaitsofhisheadwiththe
warp],andbeatthemupwiththebatten(EVpin),andsaid(asinEV)andheawakedoutofhissleepandpulleduptheloomtogetherwiththewarp.ForDelilah,seatedonthe
groundbesideherhorizontalloomwithSamsonsheaduponherknees(v.19),itwasaneasymattertousehisflowinglocksasweftandweavethemintothewarpofherloom.
WhenSamsonawokehepulleduptheloom,whichwasfastenedtothegroundwithpegs.
WithPenelopestypeofloom,thewebcouldbewovenonlyfromthetopdownwards.ThiswasalsotheJewishcustominNTtimeswiththeotherformof
uprightloom.OurLordstunic,itwillberemembered,waswithoutseam,wovenfromthetopthroughout(Jn19:23).Fortheweavingofsuchseamlessrobes,
whichwereinvogueinEgyptunderthelaterdynastiesatleast,itwasnecessarytomountadoublewarpandtoweaveeachfaceofthewarpwithacontinuousweft
(seeEBiiv.5289).
5.Whenthewebwasfinished,theweavercuttheendsofthewarpthreads,thoselefthangingbeingthethrumofIs38:12RVm,androlleduptheweb.These
twoprocessesarethesourceofthefiguresforprematuredeathinthepassagecited.ThenewclothofMt9:16,Mk2:21AVwasunfulled(RVundressed),that
is,clothfreshfromtheloom.Themillingorfullingwastheworkofthefuller(ARTSANDCRAFTS,6).
6.Specialkindsoffabrics.Byappropriatearrangementofthewarp,woof,andleashrods,striped,checked,andothervarietiesofclothwereproduced.The
clothintendedbythechequerworkofEx28:4isquiteuncertain.TheRevisersprobablymeanbythephraseaspeciesofcheck,producedbyalternatingdifferent
colouredbandsinthewarp,orinthewoof,orinboth,Theworkofthecunningworkman(Ex26:1etc.),ofwhichtheinnercurtainsoftheTabernaclewere
composed,wasprobablyaspeciesoftapestry(EVPr7:16,31:22butheredoubtful),inwhichadesignwastracedbyinsertingshortcolouredthreadsbehinda
varyingnumberofwarpthreads.
Aweftofgoldthreadwasemployedforthehighpriestsrobes(Ex28:6f.,39:2ff.cf.Jth10:21,2Mac5:2clothofgold).HerodAgrippasroyalapparel(Ac
12:21)issaidbyJosephustohavebeenwoventhroughoutofsilverthread.
InOTtimesthefinertextilefabricswereimportedfromBabylonia(Jos7:21),Phnicia(Ezk27:16f.),Egypt,andinNTtimesevenfromIndiaforthehigh
priestsdress(Mishna,Yma,iii.7).InthedaysoftheChroniclertheweaversformedatradeguild(1Ch4:21),andsocontinuedinlatertimes.Asaclassthey
wereheldindisreputebythemassofthepeople,somuchsothattheTalmuddeclaresweavingtobethelowestofcrafts.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
SPIRIT.ThetermisappliedtoGodasdefiningHisnaturegenerally(Jn4:24),andalsoasdescribingoneelementinthatnature,Hisselfconsciousness(1Co
2:11).ItexpressesnotonlyGodsimmateriality,butalsoHistranscendenceoflimitationsoftimeandspace.InthephrasesSpiritofGod,theSpiritoftheLord,
theSpiritofJesusChrist,theHolySpirit,theSpiritofTruth,thethirdPersonintheGodheadisdescribed(seeHOLYS PIRIT).Thetermisappliedtopersonal
powersofevilotherthanman(Mt10:1,12:45,Lk4:33,7:21,1Ti4:1cf.Eph6:12),aswellaspersonalpowersofgood(He1:14),andtohumanbeingsafter
death,eitherdamned(1P3:19)orblessed(He12:23).Itisusedalsoaspersonifyinganinfluence(1Jn4:6,Eph2:2,Ro
8:15).ItsmostdistinctiveuseisinthepsychologyoftheChristianlife.Thecontrastbetweensoulandspirit,andbetweenfleshandspirit,hasalreadybeen
notedinthearticlesontheseterms.Whilesoulandspiritarenottoberegardedasseparatefaculties,yetspiritexpressesthedirectdependenceofthelifeinmanon
God,firstincreation(Gn2:7),butespecially,accordingtothePaulinedoctrine,inregeneration.Thelifeinman,isolatingitselffrom,andopposingitselfto,God,is
soulthatlife,cleansedandrenewedbytheSpiritofGod,isspiritintimateasistherelationofGodandmaninthenewlife,theSpiritofGodisdistinguishedfrom
thespiritofman(Ro8:16),althoughitisnotalwayspossibletomakethedistinction.InActsthephraseholyspiritsometimesmeansthesubjectivehumanstate
produced(holyenthusiasm),andsometimestheobjectiveDivinecauseproducing(seeActsintheCenturyBible,p.386).AstheSpiritisthesourceofthisnew
life,whateverbelongstoitisspiritual(pneumatikon),ashouse,sacrifices(1P2:5),understanding(Col1:9),songs(3:16),food,drink,rock(1Co10:3,4)and
thespiritualandsoulish(renderedcarnalornatural)arecontrasted(1Co2:14,15:44,46).Spiritasanecstaticstateisalsodistinguishedfrommind(1Co
14:14,16),asinwardnessfromletter(Ro2:29,7:6,2Co3:6).TheoldcreationthederivationofmansspiritfromGod(Gn2:7,Is42:5),offersthebasisforthe
new(Ro8:117,1Co2:11,12),inwhichmanisunitedto
God(seeINSPIRATION).
ALFREDE.GARVIE.
SPIRITSINPRISON.SeeDESCENTINTOHADES.
SPIRITUALGIFTS
1. Theterm.AspecialGr.word,charismata,isusedinNTforspiritualgifts.Itusuallystandsalone,butinRo1:11Itiscoupledwiththeadjective
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1.Theterm.AspecialGr.word,charismata,isusedinNTforspiritualgifts.Itusuallystandsalone,butinRo1:11Itiscoupledwiththeadjective
pneumatikon(spiritual).ItmeansconcretemanifestationsofthegraceofGod(charis),andisalmostatechnicalterm,thoughinRo6:23etc.Itisusedgenerally
ofthegiftofGod,withoutreferencetoitsvisibleresultinthelifeofthebeliever.TheprincipalpassageswhichdealwithspiritualgiftsareRo12:6ff.,1Co12,13,
14,Eph4:7ff.,1P4:10.Thegiftsmaybedividedintotheapparentlymiraculousandthenonmiraculous,(a)Themiraculousincludespeakingwithtongues
(probablyecstaticutterances,usuallyunintelligibletothespeakerseeTONGUES[GIFTOF]),andtheirinterpretationgiftsofhealing,andtheworkingofmiraclesor
powersofthesewemayinstancethepowerofexorcism([Mk]16:17,Ac16:18,19:12),andthepunishmentofoffenders(Ac5:111,13:9,1Co4:21,5:5).On
theborderlinecomeprophecy,discerningofspirits,andthereceivingofrevelations,wherethemiraculouselementislessstronglymarked.(b)Fromthesewepass
tothenonmiraculousgifts,giftsofcharacter,andmentalandspiritualendowmentsofvariouskinds.Wefindmentionedthepowerofexhortationandofspeech
(closelyakintoprophecy)wisdom,knowledge,andfaithhelpsandgovernments(i.e.powersofadministration)mercyandalmsgivingmoney,asaffording
opportunityforserviceandhospitality1Co7:7addsthegiftofcontinence,andGal5:22givesalistofthefruitsoftheSpirit,asshownintheChristiancharacter.
Ro12:6and1P4:10mentiononlynonmiraculousgifts,andintheEpp.thechiefevidenceforthemiraculousisconnectedwithCorinth.
2.Theirnature.Mostofthesegiftsmayberegardedastheraisingofnaturalendowmentstoahigherlevel.Withoutgoingatlengthintothequestionof
miracles,wemaynotethattheevidenceoftheirrealityinthisconnexionisverystrongtheyarereferredtointheEpistles(contemporarydocuments)asmattersof
commonknowledgeSt.Paulspeaksofhisownpowersinthisrespectaswellknown(1Co2:4,14:18,2Co12:2)andHe2:4mentionsthemasarecognized
characteristicofthefirstageofChristianity.Further,thesemiraculousgiftsoftheSpiritbelongtotheclasswhichmaymosteasilybereducedtopsychologicallaw,
andaretosomeextentparalleledinmoderntimes,beingmainlythewellattestedmanifestationswhichaccompanytimesofrevival,andarefoundinconnexion
withpeculiarlygiftedindividuals.
WhatwereadaboutmiraclesespeciallyaboutthecharismataintheEpistlesofSt.Paulisofthenatureofthingsunusual,obedienttolawsthataresomewhatrecondite,
distinctlyimplyingDivineimpulseandDivineguidanceandyetatmostnoncontranaturamsedcontraquamestnotanatura(Sanday, LifeofChristinRecentResearch,p.219).
Astrikingfeatureofthesegiftsistheirapparentlywidespreadanddemocraticnature.Thenewlife,withitshopesandpowers,hadbeenofferedtoallclassesof
society,andthehumblest
ChristianfeltthethrillofbeingfilledwiththeSpirit.Hence
thefirstageoftheChristianChurchwascharacterizedbyavividenthusiasmwhichfoundexpressioninwayswhichrecallthesimplicityofchildhood.Itwasaperiodofwonder
anddelight.Thefloodgatesofemotionwereopened:asupernaturaldreadalternatedwithanunspeakablejoy(Robinson,Ephesians,p.121).
Theresultsofthisenthusiasm,asdescribedin1Cor.,werestartlingandvisibletoallthatitcouldnotbewithoutitsdangersisobvious.Slavesorwomen,
peopleofnoaccountbefore,foundthemselvesinpossessionofmysteriouspowers,whichgavethemapositionofimportanceamongtheirfellowChristians.There
arosethetemptationtocovetandstrivebyartificialandillegitimatemethodsforthemorestrikinggifts,andtolookonthemasmarksofsuperiorsanctity,orthe
meansofpersonaladvancement.Others,onthecontrary,feltthemselvesforgotten,andyieldedtojealousyordespair.Rivalryledtodisorderwherethegiftswere
usedinthepublicservicesoftheChurch.
3.HencethetoneofSt.Paulsteachingastotheiruse
(a)Heinsistsontheirregulation.Thegiftsmaybesporadicandintermittentnonethelesstheirusemustbeorderly(1Co14:40)ecstasyisnoexcuseforloss
ofselfcontrol(v.32).EachChristianmustrecognizethelimitationsofhispowersandnotattempttotranscendthem(Ro12:6).
Therearisesthequestionoftherelationofthecharismatatotheministry.Somehavemaintainedthattherewasoriginallynofixedministry,butonlyunorganizedcharismata
othersagainhavetriedtoassignadefiniteofficetomostofthecharismata.Thetruerviewwouldseemtobethatthecharismataandtheofficialministryexistedsidebyside,but
werebynomeansidentical(seeSandayHeadlam,Romans,p.358).AllChristianshadtheirshareinthegiftsoftheSpirit,thoughtherewerespecialendowmentswhichwouldhe
lookedforinthecaseofofficersoftheChurchin1Ti4:14,2Ti1:6acharismaisconnectedwiththelayingonofhands.
(b)Thepurposeofthegiftsistheedificationandtheserviceofthewholebody.Chrysostom,inhisremarkablehomilyon1Co12,callsattentiontothechange
ofwordinvv.4,5.Thegiftsarealsoministrations(diakoniai),i.e.opportunitiesofservicehencethegreaterthegiftthegreatertheresponsibility,andtheharder
theworktohedone.AndsoSt.Paulpassesontothedoctrineoftheonebody,servedindifferentwaysbyallitsmembers.SimilarlyinEph4:11thepossessorsof
theendowmentsarethemselvesgiftsgiventotheChurch.ThesametruthisemphasizedinRo12,1Co14,1P4,infactineveryplacewherethecharismataare
mentionedatanylengthSt.Paulsownobjectisalwaystoimparttoothers(Ro1:11,1Co14:19cf.Jn7:38).Itisobviousthatthiswayoflookingatthegifts
wouldcheckambition,pride,andselfishnessintheiruse.
(c) Relativeimportanceofthegifts.Themorestartlingandapparentlymiraculousgiftsareconsistentlytreatedassubordinatetogiftsofcharacterand
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wouldcheckambition,pride,andselfishnessintheiruse.
(c)Relativeimportanceofthegifts.Themorestartlingandapparentlymiraculousgiftsareconsistentlytreatedassubordinatetogiftsofcharacterand
edification.Theformer,indeed,arenotdecisiveastotheirorigintheyarenotpeculiartoChristianity,andmaybetheaccompanimentofevilandfalsehood(Mt
7:22,24:24,2Th2:9,1Co12:3,Rev13:13,14).Indeed,inanagewhenexorcismsandmiracleswereassociatedwithmagic,andtheheathenmantis,orfrenzied
prophet,wasafamiliarphenomenon,itwasimpossibletoascribeallpowersandecstasytotheHolySpirit.Thetestisontheonesidedoctrinal(1Co12:2,8,1Jn
4:18)ontheotherthemorallife(Mt7:15ff.,Ro8:9,1Co13)andthepracticaltendencytoedification(1Co14).Thediscerningofspiritsisitselfanimportant
gift(1Co12:10,1Th5:21,1Jn4:1).Itis,indeed,remarkablehowsteadilytheNTconcentratesattentionontheinnerandlessstartlinggiftsofcharacter,which
thepopularmindwouldignoreandifitdoesnotdisparage,itcertainlydoesnotexaggerate,thosewhichatfirstsightseemedtogivemoredirectevidenceofthe
presenceoftheSpirit.Asafactofhistorythesetendedtodegenerateandfinallytodisappear.JustinandIrenusmentionthem,andtheyplayedalargepartinthe
GnosticandMontanistmovements,butafterthe2ndcent.theypracticallydiedoutasnormalendowmentsofthebeliever,toberevivedonlysporadicallyintimes
ofreligiousexcitement.
C.W.EMMET.SPITTING.SeeGESTURES.
SPONGE(Gr.spongos,Mt27:48,Mk15:36,Jn19:29,usedintheCrucifixionscene).Spongeshavebeenusedfromearlytimes,andarecommonalongthe
SyriancoastsoftheMediterranean.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
SPOONS(Ex25:29).SeeTABERNACLE,6(a).
SPRINGS.SeeF OUNTAIN,ISRAEL,II.1(5).
SPY.SeeWAR,3.
STACHYS.AChristiangreetedbySt.PaulinRo16:8.
STACTE(ntph,Ex30:34[cf.Sir24:15],lit.drop,cf.Job36:27).Somefragrantgumcollectedindrops,eitherstorax,or,moreprobably,myrrh.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
STAFF.SeeROD,S CEPTRE.
STAIR.SeeHOUSE,5.
STALL.SeeMANGER.
STANDARD.SeeBANNER.
STARS.ThestarsformpartoftheDivinecreationinGn1.Theyareinvisibleinthesunlight,butbegintoappearaboutsunset(Neh4:21).Inpoeticalpassages
hyperbolicalexpressionsareusedconcerningthem.Atthecreationthemorningstarssangtogether(Job38:7)atthebattlebetweenBarakandSiserathestarsin
theircoursesfoughtagainstSisera(Jg5:20):intheformerpassageitmaybethattheangelsaredescribedasstars(cf.Rev1:20thesevenstarsaretheangelsof
thesevenchurches).ThedifferenceofmagnitudeinthestarsisrecognizedbySt.Paul:onestardifferethfromanotherstaringlory(1Co15:41).Thestarswere
lookeduponasinnumerable:tellthestars,ifthoubeabletotellthem(Gn15:5).Theappearanceofabrightparticularstarwassupposedtoportendsomegreat
event.ThusBalaamprophesiedThereshallcomeforthastaroutofJacob(Nu24:17),andthiswasafterwardsinterpretedasapplyingtotheEpiphanystar(Mt2:2
seeS TAROFTHEMAGI)andsoin2P1:19wereadofthedaystararisinginmenshearts.Cautionisgivenagainsttheworshipofthestars,inthelegislationof
Deuteronomy(4:19),andthepunishmentofdeathassignedfortheconvictedworshipper(seeHOSTOFHEAVEN).InApocalypticliterature(Rev22:16)ourLord
describesHimselfasthebright,themorningstarwhilsttheythatturnmanytorighteousnessaretoshineasthestarsforeverandever(Dn12:3).Thedayof
theLordistobeheraldedbysignsinthestarsaswellasinthesunandmoon(Lk21:25).Theappearanceofshootingstars,whichcomeoutofthedarknessandgo
backintoit,isalludedtoinJude13wanderingstars,forwhomtheblacknessofdarknesshathbeenreservedforever.Specialnumbersofstarsarementionedin
Rev(1:16,12:1),thesevenstarsandtwelvestarsillustrateaconventionaluseofthosenumberscommoninapocalypticliterature.IntheOTthesevenstarsofthe
AVofAm5:8arethePleiadesandtheelevenstarswhichmadeobeisancetoJosephinhisdreamaresimplyaconventionalnumbertocorrespondwiththatofhis
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AVofAm5:8arethePleiadesandtheelevenstarswhichmadeobeisancetoJosephinhisdreamaresimplyaconventionalnumbertocorrespondwiththatofhis
brethren.
Ofindividualstarsorconstellations,theBear(AVArcturus),Orion,andthePleiadesoccurallthreeinJob9:9,38:31,32,thelasttwoalsoinAm5:8.The
mazzaroth(Job38:32)aremostprobablythesignsoftheZodiac(RVmcf.2K23:5.margin).In2K23:5theHeb.formofthewordmazzalothisdifferent,and
RV(text)rendersittheplanets.Thechambersofthesouth(Job9:9)areprobablythestarsofthesouthernhemisphere.
Ofworshipconnectedwiththestarswehavetwonotableinstances.ThatofthequeenofheavenwaspopularinJerusalem(Jer7:18)immediatelybeforethe
Captivity,andtotheneglectofitthecaptivesinEgyptascribedtheirdisasters,inanaddresstoJeremiah(44:1523)atPathros.Thisworshipconsistedofthe
offeringofincenseanddrinkofferings,andthemakingofcakes,withherfigure,apparently,uponthem.ThisQueenofHeavenseemstohavebeenwithoutdoubt
Venus,orIstar,whosestarwasconsideredthemostbeautifulintheheavens.ThisgoddessisidenticalwithAshtorethorAstarte.Thesecondinstanceofstarworship
isonethatpresentssomedifficulty.InAmos(5:26)wemeetwithanimageofChiun,ifthewordbeapropername,whoiscalledthestarofyourgod.This
passageisquotedbySt.Stephen(Ac7:43),wheretheexpressionisrenderedthestarofthegodRephan.ThereseemslittlereasontodoubtthatChiunisthesame
astheAssyrianKaiwn,identicalwiththeplanetSaturn,towhomdivineworshipwaspaid.TheformofnameRephanseemstohavearisenfromacorrupt
readingoftheHebrew,whichisasoldastheSeptuagint.ThereareveryfewallusionstoastrologyintheOT,butinIsaiah(47:13)wehavementionofthe
astrologers(Heb.dividersoftheheavens)thestargazers,themonthlyprognosticatorsallthesepersonsdrewtheirutterancesandprofessedknowledgeofthe
futurefromtheheavens.ThemagiciansandsoothsayersoftheBookofDanielwereasimilarclass,towhichbelongedtheMagiorwisemenwhohadseenthestar
whichheraldedthebirthoftheKingoftheJews(Mt2:1,2).Seenextarticle.
H.A.REDPATH.
STAROFTHEMAGI.ThecharacterofthestarwhichwasseenbytheMagihasbeenthesourceofmanyconjectures.Whilesomeconsiderittohavebeen
anabsolutelymiraculousappearance,othershavetriedtoconnectitwithsomerecognizedformofcelestialphenomenon.Somehaveheldthatitwasacomet[the
Greekwordforthestarisappliedtocomets],andifsuchacometasDonatisof1858,whichthepresentwriterrememberswell,hadbeenvisibleatthetimeofthe
Nativity,itwouldhavefulfilledtheconditionsofthenarrative,andthedifficultiesaboutthestarstandingoverwheretheyoungchildwas(Mt2:9)wouldhave
beenlessened.Nonesuch,however,seemstohavebeenrecorded.Others,notingthattherewereconjunctionsoftwoofthebrighterplanets,JupiterandSaturn(B.C.
7),andJupiterandVenus(B.C.6),havetriedtoconnectthisappearancewithoneofthese.Others,again,haveexplainedtheappearanceasthatofwhatisknownas
astellanova,i.e.astarwhichsuddenlyflashesoutwithgreatbrightnessinthefirmamentandtheneitherdiesoutagainaltogether,ordiminishesinthemagnitudeof
itsbrightness,soastobescarcely,ifatall,visibletothenakedeye.Thedifficultyconnectedwithalltheseinterpretationsisduetothenecessitythathasbeenfeltfor
givingaliteralinterpretationtotheaccountthatthestarwentbeforethem,tillitcameandstoodoverwheretheyoungchildwas.Butwemaytakeitthatthe
languagehereisofthesamecharacterasthatwhichweconstantlyuseaboutthesunormoonrisingandsetting.If,then,weassumethatthestar,whateveritwas,
wasnearthehorizoninfrontofthewisemenwhentheystartedontheirjourney,itsrelativepositiontothem,solongastheykeptadirectcourse,wouldvarybut
little.Theplaceintheheavensofanyfixedstarvariesonlyaboutonedegree,orfourminutes,eachsucceedingday.
Asomewhatmoredifficultquestionthanthatabouttheappearanceofthestaris,WhydidthewisemenconnectitwiththebirthofakingoftheJews?The
traditionalanswertothisquestionisthattherehadbeenhandeddownfromgenerationtogenerationamongthewisemenofBabylonaknowledgeofBalaams
prophecy,ThereshallcomeforthastaroutofJacob(Nu24:17),andthat,whenthisnotablestarappeared,itwasconsideredtobetheheraldoftheappearanceof
agreatperson.TherecertainlywasaJewishpopulationinBabyloniainourLordsday,andifthisprophecywasrecognizedascomingfromaHebrewdocument,
andreferencewasmadetotheJews,itwouldbemostnaturalforthewisemen,iftheywereBabylonians,tosettheirfacestowardsJerusalem.Thereisthis
difficulty,however,aboutreferringthestarofBalaamsprophecytoaphenomenonintheheavens,thatfromtheparallelismoftheHebrewpoetrywegatherthat
thestarisintendedtorefernottoastarinthesky,buttosomegreatprinceorruler(cf.,forthisuse,Dn8:10).Still,theexplanationofthejourneymaybemuch
thesame.TherewasagreatfermentintheEastandawidespreadanticipation,evenintheRomanworld,ofsomegreatSaviourordeliverertoarise,asthepoets
VirgilandHoracetestify,justaboutthetimewhentheSaviourwasborn.Ifsomesuchbrilliantstarappeared,thiswouldbetakenasportendingthatthemomentfor
theappearanceofsuchanonehadarrived,andsearchwouldbemadefortheGreatOne.So,intheApocalypse(Rev22:16),ourLordisrepresentedasclaimingfor
HimselfthatHeisnotonlytherootandtheoffspringofDavid,butalsothebright,themorningstar.
H.A.REDPATH.
STATEOFTHEDEAD.SeeESCHATOLOGY,P ARADISE,S HEOL.
STATER.SeeMONEY,7.
STEALING.SeeC
http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/s.htm ,6Theft. 104/116
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STEALING.SeeCRIMES,6Theft.
STEEL.SeeMININGANDMETALS.
STEPHANAS.ACorinthian,apparentlyofsomeimportance,whosehouseholdwerebaptizedbySt.Paulpersonally(1Co1:16),andarecalledthefirst
fruitsofAchaia(16:15).StephanashimselfhadjoinedtheApostleatEphesuswhenhewrote,andwasofgreatassistancetohimthere.
A.J.MACLEAN.
STEPHEN.EarlyinthehistoryoftheChristianChurchitwasfoundnecessaryfortheApostlestodevolvesomeoftheirdutiesonothers.Thereisnoreason
forsupposing(withProf.Ramsay)thatpresbytershadyetbeenappointed,thoughtheysoonfollowedbutinAc6sevenpersons,commonly(butnotinNT)called
deacons,allbutoneprobablyHellenisticorGreekspeakingJews(seeart.NICOLAS),wereappointedtomanagethedistributionofalmstotheHellenistwidows.Of
theSeven,Stephenwasthemostprominent.TheirdutieswerenoteleemosynaryonlyStephenatonceundertookevangelisticworkandwongreatsuccess,
persuadingmany,andworkingmiracles.HissuccessresultedinthefirstpersecutionoftheChurch,andfalsewitnesseswerebroughtwhoaccusedhimof
blasphemy,andofspeakingagainsttheTempleandtheLaw.Hemadealongdefence(Ac7:253),whichisnoteasyofinterpretation.HesummarizesOThistory
fromthecallofAbrahamtothebuildingofSolomonsTemple(cf.St.PaulssermoninAc13),inamannerwhichshowsthathedependedpartlyontradition,for
therearemanydiscrepanciesbetweenhisspeechandOT.HespeakswithgreatrespectoftheMosaicLaw(vv.3538,53).Somethinkthathedisparagesthe
TempleashavingbeenbuiltagainstGodswill(v.48ff.).Butthisisveryimprobable.Perhapsthedefencewasnotcompletedyetwhatwasdeliveredgivesitsdrift.
TheJewshadmisunderstoodtheirownLaw.GodhadnotconfinedHispresencetotheTabernacleandtheTempleHehadappearedtoAbrahamandothersbefore
theLawwasgivenIsaiah(66:1f.)hadpreachedthatGodsworshipwasnotconfinedtooneplace.Butthepeoplehadpersecutedtheprophetsastheynowhad
killedJesus.ThisdefenceprovokedtheJewssomuchthattheycastStephenoutofthecityandstonedhimundoubtedlyanillegalmurder,notsanctionedbythe
Romanlaw.Stephen,whosedyingprayerforhismurderers(v.60)recallsthatofhisMaster,thusbecamethefirstChristianmartyr.
Hisdeathledtoapersecution,andtoadispersalofthedisciplesfromJerusalem.Thiscausedthespreadofthegospeltomanylands.Butthemostprominentfruitof
themartyrdom,doubtless,wastheconversionofSaulofTarsus,whowaspresent(7:58,8:1),andofwhom,asisgenerallyacknowledged,Stephenwasinhis
preachingtheforerunner.
A.J.MACLEAN.
STEWARD.ThistermisfoundsixtimesinAVofOT.ItisappliedtoEliezerinGn15:2,whereRVrightlytr.hethatshallhepossessorofmyhouse.InGn
43:19,44:14Josephssteward(AVandRV)islit.hewhowasoverhishouse(cf.43:16,1K16:19inRV).In1Ch28:1AVstewardsistr.ofHeb.srm(lit.
princes,RVrulers).ForthestewardofDn1:11,
18(RV),seeMELZAR.
TheNTtermsare(1)epitropos,stewardinMt20:8,Lk8:3alsotranslatedinGal4:2AVtutors,RVguardians.(2)oikonomos,theusualterm,foundboth
literallyandmetaphorically,asisalsothecognatenounoikonomiastewardship.ThelatterisusedliterallyinLk16:2,8,4,andmetaphoricallyin1Co9:17,Eph
3:2,Col1:25,1Ti1:4[inlastthreedispensation,RVmstewardship].
W.F.BOYD.
STOCKS.SeeCRIMES,9P RISON,p.756b.
STOICS.WhenSt.PaulmetrepresentativesoftheStoicphilosophyatAthens(Ac17:18),thatschoolhadbeeninexistenceforaboutthreecenturiesanda
half.ThenamecamefromtheStoaorPorchwhereZeno(aboutB.C.340265),thefounderoftheschool,taughtatAthens.
TheleadingStoicmaximis,Liveaccordingtonature.NaturebothintheworldandinmanistobeinterpretedbyitshighestmanifestationReasonwhich
appearsintheworldastheallpervadingetherealessenceorspirit,formingandanimatingthewholeandinmanasthesoul.ThisWorldspiritoccupiestheplaceof
GodintheStoicsystem.ThuswefindSt.PaulquotingthewordsofaStoicwriter,Wearealsohisoffspring(Ac17:28).Theapproximation,however,isin
languageratherthaninreality.ThetheologyoftheStoicsispurepantheism.TheirsocalledGodhasnoindependentorpersonalexistence.
Thesupremacyofreasoninmanispushedtosuchanextremethatvirtuousconductdemandstheentiresuppressionoftheemotionalsideofmansnature.This
rigorousmoralstandardbecame,forpracticalreasons,considerablymodifiedbutStoicmoralitywasalwaysmarkedbyitsrigidityandcoldness.
ThegreatqualityofStoicism,whichsetitaboveEpicureanism,andbroughtitintolinewithChristianity,wasitsmoralearnestness.InhisdissertationonSt. 105/116
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ThegreatqualityofStoicism,whichsetitaboveEpicureanism,andbroughtitintolinewithChristianity,wasitsmoralearnestness.InhisdissertationonSt.
PaulandSenecaBp.Lightfoothassaid,StoicismwastheonlyphilosophywhichcouldevenpretendtorivalChristianityintheearlieragesoftheChurch.
PerhapstherewasinSt.PaulsmindatAthensthehighhopeofbringingtothesideofChristsuchanoblerivalofthegospel.YetStoicismandChristianityran
parallelratherthancameintocontactwithoneanother,untilthroughtheweaknessinherentinitstheologyanditsethicsthecurrentofStoicphilosophywas
dissipatedandlost.
W.M.MDONALD.
STOMACH.ThisEnglishwordoccursin2Mac7:21withthemeaningofcourage,
Stirringupherwomanishthoughtswithamanlystomach.
STOMACHERistheEVtr.ofpthgl,whosemeaning(Is3:24only)isveryuncertain.The
Eng.wordstomacherwasappliedtothatpartofawomansdresswhichcoveredthebreastandthepitofthestomach.Itwasusuallymuchornamented,andwas
lookeduponasanevidenceofwealth.
STONE
I.InOT.1.Severaldifferentwordsarerenderedstone,buttheoneofbyfarthemostfrequentoccurrenceisebhen,whichhasthesamewiderangeof
applicationasitsEnglishequivalent.Palestineisastonycountry,aridtheusestowhichstonewasputwerenumerousandvaried.Initsnaturalstateastoneserved
forapillow(Gn28:18)oraseat(Ex17:12),forcoveringthemouthofawell(Gn29:2ff.)orclosingtheentrancetoacave(Jos10:18cf.Mt27:30etc.).Outofit,
again,mightbeconstructedaknife(Ex4:25,Heb.tsr.RVflint),avessel(7:19cf.Jn2:6),amill(Dt24:8).Aboveall,stonewasemployedinarchitecture.
Houses(Lv14:42etc.),walls(Neh4:8,Hab2:11),towers(byimplicationinGn11:3),andespeciallythe
Temple(1K5:17f.etc.),arereferredtoasbuiltofstone.Wereadoffoundationstones(1K5:17),ofacornerstone(Ps118:22),ofaheadstoneorfinial(Zec4:7)
andin2K16:17mentionismadeofapavementofstone.Masonrywasaregulartrade(2S5:11etc.),andstonehewingisfrequentlyreferredto(2K12:12etc.).
Belongingtotheaestheticandluxurioussideoflifearepreciousstonesandtheartsofcuttingandgravingandsettingthem(Ex28:9,11,31:5etc.)see,further,
JEWELSANDP RECIOUSS TONES.Theprofusionofstonesmadeitnaturaltousethemasmissiles.Stonethrowingmightbeamarkofhatredandcontempt(2S16:6,
13),ortheexpedientofmurderousintentionsagainstwhichprovisionhadtobemadeinlegislation(Ex21:18,Nu35:17).Inwar,stoneswereregularweaponsof
offence.Usuallytheywerehurledwithslings(1S17:49,1Ch12:2),but,later,greatstonesweredischargedbymeansofengines(2Ch26:15,1Mac6:51).
Stoningtodeathwasanaturalandconvenientmethodofexecution.Atfirstanexpressionofpopularfury(Jos7:25),itwasafterwardsregulatedbylawasan
appointedmeansofcapitalpunishment(Dt17:57cf.Ac7:58f.).See,further,CRIMESANDP UNISHMENTS,10.Theuseofstonesasmemorialswascommon.
Sometimesasinglelargestone,atothertimesaheapofstones,wasraised(Gn31:45f.,Jos8:29,24:26).Akintothiswastheiremploymenttomarkaboundary
(Jos15:6etc.).Stoneswouldbetheordinarylandmarksbetweenthefieldsofonepersonandanother,theremovalofwhichwasstrictlyforbidden(Dt19:14etc.).In
religiousworshipstoneswereemployedintheformsofthepillar(Gn28:18,22,31:45,35:14)andthealtar.Thelatterwasatfirstasinglegreatstone(1S6:14f.),
butafterwardswasbuiltofseveralstones,whichmustbeunhewn(Ex20:25,Dt27:5,6).See,further.P ILLARandALTAR.Theuseofstoneforliterarypurposes(cf.
theMoabiteStone)isillustratedbythetablesofstoneonwhichtheDecaloguewaswritten(Ex24:12etc.)andtheinscribedstonesofthealtaronMt.Ebal(Dt
27:2ff.,Jos8:30ff.).
2.Stones=testicles(Lv21:20,Dt23:1,Job40:17).
II.InNT.Heretithosistheordinaryword,andisfoundinmostoftheconnexionsalreadyreferredto.NoteworthyisthefactthatJesus,afterquotingPs
118:22,tooktherejectedandexaltedstoneasasymbolofHimself(Mt21:42ff.,Lk20:17f.).St.PeteradoptsthesymbolinhisaddresstotheSanhedrin(Ac4:11),
andenlargesit,withfurtherreferencetoIs8:14,28:13,inhisfigureofthelivingstone,whichisatoncethefoundationofGodsspiritualhouseandastoneof
stumblingtothedisobedient(1P2:48).Thestone(petros)ofJn1:42shouldberock,orstillbetterPeter(RV)stony(petrds)inMt13:5,Mk4:5,16
shouldberocky.ThewhitestoneofRev2:17representsGr.psphos,apebble,andtheref.perhapsistothetessaragladiatoriabestowedonthevictorious
younggladiator.
J.C.LAMBERT.
STONESQUARERS.Only1K5:18AVRVhasGebalitesasJos13:5RV,thatis,menofthePhniciancityofGebal,mentionedEzk27:9,wherethe
ancientsandwisemenofGebalarereferredtoascalkersofships.Ithasrecentlybeensuggestedthatthegentilicnamehadbecomeanappellativeinthesenseof
stonecutter(SBOT,Kings,83f.),whichisthemeaningofAV.Otherswouldemendtoreaddidhewthemandborderthem,i.e.providethestoneswith
marginaldraftsorwithbevels.Cf.ARTSANDCRAFTS,3.
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A.R.S.KENNEDY.
STONES,PRECIOUS.SeeJEWELSANDP RECIOUSS TONES.
STOOL.InolderEnglish(includingAV)stoolwasusedfreelyforanykindofseat(DBiv.621)similarlytheHeb.kissincludesbothchairsandstools,
seeHOUSE,8.InthedifficultpassageEx1:16thewordrenderedstoolsinthesenseofbirthstools(sellaparturientis)mustbepointedtoreadstones(abnyim
forobnyim,bothdualnumber),thereferencebeingtothetwostonesorbricksonwhichawomansatduringheraccouchement.Thiswidelyspreadcustomhas
beenconclusivelyshowntohaveexistedinancientEgyptby
Spiegelberg(gypt.Randglossen,1925),fromtherealisticrepresentationpreservedinanearlyhieroglyphicsignforbirth,confirmedbyliteraryreferences.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
STORAX.SeeS PICE,S TACTE.
STORK(chsdh,Lv11:19,Dt14:18,Job39:13,Ps104:17,Jer8:7,Zec5:9).Thestork(Arab,abusaidfatherofgoodluck)isabirdmuchlovedin
Palestine,whereinitsmigrationnorthwardsitarrivesinthespring(Jer8:7)itdoesgreatgoodbyclearingthecropsofcaterpillarsandlocusts:whenthestorks
arriveplentifully,itisanticipatedthattheharvestswillbeunusuallygood.Thesebirdsmaybeseenwalkingthroughthegrainorcirclingroundandroundingroups
highintheheavens.Nodoubtthispowerfulflightcauseditswingstobenoted(Job39:13,Zec5:8).Nonativewoulddreamofharmingititssacredcharactermay
havecausedittobeanuncleanbird(Lv11:19,Dt14:18).ItsHeb.name,implyinglovingkindness,wasgivenbecauseofitstendercareofitsyoung.Theabove
remarksapplyspeciallytothewhitestork(Ciconiaalba)ablackstork(C.nigra)hasalsobeenidentifiedintheHolyLand.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
STORM.SeeGALILEE[S EAOF],3WHIRLWIND.
STORY(EVforstorey).SeeHOUSE,5.
STRAIT.ThisEng.wordisusedinAVintheliteralsenseofnarrow,andinthefigurativesenseofstrict(ofwhichitissimplyanotherform).Oncetheverb
straitoccurs,Sus22Iamstraitedoneveryside.
STRANGEFIRE.SeeNADAB.
STRANGER.Thisseems,onthewhole,themostsuitableEnglishwordbywhichtorendertheHeb.zr,whichisaparticipledenotingprimarilyonewho
turnsaside,onewhogoesoutoftheway,i.e.forthepurposeofvisitingordwellinginanothercountry.Ithasfrequentlythemeaningforeigner,incontrastto
Israelite,especiallywiththeaddednotionofhostility(cf.estranged),andinantithesistoIsrael(e.g.Hos7:9,8:7,Is1:7,Ezk7:21,11:9,Jl3:17,Ob11,
Ps54:3etc.).InPthewordtakesonatechnicalmeaningfoundnowhereoutsidetheHexateuch,andexclusivelypostexilic.Itmeanslayman(whichmightwith
advantagebesubstitutedforEVstranger),asopposedtoaLevite(seeNu1:51,18:7),ortoapriestproper,orAaronite(seeEx29:33,30:33,Nu3:10,38,18:2,
Lv22:10,12f.(H)).
ThestrangewomanofPr2:16etc.hasthesametechnicalsenseasforeignwomanwithwhichitstandsinparallelism,viz.harlot.
Sojourner(sometimestr.oftshb,settler[seebelow])isfrequentlysubstitutedbyRVfortheAVstranger,astr.ofgr.Thegerwasoriginallyamanwho
transferredhimselffromonetribeorpeopletoanother,seeking,andusuallyobtaining,someoftherightsofnatives.AwholeclanortribemightbegrminIsrael,
ase.g.theGibeonites(Jos9),theBeerothites(2S4:2).TheIsraelitesarethemselvesoftenspokenofassojournersinthelandofEgypt(seeGn15:13,Ex22:21,
23:9,Lv19:24(H),Dt10:19,23:7etc.).IntheoldestIsraelitishcode(theBookoftheCovenant,Ex21:1to23:13),thegrisprotectedagainstinjusticeand
violence(21:20,23:9).TheDcode(c.B.C.620)goesmuchfurther,for,besidesmakingmoreexplicitandurgentthedutyofdefending,helping,andevenloving
thesojourner(Dt10:18,14:29,24:14,19),andalsosecuringtohimhisrights(24:17,27:19),thegrwastobeallowedtoparticipateinthethreegreatannual
feasts(Dt16:11ff.cf.5:14andEx23:12).Heisnot,however,compelled,thoughallowed,tofollowhisprotectorsreligion(Dt14:29,1K11:7).Thatheoccupiesa
statusinferiortothatofthebornIsraeliteisindicatedbythefactthatheisclassedwiththewidowandorphanasneedingspecialconsideration(10:18,14:29,29:14,
19),andthattherightofintermarryingisdeniedhim(7:1ff.,23:4).When,however,wecometoPandtootherpartsoftheOTwhichbelongtothesamestageof
historyandreligion,wefindthesojourneralmostonanequalfootingwiththenativeIsraelite,heisfastbecoming,andisalmostbecome,theproselyteofNT107/116
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historyandreligion,wefindthesojourneralmostonanequalfootingwiththenativeIsraelite,heisfastbecoming,andisalmostbecome,theproselyteofNT
andRabbinicaltimes.Hispositionhasnowreligiousratherthanpoliticalsignificance.HeisexpectedtokeeptheSabbathandtoobservetheDayofAtonement,as
wellasthethreegreatfeasts(Lv16:29).HeistoeatunleavenedbreadduringPassoverweek(Ex12:19PassoverandtheFeastofUnleavenedBreadarenow
blended),and,ifcircumcised(nototherwise),tokeepthefullPassoveritself.ButthegrisnotevenyetthefullequaloftheIsraelite,forheisnotcompelledtobe
circumcised,andnoonecanbelongtothecongregationwhohasnotsubmittedtothatrite(Ex12:47ff.,Nu9:14)hehasnotyetreceivedtherightofintermarriage
(Gn34:14),andisprohibitedfromkeepingJewishslaves(Lv25:47ff.).
TheclosingoftheranksofJudaism,helpedbytheExile,bythereformsofEzraandNehemiah,bytheSamaritanschism,andconsummatedbytheMaccaban
wars,ledtothecompleteabsorptionofthesojourner.Thewordproslytos(representingtheHeb.gr),commoninclassicalGreekforonewhohascometoa
place(Lat.advena),acquiredinHellenisticGreekthemeaningwhichmeetsusoftenintheNT(Mt23:15,Ac2:6etc.).See
P ROSELYTE.
Theindiscriminateuseofstrangerwiththemeaningofsojourner,andofalienand
foreignerisveryconfusing.ForeigneristheproperrenderingofHeb.nokri.TheHeb.tshb(lit.dweller)isapostexilicsubstituteforgr(sojourner)inthe
originalnonreligeoussenseofthelatter.Forthesakeofdistinctionitmightbeuniformlyrenderedsettler(EVsojourner,stranger,foreigner).See,forthe
relationsofIsraeltoforeignersproper,art.NATIONS.
T.WITTONDAVIES.
STRANGLING.Thisissuggestedasamodeofdeath,Job7:15.ThecognateverbdescribesthemannerofAhithophelsselfinflicteddeath(2S17:23,EV
hangedhimselfcf.Mt27:5ofJudas).Theideaconveyedisdeathbysuffocation,notnecessarilyproducedbysuspension.Elsewhere,wherehangingis
mentionedinEVasamodeofpunishment,someformofimpalementisintended(seeCRIMESANDP UNISHMENTS,10).
InthepastorallettersentdownbytheCouncilofJerusalemtotheearlyconvertsfromheathenism,theseareinstructedtoabstaininteraliafrombloodandfrom
thingsstrangled(Ac15:29,cf.v.20,21:25).BothbelongtothecategoryofJewishfoodtaboo(F OOD,10).Theformerreferstotheprohibitionagainsteating
meatwhichhadnotbeenthoroughlydrainedoftheblood,thesecondtothesimilartabooaffectingthefleshofanimalsnotslaughteredaccordingtotheveryminute
Rabbinicalrulestheninforce.ThusintheTalmudictreatiseChullin,speciallydevotedtothissubject,itislaiddown(i.2)thatanyonemayslaughterwithany
instrumentexceptaharvestsickle,asaw,etc.,becausethesestrangle,inotherwords,theydonotmakethecleanincisionrequiredforproperslaughter.Whatis
strangled(Ac15:20RV)orstrangledmeatisthusseentobeacurrenttechnicaltermoftheJewishshkhtorritualofslaughter.InmodernphrasetheGentile
convertsweretoeatonlykshermeat.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
STRAW,STUBBLE.InHeb.theformeristeben,thelatterqash,andtoWesternideastheoneisasmuchstrawastheother.Thedistinctionbetweenthetwo
isasfollows:teben,themoderntibn,isthemixtureofchoppedstrawandchaff,producedbytheactionofthethreshingdragandwinnowedoutbythefan
(AGRICULTURE,3),asdistinguishedfromthegrainsofwheat(soJer23:28wherestrawRV,andchaffAVarebothinadequate).Itismentionedasthefoodof
horses,asses,andcamels.Inreaping,asisstillthecustom,thestalkswerecutkneehighoroverthelengthofstalkleftstandingisqash.Accordingly,whenthe
HebrewsinEgyptgatheredstubbleforstraw(Ex5:12),whattheydidwastopullupthestalksofwheatleftstandinginthefieldsandcutthemupintoshortpieces
suitableforbrickmaking,insteadofbeingallowedtoprocurethetibnreadytotheirhandfromthelocalthreshingfloors.Sincethecornstalkswereusuallyburned
asmanure,stubbleisfrequentlyfoundinmetaphorssuggestedbythispractice(Is5:24,47:14etc.).Inotherpassagescontainingreferenceexplicitorimpliedto
drivenstubble(41:3),thesmallerfragmentsofchoppedstrawwhichthewindblewawaywiththechafffromthethreshingfloormaybeintended.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
STREET.SeeCITY.
STRENGTHOFISRAEL.TheEVtr.oftheDivinetitlentsachYisrlin1S15:29.ProbablyamoreaccuraterenderingwouldbeGloryofIsrael.
STRIPES.SeeCRIMES,etc.(Beating),9.
STRONGDRINK.SeeWINEANDS TRONGDRINK.
STRONGHOLD.SeeC
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STRONGHOLD.SeeCITY,F ORTIFICATIONANDS IEGECRAFT.

STUBBLE.SeeS TRAW.
STUFF.InLk17:31andelsewhereinAVstuffmeansfurniturecf.Udallstr.ofErasmusParaphrase,i.7,Allthatevertheyhadaboutthemofstuffeor
furniture.
STUMBLINGBLOCK(Gr.skandalonAVoffence,occasiontofall,stumblingblockRVstumblingblock,thingthatcausesstumbling,occasionof
stumbling).Properlythespringofatrap(cf.Ro11:9)hencesomethingthatensnaresortripsup.TheverbisskandatizeinAVoffend,RVcausetostumble.
DAVIDS MITH.
SUA(1Es5:29)=Ezr2:44Siaha,Neh7:47Sia.
SUAH.AnAsherite(1Ch7:36).
SUBAI(1Es5:30)=Ezr2:46Shamlai,Neh7:48Salmai.
SUBAS.AfamilyofSolomonsservantse(1Es5:34)
SUBURB.ThiswordisusedinAVintwoquitedistinctsenses.(1)In2K23:11acertainchamber,reallywithintheTempleprecincts,issaidtohavebeenin
thesuburbs(Heb.parvar,RVprecincts).PracticallythesameoriginalisretainedasapropernameParbar,1Ch26:18(RVmthePrecinct),wherethe
referenceisprobablytothesamespotasintheformerpassage.Modernscholarsfindinthismysteriousparbarorparvaradesignationofthewesterncolonnade
(orpartthereof)oftheTemple(seeP ARBAR).
(2)InallotherinstancessuburbsoccursonlyinconnexionwiththesocalledLeviticalcities,astherenderingderivedfromtheVulg.suburbana(fields,etc.,
closetoacity)ofaHeb.wordmeaningpasturegrounds.Eachofthe48cities,accordingtoNu35:2ff.,istobeprovidedwithasquaretractoflandmeasuring
2000cubitsroughly1000yardseachway,whichistoservetheLevitesasacommonpasturegroundfortheircattleandfortheirsubstanceandforalltheir
beasts(v.3RV,cf.thelistsinJos21:242,1Ch6:5581).
A.R.S.KENNEDY.SUCATHITES.SeeS OCO,1.
SUCCOTH.AplacefirstmentionedinGn33:17,whereitissaidtohavebeensocalledbecauseJacob,onhisreturnfromHarantoCanaan,haltingatitafter
hiswrestlingwiththeangelatPenuel,builttherebooths(Heb.succth)forhiscattle.Gideonalso,aftercrossingtheJordaninhispursuitoftheMidianites,passed
Succoth,andafterwardswentuptoPenuel(Jg8:5,8).Thenamehasnotbeenpreservedandthesiteisthusmatterofconjecture.Fromthepassagesquotedand
othernoticesitisclearthatitwasE.oftheJordananditmayfurtherbeinferredthat,whilePenuelwasclosetotheJabbok(Gn32:22,30f.),onhighergroundthan
Succoth,andtotheE.orS.E.(Jg8:5,8,cf.v.11),SuccothwasontheroutebetweenPenuelandShechem,whichwouldpassmostnaturallyovertheforded
Dmiyeh(alittleS.ofthepointatwhichtheJabbokenterstheJordan),intheterritoryofGad,inavale(Jos13:27,Ps60:5),presumably,therefore,inthatpart
oftheJordanvalleythroughwhichtheJabbokflowsintotheJordan,andwhichisveryfertile.JacobcamefromMizpah(seeNo.1inart.s.v.),whichismost
naturallytobesoughtsomewhereontheN.orN.E.oftheJebelAjlunandanyonejourneyingthencetothefordedDmiyehwouldnaturallydescendassoonas
possibleintotheGhr(orJordanvalley),andjointhetrackwhichpassesalongitfromN.toS.TherestofJacobsroutewouldbeconsistentandintelligible,if
Mahanaim(hislasthaltingplacebeforePenuel,Gn32:2)were(say)atDeirAll,4milesN.ofthefordbywhichthetrackdowntheGhrcrossestheJabbok,
PenuelnearwherethesametrackcrossestheroutefromesSalttoedDmiyeh(seethemap),andSuccothononeofthelowerterracesoftheJordanvalley(which
heresinksfrom500ft.to1000ft.),W.ofthepointjustsuggestedforPenuel,S.oftheJabbok,andintheterritoryofGad(Jos13:27).Whethertownsactually
stoodatornearthesitesthusindicatedcan,ofcourse,bedeterminedonlybyexcavation.
SuccothissaidintheTalmudtohavebeencalledinlatertimesTaralahorDaralahandhenceithasoftenbeenidentifiedwithDeirAllmentionedabove.
ButitisverydoubtfulwhetherDeirAllhasanyconnexionwiththisTalm.nameforDeirisaSyriacandArabicword(commoninnamesofplaces)meaning
monastery,whichthereisnoreasonwhateverforseeingintheTarorDar(withouttheyod)oftheTalm.name.NordoesthegeographicalpositionofDeirAll
seemtoagreewiththenarrativeofeitherJacoborGideon.See,further,DriverinExpTxiii.(1902),p.457ff.,morebrieflyinGen.p.300ff.
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S.R.DRIVER.
SUCCOTH(meaninginHeb.booths).ThenameofthefirstencampmentintheExodus,whichstartedfromRameses(Ex12:37,13:20,Nu33:5,6).Itis
probablytheEgyptianThuke,thesameasorneartoPithom(wh.see),capitalofthe8thnome,andsituatedintheWadyTumilat.
F.LL.GRIFFITH.
SUCCOTHBENOTH(2K17:30).AdeitywhoseimagewasmadeandsetupinSamariabythecolonistsfromBabylon.Benoth(LXXBanith)suggests
BanituasitappearsinthenameZarpantuintheinscriptionsZerbanituthewifeofMarduk,patrongodofBabylon.Butthereisnocertainty.Sayce(in
HastingsDB)suggeststhatSuccothmaydenotetheprocessionalshrinesinwhichtheimageswerecarried,BenothbeingcorruptedfromBelithorBetit,the
classicalBeltis,acommontitleandsynonymofZerbantu.
W.EWING.
SUD.ThenameofariverorcanalofBabylonnamedinBar1:4.ThisnamehasnotyetbeenfoundintheliteratureofBabylonia,anditseemsprobablethat
thereisamistakeinthetext,thetruereadingbeingSur.ABabyloniantextmentionsariverorcanalintheneighbourhoodofBabyloncalledNrSuru,andthismay
bethestreamintended.Itspositionisunknown.
T.G.P INCHES.
SUDIAS(1Es5:26)=Ezr2:40Hodaviah,Neh7:43Hodevah.
SUKKIIM.ThenameofatribeledbyShishakagainstJuda(2Ch12:3).TheidentificationoftheSukkiimwiththeinhabitantsofSuakinisveryuncertain.
SUMER,SUMERIANS.Seep.69b.
SUN.ThefirstmentionofthesunintheBibleisinGn1:16,asthegreaterlighttoruletheday.Itwaslookeduponasthegreatestandmostimportantofthe
heavenlybodies,andmotionwasattributedtoit,asisstilldoneinordinaryparlance.Wereadofthegoingdownofthesun,andofitsrisingoftheincreasingforce
ofitsheatasthedaywenton(Ex16:21),ofitsinfluenceintheproductionofthecropsoftheground(thepreciousthingsofthefruitsofthesun,Dt33:14).The
sungoethforthinhismight(Jg5:31).Thesituationofaplaceisspokenofastowardthesunrising,i.e.totheeast(e.g.Nu34:15).Thingsthatwerenotorious
anddoneopenlyweresaidtobebeforeorinthesightofthesun.Butwhilethesunisstrong,thepowerofGodisgreaterstill.ThisisexpressedinJobsassertion
(9:7)thatGodcommandeththesunanditrisethnot.Thepowerofthesunaffectsthecomplexion(Igoblackened,butnotbythesun,Job30:28RVmcf.Ca
1:6),andevencausesdeath.Acaseofdeathbysunstrokeoccursin2K4:1819,andthispowerisalludedtoinPs121:6Thesunshallnotsmitetheebyday.
Thelightofthesunischeering:apleasantthingitisfortheeyestobeholdthesun(Ec11:7).Contrivancesformeasuringthelengthofthedaybytheshadowcast
bythesunwereinvented:wehavesomekindofdial,ofwhichstepsformedapart,indicatedin2K20:9,11,Is38:8.Thoughthereisnoactualmentionofan
eclipseintheBible,partofthelanguageusedindescribingtheterrorsofthedayoftheLordbothinOTandNTisderivedfromsuchanevent:thesunshallbe
turnedintodarkness(Jl2:31),thesunbecameblackassackclothofhair(Rev6:12).Ontheotherhand,thebrillianceandgloryofthefuturelifeisportrayedby
comparisonwiththesun.Thenshalltherighteousshineforthasthesun(Mt13:43)Thelightofthesunshallbesevenfold(Is30:26)andeventhesunwillnot
berequired,for,asinPs84:11theLordGodisasun,soinRev21:23(cf.22:5)thecityhathnoneedofthesunforthegloryofGoddidlightenit.The
wondersofthedayofJoshuasvictoryovertheAmorites,whenathiscommandthesunandmoonaresaidtohavestoodstill(Jos10:1214),werelong
rememberedbytheIsraelites(Hab3:11,Sir46:4).
Thepowerandinfluenceofthesunoverthenaturalworldwouldsoonleadtoitsbeingpersonifiedandworshipped,inasmuchaswhatwasdoneuponearthwas
doneunderthesun.In
oneofJosephsdreamsthereisapersonificationofthesun(Gn37:9).IntheBookofDeuteronomy(4:19)thereisacautionagainstsunworship,andthe
punishmentofdeathbystoningisassignedtotheconvictedworshipperofthesun(17:3),whilstinJob(31:26)thereisanallusiontoasuperstitioussalutationofthe
sunbythekissingofthehand.Sunpillars,orobelisksusedintheworshipofthesun,arementionedfrequentlyintheOT,e.g.Ex23:24,Lv26:30,2Ch14:3,Is
17:8,Ezk6:4andinPhnicia,asolarBaal,BaalHammon,wasworshipped.Sunworshipitselfwas,inthelaterdaysofthekingdomofJudahatanyrate,oneof
thepermittedformsofworshipinJerusalem.Sunimagesarementionedin2Ch.(14:5)asexistinginallthecitiesofJudahasearlyasthereignofAsa.InJosiahs
reformationthosewhoburntincensetothesunwereputdown(2K23:5),whilethechariotsofthesunwereburnedwithfire(afterbeinghewndownaccordingto2
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reformationthosewhoburntincensetothesunwereputdown(2K23:5),whilethechariotsofthesunwereburnedwithfire(afterbeinghewndownaccordingto2
Ch34:4,7),andthehorsesthatthekingsofJudahhadgiventothesunweretakenaway(2K23:11).TherewasagreatchariotofthesunatSipparin
Babylonia.WegatherfromEzk8:16thatthissunworshipactuallytookplaceintheinnercourtatthedooroftheTemple,betweentheporchandthealtarthe
worshippersturnedtheirbacksupontheTempleitself,andworshippedthesuntowardstheeast.Certainplaceswherethisworshipappearstohavebeenmost
populartookthenameBethshemesh(wh.see),houseofthesun,fromthefact.
Wemustnotforget,inconclusion,that,inoneMessianicpassage(Mal4:2),thecomingdelivererisspokenofasthesunofrighteousness.
H.A.REDPATH.
SUNSTROKE.Seepreced.art.andMEDICINE,p.599a.
SUPERSCRIPTION.SeeTITLE,andMONEY,6.
SUPH.AplacenameinDt1:1IntheArabahoveragainstSuphAVreadsoveragainsttheRedSea,inwhichcaseithasbeenassumedthatthewordfor
SeahadfallenoutinthereceivedHebrewtext.Suphmeansweeds,andtheSeaofWeedswastheHebrewnameofthe
RedSea.TheAVisalmostcertainlycorrecttheexpressionwassounderstoodalsobyLXXandVulgate.ItisevidentthatbytheRedSeatheGulfofAkabahis
meant,asinNu21:4andelsewhere.
J.F.MCCURDY.
SUPHAH.AnunknownlocalityE.ofJordan(Nu21:14).
SUPPER.SeeMEALS,2andfortheLastSupperseeEUCHARIST.
SUR.1.Agate(2K11:6).SeeJERUSALEM(II.4).2.AtownontheseacoastofPalestine(Jth2:28).Thesite,ifadifferentplacefromTyre,isunknown.
SUSA.SeeS HUSHAN.
SUSANNA.SeeAPOCRYPHA,5.
SUSI.AManassite(Nu13:12(11)).
SWALLOW.1.drr(Ps84:3,Pr26:2).Theallusiontothenestingofthisbirdinthesanctuaryanditsswift(unalighting)flightfitstheswallow.2.gr(Is
38:14,Jer8:7).SeeCRANE.3.ss,ss,shouldbetr.asinRV(Is38:14,Jer8:7),swallowinsteadofcrane(AV).SeeCRANE.Sometenspeciesofswallowsand
swiftsormartinsarecommonintheHolyLand.
SWAN(tinshemeth,Lv11:18,Dt14:16).SwanshavebeenfoundinPalestine,butareveryrare.Thetr.ofAVcannotbedefended.SeeOWL,5.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
SWEARING.SeeOATHS.
SWEETCANE.SeeREED.
SWINE(chazr).DomesticatedswinewereprobablykeptintheEastintheearliesthistorictimes,whentheyappeartohavebeenregardedassacred.Inacave
associatedwiththeearliestplaceofsacrificeatancientGezer,inusecertainlybeforeB.C.2000,largequantitiesofpigsboneswerefound.Itwasthesacrosanct
characterofswinethatlayattherootoftheprohibitioninLv11:7andDt14:8andtheeatingofswinesfleshandofferingofswinesblood(Is65:4,66:3,17)are
clearlyregardedasasignoflapseintopaganism.TheheathenfrequentlytriedtocompeltheJewstoeatswinesflesh(e.g.2Mac6:18,7:1)andthusrenounce
theirreligion.ThecontemptfeltforswineisshownbytheproverbsquotedinPr.11:22,Mt7:6,and2P2:22.IntheTalmudicwritingsthepigappearsasthe
emblemofuncleanness,andthosewhokeepswineareregardedwithaversion.ThesameideascolourtheparableoftheProdigalSon(Lk15:15),whereheis
depictedasreachingthelowestdepthofinfamyinbeingsenttofeedswine,andactuallybeingreducedtocovettheirfoodandalsothenarrativeofthedemoniacs,
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depictedasreachingthelowestdepthofinfamyinbeingsenttofeedswine,andactuallybeingreducedtocovettheirfoodandalsothenarrativeofthedemoniacs,
wheretheGentileinhabitantsofGerasalosetheirgreatherdofswine(Mt8:30,Mk5:13,Lk8:32).
InmodernPalestineverymuchthesamefeelingsurvives.Chanzrpigisacommonbutveryopprobriousappellation.SwinesfleshisloathedbyJewsand
Moslemsthelatter,whootherwiseeatthesamefoodasChristians,arealwaysverysuspiciousthatanyunknownfoodmaybecontaminatedwithit.Pigsarenot
commoninPalestinetheyarekeptbyGermancolonistsandinafewplacesbynativeChristians.InRamehinGalilee,forexample,considerableherdsarekeptand
pasturedinthesurroundingfields.Horses,unfamiliarwiththeirsmellaremuchperturbedonapproachingthevillage,anditissaidthatthecattlewillnottouchthe
waterofthestreambelowwheretheswineareaccustomedtoresort.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
SWORD.SeeARMOUR,ARMS,1(c).
SYCAMINE(Lk17:6).sykaminosis,strictlyspeaking,theblackmulberry(MorusnigrathettshmoftheSyrians),anditisprobablythistreethatis
referredtoinLk17:6andin1Mac6:34.ButsykaminosisalsousedinLXXinmanypassagesastheequivalentoftheshiqmmorsycomore(wh.see).
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
SYCHAR.AcityofSamaria,neartotheparcelofgroundthatJacobgavetohisson
Joseph(Jn4:5).JeromeinOnomast.distinguishesSycharfromShechem,butinEp.Paul.andQust.Gen.heidentifiesthem,sayingthattheformSycharisdueto
ascribalerror.Muchingenuityhasbeenexercisedtoshowthatthenamesarereallyidentical,oratleastapplytothesamecity.Onthefaceofitthisisunlikely.In
A.D.333theItineraryofJerusalemplacesSycharonemileE.ofShecheminthisagreeingwithotherancientauthorities.CanonWilliamsfirstsuggested
IdentificationwithAskar,avillageontheskirtofEbal,abouttwomilesE.ofNblus.Themainobjectiontothisisthepresenceofacopiousspring,morethan
sufficienttosupplythevillagewhilefromJn4:15welearnthatthewomanofSycharwasaccustomedtogoalltheway(RV)toJacobsWellfordomestic
supplies.Further,thereisnothingtoindicateapreArabsettlementatAskar.Mr.Macalister(PEFSt,1907,p.92ff.)drawsattentiontothemoundTullBalt,a
littlenearertoNblus,justN.ofthehamletBalt,whichbearsevidenceofoccupationfromtheperiodoftheHebrewmonarchytoRomantimes.
JacobsWell,accordingtounanimousandunbrokentradition,liesabouthalfamiletotheE.ofTullBalt,ontheS.edgeoftheplain,atthefootofGerizim.
Formerlyofgreatdepth(Jn4:11),itisnowmuchfilledwithrubbish,andisnotmorethan76ft.deep.Dependingonthepercolationofsurfacewater,withthe
greaterdepththesupplywouldbeconstantbutnowitisdrybeforethesummerisfaradvanced.ThesacredassociationsoftheWell,andthelightnessofthewater,
comparedwiththehardnessofthatfromthespring,wouldformattractionsinearly,asinmoderntimes.WithnootherancientsettlementneartheWell,wemaywith
someconfidenceplaceSycharatTullBalt.WiththeruinofthevillagethenamemayhavemigratedtoAskar.
W.EWING.
SYCOMORE(shiqmm.1K10:27,1Ch27:28,2Ch1:15,9:27,Is9:10,Am7:14shiqmth,Ps78:47(Gr.)sykomorea,Lk19:4).Thisisthesycomorefig
(Ficssycamorus),atreeoften50feethigh,withanenormoustrunk.Itbearspoorfigs(Am7:14),butfurnishesgoodtimber.ItisnottodayInabundanceasof
old(1K10:27),butconsiderablenumbersflourishstillintheplainaroundJaffa.Thistreemustnotbeconfusedwiththesycamore(Acerpseudoplatanus)ofour
homelands,whichisaspeciesofmaple.SeealsoS YCAMINE.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
SYENE.SeeS EVENEH.
SYMBOL.TheprevalenceoffigurativelanguageintheBibleisduepartlytotheantiquityandOrientaloriginofthebookandtothefactthatitssubject,
religion,dealswiththemostdifficultproblemsoflifeandthedeepestemotionsofthesoul.TheEnglishwordtype,astheequivalentofsymboloremblem,is
sometimesconfusing,asithasbeenusedbothforthefulfilmentoftheprototypeandasthatwhichpointsforwardtotheantitype.Liketheproverbandparable,the
symbolimpliesaconnexionbetweentwothingsofwhichoneisconcreteandphysical,theotherabstractandreferringtointellectual,moral,andspiritualmatters.
Theformer,ofcourse,isthesymbol.
1.Symbolsofsimilarity.Heretheconnectingprincipleisoneofrecognizedlikenessbetweenthematerialobjectanditscounterpart.Thusawatered
gardenismadetheemblemofasatisfiedsoul(Jer31:12).Thesimilarityisthatofsuppliedwants.Inthesamewaythewhitegarmentsofthepriestsandofthe
redeemedwereemblematicofholiness(Ex39:2729,Rev19:8).Marriage,asanOrientalrelationshipofpurchasedpossession,wasanemblemofPalestinein
covenantwithGod,andoftheChurchasthebrideofChrist.ThusalsotheChristianlifewasarace(He12:1)andawarfare(Eph6:1117).Anelementofsimilarity
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covenantwithGod,andoftheChurchasthebrideofChrist.ThusalsotheChristianlifewasarace(He12:1)andawarfare(Eph6:1117).Anelementofsimilarity
enteredintothedreamvisionsrecordedintheBibleandintothesymbolismofpropheticwarnings(Is5:17,Jer13:112,Ezk37:111).IntheEpistleswemeet
witharichvarietyofemblemscreatedbythedesiretointerpretthePersonandmissionofChrist,andtherelationshipoftheChristianbelievertoHim.Thewriters,
beingofJewishoriginandaddressingcommunitieswhichusuallycontainedanumberofJewishChristians,naturallyturnedtothebiographies,nationalhistory,and
sacredinstitutionsoftheOT.Whateverwasdrawnfromsuchasourcewouldnotonlybefamiliar,butwouldseemtobepartofanorganicwhole,andtopossessa
valueofDivinepreparation.ExamplesofthesearetheSecondAdam,theFirstborn,theChiefShepherd,theChiefCornerstone.ThejourneytoCanaansupplied
Passover,manna,rock,redemption,bettercountry,rest.FromtheTabernacleandTempleweretakenhighpriest,altar,sacrifice,veil,peaceoffering,lamb,
atonement.
2.SymbolsofrepresentativeselectionorSynecdoche.Thesymbolisinthiscasetheagentorimplement,orsomeconspicuousaccompanimentselected
fromagroupofconcreteparticulars,sothatthepartrepresentsthewhole.Thustheinsigniaofofficeandauthorityarecrown,sword,sceptre,seal,coin,robe,rod,
staff.Variousactionsandrelationshipsaresymbolicallyindicated,suchasthegivingofthehand(compact),footontheneck(conquest),boredear(perpetual
servitude),washingofthehands(innocence),baredoroutstretchedarm(energy),gnashingofteeth(disappointmentandremorse),shakingthehead(contemptand
disapproval),avertedface(angryrepudiation),bread(hospitality),cross(sufferingofChrist,andsufferingforHim).
3.Memorialandmysticalsymbols.Thesemightbelongtoeitheroftheaboveformsorbeartificiallyselected,butthepurposewasnotsomuchtoinstruct
andemphasizeastorecallandperpetuatecircumstancesandfeelings,ortosuggestameaningthatmustremainconcealed.SuchweretherainbowattheFlood,the
stoneEbenezer,thesymbolicalnamesoftengiventochildren,asMoses,Ichabod,andthenamesinJacobsfamily,theUrimandThummim,thewhitestone,and
thenumberofthebeast,etc.OfthisclasswerethesculpturedemblemsoftheearlyChristiansinthecatacombsofRome,suchasthepalm,dove,anchor,ship,fish,
AlphaandOmega.Water,breadandwine,asthematerialelementsinBaptismandtheLordsSupper,arethesymbolsofthoseSacraments.Thenamesymbolis
appliedtotheselectionofgenerallyacceptedtruthsformingtheChristiancreed,orcanonofbelief.CertaincharactersintheBible,suchasJonah,MaryMagdalene,
Herod,Judas,havecometobeidentifiedwithspecialtypesofcharacterandconduct,andaresaidtobesymbolicalofthoseclasses.
4.Dangersofsymbolism.(1)Theactoftransmittingspiritualandeternaltruththroughmaterialandperishablemediaalwaysinvolveslimitationandloss.
(2)Theinjudiciouscarryingoutofsymbolismintoinferencesnotoriginallyintended,leadsintotheoppositeerrorofirrelevantaddition.(3)Thescrupulous
avoidanceofsymbolismmayitselfbecomeasymbol.(4)Theexternalformwhichilluminates,emphasizes,andrecallsisnoguaranteeofinwardreality.The
ceremonyofpurificationisnotpurity.Sheepsclothingmaynotbearobeofinnocenceorrentgarmentsindicatedistressofsoul.ThecryLord,Lord!isnot
alwaysraisedbytruediscipleship.HenceChristsmessagetotheSamaritanwomanconcerningtrueworship,andHisfrequentprotestsagainsttheceremonial
insinceritiesofthePharisees.ThecondemnationofimageworshipturneduponthetotalinadequacyofsymboltorepresentGod.ItmightIndicatemansthoughtof
God,butitleftuntouchedtheconstituentelementoftruereligion,Godsthoughtofman.Eyeshavethey,buttheyseenot.
G.M.MACKIE.
SYMEON(cf.S IMEON,adinit.).1.AnancestorofJesus(Lk3:30).2.AprophetandteacheratAntioch(Ac13:1).3.Ac15:14=SimonPeter(seeP ETER).
SYMMACHUSVERSION.SeeGR.VERSIONSOFOT,18
SYNAGOGUE
1.Meaningandhistory.Likeitsoriginalsynagg(lit.agathering,assemblyforitsuseinLXXseeCONGREGATION),synagogueisusedinNTina
doublesignification:(1)inthesenseofacommunityorganizedforreligiouspurposes,asAc6:9,9:2(cf.Rev2:9,3:9thesynagogueofSatan)and(2)todenote
thebuildinginwhichthecommunitymetforworshipsosome50timesintheGospelsandActsfromMt4:23onwards.ThestrictHeb.equivalentinthelatter
senseisthehouseofassembly.Ofothernamesforthesynagogueasaplaceofworshipmaybementionedtheoldertermproseuch(Ac16:13RVplaceof
worshipJos.Life,54,ofthesynagogueofTiberias)
TheoriginofthesynagogueasacharacteristicinstitutionofJudaismishiddeninobscurity.MostprobablyittookitsriseinthecircumstancesoftheHebrew
exilesinBabylonia.Hithertoworshiphadpracticallymeantsacrifice,butsacrificewasnowimpossibleinalandunclean(cf.Hos3:4,9:3f.).Therewasstillleftto
theexiles,however,thelivingwordoftheprophet,andthewritingsofGodsinterpretersfromaformerage.InthosegatheringsinthehouseofEzekielofwhichwe
read(Ezk8:1,20:13)wemayperhapsdetectthegermsofthefuturesynagogue.WeareonmoresolidgroundwhenwereachthereligiousreformofEzraand
Nehemiah(B.C.444443).WiththeintroductionoftheLawofMosesasthenormoffaithandlife,theneedforsystematicinstructioninitscomplexrequirements
wasevidenttotheleadersofthereform,asisclearfromNeh8:7f.TheclosingcenturyofthePersianrule,B.C.430330,maythereforeberegardedastheperiodof
theriseanddevelopmentofthesynagogue.Fromthisperiod,morepreciselyfromthereignofArtaxerxesIII.Ocbus(358337),maybedatedtheonlymentionof
thesynagogueinOT,viz.Ps74:8theyhaveburnedupallthesynagoguesofGodintheland.Thepapyrusfindsofrecentyearshavecontainednotafew
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thesynagogueinOT,viz.Ps74:8theyhaveburnedupallthesynagoguesofGodintheland.Thepapyrusfindsofrecentyearshavecontainednotafew
referencestothesynagoguesoftheJewishcommunitiesinEgypt,fromthetimeofthethirdPtolemy,Euergetes,B.C.247221,onwards(detailsinSchrer,GJV4ii.
499f.).
Bythefirstcenturyofourerathesynagoguewasregardedasaninstitutionofalmostimmemorialantiquity.InreferringitbacktoMoseshimself,Josephus(c.
Apion.ii.17)isonlyechoingthecontemporarybelief,whichisalsoreflectedinthewordsoftheApostleJames,forMosesfromgenerationsofoldhathinevery
citythemthatpreachhim,beingreadinthesynagogueseverysabbath(Ac15:21RV).Forthewideextentandhistoricalimportanceofthesynagoguesofthe
Dispersion,seebelow,5.
2.Thesynagoguebuildinganditsfurniture.Remains,moreorlessextensive,ofJewishsynagoguesstillsurvivefromthesecondandthird,more
doubtfullyfromthefirst,centuriesofourera,chieflyinGalilee.Theexaminationoftheseremains,firstundertakenbythePalestineExplorationFund(seeSurveyof
WestPal.i.224ff.withplans),hasrecentlybeencarriedoutmorefullybytheGermanOrientSociety,andtheresultspublishedintheSocietysMittheilungen(
Nos.23,27,29[1904,1905]).InplananddetailsofornamentationtheseGalilansynagoguesdisplayageneralsimilarity.Thebuildingsarerectangularinshape,
anddividedintothreeorfiveaislesbytwoorthreerowsofpillars.Theentranceisalmostalwaysinthesouthfront,andoftenconsistsofalargemain,andtwo
smallerside,entrances.ThemostelaboratewasthesynagogueofCapernaum,where,aselsewhere,traceswerefoundofgalleriesrunningroundthreesidesofthe
centralaisle.Thesewereprobablyassignedtothewomen(forasimilararrangementinHerodsTemple,seeTEMPLE11(b)),althoughthequestionofthe
separationofthesexesinNTtimesisoneonwhichthebestauthoritiesdisagree.
Asregardsthefurnitureofthesynagogue,themostimportantitemwasthechestorcupboard
(tb,theark),inwhichthesacredrollsoftheLawandtheProphetswerekept.ThesynagoguesofNTtimeswerealsodoubtlessprovidedwitharaisedplatform
(bm),onwhichstoodthereadingdeskfromwhichtheScriptureswereread.Thelargerportionoftheareawasoccupiedbybenchesforthecongregation,the
worshippersfacingsouthwards,inGalileeatleast,towardstheholycity.Afewspecialseatsinfrontofthebm,andfacingthecongregation,wereoccupiedbythe
headsofthecommunity.ThesearethechiefseatsinthesynagoguescovetedbythePharisees(Mt23:5and||).Infrontofthearkalampburneddayandnight.
3.TheofficialsoftheSynagogue.ThegeneralmanagementofthesynagogueofaJewishtown,whereitservedalsoasacourtofjusticeandinthesmaller
townsandvillagesatleastasaschool,wasinthehandsoftheeldersofthecommunity.Ithadnospecialpriestor
minister,aswillappearpresently.Itwasusualhowever,toappointanofficialcalledtherulerofthesynagogue(Mk5:22,Lk8:41,andoft.),towhomthe
authoritiesofthecommunitycommittedthecareofthebuildingaswellasthemoreimportantdutyofseeingthateverythingconnectedwiththepublicserviceswas
donedecentlyandinorder.HencetheindignationoftherulerofLk13:14atthesupposedbreachofthedecorumofworshiprelatedintheprecedingverses(vv.
1013).Itlaywiththeruleralsotoselectthereadersfortheday,andtodeterminetheorderinwhichtheyweretobecalleduptothereadingdesk.Occasionally,it
wouldseem,asynagoguemighthavetwoormorerulers,asatAntiochofPisidia(Ac13:15).
Theonlyotherpermanentofficialwasthechazzn,theattendantofLk4:20RV(AV
ministerinthesame,butnowobsolete,sensecf.Ac13:5).Thedutiesofthesynagogueofficer(aswesayinScotland)weresomewhatvaried.Hewas
responsibleforthecleaningandlightingofthebuildingandduringserviceitwashisspecialdutytoconveythesacredrollsfromthearktothereadersatthedesk,
andtorestorethemwhenthereadingwasover,asrecordedinLk4:1720.Tohimfellalsothedutyofscourgingcriminalscondemnedbythecourt(Mt10:17,
23:34etc.),butnot,asisusuallyrepresented,theteachingoftheschoolchildren(art.EducationinDBi.650a).
4.ThesynagogueserviceinNTtimes.ForthispartofoursubjectwearedependentmainlyonthefullerinformationpreservedintheMishna,which
reflectsthelaterusageofthe2ndcentury.AccordingtoMegillah,iv.3,theserviceconsistedoffourparts,andwiththisthescatteredhintsintheGospelsandActs
agree.Thesepartsare:(a)therecitationoftheShema,(b)theliftingupofhands,i.e.theprayers,(c)thelessonsfromtheLawandtheProphets,and(d)thepriestly
benediction.Twoelementsofthefullservice,however,arehereomittedasnotstrictlybelongingtotheessentialsofworship,viz.thetranslationofthelessonsinto
thevernacular,andthesermon.
(a)TherecitationoftheShema.TheshemaisthestandingdesignationofthreeshortsectionsofthePentateuch,Dt6:49(whichopenswiththeword
Shema=Hear,whencethename)11:1321,Nu15:3741.Theirrecitationbythecongregationwasprecededandfollowedbyoneortwoshortbenedictions,
suchasthatbeginning,Blessedbethou,Adonai,ourGod,
Kingoftheuniverse,whodidstformthelightandcreatedarkness.
(b)Theliftingupofhands.Incontrasttothefirstitemoftheservice,inwhichalltookpart,theprayersweresaidbyasingleindividualchosenforthe
purpose,namedthedeputyofthecongregation,theworshippershowever,repeatingtheAmenatthecloseofeachcollect.Thismodeofprayerinthepublic
serviceswastakenoverbytheearlyChurch,asisattestedby1Co14:16(wherethewordrenderedthegivingofthanksistheGr.equivalentofthatrendered
benedictionbelow).Bythemiddleofthe2ndcent.
http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/s.htm . .aformalliturgyhadbeendevelopedthefamouseighteenbenedictions,whichmaybereadinany 114/116
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benedictionbelow).Bythemiddleofthe2ndcent.A.D.aformalliturgyhadbeendevelopedthefamouseighteenbenedictions,whichmaybereadinany
Jewishprayerbook.Itisimpossible,however,tosaywithcertaintyhowmanyofthesewereinuseinourLordsday.Dalmanisofopinionthatatleasttwelveofthe
eighteencollectsareolderthanA.D.70.Thesehearrangesinthreegroups,consistingofthreeopeningbenedictions,sixpetitions,andthreeclosingbenedictions
(seehisart.Gottesdienst[synagogaler]inHaucksPRE3vii.).
(c)TheOTlessons.TheliturgywasfollowedbyalessonfromtheLaw.Thefivebooksweredividedinto154(ormore)Sabbathpericopesorsections,so
thatthewholePentateuchwasreadthroughinthreeyears(or31/2years,halfofaSabbaticperiod).Thecustomofcallingupsevenreadersinsuccessionapriest,a
Levite,andfiveothersmaybeasoldasthe1stcentury.AftertheLawcame,attheSabbathmorningserviceonlyalessonfromtheProphets,readbyoneperson
andlefttohischoice.Itwasthehaphtar,asthepropheticlessonwastermed,thatourLordreadinthesynagogueofNazareth(Lk4:16ff.).TheHagiographa
exceptEsther,werenotatthisperiodreadatDivineservice.EventhePsalmshadnoplaceintheusualservice(Dalman).
InorderthatthecommonpeoplemightfollowthelessonswithIntelligence,theseweretranslatedintoAramaic,thevernacularofPalestine,byaninterpreter
(methurgemnourdragomanisfromthesameroot).TheuniquepositionoftheLawintheestimationofthetimeisshownbythefactthatthePentateuchlessons
hadtobetranslatedaverseatatime,whiletheProphetsmightherenderedthreeversesatatime.Readerandinterpreterstoodwhileatthereadingdesk.
Atthispointintheserviceattheprincipaldietsofworship,thesermonwasintroduced.Thepreachersatwhilegivinghisexposition,whichissooftendescribed
inNTasteaching(Mt4:23,Mk1:21,6:2etc.).Inthesynagoguetherewasfulllibertyofprophesying.Anymemberofthecommunitywasfreetoexercisehis
gift.Whenalikelystrangerwaspresent,hewasinvitedbytherulerofthesynagoguetoaddressthecongregation(Ac13:15).(d)Theservicewasclosedbyapriest
pronouncingthepriestlybenediction,Nu6:2426ifnopriestwaspresent,itissaidthatalaymangavetheblessingintheformofaprayer.
Onsomeoccasions,atleast,itwasusualtoaskthealmsofthecongregation(Mt6:2)onbehalfofthepoor.Thefullservice,assketchedabove,wasconfinedto
theprincipalserviceoftheweek,whichwasheldontheforenoonoftheSabbath.Attheotherservices,suchasthosehelddailyinthelargertowns,wheretenmen
ofleisurewereavailabletoformtheminimumlegalcongregation,andtheMondayandThursdayservices,someoftheitemswereomitted.
5.TheinfluenceoftheSynagogue.Thisarticlewouldbeincompletewithoutareference,howeverbrief,totheinfluenceofthesynagogueanditsworship
notonlyupontheJewsthemselves,butupontheworldofheathenism.Astothelatter,thesynagogueplayedaconspicuouspartinthepreparatioevangelica.From
theoutworncreedsofpaganismmanyearnestsoulsturnedtothesynagogueanditsteachingforthesatisfactionoftheirhighestneeds.
ThesynagoguesoftheDispersion(Jn7:35,Ja1:1,1P1:1,allRV)becameinconsequencetheseedplotsofChristianity,aseverystudentoftheBookofActsis
aware.
TheworkwhichthesynagoguedidforJudaismitselfisbestseenintheeasewithwhichthebreachwiththepastinvolvedinthedestructionoftheTemplein
A.D.70,andthecessationofsacrificialworship,washealed.ThehighestreligiouslifeofJudaismhadalreadytransferreditschannelsfromthegrosserandmore
materialformsoftheTempletothespiritualworshipofthesynagogue.
Normustareferencebewantingtothefactthatthesynagogue,andnottheTemple,suppliedthemouldandmodelfortheworshipoftheChristianChurch.
6.TheGreatSynagogue.InlateJewishtraditionEzraisallegedtohavebeenthefounderandfirstpresidentofacollegeoflearnedscribes,whichis
supposedtohaveexistedinJerusalemuntiltheearlypartoftheGr.period(c.B.C.300).TothemenoftheGreatSynagogue,orratheroftheGreatAssembly,
wereascribedthecompositionofsomeofthelaterOTbooks,thecloseoftheCanon,andageneralcareforthedevelopmentofreligionundertheLaw.Recent
writers,however,haveinthemainacceptedtheresultsofKuenenscarefulinvestigationinhisGesamm.Abhandlungen(Germ.tr.125160),andnowregardthe
GreatSynagogueasunhistorical,thetraditionofitsexistencehavingarisenfromadistortedviewofthenatureandpurposeofthegreatpopularassembly,ofwhich
wereadinNeh810.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
SYNOPTICS,SYNOPTISTS.SeeGOSPELS,2.
SYNTYCHE.AChristian,perhapsadeaconess,atPhilippi(Ph4:2)seeart.E UODIA.
A.J.MACLEAN.
SYNZYGUS(lit.yokefellow).ThisistakenbysomeasapropernameinPh4:3(Synzygustrulysocalled),butitisnowhereelsefoundassuch.Itis
moreprobablyawayofdescribingthechiefministerofthechurchatPhilippi.Lightfoot(Com.,inloc.)suggestsEpaphroditusRamsay(St.Paul,p.358),Luke
others,BarnabasorSilasorTimothy.Anoldtraditionofthe2ndcent.(Lightfoot,ib.)makestheyokefellowtobetheApostleswifeRenansupposesthatLydia
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others,BarnabasorSilasorTimothy.Anoldtraditionofthe2ndcent.(Lightfoot,ib.)makestheyokefellowtobetheApostleswifeRenansupposesthatLydia
ismeant,andthatshehadbecomehiswifebutsee1Co7:8.
A.J.MACLEAN.
SYRACUSE,ontheeastcoastofSicily,wastheprincipalcityintheisland.ItwasoriginallyaGreekcolonyofancientdate,whichwaspowerfulenoughto
defeatthefamousAthenianSicilianexpedition(B.C.415412).Itskingswereoftenmenofdistinction,eveninliterature,ofwhichtheywerenotedpatrons.The
cityhadavariedcareer,beingsometimesakingdom,sometimesademocracy.InB.C.241theRomanstookthewesternhalfofSicilyfromtheCarthaginians,but
remainedinalliancewiththekingsofSyracuse.ThelastkingofSyracusecoquettedwiththeCarthaginiansthecitywasbesiegedandcapturedbyMarcellusin
212,andthewholeislandwashenceforthunderaprtor,whohadtwoqustors,onesituatedatLilybumintheW.,theotheratSyracuse.Thecitycontinued
prosperousdowntillabouttheendofthe2ndcent.B.C.Afterthatdateitdeclinedinimportance,thoughitremainedthecapitaloftheeasternhalfoftheisland.In
NTtimesalargenumberoftheinhabitantswereRomancitizens.
St.Paulsshiplayatanchorintheharbourforthreedays,whenhewasonhiswayfromMaltatoRome(Ac28:12).Hedidnotpreachthere.Christian
memorialsatSyracusearenotspeciallyearly.
A.S OUTER.
SYRIA,SYRIANS.SeeARAM,ARAMANS.
SYRIACVERSIONS.SeeTEXT(OT,15(6),andNT,11ff.).
SYROPHNICIAN.ThisisthedesignationofaGreek(orGentile)womanwhosedemoniacdaughterJesushealedwhennearTyre(Mk7:26).Shewas
perhapsGreekspeaking(Swete),butwasdescendedfromtheoldPhniciansofSyria(||Mt15:22hasCanaanitish).
A.J.MACLEAN.
SYRTIS.SeeQUICKSANDS.
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TAANACH(Jos12:21,1K4:12,1Ch7:29).OneoftheroyalCanaanitecities,mentionedinOTalwaysalongwithMegiddo.Thoughintheterritoryof
Issachar,itbelongedtoManassehthenativeCanaaniteswere,however,notdrivenout(Jos17:1113,Jg1:27).ItwasallottedtotheLevitesofthechildrenof
Kohath(Jos21:25).ItwasoneofthefourfortresscitiesontheborderofManasseh(1Ch7:29).ThefightofDeborahandBarakwiththeCanaanitesisdescribed
(Jg5:19)asinTaanachbythewatersofMegiddo.ThesiteistodayTellTaannak,fourmilesS.E.fromTellelMutesellim(Megiddo).Thehillhasbeen
excavatedbyProf.SellinofVienna.ManyremainsofCanaaniteandJewishcivilizationhavebeenfound,andalsoaconsiderablenumberofclaytabletswith
cuneiforminscriptionssimilartothosediscoveredatTellelAmarnainEgypt.SeeSellininMem.ViennaAcad.,1.(1904),lii.(1905).
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
TAANATHSHILOH.AtownontheN.E.boundaryofEphraim(Jos16:6).Itispossiblythemod.Tana,about7milesfromNblus(Neapolis),and2miles
N.ofYnn(Janoah).
TABAOTH(1Es5:29(60)andTABBAOTH(Ezr2:43=Neh7:46).AfamilyofNethinimwhoreturnedwithZerubbabel.
TABBATH.AnunknownlocalitymentionedinJg7:22.
TABEEL.1.ThefatheroftherivaltoAhazputforwardbyRezin(wh.see)andPekah(Is7:6).2.APersianofficial(Ezr4:7)calledin1Es2:16Tabellius.
TABELLIUS.SeeTABEEL,2.
TABER.OnlyinNah2:7herhandmaidsmournaswiththevoiceofdoves,tabering(Amer.RVbeating)upontheirbreasts.Beatingthebreastwasa
familiarOrientalcustominmourning(cf.Is32:12).Thewordhereusedmeanslit.drumming(cf.Ps68:26,itsonlyotheroccurrence).TheEnglishwordtaber
meansasmalldrum,usuallyaccompanyingapipe,bothinstrumentsbeingplayedbythesameperformer.Otherformsaretabor,tabour,andtambouranddim.
formsaretabretandtambourine.
TABERAH.AnunidentifiedstationoftheIsraelites(Nu11:3,Dt9:22).
TABERNACLE.1.Bythetabernaclewithoutfurtherqualification,asbythemoreexpressivedesignationtabernacleofthecongregation(RVmore
correctlytentofmeeting,seebelow),isusuallyunderstoodtheelaborateportablesanctuarywhichMoseserectedatSinai,inaccordancewithDivineinstructions,
astheplaceofworshipfortheHebrewtribesduringandafterthewildernesswanderings.Butmoderncriticismhasrevealedthefactthatthisartisticandcostly
structureisconfinedtothePriestlysourcesofthePentateuch,andistobecarefullydistinguishedfromamuchsimplertentbearingthesamenameandlikewise
associatedwithMoses.Therelativehistoricityofthetwotentsofmeetingwillbemorefullyexaminedatthecloseofthisarticle(9).
2.ThesectionsofthePriestsCode(P)devotedtothedetailsofthefabricandfurnitureoftheTabernacle,andtothearrangementsforitstransportfromstation
tostationinthewilderness,fallintotwogroups,viz.(a)Ex2527,30,31,whicharecouchedintheformofinstructionsfromJtoMosesastotheerectionofthe
Tabernacleandthemakingofitsfurnitureaccordingtothepatternormodelshowntothelatterontheholymount(25:9,40)(b)Ex3540,whichtellinteralia
ofthecarryingoutoftheseinstructions.Someadditionaldetails,particularlyastothearrangementsonthemarch,aregiveninNu3:25ff.,4:4ff.and7:1ff..
IntheseandotherOTpassagesthewildernesssanctuaryisdenotedbyatleastadozendifferentdesignations(seethelistinHastingsDBiv.655).Themost
frequentlyemployedisthatalsoborne,aswehaveseen,bythesacredtentoftheElohisticsource(E),thetentofmeeting(soRVthroughout).Thatthisisthe
morecorrectrenderingoftheoriginalhelmd,ascomparedwithAVstabernacleofthecongregation,isnowuniversallyacknowledged.Thesenseinwhich
thePriestlywriters,atleast,understoodthesecondtermisevidentfromsuchpassagesasEx25:22,where,withreferencetothemercyseat(see7(b)),Jis
representedassaying:thereIwillmeetwiththeeandcommunewiththee(cf.Nu7:89).This,however,doesnotexcludeapossibleearlyconnexionofthename
withthatoftheBabylonianmountofmeeting(Is14:13,EVcongregation),themdorassemblyofthegods.
3.InordertodojusticetothePriestlywritersintheirattemptstogiveliteraryshapetotheirideasofDivineworship,itmustberememberedthattheywere
followinginthefootstepsofEzekiel(chs.4048),whoseconceptionofasanctuaryisthatofadwellingplaceoftheDeity(seeEzk37:27).Nowtheattributeof
IsraelsGod,whichforthesetheologiansoftheExileovershadowedallothers,wasHisineffableandalmostunapproachableholiness,andtheproblemforEzekiel
andhispriestlysuccessorswashowmaninhiscreaturelyweaknessandsinfulnesscouldwithsafetyapproachaperfectlyholyGod.Thesolutionisfoundinthe
restoredTempleintheonecase(Ezk40ff.),andintheTabernacleintheother,togetherwiththeelaboratesacrificialandpropitiatorysystemofwhicheachisthe
centre.IntheTabernacle,inparticular,wehaveanidealofaDivinesanctuary,everydetailofwhichisintendedtosymbolizetheunity,majesty,andaboveallthe
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centre.IntheTabernacle,inparticular,wehaveanidealofaDivinesanctuary,everydetailofwhichisintendedtosymbolizetheunity,majesty,andaboveallthe
holinessofJ,andtoprovideanearthlyhabitationinwhichaholyGodmayagaindwellinthemidstofaholypeople.Letthemmakemeasanctuary,thatImay
dwellamongthem(Ex25:8).
4.TakingthisgeneralideaoftheTabernaclewithus,andleavingafullerdiscussionofitsreligioussignificanceandsymbolismtoalatersection(8),letus
proceedtostudythearrangementandcomponentpartsofPsidealsanctuary.SincethetentsoftheHebrewtribes,thoseofthepriestsandLevites,andthethree
divisionsofthesanctuarycourt,holyplace,andtheholyofholiesrepresentascendingdegreesofholinessintheschemeofthePriestlywriter,theappropriate
orderofstudywillbefromwithoutinwards,fromtheperimeterofthesanctuarytoitscentre.
(a)Webegin,therefore,withthecourtofthedwelling(Ex27:9).Thisisdescribedasarectangularenclosureinthecentreofthecamp,measuring100cubits
fromeasttowestandhalfthatamountfromsouthtonorth.Iftheshortercubitof,say,18inches(forconvenienceofreckoning)betakenastheunitof
measurement,thisrepresentsanareaofapproximately50yardsby25,aratioof2:1.Theentrance,whichisontheeasternside,isclosedbyascreen(27:16RV)of
embroideredworkincolours.Therestoftheareaisscreenedoffbyplainwhitecurtains(EVhangings)offinetwinedlinen5cubitsinheight,suspended,like
thescreen,atequalintervalsof5cubitsfrompillarsstandinginsockets(EV)orbasesofbronze.Sincetheperimeterofthecourtmeasured300cubits,60pillarsin
allwererequiredforthecurtainsandthescreen,andarereckonedinthetextingroupsoftensandtwenties,20foreachlongside,and10foreachshortside.The
pillarsareevidentlyintendedtobekeptuprightbymeansofcordsorstaysfastenedtopinsorpegsofbronzestuckintheground.
(b)Inthecentreofthecourtisplacedthealtarofburntoffering(27:18),calledalsothebrazenaltarandthealtarparexcellence.Whenoneconsiders
thepurposeitwasintendedtoserve,oneissurprisedtofindthisaltarofburntofferingconsistingofahollowchestofacaciawood(soRVthroughout,forAV
shittim)theonlywoodemployedintheconstructionoftheTabernacle5cubitsinlengthandbreadth,and3inheight,overlaidwithwhatmust,forreasonsof
transport,havebeenacomparativelythinsheathingofbronze.Fromthefourcornersspringthefourhornsofthealtar,ofonepiecewithit,whilehalfwayup
thesidetherewasfittedaprojectingledge,fromwhichdependedanetworkorgrating(AVgrate)ofbronze(27:5,38:4RV).Themeshesofthelattermusthave
beensufficientlywidetopermitofthesacrificialbloodbeingdashedagainstthesidesandbaseofthealtar(cf.thesketchinHastingsDBiv.658).Likemostofthe
otherarticlesoftheTabernaclefurniture,thealtarwasprovidedwithringsandpolesforconvenienceoftransport.
(c)Inproximitytothealtarmustbeplacedthebronzelaver(30:1721),containingwaterfortheablutionsofthepriests.Accordingto38:8,itwasmadefrom
themirrorsofthewomenwhichservedatthedoorofthetentofmeeting(RV)acuriousanachronism.
5.(a)IthasalreadybeenemphasizedthatthedominantconceptionoftheTabernacleinthesechaptersisthatofaportablesanctuary,whichistoserveasthe
earthlydwellingplaceoftheheavenlyKing.InharmonytherewithwefindtheessentialpartofthefabricoftheTabernacle,towhicheveryotherstructuraldetailis
subsidiary,describedattheoutsetbythecharacteristicdesignationdwelling.Thoushaltmakethedwelling(EVtabernacle)oftencurtains(26:1).Itisa
fundamentalmistaketoregardthewoodenpartoftheTabernacleasoftheessenceofthestructure,andtobeginthestudyofthewholetherefrom,asisstillbeing
done.
Thetencurtainsofthedwelling(mishkn),each28cubitsby4,aretobeofthefinestlinen,adornedwithinwoventapestryfiguresofcherubiminviolet,
purple,andscarlet(seeCOLOURS).theworkofthecunningworkman(26:1ff.RV).Theyaretobesewedtogethertoformtwosetsoffive,whichagainaretobe
coupledtogetherbymeansofclasps(RVAVtaches)andloops,soastoformonelargesurface40(104)cubitsby28(74),forthedwellingshallbeone
(26:8).Togetherthecurtainsaredesignedtoformtheearthly,and,withtheaidoftheattendantcherubim,tosymbolizetheheavenly,dwellingplaceoftheGodof
Israel.
(b)ThenextsectionoftheDivinedirections(26:714)providesforthethoroughprotectionofthesedelicateartisticcurtainsbymeansofthreeseparate
coverings.Thefirstconsistsofelevencurtainsofgoatshairforatentoverthedwelling,andthereforeofsomewhatlargerdimensionsthanthecurtainsofthe
latter,namely30cubitsby4,covering,whenjoinedtogether,asurfaceof44cubitsby30.Thetworemainingcoveringsaretobemaderespectivelyoframsskins
dyedredandoftheskinsofaRedSeamammal,whichisprobablythedugong(v.14,RVsealskins,Heb.tachash).
(c)Atthispointonewouldhaveexpectedtohearoftheprovisionofanumberofpolesandstaysbymeansofwhichthedwellingmightbepitchedlikean
ordinarytent.ButtheauthorofEx26:114doesnotapplythetermtenttothecurtainsofthedwelling,but,aswehaveseen,tothoseofthegoatshaircovering,
andinsteadofpolesandstayswefindadifferentandaltogetherunexpectedarrangementinvv.1530.Unfortunatelythecrucialpassage,vv.1517,contains
severalobscuretechnicalterms,withregardtowhich,inthepresentwritersopinion,thetrueexegeticaltraditionhasbeenlost.Theexplanationusuallygiven,
whichfindsinthewordrenderedboardshugewoodenbeamsofimpossibledimensions,hasbeenshowninaformerstudytobeexegeticallyandintrinsically
inadmissibleseeart.TabernacleinHastingsDB,vol.iv.p.563bff.To7(b)ofthatarticle,withwhichHauptsnoteon1K7:28inSBOTshouldnowbe
compared,thestudentisreferredforthegroundsonwhichthefollowingtranslationoftheleadingpassageisbased.Andthoushaltmaketheframesforthe
dwellingofacaciawood,twouprightsforeachframejoinedtogetherbycrossrails.Theresultis,briefly,thesubstitutionof48lightopenframes(seediagrams,
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op.cit.),each10cubitsinheightby11/2inwidth,forthetraditionalwoodenbeamsofthesedimensions,each,accordingtotheusualtheory,1cubitthick,
equivalenttoaweightoffrom15to20hundredweights!
Theopenframesafterbeingoverlaidwithgoldaccordingtoourpresentbutscarcelyoriginaltext(v.29)aretoberearedup,sidebyside,alongthesouth,
west,andnorthsidesofarectangularenclosuremeasuring30cubitsby10(3:1),theeastsideorfrontbeingleftopen.Twentyframesgotoformeachlongsideof
theenclosure(11/2x20=30cubits)thewesternendrequiresonlysixframes(11/2x6=9cubs.)theremainingcubitofthetotalwidthismadeupbythethicknessof
theframesandbarsofthetwolongsides.Thetworemainingframesareplacedatthetwowesterncorners,where,sofarascanbegatheredfromtheobscuretextof
v.24,theframeworkisdoubledforgreatersecurity.Thelowerendsofthetwouprightsofeachframeareinsertedintosolidsilverbases,whichthusforma
continuousfoundationandgivesteadinesstothestructure.Thisendisfurtherattainedbyanarrangementofbarswhichtogetherformthreeparallelsetsrunning
alongallthreesides,bindingthewholeframeworktogetherandgivingitthenecessaryrigidity.
Overthisrigidframework,andacrosstheinterveningspace,arelaidthetapestrycurtainstoformthedwelling,thesymbolicfiguresofthecherubimnowfully
displayedonthesidesaswellasontheroof.Abovethesecomethefirstoftheprotectivecoveringsabovedescribed,thegoatshaircurtainsofthetent,as
distinguishedfromthedwelling.Invirtueoftheirgreatersize,theyoverlapthecurtainsofthelatter,theirbreadthof30cubitsexactlysufficingfortheheightand
widthofthedwelling(10+10+10cubits).AstheythusreachedtothebaseofthetwolongsidesoftheTabernacle,theywereprobablyfastenedbypegstothe
ground.Attheeasternendtheoutermostcurtainwasprobablyfoldedintwosoastohangdownforthespaceoftwocubitsovertheentrance(26:9).Inwhat
mannerthetworemainingcoveringsaretobelaidisnotspecified.
[ThissolutionofthedifficultiesconnectedwiththeconstructionoftheTabernacle,firstofferedinDBiv.,hasbeenadopted,sincetheabovewaswritten,bythetwolatest
commentatorsonExodus,MNeileandBennettseeesp.theformersBookofExodus[1908],lxxiiixcii.]
(d)ThefabricoftheTabernacle,asdescribeduptothispointinEx26:130,hasbeenfoundtoconsistofthreeparts,carefullydistinguishedfromeachother.
Theseare(1)theartisticlinencurtainsofthedwelling,thereallyessentialpart(2)theirsupportingframework,thetwotogetherenclosing,exceptatthestillopen
easternfront,aspace30cubitslongand10cubitswidefromcurtaintocurtain,and10cubitsinheightand(3)theprotectingtent(socalled)ofgoatshair,withthe
twosubsidiarycoverings.
Thenextstepistoprovideforthedivisionofthedwellingintotwoparts,intheproportionof2to1,bymeansofabeautifulportiere,termedtheveil(vv.31ff.),
ofthesamematerialandartisticworkmanshipasthecurtainsofthedwelling.Theveilistobesuspendedfromfourgildedpillars,20cubitsfromtheentranceand
10fromthewesternendofthestructure.Thelargerofthetwodivisionsofthedwellingisnamedtheholyplace,thesmallertheholyofholiesormostholyplace.
Fromthemeasurementsgivenabove,itwillbeseenthatthemostholyplacethetruepresencechamberoftheMostHigh,towhichtheholyplaceformsthe
antechamberhastheformofaperfectcube,10cubits(about15ft.)inlength,breadth,andheight,enclosedonallfoursidesandontheroofbythecurtainsand
theircherubim.
(e)NoprovisionhasyetbeenmadeforclosingtheentrancetotheTabernacle.Thisisnowdone(v.36f.)bymeansofahanging,embroideredincoloursa
lessartisticfabricthanthetapestryofthecunningworkmanmeasuring10cubitsby10,andsuspendedfromfivepillarswithbasesofbronze.Itsspecial
designation,ascreenforthedooroftheTent(v.36RV),itsinferiorworkmanship,anditsbronzebases,allshowthatstrangelyenoughitisnottobereckonedasa
partofthedwelling,ofwhichthewovenfabricistapestry,andtheonlymetalssilverandgold.
6.Comingnowtothefurnitureofthedwelling,andproceedingasbeforefromwithoutinwards,wefindtheholyplaceprovidedwiththreearticlesoffurniture:
(a)thetableofshewbread,or,moreprecisely,presencebread(25:2330,37:1016)(b)thesocalledgoldencandlestick,inrealityasevenbranchedlampstand
(25:3140,37:1724)(c)thealtarofincense(30:17,37:2528).Manyofthedetailsoftheconstructionandornamentationoftheseareobscure,andreferenceis
heremade,onceforall,tothefullerdiscussionofthesedifficultiesinthearticlealreadycited(DBiv.662ff.).
(a)Thetableofshewbread,orpresencetable(Nu4:7),isalowtableorwoodenstandoverlaidwithpuregold,11/2cubitsinheight.Itstopmeasures2cubits
by1.Thelegsareconnectedbyanarrowbindingrail,onehandbreadthwide,theborderofEx25:25,towhichareattachedfourgoldenringstoreceivethe
stavesbywhichthetableistobecarriedonthemarch.Fortheserviceofthetableareprovidedthedishes,thespoons,theflagons,andthebowlsthereoftopour
withal(25:29RV),allofpuregold.Ofthesethegoldendishesarethesalversonwhichtheloavesofthepresencebread(seeS HEWBREAD)weredisplayedthe
spoonsarerathercupsforfrankincense(Lv24:7)theflagons(AVcovers)arethelarger,andthebowlsthesmaller,vesselsforthewineconnectedwiththis
partoftheritual.
(b) Thegoldencandlestickorlampstandistobeconstructedofbeatenwork(repouss)ofpuregold.Threepairsofarmsbranchedoffatdifferentheights
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(b)Thegoldencandlestickorlampstandistobeconstructedofbeatenwork(repouss)ofpuregold.Threepairsofarmsbranchedoffatdifferentheights
fromthecentralshaft,andcurvedoutwardsandupwardsuntiltheirextremitieswereonalevelwiththetopoftheshaft,thewholeprovidingstandsforsevengolden
lamps.Shaftandarmswerealikeadornedwithornamentationsuggestedbytheflowerofthealmondtree(cf.diagraminDBiv.663).Thegoldenlampstandstood
onthesouthsideoftheholyplace,facingthetableofshewbreadonthenorthside.Thetongsof25:38arereallysnuffers(soAV37:23)fordressingthewicks
ofthelamps,theburntportionsbeingplacedinthesnuffdishes.Bothsetsofarticleswereofgold.
(c)Thepassagecontainingthedirectionsforthealtarofincense(Ex30:17)formspartofasection(chs.30,31)which,thereisreasontobelieveisalater
additiontotheoriginalcontentsofthePriestsCode.Thealtarisdescribedassquareinsection,onecubiteachway,andtwocubitsinheight,withprojectinghorns.
Liketherestofthefurniture,itwasmadeofacaciawoodoverlaidwithgold,withtheusualprovisionofringsandstaves.Itsplaceisinfrontoftheveilseparating
theholyfromthemostholyplace.Incenseofsweetspicesistobeoffereduponitnightandmorning(30:7ff.).
7.Inthemostholyplaceareplacedtwodistinctyetconnectedsacredobjects,thearkandthepropitiatoryormercyseat(25:1022,37:19).(a)Ps
characteristicnamefortheformeristhearkofthetestimony.ThelattertermisasynonyminPfortheDecalogue(25:16),whichwaswrittenonthetablesof
testimony(31:18),deposited,accordingtoanearlytradition,withintheark.Thearkitselfoccasionallyreceivesthesimpletitleofthetestimony,whencethe
TabernacleasshelteringthearkisnamedinPboththedwelling(EVtabernacle)ofthetestimony(Ex38:21etc.)andthetentofthetestimony(Nu9:15etc.).
ThearkofthePriests
Codeisanoblongchestofacaciawood,21/2cubitsinlengthand11/2inbreadthandheight(533halfcubits),overlaidwithinandwithoutwithpuregold.The
sidesaredecoratedwithanobscureformofornamentation,thecrownofEx25:11,probablyamoulding(RVmrimormoulding).Atthefourcorners(v.12AV
RV,lessaccurately,feet)theusualringswereattachedtoreceivethebearingpoles.Theprecisepointofattachmentisuncertain,whetherattheendsofthetwo
longsidesorofthetwoshortsides.SinceitwouldbemoreseemlythatthethroneofJ,presentlytobedescribed,shouldfaceinthedirectionofthemarch,itis
moreprobablethatthepolesweremeanttopassthroughringsattachedtotheshortsides,butwhethertheseweretobeattachedatthelowestpointofthesides,or
higherup,cannotbedetermined.ThattheDecalogueortestimonywastofindaplaceintheark(25:16)hasalreadybeenstated.
(b)Distinctfromtheark,butrestinguponandofthesamesuperficialdimensionsasitstop,viz.21/2by11/2cubits,wefindaslabofsolidgoldtowhichisgiven
thenamekappreth.ThebestEnglishrenderingisthepropitiatory(vv.17ff.),ofwhichthecurrentmercyseat,adoptedbyTindalefromLuthersrendering,isa
notinappropriateparaphrase.Fromoppositeendsofthepropitiatory,andofonepiecewithit(v.19RV),roseapairofcherubimfiguresofbeatenworkofpure
gold.Thefacesofthecherubimwerebentdownwardsinthedirectionofthepropitiatory,whilethewingswithwhicheachwasfurnishedmetoverhead,soasto
coverthepropitiatory(vv.1820).
WehavenowpenetratedtotheInnermostshrineofthepriestlysanctuary.Itsverypositionissignificant.Thesurroundingcourtismadeupoftwosquares,50
cubitseachway,placedsidebyside(seeabove).Theeasternsquare,withitscentralaltar,istheworshippersplaceofmeeting.TheentrancetotheTabernacle
properliesalongtheedgeofthewesternsquare,theexactcentreofwhichisoccupiedbythemostholyplace.Inthecentreofthelatter,again,atthepointof
intersectionofthediagonalsofthesquare,wemaybesure,istheplaceintendedforthearkandthepropitiatory.Hereintheverycentreofthecampistheearthly
throneofJ.Here,fromabovethepropitiatory,frombetweenthecherubim,themostholyofallearthsholyplaces,willGodhenceforthmeetandcommunewith
HisservantMoses(25:22).ButwithMosesonlyforeventhehighpriestispermittedtoenterthemostholyplacebutonceayear,onthegreatDayofAtonement,
whenhecomestosprinklethebloodofthenationalsinofferingwithhisfingeruponthemercyseat(Lv16:14).Theordinarypriestscameonlyintotheholy
place,thelayworshipperonlyintothecourtofthedwelling.Inthecourseoftheforegoingexposition,itwillhavebeenseenhowtheseascendingdegreesof
sanctityarereflectedinthematerialsemployedintheconstructionofthecourt,holyplace,mostholyplace,andpropitiatoryrespectively.Itisnotwithout
significancethatthelastnamedistheonlyarticleofsolidgoldinthewholesanctuary.
8.Theseobservationsleadnaturallytoabriefexpositionofthereligioussymbolismwhichsoevidentlypervadeseverypartofthewildernesssanctuary.Its
positioninthecentreofthecampoftheHebrewtribeshasalreadybeenmorethanoncereferredto.BythisthePriestlywriterwouldemphasizethecentralplace
whichtherightlyorderedworshipofIsraelscovenantGodmustoccupyinthetheocraticcommunityofthefuture.
ThemostassuredfruitofthedisciplineoftheBabylonianExilewasthefinaltriumphofmonotheism.Thistriumphwefindreflectedinthepresuppositionsofthe
PriestsCode.OneGod,onesanctuary,istheideaimplicitthroughout.ButnotonlyistherenoGodbutJahwehJahweh,IsraelsGod,isone(Dt6:4RVm),and
becauseHeisone,Hisearthlydwellingmustbeone(Ex26:6RV,cf.5(a)).TheTabernaclethussymbolizesboththeonenessandtheunityofJ.
NoristheperpetualstrivingafterproportionandsymmetrywhichcharacterizesallthemeasurementsoftheTabernacleanditsfurniturewithoutadeeper
significance.BythismeanstheauthorundoubtedlyseekstosymbolizetheperfectionandharmonyoftheDivinecharacter.Thus,totakebutasingleillustration,the
perfectcubeofthemostholyplace,ofwhichthelengthandbreadthandheight,likethoseoftheNewJerusalemoftheApocalypse(21:16),areequal,isclearly 4/97
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perfectcubeofthemostholyplace,ofwhichthelengthandbreadthandheight,likethoseoftheNewJerusalemoftheApocalypse(21:16),areequal,isclearly
intendedtosymbolizetheperfectionoftheDivinecharacter,theharmonyandequipoiseoftheDivineattributes.
Aboveall,however,theTabernacleinitsrelationtothecampembodiesandsymbolizesthealmostunapproachableholinessofGod.Thisfundamental
conceptionhasbeenrepeatedlyemphasizedintheforegoingsections,andneedberestatedinthisconnexiononlyforthesakeofcompleteness.Thesymbolismof
theTabernacleisasubjectinwhichpiousimaginationsinthepasthaverunriot,butwithregardtowhichonemustendeavourtobefaithfultotheideasinthemind
ofthePriestlyauthor.Thethreefolddivisionofthesanctuary,forexample,intocourt,holyplace,andholyofholies,mayhaveoriginallysymbolizedtheearth,
heaven,andtheheavenofheavens,butfortheauthorofEx25ff.itwasanessentialpartoftheTempletradition(cf.TEMPLE,7).Inthiscase,therefore,the
divisionshouldratherbetaken,asin7above,asareflexionofthethreegradesofthetheocraticcommunity,people,priests,andhighpriest.
9.Reluctantly,butunavoidably,wemustreturn,inconclusion,tothequestionmootedin2astotherelationofthegorgeoussanctuaryabovedescribedtothe
simpletentofmeetingoftheolderPentateuchsources.Inotherwords,isPsTabernaclehistorical?Inthefirstplace,thereisnoreasontoquestion,butonthe
contraryeveryreasontoaccept,thedataoftheElohisticsource(E)regardingtheMosaictentofmeeting.ThisearliertabernacleisfirstmetwithinEx33:711
NowMosesusedtotakethetentandtopitchit[thetensesarefrequentative]withoutthecamp,afarofffromthecampanditcametopassthateveryonewhich
soughttheLORDwentoutuntothetentofmeetingwhichwaswithoutthecamp.Toit,wearefurtherInformed,MoseswaswonttoretiretocommunewithJ,who
descendedinthepillarofthecloudtotalkwithMosesatthedoorofthetentasamantalkethwithhisfriend(seealsothereferencesinNu11:1630,12:1ff.,
14:10).Onlyamindstrangelyinsensibletothelawsofevidence,orstillinthefettersofanantiquateddoctrineofinspiration,couldreconcilethepictureofthis
simpletent,afarofffromthecamp,withJoshuaasitssinglenonLeviticalattendant(33:11),withthatoftheTabernacleofthePriestsCode,situatedinthecentre
ofthecamp,withitsattendantarmyofpriestsandLevites.Moreover,neithertentnorTabernacleisrightlyintelligibleexceptastherestingplaceoftheark,the
symbolofJspresencewithHispeople.Now,theoldestofourextanthistoricalsourceshavemuchtotellusofthefortunesofthearkfromthetimethatitformed
thegloryoftheTempleatShilohuntilitentereditsfinalrestingplaceinthatofSolomon
(seeARK).ButnowhereistheretheslightestreferencetoanythingintheleastresemblingtheTabernacleof48.ItisonlyintheBooksofChronicles,incertain
ofthePsalms,andinpassagesofthepreexilicwritingswhichhavepassedthroughthehandsoflatepostexiliceditorsthatsuchreferencesarefound.An
illuminatingexampleoccursin2Ch1:3f.comparedwith1K3:2ff..
Apart,therefore,fromthenumerousdifficultiespresentedbythedescriptionoftheTabernacleanditsfurniture,suchasthestrangelyinappropriatebrazenaltar
(4(b)),orsuggestedbytheunexpectedwealthofmaterialandartisticskillnecessaryforitsconstruction,modernstudentsofthePentateuchfindthepictureofthe
desertsanctuaryanditsworshipirreconcilablewiththehistoricaldevelopmentofreligionandthecultusinIsrael.InEx25andfollowingchapterswearedealing
notwithhistoricalfact,butwiththeproductofreligiousidealismandsurelythesedevoutidealistsoftheExileshouldcommandouradmirationastheydeserve
ourgratitude.IftheTabernacleisanideal,itistrulyanidealworthyofHimforwhoseworshipitseekstoprovide(seetheexpositionofthegeneralideaofthe
Tabernaclein3,andnowinfulldetailbyMNeileascited,5above).Normustitbeforgotten,thatinreproducinginportableform,astheyunquestionablydo,
theseveralpartsandappointmentsoftheTempleofSolomon,includingevenitsbrazenaltar,theauthororauthorsoftheTabernaclebelieved,inallgoodfaith,that
theywerereproducingtheessentialfeaturesoftheMosaicsanctuary,ofwhichtheTemplewassupposedtobethereplicaandthelegitimatesuccessor.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
TABERNACLES,FEASTOF
1.OTreferences.InEx23:16,34:22itiscalledtheFeastofIngathering,anditsdateisplacedattheendoftheyear.
InDt16:1315itsnameisgivenastheFeastofTabernaclesorBooths(possiblyreferringtotheuseofboothsinthevineyardduringthevintage).Itistolast7
days,tobeobservedatthecentralsanctuary,andtobeanoccasionofrejoicing.Intheyearofrelease,i.e.thesabbaticalyear,theLawistobepubliclyread(Dt
31:1013).ThededicationofSolomonsTempletookplaceatthisfeastintheaccountgivenin1K8:66thesevendayruleofDeut.isrepresentedasbeing
observedbuttheparallelnarrativeof2Ch7:810assumesthattheruleofLev.wasfollowed.
InLv23:34ff.andNu29:1239wefindelaborateordinances.Thefeastistobeginon15thTishri(October),andtolast8days,thefirstandthelastbeingdays
ofholyconvocation.Thepeoplearetoliveinboothsimprovisedfortheoccasion.Averylargenumberofofferingsisordainedoneachofthefirst7days2rams
and14Iambs,andagoatasasinofferingandsuccessivelyonthesedaysadiminishingnumberofbullocks:13onthe1stday,12onthe2nd,andsoontillthe7th,
when7weretobeoffered.Onthe8thdaythespecialofferingswere1bullock,1ram,7lambs,andagoatasasinoffering.
WehearinEzr3:4oftheobservanceofthisfeast,butarenottoldthemethod.ThecelebrationinNeh8:16followedtheregulationsofLev.,butweareexpressly
informedthatsuchhadnotbeenthecasesinceJoshuasdays.Still,thefeastwaskeptinsomeway,forJeroboaminstituteditsequivalentfortheNorthernKingdom
inthe8thmonth(1K12:32,33).
2. Characterofthefeast.ItwastheJewishharvesthome,whenalltheyearsproduceofcorn,wine,andoilhadbeengatheredinthoughnospecial
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2.Characterofthefeast.ItwastheJewishharvesthome,whenalltheyearsproduceofcorn,wine,andoilhadbeengatheredinthoughnospecial
offeringoftheearthsfruitswasmade,aswasdoneattheFeastsofUnleavenedBreadandPentecost.(Thereasonwasperhapsadesiretoavoidtheunseemly
scenesoftheCanaanitevintagefestival,byomittingsuchasignificantpointofresemblancecf.Jg9:27.)ItwasalsoregardedascommemoratingtheIsraelites
wanderingsinthewilderness.ItwasanoccasionforgreatjoyandthegivingofpresentsItwasperhapsthemostpopularofthenationalfestivals,andconsequently
themostgenerallyattended.ThusZec14:16namesasthefuturesignofJudahstriumphthefactthatalltheworldshallcomeupyearlytoJerusalemtokeepthis
festival.
3.Latercustoms.Inlatertimesnovelcustomswereattachedtotheobservance.Suchwerethedailyprocessionroundthealtar,withitssevenfoldrepetition
onthe7thdaythesingingofspecialPsalmstheprocessiononeachofthefirst7daystoSiloamtofetchwater,whichwasmixedwithwineinagoldenpitcher,and
pouredatthefootofthealtarwhiletrumpetswereblown(cf.Jn7:37)andtheilluminationofthewomenscourtintheTemplebythelightingofthe4golden
candelabra(cf.Jn8:12).The8thday,thoughappearingoriginallyasasupplementaryadditiontothefeast,cametoberegardedasanintegralpartofit,andisso
treatedin2Mac10:6,asalsobyJosephus.
A.W.F.BLUNT.
TABITHA.SeeDORCAS.
TABLE.SeeHOUSE,8MEALS,3,4.ForTableofShewbreadseeS HEWBREAD,TABERNACLE,6(a),TEMPLE,5,9,12.
TABLE,TABLET.1.WritingtabletisindicatedbytheHeb.lach,whichisalsoappliedtowoodenboardsorplanks(Ex27:8,38:7inthealtarofthe
Tabernacle,Ezk27:5inaship,Ca8:9inadoor)andtometalplates(inthebasesofthelaversinSolomonsTemple.1K7:36).Itis,however,mostfrequently
appliedtotablesofstoneonwhichtheDecaloguewasengraven(Ex24:12,31:18etc.).Itisusedofatabletonwhichaprophecymaybewritten(Is30:8,Hab2:2),
andinPr3:3,7:3andJer17:1figurativelyofthetablesoftheheart.Inallthesepassages,whenusedofstone,bothAVandRVtranslatetableexceptinIs30:8
whereRVhastablet.lachgenerallyappearsinLXXandNTasplax(2Co3:3,He9:4).Thewritingtable(RVtablet)ofLk1:63wasprobablyofwax.
2.AfemaleornamentisindicatedbyHeb.kmz,AVtablets,RVarmlets,RVmnecklaces,Ex35:22,Nu31:50probablyapendantwornontheneck.
Thewordtabletsisalsothetr.ofbotthannepheshinAVIs3:20(RVperfumeboxes,lit.housesofthesoul).Itisdoubtfulif nepheshactuallymeansodour,butfrom
meaningbreathitmayhavecometomeanscentorsmell.Ontheotherhand,theideaoflifemaysuggestthatsomelifegivingelixir,scent,orointmentwascontainedinthe
vesselsbutthemeaningisdoubtful.
Thetablet(gillyn)inscribedwithastylustoMahershalalhashbaz,Is8:1(AVroll),signifiesapolishedsurface.ThewordoccursagaininIs3:23whereitprobably
referstotabletsofpolishedmetalusedasmirrors(AVglasses).
W.F.BOYD.
TABOR.1.AtowninthetribeofZebulun,giventoLevitesdescendedfromMerari(1Ch
6:77).Itssiteisunknown.PerhapsitistobeidentifiedwithChislothtaborinthesametribe(Jos19:12).2.AplacenearOphrah(Jg8:18).3.TheOak(AVplain)
ofTaborwasontheroadfromRamahS.toGibeah(1S10:3).4.Seenextarticle.
H.L.WILLETT.
TABOR(MOUNT).AmountainintheN.E.corneroftheplainofEsdraelon,some7milesE.ofNazareth.Thoughonly1843feethigh,Taboris,fromits
isolationandremarkableroundedshape,amostprominentobjectfromgreatdistancesaroundhence,thoughsoverydifferentinsizefromthegreatmountainmass
ofHermon,itwasyetassociatedwithit(Ps89:12).Itwasakingamongthemountains(Jer46:18).ItisknowntotheArabsasJebeletTr,lit.themountainofthe
mount,thesamenameasisappliedtotheMountofOlives.FromthesummitofTaboramagnificentoutlookisobtained,especiallytotheW.,overthegreatplain
ofEsdraelontothemountainsofSamariaandCarmel.ItwasonthebordersofZebulunand
Issachar(Jos19:12,22)Itwascertainlyanearlysanctuary,iandprobablythereferenceinDt
33:18,19istothismountain.HeretheforcesunderDeborahandBarakralliedtofightSisera(Jg4:6,12).WhetherthereferenceinJg8:18istothismountainis
doubtful.InlaterhistoryTaborappearschieflyasafortress.Inthe3rdcent.B.C.,AntiochustheGreatcapturedthecity
AtabyriumwhichwasuponTabor,andafterwardsfortifiedit.Between B.C.105and78theplacewasagaininJewishhands,butin B.C.53Gabiniusheredefeated
Alexander,sonofAristobulus II.,whowasinrevolt.AhundredandtenyearslaterJosephusfortifiedthehillagainstVespasian,butaftertheJewishsoldiershad
beendefeatedbythegeneralPlacidus,theplacesurrendered.DuringtheCrusadesitwasforlonginthehandsoftheChristians,butfelltotheMuslemsafterthe
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beendefeatedbythegeneralPlacidus,theplacesurrendered.DuringtheCrusadesitwasforlonginthehandsoftheChristians,butfelltotheMuslemsafterthe
battleofHattin,andwasfortifiedin1212bythesuccessorofSaladinastepwhichledtotheingloriousandineffectual5thCrusade.
ThetraditionthatTaborwasthesceneoftheTransfigurationgoesbacktothe3rdcent.,buthaslittleevidenceinitsfavour.Althoughnotdirectlyrecorded,the
conditionofthehillbeforeandafterwouldleadonetosupposethatitwasaninhabitedsiteatthetimeofChrist,whiletherequirementsoftheBiblicalnarrative(Mk
8:27,9:210,Lk9:2836)suggestasitenearCsareaPhilippi,such,forexample,asanisolatedspurofHermon.
MountTabortodayisoneofthebestwoodedspotsinW.Palestine,grovesofoaksandterebinthsnotonlycoveringthehillsides,butextendingalsoovera
considerableareaofhillandvalleytotheN.gameaboundsinthecoverts.TheFranciscansandtheGreekChurchhaveeacherectedamonasteryhospiceonthe
summit,andextensiveexcavationshavebeenmade,particularlybymembersoftheformerorder.Thefoundationsofagreatwallofcircumvallationprobablythat
ofJosephus(BJIV.i.8)havebeenfollowed,manyancienttombshavebeencleared,andtheremainsofseveralchurchesofthe4thandofthe12thcenturieshave
beenunearthed.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
TABRET(seeart.TABER)isAVtr.oftphinGn31:27,1S10:5,18:6,Is5:12,24:8,30:32,
Jer31:4,Ezk28:13.ThesameHeb.wordistr.timbrelinEx15:20,Jg11:34,2S6:5,1Ch
13:8,Job21:12,Ps81:2,149:3,150:4.Itmighthavebeenwelltodropbothtimbrelandtabret,neitherofwhichconveysanyclearsensetoamodernear,and
adoptsomesuchrenderingastambourineorhanddrum.TheAVrenderingofJob17:6aforetimeIwasasatabret,hasarisenfromaconfusionoftpheth
spittingwithtphtambourine.ThewordsmeanIambecomeonetobespitonintheface(RVanopenabhorring).
TABRIMMON.ThefatherofBenhadad(1K15:18).
TACHES.AnoldwordofFrenchoriginusedbyAVtorendertheHeb.qrsm,whichoccursonlyinPsdescriptionoftheTabernacle(Ex26:6,11,33,
35:11etc.).TheGr.renderingdenotestheringssetineyeletsattheedgeofasailfortheropestopassthrough.TheHeb.wordevidentlysignifiessomeformof
hookorclasp(soRV)liketheRomanfibula.
TACKLINGinIs33:23meanssimplyashipsropesinAc27:19itisusedmoregenerallyofthewholegearing(RVmfurniture).
TADMOR(Palmyra).In2Ch8:4wereadthatSolomonbuiltTadmorinthe[Syrian]desert.IthaslongbeenrecognizedthatTadmorishereamistakefor
Tamarinthe[Judan]desertofthecorrespondingpassagein1Kings(9:18).TheChronicler,oroneofhispredecessors,nodoubtthoughtitnecessarytoemend
inthisfashionanamethatwasscarcelyknowntohim.(ThatitisreallythecityofTadmorsofamousinaftertimesthatismeant,isconfirmedbytheequally
unhistoricaldetailsgivenin2Ch8:3,4regardingtheSyriancitiesofHamathandZobah.)HencearosethenecessityfortheJewishschoolstochangetheTamarof
1
K9:18inturnintoTadmor[theQerinthatpassage],soastoagreewiththetextofthe
Chronicler.TheLXXtranslatorof1K9:13appearstohavealreadyhadthiscorrectionbeforehim.NeverthelessitisquitecertainthatTamaristheoriginalreading.
ButthecorrectionsuppliesaveryimportantevidencethatatthetimewhenChronicleswascomposed(c.B.C.200),Tadmorwasalreadyaplaceofnote,aroundthe
foundingofwhichafabuloussplendourhadgathered,sothatitappearedfittingtoattributeittoSolomon.Thisfictionmaintaineditself,andreceivedfurther
embellishments.ThepreIslamicpoetNbigha(v.22ff.,ed.Ahlwardt,c.A.D.
600)relatesthat,byDivinecommand,thedemonsbuiltSolomonsTadmorbyforcedlabour.Thispieceofinformationhemayhavepickeduplocallywhathehad
inviewwouldhe,ofcourse,theremains,whichmusthavebeenstillverymajestic,ofthecitywhoseclimaxofsplendourwasreachedinthe2ndand3rdcent.A.D.
Tadmor,ofwhoseoriginandearlierhistoryweknownothing,layuponagreatnaturalroadthroughthedesert,notfarfromtheEuphrates,andnotveryfarfrom
Damascus.ItwasthusbetweenSyria,Babylonia,andMesopotamiaproper.Sincewater,althoughnotingreatabundance,wasalsofoundonthespot,Tadmor
suppliedapeaceableandintelligentpopulationwithalltheconditionsnecessaryforametropolisofthecaravantrade.SuchwefindinthecaseofPalmyra,whose
identitywithTadmorwasallalongmaintained,andhasrecentlybeenassuredbynumerousinscriptions.Thefirstreallyhistoricalmentionoftheplace(B.C.37or
36)tellshowthewealthofthiscentreoftradeincitedM.Antonytoapillagingcampaign(Appian,Bell.Civ.v.9).
TheendingsofthetwonamesTadmorandPalmyraarethesame,butnotthefirstsyllable.ItisnotclearwhytheWesternsmadesuchanalterationintheform.Thename
Palmyracanhardlyhaveanythingtodowithpalms.Itwould,indeed,besomethingveryremarkableifinthisEasterndistricttheLat.palmawasusedatsoearlyadateinthe
formationofnames.TheOrientalformTadmoristobekeptquiteapartfromtmr,palm.Finally,itisunlikelythatthepalmwaseverextensivelycultivatedonthespot.
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formationofnames.TheOrientalformTadmoristobekeptquiteapartfromtmr,palm.Finally,itisunlikelythatthepalmwaseverextensivelycultivatedonthespot.
NeitherintheOTnorintheNTisthereanyothermentionofTadmor(Palmyra),andJosephusnamesitonlywhenhereproducestheabovepassageof
Chronicles(Ant.VIII.vi.1).Theplaceexercised,indeed,noconsiderableinfluenceonthehistoryeitherofancientIsraelorofearlyChristianity.Thereistherefore
nooccasiontogofurtherintothehistory,oncesogloriousandfinallysotragic,ofthegreatcity,ortodealwiththefortunesofthelatersomewhatinconsiderable
place,whichnow,inspiteofitsimposingruins,isdesolateintheextreme,butwhichstillbearstheancientnameTadmor(Tedmur,Tudmur).
TH.NLDEKE.
TAHAN.AnEphraimiteclan(Nu26:35(39),1Ch7:25)gentilicnameTahanitesinNu26:35(39).
TAHASH.AsonofNahor(Gn22:24).
TAHATH.1.AKohathiteLevite(1Ch6:24).2.3.Two(unlessthenamehasbeenaccidentallyrepeated)Ephraimitefamilies(1Ch7:20).4.Anunidentified
stationoftheIsraelites(Nu33:26f.).
TAHCHEMONITE(AVTachmonite).SeeHACHMONT.
TAHPANHES(Jer2:16,43:7ff.,44:1,46:14,Ezk30:18(Tehaphnehes),inJth1:9AVTaphnes).AnEgyptiancity,thesameastheGreekDaphn,nowTett
Defne.TheEgyptiannameisunknown.ItlayonthePelusiacbranchoftheNile,whichisnowsiltedup,andthewholeregionconvertedintoawaste.Petries
excavationsshowedthatDaphnwasfoundedbyPsammetichusI.onthe26thDyn.(B.C.664610).AccordingtoHerodotus,itwasthefrontierfortressofEgypt
ontheAsiaticside,andwasgarrisonedbyGreeks.InitsruinswasfoundanabundanceofGreekpottery,ironarmour,andarrowheadsofbronzeandiron,while
numeroussmallweightsboretestimonytothetradethatpassedthroughit.ThegarrisonwaskeptupbythePersiansinthe5thcent.,andthetownexistedtoamuch
laterperiod.AfterthemurderofGedaliah(B.C.586),JohanantooktheremnantoftheJewsfromJerusalem,includingJeremiah,toTahpanhes.
F.LL.GRIFFITH.
TAHPENES(1K11:19).ThenameofPharaohswife,whosesisterwasgiventoHadadtheEdomite.IthastheappearanceofanEgyptianname,buthasnot
yetbeenexplained.ThenameofhersonGenubathisnotEgyptian.ThePharaohshouldbeoftheweak21stDynasty.F.LL.GRIFFITH.
TAHREA.AgrandsonofMephibosheth(1Ch9:41)in8:35(prob.byacopyistserror)Tarea.
TAHTIMHODSHI,THELANDOF.AplaceeastofJordan,whichJoabandhisofficersvisitedwhenmakingthecensusforDavid(2S24:6).Itis
mentionedbetweenGileadandDanjaan.TheMT,however,iscertainlycorrupt.InallprobabilityweshouldreadhaHittimKdshh=tothelandoftheHittites,
towardsKadesh[sc.KadeshontheOrontes].
TALE.TaleinAVgenerallymeansnumberorsum,asEx5:18Yetshallyedeliverthetaleofbricks.Andtheverbtotellsometimesmeanstonumber,
asGn15:5Tellthestars,ifthoubeabletonumberthem,wherethesameHeb.verbistranslatedtellandnumber.
TALEBEARING.SeeS LANDER.
TALENT.SeeMONEY,WEIGHTSANDMEASURES.
TALITHACUMI.ThecommandaddressedbyourLordtothedaughterofJairus(Mk5:41),andinterpretedbytheEvangelist,Maiden,Isayuntothee,
arise.Therelatingoftheactual(Aramaic)wordsusedbyJesusischaracteristicofSt.Marksgraphicnarrativecf.7:11,34,14:36,15:34.
TALMAI.1.AclanresidentinHebronatthetimeoftheHebrewconquestanddriventhencebyCaleb(Nu13:22,Jos15:14,Jg1:10).2.SonofAmmihur(or
Ammihud),kingofGeshur,andacontemporaryofDavid,towhomhegavehisdaughterMaacahinmarriage(2S3:3,13:37,1Ch3:2).
TALMON.ThenameofafamilyofTemplegatekeepers(1Ch9:17,Ezr2:42,Neh7:45,11:19,12:25)calledin1Es5:28Tolman.See,also,T
http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/t.htm . 8/97
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TALMON.ThenameofafamilyofTemplegatekeepers(1Ch9:17,Ezr2:42,Neh7:45,11:19,12:25)calledin1Es5:28Tolman.See,also,TELEM.
TALMUD(learning)
1.Originandcharacter.TheJewshavealwaysdrawnadistinctionbetweentheOral
Law,whichwashandeddownforcenturiesbywordofmouth,andtheWrittenLaw,i.e.the
PentateuchorFiveBooksofMoses.Both,accordingtoRabbinicalteaching,tracetheiroriginto
Moseshimself.IthasbeenafundamentalprincipleofalltimesthatbythesideoftheWritten
Law,regardedasasummaryoftheprinciplesandgenerallawsoftheHebrewpeople,therewasthisOralLawtocompleteandexplaintheWrittenLaw.Itwasan
articleoffaiththatinthePentateuchtherewasnopreceptandnoregulation,ceremonial,doctrinal,orlegal,ofwhichGodhadnotgiventoMosesallexplanations
necessaryfortheirapplication,togetherwiththeordertotransmitthembywordofmouth.Theclassicalpassageonthissubjectruns:Mosesreceivedthe(oral)law
fromSinai,anddeliveredittoJoshua,andJoshuatotheelders,andtheelderstotheprophets,andtheprophetstothemenoftheGreatSynagogue(PirqeAboth,l.
1).ThishaslongbeenknowntobenothingmorethanamyththeOralLaw,althoughitnodoubtcontainselementswhichareofgreatantiquitye.g.detailsof
folklorereallydatesfromthetimethattheWrittenLawwasreadandexpoundedinthesynagogues.ThuswearetoldthatEzraintroducedthecustomofhaving
theTorah(Law)readinthesynagoguesatthemorningserviceonMondaysandThursdays(i.e.thedayscorrespondingtothese)foronthesedaysthecountry
peopleflockedtothetownsfromtheneighbouringdistricts,astheywerethemarketdays.Thepeoplehadthusanopportunity,whichwouldotherwisehavebeen
lacking to them, of hearing the Law read and explained. These explanations of the Law, together with the results of the discussions of them on the part of the
spherm(scribes),formedtheactualOralLaw.ThefirstexplanatorytermappliedbytheJewstotheOralLawwasmidrash(investigation),andtheBible
itselfwitnessestothewayinwhichsuchinvestigationsweremadeandexpoundedtothepeople:AlsoJeshuaandBaniandtheLevites,causedthepeopleto
understandthelawandthepeoplestoodintheirplace.Andtheyreadinthebook,inthelawofGod,withaninterpretationandtheygavethesense,sothatthey
understoodthereading(Neh8:7,8).Butitisclearthattheinvestigationsmusthaveledtodifferentexplanationssothatinordertofixauthoritativelywhatinlater
dayswereconsideredthecorrectexplanations,andthustoensurecontinuityofteaching,itbecamenecessarytoreducethesetowritingtherearosethus(soonafter
the time of Shammai and Hillel) the Former Mishna (MishnaRishonah),Mishnameaning Second Law. This earliest Mishna, which, it is probable, owed its
origintopupilsofShammaiandHillel,wasthereforecompiledforthepurposeofaffordingteachersbothanormfortheirdecisionsandakindofbookofreference
fortheexplanationofdifficultpassages.Buttheimmenseamountoffloatingmaterialcouldnotbeincorporatedintoonework,andwhengreatteachersarosethey
sometimesfounditnecessarytocompiletheirownMishnatheyexcludedmuchwhichtheofficialMishnacontained,andaddedothermatterwhichtheyconsidered
important.ThiswasdonebyRabbiAqiba,RabbiMeir,andothers.Butitwasnotlongbeforetheconfusioncreatedbythisstateofaffairsagainnecessitatedsome
authoritative, officially recognized action. It was then that Jehudah haNasi undertook his great redaction of the Mishna, which has survived substantially to the
presentday.JehudahhaNasiwasbornabout A.D.135anddiedabout A.D.220hewasthefirstofHillelssuccessorstowhosenamewasaddedthetitlehaNasi(
thePrince)thisisthewayinwhichheisusuallyreferredtoinRabbinicalwritingsheisalsospokenofasRabbi,i.e.masterparexcellence,andoccasionallyas
haQadosh,theHoly,onaccountofhissingularlypureandmorallife.Owingtohisauthorityanddignity,theMishnaofJehudahhaNasisoonsupersededall
other collections, and became the only one used in the schools the object that Jehudah had had in view, that, namely, of restoring uniform teaching, was thus
achieved.TheMishnaaswenowhaveitisnot,however,quiteasitwaswhenitleftJehudahshandsithasundergonemodificationsofvariouskinds:additions,
emendations,andthelikehavingbeenmadeeveninJehudahslifetime,withhisacquiescence,bysomeofhispupils.ThelanguageoftheMishnaapproximatesto
thatofsomeofthelatestbooksoftheOT,andisknownbythenameofNeoHebraicthiswasthelanguagespokeninPalestineduring
thesecondcenturyA.D.Ithasaconsiderableintermixtureofforeignelements,especiallyGreekwordsHebraized.
TheMishnaisdividedintosixSedarim(Aram.forOrders),andeachSedercontainsanumberoftreatiseseachtreatiseisdividedintochapters,andthese
againintoparagraphs.ThenamesofthesixOrders,whichtosomeextentindicatetheircontents,are:Zeraim(Seeds),containingeleventreatisesMoed
(Festival),containingtwelvetreatisesNashim(Women),containingseventreatisesNezikin(Injuries),containingtentreatises[thisOrderiscalledalso
Yeshuoth(Deedsofhelp)]Qodashim(Holythings),containingeleventreatisesandTohroth(Purifications),containingtwelvetreatises.
NowtheMishnaformsthebasisoftheTalmudforjustastheMishnaisacompilationofexpositions,comments,etc.,oftheWrittenLaw,andembodiesinitself
theOralLaw,sotheTalmudisanexpansion,bymeansofcommentandexplanation,oftheMishnaastheMishnacontainsthePentateuch,withalltheadditional
explanatorymatter,sotheTalmudcontainstheMishnawithagreatdealmoreadditionalmatter.TheTalmudispracticallyamereamplificationoftheMishnaby
manifoldcommentsandadditionssothateventhoseportionsoftheMishnawhichhavenoTalmudareregardedascomponentpartsofit.Thehistoryofthe
originoftheTalmudisthesameasthatoftheMishnaatradition,transmittedorallyforcenturies,wasfinallycastintodefiniteliteraryform,althoughfromthe
momentinwhichtheTalmudbecamethechiefsubjectofstudyintheacademiesithadadoubleexistence(seebelow),andwasaccordingly,initsfinalstage,
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redactedintwodifferentforms(BacherinJExii.3b).BeforecomingtospeakoftheactualTalmuditself,itmaybewelltoexplainsometermswithoutan
understandingofwhichourwholesubjectwouldbeveryinadequatelyunderstood:
Halakhah.UnderthistermtheentirelegalbodyofJewishoraltraditionisincludeditcomesfromaverbmeaningtogo,andexpressesthewayofgoing
oracting,i.e.custom,usage,whichultimatelyissuesinlaw.OriginallyitwasusedinthepluralformHalakhoth,whichhadreferencetothemultifariousciviland
rituallaws,customs,decreesetc.,ashandeddownbytradition,whichwerenot,however,ofScripturalauthority.ItwastheseHalakbothwhichwerecodifiedby
JehudahhaNasi,andtowhichthetermMishnabecameapplied.SometimesthewordHalakhahisusedfortradition,whichisbinding,incontradistinctiontoDn,
argument(lit.judgment),whichisnotnecessarilybinding.
Haggadah(fromtherootmeaningtonarrate).ThisincludesthewholeofthenonlegalmatterofRabbinicalliterature,suchashomilies,storiesaboutBiblical
saintsandheroesbesidesthisittouchesuponsuchsubjectsasastronomy,astrology,medicine,magic,philosophy,andallthatwouldcomeundertheterm
folklore.Thisword,too,wasoriginallyusedinthepluralHaggadoth.HaggadahisalsousedinaspecialsenseoftheritualforPassoverEve.
Gemara.ThisisanAramaicwordfromtherootmeaningtolearn,andhasthesignificationofthatwhichhasbeenlearned,i.e.learningthathasbeen
handeddownbytradition(BacherinJE,art.Talmud)ithasalsothemeaningcompletioninthissenseitcametobeusedasasynonymofTalmud.
Baraitha.ThisisanapocryphalHalakhah.WhenJehudahhaNasicompiledhisMishna,therewasagreatdealoftheOralTraditionwhichheexcludedfrom
it(seeabove)otherteachers,however,themostimportantofwhomwasRabbiChijja,gatheredtheseexcludedportionsintoaspecialcollectiontheseHalakhoth,
whichareknownasBaraithoth,wereincorporatedintotheTalmudthediscussionsonthemintheTalmudoccupymanyfolios.
Tannaim(Teachers).ThiswasthetechnicalnameappliedtotheteachersoftheMishnaafterthecloseoftheMishnaperiodthosewhoexplaineditwereno
morecalledTeachers,butonlyCommentators(Amoram)thedictaoftheTannaimcouldnotbequestionedexceptingbyaTannaite,butanexceptionwasmade
inthecaseofJehudahhaNasi,whowaspermittedtoquestionthetruthofTannaitepronouncements.
TherearetwoTalmuds,theJerusalemorTalmudofPalestineandtheBabylonian,knownrespectivelybytheirabbreviatedformsYerushalmiandBabli.
ThematerialwhichwenttomakeuptheYerushalmihadbeenpreparingintheacademies,thecentresofJewishlearning,ofPalestine,chiefamongwhichwas
TiberiasitwasfromherethatRabbiJochananissuedtheYerushalmi,initsearliestform,duringthemiddleofthe3rdcent.A.D.Thefirsteditor,oratalleventsthe
firstcompiler,oftheBabliwasRabbiAshi(d.A.D.430),whopresidedovertheacademyofSura.BoththeseTalmudswereconstantlybeingaddedto,andthe
Yerushalmiwasnotfinallycloseduntiltheendofthe4thcent.,theBablinotuntilthebeginningofthe6th.Thecharacteristicswhichdifferentiatedtheacademiesof
PalestinefromthoseofBabyloniahavelefttheirmarksuponthetwoTalmuds:inPalestinethetendencywastopreserveandstereotypetradition,withoutpermitting
ittodevelopitselfalongnaturalchannelstheresultwasthattheYerushalmibecamechokedwithtraditionalism,circumscribedinitshorizon,andinconsequence
wasregardedwithlessvenerationthantheBabli,andhasalwaysoccupiedapositionofsubordinateimportanceincomparisonwiththislatter.IntheBabylonian
academies,ontheotherband,therewasawideroutlook,afreermentalatmosphere,and,whiletraditionwasvenerated,itwasnotpermittedtoimpededevelopment
inalldirectionstheBablithereforeabsorbedthethoughtandlearningofallIsraelsteachers,andisricherinmaterial,andofmoreimportancegenerally,thanthe
Yerushalmi.InordertogivesomeideaofwhattheTalmudis,andoftheenormousmassesofmaterialgatheredtogetherthere,thefollowingexamplemaybecited,
abbreviatedfromBacher(op.cit.xii.5).ItwillberememberedthattheTalmudisacommentaryontheMishna.Inthebeginningofthelatteroccursthisparagraph:
DuringwhattimeintheeveningisthereadingoftheShemabegun?Fromthetimewhenthepriestsgointoeattheirleaven(Lv22:7)untiltheendofthefirst
watchofthenight,suchbeingthewordsofR.Eliezer.Thesages,however,sayuntilmidnight,thoughR.Gamalielsaysuntilthecomingofthedawn.Thisisthe
textuponwhichtheYerushalmithencommentsinthreesectionsthefirstsectioncontainsthefollowing:acitationfromabariathawithtwosayingsfromR.Joseto
elucidateitremarksonthepositionofonewhoisindoubtwhetherhehasreadtheShemaanotherpassagefromabaraitha,designatingtheappearanceofthe
starsasanindicationofthetimeinquestionfurtherexplanationsandpassagesontheappearanceofthestarsasbearingontheritualotherRabbinicalsayingsa
baraithaonthedivisionbetweendayandnight,andotherpassagesbearingonthesamesubjectdiscussionofotherbaraithas,andfurtherquotationsfrom
importantRabbisasentenceofTannaiticorigininnowayrelatedtotheprecedingmatters,namely,Onewhopraysstandingmustboldhisfeetstraight,andthe
controversyonthissubjectbetweenRabbisLeviandSimon,theoneadding,liketheangels,theother,likethepriestscommentsonthesetwocomparisons
furtherdiscussionconcerningthebeginningofthedayHaggadicstatementsconcerningthedawnaconversationbetweentwoRabbiscosmologicalcomments
dimensionsofthefirmament,andmoreHaggadiccommentsinabundanceadiscussiononthenightwatchesHaggadicmaterialconcerningDavidandhisharp.
Thencomesthesecondsection,namely,aRabbinicalquotationabaraithaonthereadingoftheShemainthesynagogueotherRabbinicalandHaggadicmatter
furtherHaggadicsayingslastly,section3givesR.GamalielsviewcomparedwiththatofanotherRabbi,togetherwithaquestionwhichremainsunanswered.
Thisis,ofcourse,themerestskeletonofanexampleofthemassofcommentarywhichisdevotedtotheMishna,sectionbysection.AlthoughtheHaggadic
elementplaysamuchlessImportantrlethantheHalakhic,stilltheformeriswellrepresented,andisoftenemployedforpurposesofedificationandrebuke,as
wellasforinstruction.ThefollowingoutlineofaHaggadicpassagefromtheYerushalmiwillserveasanexampleItisintendedasarebuketoScandalmongers,
andatext(Dt1:12)istakenasastartingpoint,namely,HowcanImyselfalonebearyourcumbranceandyourburdenandyourstrife?Itthencontinues:How 10/97
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andatext(Dt1:12)istakenasastartingpoint,namely,HowcanImyselfalonebearyourcumbranceandyourburdenandyourstrife?Itthencontinues:How
didourforefathersworryMoseswiththeircumbrances?Inthattheywereconstantlyslanderinghim,andimputingevilintentionstohimineverythingthathedid.If
hehappenedtocomeoutofhishouseratherearlierthanusual,itwassaid:Whyhashegoneoutsoearlytoday?Therehasnodoubtbeensomequarrellingat
home!If,ontheotherhand,hewentoutalittlelaterthanusual,itwassaid:Whathasbeenoccupyinghimsolongindoors?Assuredlyhehasbeenconcocting
planstooppressthepeopleyetmorel(Bernfeld,DerTalmud,p.46).Or,togiveoneotherexample:inpointingouttheevilswhichcomefromafathers
favouringonesonabovetheothers,itissaid:Thisshouldnotbedone,forbecauseofthecoatofmanycolourswhichthepatriarchJacobgavehisfavouriteson
Joseph(Gn37:1ff.),allIsraelwentdownintoEgypt(ib.p.47).
Haggadothflourish,asregardsquality,moreintheYerushalmithanintheBabliforintheBabylonianschoolsintellectualacumenreignedsupreme:therewas
butlittleroomfortheplayoftheemotionsorforthedevelopmentofpoeticalimagination:thesewereratherthepropertyofPalestiniansoil.Therefore,althoughthe
Haggadicelementis,sofarasquantityisconcerned,muchfullerintheBablithanintheYerushalmi,itis,generallyspeaking,ofafarlessattractivecharacterinthe
formerthaninthelatter.ThefactthattheHaggadahismuchmoreprominentinBabli,ofwhichitforms,accordingtoWeiss,morethanonethird,whileit
constitutesonlyonesixthofYerushalmi,wasdue,inasense,tothecourseofthedevelopmentofHebrewliterature.NoindependentmassofHaggadothdeveloped
inBabylon,aswasthecaseinPalestineandtheHaggadicwritingswereaccordinglycollectedintheTalmud(JExii.12).ButtheHaggadah,whetherinthe
YerushalmiorintheBabli,occupiesinrealityasubordinateplace,forinitsorigin,aswehaveseen,theTalmudwasacommentaryontheMishna,whichwasa
collectionof
HalakhothandalthoughtheHaggadicportionsareofmuchgreaterhumaninterest,itistheHalakhicportionsthatformthebulkoftheTalmud,andthatconstitute
itsimportanceasthefountainheadofJewishbeliefandtheology.
2.AuthorityoftheTalmud.InasmuchastheOralLaw,whichwithitscommentsandexplanationsiswhatconstitutestheTalmud,isregardedasofequal
authoritywiththeWrittenLaw,itwillbeclearthattheTalmudisregarded,atalleventsbyorthodoxJews,asthehighestandfinalauthorityonallmattersoffaith.It
istruethatintheTalmuditselftheletterofScriptureisalwaysclearlydifferentiatedfromtherestbut,inthefirstplace,thecommentsandexplanationsdeclarewhat
Scripturemeans,andwithoutthisofficialexplanationtheScripturalpassagewouldlosemuchofitspracticalvaluefortheJewand,inthesecondplace,itisfirmly
believedthattheorallawspreservedintheTalmudweredeliveredtoMosesonMountSinai.ItisthereforenoexaggerationtosaythattheTalmudisofequal
authoritywithScripture.TheeighthprincipleoftheJewishcreedruns:IfirmlybelievethattheLawwhichwepossessnowisthesamewhichhasbeengivento
MosesonMountSinai.IncommentingonthisinwhatmaynotunjustlybedescribedastheofficialhandbookfortheorthodoxJewishReligion,thewritersays:
Manyexplanationsanddetailsofthelawsweresupplementedbyoralteachingtheywerehandeddownbywordofmouthfromgenerationtogeneration,andonly
afterthedestructionofthesecondtempleweretheycommittedtowriting.Thelatterare,nevertheless,calledOralLaw,asdistinguishedfromtheTorahorWritten
Law,whichfromthefirstwascommittedtowriting.ThoseorallawswhichwererevealedtoMosesonMountSinaiarecalledLawsgiventoMosesonMount
Sinai(M.Friedlnder,TheJewishReligion[revisedandenlargeded.,1900],p.136).ItisclearfromthisthattheWrittenLawoftheBible,andtheOralLawas
containedinthe
Talmud,areofequalauthority.TheTalmudisagainreferredtoasthefinalauthorityin
JudaismbythewriterofalaterexpositionoftheJewishfaith(M.Joseph,JudaismasCreedandLife,1903,p.vii.).Oneotherauthoritativeteachermaybequoted:
AsadocumentofreligiontheTalmudacquiredthatauthoritywhichwasduetoitasthewrittenembodimentoftheancienttradition,anditfulfilledthetaskwhich
themenoftheGreatAssemblysetfortherepresentativesofthetraditionwhentheysaid,MakeahedgefortheTorah(Aboth,i.2).ThosewhoprofessedJudaism
feltnodoubtthattheTalmudwasequaltotheBibleasasourceofinstructionanddecisioninproblemsofreligion,andeveryefforttosetforthreligiousteachings
anddutieswasbasedonit.Andspeakingofthepresentday,thesamewritersays:ForthemajorityofJewsitisstillthesupremeauthorityinreligion(Bacherin
JExii.26).
3.TheTalmudandChristianity.MuchthatiswrittenintheTalmudwasoriginallyspokenbymenwhowerecontemporariesofChristmenwhomusthave
seenandheardHim.Itis,moreover,wellknownwhataconflictwaswagedintheinfantChurchregardingthatquestionoftheadmittanceofGentiles,theresultof
whichwasanirreconcilablebreachbetweenJewandGentile,andaneverincreasingantagonismbetweenJudaismandChristianity.Thesefactsleadtothe
suppositionthatreferencestoChristandChristianityshouldbefoundintheTalmud.Thequestionastowhethersuchreferencesaretobefoundornotisonewhich
cannotyetbesaidtohavebeendecidedonewayortheother.ThefrequentmentionoftheMinimisheldbymanytorefertoChristiansothersmaintainthatby
thesearemeantphilosophizingJews,whowereregardedasheretics.Thisisnottheplacetodiscussthequestionwecanonlyrefertotwoworks,whichapproachit
fromdifferentpointsofview,andwhichdealveryadequatelywithit:
ChristianityinTalmudandMidrash,byR.T.Herford(London,1903),andDiereligisen
BewegungeninnerhalbdesJudenthumsimZeitatterJesu,byM.Friedlnder(Berlin,1905).
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W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
TAMAR.1.ACanaanitewoman,marriedtoErandthentohisbrotherOnan(see
MARRIAGE,4).Tamarbecamebyherfatherinlawhimselfthemotheroftwinsons,PerezandZerah(Gn38,Ru4:12,1Ch2:4,Mt1:3).2.Thebeautifulsisterof
Absalom,whowasviolatedandbrutallyinsultedbyherhalfbrother,Amnon(2S13:1ff.).3.AdaughterofAbsalom(2S14:27).4.Seenextarticle.
TAMAR.InEzk47:19,48:28theS.E.boundarymarkoftherestoredkingdomofIsrael.Noproposedidentificationhasbeensuccessful,sincenoplaceofthis
namehasbeenfoundintheregionrequired,thatis,neartheS.endoftheDeadSea.Itispossiblythesameplacethatismentionedin1K9:18asoneoftheS.
fortressesbuiltupbySolomon.HereavariantHeb.
readinghasTadmor(wh.see)amanifesterror,whichisperhapsborrowedfromtheparallelpassage2Ch8:4.
J.F.MCCURDY.
TAMARISK(shel).ThisnameoccursinRV(only)threetimesGn21:33AVgrove,mg.tree1S22:6AVtree,mg.grove1S31:13AVtree.The
RVrenderingisbaseduponanidentificationoftheHeb.shelwiththeArab.thl.RVmgivestamariskforheathofEVinJer17:6(cf.48:6),butprobablya
speciesofjuniperisintendedhere.TherearesomeeightspeciesoftamarisksinPalestinetheyaremostcommonintheMaritimePlainandtheJordanValley.
Thoughmostlybutshrubs,somespeciesattaintothesizeoflargetrees.Theyarecharacterizedbytheirbrittlefeatherybranchesandminutescalelikeleaves.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
TAMMUZ(Ezk8:14)wasaBabyloniangodwhoseworshipspreadintoPhnicia.ThenameappearstobeSumerian,Dumuzi,Tamuzu,andmaymeansonof
life.HewasaformoftheSungodandbridegroomofIshtar.Hewascelebratedasashepherd,cutoffinearlylifeorslainbytheboar(winter).Ishtardescendedto
Hadestobringhimbacktolife.HewasmournedonthesecondofthemonthTammuz(June).HisCanaanitenameAdonaigaverisetotheGreekAdonis,andhe
waslateridentifiedwiththeEgyptianOsiris.InAm8:10andZec12:10themourningfortheonlysonmaybeareferencetothisannualmourning,andthewords
oftherefrain,Ahme,ahmel(Jer22:18)mayberecalled.
C.H.W.JOHNS.
TANHUMETH.Thefather(?)ofSeraiah,oneoftheHeb.captainswhojoinedGedaliahatMizpah(2K25:23,Jer40:8).
TANIS(Jth1:10).SeeZOAN.
TANNER.SeeARTSANDCRAFTS,5.
TAPHATH.DaughterofSolomonandwifeofBenabinadab(1K4:11).
TAPPUAH.1.AsonofHebron(1Ch2:43).ProbablythenameisthatofatownintheShephlah(Jos15:34.ItwasprobablytotheN.ofWdyesSunt,but
thesitehasnotbeenrecovered.2.SeeENTAPPUAH.3.OneofthetownsW.ofJordanwhosekingsJoshuasmote(Jos12:17).ItwasperhapsthesameplaceasNo.
2abovebutthisisbynomeanscertain.SeealsoTIPHSAHandTEPHON.
TARALAH.AnunknowntownofBenjamin(Jos18:27).
TAREA.SeeTAHREA.
TARES(Gr.zizania,Arab.zuwn)arecertainkindsofdarnelgrowingplentifullyincornfields.Thebeardeddarnel(Loliumtemulentum)mostresembleswheat.
Theseeds,thoughoftenpoisonoustohumanbeingsonaccountofparasiticgrowthsinthem,aresoldaschickensfood.Whenharvestapproachesandthetarescan
bedistinguished,theyarecarefullyweededoutbyhandbywomenandchildren(cf.Mt13:2430).
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
TARGET.SeeA
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TARGET.SeeARMOURARMS,2.
TARGUMS.Originallythewordtargummeanttranslationinreferencetoanylanguagebutitacquiredarestrictedmeaning,andcametobeusedonlyof
translationfromHebrewintoAramaic.AsearlyasthetimeofEzrawefindtheverbusedinreferencetoadocumentwritteninAramaic(Ezr4:7),thoughinthis
passagetheadditioninAramaicismade,showingthattherestrictedmeaninghadnotyetcomeintovogue.AsearlyasthetimeoftheSecondTemplethe
languageoftheHolyScriptures,Hebrew,wasnotunderstoodbythebulkoftheJewishpeople,forithadbeensupplantedbyAramaic.When,therefore,the
Scriptureswerereadinsynagogues,itbecamenecessarytotranslatethem,inorderthattheymightbeunderstoodbythecongregation.Theofficialtranslatorwho
performedthisdutywascalledthemethurgemanortargeman,whichisequivalenttothemoderndragoman(interpreter).Thewayinwhichitwasdonewasas
follows:InthecaseofthePentateuch(theLaw)aversewasreadinHebrew,andthentranslatedintoAramaic,andsoontotheendoftheappointedportionbut
inthecaseofthepropheticalwritingsthreeverseswerereadandthentranslated.Whetherthissystemwasthecustomoriginallymaybedoubteditwasprobably
doneinalessformalwayatfirst.Bydegreesthetranslationbecamestereotyped,andwasultimatelyreducedtowritingandthustheTargums,theAramaic
translationsoftheHebrewBible,cameintoexistence.ThevariousTargumswhicharestillextantwillbeenumeratedbelow.Asliteraryproductstheyareoflate
date,buttheyoccupyahighlyimportantplaceinpostBiblicalJewishreligiousliterature,becausetheyembodythetraditionalexegesisoftheScriptures.Theyhave
formanycenturiesceasedtobeusedinthesynagoguefromthe9thcent.onwardstheirusehasbeendiscontinued.Itis,however,interestingtonoteanexception
inthecaseofSouthernArabia,wherethecustomstillsurvivesandinBokharathePersianJewsreadtheTargum,withthePersianparaphraseofit,tothelesson
fromtheProphetsforthelastdayofthePassoverFeast,namely,Is10:3212.ThereareTargumstoallthebooksoftheBible,withtheexceptionofDaniel,Ezra,
andNehemiahasthesearetoalargeextentwritteninAramaic,onecanunderstandwhyTargumstothesebooksshouldbewanting.MostoftheTargumsare
mainlyparaphrasestheonlyonewhichisintheformofatranslationinthemodernsenseofthewordistheTargumofOnkelostothe,
Pentateuchthisis,onthewhole,afairlyliteraltranslation.IsolatedpassagesintheBiblewhicharewritteninAramaic,asinGenesisandJeremiah,arealsocalled
Targums.ThefollowingisalistoftheTargumswhichareinexistence:
1. TargumofOnkelostothePentateuch,calledalsoTargumBabli,i.e.theBabylonianTargum.
2. ThePalestinianTargumtothePentateuch,calledalsoTargumJerushalmi,i.e.theJerusalemTargum.
3. TheFragmentTargumtothePentateuch.
4. TheTargumofJonathantothepropheticalbooks(theseincludewhatwecallthehistoricalbooks).
5. TheTargumJerushalmitothepropheticalbooks.
6. TheTargumtothePsalms.
7. TheTargumtoJob.
8. TheTargumtoProverbs.
913.TheTargumstotheFiveMegilloth(Rolls),namely:SongofSongs,Ruth,Lamentations,Ecclesiastes,EsthertheBookofEstherhasthreeTargumstoit.
14.TheTargumtoChronicles.
Forprintededitionsofthese,referencemaybemadetothebibliographiesgiveninSchrer,HJP I.i.
pp.160163,andintheJExii.63.
TocomenowtoabriefdescriptionoftheseTargums:
TheTargumofOnkelosistheoldestofalltheTargumsthathavecomedowntousitisforthemostpartaliteraltranslationofthePentateuch,onlyhereand
thereassumingtheformofaparaphrase.ThenameofthisTargumowesitsorigintoapassageintheBabylonianTalmud(Megillah,3a),inwhichitissaid:The
TargumtothePentateuchwascomposedbytheproselyteOnkelosatthedictationofRabbiEliezerandRabbiJoshuaandintheJerusalemTalmud(Megillah,71c)
itissaid:AquilatheproselytetranslatedthePentateuchinthepresenceofRabbiEliezerandRabbiJoshua.ThatAquilaisthesameasOnkeloscanscarcelyadmit
ofdoubt.InthetractateAbodahzara,11a,wearetoldthatthisOnkeloswasthepupilofRabbiGamalieltheElder,wholivedinthesecondhalfofthe1stcent.A.D.
SeeingthatthisTargumrestsontradition,itwillbeclearthatwehaveinitanancientwitnesstoJewishexegesisindeed,itistheearliestexampleofMidrashic
traditionthatwepossessandnotonlyso,butasthisTargumismainlyatranslation,itisamostimportantauthorityforthepreMassoretictextofthePentateuch.
ThisshowsofwhathighvaluetheTargumofOnkelosis,andthatitisnotwithoutreasonthatithasalwaysbeenregardedwithgreatveneration.Itischaracteristic
oftheTargumofOnkelosthat,unliketheotherTargums,theMidrashicelementisgreatlysubordinatedtosimpletranslationwhenitdoesappearitismainlyin
poeticpassages,thoughnotexclusively(cf.Gn49,Nu24,Dt32,33,whicharepropheticincharacter.Theideaapparentlywasthatgreaterlicencewaspermittedin
dealingwithpassagesofthiskindthanwiththoseinwhichthelegalelementpredominated.AswiththeTargumsgenerally,sowiththatofOnkelos,thereisa
markedtendencytoavoidanthropomorphismsandexpressionswhichmightappearderogatorytothedignityofGodthismaybeseen,forexample,inGn11:4, 13/97
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markedtendencytoavoidanthropomorphismsandexpressionswhichmightappearderogatorytothedignityofGodthismaybeseen,forexample,inGn11:4,
wherethewordsTheLordcamedown,whichseemedanthropomorphic,arerenderedinthisTargum,theLordrevealedHimself.Thenagain,thetranscendent
characteroftheAlmightyisemphasizedbysubstitutingfortheDivinePersonintermediateagenciesliketheMemra,orWordofGod,theShekinah,orGloryof
God,towhichamoreorlessdistinctpersonalityisimputedinthiswayitwassoughttoavoidascribingtoGodHimselfactionsorwordswhichweredeemed
unfittingtotheinexpressiblemajestyandtranscendenceoftheAlmighty.Agoodexampleofthis,andonewhichwillalsoillustratethegeneralcharacterofthis
Targum,isthefollowingitistherenderingofGn3:8ff.AndtheyheardthevoiceoftheWord(Memra)oftheLordGodwalkinginthegardenintheeveningof
thedayandAdamandhiswifehidthemselvesfrombeforetheLordGodamongthetreesofthegarden.AndtheLordGodcalledtoAdamandsaid:Whereart
thou?Andhesaid:ThevoiceofThyWord(Memra)Iheardinthegarden,andIwasafraid,becauseIwasnaked,andIwouldhide.
TheotherTargumtothePentateuch,theTargumJerushalmi,hascomedowntousintwoforms:oneinacompleteform,theotheronlyinfragments,hencethe
nameofthelatterwhichisgenerallyused,theFragmentTargum.Thefragmentshavebeengatheredfromavarietyofsources,frommanuscriptsandfrom
quotationsfoundinthewritingsofancientauthors.ButowingtoitsfragmentarycharacterthisTargumisofmuchlessvaluethantheTargum
Jerushalmi.ThislatterissometimeserroneouslycalledtheTargumofJonathanbenUzzielonthePentateuchbutthoughthisJonathanwasbelievedtobethe
authoroftheTargumtotheProphetswhichbearshisname(seebelow),therewasnottheslightestgroundforascribingtohimtheauthorshipoftheTargumtothe
Pentateuch(TargumJerushalmi).Themistakearoseinaninterestingway.InitsabbreviatedformthisTargumwasreferredtoasTargumJthisJ,whichof
coursestoodforJerushalmi,wastakentorefertoJonathan,thegenerally
acknowledgedauthoroftheTargumtotheProphetsthusitcameaboutthatthisTargumtothePentateuch,aswellastheTargumtotheProphets,wascalledthe
TargumofJonathan.SotenaciouslyhasthewrongnameclungtothisTargum,thatakindofcompromiseismadeastoitstitle,anditisnowusuallyknownasthe
TargumofpseudoJonatban.InoneimportantrespectthisTargumisquitesimilartothatofOnkelos,namely,initsavoidanceofanthropomorphisms,andinits
desirenottobringGodintotooclosecontactwithmanforexample,inEx34:6wehavethesewords:AndtheLorddescendedinacloud,andstoodwithhim
there,andproclaimedthenameoftheLord.ButthisTargumparaphrasestheverseinaroundaboutway,andsaysthatJehovahrevealedHimselfinthecloudsof
thegloryofHisShekinah,thusavoidingwhatintheoriginaltextappearedtodetractfromthedignityoftheAlmighty.Thiskindofthingoccurswithgreat
frequency,anditisbothinterestingandimportant,asshowingtheevolutionoftheideaofGodamongtheJews(seeOesterleyandBox,TheReligionandWorship
oftheSynagogue,ch.viii.[1907]).ButinotherrespectstheTargumJerushalmi(orTargumofpseudoJonathan)differsfromthatofOnkelos,especiallyinits
beingfarlessatranslationthanafreeparaphrase.ThefollowingextractwillgiveagoodideaofthecharacterofthisTargumItistheparaphraseofGn18:1ff.And
thegloryoftheLordwasrevealedtohiminthevalleyofMamreandhe,beingillfromthepainofcircumcision,satatthedoorofthetabernacleinthebeatofthe
day.Andhelifteduphiseyesandlooked,andbehold,threeangelsintheresemblanceofmenwerestandingbeforehimangelswhohadbeensentfromthe
necessityofthreethingsbecauseitisnotpossibleforaministeringangeltobesentformorethanonepurposeatatimeone,then,hadcometomakeknownto
himthatSarahshouldbearamanchildonehadcometodeliverLotandonetooverthrowSodomandGomorrah.Andwhenhesawthem,herantomeetthem
fromthedoorofthetent,andbowedhimselftotheearth.
TheTargumofJonathantotheProphetsowesitsnametoanancienttradition,accordingtowhichJonathanbenUzzielcomposeditfromthemouthsofHaggai,
Zechariah,andMalachi(Megillah,3a)thisismerelyafigurativewayofsayingthatthetraditionalinterpretation,assupposedtohavebeenhandeddownbythese
prophets,wasembodiedinwrittenformbyJonathan.ThelatterwasapupilofHillel,andwroteaTargum(accordingtothepassagejustreferredto)forthepurpose
ofremovingallimpedimentstotheunderstandingoftheScriptures(JEviii.238).ItissaidofthisJonathanthatwhenhesatdownandoccupiedhimselfwiththe
studyoftheLaw,everybirdthathappenedtoflyoverhisheadwasburnedthereasonofthiswasthatsomanyangelsgatheredaroundhiminordertohearthe
wordsoftheLawfromhismouth(Succah,28a[Weber,Jud.Theol.2,p.xviii.]).ThatJonathanhadtheTargumofOnkelosbeforehimwhenhewroteisprovedby
thefactthatwholepassagesfromOnkelosareincorporatedverbatiminhisTargum.AsapupilofHillel,Jonathanlivedduringthemiddleandendofthe1stcent.
A.D.,sothatthedateofhisTargummaysafelybestatedtobetheendofthefirstcentury.AninterestingexampleofthisTargumisthefollowingparaphraseofIs
52:1315:Behold,myservanttheMessiahshallprosper,heshallbeexaltedandextolled,andheshallbeverystrong.LikeasthehouseofIsraelanxiouslyhoped
forhimmanydays,(thehouseofIsrael)whichwaspooramongthenations,theirappearanceandtheirbrightnessbeingworsethanthatofthesonsofmen,thus
shallhescattermanynationsbeforehimkingsshallkeepsilencetheyshallputtheirhandsupontheirmouths,forthatwhichhadnotbeentoldthemshalltheysee,
andthatwhichtheyhadnotheardtheyshallconsider.Inthewholeofthefollowingchapter53itiscurioustonoticethatthepassageswhichrefertothe
humiliationoftheServantareinterpretedofthepeopleofIsrael,whilethosewhichspeakofthegloryoftheServantarereferredtotheMessiah(Oesterleyand
Box,op.cit.p.49).
Ofmuchlaterdate,andalsooflessimportancethantheTargumsofOnkelos,pseudoJonathan,orJonathan,istheTargumJerushalmitotheProphets.According
toJExii.61,MostofthequotationsgivenintheTargumJerushalmiareHaggadicadditions,frequentlytraceabletotheBabylonianTalmud,sothatthisPalestinian
TargumtotheProphetsbelongstoalaterperiod,whentheBabylonianTalmudhadbeguntoexertaninfluenceuponPalestinianliterature.Therearenotmany
remainsextantofthisTargummostoftheextractsinexistencearecitationsinthewritingsofRashiandDavidKimchithelargestnumberofextractsfoundtogether
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remainsextantofthisTargummostoftheextractsinexistencearecitationsinthewritingsofRashiandDavidKimchithelargestnumberofextractsfoundtogether
arethoseintheeleventhcenturyCodexReuchlinianus,editedbyLagarde,ProphetChaldaice.
OftheremainingTargumsnotmuchneedbesaidthosetothePsalms,Proverbs,andJobshowacloserelationshipandareusuallyassignedtothesameauthor
theybelongtothelatterhalfoftheseventhcentury.Theyaretoalargeextenttranslations,thoughaconsiderableHaggadicelementistobefoundinthem,
especiallyintheTargumtoJob.TheTargumstothefiveMegillolharelikewisepostTalmudicinallfivetranslationplaysasubordinatepart,theprevailingelement
beingMidrashicthisreachesitsheightintheSongofSongs.OfthethreeTargumstoEsther,thesecond,knownasTargumSheni,hasalwaysbeenextremely
popular.ThelatestofalltheTargumsisthattoChroniclesitisstronglyHaggadic,andisofbutlittleimportance.
TheTargumsareimportantnotonlyforthelighttheythrowonJewishtheology,butalso,especially,asathesaurusofancientJewishexegesisinthiswaythey
oftenthrowmuchinterestinglightontheuseoftheOTbytheNTwritersinparticular,itcanbeshownthattheNToftenagreeswiththeancientSynagoguein
interpretingcertainpassagesMessianicallywhichlaterwereexpoundeddifferentlyinorthodoxJewishcircles(OesterleyandBox,op.cit.p.50).
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
TARPELITES.OneofthepeoplessettledinthecitiesofSamaria(Ezr4:9)textdoubtful.
TARSHISH.1.Seefollowingarticle.2.ABenjamitefamily(1Ch7:10).3.Oneofthesevenprinceswhohadtherightofaccesstotheroyalpresence
(Est1:14).4.Thenameofapreciousstone(Ex28:20,39:13,Ezk1:10,10:9,28:16,Ca5:14,Dn10:6).SeeJEWELSANDP RECIOUSS TONES.
TARSHISHisfrequentlymentionedintheOT,butitspositionisneverdefinitelyindicated.FromJon1:3,4:2wemayinferthatitwasfarfromPalestine,
probablyintheextremewestoftheMediterranean.IfShebaandDedanstandforthecommerceoftheEast,TarshishmaystandforthatoftheWest(Ezk38:13).
TheGreekswereintouchwithTartessusinthe7thand6thcents.B.C.(Herod.i.163,iv.152).TheinclusionofTarshishamongthesonsofJavan(Gn10:4,1Ch
1:7)mayrefertothis.TheOnomasticonspeaksofTharseishBaitik.Bochart
(Phaleg,iii.7)identifiesthiswiththeAndalusianplaininS.W.Spain,wateredbytheBaetis(mod.Guadalquivir).TheGreeknameTartssosmaypossiblycome
throughanAram,form
Tartsh,fromthePhn.Tarshsh.Itmayhavedenotedacity(Straho,iii.147ff.).ThenameTarsionoccursinacommercialtreaty(Polyb.iii.24)referringtoacity
oftheCarthaginiansinSpain.
MaxMller(HastingsDB,s.v.)favoursasuggestionofCheyne,thatTarshishmaybeidenticalwithTiras(Gn10:2).VocalizingTurshushwithJosephus(Ant.
I.vi.1heidentifieswithCilicianTarsus,whichtothepresentwriterappearsimpossible),wegettheTyrsenians,Tyrrenians,orEtruscansintrepid,piratical
people,calledTurshabytheancientEgyptians.
IneithercaseTarshishwouldbefitlynamedwiththeisles,atermcoveringnotonlyislandsinoursense,butalsolandborderingonthesea(Ps72:10,Is60:9,
66:19).ThewealthofTarshishconsistedofsilver,iron,tin,andlead(Jer10:9,Ezk27:12).
ShipsofTarshishdidnotnecessarilybelongtoortradewithTarshish.ThenameisusedoftheshipsofJehoshaphatandAbaziah,whichsailedforOphirfrom
Eziongeber(1K22:48,2Ch20:36).TheChroniclersexplanatoryphrase(v.37)iserroneous.Thecargobroughtby
SolomonsnavyofTarshishshowsthatitsvoyagesmusthavebeeneastward,notwestward(1K10:22,2Ch9:21).Thenameprobablydenotedspeciallylarge
merchantvessels,designedfordistantvoyages(Ps48:7,Is2:16,23:1,Ezk27:25).
W.EWING.
TARSUS,thecapitaloftheRomanprovinceofCilicia(Ac22:6)intheS.E.ofAsiaMinor,andthebirthplaceofSt.Paul,isaplaceaboutwhichmuchmore
mightbeknownthanisknownifonlythenecessarymoneywereforthcomingtoexcavatetheancientcityinthewaythatPompeii,Olympia,Pergamum,andother
citieshavebeenexcavated.ItwouldbeimpossibletoexaggeratethevaluewhichwouldaccruetothestudyofSt.PaulslifeandwritingsandofChristianorigins,if
suchaworkweresatisfactorilycarriedout.ItmaybecommendedtothewholeChristianChurchasapressingdutyoftheutmostimportance.Tarsus,asacitywhose
institutionscombinedOrientalandWesterncharacteristics,wassignallyfittedtobethebirthplaceandtraininggroundofhimwhowastomakeknowntotheGentile
worldtheripestdevelopmentofHebrewreligion.
Tarsus(modernTersous)issituatedintheplainofCilicia,about70to80feetabovesealevel,andabout10milesfromtheS.coast.Thelevelplainstretchesto
thenorthofitforabout2miles,andthenbeginstorisegraduallytillitmergesintheloftyTaurusrange,about30milesnorth.Theclimateofthelowlyingcitymust
alwayshavebeenoppressiveandunfavourabletoenergeticaction,buttheundulatingcountrytothenorthwasutilizedtocounteractitseffects.About9to12miles
northofthecitypropeltherewasasecondTarsus,withintheterritoryofthemainTarsus,intheoryasummerresidencemerely,butinrealityafortifiedtownof 15/97
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northofthecitypropeltherewasasecondTarsus,withintheterritoryofthemainTarsus,intheoryasummerresidencemerely,butinrealityafortifiedtownof
importance,permanentlyinhabited.Itwastoperiodicalresidenceinthissecondcityamongthehillsthatthepopulationowedtheirvigour.InRomantimesthe
combinedcitiesofTarsuscontainedalargepopulation,probablynotmuchlessthanamillion.
ThehistoryoftheMaritimePlainofCillciawasdeterminedbythemutualrivalriesofthethreecities,MallusonthePyramus,AdanaontheSarus,andTarsuson
theCydnus.Theplainismainlyadepositofthesecondofthoserivers,andcontainsabout800squaremilesofarableland,withastripofuselesslandalongthe
coastvaryingfrom2to3milesinbreadth.ThesiteofMallusisnowunknown,asithasceasedtohaveanyimportancebuttheothertwocitiesretaintheirnames
andsomeoftheirimportancetothepresentday.InancienttimesMalluswasaseriousrivalofTarsus,andwasatfirstthegreatharbourandtheprincipalGreek
colonyinCilicia.ThestruggleforsuperioritylastedtillafterthetimeofChrist,butthesupremacywaseventuallyresignedtoTarsus.TheriverCydnusflowed
throughthemiddleofthecity.Thisriver,ofwhichtheinhabitantswereveryproud,wasliabletoriseveryconsiderablywhentherehadbeenheavyrainsinthe
mountains,butinundationinthecitywasinthebestperiodverycarefullyguardedagainst.BetweenA.D.527and563anewchannelwascuttorelievethe
principalbed,whichhadforsometimepreviouslybeeninsufficientlydredged,anditisinthisnewchannelthattheCydnusnowflows,theoriginalchannelhaving
becomecompletelychoked.AboutfiveorsixmilesbelowthemoderntowntheCydnusflowedintoalakethislakewastheancientharbourofTarsus,wherewere
thedocksandarsenal.Attheharbourtown,whichwascalledAulai,allthelargershipsdischarged,andinancienttimesbuildingswerecontinuousbetweenthe
northofthislakeandthecityofTarsus.Muchengineeringskillmusthavebeenemployedinancienttimestomakeaharbouroutofwhathadbeenalagoon,andto
improvethechanneloftheriver.Agreatdealwasdonetoconquernatureforthecommonbenefit,anditwasnotonlyinthisdirectionthattheinhabitantsshowed
theirperseverance.Thiscityalsocutoneofthegreatestpassesofancienttimes,theCilicianGates.CiliciaisdividedfromCappadociaandLycaoniabytheTaurus
rangeofmountains,whichispiercedfromN.W.toS.E.byaglenalongwhichflowstheTcbakutSu.Thisglenoffersanaturalroadformuchofitscourse,butthere
areseriousdifficultiestoovercomeinitssouthernpart.TheTarsiansbuiltawaggonroadoverthehillsthere,andcutwiththechiselalevelpathoutofthesolidrock
onthewesternbankofthestream.TheprobabledateofthisengineeringfeatwassometimebetweenB.C.1000and500.
Itispossible(butseeTARSHISH)thatTarsusismeantbytheTarshishofGn10:4,andthatitisthereindicatedc.B.C.2000asaplacewhereGreekssettled.The
differenceintheformofthenameneedcausenodifficultyinacceptingthisidentification.ThenameisoriginallyAnatolian,andwouldquiteeasilybetransliterated
differentlyinGreekandHebrew.AlltheevidenceisinharmonywiththeviewthatatanearlydateGreekssettledthereamonganoriginallyOrientalcommunity.
Shalmaneser,kingofAssyria,capturedTarsusaboutthemiddleofthe9thcent.B.C.afterwardskingsruledoverCilicia,withthePersiankingsasoverlords.InB.C.
401therewasstillaking,butnotinB.C.334,whenAlexandertheGreatenteredthecountry.HefoundaPersianofficerdirectlygoverningthecountry.Ofthe
characterofthekingdomweknownothing.ThusforaboutfivecenturiesTarsuswasreallyanOrientalcity.GreekinfluencebeganagainwithAlexandertheGreat,
butmadeveryslowprogress.DuringthefourthcenturyTarsuswassubjecttotheGreekkingsofSyriaoftheSeleuciddynasty.Itcontinuedduringthethirdcentury
inabjectsubmissiontothem.ThepeaceofB.C.189changedthepositionofCilicia.PrevioustothatdateithadbeeninthemiddleoftheSeleucidterritory.Nowit
becameafrontiercountry.
AboutB.C.175164TarsuswasreorganizedbyAntiochusIVEpiphanesasanautonomouscityunderthenameAntiochontheCydnus(cf.2Mac4:30f.,36).Itis
extremelyprobablethattheexactdateofthisrefoundationwasB.C.171170thenewnamelastedonlyafewyears.NotonlyTarsus,butanumberofother
Ciliciancitiesalsowerereorganizedatthistime,butTarsusreceivedthemosthonourabletreatment.
ThepopulationofthisreconstitutedTarsus,inadditiontowhatremainedoftheearlierpopulation,consistedofDorianGreeksfromArgos.ThattheGreek
elementinthepopulationwasmainlyDorianisprovedbythefactthatthechiefmagistratesboretheDoriantitledamiourgos.Amythologywasinventedtoprove
thatthisDorianelementwasmuchearlier.Itisalmostcertainthat,inaccordancewiththeregularSeleucidpractice,alargebodyofJewsalsowasaddedtothe
populationbyAntiochus.Thesewouldbeincorporatedascitizensinanewtribebythemselves,toenablethemtopractisetheirownreligionunhindered.Theremay
havebeensomeJewsresidentinTarsusasstrangers,butthemajoritymusthavebeencitizenswithfullburghersrights.St.Paul,andprobablythekinsmenofRo
16:7,11,21,werecitizensofTarsusenrolledintheJewishtribe.ThelaterhostilityofAntiochustotheultraJewishpartyinPalestinecannotbeallegedasan
adequatereasonagainsttheviewthatheconstituted,inB.C.171170,alargebodyofJewscitizensofTarsusinatribebythemselves.Atthatearlierdatehe
regardedhimselfasthebestfriendoftheJews,andwassoregardedbythemoreeducatedamongthemselves.AstheSeleucidempiredecayed,theGreekelement
inTarsusbecameweaker,andtheAsiaticspiritrevived.AboutB.C.83itsinfluencesweptoverCiliciawiththearmiesofTigranes,kingofArmenia,underwhose
powerTarsusfell.ForabouttwentyyearsitcontinuedunderOrientaldomination,tillthereorganizationoftheEastbyPompeytheGreatinB.C.654.TheRoman
provinceCiliciahadbeeninstitutedaboutB.C.104or102,butTarsuswasnotthenincludedinit.ItwasestablishedmainlytocontrolpiracyintheLevant,and
includedthesouthandeastofAsiaMinor,butwasnotsharplydefinedinextent.InB.C.25theprovinceGALATIA(wh.see)wasestablishedbyAugustus,and
CiliciainthenarrowsensebecameamereadjunctofSyria.TarsuswasthecapitalevenofthelargeprovinceCilicia,andremainedthatofthesmallerunderthe
Empire,whichbroughtmanyblessingstotheprovincesandtheircities.ExperienceofthebarbarianTigranescausedarevulsioninfavourofHellenism,andthe
TarsianswereenthusiasticfortheEmpire,whichcarriedontheworkofHellenism.Cassiusforcedthem,inB.C.43,totakehisandBrutussideagainstOctavian
andAntony,buttheyreturnedtotheirformerloyaltyontheearliestopportunity.Tarsuswasmadeafreecity(thatis,itwasgovernedbyitsownlaws)byAntony, 16/97
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andAntony,buttheyreturnedtotheirformerloyaltyontheearliestopportunity.Tarsuswasmadeafreecity(thatis,itwasgovernedbyitsownlaws)byAntony,
whometCleopatrahere.ThisprivilegewasconfirmedbyOctavianinorafterB.C.31.ItislikelythatPompey,JuliusCsar,Antony,andAugustusallconferred
RomancitizenshiponsomeTarsians,andthesewouldtakenewnamesfromtheirbenefactors:GnusPompeiusfromPompey,GaiusIuliusfromJuliusCsaror
Augustus,MarcusAntoniusfromAntony.TheRomanadministrationprobablytrustedmoretotheJewishthantotheGreekelement.Thelatterwascapricious,and
wasrestrainedbytheStoicAthenodorus,aTarsian,whohadtheinfluenceofAugustusbehindhim.TheOrientalelementseemstohavethusbecomemore
assertive,andaboutA.D.100itwaspredominant.ThisAthenodoruslivedfromaboutB.C.74tillA.D.7.HewasaStoicphilosopher,distinguishedforhislectures
andwritings.HegainedagreatandnobleinfluenceoverAugustus,whowashispupil,andheremainedinRomefromB.C.45tillB.C.15ashisadviserinthelatter
yearheretiredtoTarsus.Thereheattemptedbypersuasiontoreformlocalpoliticsbut,beingunsuccessful,heusedtheauthoritygrantedhimbyAugustus,and
banishedthemorecorruptofthepoliticians.Apropertyqualificationwasnowrequiredforpossessionofthecitizenship.(AmongthesecitizenstheRomancitizens
formedanaristocracy.)AthenodoruswassucceededbyNestor,anAcademicphilosopher(stilllivingA.D.19).Thesemenhadinfluencealsointheuniversity,
whichwasmorecloselyconnectedwiththecitythaninmoderntimes.Anewlecturerhadtoberecognizedbysomecompetentbody.Therewasagreatenthusiasm
inTarsusandneighbourhoodforlearningandphilosophy,andinthisrespectthecitywasunequalledinGreece.ItwasherethatSt.Paullearnedsympathywith
athletics,andtoleranceforthegoodelementsinpaganreligion.TheprincipaldeityofTarsuscorrespondedtotheGreekZeus:heistheoldAnatoliandeity,giverof
cornandwine.TherewasalsoaworkingAnatoliandivinity,whowasidentifiedwithHeracles,subordinatetotheother.Theformerisrepresentedassittingona
chair,withlefthandrestingonasceptre,andtherightholdingcornorgrapes.Theotherstandsonalion,wearsbowcaseandsword,andholdsabranchorflower
inhisrighthand,abattleaxeinhisleft.Sometimesheisrepresentedwithinaportableshrine.
A.S OUTER.
TARTAK.AnidolintroducedbytheAvvitesintoSamariawhenSargonofAssyriatransportedthemthither(2K17:31).Thisdeityismentionedalongwith
anothercalledNibhaz,and,accordingtotheBabylonianTalmud,wasworshippedintheformofanass.InAssyroBabylonianmythologynosuchdeityisatpresent
provablemoreover,thegeographicalpositionoftheAvvitesisuncertain,andtheircitymayhavebeeninoneofthewesternStatesofAsia.
TheGreektextAreplacesTartakbyNaibas,butthismaybemerelyacorruptionofNibhaz.T.G.P INCHES.
TARTAN.ThetitlebornebytwoAssyr.officers,oneofwhomwassentbySargontoAshdod(Is20:1),whiletheother,withtheRabsarisandtheRab
shakeh,wassentbySennacheribtodemandfromHezekiahthesurrenderofJerusalem(2K18:17).ThewordisatranscriptioninHeb.oftheAssyr.tartnuor
turtnu,thetitlebornebythecommanderinchiefofthearmy.
L.W.KING.
TASSEL.SeeF RINGES.
TATTENAI.ThenameofthegovernorofCleSyriaandPhniciaunderDarius
Hystaspis(Ezr5:3,6,6:6,13).Heiscalledin1Es6:3,7,27(26)7:1Sisinnes,whichissimplyareproductioninGreekofaPersiannameThithinaia(orig.
Thathanaia?),withaspiratedt.
TAVERNERSBIBLE.SeeENGLISHVERSIONS,21.
TAVERNS,THREE(LatinTresTabern).Anameofuncertainorigin,whichmightbetranslatedthreeshopsorthreehuts.ItwasastationontheAppian
Road(builtB.C.321)whichwentfromRometotheS.alongthewestcoast.ThiswastheprincipalroadforalltravellerstoorfromtheS.andE.,exceptthosewho
embarkedatOstiaatthemouthoftheTiber.Thevillagewasabout33RomanmilesfromRome,andtothispointmanyChristianswalked,ordrove,tomeetSt.Paul
onhisarrivalinItalyfromtheE.(Ac28:15).
A.S OUTER.
TAW.ThetwentysecondletteroftheHeb.alphabet,andassuchemployedinthe119thPsalmtodesignatethe22ndpart,eachverseofwhichbeginswiththis
letter.
TAXES,TAXING,SeeKING,2(5),P UBLICAN,TRIBUTE,QUIRINIUScf.alsop.559b.
TEACHER,TEACHING,SeeE
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TEACHER,TEACHING,SeeEDUCATION.
TEBAH.AsonofNahor(Gn22:24).SeeTIBHATH.
TEBALIAH.AMeraritegatekeeper(1Ch26:11).
TEBETH,SeeTIME.
TEHAPHNEHES(Ezk30:18).SeeTAHPANIIES.
TEHINNAH.ThefatherofIrnahash(1Ch4:12).
TEILTREE.Is6:13,AVmistranslationofterebinth(wh.see,andcf.art.OAK(1)).
TEKEL.SeeMENEMENETEKELUPHARSIN.
TEKOA(2Ch11:6etc.)Tekoah,2S14:2,4,9[AV],1Mac9:33[RVAVThecoe]).Afortresscityontheedgeofthewildernesstowhichitgaveitsname
(2Ch20:20).FromherecamethewisewomansentbyJoabtopleadforAbsalom(2S14:2,4,8)Rehoboamfortifiedit
(2Ch11:6),andapparentlyitcontinuedtobeafortress(Jer6:1)AmoswasamongtheherdmenofTekoa(Am1:1).TekoaismentionedalsoinLXXinJos15:59,
andinthegenealogiesin1Ch4:58.ThesiteisnowKhurbetTeqa,anextendedbutshapelessmassofruinscrowningthesummitofahill(2790ft.abovesea
level),5milesS.ofBethlehem.Itisontheextremeedgeofthecultivatedlands.Bethlehem,theMt.ofOlives,andNebiSamwl(Mizpah)areallvisiblefromit.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
TELABIB(perh.hillofcorn).AplaceontheChebar(Ezk3:15)siteunknown.
TELAH.AnEphraimite(1Ch7:25).
TELAIM(thelambs).TheplaceatwhichSaulconcentratedhisforces,andnumberedhisfightingmenbeforehiscampaignagainsttheAmalekites(1S
15:4).TheLXXreadsGilgalforTelaim,andJosephus(Ant.VI.vii.2)alsomakesGilgaltheplaceofassembly.Amoresuitablelocalityfortheplaceofassembly
would,however,beintheNegeb,orSouthandherelayTelem(Jos15:24),withwhichTelaimisprobablyidentical.
TELASSAR(Asshurshillormound).ThiscityismentionedwithGozan,Haran,andRezeph,andisspokenofasaplaceinhabitedbythechildrenof
Eden(2K19:12,Is37:12).
TheAssyrianinscriptionsapparentlymentiontwoplacessocalled,onebeingTilashshuri,mentionedbyTiglathpileserIII.,whichhadarenownedtemplededicated
toMerodach,andisstatedtohavebeenaBabylonianfoundation.Theother,writtenTilashurri,isreferredtobyEsarhaddonashavingbeenconqueredbyhim(the
peopleofMihrnu,heseemstosay,calleditPitnu).ItwasinhabitedbythepeopleofBarnakuorParnakuanamewhichDelitzschpointsoutassimilartothe
ParnachofNu34:25.ThisTillashurriissupposedtohavelainnearthelandofMitanni(UpperMesopotamia),whichwouldfindsupportifMihrnubeconnected
withtheMehrumentionedbyTukultiNinib(Nirig)1.
T.G.P INCHES.
TELEM.1.Agatekeeperwhohadmarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:24)calledin1Es9:25TolbanesperhapsthesameasTalmonofNeh12:25.2.See
TELAIM.
TELHARSHA.ABabyloniantownofunknownsite(Ezr2:59,Neh7:61)calledin1Es5:36Thelersas.
TELL.SeeTALE.
TELMELAH(hillofsalt).ABabyloniantownofunknownsite(Ezr2:59,Neh7:61)calledin1Es5:36Thermeleth.
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TELMELAH(hillofsalt).ABabyloniantownofunknownsite(Ezr2:59,Neh7:61)calledin1Es5:36Thermeleth.
TEMA.InGn25:15(1Ch1:30),asonofIshmael.ThecountryandpeoplemeantarestillrepresentedbythesamenamethemodernTaima,alargeoasis
about200milesS.E.oftheheadoftheGulfofAkabah,andthesamedistancedueN.ofMedinainW.Arabia.Itwasanimportantcommunityinancienttimes,
mentionedinAssyr.annalsofthe8thcent.B.C.,andlaterinhabitedinpartbyAramans,whohaveleftinscriptions.Itwasnotedforitscaravantraffic(Job6:19,Is
21:14),asmightbeexpectedfromitspositiononthegreattraderoutes.
J.F.MCCURDY.
TEMAH.AfamilyofNethinim(Ezr2:53,Neh7:55)=1Es5:32Thomei.
TEMAN.Atribe(anddistrict)ofEdom,whoseimportanceisindicatedbyitseponymbeingtheeldestsonoftheeldestson(Eliphaz)ofEsau(Gn36:11,15
cf.v.42),andbyitsbeingtakenalongwithBozrah(wh.see)torepresentthewholelandofEdom(Am1:12cf.Ob9).Ezk25:13impliesthatEdomstretchesfrom
TemantoDedan,fromwhichweinferthattheformerlayinthenortheastoftheterritoryclaimedbyEdom,thatis,totheS.E.ofMoab.Itsinhabitantswere
renownedforwisdom(Jer49:7),andthechiefofJobscounsellorswasEliphaztheTemanite(Job2:11).
J.F.MCCURDY.
TEMENI.ThesonofAshhur(1Ch4:6).
TEMPERANCE.1.IntheRVtemperanceisthetr.oftheGr.wordenkrateia,therootmeaningofwhichispoweroveroneself,selfmastery.Itisa
comprehensivevirtue,andonthisaccountselfcontrol,thetr.ofRVm,istobepreferred(Ac24:25,Gal5:23,2P1:5).Thecorrespondingadjectiveisfoundonly
inTit1:8,andtheverbonlyin1Co7:9,9:25.Thenegativeformoftheadjectiveistranslatedwithoutselfcontrol(2Ti3:3),andofthenounexcess(Mt23:25),
andincontinency(1Co7:5).TheRVtr.anotherGr.word(nphalios)temperatein1Ti3:2,11,Tit2:2itsrootmeaningpointstotheavoidanceofintemperance
intheformofdrunkenness,butinactualusageitcondemnsallformsofselfindulgence.Thisextensionofitssignificancemustberememberedinexpoundingthe
passagesinwhichthecorrespondingverbisfound,fortheRValwaystr.it(nphein)tobesober(1Th5:6,8,2Ti4:5,1P1:18,4:7,5:8).
2.Fromthephilosophicalpointofview,selfcontrolismasteryoverthepassionsitisthevirtuewhichholdstheappetitesinchecktherationalwillhas
powertoregulateconductwithoutbeingundulyswayedbysensuousappetites.FromtheNTpointofviewthegraceofselfcontrolistheresultoftheHolySpirits
indwellingitistheSpiritcontrolledpersonalityalonethatisstrengthenedwithpower(Eph3:18,cf.5:18)tocontrolrebelliousdesiresandtoresisttheallurements
oftemptingpleasures.
3.TheNTpassagesinwhichreferenceismadetothisvirtueformaninstructivestudy.ToFelix,withanadulteressbyhisside,St.Pauldiscoursedofself
control,directinghissterncondemnationagainsttheviceofunchastity(cf.1Co7:5,9).Buttoeveryformofexcess(Mt23:25)itisdirectlyopposed.In1Ti3:3
notgivenovertowine(paroinos,AVbrawler,cf.RVm)balancestemperate(v.2,cf.v.8),andfromthischapteritisplainthattheApostleregardsviolent
quarrelling(v.3),falseandrecklessspeech(v.8),selfconceit(v.6),greedoffilthylucre(v.8),aswellasfondnessformuchwine(v.8),asmanifoldformsof
Intemperancebywhosemeansmenfallintoreproachandthesnareofthedevil(v.7).
4.Selfcontrol,initswidestsense,asincludingmasteryoveralltempers,appetites,andpassions,hasaprominentplaceintwoNTlistsoftheChristian
graces.In2P1:6,faithisregardedasthegermofeveryvirtueitlaysholdofthedivinepowerwhichmakespossiblethelifeofgodliness(v.3).Theevolutionof
faithinmanliness,knowledge,selfcontrolistherewardofitsdiligentculture(v.8).Thisselfcontrol,asPrincipalIverachsays,growsoutofknowledge,itis
usingChristianknowledgefortheguidanceoflife(TheOtherSideof
Greatness,p.110).InGal5:23,selfcontrolclosesthelistofthegraceswhichareallthefruitoftheSpirit,justasdrunkennessandrevellingsclosethelistof
theworksoftheflesh(v.21).ThefleshandtheSpirit!these,indeed,arecontrarytheonetotheother(v.17).ThefleshtriumphswhentheSpiritisquenched
buttheSpiritsvictoryisgained,notbysuppressing,butbycontrolling,theflesh.ThosewhoareledbytheSpirit(v.18),wholivebytheSpiritandbythe
Spiritalsowalk(v.25)attain,initsperfection,thegraceofcompleteselfcontrol.
J.G.TASKER.TEMPEST.SeeGALILEE[S EAOF],3WHIRLWIND.
TEMPLE.1.ThefirstTemplementionedinconnexionwiththeworshipofJisthatofShiloh(1S1:9),wherethearkofGodwas(3:3)intheperiodofthe
Judges,undertheguardianshipofEliandhissons.ItwasevidentlydestroyedbythePhilistinesaftertheirdecisivevictorywhichresultedinthecaptureoftheark,
asrecordedin4:10ff.forthedescendantsofEliarefound,agenerationafterwards,actingaspriestsofatempleatNob(21:1ff.,22:9ff.).Withthecaptureof
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asrecordedin4:10ff.forthedescendantsofEliarefound,agenerationafterwards,actingaspriestsofatempleatNob(21:1ff.,22:9ff.).Withthecaptureof
JerusalembyDavid,andthetransferencethitheroftheark,anewpoliticalandreligiouscentrewasprovidedforthetribesofIsrael.
2.S OLOMONSTEMPLE.Thesite.ThesuccessiveTemplesofSolomon,Zerubbabel,andHerodwerebuildingsofmoderatedimensions,andwerebuilt,by
everytoken,ononeandthesamesite.Now,thereisonlyoneplaceinJerusalemwherethissiteistobelookedfor,namely,onthatpartoftheeasternhillwhichis
nowoccupiedbythelargeplatform,extendingtosome35acres,knownastheHarameshShariforNobleSanctuary(seeJERUSALEM,andbelow,11).There
has,however,beenconsiderabledifferenceofopinioninthepastastotheprecisespotwithintheHaramareaonwhichtheholyhouseitselfwasreared.Thusa
fewBritishwriters,amongwhomFergussonthedistinguishedarchitect,andW.RobertsonSmith,inhisarticleTempleintheEBr9,arethemostinfluential,have
maintainedthattheTempleanditscourtsoccupiedanareaabout600ft.squareinthesouthwesternportionoftheHaram.Butthegreatmajorityofscholars,bothat
homeandabroad,areagreedinplacingtheTempleincloseconnexionwiththesacredrock(esSakhra)whichisnowenclosedinthemosquenamedafterit
theDomeoftheRock,also,lessappropriately,theMosqueofOmar.
TheremarkablepersistenceofsacredsitesintheEastisaphenomenonfamiliartoallstudentsofreligion,andtherecanbelittledoubtthattheChroniclerisright
inidentifyingthesiteofthealtarofburntofferingforIsrael(1Ch22:1)withthespotbythethreshingfloorofOman[in2S24:16Araunah]theJehusite,where
theangeloftheplaguestayedhishand,andonwhichDavidbyDivinecommanderectedhisaltarofcommemoration(see,further,6(b)).Thisbeingso,the
locationoftheTempleimmediatelytothewestoftherockfollowsasamatterofcourse.Theonlypossiblealternativeistoregardtherockasmarkingthesite,notof
thealtarofburntoffering,butoftheholyofholiesofthesuccessiveTemplesaviewbesetwithinsuperabledifficulties.
3.TheTemplebuildingItsarrangementanddimensions.TheTempleanditsfurniturearedescribedin1K6:138,7:1351twopassageswhichare,
unfortunately,amongthemostdifficultintheOT,byreasonoftheperplexingtechnicaltermsemployedandtheunsatisfactorynatureofthereceivedtext.
AllrecentstudyofthesepassagesincommentariesandelsewhereisbasedonStadesbrilliantessayinhisZATWiii.129ff.,withwhichcf.StadeandSchwallyseditionof
KingsinHauptsSBOT.Otheraids,inadditiontothestandardcommentaries,andworksonarchologybyNowack,Benzinger,etc.,areKittelsBibl.Hebraica,BurneysNotes
ontheHeb.TextoftheBooksofKings,andFatherVincentsexegeticalnotesinRB,Oct.1907.TothesemustnowbeaddedG.A.Smith,Jerusalem(1908),vol.ii.(withplans),
whichdealsfullywithalltheTemples(seeIndex,s.v.Temple).
TheTempleproperwasanoblongbuilding,60cubitsinlengthby20inbreadth(1K6:2),withaporchinfront,facingeastwards,ofthesamewidthasthe
mainbuildingand10cubitsindepth.These,however,areinsidemeasurements,asisevidentfromvv.20,24,27.Thecorrespondingoutsidemeasurementsdepend,
ofcourse,uponthethicknessofthewalls,whichisnowherestated.ButinasmuchasEzekiel,theTempleofwhosevisionisinallessentialpointsareplicaofthatof
Solomon,gives6cubitsasthethicknessofitswalls(Ezk41:5),exceptthewallsoftheporch,whichwere5cubitsthick(40:48),thoseofthefirstTempleare
usuallyassumedtohavebeenofthesamedimensions.Lesstheycouldscarcelyhavebeen,if,aswillpresentlyappear,rebatementsofthreecubitsinallhavetobe
allowedinthelowerhalf,sinceathicknessofthreecubitsintheupperhalfseemsnecessary,inviewofthethrustofaheavyroofof20cubitsspan.
Theinteriorwasdividedintotwochambersbyatransversepartition,impliedin6:31,butdisregardedintheinsidemeasurementsgiveninv.2.Theanterior
chamher,termedthehkl,andcorrespondingtotheholyplaceintheTabernacle,measured40cubitsby20,beingtwiceaslargeastheinnerchamber,thedbr
(EVoracle)ormostholyplace,whichwasonly20cubitsby20(v.20).Thelatterinfactformedaperfectcube,sinceitsheightwasalso20cubits,ascompared
withthatoftheholyplace,whichwas30cubits(6:2).Assumingthatthiswasalsotheheightoftheporch,thewholebuilding,wemayconjecture,wascoveredby
aflatroofofuniformheightthroughout,leavinganemptyspace10cubitsinheightovertheinnerchamber.
Onallsides,exceptthefrontwhichwasoccupiedbytheporch,theTempleproperwassurroundedbyalateralbuildingofthreestoreys,thewhole15cubits
high(sotheemendedtextofv.11),eachstoreycontaininganumberofsmallchambersforstoragepurposes.Thebeamsformingthefloorsandceilingsofthese
sidechamberswerenotletintotheTemplewall,butweresupportedbymakingthreesuccessiverebatementsofacubiteachinthewall(v.6).Thechambers
accordinglyincreasedacubitinwidthineachstorey,from5inthelowermoststoreyto6and7inthoseabove.Theentrancetothesidechamberswasonthesouth
sideofthebuilding.Thenatureandpositionofthewindowswhichweremadeforthehousearealikeuncertain.Openingsfittedwithlatticeworkareprobably
intended(v.4).Theirpositionwasmostlikelyinthesidewallsabovetheroofofthelateralbuilding.
ThequestionoftheareacoveredbythecompletebuildingnowdescribedhasusuallybeenansweredhithertobyareferencetoEzekielsTemple,whichwasexactly100cubitsby
50.ButacarefulcomparisonofthemeasurementsofthetwoTemplesmakesitextremelyprobablethatthenumbersjustgivenareduetoEzekielsfondnessforoperatingwith50
anditsmultiples.Thepresentwriterisconvincedthattheprophethasnotonlyincreasedthedepthoftheporchfrom10to12cubits(Ezk40:49LXX),buthaslikewiseaddedtothe
thicknessofthewallsofthesidechambersandoftheinteriorpartitionwall.Foriftheformeraretakenas3cubitsinthickness,ascomparedwithEzekiels5,i.e.ofthesame
dimensionsastheupperhalfoftheTemplewalls,andthepartitionas1cubitthickinplaceof2(Ezk41:3),wefindtheareaofthewholebuildingtobe96cubitsby48,thesame
relativeproportion(2:1),itwillbenoted,asisfoundinEzekiel.Similarly,theoutsidewidthofthenaosorsanctuaryproper(32cubits)stoodtothetotalwidthas2:3.
IntheexistinguncertaintyastothelengthofthecubitemployedbySolomonsarchitects,itisimpossibletotranslatethesedimensionsintofeetandincheswithmathematical 20/97
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IntheexistinguncertaintyastothelengthofthecubitemployedbySolomonsarchitects,itisimpossibletotranslatethesedimensionsintofeetandincheswithmathematical
exactness.Ifthelongcubitofc.201/2inchesemployedbyEzekiel(seeEzk40:5andcf.2Ch3:3)ispreferred,thetotalareacoveredwillbe164ft.by82ft.,whilethedimensions
oftheholyplacewillbeapproximately70by35by50ft.inheight,andthoseofthemostholyplace35by35by35ft.Aseriousobjectiontothisadoptionofthelongercubit,
whichwasnotforeseenwhentheart.WeightsandMeasuresinHastingsDBiv.(seep.907f.)waswritten,ispresentedbythedetailedmeasurementsoftheinteriorofHerods
TempleinJosephusandtheMishna(seebelow,12).ThesearenumericallythesameasthoseofthefirstTemple,butthecubitemployedinthe1stcentwastheshortcubitof17.6
inches,asthepresentwriterhasshownbyaninductivestudyoftheHerodianmasonry(ExpTxx.[1908],p.24ff.).Now,itiscertainthattheactualdimensionsofHerodsTemple
werenotlessthanthoseofSolomons,astheywouldbeifthecubitswereintheratioof6to7.Itismorethanprobable,therefore,thatthedimensionsabovegivenshouldbe
reducedbyonesixththeChroniclernotwithstandinginotherwords,140by70ft.willbetheapproximateareaofthebuilding,60by30ft.,and30by30ft.thatoftheholy
andmostholyplacerespectively.
4.TheinterioroftheTemple.TheentrancetotheTemplewasthroughtheopenporchorvestibuleontheeasternfront.Fortheenteringofthetemplewas
providedalargefoldingdoorofcypresswood(6:34),eachleafdividedverticallyintotwoleaves,oneofwhichfoldedbackupontheother.Accordingtov.35in
itspresentform,theleaveswereornamentedwithcarvedfiguresofcherubim,palms,andflowers,alloverlaidwithgold(butseebelow).Thestonefloorwas
coveredwithplanksofcypresswood.Thatthelattershouldhavebeenplatedwithgold(v.30)isscarcelycredible.Thewallsofbothchamberswerelinedwith
boards(literallyribs)ofcedarwood,fromthefloorofthehousetotheraftersoftheceiling(soreadv.15).Thereisnomentioninthisverse,itwillhenoted,of
anyornamentationofthecedarpanels,whichisfirstfoundinvv.18and29buttheformerverseisabsentfromLXX,andvv.2830arerecognizedbyallasa
lateraddition.Theceilings,asweshouldexpect,wereformedofbeamsofcedar(v.9,15).Overallwasprobablylaidanoutercoveringofmarbleslabs.
TheinnerchamberoftheTemplewasseparatedfromtheholyplace,ashasalreadybeenshown,byapartitionwall,presumablyofstone,whichwehave
assumedabovetohavebeenacubitinthickness.Initwassetadoorofolivewood,describedobscurelyinv.31,whichseemstosaythatitsshapewasnot
rectangularliketheentrancedoor(seetheComm.onvv.31,33),butpentagonalinotherwords,thelintelofthedoor,insteadofbeingasinglecrossbeam,
consistedoftwobeamsmeetingatanangle.Inthecentreofthechamber,facingtheentrance(2Ch3:13),stoodtwocherubimfiguresofolivewood,each10
cubitshigh,withoutstretchedwings.Thelattermeasured10cubitsfromtiptotip,sothatthetwosetsofwingsreachedfromthenorthtothesouthwallofthemost
holyplace(1K6:2328).Itisentirelyinaccordancewithancientpracticethatthesesymbolicfiguresshouldbeoverlaidwithgold(v.28).
Butwithregardtotheexcessiveintroductionofgoldplatingbythereceivedtextthroughout,includingeventheTemplefloor,aswehaveseen,thereismuchto
besaidinfavouroftheview,firstadvancedbyStade,thatitisduetoadesireonthepartoflaterscribestoenhancethemagnificenceofthefirstTemple.Inthe
originaltextthegoldplatingwasperhapsconfinedtothecherubim,ashasjustbeensuggested,ortotheseandthedoors,whichappeartohavehadagoldsheathing
inthetimeofHezekiah(2K18:16).
5.ThefurnitureoftheTemple.If1K7:4851issetasideasalateraddition(seetheComm.),theonlyarticleofTemplefurnitureisthealtarofcedar
introducedinthecompositetextofvv.2022.AstherearegoodgroundsforbelievingthataspecialaltarofincensewasfirstintroducedintothesecondTemple
(see9),theformerisnowidentifiedbymostwriterswiththetableofshewbread(seeS HEWBREADandTABERNACLE,6(a)).Itspositionisevidentlyintended
tobeintheouterchamberinfrontoftheentrancetotheinnershrine.Thesamepositionbeforetheoracle(dbr7:49)isassignedtothetencandlesticks,
properlylampstands
(TABERNACLE,6(b)),fiveprobablybeingmeanttostandoneithersideoftheentrance.Although,fromthedateofthepassagecited,wemayhesitatetoascribe
thesetoSolomon,theydoubtlessatalatertimeformedaconspicuouspartoftheTemplefurniture(cf.Jer52:19).
OnthecompletionoftheTemple,thesacredmemorialofearlierdays,thealreadyvenerablearkofJ,wasbroughtfromthetentinwhichDavidhadhousedit
andplacedwithinthemostholyplace,whereitstoodovershadowedbythewingsofthecherubim(1K8:5ff.).Anothersacredobjectoflikeantiquity,thebrazen
serpent(seeS ERPENT[BRAZEN]),foundaplacesomewherewithintheTemple.
6.ThecourtoftheTempleanditsfurniture(a)Thecourtandgates.TheTempleofSolomonformedpartofalargecomplexofbuildings,comprisingan
arsenal,ajudgmenthall,thepalacewithitsharem,andfinallytheroyalchapel,thewholesurroundedbythegreatcourtof1K7:9,12.Withinthisenclosure,atits
upperornorthernend,wastheinnercourtof6:36,7:12withinwhich,again,stoodtheTemple(8:34).Itisofimportancetonotethatthissinglecourtofthe
Templewasopentothelaityaswellastothepriests(8:62),asisspeciallyevidentfromJer35:1ff.,36:10etc.
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PLANOFROYALBUILDINGS
(afterStadeandBenzinger).
1.Thegreatcourt.2.Theotherormiddlecourt.3.Theinner(orTemple)court.4.HouseofLebanon.5.Porchofpillars.6.Throneporch.7.Royalpalace.8.22/97
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1.Thegreatcourt.2.Theotherormiddlecourt.3.Theinner(orTemple)court.4.HouseofLebanon.5.Porchofpillars.6.Throneporch.7.Royalpalace.8.
Harem.9.Temple.10.Altar.
Severalgatesofthiscourtarementionedbylaterwriters,buttheirprecisepositionisuncertain.Themainentrancewasdoubtlessintheeastwall,andmaybe
indicatedbythekingsentrywithoutof2K16:13,andthekingsgateeastwardof1Ch9:18.Thegateoftheguard(2K11:19),ontheotherhand,maybe
lookedforinthesouthwallseparatingtheTemplecourtfromtheothercourt(1K7:8)inwhichtheroyalpalacewassituated(cf.Ezk43:7f.).Therewerealsoone
ormoregatesonthenorthside(Ezk8:3,9:2,Jer20:2gateofBenjamin,etc.).Cf.art.JERUSALEM,II.4.
(b)Thealtarofburntoffering.Itissurprisingthatnoreferenceismadeintheearlynarrativeof1K7tothemakingofsoindispensableapartoftheapparatus
ofthecult.Intheopinionofmostcritics,thisomissionisduetotheexcisionfromtheoriginalnarrativeoftherelativesectionbyamuchlatereditor,whoassumed
that,thebrazenaltaroftheTabernacleaccompaniedthearktothenewsanctuary(butseeBurney,NotesonHeb.Text,etc.,102f.).TheChronicler,whether
informedbyhistextof1K.orotherwise,tellsusthatSolomonsaltarofburntoffering(1K9:25)wasofbrass(cf.thebrazenaltar8:64),20cubitsinlength
andbreadthand10inheight(2Ch4:1).ItspositionwasonthesiteoftheearlieraltarofDavid(2Ch3:1),which,itmaybeassertedwithconfidence,stood
somewhereonthesacredrockstilltobeseenwithintheMosqueofOmar(see2above).TheprecisepositionwhichthealtarsofthefirstandsecondTemples
occupiedonthesurfaceoftherock,whichmeasuresatleastsome50ft.by40ft.,mustremainamatterofconjecture.Herodsaltarwaslargeenoughalmostto
covertherock(11(c)).ThisquestionhasrecentlybeenmadethesubjectofanelaborateinvestigationbyKittelinhisStudienzurheb.Archologie(1908,185).
SolomonsaltarwassupersededinthereignofAhazbyalargeraltarofmoreartisticconstruction,whichthissovereigncausedtobemadeafterthemodelofone
seenbyhimatDamascus(2K16:1016).
(c)Thebrazensea.Inthecourt,tothesouthofthelinebetweenthealtarandtheTemple(1K7:39),stoodoneofthemoststrikingofthecreationsof
SolomonsPhnicianartist,HuramabiofTyre.Thiswasthebrazensea(7:2326,2Ch4:25),alargecircularbasinortankofbronze,10cubitsfrombrimto
brimand5indepth,withtheenormouscapacityof2000baths,ormorethan16,000gallons.Evenshouldthisproveanexaggeratedestimate,thebasinmusthave
bulgedveryconsiderablyinthemiddle,andthemedialdiametermusthavebeenatleasttwicethatofthemouth.Thebrimcurvedoutwardslikethecalyxofa
flower,andunderneathitthebodyoftheseawasdecoratedwithtworowsofgourdshapedornaments.Thebasinrestedonthebacksoftwelvebronzeoxen,
which,ingroupsofthree,facedthefourcardinalpoints.Notwithstanding2Ch4:6,writtencenturiesafterithaddisappeared(Jer52:17,20),recentwritersare
inclinedtogivethebrazenseaapurelysymbolicalsignification.Butwhetheritistobeinterpretedasasymboloftheprimevalabyss(Gn1:2)andofJspoweras
Creator,orinthetermsoftheBabylonianmythologyassymbolizingtheupperorheavenlysea,boundedbythezodiacwithitstwelvesigns(the12oxen),or
otherwise,mustbelefttothefuturetodecide(cf.G.A.Smith,Jerusalem,ii.65f.).
(d)Thebrazenlavcrs.Asimilarsymbolicalsignificanceisprobablytobeassignedtothetenlaversofbronze(1K7:2739).Theseweresmallereditionsof
thebrazensea,beingonlyfourcubitsindiameter,holdingonly40baths(c.325galls.),andrestingonwheeledcarriers,orbases.Thepeculiarlydifficult
descriptionofthelatterhasbeenthesubjectofspecialstudybyStade(ZATW,1901,145ff.,withwhichcf.HauptsSBOT),andmorerecentlybyKittel(op.cit.
189242).Itmustsufficeheretosaythateachcarrierwas4cubitsinlengthandbreadthand3cubitsinheight.Thesideswereopenframescomposedofuprights
ofbronzejoinedtogetherbytransversebarsorrailsofthesamematerial,thewholerichlyornamentedwithpalmtrees,lions,oxen,andcherubiminrelief.
Underneathwerefourwheelsofbronze,11/2cubitsindiameter,whileonthetopofeachstandwasfittedaringorcylinderonwhichthelaverdirectlyrested.
(e)ThepillarsJachinandBoaz.NowhereisthesymbolicalelementinthesecreationsofHuramabisartmoreapparentthaninthetwinpillarswiththe
mysteriousnamesJachinandBoaz,whichweresetuponeithersideoftheentrancetotheTempleporch.Theyhavebeendiscussedintheart.JACHINANDBOAZ
(wherechapiterisexplained)(seealsoKittelsart.
TempleinPRE3xix.[1907]493f.).
7.GeneralideaandplanofSolomonsTemple.ThebuildingoftheTempleoccupiedsevenyearsandsixmonths(1K6:37f.).Afterstandingforthree
centuriesandahalfitwasburnedtothegroundbythesoldiersofNebuchadnezzarinB.C.5876,havingfirstbeenstrippedofeverythingofvaluethatcouldbe
carriedaway.Beforepassingtoastudyofitssuccessor,itmaybewelltonotemorepreciselythepurposeforwhichitwaserected,andthegeneralideaunderlying
itsplan.Asexpresslyimpliedbythetermthehouse(bayith)appliedtoitbytheearlyhistorian,theTemplewasintendedtobe,beforeallelse,thedwellingplace
ofIsraelsGod,especiallyasrepresentedbythearkofJ(see,forthis,2S7:2,5ff.).Atthesametimeitwasalsotheroyalchapel,andadjoinedthepalaceof
Solomon,preciselyasthekingschapelatBethelwaspartoftheresidenceofthekingsofIsrael(Am7:13).ThereisnoreasonforsupposingthatSolomonhad
theleastintentionofsupplantingtheoldersanctuariesofthelandaresultfirstachievedbythereformationofJosiah(2K23).
Asregardstheplanofthenewsanctuaryasawhole,withitsthreefolddivisionofcourt,holyplace,andholyofholies(toadopt,asbefore,thelater
terminology),itsoriginistobesoughtintheideasoftemplearchitecturethencurrentnotonlyinPhnicia,thehomeofSolomonsarchitectsandcraftsmen,but
throughoutWesternAsia.Syria,aswenowknow,wasinfluencedinmattersofreligiousartnotonlybyBabyloniaandEgypt,butalsobythesocalledMycenan
civilizationoftheEasternMediterraneanbasin.Thewalledcourt,theporch,foreroom,andinnermostcellaareallcharacteristicfeaturesofearlySyriantemple 23/97
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throughoutWesternAsia.Syria,aswenowknow,wasinfluencedinmattersofreligiousartnotonlybyBabyloniaandEgypt,butalsobythesocalledMycenan
civilizationoftheEasternMediterraneanbasin.Thewalledcourt,theporch,foreroom,andinnermostcellaareallcharacteristicfeaturesofearlySyriantemple
architecture.WhetherornotthereliesbehindthesetheembodimentofideasfromthestillolderBabyloniancosmology,bywhichthethreefolddivisionofthe
sanctuaryreflectsthethreefolddivisionoftheheavenlyuniverse(soBenzinger,Heb.Arch.,2330,followingWincklerandA.Jeremias),mustbeleftanopen
question.Incertaindetailsofthefurniture,suchasthewheeledcarriersofthelaversandtheirornamentation,mayalsobetracedtheinfluenceoftheearlyartof
CreteandCyprusthroughthePhniciansasintermediaries.
8.THETEMPLEOFEZEKIELSVISION(Ezk4043).AlthoughtheTempleofEzekielremainedadream,awordmaybesaidinpassingregardingoneofitsmost
characteristicfeatures,onaccountofitsinfluenceontheplanoftheactualTemplesofthefuture.Thisistheemphasislaidthroughoutonthesacrosanctcharacter
ofthesanctuaryareflexionofthedeepeningoftheconceptionoftheDivineholinesswhichmarkedtheperiodoftheExile.Thewholesacredareacoveredbythe
Templeanditscourtsistobeprotectedfromcontactwithsecularbuildings.Onefarreachingresultofthisrigidseparationofsacredandsecularistheintroduction
ofasecondTemplecourt,towhichthepriestsalone,strictlyspeaking,areentitledtoaccess(Ezk40:28ff.).ForthedetailsofEzekielssketch,withitspassionfor
symmetryandnumber,seetheComm.andWittonDaviesart.TempleinHastingsDBiv.704ff.
9.THETEMPLEOFZERUBBABEL.ThesecondTemple,asitisfrequentlynamed,wasbuilt,attheinstigationoftheprophetsHaggaiandZechariah,underthe
leadershipofZerubbabel.Accordingtotheexplicittestimonyofacontemporary(Hag2:18),thefoundationwaslaidinthesecondyearofDariusHystaspis(B.C.
520)adatenowgenerallypreferredtothatofthemuchlaterauthorofEzr3:8ff.ThebuildingwasfinishedandtheTemplededicatedinB.C.516.Wehave
unfortunatelynodescriptionoftheplanandarrangementsofthelatter,andaredependentforinformationregardingitmainlyonscatteredreferencesinthelater
canonicalandextracanonicalbooks.Itmaybeassumed,however,thatthealtarofburntoffering,previouslyrestoredbytheexilesontheirreturn(Ezr3:3),
occupiedtheformersite,nowconsecratedbycenturiesofworship,andthatthegroundplanoftheTemplefollowedasnearlyaspossiblethatofitspredecessor(cf.
G.A.Smith,op.cit.ii.ch.xii.).
AsregardsthefurnishingofZerubbabelsTemple,wehavenotonlyseveralnoticesfromtheperiodwhenitwasstillstanding,butevidencefromthebetter
knownTempleofHerod,inwhichthesacredfurnitureremainedasbefore.Now,howeverscantilytheformermayhavebeenfurnishedatthefirst,weshouldexpect
thataftertheintroductionofthePriestsCodeunderEzra,theprescriptionsthereincontainedforthefurnitureoftheTabernaclewouldbecarriedouttotheletter.
Andthisisindeedtoalargeextentwhatwefind.Thusonlyonegoldenlampstandilluminatedtheholyplace(1Mac1:21)insteadoftenintheformerTemple.
Thetableofshewbreadsucceededthealtarofcedarof1K6:20(forwhichsee5above).Thegoldenaltarofincense,whichbelongstoalaterstratumofP
(TABERNACLE,6(c)),wasmostprobablyintroducedatasomewhatlatedate,sincepseudoHecatusinthe3rdcent.B.C.,quotedbyJosephus(C.Apion.[ed.
Niese]I.198f.),knowsonlyofanaltarandacandlestickbothofgold,andinweighttwotalentstheformerpresumablythealtarortableofshewbread.Thereis
noreason,however,toquestionthepresenceoftheincensealtarbythesecondcentury,asattestedby1Mac1:21ff.(cf.4:49),accordingtowhichAntiochus
EpiphanesrobbedtheTempleofthegoldenaltarandthecandlestickoflightandthetableofshewbread,wherethefirstofthesemustbeidentifiedwiththealtar
inquestion(see,againstthescepticismofWellhausenandothers,theevidencecollectedbySchrer,GJV4ii.[1907]342f.[=3285f.]).
Inonepointofcardinalimportancethegloryofthesecondhousewaslessthanthatofthefirst.Noattemptwasmadetoconstructanotherarkthemostholy
placewasempty.Asplendidcurtainorveilreplacedthepartitionwallbetweenthetwodivisionsofthesanctuary,andismentionedamongthespoilscarriedoffby
Antiochus(1Mac1:22).InanotherwaythesecondTemplewasdistinguishedfromthefirstithadtwocourtsinplaceofone,aninnerandanouter(4:38,49,
9:54),asdemandedbyEzekiel.Thisprophetsfurtherdemand,thatthelaityshouldbeentirelyexcludedfromtheinnercourt,wasnotcarriedout,asisevidentfrom
theexperienceofAlexanderJannus.HavinggivenoffencetothepeoplewhileofficiatingatthealtarontheoccasionoftheFeastofTabernacles,hewaspelted
withthecitronswhichtheycarried.AlexanderinconsequencehadthealtarandTemplerailedofftokeeptheworshippershenceforthatamorerespectfuldistance
(Jos.Ant.XIII.xiii.5).
Thealtarwasnolongerofbrassbutofunbewnstone(1Mac4:47),asrequiredbyEx20:25,andattestedbytheearlierwriterabovecited(ap.Jos.c.Apion.,
l.c.),whofurtherassignstoitthesamedimensionsastheChroniclergivestothebrazenaltarofSolomon(6(b)).InB.C.168,AntiochusIV.,asalreadystated,
spoiledanddesecratedtheTemple,andbyacrowningactofsacrilegesetupasmallaltartoZeusOlympiusonthealtarofburntoffering.Threeyearslater,Judas
theMaccabee,afterrecapturingJerusalem,madenewsacredfurniturealtarofincense,tableofshewbread,thesevenbranchedcandlestick,andothernewholy
vessels.Thestonesofthepollutedaltarwereremovedandotherssubstituted,andtheTemplededicatedanew(1Mac4:41ff.).Withminoralterationsand
additions,chieflyinthedirectionofmakingtheTemplehillstrongeragainstattack,theTempleremainedastheMaccabeesleftituntilreplacedbythemore
ambitiousedificeofHerod.
10.Ifonlyforthesakeofcompleteness,abriefreferencemustbemadeatthispointtotwoothertemplesfortheworshipofJerectedbyJewishsettlersin
Egyptduringtheperiodcoveredbytheprevioussection.Theearlierofthesehasonlyrecentlycometolight,throughthediscoveryofcertainAramaicpapyrionthe
islandofElephantine.Thethreelast,publishedbySachauinDreiaramischePapyrusurkunden(2nded.1908),describethistempletoYh(Jabweh)which
existedatElephantinebeforeCambysesinvadedEgyptin
http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/t.htm . .525,andhadbeendestroyedattheinstigationofEgyptianpriestsin . .411.Itwasprobablyre 24/97
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existedatElephantinebeforeCambysesinvadedEgyptinB.C.525,andhadbeendestroyedattheinstigationofEgyptianpriestsinB.C.411.Itwasprobablyre
builtsoonafter408.Thestoryoftheother,erectedatLeontopolisintheDeltabyOnias,sonoftheJewishhighpriestofthesamename,inthereignofAntiochus
IV.,hasbeentoldbyJosephus,whodescribesitasareplica,butsmallerandpoorer,oftheTempleofZerubbabel(BJVII.x.2ff.,Ant.XIII.iii.1ff.).This
descriptionhasrecentlybeenconfirmedbytheexcavationofthesite,themodernTelelYehudiyeh,byFlindersPetrie(PetrieandDuncan,HyksosandIsraelite
Cities,1906,1927,withplansandmodels,platesxxiiixxv.)nottheleastinterestingfeatureofthistempleinpartibusinfideliumisthefactthatitseemstohave
beenbuiltaccordingtothemeasurementsoftheTabernacle.ThisisaltogethermoreprobablethantheviewexpressedbyPetrie,thatOniascopiedthedimensionsof
theTempleofJerusalem(op.cit.24).
11.THETEMPLEOFHERON.ItwasintheeighteenthyearofhisreignthatHerodobtainedthepermissionofhissuspicioussubjectstorebuildtheTempleof
Zerubbabel.TheTempleproperwasrebuiltbyathousandspeciallytrainedpriestswithinthespaceofeighteenmonthstherestofthebuildingstookyearstofinish,
indeedthelasttouchesweregivenonlysixorsevenyearsbeforethefinalcatastropheinA.D.70,whenthewholewasdestroyedbythesoldiersofTitus.Fora
fullerstudyofseveralofthepointsdiscussedinthissection,seethepresentwritersarticlesonSomeProblemsofHerodsTempleinExpTXX.[1908],24ff.
(a)Theoutercourt,itssize,cloisters,andgates.ItisadvisableinthiscasetoreversetheorderofstudyadoptedforthefirstTemple,andtoproceedfromthe
courtstotheTempleproper.
InthiswaywestartfromtheexistingremainsofHerodsenterprise,forallareagreedthattheHaramarea(seeabove2)anditsretainingwallsareinthemainthe
workofHerod,whodoubledtheareaofZerubbabelscourtsbymeansofenormoussubstructure(Jos.BJI.xxi.1).Therearegoodgrounds,however,forbelieving
that,asleftbyHerod,theplatformstoppedatapointalittlebeyondtheGoldenGateintheeasternwall,itsnorthernboundaryprobablyrunninginproximitytothe
northwallofthepresentinnerplatformoftheHaram.(ThelatterhasbeenconsiderablyextendedinthisdirectionsinceHerodsday,andisindicatedbydouble
dottedlinesontheaccompanyingplan.)Thisgivesanareaofapproximately26acrescomparedwiththe35acres,orthereby,ofthepresentHaram.The
measurementswere,inroundnumbers,390yardsfromN.toS.by330yardsfromE.toW.onthenorth,and310yardsE.toW.onthesouth.Ifthefiguresjust
givenrepresent,withapproximateaccuracy,theextendedareaenclosedbyHerod,theoutercourt,calledintheMishnathemountainofthehouse,andbylater
writers,thecourtoftheGentiles,willhaveappearedtotheeyeasalmostasquare,asitisstatedtobe,althoughwithdivergentmeasurements,byourtwochief
authorities,theMishnatreatiseMiddoth(lit.
measurements,tr.inBarclaysTalmud,andinPEFSt,188687),andJosephus(BJv.v.,Ant.
XV.xi.andelsewhere).
TheclimaxofHerodsarchitecturaltriumphswasreachedinthemagnificentcolonnadeswhichsurroundedthefoursidesofthiscourt.Thecolonnadealongthe
southwall,inparticular,knownastheRoyalPorch(orportico,stoa),wasexceedingmagnifical(1Ch22:5).Itconsistedoffourrowsofmonolithicmarble
columnsoftheCorinthianorder,formingthreeaislesthetwosideaisleswere30ft.inbreadthand50ft.inheight,whilethecentralaislewashalfasbroadagainas
theothertwoandtwiceashigh(Jos.Ant.XV.xi.5,butseeExpT,l.c.).Theceilingsoftheroofswereadornedwithsculpturedpanelsofcedarwood.Ontheother
threesidesofthecourtthecolonnadeshadonlytwoaisles,thatalongtheeastwallbearingthenameofSolomonsPorch(Jn10:23,Ac3:11,5:12),probablyfrom
atraditionthatitoccupiedthesiteofonebuiltbythatmonarch.
Themainapproachestothecourtwerenaturallyonthewestandsouth.TheprincipalentrancefromthewestwasbythegateofKiponos(Midd.i.3),the
approachtowhichwasbyabridgeovertheTyropon,nowrepresentedbyWilsonsarch.Onthesouthwerethetwogatesrepresentedbythepresentdoubleand
triplegates,andnamedtheHuldah(ormole)gates,becausethevisitorpassedintothecourtbyslopingtunnelsbeneaththeroyalporch.Theserampsopened
upontheCourtoftheGentilesabout190ft.fromthesouthwall(seeplanand,fordetails,ExpT,l.c.).
(b)Theinnercourtsandtheirgates.ThegreatcourtwasopentoJewandGentilealike,and,aswelearnfromtheGospels,wasthecentreofabusylife,and
oftransactionslittleinaccordwithitssacredpurpose.Thesanctuaryinthestrictsensebeganwhenonereachedtheseriesofwalls,buildings,andcourtswhichrose
onsuccessiveterracesinthenorthernhalfofthegreatenclosure.Itslimitsweremarkedoutbyalowbalustrade,thesrg,whichranroundthewhole,andwas
providedatintervalswithnoticeswarningallGentilesagainstenteringthesacredenclosureonpainofdeath(cf.St.Paulsexperience,Ac21:26ff.).Fromthesrg,
flightsofstepsatdifferentpointsleduptoanarrowterrace,termedthechl(XYZinplan),10cubitswide,beyondwhichrosealoftyretainingwallenclosingthe
wholesanctuary,towhichJewsalonehadaccess.
Thegreatwallbywhichthesanctuarywasconvertedintoafortress,waspiercedbyninegatewaysH19ontheplanoverwhichwerebuiltmassivetwo
storeyedgatehousesliketowers(Jos.BJV.v.3),fourintheN.,fourintheS.,andoneintheE.wall.Themostsplendidofallthegateswasthelastmentioned,
theeasterngate,whichwastheprincipalentrancetotheTemple.FromthefactthatitwascomposedentirelyofCorinthianbrass,andhadbeenthegiftofacertain
NicanorofAlexandria,itwasknownastheCorinthiangate(Jos.),andthegateofNicanor(Mish.).ThereislittledoubtthatitisalsotheBeautifulGateofthe
temple(Ac3:2,10),asshownbySchrerinhisexhaustivestudy(ZNTW,1906,5158).Theothereightgateswerecoveredoverwithgoldandsilver,aswerethe
jambsandlintels(Jos.BJV.v.3),attheexpenseofAlexander,theJewishalabarchofAlexandria(c.A.D.2040).Allthegateswere20cubitshighby10wide, 25/97
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jambsandlintels(Jos.BJV.v.3),attheexpenseofAlexander,theJewishalabarchofAlexandria(c.A.D.2040).Allthegateswere20cubitshighby10wide,
accordingtotheMishna(Josephussays30by15).
EnteringbytheBeautifulGate,H5,onefoundoneselfinthecolonnadedcourtofthewomensocalledbecauseaccessibletowomenaswellasmen.This
wastheregularplaceofassemblyforpublicworship(cf.Lk1:10).Thewomenwereaccommodatedinagallerywhichranroundthecourt(Midd.ii.5),probably
abovethecolonnadesassuggestedintheplan.Alongbythepillarsofthecolonnadeswereplacedthirteentrumpetshapedboxestoreceivetheofferingsanddues
ofthefaithful.Theseboxesarethetreasuryintowhichthewidowsmiteswerecast(Mk12:42).
Thewestsideofthiscourtwasboundedbyawall,whichdividedthesanctuaryintotwoparts,aneasternandawestern.Asthelevelofthelatterwas
considerablyhigherthanthatoftheeasterncourt,amagnificentsemicircularflightoffifteenstepsledupfromtheonetotheother.Atthetopofthestepswasan
enormousgateway,50cubitsby40,allowingtheworshippersanuninterruptedviewofthealtarandtheTemple.Theleavesofitsgatewereevenmorerichlyplated
withsilverandgoldbyAlexanderthantheothers,andhencemanyhaveidentifiedthisgatewiththegatethatwascalledBeautiful(butseeSchrer,loc.cit.and
ExpT,XX.[1908]).
(c)Thecourtofthepriestsandthegreataltar.Thereissomeuncertaintyastothearrangementsofthewesterncourt,whichwehavenowreached,owingto
thedivergentdataofourtwoauthorities,JosephusandtheMishna.Thesimplestsolutionisperhapstoregardthewholewesterncourtasinonesensethecourtof
thepriests,thecourtparexcellenceoftheMishna(Midd.v.1,etc.).AlexanderJannus,welearned(9),railedofftheTempleandaltar,andrestrictedthemale
Israelitestotheouteredgeofthetheninnercourt.ThisarrangementwasretainedwhenthecourtswerelaidoutanewbyHerod.InMiddothii.6anarrowstripby
theentranceonly11cubitsinwidth,butextendingthewholebreadthofthecourtfromN.toS.isnamedthecourtofIsrael.Josephus,however,isprobably
rightinrepresentingthelatterasrunningroundthreesidesofthewesterncourt(asonplanBBB).Itssmallsizewasareminderthatthelaityapartfromthose
actuallytakingpartinthesacrifices,whohad,ofcourse,tobeallowedevenwithinthestillmoresacredprecinctsofthepriestscourtwereadmittedonsuffrance
tothewesterncourttheeasterncourt,orcourtofthewomen,was,ashasbeenindicated,theproperplaceofworshipforthelaity.AlongtheN.andS.wallsofthe
enclosurewerebuiltchambersforvariouspurposesconnectedwiththeTempleritual(Midd.v.3,4),chambersandgatehousesbeingconnectedbyanornamental
colonnade.Thosewhoselocationcanhedeterminedwithsomedegreeofcertaintyareenteredontheplanandnamedinthekeythereto.
TheinnercourtisrepresentedintheMishnaasarectangle,187cubitsby135,theouterorwomenscourtasanexactsquare,135cubitsby135(andsoonmostplans,e.g.DB
iv.713).ButtherocklevelsoftheHaram,theobliquelineoftheE.sideoftheplatformdueprobablytothelieoftherockrequiredforthefoundationofthemassiveE.wall
andtherepeatedappearanceof11anditsmultiplies(notethat187=1117)inthedetailsofthetotalsinMiddothv.1,allcombinetojustifyasuspicionastotheaccuracyofthe
figures.Ontheaccompanyingplanthewholeinnercourt, Band C,isenteredas170cubitslongfromE.toW.,and160broad.Theoutercourt,A,hasafreespacebetweenthe
colonnadesof135byanaverageofabout110.Thetotaldimensionsofthesanctuary,includingthesurroundingbuildingsandtheterrace(chl)areasfollows:(1)lengthfromWto
E.acrosstherock,315cubitsor462ft.(2)widthfromN.toS.250cubitsor367ft.ThedataonwhichthesemeasurementsarebasedwillbefoundintheessaysintheExp.Times,
alreadyfrequentlyreferredto.
Inthelatest,andinsomerespectsthebest,planofHerodsTemplebyWaterhouseinSandaysSacredSitesoftheGospels,thedataoftheMishnaaresetaside,andalargecourt
ofmenofIsraelisinsertedinthewesterncourtinadditiontothoseabovedescribed.Againstthisviewitmaybeurged,(1)thatitrequiresitsauthortoremovetheeasterncourt,
whichwasanessentialpartofthesanctuary,fromaplaceonthepresentinnerplatformoftheHaram(2)theconsequenceofthisistonarrowundulythespacebetweenthe
BeautifulGateandSolomonsPorch.IfthereisonestatementoftheMishnathatisworthyofcredit,itisthatthelargestfreespacewasonthesouth,thesecondlargestontheeast,
thethirdonthenorth,andthesmallestonthewest(Midd.ii.1).But,astheplanreferredtoshows,thisisnotthecaseifthecourtofthewomenisremovedsofartotheeastbythe
insertionofalargecourtofIsrael.Theplanisalsoopentocriticismonothergrounds(cf.G.A.Smith,op.cit.ii.508ff.).
Thealtarofburntoffering,D,was,likethatrestoredbyJudastheMaccabee,ofunhewnstone,andmeasuredatthebase32cubitsby32(47feetsquare,thus
coveringalmostthewholeofthesacredrock,see6(b)),decreasingbythreestagestillthealtarhearthwasonly24cubitssquare.Thepriestswentupbyan
inclinedapproachonthesouthsideinaccordancewithEx20:25.Tothenorthofthealtarwastheplacewherethesacrificialvictimswereslaughteredandprepared
forthealtar.Itwasprovidedwithrings,pillars,hooks,andtables.Alaver,O,forthepriestsablutionsstoodtothewestoftheapproachtothealtar.
12.TheTemplebuilding.AfewyardsbeyondthegreataltarrosetheTempleitself,aglitteringmassofwhitemarbleandgold.Twelvesteps,correspondingto
theheight(12halfcubits)ofthemassiveandprobablygoldcoveredstereobateonwhichthebuildingstood,leduptotheporch.
Theporchwasprobably96cubitsinheightandofthesamebreadthatthebase.TheMishnagivesitsheight,includingthe6cubitsofthepodiumorstereobate,as100cubits.
Therealdepthwasdoubtless,asinSolomonsTemple(3),10cubitsinthecentre,butnowincreasedto20cubitsatthewings(soJosephus).Astheplanshows,theporch
outflankedthemainbodyoftheTemple,whichwas60theMishnahas70cubitsinbreadth,by18cubitsateitherwing.ThesedimensionsshowthatHerodsporchresembledthe
pylonsofanEgyptiantemple.Itprobablytaperedtowardsthetop,andwassurmountedbyanEgyptiancornicewiththefamiliarcavettomoulding(cf.sketchbelow).Theentrance
totheporchmeasured40cubitsby20(Middoth,iii.7),correspondingtothedimensionsoftheholyplace.,Therewasnodoor.
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KEYTOPLANOFHERODSTEMPLEANDCOURTS.
abcd,thesurroundingbalustrade(srg).XYZ,theterrace(chl).
A,CourtoftheWomen.BBB,CourtofIsrael.CCC,CourtofthePriests.
D,altarofburntoffering.EFG,porch,holyplace,andholyofholies.O,thelaver.
H,19,GatesoftheSanctuary(Middoth,i.4,5),viz.:1,gateoftheHouseMoked2,Corbangate3,gateNitsus5,thegateofNicanor,ortheBeautifulGate7,
thewatergate8,gateofthefirstborn9,thefuelgate10,theuppergate,wronglycalledthegateofNicanor.
K,theguardhouseMoked(=hearth).L,thenorthernedificethatwasbetweenthetwogates(seeBJVI.ii7[Niese,150]).Here,itissuggested,thesacrificial
victimswereexaminedbythepriests,havingbeenbroughtineitherbytheundergroundpassageshownontheplan,orbytherampalsoshown.Theupper
storeymayhavecontainedtheimportantchamberofthecouncillors(parhedrin)(Ym,i.1).
M,thechamberGazith,inwhichthepriestsondutyassembledforprayer(Tamd,iv.end).Therearenotsufficientdataforfixingthelocationoftheotherchambers
mentionedintheMishna.Theirdistributionontheplanispurelyconjectural.
Thegreatdoorofthehouse(20cubitsby10)wasallovercoveredwithgold,infrontofwhichhungarichlyembroideredBabylonianveil,whileabovethe27/97
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Thegreatdoorofthehouse(20cubitsby10)wasallovercoveredwithgold,infrontofwhichhungarichlyembroideredBabylonianveil,whileabovethe
lintelwasfiguredahugegoldenvine(Jos.Ant.XV.xi.3,BJV.v.4).TheinteriorareaofHerodsTemplewas,forobviousreasons,thesameasthatofits
predecessors.Ahall,61cubitslongby20wide,wasdividedbetweentheholyplace(40by20,butwiththeheightincreasedto40cubits[Middoth,iv.6])andthe
mostholyplace(20by20by20high).Theextracubitwasoccupiedbyadoublecurtainembroideredincolours,whichscreenedofftheholyofholies(cf.
Midd.iv.7withYm,v.2).ThisistheveiloftheTemplereferredtoinMt27:51and||(cf.He6:19etc.).
DIAGRAMMATICSECTIONOFTEMPLEANDPORCH.
AsinSolomonsTemple,threestoreysofsidechambers,prob.30cubitsinheight,ranroundthreesidesofthemainbuilding.Butbytheprovisionofapassage
waygivingaccesstothedifferentstoreys,andmakingathirdoutsidewallnecessary,thesurfacecoveredbythewholewasnow96cubitsinlengthby60in
breadth,notreckoningthetwowingsoftheporch.Overthewholelengthofthetwoholyplacesasecondstoreywasraised,entirely,asitseems,forarchitectural
effect.
Thetotalheightofthenaosisuncertain.TheentriesbywhichtheMishnamakesupatotalof100cubitsarenotsuchasinspireconfidencethelawsofarchitecturalproportion
suggestthatthe100,althoughalsogivenbyJosephus,shouldbereducedto60cubitsor88feet,equaltothebreadthofthenaosandlateralchambers.Ontheplanthelowestside
chambersareintendedtobe5cubitswideandtheirwall3(bothasin3),thepassageway3,andtheoutsidewall3,givingatotalwidthof14+6+20+6+14=60cubits(Jos.
V.v.4cf.DBiv.715forthecorrespondingfiguresofMidd.iv.7).TheresultoftakingtheprinciplesofproportionbetweenthevariouspartsasthedecisivefactorwhenJosephus
andtheMishnaareatvariance,isexhibitedintheabovediagram,whichcombinessectionsthroughtheporchandholyplace.
Thefurnitureoftheholyplaceremainedasinformerdays.Beforetheveilstoodthealtarofincenseagainstthesouthwallthesevenbranchedgolden
lampstand,andoppositetoitthetableofshewbread(Jos.BJV.v.5).Aspecialinterestattachestothetwolatterfromthefact,knowntoeveryone,thattheywere
amongtheTemplespoilscarriedtoRomebyTitustoadornhistriumph,andarestilltobeseenamongthesculpturesoftheArchofTitus.
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amongtheTemplespoilscarriedtoRomebyTitustoadornhistriumph,andarestilltobeseenamongthesculpturesoftheArchofTitus.
Themostholyplacewasemptyasbefore(Jos.ib.),saveforastoneonwhichthehighpriest,whoalonehadaccesstothisinnermostshrine,depositedthe
censerofincenseontheDayofAtonement(Ym,v.2).
Allinall,HerodsTemplewaswellworthyofaplaceamongthearchitecturalwondersoftheworld.Onehasbuttothinkoftheextraordinaryheightandstrength
oftheouterretainingwalls,partsofwhichstillclaimouradmiration,andofthewealthofartandornamentlavishedupontheporticoesandbuildings.Theartistic
effectwasfurtherheightenedbythesuccessionofmarblepavedterracesandcourts,risingeachaboveandwithintheother,fromtheoutercourttotheTemplefloor.
ForoncewemayentirelycredittheJewishhistorianwhenhetellsusthatfromadistancethewholeresembledasnowcoveredmountain,andthatthelightreflected
fromthegildedporchdazzledthespectatorlikethesunsownrays(Jos.BJV.v.6).
13.ThedailyTempleserviceinNTtimes.ThisarticlemayfitlyclosewithabriefaccountoftheprincipalactofJewishworshipinthedaysofourLord,which
centredroundthedailyorcontinual(Heb.lamd.Ex29:42)burntoffering,presentedeverymorningandeveryevening,orrathermidafternoon,throughoutthe
year,inthename,andonbehalf,ofthewholecommunityofIsrael(seeEx29:3842,Nu28:38).Adetailedaccountofthisservice,evidentlybasedonreliable
tradition,isgivenintheMishnatreatiseTamd,ofwhichEnglishtranslationswillbefoundinBarclaysTalmud,andinPEFSt1885,119ff.(cf.alsothefull
expositiongivenbySchrer,GJV3ii.288299=4345357[HJPII.i.273299]).
Thedetachmentofpriestsondutyintherotationoftheircourses(Lk1:8)sleptinthehouseMoked(Konplan).Aboutcockcrowthepriestswhowishedto
bedrawnforthemorningservicebathedandrobed,andthereafterrepairedtothechamberGazith(M)inordertodeterminebylotthoseoftheirnumberwhoshould
officiate.Bythefirstlotapriestwasselectedtoremovetheashesfromthealtarofburntoffering,andpreparethewood,etc.,forthemorningsacrifice.Thisdone,
thepresidingofficialsaidtothem,Comeanddraw(todecide)(1)whoshallslay,(2)whoshalltoss(thebloodagainstthealtar),(3)whoshallremovetheashes
fromtheincensealtar,(4)whoshallcleanthelampstand,(5)(10)whoshallcarrythepartsofthevictimtothefootofthealtar[sixpartsarespecified],(11)who
shallpreparethe(mealoffering)offineflour,(12)thebakedoffering(ofthehighpriest),and(13)thewineofthedrinkoffering(Mishna,Tamd,iii.1).
Atthehourofdawnthepreparationsheresetforthwerebegun,andtheTemplegatesthrownopen.Afterthevictim,ayearlinglamb,hadbeenslain,theincense
altarpreparedandthelampstrimmed,theofficiatingpriestsassembledinthechamberGazithforashortreligiousservice,afterwhichtherecommencedthesolemn
actsofworshipinwhichthetamdculminatedtheofferingofincenseandtheburningofthesacrificialvictim.Thepriest,chosenasbeforebylot(Lk1:9),entered
theTemplewithacenserofincense,and,whilethesmokewasascendingfromthealtarwithintheHolyPlace,theworshipperswithoutprostratedthemselvesin
adorationandsilentprayer.Afterthepriestlybenedictionhadbeenpronouncedfromthestepsoftheporch(Tamd,vii.2),theseveralpartsofthesacrificewere
thrownuponthealtarandconsumed.ThepouringofthedrinkofferingwasnowthesignalforthechoirofLevitestobeginthechantingofthePsalmfortheday.At
intervalstwopriestsblewonsilvertrumpets,atwhosesoundthepeopleagainprostratedthemselves.WiththecloseofthePsalmthepublicservicewasatanend,
andtheprivatesacrificeswerethenoffered.
Theorderofthemidafternoonservicedifferedfromtheaboveonlyinthattheincensewasofferedaftertheburningofthevictiminsteadofbefore.Thelamps,
also,onthegoldencandlestick,werelightedattheeveningservice.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
TEMPTATION.TheEnglishwordstemptandtemptationareintheOTwiththeexceptionofMal3:15,whereasynonymbchanisused,thetr.of
variousformsoftherootnissh,whichismostfrequentlyrenderedprove.InGn22:1RVtr.GoddidproveAbraham.ButRVretainstemptationfor(a)Gods
testingofPharaohscharacteranddisposition(Dt4:34,RVmtrialsorevidencescf.7:19,29:3)(b)IsraelsdistrustfulputtingofGodHimselftotheproof(Dt
6:16cf.Ex17:2,7,Nu14:22,Ps78:18,41,56).InPs95:8RVrightlykeepsMassahasapropername,thereferencebeingtothehistoricmurmuringat
Rephidim(Ex17:1ff.cf.Dt33:8,Ps81:7).
Driver(ICC,onDt6:15)pointsout,inavaluablenote,thatnisshisaneutralword,andmeanstotestorproveaperson,toseewhetherhewillactinaparticularway(Ex
16:4,Jg2:22,3:4),orwhetherthecharacterhebearsiswellestablished(1K10:1).Godthusprovesaperson,orputshimtothetest,toseeifhisfidelityofaffectionissincere(Gn
22:1,Ex20:20,Dt8:2,13:3cf.Ps26:2)andmentest,orproveJehovahwhentheyactasifdoubtingwhetherHispromisebetrue,orwhetherHeisfaithfultoHisrevealed
character(Ex17:2,7,Nu14:22,Ps106:14cf.Is7:12).
2.TheGr.wordpeirasmosistheusualLXXrenderingofmassh.Itisalsoaneutralword,thoughintheNTitsometimesmeansenticementtosin(Mt4:1,1
Co7:5,Rev2:10etc.cf.thetempter,Mt4:3,1Th3:5).IntheRVitisalmostalwaystr.temptation,withtheoccasionalmarginalalternativetrial(Ja1:2),1P
1:6)theexceptionsareAc20:19,Rev3:10,wheretrialisfoundinthetext.TheAmer.RVsubstitutestryormaketrialof(trial)fortempt(temptation)
whereverenticementtowhatiswrongisnotevidentlyspokenof(seeAppendixtoRV,notevi.)buttemptationisretainedinMt6:13=Lk11:4,wheretherange
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whereverenticementtowhatiswrongisnotevidentlyspokenof(seeAppendixtoRV,notevi.)buttemptationisretainedinMt6:13=Lk11:4,wheretherange
ofthepetitioncannotbethuslimitedcf.Ja1:2.
3.InexpoundingtheprayerBringusnotintotemptation,andotherpassagesinwhichthewordhasawidermeaningthanenticementtosin,thedifficultyis
partially,butonlypartially,tobeascribedtothenarrowingofthesignificanceoftheEnglishwordsince1611.If,asDriverthinks,totempthas,inmodernEnglish,
acquiredthesenseofprovokingorenticingapersoninorderthathemayactinaparticularway(=Heb.hissth),thereisnodoubtthattemptisoftena
misleadingrendering.IntosuchtemptationtheheavenlyFathercannotbringHischildrenourknowledgeofHischaracterpreventsusfromtracingtoHimany
allurementtoevil.TheprofoundargumentofSt.James(1:13)isthatGodisHimselfabsolutelyunsusceptibletoevil,andthereforeHeisincapableoftempting
otherstoevil(Mayor,Com.,inloc.).Butthedifficultyisnotremovedwhenthepetitionisregardedasmeaningbringusnotintotrial.CanaChristianpraytohe
exemptedfromthetestingwithoutwhichshelteredinnocencecannotbecomeapprovedvirtue?Canheaskthathemayneverbeexposedtothosetrialsuponthe
enduranceofwhichhisblessednessdepends(Ja1:12)?ThesufficientansweristhatHewhowasinallpointstemptedlikeasweare(He4:15)hastaughtusto
prayafterthismanner.HisownprayerinGethsemane(Mt26:42),andHisexhortationtoHisdisciples(v.41),prove,byexampleandbyprecept,thatwhen
offeredinsubjectiontothecentral,alldominatingdesireThywillbedone,thepetitionBringusnotintotemptationisalwaysfittingonthelipsofthosewho
knowthatthefleshisweak.Havingthusprayed,thosewhofindthemselvesringedround(Ja1:2,peri)bytemptationswillbestrengthenedtoendurejoyfully.
Theirexperienceisnotjoyous,butgrievousnevertheless,Divinewisdomenablesthemtocountitalljoyasbeingapartofthedisciplinewhichisdesignedto
makethemperfectandentire,lackinginnothing.OntheTemptationofourLordseeJESUSCHRIST,P.447a.
J.G.TASKER.
TEN.SeeNUMBER,7.
TENCOMMANDMENTS
1.ThetraditionalhistoryoftheDecalogue.Thetenwordswere,accordingtoEx20,proclaimedvocallybyGodonMt.Sinai,andwrittenbyHimon
twostones,andgiventoMoses(24:12,31:13,32:15,16cf.Dt5:22,9:10,11).WhenthesewerebrokenbyMosesonhisdescentfromthemount(Ex32:19,Dt
9:17),hewascommandedtopreparetwofreshstoneslikethefirst,onwhichGodrewrotethetenwords(Ex34:4,28,Dt10:2,4).Thisisclearlythemeaningof
Ex.asthetextnowstands.Butmanycriticsthinkthatv.28boriginallyreferrednottothetenwordsofEx20,buttothelawsof34:1126,andthattheselaws
wereJsversionoftheDecalogue.Itmustsufficetosayherethatif,asonthewholeseemslikely,v.28breferstoourDecalogue,wemustdistinguishthecommand
towritethecovenantlawsinv.27,andthewordshewroteinv.28b,inwhichcasethesubjectofthelatterwillbeGod,asrequiredby34:1.Thetwostoneswere
immediatelyplacedintheark,whichhadbeenpreparedbyMosesspeciallyforthatpurpose(Dt10:15[probablybasedonJE]).Theretheywerebelievedtohave
permanentlyremained(1K8:9,Dt10:5)untilthearkwas,accordingtoRabbinicaltradition,hiddenbyJeremiah,whenJerusalemwasfinallytakenby
Nehuchadrezzar.
2.ThedocumentaryhistoryoftheDecalogue.AcomparisonoftheDecalogueinEx20withthatofDt5rendersitprobablethatbotharelaterrecensions
ofamuchshorteroriginal.ThephrasespeculiartoDt5areinmostcasesobviouslycharacteristicofD,andmustberegardedaslaterexpansions.Suchareasthe
LordthyGodcommandedtheeinthe4thand5thword,andthatitmaygowellwiththeeinthe5th.Inthelastcommandmentthefirsttwoclausesare
transposed,andamoreappropriateword(desire)isusedforcovetinganeighbourswife.Hereevidentlywehavealsoalatercorrection.CuriouslyenoughEx20,
whilethusgenerallymoreprimitivethanDeut.,showssignsofanevenlaterrecension.ThereasonforkeepingtheSabbath,Godsrestaftercreation,isclearly
basedonGn2:13,whichbelongstothepostexilicPriestlyCode(P).ThequestionisfurthercomplicatedbythefactthatseveralphrasesinwhatiscommontoEx
20andDeut.areofadistinctlyDeuteronomiccharacter,asthatiswithinthygatesinthe4thcommandment,thatthydaysmaybelonguponthelandwhichthe
LordthyGodgiveththeeinthe5th.Wesee,then,thattheDecalogueofEx.isinallprobabilitytheresultofadoublerevision(aDeuteronomicandaPriestly)ofa
muchmoresimpleoriginal.Ithasbeensuggestedthatoriginallyallthecommandmentsconsistedofasingleclause,andthatthenamewordcouldbemore
naturallyappliedtosuch.Infavourofthisview,beyondwhathasbeenalreadysaid,itisarguedthatthisshortformwouldhemoresuitableforinscriptiononstone.
3.Howwerethetenwordsdivided?ThequestionturnsonthebeginningandtheendoftheDecalogue.ArewhatweknowastheFirstandSecond,and
againwhatweknowastheTenth,oneortwocommandments?ThearrangementwhichtreatstheFirstandSecondasone,andtheTenthastwo,isthatofthe
MassoreticHebrewtextbothinEx.andDt.,andwasthatofthewholeWesternChurchfromthetimeofSt.AugustinetotheReformation,andisstillthatofthe
RomanandLutheranChurches.Moreover,itmayseemtohavesomesupportfromtheDeuteronomicversionoftheTenthCommandment.Ourpresent
arrangement,however,isthatoftheearlyJewishandearlyChristianChurches,andseemsonthewholemoreprobableinitself.Awife,beingregardedasachattel,
wouldnaturallycomeunderthegeneralprohibitionagainstcovetinganeighboursgoods.If,asalreadysuggested,theoriginalformofthecommandmentwasa
singleclause,itwouldhaverun,Thoushaltnotcovetthyneighbourshouse(see8(x.)).
4. Thecontentsofeachtable.If,assuggested,theoriginalcommandmentsweresingleclauses,itismostnaturaltosupposethattheywereevenlydivided 30/97
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4.Thecontentsofeachtable.If,assuggested,theoriginalcommandmentsweresingleclauses,itismostnaturaltosupposethattheywereevenlydivided
betweenthetwotablesfiveineach.ThisviewisadoptedwithouthesitationbyPhilo,anditisnotcontradictedbyourLordsdivisionoftheLawintotheloveof
Godandtheloveofonesneighbour.Itwouldbedifficulttoclassparentsinthecategoryofneighbour,whereasthereverenceduetothemwasbytheancients
regardedasaspeciallysacredobligation,andwasincluded,bybothGreeksandRomansatanyrate,underthenotionofpiety.
5.OrderoftheDecalogue.TheHebrewtextsofEx20andDt5agreeintheordermurder,adultery,theftasthesubjectsofthe6th,7th,and8th
Commandments.TheLXX(bestMSS)inEx.havetheorderadultery,theft,murderinDt.adultery,murder,theft.ThislastisborneoutbyRo13:9andby
Philo,andmaypossiblyhavebeenoriginal.
6.MosaicoriginoftheDecalogue.ThechiefdifficultyarisesoutoftheSecondCommandment.Therecanbelittledoubtthatfromprimitivetimesthe
Israelitesweremonolatrous,worshippingJastheirnationalGod.Butitisarguedthatthisdoesnotappeartohavepreventedthemfromrecognizingtosomeextent
inferiordivinebeings,suchasthoserepresentedbyteraphim,orevenfromrepresentingtheirGodundervisiblesymbols.ThusinJg17:3wefindMicahmakingan
imageofJahweh,withoutanydisapprovalbythewriter.Davidhimselfhadteraphiminhishouse(1S19:1316)Isaiahspeaksofapillarasanaturalandsuitable
symbolofworship(Is19:19)Hoseaclassespillar,ephod,andteraphimwithsacrificesasmeansofworship,ofwhichIsraelwouldbedeprivedforawhileasa
punishment(Hos3:4).Thefrequentcondemnationofashroth(sacredtreeimages,AVgroves)suggeststhattheytoowerecommonfeaturesofSemiticworship,
andnotconfinedtotheworshipofheathengods.Butitmayreasonablybedoubtedwhetherthesereligioussymbolswerealwaysregardedasthemselvesobjectsof
worship,thoughtendingtobecomeso.Again,itmaywellhavebeenthecasethatunderthedeterioratingInfluencesofsurroundingSemiticworship,thepeople,
withoutgenerallyworshippingheathengods,failedtoreachthehighidealoftheirtraditionalreligionandworship.Wemayfairlysay,then,thattheDecalogueinits
earliestform,ifnotactuallyMosaic,representsinallprobabilitytheearliestreligioustraditionofIsrael.
7.ObjectoftheDecalogue.LookingfromaChristianpointofview,weareapttoregardtheDecalogueasatanyrateanincompletecodeofreligionand
morality.Moreprobablythetenwordsshouldberegardedasafeweasilyrememberedrulesnecessaryforahalfcivilizedagriculturalpeople,whoowed
allegiancetoanationalGod,andwererequiredtoliveatpeacewitheachother.TheystandevidentlyincloserelationtotheBookoftheCovenant(Ex2123),of
whichtheymayberegardedaseitherasummaryorthekernel.Withoneexception(theFifth,seebelow,8(v.))theyare,likemostrulesgiventochildren,ofa
negativecharacterthoushaltnot,etc.
8.InterpretationoftheDecalogue.Thereareafewobscurephrases,orothermatterswhichcallforcomment.
(i.)beforememaymeaneitherinmypresence,condemningtheeclecticworshipofmanygods,orinpreferencetome.Neitherinterpretationwouldnecessarilyexclude
thebeliefthatothergodsweresuitableobjectsofworshipforotherpeoples(cf.Jg11:24).
(ii.)thewaterundertheearth.TheIsraelitesconceivedoftheseaasextendingunderthewholeland(hencethesprings).This,beingintheirviewthelargerpart,mightbe
usedtoexpressthewhole.Fishandothermarineanimalsare,ofcourse,intended.
untothousands,betterathousandgenerations,asinRVm.ThepunishmentbyGodofchildrenforthefaultsofparentswasfelttobeamoraldifficulty,andwasdeniedby
Ezekiel(ch.18).SimilaractionbyjudicialauthoritieswasforbiddenbyDeut.(24:16cf.2K14:6).Butthewordsshowthatifevilactionsinfluenceforevilthedescendantsofthe
evildoereitherbyheredityorbyimitation,theinfluenceofgoodactionsforgoodisfarmorepotent.
(iii.)Thouinvain,i.e.forfalsehood.ThismaymeanThoushaltnotperjurethyselforThoushaltnotswearandthennotkeepthyoath.Thelatterseemstobethe
currentJewishinterpretation(seeMt5:33).Philotakesitinbothsenses.
(iv.)withinthygates,i.e.thycities(see 2).
forinsixdays,etc.WefindinOTthreedistinctreasonsfortheobservanceoftheSabbath.(1)TheoldestisthatoftheBookoftheCovenantinEx23:12,thatthineoxand
thineassmayhaverest,andthesonofthinehandmaidandthestrangermayberefreshed.InEx20andDt5therestofthedomesticanimalsandservantsappearsaspartofthe
injunctionitself.(2)InDt5thereisaddedasasecondarypurpose,thatthymanservantandthymaidservantmayrestaswellasthouwhereasthechiefpurposeoftheobservaoceis
asacommemorationoftheExodus.(3)Ex20,revisedaftertheExileatorafterthetime
thatthePriestlyCodewaspublished,basestheobservanceontheSabbaticalrestofGodaftertheCreation(Gn2:13P).
(v.)HonourthyFather,etc.Itisnotimprobablethatthiscommandmenthasbeenmodifiedinform,andwasoriginallynegativelikealltherest,andreferredlikethemtoa
prohibitedactionratherthantoacorrectfeeling,as,verypossibly,Thoushaltnotsmite,etc.(cf.Ex21:15,17).Atalatertimesuchanoutragewouldhavebeenhardly
contemplated,andwouldnaturallyhavegivenwaytothepresentcommandment.Thewordhonourseems,accordingtocurrentJewishteaching(seeLightfootonMt15:5),to
havespeciallyincludedfeedingandclothing,andChristassumesratherthaninculcatesasnewthisapplicationofthecommandment.TheRabbinicalteachershadencouragedmenin
evadingarecognizedlawbytheirquibbles.
(x.)Thoushaltnothouse.Deut.transposesthefirsttwoclauses,andreadsdesirewithwife.TheteachingofEx20is,beyondquestion,relativelytheearliest.Thewife
wasoriginallyregardedasoneofthechattels,thoughundoubtedlythemostimportantchattel,ofthehouse,orgeneralestablishment.
OntheDecalogueintheNTseeart.L
http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/t.htm ( ). 31/97
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OntheDecalogueintheNTseeart.LAW(INNT).
F.H.WOODS.
TENT.Apartfromthetraditionsofthepatriarchsasquietmen,dwellingintents(Gn25:27RVm),thesettledHebrewspreservedareminderoftheirnomad
ancestryinsuchphrasesasgoingtoonestentfortogohome(Jg19:9),andintherecurringcall,tothytents(i.e.toyourhomes),OIsrael(1K12:16etc.).For
aninterestingcaseofadherencetothenomadic
Idealonreligiousgrounds,seeRECHABITES.
TheHebrewtent,eveninlaterdays,cannothavedifferedmuchfromthesimpleBedouintentoftoday,madebysewingtogetherstripsofthenativegoatshair
cloth(cf.Ca1:5IamblackasthetentsofKedar).Thesecurtains(Jer4:20,Ex26:2andoft.)areheldupbypoles,generally9innumber,arrangedinthreerows
ofthree,and67ft.high,whicharekeptinpositionbyropesthecordsofEV,andthetentcordofJob4:21RVattachedtostakesortentpinsdriven
intothegroundbyamallet(Jg4:21).Thelargerthetent,thelongerthecordsandthestrongerthestakes,accordingtothefigure.Is54:2.Thetent,thenasnow,was
probablydividedintotwopartsbyhangingacurtainfromthethreemiddlepolesalongthelengthofthetentthefrontdivisionopenandfreetoall,thebackclosed
andreservedforthewomenandtheprivacyofdomesticlife(Jg15:1,Ca3:4cf.Gn18:9f.).
Intimeofwarwereadbothofbooths(2S11:11,soRVrightlyforAVtents)andoftents(2K7:7,Jer37:10).TheAssyriansculpturesrepresentthesoldiers
tentsasconicalinshape,supportedbyacentralpolewithtwoarms.OnthefamousbronzeSheathingofthepalacegatesatBalawat,representingeverydetailofthe
conductofwar,theroyalpavilion(1K20:12,16)isfrequentlyrepresented.Itwasrectangularinshape,withornamentalwoodenpillarswithfloralcapitalsatthe
fourcorners.Thewallswereprobablyoflinen,andtheroofevidentlyoftapestry
orotherrichmaterialedgedwithtassels(seetheplatesinBillerbecksDiePalasttoreSatmanassarsII.,1908).
Inearlytimesaspecialtentwaspitchedforanewlyweddedpair(Ps19:6,Jl2:15cf.2S16:22),asisstillthecustomamongtheArahs.Thecanopyunder
whichJewishcouplesaremarriedatthepresentdaystillretainsthename,asitisasurvivaloftheancientchuppahorbridaltent.
PriscillaandAquila,aswellastheApostlePaul,weretentmakers(Ac18:2f.).SeeS PINNINGAND,WEAVING,1,4(c).Forthetentofmeeting(RV)see
TABERNACLE.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
TEPHON.OneofthetownsinJudafortifiedbyBacchides(1Mac9:50).TephonwasprobablyanoldTappuahbutwhetheritwasTappuah1or2,or
Bethtappuah,isuncertain.
TERAH.ThefatherofAbraham,Nahor,andHaran(Gn11:2432,1Ch1:25,Lk3:34).AlongwithhisthreesonsheissaidtohavemigratedfromUrofthe
ChaldeestoHaran,wherehedied.InJos24:2itissaidthatheservedothergodsastatementwhichgaverisetosomefancifulJewishhaggdthaboutTerahasa
makerofidols.2.AstationoftheIsraelites(Nu33:27,28).
TERAPHIM.SeeIMAGESISRAEL.,p.412balsop.569a.
TEREBINTHdoesnotoccuratallinAV,andonlythriceinRV,beingsubstitutedinIs6:13fortailtree,inHos4:13forelm,andinSir24:16for
turpentinetree.Strongreasons,however,canbeurgedforrenderingbyterebinthinagreatmanyinstanceswhereEVhasoak
(seeOAK).Theterebinthorturpentinetree(Sir24:16)Pistaciaterebinthus,thebutmoftheArabsisoneofthemostimposingtreesinPalestine.Inalmostevery
localitywhereitisallowedtoattainitsfullgrowth30to40feethighitisassociatedwithasacredtomborgrove:manysuchgrovesarestilldeeplyveneratedin
Galilee.Dwarfedtreesoccureverywhereamongtheoakbrushwood.Thetreehaspinnate,lancetshapedleavesandsmallreddishclusterslikeimmaturegrape
clustersitisalsooftencoveredwithcuriousredgallslikepiecesofcoral.Thedarkoverhangingfoliageaffordsagratefulshadeinsummer,butinautumnthe
leaveschangecolourandfalloff.Cf.MAMRE.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
TERESH.AchamberlainofAhasuerus(Est2:21)calledinAd.Est.12:1Tharra.
TERTIUS.St.PaulsamanuensiswhowroteRomansandaddedapersonalsalutation(16:22).ItwastheApostlescustomtoemployascribe(nodoubt
dictatingshorthandnotes,acommonpractice),buttoaddashortautographhimself.Theautographsprobablyare:Ro16:2527,1Co16:2124(expressly),2Co
13:13f.,Gal6:1118(expressly),Eph6:23f.,Ph4:2123,Col4:18(expressly),1Th5:2528,2Th3:17f.,(expressly).InthePastoralEpistlesand
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13:13f.,Gal6:1118(expressly),Eph6:23f.,Ph4:2123,Col4:18(expressly),1Th5:2528,2Th3:17f.,(expressly).InthePastoralEpistlesand
Philemon,whicharepersonalletters,thepresenceofautographpassagesismoreuncertain.
A.J.MACLEAN.
TERTULLUS.Thisname(adiminutiveofTertius)isthatoftheadvocatehiredbytheJewstospeakforthemagainstSt.PaulbeforeFelix(Ac24:1).From
hisnameweshouldjudgehimtobeaRomanprobablyhewasnotaJew.Ithasbeenconjectured(DeanMilman)thathisspeechisatranslationfromtheLatin,
thoughGreekwasallowedinthelawcourts.Itisagrosspieceofflattery,fortheJewswereinconstantoppositiontoFelix.ItaccusesSt.Paulofstirringup
disturbances,ofbeingtheringleaderofanunlawfulsect,andofprofaningtheTemple(cf.thereplyin25:8).
A.J.MACLEAN.
TESTAMENT.ThewordisnotfoundintheOT.InthetextoftheRVoftheNTitoccursonlytwice(He9:16f.)andisusedtotranslatetheGr.worddiathk,
elsewhererenderedcovenant(withtestamentinthemargin).InHe9:1520diathkisthreetimestranslatedcovenant,andtwicetestament.Anindicationof
thedifficultyinvolvedinitsinterpretationisgiveninthemarginalnote:TheGreekwordhereusedsignifiesbothcovenantandtestament.InclassicalGreek
diathkmeansatestamentarydisposition,andsynthkacovenant.Thelatterwordconnotesanagreementbetweentwopersonsregardedasbeingonanequal
footing(syn)henceitisunsuitableasadesignationofGodsgraciouscovenantswithmen.TheLXXthereforeusediathkastheequivalentoftheHeb.wordfor
covenant(brth),itsmostfrequentapplicationbeingtotheDivinecovenants,whicharenotmattersofmutualarrangementbetweenGodandHispeople,butare
ratheranalogoustothedispositionofpropertybytestament.IntheLXXdiathkwasextendedtocovenantsbetweenmanandman,butWestcottsays:Thereis
nottheleasttraceofthemeaningtestamentintheGreekOldTest.Scriptures,andtheideaofatestamentwasindeedforeigntotheJewstillthetimeofthe
Herods(Com.onHebrews,AdditionalNoteon9:15).
IntheNTcovenantisunquestionablythecorrecttranslationofdiathkwhenitoccursinstrictlyBiblicalandHebraicsurroundings[seeCOVENANT].But,as
Ramsayhaspointedout,therewasadevelopmentinthemeaningofthewordafterthepublicationoftheLXX.Thisdevelopmentwaspartlyinthelineofnatural
growthinGreekwillmaking,partlyinthewayofassimilationofRomanideasonwills(Hist.Com.onGalatians,p.360).Thereforethequestionwhichthe
interpretermustaskis,WhatideasdidthewordconveytothefirstreadersoftheNTwritings?
TheReviserspreferencefortestamentinHe9:16f.isstronglyconfirmedbythefactthattheRomanwillappearedintheEastasadocumentwhichhadno
standingandnomeaninguntilafterthetestatorsdeath,andwasrevocablebyhimatpleasure.ButwhilsttheEpistletotheHebrewswaswrittentothosewhoknew
onlytheRomanwill,theEpistletotheGalatianswaswrittenatatimewheninHellenizedAsiaMinorirrevocabilitywasacharacteristicfeatureofGreekwill
making.TheGalatianwillhadtodoprimarilywiththeappointmentofanheirnosecondwillcouldinvalidateitoraddessentiallynovelconditions.Suchawill
furnishedSt.Paul(3:15)withananalogylikeGodsword,itwasirrevocable.Itmightbesupplementedindetails,butinessencethesecondwillmustconfirm
theoriginalwill(Ramsay,op.cit.p.349ff.).
IntheNT,testamentumistheuniformLat.tr.ofdiathk.Frequently,therefore,itmeanscovenant(Lk1:72,Ac7:3,Ro11:27etc.).ThisuseoftheLatinword
istheexplanationofthefactthat,asearlyasthesecondcentofourera,thebooksoftheOldandNewCovenantswerespokenofastheOldandNewTestaments.
J.G.TASKER.
TESTAMENTSOFTWELVEPATRIARCHS.SeeAPOCALYPTICLITERATURE,5.
TESTIMONY.SeeARK,1TABERNACLE,7(a)WITNESSand,for2K11:12,ORNAMENTS,4.
TETH.TheninthletteroftheHeb.alphabet,andassuchemployedinthe119thPsalmtodesignatethe9thpart,eachverseofwhichbeginswiththisletter.
TETRARCH.ThetransliterationofaGr.word(tetrarchs)whoseliteralmeaningistherulerofafourthpart.Asatitleitlostitsstrictetymologicalforce,
andwasusedofapettyprince,ortherulerofadistrict.IntheNTHerodthetetrarchisHerodAntipas,sonofHerodtheGreatheruledoverGalileeandPera
(Mt14:1,Lk3:1,19,9:7,Ac13:1),andispopularlystyledking(Mk6:14ff.,Mt14:9).TwoothertetrarchsarementionedinLk3:1viz.,HerodPhilip,thebrother
ofAntipas,whoruledovertheIturanandTrachoniticterritoryand
Lysanias,whowasTetrarchofAbileneinthefifteenthyearofTiberius(seeSchrer,HJPI.ii.,App.1).
J.G.TASKER.
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TETTER.SeeMEDICINE,p.600a.
TEXT,VERSIONS,ANDLANGUAGESOFOT
1.LANGUAGESOFTHEOT.TheOT,exceptcertainsmallsections,waswritteninHebrew,andithasbeenpreservedinitsoriginallanguage.ButJer10:11,Dn
2:47:28,Ezr4:86:18,7:1226areinAramaic,thoughitisdisputedinthecaseofDn2:47:28whetherthiswastheoriginallanguage,orthatofanAramaic
versionwhichhasreplacedaHebreworiginal.HebrewandAramaicalikebelongtothegroupoflanguagesknownasSemitic,ofwhichAssyrian(orthelanguage
oftheancientAssyriansandBabylonians)andArabicarealsoimportantmembers.
2.TheHebrewlanguage:CharacterandHistory.HebrewiscloselyalliedtoPhnician,tothelanguageoftheMoabitesrepresentedbyMeshasinscription
(c.B.C.800),andtothelanguagespokeninCanaanbefore(aswellasafter)theHebrewinvasion,knowninpartfromtheCanaaniteglossesintheTellelAmarna
tablets(c.B.C.1400),inpartfromCanaanitishnamescontainedinancientmonuments,as,forexample,thelistofplacesinCanaanrecordedasamonghis
conquestsbyThothmesIII.(c.B.C.1600).ItisheldbysomescholarsthattheconqueringIsraelitesadoptedthelanguageofCanaan,havingpreviouslyspokena
languagemorenearlyakintoArabic(so,e.g.,Hommel,AHT120,218).Fromthetimeatleastwhentheywereoncewellsettledinthecountry,Hebrewwasalike
thecolloquialandtheliterarylanguage,oftheIsraelites.Somedifference,suchasisusual,nodoubtalwaysexistedbetweenthecolloquialandtheliterarylanguage
thoughourknowledgeofthecolloquialisonlysuchaswecandrawbyinferencefromtheliterature.ButtherecameatimewhenHebrewceasedtobethe
colloquiallanguage,beingreplacedbyAramaic,andsurvivedonlyasaliterarylanguage.ThedisuseofHebrewinfavourofAramaiccannotbepreciselydated,
andwasprobablyenoughgradualaccordingto2K18:26,inthetimeofIsaiah(8thcent.B.C.),AramaicwasunintelligibletotheJewishpopulace,butasa
languageofdiplomacywasspokenbyAssyrianandJewishofficialsalike.ApparentlyaslateasNehemiah(5thcent.B.C.)thecolloquiallanguageoftheJewsin
PalestinewasstillHebrew,calledJewish(Neh13:24asin2K18:26).InthefirstcenturyA.D.,asthefewsayingsofthepopularlanguagepreservedintheNT
(suchasTalithacumi)prove,itwasAramaic.Betweenthesetwodates,and,aswemayinferfromtheincreasinginfluenceofAramaiconthelaterbooksoftheOT,
considerablynearertheearlierthanthelaterdate,thechangewasmade.LongbeforeAramaicreplacedHebrewasthespokenlanguage,itexercisedaninfluence
throughthespokenonthewrittenlanguagesuchasiscommonlyexercisedbythelanguageofoneneighbouringpeopleonanother,thatistosay,Hebrew
borrowedwordsfromAramaic,asEnglishborrowswordsfromFrenchandFrenchfromEnglish.TheNorthern
KingdomwasfirstbroughtintocloserproximitywithAramaicspeakingpeoples,andlatertheSouthernKingdomandAramaismshaveconsequentlybeen
regardedaspointingtoanorthern,ortoarelativelylate,originofthewritingsinwhichtheyoccur.CertainlyanylargepresenceofAramaisms,andinparticularany
conspicuousAramaizingofthesyntax,duetotheinfluenceontheirwritingsofthelanguagewhichthelaterwriterscommonlyspoke,suchaswefind,forexample,
inDanielandEcclesiastes,pointstoalatedate.
OtherlanguagesbesidesAramaiccontributedtothevocabularyofHebrew:Assyrian,indirectlythroughtheCanaanitesfromtheearliesttimestoanextentnot
easilytobedefined,andlaterdirectlyPersian,afterthePersianconquestofBabylonin538Greek,afterthetimeofAlexander(332B.C.)andLatin,afterthe
establishmentofRomansuzeraintyoverJudainthefirstcenturyB.C.LatinwordsarefoundintheHebrewoftheMishna,butnotintheOTafewGreekwordsin
thelatestwritingsoftheOT(particularlyDaniel,aboutB.C.167)andverymanyintheMishnaPersianwordsinsomeofthepostexilicliterature(Esther,Canticles,
Tobit).
3.TheHebrewalphabetvowelless.TheHebrewalphabetusedbytheOTwritersconsistedoftwentytwoconsonants:itcontainednovowels,inthis
resemblingPhnician,Moabitic,andtheancientArabicandSyriacalphabets.OurknowledgeofthepronunciationofHebrewwords,asfarasthevowelsare
concerned,dependsonthreemainsources:(1)Jewishtradition,whichisembodiedinvowelsignsinventedbetweenthe4thand9thcenturiesA.D.,andwritten
under,over,orintheconsonantsoftheancienttext(2)theGreekversions,whichtransliteratealargenumberofHebrewwords,especially,butbynomeansonly,
thepropernames(3)theAssyriantexts:these,beingwritteninalanguagewhichexpressedinwritingvowelsoundsaswellasconsonantal,giveusthevowelsof
suchHebrewnamesastheycite.
ThoughintheoldestHebrewMSSoftheBibletheconsonantsoftheoriginaltextareaccompaniedbythevowelswhichexpressatoncethetraditional
pronunciationandthetraditionalinterpretationofthetext,itisnowasgenerallyacceptedthatthevowelsformednopartoftheoriginaltextasthattheearthrevolves
roundthesun.Downtothe17thcenturyitwasotherwiseandthatcenturywasmarkedbyafinalandkeendiscussionofthispoint.
4.TransliterationofHebrewadoptedinthisarticle.SinceconsiderableimportanceattachestothisJewishtraditionastothepronunciation,itwillbe
necessarytorepresentthevowelsinourdiscussionofthetext,butitisimportantalsotoindicatetheirsecondaryoriginandsubordinateposition.Throughoutthis
article,then,theHebrewconsonantswillberepresentedbyequivalentorapproximatelyequivalentEnglishcapitals,exceptthe1stand16thlettersoftheHebrew
alphabet,which,beinggutturalswithnoapproximateequivalentinEnglish,willberetainedintheirHebrewform(,),andmaybepassedoverunpronouncedby
theEnglishreader.ThevowelswillberepresentedbyEnglishsmalllettersprintedundertheconsonantafterwhichtheyaretobepronouncedthusDaBaR,
pronounceddabar.TheJewishscholarsdistinguishedbydifferentsignsbetweenlongandshortvowelsnoattemptwillbemadeheretomarkthesedistinctions,
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pronounceddabar.TheJewishscholarsdistinguishedbydifferentsignsbetweenlongandshortvowelsnoattemptwillbemadeheretomarkthesedistinctions,
andthepeculiarhalfvowels,theshvas,astheyaretermed,willbeleftunrepresented.Lettersdoubledinpronunciation,butwithoutavowelbetweenthem,were
representedbytheletterwrittenonce,nottwice.TheHebrewvocalistsdistinguishedthesedoubledlettersbyinsertingadotinthemiddleofthem.Thisdotor
dagheshwillberepresentedherebythesign|abovetheletter:thusDiBeR,pronounceddibber.
5.DateoftheadditionofvowelstotheOTtext.ThedateatwhichthevowelswereattachedtotheconsonantsoftheHebrewtextcanbedeterminedonly
withinbroadlimits.Itwasafterthebeginningofthe5thcent.A.D.,forthewayinwhichJeromespeaksleavesnoroomfordoubtthattheHebrewScripturesinhis
daywereunvocalizeditmusthavebeenbeforethe10thcent.,forthefullydevelopedsystemisemployedintheearliestHebrewBiblicalMSS,whichdatefrom
thebeginningofthe10thcent.(or,accordingtosome,fromthe9thcent.).
6.Earlierattemptstorepresentvowelsounds.Longbeforetheinventionofvowelpointscertainconsonantshadbeenused,thoughneithersystematicallynor
consistently,toindicatethevowelsounds:thusHwasusedtoindicatea,andsometimeseWtoindicateooru,Ytoindicatei.Thispracticeinsomemeasuregoes
backtothetimes,anddoubtlessalsototheactualusage,ofsomeofthewritersoftheOTbutinmanycasestheseconsonantsusedtoindicatevowelswereadded
byscribesoreditors.ThiswelearnfromthefactthatpassageswhichhappentooccurtwiceintheOTdifferintheextenttowhich,andtheparticularinstancesin
which,theselettersareemployed.Ps18occursnotonlyinthePsalter,butalsoin2S22thePsalmexpressestheseconsonantsusedvocalically17timeswhere2
Sam.doesnot,e.g.2Sam.writesDMNY(v.6)andHYM(v.31),wherethePs.writesDMWNYandHWYM.Insomecases
Rabbinicdiscussionsprovethatwordsnowwrittenwiththesevowelletterswereoncewithoutthemso,e.g.,itappearsfromadiscussionattributedtotwoRabbisof
the2ndcent.A.D.thatinIs51:4thewordLWMY(mynationRV)wasatthattimewrittenwithouttheW,thus
LMY.Theimportanceofthisfactforthetextualcriticismwillappearlater.
7.CharacterofevidenceforthetextofOT.ThetextoftheOThasbeentransmittedtousthroughcircumstancessingularlydifferentfromthosewhichmark
thetransmissionoftheNTtextandtheresultsareadifferenceintherelativevalueattachingtodifferentclassesofevidence,andamuchlesscloseandsure
approachtotheoriginaltextwhenthebestusehasbeenmadeofthematerialatourdisposal.Quotationsplayamuchlessimmediateandconspicuouspartinthe
criticismoftheOTthaninthecriticismoftheNTandherewemayconfineourattentiontothenatureoftheevidenceforthetextoftheOTfurnishedby(1)
HebrewMSS,(2)ancientVersions.
8.(1)HebrewMSS.OnewellestablishedresultoftheexaminationofHebrewMSSisthatallexistingMSSarederivedfromasingleeditionpreparedby
Jewishscholarsinaccordancewithatextualtraditionwhichgoesbacksubstantiallytothe2ndcent.A.D.,butbecameincreasinglyminute.Thisisprovedbythe
existenceinallMSSofthesamepeculiarities,suchastheoccurrenceatcertainplacesofletterssmallerorlargerthanthenormal,ofdotsovercertainletters,or
brokenorinvertedletters.Forexample,theHinthewordBHBRM(Gn2:4)iswrittensmallinallHebrewMSSitwasdoubtlesswrittenoriginallysobyaccident
orowingtopressureofroombutundertheinfluenceofaschoolofJewishscholars,ofwhomR.Aqibainthe2ndcent.B.C.wasaleadingspirit,allsuchminutiae
oftheScriptureacquiredamysticsignificance.Thusthewordjustcitedreallymeanswhentheywerecreated,butthesmallHwastakentomeanthatthewords
weretobetranslatedintheletterHhe(i.e.God)createdthem(theheavensandtheearth),andthisinturnledtomuchcuriousspeculation.Asanotherillustration
ofthismethodofInterpretation,whichwassoimportantinsecuringfromthe1stor2ndcent.A.D.onwardsaremarkablyaccuratetransmissionofthetext,thecase
ofthewordWYYRInGn2:7maybecited.ThewordmeansAndheformedanalternativeorthographyforthewordisWYR(withoneY).Why,itwasasked,
wasitherewrittenwithtwoYs?Because,itwasanswered,GodcreatedmanwithtwoYRS(i.e.twonatures),thegoodnatureandthebad.Inordertosecurethe
perpetuationofthetextexactlyasitexisted,amassofelaboraterulesandcalculationswasgraduallyestablishedforexample,thenumberofoccurrencesofcases
ofpeculiarorthography,thenumberofwordsintheseveralbooks,themiddlewordineachbook,andsoforth,werecalculatedandultimatelyembodiedinnoteson
themarginsoftheMSScontainingtheScriptures.ThistextualtraditionisknownastheMassorah,andthosewhoperpetuateditasMassoretes.TheMassorahalso
IncludesacertainnumberofvariantorconjecturalreadingsInthiscasetheonereading(Kethibhwritten)standsinthetext,butprovidedwithvowelsthatdonot
belongtotheconsonantsinthetext,buttotheconsonantsofthealternativereading(Qerread)giveninthemargin.E.g.,inJob9:30thewordBMW,which
meanswith,should,ifvocalized,havethevoweloovertheWbutintheHebrewtextthevowelactuallysuppliedtothewordiseundertheM,whichisthevowel
thatreallybelongstothemarginalreadingBMY,andthismeansinthewaterof.TheseMassoreticvariantsareforthemostpartrelativelyuninteresting.Thevalue
oftheMassorahinperpetuatingaformoftheHebrewtextformanycenturieshasdoubtlessbeengreatbutithasalsolongservedtoobscurethefactthatthetext
whichithasperpetuatedwithsuchslightvariationormutilationwasalreadyremovedbymanycenturiesfromtheoriginaltextandhadsufferedconsiderably.
InspiteoftheMassorah,certainminutevariationshavecreptintotheHebrewMSSandevenintotheconsonantaltext.Thevowels,itmustberepeated,are
merelyaninterpretationoftheoriginaltextofScripture,andnotpartofit,anddifferentHebrewMSSshowasamatteroffacttwodistinctsystemsofvocalization,
withdifferentsymbols.
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withdifferentsymbols.
9.TheearliestMSS.AmongtheearliestHebrewBiblicalMSSaretheProphetarumposteriorumcodexBabylonicusPetropolitanus,datedA.D.916acodex
oftheFormerandLatterProphetsnowintheKaraitesynagogueatCairo,andwritten,ifcorrectlydated,inA.D.895acodexoftheentireBible,writtenbySamuel
benJacob,nowatSt.Petersburg,andwritten,ifthedatingbegenuine,inA.D.1009.
10.CriticaleditionsoftheMassoretictext.Themostaccuratereproductionsofthe
MassoretictextaretheeditionoftheHebrewBiblebyS.BaerandFr.DelitzschandthatbyC.
D. Ginsburg. These are critical editions of the Massoretic text, but make no attempt to be critical editions of the OT text, i.e.they make no use whatever of the
VersionsorofanyotherevidencethantheMassoretictradition.
11.TheSamaritanPentateuch.BeforepassingfromtheevidenceofHebrewMSSwehavetonotethatforthePentateuch,thoughunfortunatelyforthe
Pentateuchonly,wehavetheinvaluableassistanceofaHebrewtextrepresentinganentirelydifferentrecension.ThisistheSamaritanPentateuch.TheSamaritan
PentateuchisaformoftheHebrewtextwhichhasbeenperpetuatedbytheSamaritans.ItiswrittenintheSamaritancharacter,whichfarmorecloselyresemblesthe
ancientHebrewcharactersthanthesquareHebrewcharactersinwhichtheMassoreticMSSarewritten,andiswithoutvowels.TheavailableMSSoftheSamaritan
PentateuchareconsiderablylaterthantheearliestMassoreticMSSnorisitprobablethatthecopyatNblus,thoughperhapstheearliestSamaritanMSin
existence,isearlierthanthe12thor13thcent.A.D.Butthevalueoftherecensionliesinthefactthatithasdescendedsincethe4thcent.B.C.inadifferentcircle,
andunderdifferentcircumstances,fromthosewhichhaveinfluencedtheMassoreticMSS.Thoughinsomerespects,asforexamplethroughexpansionbyinsertion
ofmatterfromparallelpassages,theSamaritanismoreremotethantheJewishfromtheoriginaltext,ithasalsopreservedbetterreadings,ofteninagreementwith
theLXX.AninstanceisGn4:8hereintheordinaryHebrewMSSsomewordsspokenbyCainhavecertainlydroppedoutthefactisobscuredintheRV(text),
whichmistranslatestheHebrewtextreallyreads,AndCainsaidtoAbelhisbrothertheSamaritantextandtheLXXhavetheadditionalwords,Letusgointothe
fieldthisisprobablyright(seenextclause).
12.TheSamaritanTargum.NothoroughlycriticaleditionoftheSamaritanPentateuchatpresentexists.Thematerialforestablishingacriticaltextconsistsof
theseveralMSSandalsooftheSamaritanTargumatranslationoftheSamaritanrecensionintoanAramaicdialect.ThecolloquiallanguageoftheSamaritans,
likethatofthelaterJews,wasdifferentfromthatinwhichtheScripturewaswritten.
13.PapyrusfragmentofOTtext.Thankstoarecentdiscovery,wehaveafurtherwitnesstoafragmentoftheHebrewtextofthePentateuch.ThisistheNash
papyrus.Thepapyrusisapparentlynotlaterthanthe2ndcent.A.D.anditcontainstheTenCommandmentsandDt6:4f.inHebrew.Thetext,whichisofcourse
unvocalized,isseveraltimesinagreementwiththeLXXagainsttheMassoretictext.ThisfragmentwaseditedbyMr.S.A.CookinPSBA(Jan.1903).
14.(2)Versions:EarliestMSS.WecomenowtothesecondmainbranchofevidenceforthetextoftheOT.TheevidenceofVersionsisofexceptional
importanceinthecaseoftheOT.Inthefirstplace,theactualMSSoftheVersionsaremucholderthantheearliestHebrewMSStheearliestHebrewMSSdate
fromthe10thcent.A.D.butthereareGreekMSSoftheOTofthe4thcent.A.D.andthereisaSyriacMSofthegreaterpartofthePentateuchofthedateA.D.464.
Butsecondly,andofevengreaterimportance,theVersions,andespeciallytheLXX,representdifferentlinesoftraditioninsofarastheoriginaltextoftheLXX
itselfcanbeestablished,itisawitnesstothestateofthetextsometwotofourcenturiesbeforethedateatwhichthestereotypingoftheHebrewtextbythe
Massoretestookplace.
TheVersionsoftheOTareeitherprimary,i.e.madedirectfromtheHebrewtext,orsecondary,i.e.madefromaVersion.SecondaryVersionsareofimmediate
importanceinestablishingthetruetextoftheprimaryversionfromwhichtheyaremadeandonlyindirectlywitnesstotheHebrewtext.AmongthemtheOldLatin
VersionisofexceptionalimportanceindeterminingthetextoftheLXX.OnthisandotherversionsoftheLXX,seeGREEKVERSIONSofOT,11.
15.BriefaccountofthePrimaryVersions.ThePrimaryVersionsoftheOT,arrangedin
(approximately)chronologicalorder,areasfollows:
(1)TheearliestGreekVersion,commonlyknownastheSeptuagint.Theearliestpartofthisversion,namely,thetranslationofthePentateuch,goesbackto
the3rdcenturyB.C.TheremainingpartsoftheOTweretranslatedatdifferentlaterperiodsbuttheversionwasprobably,inthemainatleast,completebeforethe
endofthe2ndcent.B.C.SeeGR.VERSIONSOFOT.
(2)TheTargums.TheseAramaicversionsmaybeconsiderednext,inasmuchastheyrestonatraditionearlierthanthedateoftheversionsyettobe
mentioneditisprobable,however,thatnoTargumwasactuallycommittedtowritingtillsomecenturieslater,afterthelaterGreekversions,perhaps,too,afterthe
SyriacVersion,hadbeenmade.
ThequotationfromPs22:1inMt27:46||Mk15:34isinAramaicandEph4:8agreesmorecloselywiththeTargumthanwiththeHebrewtextofPs68:4.Fromthesefactswe
mayperhapsinferthatanAramaicversionbadtosomeextentbecomeorallyfixedbythe1stcent. A. D.
TheTargumsareinlargepartveryfree,andevendiffuse,paraphrasesratherthantranslationsoftheHebrewtext.Theyowetheirorigintothecustomof
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TheTargumsareinlargepartveryfree,andevendiffuse,paraphrasesratherthantranslationsoftheHebrewtext.Theyowetheirorigintothecustomof
explainingtheHebrewpassagesofScripturereadinthesynagoguesinthelanguagespokenbythepeople,whichwasAramaic.Theearliest(asismostgenerally
believed)andleastparaphrasticoftheseversionsistheTargumofOnkelosonthePentateuchitdoesnotappeartohavebeencommittedtowritingbeforethe5th
cent.A.D.,andisfirstmentionedbynamebySaadiahGaoninthe9thcentury.FarmoreparaphrasticistheTargumofthePentateuchknownastheTargumof
Jonathan,ortheJerusalemTargum.FragmentsofyetathirdTargumofthePentateuchsurvive,andareknownasthe2ndJerusalemTargum.Quitedistinct
fromtheseistheSamaritanTargum,whichisatranslationoftheSamaritanrecensionoftheHebrewtext(see11).ThechiefTargumoftheProphetsisthat
knownastheTargumofJonathanbenUzziel:itisnotmuchyoungerthantheTargumofOnkelos,andisbysomeconsideredtobeevenearlier.Therearealso
fragmentsofanotherTargumoftheProphets.TargumsoftheHagiographa(withtheexceptionofEzra,Nehemiah,andDaniel)exist,andtherearetwooftheBook
ofEsther.Cf.art.TARGUME.
ThetextoftheTargumswillbefoundinWaltons(andother)polyglots,withaLatintranslation.OnkeloshasbeenseparatelyeditedbyBerliner(1884),andthe
ProphetsandHagiographabyLagarde(1872,1874).See,further,HastingsDB,art.Targum.ThereisanEnglishtranslationoftheTargumsofthePentateuchby
Etheridge(2vols.,London,18621865).
(3),(4),and(5)TheGreekVersions(whichhavesurvivedinfragmentsonly)ofAquila,
Theodotion,andSymmachus,allofthe2ndcent.A.D.SeeGREEKVERSIONSOFOT,1518.
(6)TheSyriacVersion,commonlycalledthePeshitta.Thedateatwhichthisversionwasmadeisunknown.TheearliestextantMSofpartofthisversionis,as
statedabove,oftheyear464A.D.andthequotationsofAphraates(4thcent.A.D.)fromallpartsoftheOTagreewiththePeshitta.Thecharacteroftheversion
differsindifferentbooks,beingliteralinthePentateuchandJob,paraphrasticforexampleinChroniclesandRuth.Thetextinthemainagreescloselywiththe
MassoreticHebrewtext,thoughinparts(e.g.inGenesis,Isaiah,theMinorProphets,andPsalms)ithasbeeninfluencedbytheLXX.
(7)TheVulgate.TheOldLatinVersionwasatranslationoftheLXX.ToChristianscholarsacquaintedwithHebrewthewidedifferencesbetweentheLXX
andversionsderivedfromitandtheHebrewtextthencurrentbecameobvious.AsitseemedsuitabletoOrigentocorrectthecurrentLXXtextsothatitshould
agreemorecloselywiththeHebrew,soatthecloseofthe4thcenturyJerome,afterfirstrevisingtheOldLatin,makingalterationsonlywhenthesenseabsolutely
demandedit,preparedanentirelyfreshtranslationdirectfromtheHebrewtext.TheVulgateisderivedfromthisdirecttranslationofJeromesfromtheHebrewin
thecaseofallthecanonicalbooksoftheOTexceptthePsalmsthePsalmsappearcommonlyineditionsoftheVulgateintheformofthesocalledGallicanPsalter
thiswasasecondversionoftheOldLatin,inwhich,however,afterthemannerofOrigensHexaplarictext,thetranslationwasbroughtnearertothecurrentHebrew
textbyincludingmattercontainedinthelaterGreekversionsbutabsentfromtheLXX,andobellzingmatterintheLXXwhichwasabsentfromthelaterversions.
JeromesLatinversionofthePsalms,madedirectfromtheHebrew,hasbeeneditedbyLagarde(PsalteriumjuxtaHebrosHieronymi,1874).Ontheextentto
whicheditionsoftheVulgatedifferfromJeromestranslation,seeVULGATE.Insomecasesadditionalmatter(e.g.1S14:41,onwhichpassagesee24)hasbeen
incorporatedfromtheOldLatin.
TheeffectofthesubstitutionofJeromesversionfromtheHebrewtextfortheOldLatinversionoftheLXXwastogivetheChurchaBiblewhichwasmore
elegantandintelligibleandinmuchcloseragreementwiththeHebrewtextcurrentinthe4thcent.A.D.,butwhichatthesametimewasinmanypassagesmore
remotefromtheoriginaltextoftheOT.
16.Twogroupsofversions.PreeminenceoftheSeptuagint.JudgedfromthestandpointoftheirimportanceforrecoveringtheoriginaltextoftheOT,andfor
thekindofservicewhichtheyrendertoOTtextualcriticism,theprimaryversionsfallintotwogroups:(1)theLXX,(2)therest.TheLXXdiffers,andoftendiffers
widely,fromtheMassoretictexttheremainingversionscloselyagreewithit:theLXXdatesfrombeforetheChristianeraand,whatismoresignificant,frombefore
theriseoftheMassoreticschoolstheremainingversionsdatefromaftertheChristianera,and,withthepossibleexceptionoftheSyriac,fromafterthecloseof1st
cent.A.D.
TheagreementoftheseversionsmadedirectfromtheHebrewtextatvariousdatessubsequentto100B.C.confirmstheconclusionsuggestedabove,thatsincethat
datetheHebrewtexthassufferedrelativelylittleincourseoftransmission.SuchvariationsasdooccurintheseversionsfromtheHebrewconsistlargely(though
notexclusively)ofvariationsintheInterpretationoftheconsonants,i.e.whilepresupposingthesameconsonantsasthepresentHebrewtext,theypresupposealso
thattheseconsonantswerepronouncedwithothervowelsthanthosewhichwereaddedtothetextafterthe5thcent.A.D.Thesevariationsthereforedonot,strictly
speaking,representvariantsinthetextoftheOT,butmerelyinthecommentaryonthattext,whichatthetimetheversionsweremadewasstilloral,andonlylater
wascommittedtowritingintheformofvowelsattachedtotheconsonants,ofwhichalonetheScriptureproperconsisted.
AfullerdiscussionoftheversionsoftheOTotherthantheLXXwouldcarryusintominutiofthesubjectwhichdonotbelongtoabriefsketchsuchasthe
present.Ontheotherhand,theLXXclaimsfurtherattentionevenhere.
17. TheearlyhistoryoftheHebrewtext.ThehistoryoftheHebrewtextsincethe2ndcent.
http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/t.htm . .isuneventfulitisahistoryofcarefultransmissionwhichhas37/97
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17.TheearlyhistoryoftheHebrewtext.ThehistoryoftheHebrewtextsincethe2ndcent.A.D.isuneventfulitisahistoryofcarefultransmissionwhichhas
preservedthetextfromanyseriousdeteriorationsincethatdate.Butthefortunesofthetextbeforethatdatehadbeenmorevariedandfarlesshappy.Theycannot
befollowedcompletely,noralwayswithcertainty.Butthemainfactisabundantlyclear,thatbetweentheagesoftheirseveralauthorsandthe2ndcent.A.D.the
HebrewScriptureshadsufferedcorruption,andnotInfrequentlyveryseriouscorruption.Noristhissurprisingwhenitisrememberedthatthetextinthatperiod
consistedofconsonantsonly,thatinthecourseofitthecharacterofthewritingwaschangedfromtheOldHebrewtothesquarecharacterstillinuse(thedifference
betweenthetwobeinggreaterthanthatbetweenoldblacklettertypeandtheRomantypenowcommonlyused),thatintheearlierpartoftheperiodcopiesofthe
bookscannothavebeennumerous,andthatintimesofpersecutioncopieswerehuntedforanddestroyed(1Mac1:56f.)Wearehereconcerned,ofcourse,merely
withsuchchangesascreptintothetextaccidentally,orsuchminorchangesastheintroductionoftheexpressedfortheimplicitsubject,whichbelongtothe
provinceoftextualcriticism.Thelargerchangesduetotheeditingandredactingorunionofmaterialbelongtotheprovinceofhighercriticism,thoughinthecase
oftheOTitisparticularlytruethatattimesthelinebetweenthetwoisnotsharplydefined.OurchiefcluestotheearlierhistoryoftheHebrewtext,andtothe
solutionoftheproblemsconnectedwithit,willbefoundinacomparisonoftheHebrewtextwiththeSeptuagintversion,andincertainfeaturesoftheHebrewtext
itself.Theremainderofthisarticlewillbedevotedtoelucidatingandillustratingthesetwopoints.
18.TheHebrewTextbetweenc.B.C.250andc.A.D.100.TheLXXandtheMassoreticText.Thematerialsforformingajudgmentonthegeneralcharacterof
thechangesundergoneduringthisperiodbytheHebrewtext,andfortheexistenceofearlyvariantreadingsinparticularpassages,aretobedrawnmainlyfroma
comparisonoftheLXXwiththeHebrewtexts.AmuchsmalleramountofmaterialistobederivedfromthequotationsintheNTandotherearlyJewishworks,such
astheBookofJubilees,written,accordingtoDr.Charles,atthecloseofthe2ndcenturyB.C.butsofarasitgoesthismaterialbearswitnessofthesamegeneral
characterasthatoftheLXX.
19.Acorrectsolutionofthemainproblemhereraiseddependsonthreethings:(1)theestablishmentoftheoriginaltextoftheLXX(2)thedetectionofthe
Hebrewtextwhichlaybeforethetranslatorsand(3)IncaseswheretheHebrewtextthererecordeddiffersfromthepresentHebrewtext,thedeterminationofthe
moreoriginalofthevariants.Acompletesolutionoftheproblemswillneverbereached,foritwillbenomorepossibletoestablishbeyonddisputetheoriginaltext
oftheLXXthanthetextoftheNTthedetectionoftheunderlyingHebrewtextmustinevitablyoftenremaindoubtfulandwhenvariantsareestablished,therewill
beinmanycasesroomfordifferencesofopinionastotheirrelativevalue.Butthoughnocompletesolutionistobehopedfor,afargreaterapproximationtosucha
solutionthanhasyetbeenreachedispossible.Agoodbeginning(thoughnomore)towardstherecoveryoftheoriginaltextoftheLXXhasbeenmade(seeGREEK
VERSIONSOFOT,13),butofreallysystematicworkontherecoveryoftheunderlyingHebrewtexttherehasbeenfartoolittle.Whatcommonlyhappensisthatin
particularpassageswherethesenseoftheLXXandoftheHebrewtextdiffers,theGreekisretranslatedwithoutexhaustivereferencetothemethodsofthe
translators,andtheretranslationthusobtainediscitedasthevariant.Inmanycasesthetruevarianteventhushasundoubtedlybeenobtained,butinmanyothersa
closerandmoresystematicinvestigationofthemethodsandidiosyncrasiesofthetranslatorshasshownorwillshowthat,throughmisinterpretation,thesupportof
theLXXhasbeencitedforvariantswhichthereisnoreasonforbelievingeverhadanyexistence.
20.Distinctionbetweenrealandapparentvariants.AdifferenceinsensebetweentheGreekversionandtheHebrewtextassubsequentlyinterpretedbyno
meansnecessarilypointstoavariationintheHebrewtextthatunderlaytheversion.
Forexample,partsofthethreeHebrewverbsBH(toleadcaptive),andYB(todwell)andofWB(toreturn)areindistinguishableintheHebrewconsonantaltextthe
lettersWYSBmayhaveamongothersthefollowingmeanings,andhedwelt,andhereturned,andhebroughtback,andhetookcaptive.
ThesubstitutionofoneofthesemeaningsfortheotheroccasionallyreducestheGreekversiontononsenseinconvenientasthismusthavebeenforthosewho
usedthatversion,orversions,liketheOldLatin,madefromit,itpresentsnodifficultytothosewhoareattemptingtorecovertheHebreworiginaloftheGreek
version.Itmaysoundparadoxical,yetitistoalargeextenttrue,thatfortextualcriticismtheLXXismostusefulwhenitmakesleastsenseforwhenapassage
makesnosenseintheGreek,butcanbeexplainedasatranslationfromtheHebrew,wehavethebestofreasonsforbelievingthatwehavebeforeustheoriginal
textoftheGreek,andthroughitcanrecoveraHebrewtextofearlydate.Copyistsandtranslatorsdonotdeliberatelyturnsenseintononsense,andsensedoesnot
frequently,throughmereaccidentsoftransmission,becometheparticularformofnonsensethatcanbeaccountedforbyamisunderstandingofaHebreworiginal.
AsafurtherillustrationwemayrefertotheGreektranslationofthelettersBYtheseverycommonlyoccurwiththemeaninginme,buttheyalsorepresentaparticleofentreaty
Oh!orIpray!thisparticleoccursbutrarely,aboutadozentimesaltogether,anditsexistencewasunknowntosomeoftheGreektranslators.InthePentateuchandJoshuaitis
correctlyrenderedbutelsewhereitisrenderedinmewithridiculousresults,astheEnglishreaderwillseeifhesubstitutesthesewordsforOhinJg6:13,1S1:26.Butagain,
thereisnodifficultyinseeingbeneaththenonsenseoftheGreekthetruesenseandtheactualreadingoftheHebrew.Theignoranceofthetranslatorsisasusefultothetextualcritic
astheirknowledge.
21. Euphemistictranslations.Buttherearemanyvariationsinsensewhichpointtonorealtextualvariants,thoughbothHebrewandGreekinthemselvesyield
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21.Euphemistictranslations.Buttherearemanyvariationsinsensewhichpointtonorealtextualvariants,thoughbothHebrewandGreekinthemselvesyield
agoodsense.
Thelastclauseofthe19thPsalmintheAV,OLord,mystrengthandmyredeemer,readsadmirablybutthoughthetranslatorsgiveusnocluetothefact,itisnotatranslation
oftheHebrew,itisatranslationoftheLXX.TheHebrewreadsMyrockandmyredeemer(soRV).InthiscasetheLXXrenderingisduenottoignorance,buttoreligious
scrupletheirrenderingisaeuphemism.SoinGn5:24theGreekversionsubstitutesEnochwaswellpleasingtoGod(henceHe11:5)fortheanthropomorphicwalkedwithGod
oftheHebrewtextinthesecases,ifwehadnotalsotheHebrewtextwecouldnotdiscovertheoriginalfromtheLXXwithcertainty,or,perhaps,evenbesurethatthetranslators
wereparaphrasingandnottranslating.
22.RelativevaluesofGreekversionandHebrewtext.TheseillustrationsmaysufficetoshowboththatmuchcareisrequiredinusingtheLXXforthe
recoveryoftheHebrewunderlyingit,andalsothatitiswideofthemarktodepreciatethetextualvalueoftheversionbyemphasizingtheignoranceofthe
translators.Beforeeitherthefullestorthesecurestuseoftheversioncanbemade,animmenseamountofworkremainstobedonebuttheimportanceofdoingthis
workisclear,foreventhemostcautiousdeductionshavealreadyprovedthatthetextunderlyingtheLXXandthepresentHebrewtextdifferwidely,andthatin
manyInstancestheLXXtextissuperior.Therelativevaluesdifferinthecaseofdifferentbooksandtoavoidmisunderstandingitshouldbeaddedthatinnocase
wouldasimpletranslationoftheLXXbringusasneartothesenseoftheoriginaldocumentasatranslationfromtheHebrewtextnorwoulditbepossible,unless
theHebrewtexthadsurvived,todetectbymeansoftheLXXthecorrecttextandthesenseoftheoriginal.Issuesaresometimesconfused,andthedistinctive
characteristicsandvirtuesofourtwochiefwitnessestothetextoftheOTobscured,indiscussionsastotherelativevaluesoftheLXXandtheMassoretictext.
Perhapsthemostimportantgeneralpointtorememberisthatneithertheonenortheotherwouldbenearlyasvaluablebyitselfasitiswhenusedincombination
withtheother.
23.ExamplesofimportantreadingspreservedbytheGreekVersiononly.WemaynowpasstosomeillustrationsofimportantvariationsinwhichtheLXXhas
clearlypreservedanearliertextthantheHebrew.ThesearemuchlessnumerousinthePentateuchthanelsewhereprobablytheLaw,asthemostimportant
Scripture,receivedatanearlyperiodsomethingapproachingtothatgreatcareintransmissionwhichwaslaterextendedtotheentireOT.Itisthemoreremarkable,
therefore,thatinonesectionofthePentateuch(Ex3539)wefindstrikingdifferencesinthearrangementofsectionsintheHebrewandGreektexts.Other
instancesofdifferentarrangementorofmarkeddifferencesintheextentofthematerialoccurintheBooksofJobandJeremiah(see,further,Swete,Introd.tothe
OTinGreek,221ff.).Thistypeofdifferenceconnectsthetextualwiththehighercriticismofthesebooks,andcannotbepursuedfurtherhere.
24.Insomecasesmattersubsequentlylost(throughhomoioteleutonorotherwise),andnowabsentfromtheHebrewtext,survivesintheGreek.
Astrikingillustrationofthisoccursin1S14:41.TheHebrewtextunderlyingtheGreekversionreads,SaulsaiduntoJahweh,theGodofIsrael[whereforehastthounot
answeredthyservanttoday?Ifthisiniquitybeinme,orinJonathanmyson,OGodofIsrael,giveUrim,butifthisiniquitybeinthyservantIsrael],giveThummim.Thewords
insquarebracketsareabsentfromtheHebrewtext,butcertainlybelongedtotheoriginal,andtheoriginoftheerrorisclear:thescribeseyeaccidentallypassedfromthefirst
occurrenceofIsraeltothethird,andtheinterveningwordswerelost.WiththelossofthesethesenseofthelasttwowordsgiveThummimbecameobscure,andthepunctuators,
followedbyRV,gavethemanindefensibleinterpretation.
25.InothercasestheGreekversionisnearertotheoriginalbyitsrelativebrevitytheadditionalmatternowpresentintheHebrewtextwassubsequently
interpolated.
Asaninstanceofthiswemaycite1K6:20,21,whichRV,followingtheHebrewtext,renders,Andhecoveredthealtar[withcedar.SoSolomonoverlaidthehousewithin
withpuregold:andhedrewchainsofgoldacross]beforetheoracleandheoverlaiditwithgold.ThebracketedwordsareabsentfromtheGreekitisprobablethatofthesewords
withcedarstoodintheoriginaltext,butthattherestwereabsent.TheGreektexthasalsoforthefirstfourwordsabove(beforethebracket)the(superior)reading,Andhemade
analtar.
26.Attimes,wheneitherthesenseorthetextofboththeHebrewandtheGreekisremotefromtheoriginal,itispossible,fromacomparisonbetweenthetwo,
torecovertheoriginal.
AninterestingexampleofthisisfurnishedbyIs37:27f.=2K19:26f.RV,followingtheHeb.text,renders,Theywereasthegrassofthefield,andascorn(Is.afieldof
corn)blastedbeforeitbegrownup.ButIknowthysittingdownandthygoingoutandthycomingin.TheHebrewtextoftheunderlinedwordsisLPNYQMHWSBTKthe
HebrewequivalentofIknowstandsmuchlowerinthesentence,andthoughitmaywithdifficultybetakenasintheRV,morenaturallydemandsadifferentobject.Areadingof
theGreektextpreservedonlyinaSyriacversionofit,butneverthelessprobablytheoriginalreadingoftheGreektext,has,forthesameunderlinedwords,beforethyrisingup,
andthysittingdownthispresupposestheHebrewLPNYQMKWSBTK,whichdiffersfromthepresentHebrewtextbyoneletteronly.TheHebrewtextherepresupposedis
probablyoriginal,buthasbeenmisunderstoodbythetranslators.Thefirstword,ifvocalizedasintheHebrewtextandbytheGreektranslatorsL PN Y,meansbefore,butif
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probablyoriginal,buthasbeenmisunderstoodbythetranslators.Thefirstword,ifvocalizedasintheHebrewtextandbytheGreektranslatorsL iPNeY,meansbefore,butif
vocalizedL aPNaYitmeansbeforeme.Adoptingthelattervocalization,werecover(atleastsofarasthethreewordsareconcerned)theoriginalsense,Theywereasgrassofthe
fieldandascornthatisblasted.Beforemeisthineuprisingandthydownsitting(cf.Ps139:2)andthygoingoutandthycominginIknow.Sogreatisthedifferenceinsense
thatthecorruptionofasinglelettermaymakeinatextwhichcontainedonlyconsonants,andnomarksofpunctuationwhatever.ThetruereadingoftheHebrewinthiscasewas
firstdivinedbyWellhausenitremainedforMr.BurkitttopointoutthatitwasthereadingoftheGreektranslators.
27.TheHebrewtextbeforethedateoftheGreekversion.IftheHebrewtextsufferedtoaveryconsiderableextentinthewaysjustillustrated,duringthethree
orfourcenturiesthatintervenedbetweenthetimewhentheLXXversionwasmadeandthetimewhentheHebrewtextwasstereotypedandthelaterGreekversions
weremade,bynothingshortofastupendousmiraclecouldthetexthavebeenpreservedfreefromerrorsoftransmission,duringthecenturiesthatseparatethe
originalautographsfromthedateoftheGreekversion.Thisinterveningperioddiffers,ofcourse,widelyinlengthbetweentheageofIsaiahandtheGreek
translationoftheBookofIsaiahlaysomesixcenturiesbetweentheageofDeborah(Jg5)andthetranslationofJudgeslittleshortofathousandyearsbetweenthe
ageofDavid(2S1:19ff.)andthetranslationofSamuel800or900years.Ontheotherhand,betweenthecompilationoftheHexateuch,orthefirstcompositionof
bookssuchasEcclesiastesorDaniel,andthetranslationsintheseveralcases,notmorethanacoupleofcenturieselapsed.
28.MeansofdetectingearlycorruptionofHebrewtext.ThoughthegeneralfactthatthepresentHebrewtextcontainscorruptionsthatdatefromtheseearlier
centuriescannotreasonablybequestioned,thedetectionoftheactualcasesofearlycorruptionisnecessarilydifficult,andonlywithinlimitsisitpossible.Weare
obviouslyfarworsesituatedinattemptingtodeterminecorruptionsofthisdatethancorruptionsoflaterdatetheLXXoftenindicatesthepresenceofthelater
corruptions,butwehavenoexternalcluetotheearliercorruptions.WehavetorelyentirelyonindicationsintheHebrewtextitself.Oneoftheseindicationswillof
coursebetheoccurrenceofnonsense,fortheoriginalautographswereintendedtoconveyanintelligiblemeaning.Anotherindicationwillbetheoccurrenceofbad
grammarunlessinthecaseofaparticularwriterthereisreasonforsupposingthathewasnotmasterofthelanguagewhichhewrote.Aninterestingillustrationof
thewayiswhichthelatterindicationmayserveisfurnishedbysomeofthereferencestotheark.
ThearkiscalledinHebrewHRNtheark,wherethefirstletteristheHebrewarticleor RNBRYTYHWHthearkofthecovenantoftheLordwhereawordinHebrewis
definedbyafollowinggenitiveitcannotbeprecededbythearticle,sointhissecondphrasewehave RN,notHRN.Now,incertainpassages(e.g.Jos3:17),ourpresentHebrew
texthasthegrammaticallyimpossiblecombinationHRNBRYTYHWHsomecorruptiontheoispresenthereanditisprobablethattheoriginaltexthadonlyHRNtheark,and
thatthetwofollowingwordsareduetotheintrusioniotothetextofanannotatorsexplanation.
29.Negativeandpositivejudgments:thejustificationofconjecturalemendationanditslimitations.Theultimatetaskoftextualcriticismistorecoverasfaras
possibletheactualwordsoftheoriginalanintermediatetaskofthetextualcriticismoftheOTistoestablishalltherealvariantsoftheHebrewtextunderlyingthe
Greekversion,andineachcasetodeterminetherelativevalueofthevariants.InthiswaythetextwhichwasthecommonsourceoftheGreektranslatorsandthat
oftheJewishscholarsofthe2ndcent.A.D.isasfaraspossiblerecovered.Sofarnegativeandpositivejudgmentsmustnecessarilyaccompanyoneanotherwesay,
HeretheHebrewtextisright,andtheGreektextWrong,orviceversa.ButwhenwehaverecoveredthatcommonsourceoftheHebrewandGreektexts,itiswise
todistinguishsharplybetweennegativeandpositivecriticaljudgments.ThegeneralfactthatthereareearlyerrorsintheHebrewtextmust,aswehaveseen,be
admittedand,further,nosoundcriticismoftheHebrewtextcanproceedfarwithoutbeingcompelledtosay,Thisorthatiscorrupt,eventhoughtheGreekversion
agreeswiththeHebrewtextorcannotbeshowntohavedifferedfromit.Insomecaseswherethisnegativejudgmentcanbepassedwithconfidence,itmaybe
possiblewithscarcelylessconfidencetopasstothepositivestatement.Thesewordsareacorruptionoftheseotherwordsthatistosay,thetextinsuchcasescan
berestoredbyconjecturebutinmanycaseswherethefirstjudgmentThesewordsarenottheoriginaltextmustbepassed,thesecondjudgmentoughtonlyto
taketheformItispossiblethatsuchandsuchwordsorsomethinglikethemwereintheoriginaltext.Inbrief,wecanmoreoftendetectearlycorruptionthan
restorethetextwhichhasbeencorrupted.Thereasonshouldbeobvious.Nonsense(totaketheextremecase)mustbeduetocorruption,butthesensewhichithas
obscuredmayaltogethereludeus,or,atbest,wemaybeabletodiscernthegeneralsensewithoutdeterminingtheactualwords.
Therecanbenoquestionthatitisnonsensetosay,astheHebrewtextdoes,thatSaul,whowasanointedkingtomeetanationalemergency,wasayearoldwhenhebeganto
reign(1S13:1)butitisimpossibletosaywhethertheoriginaltextattributedtohimtwenty,thirty,forty,oranyotherparticularnumberofyears.Nonsenseisunfortunatelymore
seriousintheoriginallanguagethaninaversion:wemaypasseasilyfromnonsenseintheLXXtotheactualoriginalconsonantsoftheHebrewtext,whichmerelyrequire,when
thusrecovered,tobecorrectlyinterpretedbutiftheHebrewlettersthemselvesyieldnonsense,wearereducedtoguessing,andfrequentlywithlittlehopeofguessingright.
30. TheprecedingparagraphsshouldhavesuggestedthejustificationforconjecturalemendationinthetextualcriticismoftheOT,andatthesametimethey
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30.TheprecedingparagraphsshouldhavesuggestedthejustificationforconjecturalemendationinthetextualcriticismoftheOT,andatthesametimethey
shouldhaveindicateditslimitations.Asagainstaconjecturalemendation,itisinnowaytothepointtourgethattheHebrewtextandalltheversionsareagainstit
fortheagreementoftheHebrewtextandtheversionsmerelyestablishesthetextasitwascurrentabout,letussay,B.C.300.Theprincipleofconjectureisjustified
bythecenturiesoftransmissionthattheHebrewtexthadpassedthroughbeforethatdate.Itmaybeworthwhiletonoticealsothedegreeoftruthandthemeasureof
misunderstandinginvolvedinanothercommonobjectiontoconjecturalemendations.Tacitlyoropenlyittakesthisform:Criticsofferdifferentemendationsofthe
samepassagenotallofthesecanberightthereforetheHebrewtextisnottobequestioned.Therealconclusionisratherthis,Thefactthatseveralscholarshave
questionedthetextrendersthepresenceofcorruptionprobable,thattheydifferintheiremendationsshowsthattherestorationoftheoriginaltextisuncertain.The
idiosyncrasyofasinglescholarmayleadhimtoemendthetextunnecessarily:thelargerthenumberwhofeelcompelledtopronounceitunsound,thegreaterthe
probabilitythatitisunsound,howeverdifficultoruncertainitmaybetopassbeyondthenegativejudgmenttopositivereconstructionofthetext.
31.EvidenceofparalleltextswithintheOT.Wehavenowtoconsiderinwhatwaysbeyondthoseindicatedin28theHebrewtext,takenbyitself,gives
indicationofthepresenceofcorruptions,or,ontheotherhand,ofhavingbeenaccuratelypreserved,andhowitistobeusedinordertoapproximatemostclosely
totheoriginaltext,andthroughittotheoriginalintentionoftheauthorsoftheseveralbooks.
Ofmostimportance,sofarasitisavailable,istheevidenceofdoubletextswithintheOT.
TherearecertainpassagesthatoccurtwiceoverintheOT:e.g.Ps18isfoundalsoin2S22Ps14recursasPs532K18:1320:19is(forthemostpart)repeated
inIs36392K24:1825:21and25:2730inJer52,andlargepartsofSamuelandKingsareincorporatedinChronicles.Thevariationsbetweentheseparallel
textsareoftwokinds:someareduetotheeditorwhoincorporatesinhisownthemattercommontohisworkandtheearlierworkfromwhichhederivesitfor
example,indrawingontheBooksofSamuelandKings,theChronicleroftenabbreviates,expands,ormodifiesthepassagesheborrows,withaviewtoadapting
themtohisspecialpurposeor,again,theeditorwhoincludedthe14thPsalminthecollectioninwhichPs53stands,substitutedGodforJahweh(P SALMS,2
(2)).Withthesechanges,whichitistheprovinceofhighercriticismtoconsiderandexplain,wearenothereconcerned.Butthesecondtypeofvariationsisdueto
accidentsoftransmission,andnotinfrequentlywhatisevidentlytheearlierreadingispreservedinthelaterworkandtheexplanationisverysimple:theearlier
booksweremorereadandcopied:andthemoreabookisused,theworseisitstext(Benzinger).Incertaincasesthereisroomfordoubtastothetypetowhich
particularvariationsbelong,so,forexample,inseveralvariationsasbetween2K1821andIs3639.Asanillustrationofthenatureandextentofvariations
betweentwoparalleltextsoftheOT,wemayrathermorefullyanalyzethevariationsinPs18and2S22.InafewcasestheGreekversionofbothpassagesagrees
withtheHebrewofone,andherethepresumptionisthattheHebrewtextoftheotherpassagehassufferedcorruptionafterthedateoftheGreekversionbutinthe
majorityofcasesinwhichtheHebrewvariationscanberepresentedinGreek,theGreekversionofPs18agreeswiththeHebrewtextofthePsalm,andtheGreek
versionof2S22withtheHebrewtextofthatpassage.IntheseinstancesthepresumptionisthatthevariationhadarisenbeforethedateoftheGreekversion.There
areinallmorethan80variations.Ofthesejustover20arecasesofvowelletters(6)presentintheonetext,andabsentfromtheotherinthegreatmajorityof
instancesitisthePsalmthathasthevowelletters,and2S22thatlacksthem.
Amongtheremainingvariationsarecasesofthefollowingkinds:(1)Omissionsoradditions:Ps18:1isabsentfrom2S.,soalsoisv.35bontheotherhand,2S22:8cis
absentfromthePsalm.Inaboutadozenotherinstancessinglewordspresentinonetextareabsentfromtheother(2)intwoorthreecasesawordhasbeenlostthroughthe
substitutionforitofawordrepeatedinaparallelorneighbouringline:sobillowsinPs18:4hasaccidentallygivenplacetocordsfromv.5(cf.2S.)(3)thevariationsfromPs
18:11b,42bin2S22:12,43areduetotheconfusionofsimilarletters(4)Ps18:28,31differsfrom2S.inrespectoftheDivinenameused(inv.31thePs.hasEloah,2S.El)
(5)inversionofwords(notshewninEV),Ps18:49therearealsocasesofinversionofletters(6)useofdifferentsynonyms,Ps18:48.ThevariationofPs18:14bfrom2S22:15b
ismorecomplicated,andthesignificanceofseveralofthevariationsisclearonlyintheHebrew.
32.Evidenceofmutilatedliteraryforms.(1).Acrostics.ThusthecomparisonofparalleltextsfurnishesonelineofevidenceofthewayinwhichtheHebrew
texthadsufferedintransmissionbeforethedateoftheGreekversion.Anotherproofmaybefoundinthemutilatedforminwhichcertainfixedliteraryforms
surviveinthepresentHebrewtext.Mostconclusiveisthecaseoftheacrosticpoems(seeACROSTIC).Attimestwoconsiderationsconvergetoproveaparticular
passagecorrupt.Forexample,theearlypartofNahIconsistsofamutilatedacrostic:inthemiddleofv.4awordbeginningwithDshouldoccurinstead,theword
MLLbeginningwith isfoundbutthiswordMLLoccursagainintheparallellineinthelightofPs18:4(seeprevious,instance2)itisprobablethatMLL
inthefirsthasbeenaccidentallysubstitutedforaparallelwordwhichbeganwithD.
33.(2)Rhythmandstrophe.ItispossiblethatfurtherstudyofthelawsofHebrewrhythmormetremaygiveusavaluableinstrumentforthedetectionof
corruptionmuchhasalreadybeenattemptedinthisway,andinsomecasesalreadywithresultsofconsiderableprobability.Similarly,insomecasesthestrophic
divisionofpoemsadmitsofconclusionsthatareagain,ifnotcertain,yetprobable.ThusinIs9:810:4and5:2629wehaveapoeminfivestrophesmarkedoff
fromoneanotherbyarefrain(ISAIAH[BOOKOF],p.390a):inthepresenttextthefirststropheconsistsof13,thesecondof14,thethirdof14,thefourthof14,and
thefifthof15linestheprobabilityisthatoriginallyeachstrophewasexactlyequal,andthatthefirststrophehaslostaline,andthatthefifthhasbeenenlargedby41/97
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thefifthof15linestheprobabilityisthatoriginallyeachstrophewasexactlyequal,andthatthefirststrophehaslostaline,andthatthefifthhasbeenenlargedby
theinterpolationofaline.
34.LimitedextentofcorruptionoftextofOT.Theconsiderationsadducedinthetwoprecedingparagraphshaveadoubleedge.Theyshow,itistrue,thatthe
Hebrewtexthasinplacessufferedconsiderablybuttheyalsoindicatecertainlimitswithinwhichcorruptionhastakenplace,or,tostateitotherwise,thedegreeof
integritywhichthetransmittedtexthaspreserved.Ifinthewaysjustindicatedwecandetectthelossorintrusionoflinesorwords,orthesubstitutionofoneword
foranother,wecanelsewhereclaimastrongpresumptioninfavourofapoemhavingpreserveditsoriginallengthandstructure.Forexample,themajorityofthe
acrosticshavecomedowntouswithlittleornomutilationthataffectstheirlengthortherecurrenceattherightplaceoftheacrosticletters.Similarlythevery
possibilityofdeterminingrhythmmustrestonaconsiderableamountofthetexthavingreachedusfreefromfarreachingcorruption.Afurtherconsiderationofa
differentkindmaybefoundinthefactthatalargenumberofpropernames(whicharepeculiarlyexposedtotransmissionalcorruption)ashandeddowninthe
Hebrewtexthavebeenparalleledinancientmaterialbroughttolightbymoderndiscovery.Inmanycasesitisbeyondquestionthatnameshavesufferedinthe
courseoftransmissionbutthecorrecttransmissionofrare,andinsomecasesstrange,namesissignificant.
35.Secondarynatureofvowelletters:bearingontextualcriticism.Solongaswedealwithparalleltexts,wearenotbroughtfacetofacewiththequestionof
howtodealwithaHebrewtextrestingonasingleauthority.YetthegreatbulkoftheOTisofthisclass.How,then,isittobedealtwith,especiallywhenthereisno
controloverittobeobtainedfromfixedliteraryforms?Thefirstdutyofsoundcriticismistodisregard,oratleasttosuspect,allvowelletters(see6).Wecannot,
indeed,assertpositivelythattheoriginalwritersmadenouseoftheseletters,forwefindthememployedincertaincasesinearlyinscriptions(Moabitestone,Siloam
inscription)butinviewoftheevidenceoftheparalleltextsoftheHebrewBible,oftheLXX,andofRabbinicreferences,itiscertainthatinalargenumberofcases
thesevowellettershavebeenaddedinthecourseoftransmission.Theconsequenceisthatwecannotclaimanyparticularvowelletterfortheoriginalauthorhe
mayhaveusedit,hemaynot:particularlyinthecaseofearlierwriters,thelatteralternativeisasarulethemoreprobable.Inotherimportantrespectstheformof
thepresentHebrewconsonantaltextdiffersfromwhatthereisreasontobelievewasitsearlierform.
36.Similarityofcertainlettersasourceofconfusion.Wehaveseenabove(17)thatthealphabetinwhichexistingHebrewMSSarewrittendifferswidely
fromthatinuseatthetimewhentheOTwaswrittentheletteryod,proverbiallythesmallest(Mt5:15)inthealphabetinusesincetheChristianera,wasoneofthe
largerlettersoftheearlierscript.Itisnecessaryindoubtfulpassagestopicturethetextaswritteninthisearlierscript,andtoconsidertheprobabilityofatext
differingfromthereceivedtextmerelybyletterscloselyresemblingoneanotherinthisearlierscript.
ThusthelettersDandRaresimilarinmostSemiticalphabets,insometheyareindistinguishableforexample,intheAssouanpapyri,Jewishdocumentsofthe5thcent. B. C.
recentlydiscoveredandpublished(1907),DandRcannotbeclearlydistinguished,anditisdisputed,andislikelytobedisputed,whetheraparticularwordwhichoccursseveral
timesisDGLorRGL.Itbecomesimportant,therefore,indealingwiththeHebrewtextoftheOTtoconsiderthevariantswhicharisebysubstitutingDsforRs.TheHeb.words
forSyriaandEdomare RMand DMrespectivelythecontextaloneisreallytheonlysafecluetotheoriginalreadinginanyparticularpassage,andthemerefactthatthepresent
Hebrewtextreadstheoneortheotherisrelativelyunimportantthus,forexample,theHeb.textisobviouslywrongin2S8:13,andprobablyin2Ch20:2.
37.Divisionoftextintowordssecondary.Finally,itmustberememberedthatthereisgoodreasonforbelievingthatthedivisionoftheconsonantsofone
wordfromthoseofanotherhasnotbeenaconstantfeatureofthetext.Consequentlywecannotsafelyassumethatthepresentdivisioncorrespondstothatofthe
originalwriters.
38.Thestartingpointofcriticisminattemptingtodetecttheearliesterrorsinthetext.Fromallthisitfollowsthatsoundcriticismrequiresustostartfromthis
position:theoriginalwriterswroteinadifferentscriptfromthepresent,usednovowelsigns,nomarksofpunctuation,andevenvowellettersbutsparinglyeither
theythemselvesorcopyistswrotethetextscontinuouslywithoutdividingonewordfromanother,oratleastwithoutsystematicallymarkingthedivisions.
Consequentlythecanonthatthehistoryofthetextjustifiesisthatthatdivisionofconsonantsandthatpunctuationofclausesandsentencesmustinallcasesbe
adoptedwhich,everythingconsidered,yieldsthemostsuitablesenseobviousasthiscanonmayappear,itbynomeansalwaysobtainsrecognitioninpracticethe
weightofJewishtraditionisallowedtooverrideit.AndyettherearemostobviouscaseswheretheHebrewtextgivesadivisionofconsonantsorclauseswhichare
nottheoriginal,buthavearisenfromaccidentorparticulartheoriesofexegesis.Further,wherenodivisionoftheexistingconsonantsyieldsanysense,orbutan
improbablesense,itmustbeconsideredwhetherthesubstitutionofsimilarconsonantswill.Whetherthetextthusobtainedhasanyormuchprobabilityofbeingthe
originalwilldependonmanyconsiderations.
39.Illustrationsofsucherrors.Weshallconcludewithsomeillustrationsofthevariationsintextorsensethatarisewhentheforegoingconsiderationsare
alloweddueweight.Itisnottobeunderstoodthatinallcasesthevariationsfromthetraditionalinterpretation(13)ortext(4)arecertainlythetrueinterpretation
ortext,buttheyallhaveaclaimtobeseriouslyregarded.
(1) Insomecasessimplyafreshpunctuationofthesentenceswithoutanyalterationoftheconsonantswhatevergivesanimportantvariationinsense.AgoodinstanceisIs
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(1)Insomecasessimplyafreshpunctuationofthesentenceswithoutanyalterationoftheconsonantswhatevergivesanimportantvariationinsense.AgoodinstanceisIs
1:1214eveninthepresenttextthedenunciationofritualworshipissevereprobablyitwasoncemoresevere.Thus,withoutanychangeinthetext,wemayrender
Whenyecometoseemyface,Whohathrequiredthisatyourhand?
Nomoreshallyetramplemycourts.
Thebringingofoblationsisavainthing
Incenseisanabominationtome
Newmoonandsabbath,thecallingofassembly,Icannotawaywith.
Iniquityandthesolemnmeeting,yournewmoonsandyourappointedfeastsmysoulhateth.
ForWNiniquitytheGreekversionhasWMfast(s).Weprobablyhaveinthehistoryofthispassageaseriesofattemptstosoftendowntheseverityand
absolutenessofthepropheticdenunciationoftheexternalitiesofreligion.
(2)IntheHebrewBiblethewordformanYSisdistinguishedfromthewordforfireSbytheinsertionofthevowelletterYbutintheMoabitestone,the
Siloaminscription(writteninJerusalemintheage,asiscommonlysupposed,ofIsaiah),andinPhnicianinscriptions,itisregularlywrittenwithouttheY,andis
thusindistinguishablefromthewordforfire.Whereeitherofthesewordsoccurs,therefore,wemustdecidebythecontextonlywhichwasintended.
InIs9:19didIsaiahmean,andthepeopleareasthefood(soliterally,notfuel,RV)offire,orasthefoodofman?Bythechangeofasingleletterintheword
renderedfood,weobtainforthewholephraselikethosethatdevourmen,i.e.likecannibalsareadingsuggestedbyDuhm,and,forreasonswhichcannothere
bediscussed,worthyofconsideration.Anevenclearerinstanceofconfusionofthetwowords(Y)andisEzk8:2forfire(firstoccurrencein
RV)readaman.
(3)MutilationofthesenseoftheoriginalissometimesoccasionedbyincorrectdivisionofwordsinthepresentHebrewtext.InsomecasestheRevisers,who
generallypreferredtoretaintheobviouslyincorrectsenseinthetext,givethecorrectsenseinthemargin:see,e.g.,Gn49:20,Ps25:17,42:5,Hos6:5,Jer23:33
(RVsecondmarginalnoteonthever.)atothertimestheygiveonlyarenderingofthepresentHebrew,and,toeaseoffacertainroughnessoractualinaccuracyin
themutilatedoriginal,theysometimestranslatewithmoreorlessdisregardofHebrewgrammaroridiom.InPs73:4amereredivisionofwordsgivesareading
moreoriginalthanthepresenttext:Fortheyhavenotorments:soundandplumpistheirbody.Astrikingvariantappearsassoonasthesecondandthirdwordsof
Is10:4areredivided(KRTHTinsteadofKRTHT):thefirstclauseofthever.thenreads,Beltiscroucheth,Osirisisdismayed,andthisisadoptedbymanyas
thesenseintendedbyIsaiah.Thisisnotcertain,thoughtheHebrewasatpresentdividedscarcelyadmitsoftranslation,andtherenderingsofRVareillegitimate.
AnothervariantofsomeimportanceappearswhenwedividethewordsinIs8:8differently(viz.RZKMNWLinsteadof RZKMNWL):theversecloses
notwitha
propernameinthevocative,butwithastatementTheoutstretchingofhiswingsshallfillthebreadthoftheland,forGodiswithus(cf.v.10)
(4)ParallelismorthecontextoftengivesgreatprobabilitytoconjecturalreadingsthatdifferfromtheHebrewtextbyaletterortwo,eventhoughthechangeis
not(clearly)supportedbytheGreekversion.Forexample,inDt33:2,thewordMRBBTisprobablyanerrorforMMRBT(Mhavingaccidentallybeenwrittenonce
insteadoftwice,andBtwiceinsteadofonce)thenthelinereadsfromMeribahKadesh,whichisagoodparalleltoParan.
40.TheEnglishversionsandtheHebrewtext.TheearliestofEnglishversionsproper(Wyclifs)wasmadefromtheVulgate.BetweenthetimeofWyclifand
ofthenumerousEnglishversionsofthe16thcent.(seeENGLISHVERSIONS)thestudyofHebrew,which,sincetheageofJerome,badpracticallyvanishedfromthe
ChristianChurch,wasreintroduced.TheAV,inwhichtheseriesofReformationtranslationsculminated,isaprimaryversionoftheHebrewtextwithoccasional
unacknowledgedsubstitutionofthesenseoftheLXXforthatoftheHebrew(seeforanexample21andbelow).Itwasonlynaturalthatatfirsttranslationfrom
theoriginallanguageshouldseemthelastwordinBiblicaltranslationbutseveralscholarsofthe17thcent.alreadyappreciatedthevalueoftheversionsandthe
faultinessoftheHebrewtext,andperceivedthatanytranslationthatattemptedtoapproximatetothesenseoftheoriginalwriterswasdoomedtofallunnecessarily
farshortofitsaimifitslavishlyfollowedtheexistingHebrewtext.Unfortunatelytheappreciationofthesefactshadnotbecomegeneraleventowardstheendofthe
19thcent.,withtheresultthattheRevisersoftheOTfeltthemselvesjustifiedinpracticallyrenouncingtheuseoftheversions(nottospeakofcriticalconjecture),so
farasthetextoftheirtranslationisconcerned.Someoftheevidenceoftheversionsisgivenbythem,yetveryunsystematically,inthemargins.TheRevisershave
explainedtheirstandpointintheirpreface:Asthestateofknowledgeonthesubjectisnotatpresentsuchastojustifyanyattemptatanentirereconstructionofthe
textontheauthorityoftheversions,theRevisershavethoughtitmostprudent,toadopttheMassoreticTextasthebasisoftheirwork,andtodepartfromit,asthe
authorizedTranslatorshaddone,onlyinexceptionalcases.InsomefewinstancesofextremedifficultyareadinghasbeenadoptedontheauthorityoftheAncient
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authorizedTranslatorshaddone,onlyinexceptionalcases.InsomefewinstancesofextremedifficultyareadinghasbeenadoptedontheauthorityoftheAncient
Versions,andthedeparturefromtheMassoreticTextrecordedinthemargin.Inspiteofthisdeterminationtobeprudent,theRevisershaveinoneinstanceadmitted
anexceedinglyquestionableconjecture:in1S13:1theyinsertinitalicsandbetweensquarebrackets,itistruethewordthirtyyetthisword,thoughfoundina
fewGreekMSS(not,however,intheearliertextoftheLXX,ratherunfortunatelydescribedbytheRevisersastheunrevisedLXX),isreallyduetoapureguess
asareadingthewordthirtypossessesexactlythesamevalueaswouldanyothernumbernotobviouslyunsuitable.Inadditiontothispeculiarlyunhappy
excursionintowhatis,ifnottechnicallyyetinreality,conjecturalemendationofthemosthazardouscharactertheRevisersmakefewacknowledgeddeparturesfrom
theHebrewtextevenwhenitismostobviouslycorrupt.Instanceswill,however,befoundinRuth4:4,1S6:18,27:10,2S18:3,Ps8:1,59:9,Mic4:13insomeof
thesecasestheAVhadprevously(withoutacknowledgment)abandoned,theHebrewtextinall,theReviserswerewelladvisedindoingso.Butthemoregeneral
effectoftheattitudeadoptedbytheReviserstothequestionoftheHebrewtextmaybeillustratedbytheirtreatmentofthepassagescitedintheirprefaceascasesin
whichtheAVabandonedtheHebrewtext.
In2S16:12,AVhasItmaybetheLordwilllookonmineaffliction,whichmayrepresenttheoriginaltext,thelastwordoftheoriginalHebrewinthatcasehavingbeen
BNYYbutthepresent
HebrewtexthasBWNY,whichmeansonmyiniquity,andtheHebrew(asalsotheRV)marginhas
BYNYonmyeye(interpretedasmeaningonmytearssoAVm).HeretheRVrelegatestherendering
onmyafflictiontothemargin,andgivesinthetextthescarcelydefensiblerenderingoftheHebrewtextonthewrongdoneuntome.In2Ch3:1theHebrewtext,atsometime
afterthedateoftheGreekversion,hasbeenreducedtononsensebytheaccidentalmisplacementofaword.AVfollowstheLXX,andisintelligibleRVinrenderingthecrucial
wordshalffollowstheHebrewtext,and,shrinkingfromthefulleffectofthis,halfmistranslates,yetwiththetotalresultofbeingnearlyasunintelligibleastheHebrew(inthe
placethatDavidhadappointedisnotalegitimaterenderingofthewordscorrectlyrenderedinRVmarg.).BothAVandRVinsert(initalics)theL ORD:thisprobablystoodinthe
originaltext,stillstandsintheGreekversion,butisnotevensuggestedintheHebrewtext.In2Ch22:6RV(rightly)adoptsinitstextthereadingoftheparallelpassageinKings
forthefirstpartofthever.butretainsinthesecondpartofthevertheobviouslywrongreadingoftheHebrewtextAzariah(Greekversionand2K.Ahaziah).InJob37:7AV
giveswhatprobablyapproximatestotheoriginalsense,thoughitisnotatranslationoftheHebrewtext.RVcorrectlyrenderstheHebrewtextasnowdividedotherwisedivided(cf.
above,37),itwouldmeanthatallmenmayknowhehathdoneit.InEzk46:10
AVtacitlyadoptsaslightemendation(Y forY W)RVretainstheHebrewtextsofarastheverbisconcerned,butinordertomakesomesenseillegitimatelyinserts(initalics)
togetherillegitimatelybecausetogetherisaslittlesuggestedbytheHebrewasitwouldbebytheEnglish.InAm5:26AVhasbeenledastraybytheLXXRV(text)isnearer
theoriginalsense.InHag1:2,asinEzk46:10,theRevisers,toavoidplacingistheirtexttheexceedinglyprobablereadingwhichstandsontheirmargin,haveinsertedwords(in
italics)whicharenotevenremotelysuggestedintheHebrew,andhaveinanotherrespecttranslatedquestionably.
FromtheforegoingexamplesitwillappearthatinsomecasestheAVineffectapproximatesmorecloselytotheoriginaltextandsensethantheRVtext,though
theRVgenerally,perhapsalways,initsmargingivestherenderingofAV(oranequivalentrendering).ItisinterestingtoaddthatinsomecasesWyclifs,though
(andindeedbecause)asecondaryversion,followsamoresatisfactorytextthaneitherAVorRV(so,e.g.,in1S14:41,whereithasthewordsthathaveaccidentally
fallenoutofthepresentHebrewtext:see24).TheInstancesinwhichtheRVgivesatranslationthatiseitherentirelyindefensibleorquestionableorimprobable,
tosavetheappearanceofabandoningtheHebrewtext,mightbegreatlymultiplied.Suchmistranslation,orquestionabletranslation,wasindeednecessarily
involvedinthecarryingoutoftheprinciplesadopted.For,owingtothestateinwhichtheHebrewtexthascomedowntous,atranslatorisnotinfrequentlyshutup
tooneofthesefouroptions:(1)hemayleavethedoubtfulwordsoftheHebrewtextuntranslated(2)hemaytranslatefromtheHebrewtextasemendedbythehelp
oftheversionsorconjecture(3)hemayrenderunintelligiblewordsinHebrewbyequallyunintelligiblewordsinEnglishor(4)hemaymistranslatetheHebrew.If
headoptsthethirdoptionheobviouslywillnotreproducetheoriginalwritersmeaningifthefourth,hewillprobablynotdoso,andifhedoes,itwillbeby
accidentifheadoptsthesecond,henodoubtrunsarisk,andsometimesaconsiderablerisk,ofstillfailingtorecovertheoriginalsensethefirstoptionaloneis
safe,andincertaincaseswouldbestpromotethefullestpossibleunderstandingofanentirepassage.TheRevisershaveoccasionallyadoptedthethird,butgenerally
thefourth,oftheseoptions.
BetweentheageoftheAVandthatoftheRV,Biblicalscholarshipadvancedparticularlyintwodirections:(1)inthecriticalstudyoftheHebrewtext(2)inthe
understandingoftheprinciplesandvocabularyoftheHebrewlanguage.Forexample,inthelightofthecomparativestudyoflanguage,meaningsofmanywords
whichHebrewtraditionhadlostbecameclear.TheRVmadefulluse(initsmargins,ifnotinitstext)oftheresultsduetothesecondlineofadvance,andisin
consequencegreatlysuperiortotheAV.Atthesametime,inordertoutilizethisfirstknowledge,itwascompelledtoabandonHebrewtradition,andinsomecases
eventhattraditionasembodiedintheHebrewvowels.InconsequencetheRVisaversionofrathermixedcharacteritisalessfaithfulrenderingintoEnglishofthe
HebrewtraditionalunderstandingoftheOTthantheAVontheotherhand,forreasonsalreadyexplained,itrepresentstheoriginalmeaningoftheOTwritersonly44/97
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HebrewtraditionalunderstandingoftheOTthantheAVontheotherhand,forreasonsalreadyexplained,itrepresentstheoriginalmeaningoftheOTwritersonly
verypartiallyandmuchlesscompletelythanispossible.Insum,then,theEnglishreader,ifhewishestoreadintheOTthemeaningattachedtoitbyJewish
tradition,shouldusetheAVandnottheRVifhewishestounderstandthemeaningoftheoriginalwritersoftheOT,theRVwillbringhimmuchnearerhisdesire
thantheAV,especiallyifhemakeswiseuseofthemargins(cf.Driver,BookofJob,Introduction,p.xxiv.ff.)butitisonlybymakinguseofsuchtranslationsas
havebeenreferredtoatendofcertainarticlesofthis
work(seeP SALMSISAIAH[BK.OF]HOSEA[BK.OF]MICAH[BK.OF])thathewillbeabletoavailhimselfofsuchmeansasexistfortheEnglishreaderofpassing,
sofarasispossible,beyondtraditiontothewordofScriptureitself.
AnyfulltreatmentofthesubjectofthisarticlenaturallyinvolvesaknowledgeofHebrew.Ofworksonthetext,inadditiontotherelevantarticlesinthelargerdictionaries,it
maysufficetoreferhereto
Buhl,CanonandTextoftheOT(T.&T.Clark)Driver,NotesontheHebrewTextoftheBooksofSamuel,Introduction.CriticaleditionsoftheMassoretictexthavebeenmentioned
above,10.AcriticaleditionoftheHebrewtextoftheentireOTremainsadesideratum.SofaraspublisheditismetbyHauptsSacredBooksoftheOT.Meantime,thebest
HebrewBibleforuseisKittels,whichprintsthe
Massoretic text, but within small compass presents in the footnotes a large mass of wellselected variants suggested by the versions or conjecture. Some of the points briefly dealt
withintheforegoingarticlearemorefullydiscussedinotherarticlesinthepresentworkseeinparticularGREEKVERSIONS,VULGATE,
E NGLISHVERSIONS,WRITING.
G.B.GRAY.
TEXTOFTHENEWTESTAMENT.1.ThetextoftheNTasreadinordinarycopiesof
theGr.Testament,andastranslatedintheAVof1611,issubstantiallyidenticalwiththatprintedbyStephanus(RobertEstienne)in1550,andbytheElzevirsintheir
populareditionof1624.TothistexttheElzevirsintheirnextedition(1633)appliedthephraseTextumergohabesnuncabomnibusreceptumandbythenameof
TextusReceptus(TR)orReceivedText,ithassincebeengenerallyknown.TheeditionofStephanuswasbaseduponthetwoearliestprintedtextsoftheNT,thatof
Erasmus(publishedin1516),andthatoftheComplutensianPolyglot(printedin1514,butnotpublisheduntil1522)andhealsomadeuseof15MSS,mostlyat
Paris.Twoofthese(Codd.DandL,seebelow,7)wereofearlydate,butnotmuchusewasmadeofthemtheotherswereminuscules(see5)ofrelativelylate
date.Theprincipaleditorofthe
ComplutensianPolyglot,LopezdeStunica,usedMSSborrowedfromtheVaticantheyhavenotbeenidentified,butappeartohavebeenlate,andordinaryin
character.Erasmus,workingtoapublishersorder,withtheobjectofanticipatingtheComplutensian,dependedprincipallyuponasingle12thcent.MSforthe
Gospels,upononeofthe13thor14thfortheEpistles,andupononeofthe12thfortheApocalypse.AllofthesewereatBasle,andweremerelythosewhich
chancedtobemostaccessible.
TheTRisconsequentlyderivedfrom(atmost)some20or25MSS,datingfromthelastfewcenturiesbeforetheinventionofprinting,andnotselectedonany
estimateofmerit,butmerelyasbeingreadytotheeditorshands.TheymaybetakenasfairlyrepresentativeofthegreatmassofGr.Test.MSSofthelateMiddle
Ages,butnomore.Atthepresenttimewehaveover3000GreekMSSoftheNT,orofpartsofit,andtheyrangebackinagetothe4thcent.,oreven,inthecaseof
afewsmallfragments,tothe3rd.ThehistoryofTextualCriticismduringthepasttwocenturiesandahalfhasbeenthehistoryoftheaccumulationofallthis
material(andofthefurthermassesofevidenceprovidedbyancienttranslations),andofitsapplicationtothediscoveryofthetruetextoftheNTanditisnot
surprisingthatsuchhugeaccessionsofevidence,goingbackinageathousandyearsormorebehindthedateofErasmusprincipalwitnesses,shouldhave
necessitatedaconsiderablenumberofalterationsinthedetailsoftheTR.Theplanofthepresentarticleis,firsttosetforthasummaryofthematerialsnow
available,andthentoindicatethedriftofcriticismwithregardtotheresultsobtainedfromthem.
2.ThematerialsavailableforascertainingthetruetextoftheNT(and,intheirmeasure,ofallotherancientworksofliterature)fallintothreeclasses:(1)
Manuscripts,orcopiesoftheNTintheoriginalGreek(2)Versions,orancienttranslationsofitintootherlanguages,whichwerethemselves,ofcourse,originally
derivedfromveryearlyGreekMSS,nowlost(3)Quotationsinancientwriters,whichshowwhatreadingsthesewritersfoundinthecopiesaccessibletothem.Of
thesethreeclassesitwillbenecessarytotreatseparatelyinthefirstinstance,andafterwardstocombinetheresultsoftheirtestimony.
3.Manuscripts.ItispracticallycertainthattheoriginalsoftheNTbookswerewrittenonrollsofpapyrus,thatbeingthematerialinuniversalusefor
literarypurposesintheGreekandLatinspeakingworld.Eachbookwouldhewrittenseparately,andwouldatfirstcirculateseparatelyandsolongaspapyrus
continuedtobeemployed,itwasimpossibletoincludemorethanasingleGospeloragroupofshortEpistlesinonevolume.Consequentlytherecouldbeno
collectedNewTestamentatthisearlystage,andnoquestion(sofarastheconditionsofliterarytransmissionwereconcerned)offixingaCanonofbookstobe
includedinsuchacollection.Papyrusisamaterial(madefromthepithofthestemoftheEgyptianwaterplantofthatname)whichbecomesbrittlewithage,and
quiteunabletoresistdampconsequentlypapyrusMSShavealmostwhollyperished,fromfrictionanduseiftheyremainedaboveground,frommoistureifthey45/97
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quiteunabletoresistdampconsequentlypapyrusMSShavealmostwhollyperished,fromfrictionanduseiftheyremainedaboveground,frommoistureifthey
wereburiedbeneathit.OnlyinMiddleandUpperEgypt,wherethesoilisextraordinarilydry,haveburiedpapyrisurvived.Literaryworksandbusinessdocuments
havebeendugupoflateyearsinEgyptinverylargenumbers,rangingfromaboutB.C.500toA.D.700,sothatthestylesofwritinginuseatthetimewhentheNT
bookswerewrittenarewellknowntousbutChristianityanditsliteraturearenotlikelytohavepenetratedmuchbeyondLowerEgyptinthefirsttwocenturiesof
theirexistence,andconsequentlyitisperfectlynaturalthatnomanuscriptsoftheNTofthisperiodarenowextant.Fromthelatterpartofthe3rdcent.A.D.afew
smallfragmentshavebeenrecovered,whichshowthatsomeoftheNTbookswereknowninMiddleEgyptatthatdatebuttheonlypapyrusMSasyetdiscovered
whichcanbesaidtohavesubstantialtextualimportance,isone(OxyrhynchusPap.657,3rd4thcent.)containingaboutathirdofHebrews,whichisthemore
valuablebecauseCod.Bisdefectiveinthatbook.BesidesthenaturalcausesjustmentionedforthedisappearanceofearlyBiblicalMSS,itshouldberemembered
thatChristianbooks(especiallytheofficialcopiesinthepossessionofChurches)wereliabletodestructionintimesofpersecution.
4.Theseconditions,whichamplyaccountforthedisappearanceoftheearliestMSSofthe
NT,werefundamentallyalteredinthe4thcentury.TheacceptanceofChristianitybytheRomanEmpiregaveagreatimpulsetothecirculationoftheScriptures
andsimultaneouslypapyrusbegantobesupersededbyvellumasthepredominantliterarymaterial.PapyruscontinuedtobeusedinEgyptuntilthe8thcent.for
Greekdocuments,and,toaleaseranddecreasingextent,forGreekliterature,andforCopticwritingstoastilllaterdatebutthebestcopiesofbookswere
henceforthwrittenuponvellum.Vellumhadtwogreatadvantages:Itwasmuchmoredurable,and(beingmadeupincodexorbookform,insteadofrolls)itwas
possibletoincludeamuchgreaterquantityofmatterinasinglemanuscript.Hencefromthe4thcent.itbecamepossibletohavecompletecopiesoftheNT,oreven
ofthewholeBibleanditistothe4thcent.thattheearliestextantBiblicalMSSofanysubstantialsizebelong.
5.VellumMSSaredividedintotwoclasses,accordingtothestyleoftheirwriting.Fromthe4thcent.tothe10ththeyarewritteninuncials,i.e.incapital
letters,ofrelativelylargesize,eachbeingformedseparately.Inthe9thcent.anewstyleofwritingwasintroduced,bytheadaptationtoliterarypurposesofthe
ordinaryrunninghandofthedaythis,consistingasitdidofsmallercharacters,iscalledminuscule,andsincethesesmallerletterscouldbeeasilylinkedtogether
intoarunninghand,itisalsocommonlycalledcursive.Inthe9thcent.theuncialandminusculestylesarefoundcoexisting,theformerperhapsstill
predominatinginthe10ththeminusculeshavedecidedlytriumphed,andtheuncialstylediesout.Minusculescontinueinuse,withprogressivemodificationsof
form,untilthesupersessionofmanuscriptsbyprintinthe15thcent.atfirstalwaysuponvellum,butfromthe13thcent.onwardssometimesuponpaper.
6.UncialMSSbeing,asaclass,considerablyolderthantheminuscules,itisnaturaltoexpectthatthepurestandleastcorruptedtextswillbefoundamong
themthoughitisalwaysnecessarytoreckonwiththepossibilitythataminusculeMSmaybeadirectandfaithfulrepresentativeofaMSverymucholderthan
itself.Over160uncialMSS(includingfragments)oftheNTorofpartsofitareknowntoexist,ofwhichmorethan110containtheGospelsorsomeportionof
them.IntheapparatuscriticusoftheNTtheyareindicatedbythecapitalletters,firstoftheLatinalphabet,thenoftheGreek,andfinallyoftheHebrew,forwhich
itisnowproposedtosubstitutenumeralsprecededbyO.Further,sincecomparativelyfewMSScontainthewholeoftheNT,itisfoundconvenienttodivideitinto
fourgroups:(1)Gospels,(2)ActsandCatholicEpistles,(3)PaulineEpistles,(4)ApocalypseandeachgrouphasitsownnumerationofMSS.TheuncialMSS
whichcontainallofthesegroups,suchasthoseknownasAandC,retainthesedesignationsineachgroupbutwhenaMSdoesnotcontainthemall,itsletteris
giventoanotherMSinthosegroupswhichitdoesnotcontain.Buthereagainitisnowproposedtoadoptasimplersystem,bywhichnearlyeveryMSwillhave
oneletterornumbertoitself,andoneonly.
7.AselectionofthemostimportantuncialMSSwillnowbebrieflydescribed,soastoindicatetheirimportanceinthetextualcriticismoftheNT:
.CodexSinaiticus,originallyacompletecodexoftheGreekBible.FortythreeleavesoftheOT
werediscoveredbyTischendorfinthemonasteryofSt.CatherineatSinaiin1844,andacquiredbyhimfortheUniversityLibraryatLeipzigwhiletheremainder(156leavesofthe
OT,andtheentireNT,withtheEpistleofBarnabasandpartoftheShepherdofHermas,on148leaves)werefoundbyhiminthesameplacein1859,andeventuallysecuredfor
theImperialLibraryatSt.Petersburg.TheBibletextiswrittenwithfourcolumnstothepage(thenarrowcolumnsbeingasurvivalfromthepapyrusperiod)andpalographersare
nowgenerallyagreedinreferringtheMStothe4thcent.,sothatitisoneofthetwooldestMSSoftheBibleinexistence.TischendorfattributestheoriginaltextoftheMStofour
scribes,oneofwhomhebelieves(though,intheopinionofmany,thisisveryquestionable)tohavebeenalsothescribeoftheCodexVaticanus(B)andthecorrectionstosix
differenthands,ofwhomthemostimportantare a (aboutcontemporarywiththeoriginalscribe),and ca and cb (ofthe7thcent.).Thecorrectionsof ca werederived
(accordingtoanoteaffixedtotheBookofEsther)fromaMScorrectedbythemartyr
Pamphilus,thediscipleofOrigenandfounderofthelibraryofCsarea.Ithasbeenheldthat itselfwaswrittenatCsarea,butthiscannotberegardedascertain.Thecharacterof
itstextwillbeconsideredin40ff.below.
A. CodexAlexandrinus,probablywrittenatAlexandriainthe5thcent.,andnowintheBritishMuseum.Fromanuncertain,butearly,dateitbelongedtothePatriarchsof
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A. CodexAlexandrinus,probablywrittenatAlexandriainthe5thcent.,andnowintheBritishMuseum.Fromanuncertain,butearly,dateitbelongedtothePatriarchsof
AlexandriaitwasbroughtthencebyCyrilLucarin1621,whenhebecamePatriarchofConstantinople,andwaspresentedbyhimtoCharles I.in1627,andsopassed,withtherest
oftheRoyalLibrary,totheBritishMuseumin1757.ItcontainsthewholeGreekBible,withtheexceptionof40lostleaves(containingMt1:125:6,Jn6:508:52,2Co4:13
12:6)italsooriginallycontainedthetwoEpistlesofClementandthePsalmsofSolomon,butthePsalmsandtheconclusionoftheSecondEpistlehavedisappeared,togetherwith
oneleaffromtheFirstEpistle.ThetextoftheNTiswrittenbythreescribes,withtwocolumnstothepage:therearemanycorrectionsbytheoriginalscribesandbyanalmost
contemporaryreviser(Aa).
B. CodexVaticanus,No.1209intheVaticanLibraryatRome,whereithasbeensinceabout1481.ItisprobablytheoldestandthebestextantMSoftheGreekNT,andits
evidenceislargelyresponsibleforthechangesoftextembodiedintheEnglishRV.Itiswritteninasmall,neatuncial,probablyofthe4thcent.,withthreecolumnstothepage.It
originallycontainedthewholeBible(excepttheBooksof
Maccabees),possiblywithadditionalbooks,like andAbutithaslostfromHe9:14totheendofthe
NT,includingthePastoralEpistles(butnottheCatholicEpistles,whichfollowtheActsandhencehaveescaped)andApocalypse.
C. CodexEphraemi,intheBibliothqueNationaleatParis.Thisisapalimpsest,i.e.amanuscriptofwhichtheoriginalwritinghasbeenpartiallywashedorscrapedoffthe
velluminordertouseitagaintoreceiveotherwriting.InthiscasetheoriginalwritingwasthetextoftheGreekBible,writteninthe5thcent.,inonebroadcolumntothepageand
thiswassacrificedinthe12thcent.inordertoinscribeonthesamevellumsometreatisesbySt.EphraemofSyria.Only64leavesoftheOTnowsurvive,and145oftheNT(out
of238)andoftenitisimpossibletodeciphertheoriginalwriting.TheMSisthereforeonlyfitfullyandintermittentlyofservice.
D. CodexBezae,intheUniversityLibraryatCambridge,towhichitwaspresentedin1581by
TheodoreBeza,whoobtaineditin1562fromthemonasteryofSt.IrenusatLyons.ItcontainstheGospelsandActs,inGreekandLatin,theformeroccupyingthelefthandpages
andthelattertheright.Itismutilated,Ac22:29toendbeinglost,togetherwithall,exceptafewwordsoftheCatholicEpistles,whichfollowed.Itisgenerallyassignedtothe6th
cent.,thoughsomewouldplaceitinthe5th.ItsplaceoforiginhasbeenvariouslysupposedtobesouthernFrance,southernorwesternItaly,orSardinia,buttheevidenceisnot
decisiveinfavourofanyofthese.Itstextisveryremarkable,containingalargenumberofadditionsandsomenotableomissionsascomparedwiththeTRinsomeplacestheLatin
versionseemstohavebeenaccommodatedtotheGreek,andinotherstheGreektotheLatin.Aswillbeshownbelow,itstypeoftextbelongstoafamilyofwhichtheother
principalrepresentativesaretheOldLatinandOldSyriacversions.
D2.CodexClaromontanus,intheBibliothqueNationaleatParis.ContainsthePaulineEpistlesinGreekandLatin,writtenprobablyinthe6thcentury.TheLatintextis
practicallyindependentoftheGreek.BeforetheEpistletotheHebrewsisalistofthebooksoftheNT,withthenumberofstichoi(ornormallinesof16syllableseach)ineachof
them,whichmustbedescendedfromaveryearlyarchetype,sinceitplacesthebooksinanunusualorder,andincludesinthelistseveraluncanonicalbooks(cf.
descriptionsof andA)theorderisMt.,Jn.,Mk.,Lk.,Ro.,1and2Cor.,Gal.,Eph.,1and2Tim.,Tit.,
Col.,Philem.,1and2Pet.,Ja.,1,2,3Jn.,Jude,Barnabas,Apoc,Acts,Hennas,ActsofPaul,Apoc.ofPeter(Th.,He.,andPhil,beingomitted).TheMSwasinthemonasteryof
Clermont,whenceitwasacquiredbyBeza,whowasalsoownerofD.ItmayprobablyhavebeenwritteninItaly.OtherGrcoLatinMSSofthePaulineEpistlesareE3F 2G3,
whichallgobacktothesamearchetypeasD2.
E2.CodexLaudianus,intheBodleianLibraryatOxford.ContainstheActs,inGreekandLatin,thelatterholdingtheplaceofprecedenceontheleft.Probably7thcent.wasin
Sardiniaatanearlydate,andmayhavebeenwrittentherethencecametoEngland(probablywithTheodoreofTarsusin669),andwasusedbyBede.TheGreektextissomewhat
akintothatofDtheLatinhasbeenaccommodatedtotheGreek,andisoflittleindependentvalue.ItistheearliestMSextantthatcontainsAc8:37,thoughtheversewasin
existenceinthetimeofIrenus(late2ndcentury).
H3.CodexCoislinianus202.FragmentaryremainsofacopyofthePaulineEpistles,writteninthe6th(orperhapsthe7th)century.OriginallyatMt.Athos,intheLaura
monastery,where8leavesstillremain.TherestwasusedasmaterialforbindingMSS,whichbecamescatteredinvariousquarters22leavesareatParis3eachatSt.Petersburg,
Moscow,andKieffand2atTurin.Thetextof22morepageshasbeenmoreorlesscompletelyrecoveredfromthesetoffwhichtheyhaveleftonthesurvivingleaves.TheMS
representsthetextofthePaulineEpistlesaseditedbyEuthaliusofSulcainthe4thcentury.
L.CodexRegius,intheBibliothqueNationaleatParis.ContainstheGospelsofthe8thcentury.ItisremarkableascontainingtheshorterconclusionofMk.(seeRVm)aswell
astheusuallongerone(16:920)anditsreadingsoftenagreewiththoseofBagainstTR.
N.CodexPetropolitanus.ContainstheGospels,writteninlargesilverlettersonpurplevellum,inthe6thcentury.Fortyfiveleaveshavelongbeenknown(33atPatmos,6in
theVatican,4intheBritishMuseum,and2atVienna)and182moreleavescametolightin1896inAsiaMinor,andarenowatSt.Petersburg.Ratherlessthanhalftheoriginal
MSisnowextant,includingportionsofallGospels.TheMSformspartofagroupwiththreeotherpurpleMSS,,b,and,allprobablyhavingbeenoriginallyproducedat
Constantinople,anddescendedfromasinglenotremoteancestor.
R.CodexNitriensis,intheBritishMuseum.ApalimpsestcopyofLk.ofthe6thcent.,imperfect.ThetextdiffersfrequentlyfromtheTR.
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T.AnumberoffragmentsfromEgypt,mostlybilingual,inGreekandCoptic(Sahidic).Themostimportant(TorT ainthelibraryofthePropagandaatRome)consistsof17leaves
fromLk.andJn.,ofthe
5thcent.,withatextcloselyakintothatofBand .T 1(otherwise099)hasthedoubleendingtoMark.
Z.CodexDublinensis,atTrinityCollege,Dublin.Apalimpsest,containing295versesofMt.,ofthe
6thcent.,probablyfromEgypt,withatextakinto .
.CodexTischendorfianusIII.,intheBodleianLibraryatOxford.ContainsLk.andJn.,ofthe9thcent.Mt.andMk.,writteninminuscules,areatSt.Petersburg(Evan.566).
ThisMSischieflynotableforasubscriptionstatingthatitstextwasderivedfromtheancientcopiesatJerusalem.Similarsubscriptionsarefoundinabout12minusculeMSS.
.CodexRossanensis,atRossanoinCalabria,6thcentury.ContainsMt.andMk.,writteninsilverlettersonpurplevellum,withillustrations.ItstextiscloselyakintothatofN,
bothbeingprobablycopiesofthesameoriginal.
b (infuturetobeknownasO).CodexSinopensis,intheBibliothqueNationaleatParisofthe6thcent.43leavesfromMt724,writteningoldlettersonpurplevellum,
with5illustrationssimilarinstyletothosein.ItwaspickedupforafewfrancsbyaFrenchnavalofficeratSinopein1899.Itstextisakintothatofand.
.CodexBeratinus,atBelgradeinAlbania:thefourthofthepurpleMSS,andbelongingtothesameschoolastheothers,andprobablyofthesamedate.ContainsMt.andMk.,
inatextakintoNand,butnotsocloselyrelatedtothemastheyaretooneanother.
Thesearealltheuncialsofwhichitisnecessarytogiveseparatedescriptions.AnewMSofthe
Gospels,apparentlyofthe5thcent.,andcontainingatextofconsiderableinterest,wasfoundinEgyptin1907,andisnowinAmerica,butisstillunpublished.Largefragmentsofa
6thcent.MSofthePaulineEpistleswerefoundatthesametime.
8.Passingtotheminuscules,wefindthenumberofwitnessesoverwhelming.ThelastinventoryofNTMSS(thatofvonSoden)contains1716copiesofthe
Gospels,531ofActs,628ofPaulineEpp.,and219ofApocandofthistotal,asstatedabove,lessthan160areuncials.TheminusculeMSSareusuallyindicated
byArabicnumerals,*separateseriesbeingformedforthefourdivisionsoftheNT.TheresultofthisisthatwhenaMScontainsallfourparts(whichisthecase,
onlywithabout40MSS)itisknownbyfourdifferentnumbersthusacertainMSatLeicesterbearsthenumbersEvan.69,Act.31,Paul.37,Apoc.14.Itis,of
course,impossibletogiveanyindividualaccountofsogreatamassofMSSindeed,manyofthemhaveneverbeenfullyexamined.Butitisthelessnecessary,
becausebyfarthegreaternumberoftheminusculeMSScontainthesametypeoftext,that,namely,oftheTR.Thefactthatatleast95outofevery100minuscule
MSScontainsubstantiallytheTRmaybetakenasuniversallyadmitted,whatevermayhetheInferencesdrawnfromitanditisonlynecessarytoindicatesomeof
thosewhichdepartmostnotablyfromthisnormalstandard,andallythemselvesmoreorlesswiththeearlyuncials.
ThusintheGospels33*isakintothetextfoundinBso,toalesserextent,isthegroupofthefourrelatedMSS,1118131209also59,157,431,496,892whilethetype
oftextfoundinDandintheOldLatinandOldSyriacversionshasleftitsmarknotablyupon473,andmoreorlesson235,431,700,1071,andonagroupofrelatedMSS(known
fromthescholarwhofirstcalledattentiontoitastheFerrargroup)consistingof13,69,124,346,348,543,713,788,826,828.InActsandCath.Epp.,61and31arethemost
notableadherentsofB,while31,with137,180,216,224,alsoshowskinshipwithD.AgroupconsistingofAct.15,40,83,205,317,328,329,393seemstorepresentanedition
ofActspreparedbyEuthaliusofSulcainthe4thcentury.InPaul,themostnoteworthyminusculesare1,17,31,47,108,238theEuthalianeditionisfoundin81,83,93,379,
381.InApoc.(whereuncialsarescarceandminusculesconsequentlymoreimportant)thebestare1,7,28,35,38,68,79,87,95,96.Nodoubt,astheminusculeMSSaremore
fullyexamined,morewillbediscoveredwhichpossessindividualcharacteristicsofinterestbutwiththelargenumberofuncialsofearlierdateontheonehand,andthegeneral
uniformityofthegreatmassofminusculesontheother,itisnotverylikelythatmuchimportanttextualmaterialwillbederivedfromthem.Itmaybepossibletoestablish
relationshipsbetweencertainMSS(asinthecaseoftheFerrargroup),andtoconnectthemwithcertainlocalities(astheFerrargroupappearstobeconnectedwithCalabria)but
notmuchprogresshasyetbeenmadeinthisdirection.
9.OneotherclassofMSSremainstobementioned,namelytheServiceBooksor
Lectionaries,inwhichtheGospels,Acts,andEpistlesweredividedintoportionstobereadoneachdaythroughouttheecclesiasticalyear.Thesebooksfallintotwo
classes,accordingastheycontainthelessonsfromtheGospels(EvangeliaorEvangeliaria)orfromtheActsandEpistles(Praxapostoli).Nearly1100MSSofthe
formerclassareknown,and300ofthelatter.Over100oftheseareuncials,butwithhardlyanexceptiontheyareofrelativelylatedate(9thcent.orlater),the
uncialstylebeingretainedlaterfortheseliturgicalbooksthanelsewhere.Ofthevalueoftheirevidencelittlecandefinitelybesaid,sincefewofthemhavebeen
properlyexamined.Aprioritheymightbeofconsiderablevalue,sinceservicebooksarelikelytoheconservative,andalsotopreservelocalpeculiarities.They
mightbeexpected,therefore,tobeofgreatvalueinlocalizingthevarioustypesoftextwhichappearintheMSS,andinpreservingearlyvariantsfromaperiod
beforetheestablishmentofageneraluniformity.Asamatteroffact,however,theseclaimshavenotyetbeensubstantiatedbyanyactualexaminationof
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beforetheestablishmentofageneraluniformity.Asamatteroffact,however,theseclaimshavenotyetbeensubstantiatedbyanyactualexaminationof
lectionaries,anditmaybequestionedwhether,asawhole,anyofthemgoesbacktoaperiodbeforetheextinctionofthelocalanddivergenttexts.
ThestandardlistsofNTMSSarethoseofC.R.Gregory(ProlegomenatoTischendorfsNTGrce,ed.8,1894,reproducedinGerman,withadditions,inhisTextkritikdesNT,
1900),andF.H.A.Scrivener
(IntroductiontotheCriticismoftheNT,4thed.byE.Miller,1894).ThenewlistofH.vonSoden(DieSchriftendesNT,vol.i.pt.i.1902)containsrectificationsandadditionsto
Gregoryslist,withanewnumeration.ForGregorysrevisedlist,which,itmaybehoped,willbeacceptedasthestandard,seeDiegriechischenHandschriftendesNT(Leipzig,
1908).
10.Versions.Thesecondclassofauthorities,asindicatedin2,isthatofVersions,ortranslationsoftheNTintolanguagesotherthanGreek.Itisonlythe
earlierversionsthatcanbeofserviceinrecoveringtheoriginaltextoftheNTmoderntranslationsareofimportanceforthehistoryoftheBibleinthecountriesto
whichtheybelong,butcontributenothingtotextualcriticism.TheearlyVersionsmaybedividedintoEastern(Syriac,Coptic,Armenian,Arabic,Ethiopic,etc.)and
Western(LatinandGothic),butthedistinctionisoflittleimportance.Ageisamoreimportantfactorthanlocality,andthetwooldestand,onthewhole,most
important(thoughnotnecessarilythemosttrustworthy)aretheOldLatinandOldSyriacversions,which,moreover,areinmanyrespectsakintooneanother.Next
inimportancearetheCopticversionsandtheLatinVulgateandtheArmenianandthelaterSyriacversionsarealsoofconsiderablevalue.Itwillbeconvenientto
describetheseveralversionsundertheirrespectivecountriesinthefirstinstance,andtodeferthediscussionoftheircharactersandaffinitiesuntilthetaleofour
authoritiesiscomplete.
A.S YRIACVERSIONS.
11.TheOldSyriacVersion(OS).Theevidenceforthecharacter,andeventheexistence,oftheprimitiveversionoftheNTinSyriacisofcomparativelyrecent
discovery.Before1842theearliestextantSyriacversionwasthePeshita(seebelow),towhich,however,amuchhigherantiquitywasassignedthanisnow
generallyadmitted.Inthatyear,however,Dr.W.Curetondiscovered,amongthemanuscriptsbroughttotheBritishMuseumfromtheconventofS.MariaDeipara
intheNitriandesertinEgypt,animperfectGospeltextverydifferentfromthePeshita.
This(whichwasnotfinallypublishedbyCuretonuntil1858)wasknownfor50yearsastheCuretonianSyriac,andtherelativeageofitandthePeshitawasa
matterofcontroversyamongscholars.In1892twoCambridgeladies,Mrs.LewisandMrs.Gibson,discoveredinthemonasteryofSt.CatherineatSinaia
palimpsestMS,whichwassubsequentlyrecognizedfromtheirphotographsascontainingatextcloselyakintotheCuretonian.Comparisonofthetwoshowedthat
theyrepresenteddifferentrecensionsofthesameversion,theLewisorSinaiticMS(Syr.Sin.)containingtheearlierformofit.Neitheriscomplete.TheCuretonian
(Syr.Cur.)containsnothingofMk.except16:1720,justsufficienttoshowthatthelasttwelveverseswerepresentinthisformoftheversion,thoughtheyare
absentfromSin.ofJn.ithasonlyaboutfivechapters,andtherearelargegapsinMt.andLuke.Sin.containsalargepartofallfourGospels,butnoneisintact.
BothMSSareassignedtothe5thcent.,Sin.beingprobablytheearlierbuttheversionwhichtheyrepresentmustgobacktoamuchmoreremoteage.Intextthey
areakintotheCodexBezaeanditsallies,andareamongthemostimportantwitnessestothistypeoftext.
12.TheDiatessaron.ThequestionoftheageofthisversioniscomplicatedbythatofitsrelationstoanotherveryearlyembodimentoftheGospelsinSyriac.
Tatian,anAssyrianChristianandadiscipleofJustinMartyr,compiled(probablyaboutA.D.170)aHarmonyofthefourGospels,knownbythenameofthe
Diatessaron.WhetheritwasoriginallycomposedinGreekorinSyriacisuncertain.TheGreeknamewhichitbore,andthefactthataLatinversionofitwasin
existence,areargumentsinfavourofaGreekoriginontheotherhand,TatiansactivitywasmainlyintheEast,theDiatessaroncirculatedmostextensivelyin
Syria,whereitwasalmostthesoleformoftheGospelsinuseuntilthe5thcent.,andacommentaryonitwaswrittenbytheSyrianFatherEphraem.Itwascertainly
inSyriathatitwasmostinfluential,anditisinitsevidenceastotheSyriacversionthatitstextualimportancenowconsists.Itisonlyoflateyearsthatitsevidence
hasbeenavailableatall.Until1880itexistedonlyinname,andtheveryfactthatitwasacompilationfromourfourcanonicalGospelswasamatterofcontroversy.
Inthatyear,however,Dr.E.Abbotcalledattentiontothefactthatin1876Dr.G.MoesingerhadpublishedaLatintranslationofanArmeniantreatisewhichhad
beenprintedsolongagoas1836,andwhichwasinfactSt.EphraemscommentaryontheDiatessaron.SubsequentlytwocopiesofanArabicversionofthe
Diatessaronitselfwerediscovered,inRomeandinEgypt,andfromthesethetextwaspublishedin1888,inaformmodified,itistrue,bytransmissionthrough
manycenturiesandanArabicversion,butstillmakingitpossibletodrawsomeconclusionsastothetextandcharacterofTatianswork.
Itisnowcertain,asaresultoftherecoveryoftheDiatessaron,thattheGospelsexistedinaSyriacdressinthesecondhalfofthe2ndcent.butwhetherthe
DiatessaronwastheearliestformoftheSyriacGospels,orwhethertheversionrepresentedbySyr.Sin.andSyr.Cur.waspreviouslyinexistenceandformedthe
basisofTatianscompilation,isstilluncertain.TheopinionofSyriacscholarsatthepresentdayappearstobeinfavourofthepriorityoftheDiatessaron.Evenso
theoriginoftheOldSyriacversioncanhardlybeplacedlaterthanA.D.200,andallitscharacteristicsstampitasrepresentingaveryearlytypeoftheGospeltext.
ForsometwocenturiesitexistedsidebysidewiththeDiatessaron,theformerbeingknownasEvangeliondaMepharresh(theGospeloftheSeparated)andthe49/97
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ForsometwocenturiesitexistedsidebysidewiththeDiatessaron,theformerbeingknownasEvangeliondaMepharresh(theGospeloftheSeparated)andthe
latterasEvangeliondaMehallet(theGospeloftheMixed)andthenbothalikeweresupersededbythePeshita.
Thereissomeslightevidence(chieflyintheArmenianversion,whichwasderivedfromtheSyriac,andinreferencesinSyrianauthors)oftheexistenceofanOld
SyriacversionofActsandPaul(Cath.andApoc.formednopartoftheoriginalSyriacNT)butfortextualpurposestheynolongerexist.
13.ThePeshita.PrevioustothediscoveryofSyr.Cur.,thePeshitawasbelievedtobetheoldestSyriacversion,andwassometimesregardedasthequeenof
alltheversions.Itsdatewassupposedtobereferabletothe2ndcentury.EvenwhenthesuperiorclaimsofSyr.Cur.,andstillmoreofSyr.Sin.,cametobe
generally(thoughnotquiteuniversally)admitted,thePeshitawasassignedtothe4thcent.atlatest,onthegroundthattracesofitweresupposedtobefoundinthe
BiblicalquotationsofSt.Ephraem,whodiedinA.D.378.Since,however,ithasbeenshown(byProf.Burkitt,S.EphraemsQuotationsfrom,theGospel,1901)
thatthetreatisesinwhichtheuseofthePeshitaisobservablearenotthegenuineworkofEphraem,thisevidencefallstotheground,andthereisnownothingto
provetheexistenceofthePeshitabeforethe5thcentury.ItsoriginmaynowbeassignedwithsomeconfidencetoRabbla,bishopofEdessa411435,whois
recordedtohavemadeatranslationoftheNTfromGreekintoSyriac,andtohavebeenactiveinsuppressingtheuseoftheDiatessaron.Thisnewtranslation,
whichwastosomeextentbasedontheOldSyriac,butwasassimilatedtothetypeofGreektextthencurrent,completelysupersededitspredecessors,andfromthis
pointonwardsitsuseinSyriacliteratureisuniversal.ItappearsinbothbranchesoftheSyrianChurch(NestorianandMonophysite),whosequarreldatesbackto
431.ThenamePeshitameansthesimple,butwhetheritwasusedtodistinguishitfromitspredecessorsoritssuccessorsisuncertain.
MSSofthePeshitagobacktothecenturyofitsorigin.Theearliestwithanactualdate(whichisalsotheearliestdatedBiblicalMSinexistence)isacopyofsomebooksofthe
Pentateuch,writtenin464(nowintheBritishMuseumandthetwoearliestNTMSSmaybeassignedtoaboutthesamedate.OftheGospels,125copiesinthisversionareon
recordofActsandCath.58,andofPaul.67Apoc.(withthefourminorCatholicEpp.)wasnotincludedintheSyriaccanon.ThelaterMSSreproducetheearlierveryfaithfully,
sothatthelatestedition(byG.H.Gwilliam,1901)doesnotsubstantiallydifferfromthefirst(A.Widmanstadt,1555).
14.ThePhiloxenianSyriac.UnliketheLatinVulgate,thePeshitawasnotentirelyunchallengedinitssupremacy.In508,Philoxenus,Jacobitebishopof
MabugineasternSyria,causedanewtranslationoftheNTtobemadebyonePolycarpbutofthisnothinghascomedowntousexceptthefourminorCatholic
Epp.,whichwereincorporatedintothePeshitatofillthegapcausedbytheiroriginalomissionthere,andasingleMSoftheApoc.(atTrinityCollege,Dublin
identifiedbyDr.Gwynn,andpublishedin1897).ThestyleofPhilox.wasfreeandidiomatic,andtheGreektextonwhichitwasbasedwasthatofthemajorityof
lateMSS.
15.TheHarkleanSyriac.In616acompleterevisionofPhilox.wasmadebyThomasofHarkel,whoconverteditsidiomaticfreedomintoextremeliteralness,
andaddedvariousreadingsincriticalnotes,whichshowanacquaintancewithaGreekMSorMSShavingatextakintothatofCod.Bezaeanditsallies.About35
MSSofHarkl.areknown,datingfromthe7thand8thcent.onwards.TheApoc.whichisnowincorporatedwiththePeshitaisprobablyderivedfromthisversion.
16.ThePalestinianSyriac.YetanotherSyriacversionexists,butinadifferentdialectfromthosehithertodescribedfor,whereastheyallbelongtoE.Syria,
withitscentreatEdessa,thisisintheWesternAramaiccharacteristicofPalestineanditsneighbourhood.TheextantMSSofit(whicharefewandgenerally
fragmentary,andmostlydiscoveredwithinthelast15years)aremainlylectionaries,anditstextualimportanceisslight.Prof.Burkitthasargued,apparentlywith
goodreason,thatitowesitsorigintotheeffortsofJustinianandHeracliustoabolishJudaisminPalestineinthe6thcent.,andthatitcameagainintoprominencein
the11thcentury.ThethreeprincipalMSSofitaredatedin1030,1104,and1118.
OntheSyriacversionsseeespeciallyarticlesbyWoodsandGwilliaminStudiaBiblica,vols.i.andiii.A.S.Lewis,TheFourGospelstranslatedfromtheSinaiticPalimpsest,
1894Gwynn,ApocalypseofSt.JohninaSyriacVersion,1897F.C.Burkitt,op.cit.andEvangeliondaMepharresh,1904,andart.
onTextandVersionsinEncyc.Biblica.
17.TheArmenianVersion.InconnexionwiththeSyriacNTitwillbeconvenienttomentionalsotheArmenian,whichwaslargelydependentuponit.The
earliesttranslationofwhichwehavedefiniteknowledgeseemstohavebeenmadebySahakandMesropaboutA.D.400,fromaSyriactextoftheOldSyriac
family.After431thisversionwasrevisedbythehelpofGreekMSSreceivedfromConstantinople,whichwereapparentlyakintoB,andtherebytheoriginal
featuresoftheversionweremuchobscured.TheearliestextantMSSbelongtothe9thand10thcent.(fromA.D.887).Theseusuallyomitthelast12versesofMk.
butone,whichhasthem,hasamarginalnoteassigningthemtotheElderAriston,i.e.,presumablyAristion,adiscipleofourLordknowntousbyamentionin
Papias.
OntheArmenianversionseeF.C.Conybeare,art.inHastingsDB,andJ.ArmitageRobinson,Euthaliana,1895.
B.LATINVERSIONS.
18. TheOldLatinVersion(OL).AsChristianityspreadwestward,itinevitablycameintocontactwiththeLatinspeakingpopulationoftheRomanEmpireand
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18.TheOldLatinVersion(OL).AsChristianityspreadwestward,itinevitablycameintocontactwiththeLatinspeakingpopulationoftheRomanEmpireand
atranslationoftheNTintoLatinmightnaturallybelookedforatanearlydate.Indeed,sincethegospelwaspreachedinRomebySt.Paulhimself,itmightseem
reasonabletosupposethatLatinversionsoftheChristianliteraturewouldhavebeenrequiredalmostassoonasitcameintobeing,Butthiswouldbetooverlookthe
bilingualcharacteroftheRomanEmpire,eveninItaly.TheeducatedclassesspokeandwroteGreekfreelytheuneducatedclasseswerelargelyrecruitedfromthe
East,andspokeGreekmorenaturallythanLatin.TheevidenceofthepredominantlyGreekcharacteroftheprimitiveRomanChurchisclear.St.Paulwrotetoitin
Greek.ThenamesofthosewhomhesalutesaremainlyGreek.ThefirsttwelvebishopsinthelistoftheRomanepiscopate(downtoA.D.189)areGreek.Clement,
thethirdinthelistafterSt.Peter,writinginthenameoftheRomanChurchtotheirbrethreninCorinth,wroteinGreek.AlltheearlyliteratureoftheRomanChurch
isGreek.Thesamemaybesaid,sofarasourknowledgegoes,oftheChurchinGaul.ThereportonthemartyrdomsatVienne,whichtheChristiansofthat
provincesenttotheirbrethreninothercountries,waswritteninGreek.Irenus(c.135202),themostfamousrepresentativeoftheGallicanChurchinthe2nd
cent.,camefromAsiaMinor,andwrotehisworksinGreek.AllthetraditionsofGalliaNarbonensiswereGreek,notLatin.
19.TheneedforaLatinversionoftheChristianbookswasconsequentlynotsopressingasmightbesupposed.Neverthelesstherewasonelargeandimportant
provinceinwhichGreekhadnoplace,andwhereLatinwasaliketheliteraryandthespokenlanguage.ThiswasAfrica,wheretheMediterraneancoast,and
especiallythedistrictwhichisnowTunis,wasinhabitedbyalargeLatinspeakingpopulation.WhenChristianitywasfirstintroducedintotheprovinceisuncertain
butinthe2ndcent.itwasstrongandflourishingthere,andhadforitsspokesmanthemosteloquentofearlyChristianwriters,Tertullian(c.150220).Twolinesof
argumentcombinetoshowthattheearliestLatinversionoftheNTknowntoushaditshomeinAfrica.ThefirstmentionoftheexistenceofaLatinversionoccurs
inTertullianandthattypeoftextwhich,of
allthoserepresentedbyourextantOLMSS,appearsoninternalgroundstobetheearliest,isidenticalwiththeBiblicalquotationsinthewritingsofTertullians
juniorcontemporaryandcompatriot,Cyprian(c.200258).WhethertheversionwasactuallymadeinAfricacannothedeterminedwithcertainty.Itistruethatits
LatinityagreeswiththatofcertainAfricanwritersofthe2ndcent.(Apuleius,Arnobius,Lactantius,besidesTertullianandCyprian)butitsohappensthatthereis
verylittlenonAfricanLatinofthatperiodinexistenceforcomparisonwithit.ThekinshipwhichthetextoftheOLhaswiththeOldSyriacbascausedAntiochto
besuggested(bySanday)astheoriginalhomeoftheversion,thatbeingametropoliswhereSyrianandLatinelementsmet,andwhenceversionsoftheScriptures
ineithertonguemightradiatefromacommoncentre.Butwithastronggeneralresemblancebetweenthetwoversions,thereisalsoaconsiderableamountof
divergenceindetails,sothatonecannotbecertainthattheconnexionisnotmoreremote.WhatiscertainisthattheearliestformofLatinversionknowntouswas
circulatinginAfricainthefirsthalfofthe3rdcentury.
20.TheextantMSSoftheOLaremainlyfragmentsforafterthesupersessionofthisversionbytheVulgateitsMSSnaturallyfellintoneglect,andsurvived
onlyfortuitously.Thenumberofthemisalittleover40,andtheyarehabituallyindicatedbythesmalllettersoftheLatinalphabet.Thefollowingarethemost
Important:
a. CodexVercellensis,atVercelli,containingtheGospels(Mt.,Jn.,Lk.,Mk.,theusualLatinorder),
somewhatmutilated,assignedtothe4thcentury.
b. CodexVeronensis,atVerona,containingtheGospelsonpurplevellum5thcentury.
d. TheLatintextofCodexBezaeintheGospelsandActs,andofCod.ClaromontanusinthePaulineEpistles.
e. CodexPalatinus,atVienna,containingtheGospels,considerablymutilated5thcentury.Oneleaf
isatDublin.IntheActs,eistheLatintextofCod.LaudianusinPaul.,thatofCod.Sangermanensis.
f. CodexBrixianus,atBrescia,oftheGospels,onpurplevellum6thcentury.ff2.CodexCorbeiensis,atParis,containingtheGospels,butimperfect.Generallyassignedtothe
6th
cent.,butbyitslatesteditor(E.S.Buchanan,Journ.ofTheol.Studies,19056)tothe6th.
g. CodexGigas,atStockholmacompleteBible,ofthe13thcent.,withActsandApoc.inanOLtext.WritteninBohemia,andaremarkableexampleofalatesurvivalofOL.
h. PalimpsestusFloriacensis,atParispalimpsestfragments,formerlyatFleury,ofActs,Cath.Epp.,Apoc.,inanAfricantext.
k.CodexBobiensis,atTurin,whereitfortunatelyescapedfromtherecentfirewithslightinjury.ContainsMk816(endingat16:8),Mt115probably5thcent.(accordingto
Burkitt,4thcent.),ContainstheOLversioninitsearliestform,closelyakintothatfoundinthewritingsofCyprian.
m.TheSpeculumofpseudoAugustine,whichcontainscopiousquotationsfromtheNT.Itisprobably
ofSpanishorigin,andshouldbereckonedratherwiththeFathersthanwiththeMSS.
q.CodexMonacensis,atMunich,containingtheGospels6thor7thcentury.
TheremainingMSSare,forthemoatpart,onlysmallfragments,ofafewleaveseach.TheApoc.isalsofound,almostcomplete,inthecommentaryofPrimasius,writtenin 51/97
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TheremainingMSSare,forthemoatpart,onlysmallfragments,ofafewleaveseach.TheApoc.isalsofound,almostcomplete,inthecommentaryofPrimasius,writtenin
Africainthe6thcentury.
21.WiththeseMSSmustbereckonedthequotationsoftheearlyLatinFathers,notablyTertullian(who,however,appearsoftentohavemadehisown
translations,andisalsotooinexacttobeofmuchserviceinthisrespect),Cyprian,Hilary,LuciferofCagliari,Ambrose,Jerome,Augustine,Tyconius,Priscillian,
and(asjustnoted)Primasius.Itisusualtoclassifyalltheseauthorities(MSSandFathers)underthethreeheadsof(1)African,(2)European,(3)ItaliantheAfrican
typeoftextbeingtheearliestandalsotheroughestinstyleandvocabulary,theEuropeanbeingsofarmodifiedinboththeserespectsastobesupposedbysome
scholarstobeduetoafreshtranslation,andtheItalianbeingarevisionoftheEuropean,anditselfprovidingthebasisforJeromesVulgate.
ThequestioniscomplicatedbythefactthatnotwoMSSrepresentquitethesametypeoftext.All(exceptperhapsk)haveundergonemodificationinsomerespect,eitherbythe
correctionsintroducedbyscribesinearlytimes,orbycontaminationwiththeVulgate.Cyprianandk,sofarastheygo,representtheAfricantextoftheGospelsinwhatappearsto
beafairlypureformeandmcomenexttothemhisagoodAfricanauthorityinActsandApoc.,andPrisillian,Tyconius,andPrimasiusintheEpp.andApoc.aandbarethe
leadingrepresentativesoftheEuropeanfamilyintheGospels,withtheLatinversionofIreousinActs,gandLucifer.OftheItaliangroup,fisthemostpronounced,andhasbeen
takenbyWordsworthandWhiteasthebestrepresentativeoftheOLtextwhichJeromehadbeforehimwhenheundertookhisrevisionoftheLatinNTnexttofinthischaracter
comesq.TheLatintextsinthebilingualMSShavetobeusedwithcaution,astheyshowsignsofassimilationtotheGreek.TheremainingMSSareeithertoofragmentarytobeof
muchservice,ortoomixedintheirtexttobeclassifieddefinitelywithanyfamily.
Ingeneralcharacter,asalreadyindicated,theOLversion(especiallyinitsearliestform)belongstothesameclassofauthoritiesastheOldSyriacandCodex
Bezae,theclass,namely,whichisdistinguishedbyratherstrikingdivergencesfromboththeTRandthetextrepresentedbyB.Thecharacterandclaimsofthis
typeoftextwillbeconsideredlaterhereitwillbesufficienttopointoutthehighantiquitywhichcanbeestablishedforitthroughtheOL(andstillmorethroughthe
consensus,sofarasitexists,betweenOLandOS),andthegreatamountofdivergencewhichexistsbetweentheseveralMSSwhichcontainit.Itisnotpossible,
evenapproximately,toreconstructtheoriginalOLtextitisevenamatterofdisputewhetherithadoneoriginalormore.Whatiscertainisthatitunderwent
constantrevisionandalteration,andthatthefewandfragmentaryMSSwhichhavecomedowntous,andofwhichnotwoagreeevenapproximatelywithone
another,dobutreflectastateoftextualconfusionwhichwasrampantintheLatinBiblesofthe4thcentury.
22TheVulgale.ThisstateofconfusionisdescribedinemphatictermsbythegreatLatinFathersofthe4thcent.,Jerome(c.345420)andAugustine(354
430),anditwastotheformerthatthetaskfellofattemptingtoreducethechaostoorder.ThecreditofinspiringtheworkwhichwastobecometheBibleofthe
WestforathousandyearsisduetoPopeDamasus(pope,36684).Athisrequest,Jerome,theleadingBiblicalscholaroftheday,whohaddevotedmanyyearsto
thestudyoftheScripturesintheEastintheiroriginaltongues,undertook,ashesaysinhisprefacetotheNT,tomakeanewworkoutofanoldonebyrevising
theexistingLatintextswithreferencetotheoriginallanguages.HebeganwiththeGospels,abouttheyear382andatfirsthisrevisionwasonconservativelines.
Wheretheexistingtextfairlyrepresentedthesenseoftheoriginal,heletitstand,withoutenforcingcompleteaccuracyonlywhereerrorsaffectedthesensedidhe
feelboundtomakealterations.TheGreekmanuscriptswhichheemployedashisguidesappeartohavebeensimilarincharactertoB.TherevisionoftheGospels
wascompletedin383thatoftheEpistlesfollowed,butwasconductedmoresuperficiallythanthepreviouswork,partly,nodoubt,becausethedivergencesinthe
extanttextswerelesspronouncedinthesebooks.AtaboutthesametimehewascommencinghisworkontheOTbyarevisionofthePsalterbutforthehistoryof
thisseeTEXTOFTHEOT,15(7).
23.ThelaterhistoryoftheVulgate(asJeromesversioneventuallycametobecalled)isthesubjectofaseparatearticle.Hereitisonlynecessarytomentionthat
thereceivedtextofit,whichisfoundinallordinaryLatinBibles,isthatwhichwasofficiallysanctionedbyPopeClementVIII.in1592andthattheonecritical
editionofitisthatnowbeingproducedbyBishopWordsworthofSalisburyandProf.H.J.White,inwhichtheGospelsandActshavealreadybeenpublished
(18891905).TheirestimateoftheprincipalMSSoftheVulgateisthenecessarybasisofthefollowingdescriptionofaselectionfromamongthem:
A.CodexAmiatinus,intheLaurentianLibraryatFlorence,containingthewholeBible.Itshistory
(whichwasonlyestablishedin1887)isunusuallywellknown.ItwaswritteninthenorthofEngland,atWearmouthorJarrow,byorderofCeolfrid,abbotofthesemonasteries,
earlyinthe8thcent.,andwastakenbyhimin716asapresenttoPopeGregory.Ceolfriddiedontheway,buthiscompanionscompletedthegift,andinItalytheMShassince
remainedforsometimeitwasatMonteAmiata,whenceitsname.ItstextwasprobablyderivedfromoneormoreMSSbroughttoEnglandfromItalyanditisgenerallyregarded
asthebestextantMSoftheVulgate.
C.CodexCavensis,atLaCava,nearNaples9thcentury.ContainsthewholeBible,writteninSpain,andisthebestrepresentativeoftheSpanishfamilyofVulgateMSS.
CodexDunelmensis,inDurhamCathedralLibrary7thor8thcentury.ContainstheGospels,withatextakintothatofA.
F.CodexFuldensis,atFuldainGermanybetween541and546.WrittenbyorderofBishopVictorof
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F.CodexFuldensis,atFuldainGermanybetween541and546.WrittenbyorderofBishopVictorof
Capua.ContainsthewholeNT,theGospelsbeingarrangedinthesamemannerasinTatians
Diatessaron,onthebasisofacopyofaLatinversionofthatworkaccidentallyfoundbyBishopVictor.
H.CodexHubertianus,and,CodexTheodulfianus,containtheeditionoftheVulgateproducedby
BishopTheodulfofOrleans,forwhichseeart.VULGATE.
K.CodexKarolinus,andV,CodexVallicellianus,similarlyrepresenttheeditionofAlcuin.(Seeib.)
O.CodexOxoniensis,intheBodleian(formerlyatSt.Augustines,Canterbury)7thcentury.ContainstheGospels,inatextaffectedbyIrishinfluences.
Q.CodexKenanensis,theBookofKells,atTrinityCollege,Dublinprob.8thcentury.ContainstheGospels,lavishlydecoratedintheCelticstyle.Itstext,naturally,isofthe
Irishtype.
S.CodexStonyhurstensis,atStonyhurstCollege7thcentury.ContainsJn.alone,inatextakintothatofA.FormerlyatDurham,andprobablywritteninthatneighbourhood.V.
SeeK,above.
Y. CodexLindisfarnensis,intheBritishMuseumcontainstheGospelswrittenattheendofthe7thcent.,inhonourofSt.Cuthbert(d.687),withbeautifulAngloCeltic
ornamentation.SomeliturgicaldirectionsinsertedinitshowthatitwascopiedfromaMSwritteninNaples,nodoubtonebroughttoEnglandbyHadrian,abbotofamonastery
nearNaples,whocametoEnglandwithArchbishopTheodorein669.CloselyakinintexttoA.
Z. CodexHarleianus,intheBritishMuseum6thor7thcentury.Awellwrittencopyofagoodtext,butofadifferentfamilyfromA.
ThesearetheprincipalMSSoftheVulgateintheGospels.A,C,F,,K,T,Varealsousedby
WordsworthandWhiteintheActs.Tothemmaybeadded
G.CodexSangermanensis,atParis9thcentury.ContainsthewholeBible,butisparticularlygoodinActs,sothatWordsworthandWhitestatethattheirtextagreeswithit
oftenerthanwithanyotherMS.
O.CodexOxoniensis,intheBodleianLibrary8thcentury.KnownastheSeldenActs.ThetextisoftheIrishtype.
The MSS of the Pauline Epistles and Apocalypse have not yet been classified, but the MSS described above as containing the whole NT will no doubt reappear among the
principalauthoritiesforthesebooksalso.
24.Asindicatedabove,theCodexAmiatinus(A)isregardedasthebestMSoftheGospels,andwithitgotheotherNorthumbrianMSS,SY,withFin
attendance.AsecondgroupofMSS,which,generallyspeaking,isofinferiormerit,isheadedbyZ,andincludesseveralMSSnotdescribedabove.CTrepresent
theSpanishtypeoftext,whichhadanimportantinfluenceonthehistoryoftheVulgate,andQthenotlessimportantIrishtype.InActs,WordsworthandWhite
givethefirstplacetoG,withCAandFincloseattendance.ThesethreelastnamedMSSrepresentdifferentgroups,theAgroupbeinggenerallypreferabletotheF
groupbutnooneMSorgrouphasamonopolyofmerit.Ingeneralcharacter,asstatedabove,theVulgatetendstoagreewiththetypeofGreektextrepresentedby
B.ItisclearthattheGreekauthoritieswhich
Jeromeregardedasthemosttrustworthywereofthistypebutsince(intheNT)hisrevisionretainedaconsiderablequantityoftheOLversion,whichislargelyofa
differenttype,theresult,asitnowstands,isofacompositecharacter.Byreasonofthiscompositecharacter,andalsoofitsrelativelylatedate,theVulgateisnotof
thesametextualimportanceasOSorOLneverthelessitistoberememberedthatJeromemusthavemadeuseofGreekMSSatleastasoldastheoldestwhichwe
nowpossess.ThehistoricalimportanceoftheVulgatewillbedealtwithinaseparatearticle.
OftheOLversionthemostcomprehensiveaccountisthatgivenbyH.A.A.Kennedyin
HastingsDB.SeealsoBurkitt,TheOldLatinandtheItala(Cambridge,1896),theprefacesby
Wordsworth,Sanday,andWhitetotheireditionsofOldLatinBiblicalTexts(partsiiv.,Oxford,188397),andarticlesbyGebhardt(inPRE3,1897)andCorssen(in
BursiansJahresberichtberdieFortschrittderclassischenAltertumswissenschaft,bd.101,1899).OntheVulgateseeWestcottsart.inSmithsDB,Whiteschapter
inScrivenersIntroduction,ed.4(whichdealswithbothversions),andtheprefacestoWordsworthandWhiteseditionoftheVulgate,nowinprogress(Oxford,
1889ff.).
C.COPTICVERSIONS.
25.CopticistheliteraryformofthevernacularlanguageofEgypt,thedescendantoftheancienttonguewhichweknowfirstinitshieroglyphic,andlaterinits
demoticform,butdifferingfromtheminadoptingtheGreekalphabet,withtheadditionofcertainletterstorepresentsoundsnotemployedinGreek.Copticisthe
outcomeoftheGreeksettlementinEgypt,whichtookplaceundertheempireofthePtolemysandcontinuedunderthatofRomeandalongwiththeGreek
charactersthenativetongueadoptedalsoaconsiderablenumberofGreekwords.Whenthisformofwritingcameintobeingisuncertain.Itappearsinaprimitive
forminacertainhoroscope,nowintheBritishMuseum,thedateofwhichisprobably . .95anditisreasonabletosupposethatitbecameestablishedasa
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forminacertainhoroscope,nowintheBritishMuseum,thedateofwhichisprobablyA.D.95anditisreasonabletosupposethatitbecameestablishedasa
literarymediuminthecourseofthe2ndcentury.Itisquitepossiblethatitsgrowthwaspromotedbytheneedofitsservicesinmakingthegospelknowntonative
converts.ChristianitywasnodoubtintroducedintoEgypteveninApostolictimes,butitwouldhavecomeinthefirstinstancetotheJewsofAlexandriaandthe
Greekspeakingpopulationgenerally.Evenwhenitpenetratedfarther,andaddressedthenativepopulationinitsowntongue,itsmessagewouldatfirsthavebeen
oral,andtheearliestCopticversionsoftheNTmaywellhavebeenmerelyoralparaphraaes,suchasweretheearliestAnglo
Saxonversionsinourowncountry.ThefirstmentionofCopticScripturesoccursintheLifeofSt.Antony,whoissaidtohaveheardtheGospelreadinchurchasa
boyaboutA.D.270andsincebewasnotacquaintedwithGreek,thismusthavebeenaCopticversion,whetheroralorwritten.Earlyinthe4thcent.themonksof
theorderestablishedbyPachominawererequiredbytheirruletostudytheScripturesandthis,atanyrate,impliestheexistenceofawrittenCopticversion.Inthe
3rdcent.,therefore,atlatest,andpossiblybytheendofthe2nd(sincetheCopticversionsunquestionablyhavesomeveryearlycharacteristics),aCoptictranslation
oftheNT(excepttheApocalypse)wasincirculation.
26.TheEgyptianlanguagewasnotuniformthroughoutthecountry,butpossessedvariouslocaldialects.Twoofthesearewellmarked,andpossessa
respectablequantityofliterature,almostwhollytheological.ThesearetheBohairic,ordialectofLowerEgypt,andtheSahidic,ordialectofUpperEgypt.The
formerderivesitstitle(firstconferredonitbyAthanasius,bishopofCosinUpperEgyptinthe11thcent.)fromtheArabicnameofadistrictnearAlexandria,the
latterfromtheArabicnameforUpperEgypt.BetweenthetwolieseveraldialectscollectivelyknownasMiddleEgyptian,withlocalvarietiesintheFayyum,at
Akhmim,andelsewhere,whichcertainlypossessedatranslation(ortranslations)oftheBible,butofwhichverylittleisknownatpresent,forlackofmaterials.
27.TheSahidicVersion(Sah.,formerlyThebaic).ItwasformerlyheldthattheBohairicversion(Boh.)wasthefirstinpointofage,sinceitwastheversionof
LowerEgypt,whichwouldhavebeenthefirsttoreceiveChristianitybutCopticscholarsarenowgenerallyagreedthattheorderofprecedencemustbeinverted.
LowerEgyptwasverylargelyGreekspeaking,andthelanguageinwhichtheSeptuagintwasalreadyfamiliarwouldhavebeensufficientforaconsiderabletime.In
UpperEgypt,thoughtherewereconsiderableGreekcommunitiestherealso,andintheprincipaltownsGreekmusthavebeengenerallyunderstood,thepopulation
asawholemusthavebeenmoreEgyptian,andanEgyptianversionoftheNTwouldhavebeenrequiredtheresoonerthanintheneighbourhoodofAlexandria.The
characteristicsoftheSahidicversionalsosuitthishypothesisofanearlierdate.ItisrougherandlessliteraryinstylethantheBohairic,anditstextisofaveryearly
type,akininmanydetails(thoughnotasawhole)totheOLandOSintheOTitstextisinsomebookspreOrigenian.Unfortunatelyitisknowntousonlyin
fragments.ItwasultimatelysupersededbyBoh.anddroppedoutofuseand,withtheexceptionofsomesmallbutcompletevolumesrecentlyacquiredbythe
BritishMuseum,allthatwenowhaveofitareisolatedleavesofvellumorpapyruswhichhavebeenrescuedfromtheburiedtownsandmonasteriesofEgypt.The
ApocalypseistheonlybookoftheNTthatexistscompleteinasingleMS,thoughsomebooksapproachcompleteneas.Butthenumberofextantfragmentsislarge
andincreasing,andfromtheseitwillbepossiblesoontoputtogetheranalmostcontinuousSahidicNT.TheearliestMSSappeartogobacktothe5thcent.,but
noneisofsufficientsizeandimportancetomeritindividualdescription.Somearebilingual,containingGreekandSahidictextsinparallelcolumnsthemost
importantofthesehasbeendescribedabove(7)undertheheadingT.
28.TheBohairicVersion.This,whichultimatelybecametheacceptedBibleoftheCopticChurch,ismuchbetterknownthanSah.,andispreservedina
considerablenumberofMSS.Thedateofitsorigin,however,isquiteuncertain.InfavourofanearlydateisthefactthattheApocalypsewasapparentlynot
originallycontainedinitthisbookseemstohavebeengenerallyacceptedaftertheendofthe3rdcent.,butwasregardedwithsomedoubtbefore.IntheOT,Boh.
containstheinsertionsmadebyOrigen,whichimpliesadatenotearlierthanthelatterpartofthe
3rdcentury.Ingeneral,thetextrepresentedbyitisofthesamecharacterasthatfoundinBandthisagainpointstoadatenotsubstantiallylaterthanthefirsthalf
ofthe4thcentury.Thecent.fromA.D.250to350seems,therefore,themostprobableperiodforitsoriginthoughsomewriters(notablyGuidi)thinkthatCoptic
Christianity(asdistinctfromGreek)didnotdevelopinLowerEgyptuntilthemiddleofthe6thcent.,andconsequentlythatallBohairicliteratureissubsequentto
thisdate.
TheBohairicversionfollowstheGreekveryclosely,beingmorefaithfulandlessfreethan
Sah.henceitistrustworthyevidenceofthereadingsoftheGreekMSSfromwhichitwasmade.
TheseMSS,asindicatedabove,wereofthesamegeneralcharacterasB,andespeciallyB.
DivergentreadingsofthetyperepresentedbyOLandOS,whicharefoundnotinfrequentlyin
Sah.,arepracticallyabsentfromBoh.TheearliestBoh.MSoftheGospelsistheCurzonCatena(anintermixtureoftextandcommentary)intheParhamLibrary,
whichisdatedA.D.889theoldestandbestcontinuousMSoftheGospelsisHuntingtonMS17,intheBodleian,dated1174.Severalothersareofthe12thand
13thcents.butnonegoesbacktoanythingliketheageofthefragmentsofSah.ManyofthemhaveArabicversionsinthemargins.AnexcellenteditionofBoh.
hasrecentlybeencompletedbytheRev.G.Horner(Oxford,1898and1905),whoisnowengagedonSah.
29. TheMiddleEgyptianVersions.Oftheseverylittleisyetknown,thoughenoughtoestablishtheirexistence.Ourknowledgerestsuponafewfragmentsof54/97
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29.TheMiddleEgyptianVersions.Oftheseverylittleisyetknown,thoughenoughtoestablishtheirexistence.Ourknowledgerestsuponafewfragmentsof
vellumandpapyruswhichhavecometolightoflateyears,notablyintheFayyum,intheneighbourhoodofAkhmim,andinthatofMemphis.Thesedifferin
dialectfrombothBoh.andSah.,andalsotosomeextentamongthemselvesbuttheyaremoreakintoSah.thantoBoh.AlsotheNTtextfoundinthemdiffers
frombothBoh.andSah.andevidencehasbeenfoundoftheexistenceofmorethanoneMiddleEgyptianversion.ThelargestNTfragmentasyetextantisa6th
cent.palimpsestintheBritishMuseum(Or.MS.5707),containingpartsofJn3and4inGreekandMiddleEgyptian,withagoodtext.
30.OtherversionsexistGeorgian,Ethiopic,Arabic,Persian,Gothicbutontheseitisnotnecessarytodwell.Thefirsttwohavebeentoolittlestudiedtobe
practicallyavailable,andtheothersaretoolateinorigin,andtoosecondary,oreventertiary,intheircharacter,tobeofmuchuse.Theversionsthatareoffirstrate
importancearethosethathavebeendescribedabove,theSyriac,Latin,andCopticversions.OfthesetheOldLatinandOldSyriactakethefirstplace,bothon
accountoftheirage,andbecausetheyarethechiefextantrepresentativesofaveryearlyandimportanttypeoftext,aswillbeseenbelow.Nextintextual
importanceareSah.andBoh.,whichgiveustheevidenceofEgypt,thecountrywhichhasperhapsplayedthelargestpartinthehistoryoftheGreekBible.Then
followtheLatinVulgateandtheSyriacPeshitta,eachjusttoolateandtoocompositeincharactertobeoffirstrateimportanceasevidenceoftheprimitiveGreek
text,buteachtheauthorizedBibleofagreatChurch.Finally,evidenceofsomevalueistobeobtainedfromthelaterSyriacandtheArmenianversions.
SeearticlesbyForbesRobinsoninHastingsDB,andBurkittinEncyc.Bibl.(s.v.Textand
Versions)[G.Horner],TheCopticVersionoftheNTinthenortherndialect(Oxford,18981905)W.E.Crum,CatalogueofCopticMSSintheBritishMuseum(London,1905)
Hyvernat,EtudesurlesversionscoptesdelaBibleinRB189697.
31.PatristicQuotations.ThethirdclassofevidenceavailablefortextualpurposesisthatwhichisderivedfromthequotationsfromtheNTinthewritingsof
theearlyFathers.IfwecanbesurethatawriterisquotingfromaMSlyingbeforehim,thenhisquotationgivesusthereadingofaMSwhichinmanycasesmust
havebeenearlierthananywhichwenowpossess.Sometimeswecanbefairlysureofthis,aswhenthequotationoccursinacontinuouscommentaryonasingle
bookorwhenthewriterexpresslyemphasizesacertainreadingasagainstothervariantsorwhenhequotesthesamepassageseveraltimesinthesameway.In
othercasesitisimpossibletobecertainthatheisnotquotingfrommemoryandthismakesquotationsfromtheSynopticGospelsespeciallyfallacious,sinceitisso
easytoconfusethewordingsofthedifferentEvangelists.Thereisalwaysthedangeralsothatacopyistmayhaveassimilatedthewordingofaquotationtotheform
withwhichhewashimselffamiliar.
Consequentlyevidenceofthisclass,thoughhighlyvaluablewhenitssurroundingsguaranteeitfromsuspicion,hastobehandledwithgreatcaution.Inonerespect
Patristicquotationshaveaspecialvalue,becausetheycanbebothdatedandplaced.ThedatesoftheearliestMSSandversionsareuncertain,withinhalfacentury
ormore,whilethedateofanygivenPatristricworkcangenerallybefixedwithinafewyears.Theadvantageofbeingassignabletoacertaincountryisonewhich
Patristicquotationssharewithversions,butitisofgreatimportanceinfixingtheoriginandrangeofcertaintypesoftext.Inbothrespectsitwillbefoundthatthe
evidenceoftheFathersisofgreatvalueinelucidatingthetextualhistoryoftheNT.Itisimpossibletotreatthesubjectatlengthhere,butthenamesanddatesof
someofthemostimportantFathersmaybementioned,andsubsequentsectionswillshowwhatsortofparttheyplayintheoperationsoftextualcriticism.
32.TheearliestPatristicwritings,suchastheEpistlesofClement,Barnabas,Ignatius,andPolycarp,andtheShepherdofHermas,containveryfewquotations
fromtheNT,andthosefewareinexact(seeNTinApost.Fathers[Oxf.Soc.ofHist.Theol.]).Inthethirdquarterofthe2ndcent.wehavethewritingsofJustin
MartyrandTatian,andweknowsomethingoftheGospeltextusedbythehereticMarcion.Fromabout180onwardstheevidencebecomesmuchfuller.Irenus
(whoseprincipalworkwaswrittenbetween181and189)workedmainlyatLyons,thoughhishomewasinAsiaMinor.Westerntextsarealsorepresentedby
Tertullian(about150220),Cyprian(about200258),andHippolytus(flourishedabout220)thetwoformerbeingAfricanwriters,andthelastnamedofRome.In
Egypttherearethetwoveryimportanttheologians,ClementofAlexandria(about160220)andOrigen(185253),andthetwoscholarswhosucceededtothe
lattersliteraryinheritance,andfoundedthelibraryofCsarealargelyuponthebasisofhisworks,Pamphilus(d.309)andEusebius(about270340).
InSyriathemostnotablenamesarethoseofAphraates(flourishedabout340)andespecially
Ephraem(rt.378)inAsiaMinor,GregoryThaumaturgus(d.265),BasilofCsarea(32979),
GregoryofNyssa(flor.about370),andGregoryofNazianzus(d.389)inPalestine,CyrilofJerusalem(bishop,35186),andespeciallyChrysostom(347407).
ReturningtotheWest,theimportantwriters,fromatextualpointofviewaswellasfromothers,areHilaryofPoitiers(bishop,35468),LuciferofCagliari(d.371),
AmbroseofMilan(bishop,37497),Tyconius(anAfricanwriteroftheendofthe4thcent.),Priscillian(aSpaniard,d.385)and,finally,thetwogreatFathersof
theWesternChurch,Jerome(about345420)andAugustine(354430).Laterthanthefirstquarterofthe5thcent.itisnotnecessarytogoforthesettlementofthe
greatissuesinthetextualhistoryoftheNThadtakenplacebeforethisdate.
AlistofecclesiasticalwritersandtheirprincipalworksisgivenbyGregory(Prolegomenaand
Textkritik).AnindexofPatristicquotationswascompiledbyDeanBurgonandisnowintheBritishMuseum.CriticaltextsoftheLatinandGreekFathersarebeingissuedunder 55/97
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Textkritik).AnindexofPatristicquotationswascompiledbyDeanBurgonandisnowintheBritishMuseum.CriticaltextsoftheLatinandGreekFathersarebeingissuedunder
thedirectionoftheViennaandBerlinAcademiesrespectively.
33.SucharethematerialsMSS,Versions,PatristicQuotationswithwhichthetextualcritichastodealbutitisonlywithincomparativelyrecentyearsthat
hisresourceshavebecomesoextensive.TwocenturiesofdiligentworkwerespentinthecollectionoftheevidenceofGreekMSSthemostimportantofall,the
CodexVaticanus(B),basbecomefullyknownonlywithinthelastfortyyears,andthenextmostimportant()wasdiscoveredonlyin1859andpublishedin1862.
Ofthetwomostimportantversions,theOldSyriacwaswhollyunknownbefore1848,andquiteinadequatelyknownuntil1894whiletheOldLatin,thoughknown
andstudiedinthe18thcent.(whenSabatierpublishedhisBibtiorumsacrorumLatinaeversionesantiquae,Rheims,1743),cannotbesaidtohavebeenrightly
understoodandclassifiedbeforethepublicationsofseveralscholarswhoarestillliving.FormanyoftheFathers,westillarewithouteditionswhichcanbetrusted
withregardtotheirScripturequotations.ThetextualcriticismoftheNT,asnowunderstood,isconsequentlyascienceofcomparativelymoderngrowth.Aswas
shownabove(1),theearliesteditionsoftheGreekNTwereinnosensecriticaltexts.ItistruethatMSSwerecollatedforthem,butonlysuchMSSaschancedto
beeasilyatthedisposaloftheeditor.NosearchwasmadeforspeciallygoodoroldMSS,and(exceptforaveryslightuseofCod.BezaebyStephanus)theTRwas
madeandestablishedbeforeanyofthegreatuncialMSShadbeenexamined.ThisisthemoreremarkablebecauseBwasusedasthemainbasisofthetextwhich
becamethestandardtextoftheSeptuagint,that,namely,whichwasprintedatRomein1587butitchancedthatnoRomaneditionoftheNTwasIssued,and
consequentlythegreatVaticanMSwaslittleknownandlessuseduntilthe19thcent.wasfaradvanced.
34.Atstatedin1,theTRoftheNTtookfinalshapeintheeditionsofStephanusin1550andtheElzevirsin1624.Itwasnotuntilafterthelatterdatethatthe
scientificcollectionofevidencebegan.TheCodexAlexandrinus(A)wasbroughttoEnglandin1627,andacollationofit(withDD2,andseveralminuscules)first
appearedinthegreatPolyglotBibleeditedbyBrianWaltonin1657.WaltonsPolyglot(modelled,sofarasitsplanandscopewereconcerned,ontheAntwerp
Polyglotof157172,andtheParisPolyglotof163033,butgreatlysuperiortobothinitstextualmaterial)maybesaidtobethefountainheadofthetextual
criticismoftheNT.Itwasfollowedduringthenextcenturyandahalfbyaseriesofeditionsinwhich,whilenoattemptwasmadetomodifytheactualtext,an
increasingnumberofMSSwaslaidundercontributiontosupplymaterialsfortheapparatuscriticus.ThefirstofthesewasthatofDeanFellin1675thegreatest
wasthatofJohnMillin1707,whichwasremarkablenotonlyforthenumberofGreekMSSquotedinit,butforitsuseoftheversions,Itscollection(forthefirst
time)ofPatristicquotations,anditsvaluableprolegomena.Inthe18thcent.Bentley(whosefirstappearanceinthefieldofBiblicalcriticismwasstimulatedby
Millsgreatwork)madelargecollectionsforanewedition,butwasunabletomakeuseofthem.J.J.Wetstein,aSwissassistantofBentley,producedin175152
aneditioninwhichourpresentnotationoftheMSSwasfirstIntroducedandthelistwasconsiderablyextendedbyC.F.Matthi(178288),F.K.Alter(1786
87),A.Birch(17881801),and,finally,J.M.A.Scholz(183036),withwhomthefirststageofNTtextualcriticismmaybesaidtohavecometoaclose.
35.Duringthisfirst,andmostnecessary,stageofthecollectionofevidence,whichextendsfrom1657to1830,littlewasdoneinthewayofclassifyingthe
materialsthusobtained,orlayingdowntheprinciplesuponwhichtheyshouldbeemployedandinterpreted.Thereare,however,somenotableexceptions.Mill,in
hisProlegomena,discussedthetruereadingofmanypassages.J.A.Bengel,in1734,dividedtheMSSandVersionsintotwofamilies,whichhecalledAfricanand
Asiatic,andassertedthesuperiorityoftheformer,consistingofthefewmostancientwitnesses,overthelatter,whichincludedthegreatmassoflaterauthorities.In
thiswefindthegermoftheprincipleoftheclassificationofauthorities,whichisnowtheguidingprincipleoftextualcriticism,whetherBiblicalorclassical.Itwas
opposedbyWetstein,whoanticipatedtheadvocacyoftheTRinourowntimebyDeanBurgonandothers,maintainingthatallthemostancientMSShadbeen
contaminatedfromtheLatin,andthatonlythelaterauthoritieswereworthyofattention.J.S.Semler(1767)developedBengelstheory,makingatriple
classificationofauthorities,asAlexandrian,Eastern(i.e.AntiochianandConstantinopolitan),andWesternandthiswaselaboratedbyhispupilJ.J.Griesbach
(177475),whoadoptedthesameclassification,butcarriedmuchfurthertheassignmentofthethenextantMSSandVersionstotheirseveralclasses.Bothinhis
classificationandinhisestimateofthecharacteristicsofthevariousfamiliesGriesbachwentfartoanticipatethetheoryofWestcottandHort,whichisthe
foundationofcontemporarycriticism.
36.Noneofthescholarshithertonamed,however,puthisprinciplestothetestbyproducingareformedGreektextoftheNT.Thisstep,whichmarkedthe
openingofaneweraintextualcriticism,wastakenin1831byK.Lachmann,adistinguishedclassicalscholar,who,likeBentleybeforehim,butwithgreater
success,resolvedtoapplytothetextoftheNTtheprincipleswhichwereadmittedassoundinthecaseoftheGreekandLatinclassics.Thismethodconsistedof
selectingsomeoftheoldestauthorities(MSS,Versions,andFathers),andforminghistextsolelyfromthem,whileignoringthegreatmassoflaterwitnesses.In
puttingfaithmainlyinthemostancientwitnesses,inspiteoftheirnumericalinferiority,Lachmannonlydidwhateveryeditorofaclassicaltextwoulddobuthe
departedfromsoundprinciple,first,byabsolutelyignoringallevidenceoutsidehisselectedgroupand,secondly,byadoptinginallcasesthereadinggivenbythe
majorityofhisselectedauthorities,withoutregardtotheinternalprobabilitiesofthevariousreadings,orapplyinganyofthetestswhichtextualscienceprovidesfor
discriminatingbetweenalternativestheexternalevidenceforwhichisapproximatelyequal.Moreover,theknowledgeoftheearlierauthoritiesatLachmanns
disposalwasbynomeanssocompleteasthatwhichwehaveatthepresentday.ForthesereasonsLachmannstextcouldnotlongholditsgroundpreciselyasit
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disposalwasbynomeanssocompleteasthatwhichwehaveatthepresentday.ForthesereasonsLachmannstextcouldnotlongholditsgroundpreciselyasit
stoodneverthelessitdidverygreatserviceinbreakingthemonopolyoftheTR,andinpreparingthewayforfurtherprogress.
37.ThenextstageinthisprogressismarkedbythenamesofConstantineTischendorfandS.P.Tregelles.AsthediscovereroftheCodexSinaiticus,
TischendorfachievedthemostsensationalsuccessintextualhistorybuthealsodidadmirableservicebyhiscollationofalmostalltheuncialMSSofany
importance(exceptthathewasallowedonlyverylimitedaccesstoB),andhiscollectionofevidenceinhissuccessiveeditionsoftheNT(culminatinginthe8th,
publishedin186972)remainsthefullestapparatuscriticustothepresentday.HisownprintedtextoftheNTfluctuatedconsiderablyfromoneeditiontoanother,
andhisjudgmentbetweenvariousreadingswashardlyequaltohisindustryincollectingthemstillinthemainhefollowedthebestauthorities,andhisedition
remainsoneoftheprincipalexamplesofatextconstructedoncriticallines.Theprolegomenatohis8theditionwascompiledafterhisdeathbyDr.C.R.Gregory,
andisaperfectstorehouseofbibliographicalinformationinitslatestform(publishedasanindependentwork,inGerman,underthetitleofTextkritikdesneuen
Testamentes,Leipzig,1900)itisthestandardbookofreferenceonthesubject.
38.TischendorfsIndustryasacollatorwasrivalledbythatofhisEnglishcontemporary,Tregelles,whocollatedalltheextantuncialMSSandsomeofthechief
minuscules,sothathisresultsservetocheckandtestthoseofTischendorf.Inhistext(publishedin185772)heconfinedhimselfalmostwhollytotheuncials,
withtheVersionsandFathers,completelyignoringtheTR.Infact,hefollowedverymuchthesameprinciplesasTischendorf,andhiseditionisserviceablechiefly
asameansoftestingTischendorfsjudgment,andofshowinghowfartwoscholars,workingindependentlyonthesameevidence,arriveatthesameresults.
UnfortunatelyhistextoftheGospelswaspublishedbeforethediscoveryof,andhisknowledgeofBwasevenlessthanthatofTischendorf.
39.TheevidenceaccumulatedbyLachmann,Tischendorf,andTregelles,aidedbythepublicinterestexcitedbysuchdiscoveriesasthoseoftheCodex
SinaiticusandtheCuretonianSyriac,producedageneralsenseofdissatisfactionwiththeTR,andinEnglandledtoanincreasingdesireforarevisionoftheAVin
thelightofmodernknowledge,culminatingin1870intheappointmentoftheCommitteeswhichproducedtheRV(forwhichseeart.ENGLISHVERSIONS,35
37).MeanwhiletwoEnglishscholarswereatworkonthetextoftheNT,whoseresultsweredestinednotonlytoaffectverygreatlytherevisionoftheEnglish
Bible,butalsotolaythefoundationsofallthetextualworkofthesucceedinggeneration,andwhoseinfluenceremainsparamounttothisday.ThesewereB.F.
Westcott(afterwardsBishopofDurham)andF.J.A.Hort.Theirjointworkbeganasfarbackas1853,whentheywerecolleaguesatCambridgeanditborefruit
in1881,whentheirtextoftheNTappearedonMay12th(fivedaysbeforethepublicationoftheRVoftheNT),andtheIntroduction,embodyingtheprinciples
uponwhichtheirtextwasbased,inthefollowingSeptember.Thisvolume(writtenbyHort,butrepresentingtheviewsofbothscholars)isthetextbookofmodern
textualcriticismasappliedtotheGreekBible.
40.TheprinciplesofWHareanextensionofthoseofSemlerandGriesbach,asdescribedabove(35),andrestuponaclassificationofourauthoritiesinto
families,andadiscriminationbetweenthemeritsofthesefamilies.ItisintheGospelsandActsthatthetextualphenomenaaremostplainlymarked,anditisto
themthatthecharacteristicstobedescribedapplymostfullybuttheyarelikewisetrue,inalesserdegree,oftheotherbooksoftheNT.Iftheapparatuscriticusof
theGospelsbestudied,itwillbefoundthatcertainMSSandVersionstendtoagreewithoneanother,andtoformgroupsdistinguishablefromothergroups.Four
suchgroupsareinfactdistinguishedbyWH,asfollowsthereasonsforthenamesassignedtothemwillappearshortly.()TheSyrianfamily,oftenheadedinthe
GospelsbythemanuscriptsAandC,butmorefullyandcharacteristicallyrepresentedbythelateruncials,suchasEFKMS,etc.,andbythegreatmassofthe
minuscules,bythePeshitaversion,andbymostoftheFathersfromChrysostomdownwardsfromthisfamily,initsfullydevelopedform,isdescendedtheTR.()
TheNeutralfamily,ofwhichthemainrepresentativeisB,oftensupportedby,byLRTZ,bytheminusculeEvan.33,andsomeotherminusculesinalesser
degree,byBoh.andsometimesSah.andfrequentlybythequotationsofOrigeninActs,Epp.,andApoc.,AandCgenerallyjointhisgroup.()TheAlexandrian
family,asortofsubspeciesof,notcontinuouslyfoundinanyoneMS,butrepresentedbythereadingsofsomeMSSofthegroupwhentheydifferamong
themselves,andespeciallywhentheydifferfromBLT,andACwhentheyarenotSyrian,maybetakenastheleadingmembersofthefamily.()TheWestern
family,headedbyDamongtheuncials(withE2inActsandD2inPaul.)andEvan.473amongasmallgroupofminuscules,butmostauthenticallyrepresentedby
theOldLatinandOldSyriacversions,andespeciallybyandSyr.Sin.italsolargelycoloursSah.,andisfoundinalmostalltheearlyFathers,notablyJustin,
Irenus,Cyprian,andClement.
41.Thesebeingthemaindivisionswhicharefoundtoexistamongourauthorities,thenextstepistodiscriminatebetweenthem,soastodeterminewhichisthe
mostgenerallytrustworthy.Hereitis(inadditiontothegreaterminutenessoftheexaminationandanalysisoftheindividualauthorities)thattheoriginalandepoch
makingcharacteroftheworkofWHismostconspicuous.ThefirstpropositionandonewhichstrikesattherootoftheclaimsoftheTRisthis,thatno
specificallySyrianreadingoccursintheNTquotationsofanyFatherbeforeChrysostom.Inotherwords,wherevertheSyrianfamilymarksitselfofffromthe
othersbyareadingofitsown,thatreadingcannotbeshowntohavebeeninexistencebeforethelatterpartofthe4thcentury.Theimportanceofthispropositionis
obvious,anditisnoteworthy,asshowingthevalueofPatristicevidence,thattheproofofitrestswhollyonthequotationsfoundintheFathers.Theinevitable
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obvious,anditisnoteworthy,asshowingthevalueofPatristicevidence,thattheproofofitrestswhollyonthequotationsfoundintheFathers.Theinevitable
conclusionisthattheSyriantextisasecondarytext,formed(accordingtoWHinSyria,andespeciallyinAntioch)inthecourseofthe4thcentury.Thissecondary
characterisalsoestablishedbyanexaminationofrepresentativeSyrianreadings(forthese,seeespeciallyJ.O.F.Murraysart.TextualCriticismoftheNTin
HastingsDB,Ext.Vol.).Ascomparedwiththerivalreadingsofothergroups,theyshowtheordinarysignsofeditorialrevision,suchasthemodificationofharsh
orstrangephrases,assimilationofoneversionofanincidentwithanother,greaterliterarysmoothness,andthelike.Aspecialproofofsecondarinessisfoundin
whatWHcallconflatereadings,whenonegroupofauthoritieshasonereadingandanotherhasasecond,andtheSyriantextcombinesthetwo.Theshortestand
simplestexampleisLk24:53,whereBCLBoh.readeulogountestontheon,D,OL,and
Augustineainountestontheon,whileAandthegeneralmassoflateuncialsandminusculeshaveainounteskaieulogountestontheon.(Forotherexamplesofthis
typeseeHortsIntroduction,andMurray,loc.cit.)Theconclusion,therefore,isthatthewitnessesbelongingtotheSyrianfamily,althoughtheypredominate
enormouslyinnumbers,possesslittleintrinsicweightwhenopposedtowitnessesoftheothergroups.
42.Asbetweentheremaininggroupsthediscriminationisnotsoeasy,andmustbemadebyothermethods.ThePatristicevidencecanshowusthattheWestern
text(originallysonamedbecausetheprincipalrepresentativesofitweretheOLversion,theLatinFathers,andthebilingualMSS)wasspreadoveralltheprincipal
provincestowhichChristianitypenetrated,Syria,Egypt,Rome,Gaul,Africa,andthatitgoesbackasfaraswehaveanyevidence,namelytothemiddleofthe
2ndcentury.Ontheotherhand,itpointstoEgyptasthespecialstrongholdoftheNeutraltext,andthesolehomeoftheAlexandrian.All,however,areofsuch
antiquitythatthepreferencecanbegiventononeonthisgroundalone.Itisnecessary,therefore,tolookattheinternalcharacteroftheseveraltexts.OftheWestern
textWHsay(Introd.170):Anyprepossessionsinitsfavourthatmightbecreatedbyitsimposingearlyascendancyareforthemostpartsoondissipatedby
continuousstudyofitsinternalcharacter.Thechiefcharacteristicswithwhichtheychargeitarealoveofparaphraseatendencytointerpolatewords,sentences,
andevenparagraphsfreechangesorinsertionsofconjunctions,pronouns,andprepositionalphrasesandgenerallyanextremelicenceinhandlingtheoriginaltext.
Alexandrianreadings,ontheotherhand,consistmainlyofslightlinguisticchanges,madeintheinterestofliterarystyletheyarethuscomparativelyunimportant,
andgiverisetolittlecontroversy.OveragainstthesevariousdivergencesstandsthetextwhichWHcallNeutral,becauseitshowsfewornoneofthesignsof
aberrationwhichcharacterizetheothergroups.ThistextisfoundpredominantlyinB,thecharacterofwhichissosuperiorthatitsevidencealwaysdeservesthe
mostcarefulconsideration,evenwhenitstandsalone.
43.Suchis,inbriefestsummary,thetheorywithregardtothetextualhistoryoftheNTpropoundedbyWH.Onitsfirstpromulgationitwasbitterlyassailedby
theadvocatesoftheTRbutagainsttheseitstriumph,intheopinionofnearlyallstudentsofthesubject,hasbeendecisive.Morerecentlythetendencyhasbeento
depreciatethepreeminenceoftheorNeutralText,asbeingmerelythelocaltextofEgypt,andtoexalttheorWesternfamily,onthegroundofitswideand
earlydiffusionandtheapparentlyprimitivecharacterofsomeofitsspecialreadings.AfurthertopicofcriticismhasbeentheterminologyofWH.ThetermSyrian
hasbeencondemnedasliabletobeconfusedwithSyriacWesternaswhollymisleading,sincethattypeoftextwaswidelyprevalentintheEastalso,and
probablytookitsrisethenceNeutralasbeggingthequestionofthesuperiorcharacterofthefamilysodescribed.Thesecriticismsmaybebrieflydismissedthere
isgoodfoundationforthem,buttheyaremattersofformratherthanofsubstance.AntiochianmightbesubstitutedforSyrianwithadvantage,andtheEgyptian
statusoftheNeutraltextmightbeadmittedwithoutabandoningitsclaimstosuperioritybutnogoodsubstituteforWesternhasyetbeenproposed.Insomeways
itwouldhebettertoabandonepithetsaltogether,andtocalltheseveralfamiliesbythenamesofthetext,thetext,thetext,andthetext,asindicatedin40
orthenomenclatureofWHmayberetained,butregardedsimplyassomanylabels,devoidofanysignificantconnotation.
44.Itismoreimportanttosaysomethingwithregardtothecomparativeclaimsoftheandtextsinthefirstinstance,andtheandtextssubsequently.With
regardtotheformercontroversy,whichragedwithgreatwarmthafterthepublicationoftheRVoftheNT,theadvocatesoftheorSyrianorTR(chiefamong
whomwereDeanBurgon,hisdiscipleandliteraryheirtheRev.E.Miller,andtheRev.G.H.Gwilliam,theeditorofthePeshita)resttheircasemainlyonthe
numericalpreponderanceofthemanuscriptsofthistype,whichtheytakeasindicatingthechoice,deliberateorinstinctive,oftheearlyChurch,andasimplyingthe
sanctionandauthorityofDivineProvidence.ButtoarguethusistomaintainthatthetextualhistoryoftheBibleisfundamentallydifferentfromthatofallother
booksofancientliterature,andthatthereasoningfacultiesgiventousbyGod,whicharegenerallyrecognizedasguidingustothetruthwithregardtothetextual
historyofclassicalliterature,arenottobeemployedwithregardtothetextualhistoryoftheNT.Thereisnothingstrangeorabnormalintherejectionofarelatively
largenumberoflateauthoritiesinfavourofarelativelysmallnumberofancientauthoritiesonthecontrary,itisaphenomenoncommontonearlyallworksof
ancientliteraturethathavecomedowntous,thesoledifferencebeingthattheNTmanuscripts,earlyandlate,arefarmorenumerousthanthoseofanyclassical
work,sothattheordinaryphenomenaareexhibitedonamuchlargerscale.Ifonceitbeadmittedthattheordinaryprinciplesofliterarycriticismaretobeappliedto
theNT,thentherejectionoftheTRinfavourofoneoftheearlierfamiliesfollowsasamatterofnecessity.Itmaybeaddedthatthecourseofdiscoverysincethe
publicationofWHstheoryhasfurnishedthebestpossibletestofsuchatheory,thatofwhollynewandunforeseenwitnesses,andthatithasreceivedtherefrom
muchconfirmationandnorefutation.ThediscoveryoftheSinaiticSyriac,thefullerscrutinyoftheversions,thetestingofthePatristicquotations(e.g.inthecase
ofEphraemSyrus,whowasformerlysupposedtohaveusedthePeshita),thepapyrusandvellumfragmentsfromEgyptandSinai,theexaminationofmoreofthe
minusculeMSS,allthesehavebroughtadditionalsupporttoreadingsofthe,,andfamilies,forwhichtheevidencepreviouslyavailablewassometimesvery 58/97
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minusculeMSS,allthesehavebroughtadditionalsupporttoreadingsofthe,,andfamilies,forwhichtheevidencepreviouslyavailablewassometimesvery
scanty,whiletheyhavedonenothingtocarrybackthedateofthedistinctivelySyrianreadingsbeyondtheperiodassignedtothembyWH,namely,theageof
Chrysostom.
45.Onepointremainstobedealtwithinthisconnexion,namely,thequestionoftheoriginofthisSyriantext,whichthusdominatedtheNTtraditionfor
considerablyoverathousandyears.TheviewofWHisthatitwasduetodeliberateeditorialrevision,operatingprobablyintwostages,thefirstrevisiontaking
placeearlyinthe4thcent.,thesecondatsometimeafterthemiddleofthatcentury.Againstthishypothesisithasbeenobjectedthat,ifsuchrevisionstookplace,
weshouldhaveexpectedtofindsomerecordoftheminearlyChristianliterature.WeknowthenamesofseveraleditorsoftheGreekOTduringthisverycentury
[seeGR.VERSIONSOFOT]isitlikelythattworevisionsoftheNTcouldhavebeenexecutedandyethaveleftnotraceinhistory?Ithasbeenurgedthatthereisno
recordofhowanothergreattextualchangewascarriedout,namely,thesubstitutionintheGreekOTofTheodotionsversionofDanielforthatoftheLXXanditis
nodoubttruethatwherethewholeavailableliteraturelikelytodealwithsuchasubjectissoscanty,theargumentfromsilenceisveryprecarious.Stillitmustbe
allowedtocarrysomeweight,andnotafewcriticswouldsubstituteforHortsdoublerevisionaprocessofgradualchangespreadoveraconsiderableperiod.Such
agradualchangewouldbeduetoageneralconsensusofopinionastotherightwaytodealwithdivergenttexts,namely,tocombinethemwhenpossible,and
otherwisetosoftendownharshnesses,toharmonizecontradictions,andtogivegreatersmoothnesstotheliterarystyle.Infavourofthishypothesisitmaybenoted
thattheMSSthemselvesshowsignsofagradualandprogressivedevelopmentofthetext.TheearliestMSSwhich(intheGospels)canbeclassedwiththis
family,AandC,exhibititscharacteristicssporadically,notcontinuously,andnotinfrequentlysidewithMSSoftheandfamiliesagainstreadingsfoundinthe
overwhelmingmassoflaterwitnesses.The6thcent.MSS,,showthetextinasomewhatmoreadvancedstagebutitisnotuntilwereachthelateruncials,
suchasEFKMS II,thatwefinditfullydevelopedintheformwhichweknowastheTR.Butwhetherweadoptthehypothesisofadefiniterevisionorthatofa
gradualprocessofchangeinordertoaccountfortheexistenceofthetext,thefactoftheexistenceofsuchatextremains,anditscharacterasasecondarytextof
relativelylateoriginmustbetakentobeoneoftheestablishedresultsofcriticism.
46.TheordinaryEnglishstudentoftheBibleisablereadilytoappreciatethepointsatissueinthecontroversybetweentheandtexts,becausetheyare
substantiallyrepresentedtohimbythedifferences(sofarastheyaredifferencesintext,andnotmerelyinrendering)betweentheAVandtheRVforthoughtheRV
doesnotgothewholewaywiththeNeutraltext,neverthelessitstextualdeparturesfromtheAVareinthatdirection,andgiveanadequategeneralideaofits
character.Indealingwiththetext,however,thereisnosuchreadymeansofrealizingitscharacter,sinceitisnotembodiedinanyEnglishversion,oreveninany
editionoftheGreektext.*ItsfeaturesmustbegatheredbyaninspectionoftheapparatuscriticusofsuchworksastheVariorumeditionoftheEnglishBible,or
theOxfordedition(withSandaysappendixes)oftheGreek.Evenhereitisnotallplainsailing,sincenooneMSgivesafullandconsistentrepresentationofthe
text,andtheauthoritieswhicharepredominantlyofthischaracternotinfrequentlydisagreewithregardtoparticularreadings.GenerallyitmaybesaidthattheOld
Syriac(especiallySyr.Sin.)andOldLatin(especiallyk,e,andCyprian)representtheoldestformofthetext,whileCodexBezae(D),itschiefchampionamong
GreekMSS,hasitinamoreadvanced(andmoreextravagant)form.
Fromthesesomeideaofitsdivergencesfromtheandtextsmaybegathered(thoughitmustberememberedthatsometimesandarefoundinagreementagainst,owing
totheeclecticcompilersofahavingadoptedareadingfromthealternativespresentedtothemandsometimes,ontheotherhand,andconcurinthepreservationofsomeearly
readingwhichhasbeendroppedoralteredin).ThusOLandOS(with B)omitfirstborninMt1:25,andthewordsblessthemthatcurseyou,dogoodtothemthathateyou
anddespitefullyuseyouinMt5:44,whileDinbothcaseshastheomittedwordsSyr.Cur.hasthedoxologytotheLordsPrayer,whileDandmostOLMSSomititOSomitsMt
16:2,3and
17:21(with B),whileOLandDretainbothinMt18:11,D,OL,andSyr.Cur.agreewiththeagroupinretainingtheverse,whileSyr.Sin.sideswiththegroupinomittingit
afterMt20:28alongadditionalpassage(akintoLk14:811)isinsertedinD,OL,andSyr.Cur.(Syr.Sin.isdefective).Mk16:920isomittedbyandSyr.Sin.,insertedbyD,
Syr.Cur.,andmostMSSoftheOL.AtLk6:6DinsertstheincidentofthemanworkingontheSabbathday,butOSisdefectivehere,andOLhasnotraceofitinLk9:55theTR
isderivedfromthetext(D,OL,Syr.Cur.),butSyr.Sin.agreeswiththegroupinomittingthewordsandsaid,Yeknownotwhatspirityeareof,etc.DandsomeOLMSS
omitLk22:20,whileotherOLMSSandOStransposevv.17,18tothisplaceSyr.Sin.omitsLk22:43,44,butD,OL,andSyr.Cur.retaintheminLk23:48somewordsare
addedtotheendbyOSandg1inLk24:6,12,36,whereDandOLhaveremarkableomissions(whichWHareinclinedtoaccept,evenagainstthetestimonyofB),bothMSSof
OScontaintheomittedpassagesbuttheyconcurwithDandOLinomitting24:40.Theseexamplesservetoshowboththecharacterofthetextandthewayinwhichits
authoritiesaredividedamongthemselves,apointofconsiderableimportancewhileinActsthedivergencesoftheStext(heremainlyrepresentedbyDandOL,theOSnotbeing
extant)areevengreater,somuchsoastohavegivenrisetothehypothesisthatitrepresentsadifferenteditionofthebook,duetotheauthorhimself.Thevagariesofindividual
membersofthegroupareoccasionallystillmorestrikingthanthosewhichhavebeenquotedaswhentwoOLMSS(aandg1)insertinMt1:15thelegend(apparentlyfromthe
EbioniteGospel)ofthegreatlightwhichflashedfromJordanatthebaptismofJesus,orwhenDcandSah.state(atLk23:53)thatthestoneatthemouthofthesepulchrewassuch
asscarcetwentymencouldroll.Inadditiontothesesubstantialadditionstooralterationsofthetext,theverbaldivergencesareverynumerous,provingthatanexcessivelicence 59/97
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asscarcetwentymencouldroll.Inadditiontothesesubstantialadditionstooralterationsofthetext,theverbaldivergencesareverynumerous,provingthatanexcessivelicence
wastaken,byscribesoreditors,indealingwiththeGospeltext.
47.Untilquiterecently,thespecialvariantsofthetextwerealmostuniversallyregardedasaberrations,whichnoonewouldthinkofacceptingasreadingsof
theoriginaltext.ItistruethatWHweredisposedtobelievethatthepassagesomittedbytheWesternauthoritiesinthelaterchaptersofLk.arenoauthenticpartof
theEvangelistsoriginalwork,butareadditionsmadeataveryearlydatebutthisistheonlycaseinwhichtheyacceptedtestimonyofthisclassassuperiortothat
ofBanditsallies,andfewotherscholarswouldatthattimehavegoneevensofarastheydid.ForsometimeafterthepromulgationofWHstheory,theconflict
ragedoverthecomparativemeritsoftheandtypesoftextanditwasonlyasthesuperiorityofthelatterwasmoreandmoreestablishedthatscholarsbeganto
investigatemorefullythecharacteristicsandclaimsoftheremainingfamily(ignoring,asmerelyasubspeciesof),forwhichaveryhighantiquitycouldbe
demonstrated.TheclaimsofthetextreceivedaconsiderablestimulusfromthepublicationofmoreoftheOLMSS(especiallyk),andaboveallfromthe
discoveryofSyr.Sin.,whichisperhapsthemostimportantsinglememberofthegroup.FurtherattentionwasattractedtoitbyBlassattempttoshowthatthetext
inLk.andthatinActsrepresentdifferenteditionsofthosebooks,issuedbyLukehimselfatdifferentdates.Atthepresentday,notafewscholarsareinclinedto
attachconsiderableweighttotheevidenceofthisfamily,andtoholdthatthetext,nolessthanthe,isduetoeditorialrevision,andthattheoriginalformofthe
NTtextistobelookedforintheOLandOStoamuchgreaterextentthanwaspreviouslysupposedpossible.
48.Themainargumentinfavourofthetextisitsgreatageandwidecirculation,asdemonstratedbythePatristicevidenceofthe2ndand3rdcenturies.Ithas
tobeborneinmind,however,thatpurityoftextisduenotsomuchtogreatageastocareintransmission,andthatwheresuchcarehasbeenwanting,corruptionis
bothrapidandfarreaching.ThepapyrusMSSoftheGreekclassics,writteninthefirsttwocenturiesoftheChristianera,whichhaverecentlycometolightinlarge
numbers,arealmostalwayslessaccuratethanthevellumMSSofthe10thand11thcents.thereasonnodoubtbeingthatthepapyriaregenerallycheapcopies,
circulatingamongprivateindividualsintheupperprovincesofEgypt,whilethevellumMSSrepresentthetraditionofthegreatlibraries,inwhichtranscriptswould
bemademoreaccuratelyandrevisedmorecarefully.SowithregardtotheearlyChristianliterature:wecanwellimaginethatduringthecenturyandahalf
followingthecompositionofthebooks,whenChristianitywasanunauthorizedreligion,liabletopersecutionandthedestructionofitsbooks,andwhenChristians
themselveslookedforaspeedySecondComingoftheLord,therewouldbelittlecareandlittleopportunityfortheprecisecollationofmanuscripts,andagreat
possibilityofverbalandevenmaterialvariationintranscription.Itisquiteintelligible,therefore,thatthroughthegreaterpartoftheChristianworldinaccurate
copieswouldcirculate,andthatthemorecarefulpreservationofthetruetextwouldruninacomparativelynarrowchannel.Andiftherewasonepartoftheworld
inwhichsuchcaremightmorethanelsewherebeexpected,itwasEgypt,andespeciallyAlexandria,thehomeofGreektextualcriticism,andthehomealsoofthe
GreekversionoftheOT.Hence,iftheinternalevidencepointstothetextasthemostaccurateandauthenticincharacter,theinferencetobedrawntherefromis
notmateriallyshakenwhenwefindsignsthatitsbirthplacewasinEgypt,andthatitsearlycirculationwasinthatcountry,whiletextsofvariousshadesofthetype
wereprevalentelsewhere.ThatsuchwasthecharacterofthetextwasthedeliberateopinionofWH,whowereperfectlyawareoftheearlyandwideattestationof
thetextandtheirconclusionissupportedbythequiteindependentinvestigationsofB.Weiss,whoseelaboratestudy(onverydifferentlines)ofthetextsofthe
principaluncialsledhimtotheconclusionthat,whereasalltherestshowmarkedindicationsofeditorialrevisioninvaryingdegrees,thetextofB,thoughbyno
meansfreefromscribalblunders,hasthestrongestsignsofauthenticityandoriginality.Itisalsotoberememberedthatitisimpossibletoformacoherenttextofthe
type.Thewitnessesdiffersomuchamongthemselvesthatitiseasiertofindamajorityofthemagainstanyreadingofthattypethaninfavourofit.Thisappears
eveninBlassattempttoformatextofLk.andActs,andintheotherbooksthetaskisstillmorehopeless.Readingsofthetype,inshort,havemuchmorethe
characterofresultsofacommontendency,workingmoreorlessindependentlyindifferentplacesundersimilarcircumstances,thanofthedescendantsfroma
commonoriginal.
49.Thenaturalconclusion,therefore,wouldseemtobethatthetextstillholdsthepositionofsuperioritywhichwassecuredforitbythesearchingcriticismof
WHandthis,onthewhole,isprobablytheprevalentviewtoday.Atthesametimeitmustbeadmittedthatindividualreadingsofthelassdeservemorerespectful
considerationthanheretofore.Revertingoncemoretotheresultsobtainedintheanalogousfieldofclassicalliterature,theevidenceofearlypapyri,whileit
generallyconfirmsthesuperiorityoftheMSorMSSwhichmoderncriticismhasselectedasthebestofanygivenauthor,neverthelesstendstoshowthatthetruthis
notalwaystobefoundinanyonewitnessorgroupofwitnesses.ThebestMSSsometimesmakemistakes,andinsuchcasesthetruereadingmaybepreservedin
MSSwhichasaruleareinferior.Tothispossibilitythecriticmustalwaysbealive,andallthemoresowhenthealternativereadingiscertainlyaveryearlyone,as
thoseofthefamilyoftenmustbe.ConsequentlyaneditoroftheNT,thoughhewoulddowelltopinhisfaithgenerallytothefamily,isboundalsotoconsider
readingsofthetypeontheirmeritsandthatespeciallywhensupportisfoundforthemfrommorethanonebranchofthefamily.TheLatinandSyriacbranches
ofthefamilyoftendifferbutwhentheyagree,thereadingwhichtheysupportmustcertainlygobacktoaveryearlydate.TheCodexBezae,theprincipalGreek
memberofthefamily,representsitscharacteristicsinasomewhatextremeform,andreadingssupportedbyitalonemustberegardedwithmuchsuspicionbutin
combinationwithOLandOSitbecomesaveryimportantwitness.If,inthefuture,earliercopiesoftheGospelsthanareatpresentknowntousshouldcometo
light,theymayveryprobablyrepresentthecharacteristicsofthisgrouptosomeextentbutitwillstillremaintobeconsideredwhethertheyseriouslyaffectthepre60/97
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light,theymayveryprobablyrepresentthecharacteristicsofthisgrouptosomeextentbutitwillstillremaintobeconsideredwhethertheyseriouslyaffectthepre
eminenceofthesmallbutselectbodyofauthoritiestowhichWHgave,andgavejustifiably,asitwouldseem,thenameofNeutral.
50.Forliteraturebearingontheearliersectionsofthisarticleseenotesattheendof9,16,24,30,
32.ThehistoryandbibliographyoftextualcriticismarebestsetoutinTregellesAccountofthePrintedTextoftheNT(1854)ScrivenersPlainIntroductiontotheCriticismofthe
NT(4thed.1894)and
GregorysProlegomenatoTischendorfsedition(1894),andTextkritikdesNT(1900).Shortersummariesofthehistoricalmatter,withfullerdiscussionsofthetextualproblemasit
standssinceWestcottandHort,willbefoundinKenyonsHandbooktotheTextualCriticismoftheNT(1901),andNestlesIntroductiontotheTextualCriticismoftheGreekNT(
Eng.tr.fromthe2ndGermaned.1901)thelatterisparticularlygoodforbibliographicalinformation.HortsIntroduction(formingvol.ii.ofTheNTintheOriginalCreek,byB.
F.WestcottandF.J.A.Hort,1881)is,ofcourse,invaluableforitsstatementoftheprinciplesoftextualcriticism,andforitsexpositionoftheepochmakingtheoryofthesetwo
scholars.MurraysarticleintheExt.Vol.ofHastingsDBisanelaboratevindicationofWHsposition,basedlargelyuponthematerialsleftbehindbyHort.Foranintroductionto
thesubjectonthesmallestpossiblescale,Prof.K.LakesTextoftheNT(1900)canbestronglyrecommended.
ThefullestapparatuscriticusatpresentavailableisthatinTischendorfsNTGrce8,186972.AveryserviceableselectapparatusisgiveninSandaysappendixestothe
OxfordGreekTestament(1889),whichalsoincludesafullcollationofWH.ForEnglishreadersaselectapparatusisprovidedinEyre&SpottiswoodesVariorumBible(NTby
Sanday,Clarke,andGoodwin,revisedin1888).Ofrevisedtextsthemostimportantare(1)WestcottandHort(vol.i.oftheworkcitedabove,alsoprintedseparately)(2)The
GreekTestamentwiththereadingsadoptedbytheRevisersoftheAV(Oxford1881,edited,byE.Palmer)(3)WeymouthsResultantGreekTestament(1886),basedupona
comparisonofalltheprincipaleditionsfromLachmanntotheRV(4)Nestlesedition,basedoriginally(Stuttgart,1898)onacomparisonofTischendorf,WH,andWeymouth,on
theprincipleoffollowingalwaysthereadingofthemajority,andgivingselectvariants(withouttheauthoritiesforthem)atthefootinlatereditions(1901,etc.)Weisshasbeen
substitutedforWeymouth.Nestlestexthassince1904beenadoptedbytheBritishandForeignBibleSociety,withadifferentapparatus,givingeveryvariationofanyimportance
fromtheTRandthetextunderlyingtheRV.Itisnow,therefore,easytoobtainatextoftheNTbaseduponthebestavailablewitnesses,asarrivedatbyaconsensusofthemost
competentcritics,andunquestionablysuperiorinaccuracyandauthenticitytotheTR.AneweditionoftheNT,onalargescale,whichpromisestobeofgreatimportance,isbeing
preparedbyProf.H.vonSoden.
F.G.KENYON.
THADDUS.ThisisthenameofoneoftheTwelveApostlesasgiveninMt10:3,Mk3:18.HeisdoubtlesstobeidentifiedwiththeJudas[son]ofJames,
whoappearsintheLukanlists(Lk6:18,Ac1:13soRV,butAVrendersbrotherofJames),andwiththeJudas,notIscariot,ofJn14:22,thoughsomeSyrian
writershavemadethislastJudastobethesameastheApostleThomas(syrsinreadshereThomas,syrcurreadsJudasThomas),Thomasbeingconfessedlyonlya
surname,theTwin.
InallfourlistsThaddus(orJudas)comesnexttoSimontheCanananorZealot,andmaynotimprobablyhavebeenhisbrotherorintimatefriend(cf.the
variantJudasZelotesinMt10:3,notedbelow).ItistheopinionofalmostallmodernscholarsthatneitheristobeidentifiedwithanyoftheBrethrenofourLord,
thoughDomChapmanhaslatelypublishedanelaborateargumenttothecontrary(JThStvii.412).
Insteadof,orinadditionto,Thaddus,wefindthevariantLebbus.InMk3:13,Codex
Bezae(D)andsomeOldLatinMSShaveLebbusbutallthebestauthorities,includingsyrsin
(Syrcuriswantinghere),haveThaddus,andthisisdoubtlessright.InMt10:3theoldestGreek
MSS(B),theVulgate,theCoptic,andsomeOldLatinMSShaveThaddus,whileD,supportedbythevaluableOldLatinkandsomeotherMSS,has
Lebbus.SomeotherOldLatinMSShaveJudasZelotes,andsyrsinhasJudasson(sic)ofJames(syrcuriswantinghere).
SomeinferiorMSSandseveralVersionscombineLebbusandThaddus,asAV(L.whosesurnamewasTh.)butthisisclearlyalaterexplanation,andmust
berejected.Wesee,then,thatinMt.Thaddushasthebestattestation,andthisaloneisreadinRV,fromwhichLebbushascompletelydisappeared.Buthow
could Lebbus have been invented? It has been suggested (a) that some early scribe, taking Thaddus and Lebbus to be names of kindred meaning, the
formerfromanAramaicworddenotingbreast,thelatterfromanotherdenotingheart,confusedthetwoor(b),withgreaterprobability,thatLebbusisaform
ofLevi,introducedbysomescribewhodidnotknowthatLeviandMatthewwerethesameperson.Itdoesnotaffecttheseexplanationsif,withDalman,wehold
thatthesederivationsareinfactwrong,forthescribeswerenotnecessarilyqualifiedtobegoodphilologers.
AfterNTtimesThaddeus(Syr.Taddai)wasoftenconfusedwithAddai,whowassaidtobeoneoftheSeventydisciples,andwho,beingseattoEdessa,healedAbgarus(see
SmithWace,Dict.Chr.Biog.iv.875).InalistofApostlesgiveninLagardesAppendixtotheApostolicConstitutions(p.283),Thaddus,whoisLebbusandJudas,is
distinguishedfromJudasofJames,andissaidtohavepreachedatEdessa,tohavebeenburiedinEgypt,andtohavebeencrucified.
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distinguishedfromJudasofJames,andissaidtohavepreachedatEdessa,tohavebeenburiedinEgypt,andtohavebeencrucified.
A.J.MACLEAN.
THANKOFFERING.SeeS ACRIFICE,12.
THARRA.SeeTERESH.
THASSI.ThesurnameofSimontheMaccabes(1Mac2:3).Themeaningofthewordisquiteuncertain.Aslikelyaninterpretationasanyisthezealous.
THEATRE.ThenameisGreek(lit.aplaceforviewing[aspectacle]),andthethingappearstobeofGreekoriginalso.FromthecitiesofGreeceproper,
theatresspreadallovertheGreekandRomanworld.Theauditoriumconsistedregularlyofasemicircularcavitycutonthesideofahill,muchbroaderattheupper
endthanthelower.Theseatswereplacedconcentrically,beingcommonlycarvedoutoftherock.Thepartlevelwiththeground,theorchestra,wasoccupiedbythe
choir.Thestageandscenewereonthediameter,andwereofartificialconstruction,beingveryoftenlikethefrontofatemple.Thetheatreswereusedforpublic
meetings,asbeinggenerallythelargestbuildingsinthecities(Ac19:29,31cf.alsoart.
EPHESUS).
A.S OUTER.
THEBAICVERSION.SeeTEXTOFNT,27.
THEBES.SeeNo.
THEBEZ.Afortifiedcity,inthereductionofwhichAbimelechmethisdeath(Jg9:50,2S11:21).ItisdescribedbyEusebiusandJeromeas13milesfrom
Neapolis,ontheroadtoScythopolis.ThisisalmostcertainlythepresentTbs,aprosperousvillageinafruitfulopenvalley,10milesN.E.ofNblus,onthe
ancienthighroadtoBeisn.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
THEFT.SeeCRIMESANDP UNISHMENTS,6.
THELERSAS.SeeTELHARSHA.
THEODOTION.SeeGREEKVERSIONSOFOT,p.319b.
THEODOTUS.1.OneofthemessengerssentbyNicanortoJudasMaccabus(2Mac14:19).2.TheauthorofaplottoassassinatekingPtolemyPhilopator,
whichwasfrustratedbyDositheus(3Mac1:2).
THEOPHILUS(lit.belovedofGod).ThepersontowhomSt.Lukestwoworksareaddressed(Lk1:3,Ac1:1).ThatTheophilusstandsforarealpersonand
isnotageneralnamefortheChristianreaderismadeprobablebythetitlemostexcellent,which,whenstrictlyused,impliesequestrianrank(Ramsay,St.Paulp.
388).ItisusedalsoofFelix(Ac23:26,24:3)andofFestus(26:25).Butsometakethetitleasamerecomplimentaryaddress,andthereforeastellingusnothingof
Theophilushimself.Ifitisusedstrictly,wemayagreewithRamsaythat
TheophiluswasaRomanofficial,andthefavourableattitudeofSt.LuketotheinstitutionsoftheEmpireisinkeepingwiththisidea.Ifso,Theophiluswouldbethe
Christian,nottheRoman,nameofthepersonaddressed.
A.J.MACLEAN.
THERAS(1Es8:41)=Ahava(wh.see),Ezr8:21,31.
THERMELETH.SeeTELMELAH.
THESSALONIANS,FIRSTEPISTLETOTHE
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THESSALONIANS,FIRSTEPISTLETOTHE
1.Occasionanddate.AccordingtothenarrativeofAc17,St.Paul,inthecourseofhissecondmissionaryjourney,wentfromPhilippitoThessalonica,and
reasonedthereinthesynagogueforthreeSabbaths,withtheresultthatsomeofthemwerepersuaded,andconsortedwithPaulandSilasandofthedevoutGreeks
agreatmultitude,andofthechiefwomennotafew(v.4)TherefollowsatumultoftheJews,andaccusationagainstJason,St.Paulshost,whoisboundoverto
keepthepeace.St.PaulissentawaybythebrethrentoBera,andthenceagaintoAthens,leavingSilasandTimothyinBera.FromAthenshesentforthem,
waitingtilltheyshouldarrive(17:15,16),butapparentlytheydidnotrejoinhimtillhehadpassedontoCorinth(18:5).Atthetimeofhiswriting1Th.theyare
withhim(1:1),Timothyhavingjustarrived(3:6),not,however,fromBera,butfromThessalonica,whitherhehadbeendespatchedbySt.PaulfromAthens(3:1,
2).Itisclear,then,thattheEpistlewaswrittenfromCorinth,butinthecompressednarrativeofActs,St.LukehasoverlookedthefactthatTimothyatleastdidjoin
St.PaulinAthens,andwassentbacktoThessalonicaunderimpulseoftheApostlesdeepconcernforhisconverts,whomhecouldnotrevisitpersonally,for
Satanhinderedus(1Th3:1,2,2:17,18).(VerypossiblyJasonsbondinvolvedapledgethatSt.Paulshouldnotreenterthecity,anabsolutebarrier,described
ashindrancebySatan.)Further,theimpressionisconveyedbyActsthatSt.PaulsexpulsionfromThessalonicafollowedimmediatelyuponathreeweeksministry
inthesynagogue,andadoubtnaturallyariseswhetherthechurchasdescribedin1Th.couldhavebeenestablishedinsoshortatime.Apart,however,from
indicationsintheEpistleitselfofalongerstay(e.g.2:712),thereareothers:(1)WhileinThessalonicaSt.Paulreceivedgiftsmorethanoncefromhisconvertsat
Philippi(Ph4:16).(2)ThesynagogueministrydoesnotaccountforhisastonishingsuccessamongtheGentiles(Ac17:4,1Th1:9).Itisprobable,therefore,that
theActsnarrativeistobeinterpretedasimplyingabriefandalmostfruitlessappealtotheJews,followedbyalongerandmoresuccessfulministrytotheGentile
population(cf.Ac13:4446).ItmaybeaddedthatatAc17:4thereisconsiderableWesternauthorityforinsertingandofbeforeGreeks,thusgivingthree
classesofconvertsbesidesthewomenJews,devoutpersons(i.e.proselytes),andGreeks(i.e.heathen).SeealsoRamsay,whoconstructsaneclectictext(St.
PaultheTraveller,pp.226note,235note2).
Theoccasionoftheletter,then,wasthereturnofTimothyfromhismission:itsdatefallswithintheeighteenmonthssojourninCorinth,aslateaspossible,to
allowtimeforthehistoryofthechurchassketchedintheEp.,andyetearlyenoughtoleaveroomforthecircumstancesof2Th.,alsowrittenfromCorinth.The
varyingschemesofPaulinechronologyassignforthedeparturefromCorinththespringofsomeyearbetween50and54perhaps52isthemostprobabledatefor1
Thessalonians.WiththepossibleexceptionofGalatians(which,ifaddressedtothechurchesofSouthGalatia,mayhavebeenwrittenearlier),itistheearliestof
extantPaulinewritings.
2.Contents.TheEpistledoesnotlenditselftoformalanalysis.TheleastdoctrinalandmostpersonalofallSt.Paulsletterstothechurches,itis
simplypromptedbyaffectionateconcernforthefaithandloveofhisrecentconverts,andfortheirgoodremembranceofhimself.
ThetidingsbroughtbyTimothythattheystandfast(3:58)leadstheApostletobeginwithanoutburstofthankfulmemoriesofhismission,inwhicheveryreminderofhis
ministryamongtheThessaloniansandoftheirenthusiasticresponseisbothanappealandanadmonition.This,togetherwithreferencetohisintenselongingtoseethemandtothe
visitandreturnofTimothy,formsthefirstandmainsectionoftheEpistle(chs.13),thefinalwordsgatheringupallitsdesiresintoaprayer(3:1113).Verysimpleyetprofound
expressionisgiventotheChristianfaithandhope(1:9,10)thereisreferencetoJewishhostility(2:1416),butnocontroversialinsistenceonanantiJudaicChristianitya
confirmationofearlydate.Inch.4thereiswarningagainstthebesettingimpurityoftheGentileworld(4:18),andagainstafanaticaldetachmentfromtheordinarydutiesand
responsibilitiesoflife(vv.912).
Thisisfollowedbyacomfortingassurance,renderednecessarybythebeliefinthespeedycomingoftheLordwhichSt.Paulsharedwithhisconverts(v.15),thatthoseofthe
brethrenwhohavealreadydiedwillhavepartinthateventequallywiththosewhoareyetalive(vv.1318).Thisthemeiscarriedontoawarningtobewatchfulagainstthesudden
comingofthedayoftheLord,asbeseemssonsoflightandsonsoftheday(5:111).Ageneraladmonitiontothechurchtorespectitsleadersandtocultivatepeace(vv.12,
13)leadsoutintoabeautifulseriesofshortexhortations,likeastringofglitteringdiamonds(vv.1422),prayerandsalutation(vv.2326),aninjunctionthattheletterbereadto
allthebrethren(v.
27),andfinalbenediction(v.28).
3.Authenticity
(1)Externaltestimony.Echoesof1Th.havebeentracedinBarnabas,ClementofRome,
Ignatius,andPolycarp,noneofthem,however,certain.ItiscontainedintheSyriacandOldLatinVersions,andnamedintheMuratorianFragment.Theearliest
quotationisinIrenus,whoattributestheEp.toSt.Paul,andspecifiesitastheFirsttotheThessalonians:itisquotedbyClementofAlexandria,andfrequently
byTertullian.Ifregardbehadtothepersonalandnontheologicalcharacteroftheletter,thistestimonyisample.
(2)Internalevidence.Thesimplicityoftheletter,theprevalenceofthepersonalnoteoverthedoctrinal,itsaccordwiththehistoryinActs(apartfromthe
slightdiscrepanciesalreadynoted,whichaforgerywouldsurelyhaveavoided),andtheagreementwithPhilipp.and2Cor.,inthewritersattitudeofaffectionate
confidencetowardstheseMacedonianChristians,allmakestronglyforgenuineness,andtheEp.is,infact,generallyacceptedbycriticsofallschools.
TheassertionofanunPaulinedoctrinalstandpoint(byBaur)takesforthestandardofcomparisonthelaterEpp.Gal.,Cor.,andRom.andignoresthegradualshapingof
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TheassertionofanunPaulinedoctrinalstandpoint(byBaur)takesforthestandardofcomparisonthelaterEpp.Gal.,Cor.,andRom.andignoresthegradualshapingof
PaulineChristianityunderstressofproblemsandcontroversiesasyethardlyinsight.TheJewishoppositionisnottoSt.Paulsdistinctiveteaching,buttohiswholemission(2:14
16):thedeclarationthatbecauseofpersistentrejectionofChrist
thewrathiscomeuponthemtotheuttermost(2:16),bynomeansimpliesthatJerusalemisalreadydestroyed(A. D.70).TherapidprogressoftheChurchatThessalonicareflects
thefirstenthusiasmofthenewfaith,andsuchprimitiveorganizationasitexhibits(5:12)isconsistentwiththestillearlierdateofAc14:23.Itistrue,andinnowayremarkable,
thattheexpectationofanimminentParousia(4:1517)isnotrepeatedmSt.Paulslaterletters(2Co5:1,Ph1:2124,3:11,20,21,4:5,Col1:5,12,13).Would,then,aforger
ofalatergenerationhaveattributedthistoSt.Paul?
ThereisreallynoreasontodoubtthattheEpistlegivesagenuineandinvaluableselfrevelationofSt.Paultheman.AllthegreatChristiantruthsappearthe
DivinityofChrist,Hisdeathformen,andresurrection,theChristiansunionwithHim,thegiftoftheHolySpirit,butlessasdoctrinesthanasvitalelementsof
personalreligion,themovingforcesofSt.Paulsownlifeandministry.
S.W.GREEN.
THESSALONIANS,SECONDEPISTLETOTHE
1.Occasionanddate.Scatteredindicationsfixtheletter(ifgenuine)aswrittenfrom
Corinth,notlongaftertheFirstEpistle.ForTimothyandSilas(Silvanus)arestillwiththe
Apostle(1:1,cf.1Th1:1),whereasinActsthereisnofurthermentionofSilasafterSt.PaulleftCorinth.Theformerletterseemstobereferredto(2:15),andthe
allusionstoSt.PaulsministryinThessalonicasuggestthatthiswasalmostasrecentaswhen1Th.waswritten.Verypossibly3:2istobeexplainedbythe
oppositionencounteredatCorinth,recordedinAc18.Thereasonsforasecondletterarehardlyevidentinanyconsiderabledifferenceofsubjectmatterthey
appeartoconsistintidingswhichhadreachedSt.Paulasto(1)somemisunderstandingofhisteachingabouttheParousia(2:13)(2)increaseofpersecution(1:4
10)(3)disorderlyconductinsomemembersoftheChurch(3:11)(4)lettersforgedintheApostlesname(2:2,3:17).
2.Contents.
Salutation(1:1,2)thanksgiving(withprayer)fortheirgrowthinfaithandloveinthemidstofafflictionpatientlyendured,withassuranceofGodsvengeance
upontheirpersecutors(vv.312)warningthatthedayoftheLordisnotyet,butmustbeheraldedbycertainsigns(2:112)renewedthanksgiving,exhortation,
andprayer(vv.1317).St.Paulasksfortheirprayers(3:1,2),expresseshisconfidenceinthem(vv.35),warnsthemagainstthedisorderly(vv.615)and
betweenrepeatedbenedictionsauthenticatestheletterbyhissignature(vv.1618).
3.Authenticity
(1)Externaltestimony.Theevidencealreadycitedfor1Th.IsreinforcedbyquotationsinPolycarp,andpossiblyinJustinMartyrthatis,ofthetwoEpistles
theSecondisthemorestronglyattested.
(2)Internalevidence.Circumstanceshavealreadybeenassignedtotheletter,inthemselvesconsistentandnotimprobable.Tothesemaybeaddedtheclose
resemblanceto1Th.insubjectmatterandphrasing,soobviousthatitneednotherebedetailed.Aliterarydependenceof2Th.on1Th.ispracticallycertain,
fortheintervalnecessarytojustifyasecondletteratallforbidsthesuppositionofunconsciousrepetition.if2Th.isbySt.Paul,hemusthaverereadhisformer
letterbeforewritingthis,andthequestionnaturallyariseswhetheritislikelythathewouldsoreproducehimself.(ThecaseofColossiansandEphesiansisnot
parallel:thesewerecontemporaryEpistles,andnotaddressedtothesameChurch.)Hencetheresemblanceto1Th.ismadeanargumentagainstthePauline
authorshipof2Th.Moreover,alongwiththeresemblancearefoundotherfeatureswhichareregardedasunPaulineandpostPauline,withtheresultthatthe
SecondEpistleiswidelyrejectedbythosewhoadmittheFirst.Thegroundsofthisrejectionmustbebrieflyexamined.
(a)Style.Itisfreelyadmittedthatthisargumentishazardousandindecisive:thosewhorelyuponitwouldnotperhapsquarrelwithJowettsdictumthatobjectionsofthiskind
are,forthemostpart,mattersoftasteorfeeling,aboutwhichitisuselesstodispute(Com.onTh.i.147).TheargumentmustalsoreckonwiththoseevidentfeaturesofPauline
styleandvocabularywhichthecloseresemblanceofsometwothirdsoftheEp.to1Th.carrieswithit,whileintheremainderwhatisexceptionalmaybeduetothenewsubject
matter.Still,itmaybearguedthatsomeofthepassageswhicharemostcloselyparallelto1Th.showalossofeaseandsimplicitywhichsuggeststhattheyhavebeenworkedover
byanotherhand.Thereisadifference,hardtoaccountformthesamewritersayingthesamethingaftersoshortanintervalnoristhechangesuchasmarksadvancetowardsthe
styleofSt.Paulslaterletters.
(b)Subjectmatter(apartfrom2:112).Ascomparedwith1Th.,verylittleappearsin2Th.thatisneworconvincinglyPauline:something,too,ofthewarmthandglowof
personalfeelinghasgone.Theseverityoftonein1:69cannotperhapsbeobjectedto,inviewof1Th2:15,16,while3:615issufficientlyaccountedforbyanaggravationofthe
offencealreadyrebuked(1Th4:11,5:14).Thereferencetoanepistleasfromus(2:2)suggestsanearliercorrespondenceofSt.PaulwithhisChurches,ofwhichwehaveno
knowledge,frequentenoughtohavealreadygivenrisetofraudulentimitation.Thisisnotimpossible,thoughtheprecautionofacertifyingsignature(3:17)mayseem,perhaps,a 64/97
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knowledge,frequentenoughtohavealreadygivenrisetofraudulentimitation.Thisisnotimpossible,thoughtheprecautionofacertifyingsignature(3:17)mayseem,perhaps,a
littleinadequate.
(c)Thepassage2:112.Theobjectionthatthiscontradictstheeschatologyof1Th5:2,3cannotbesustained.TheearlierpassagespeaksofacomingofthedayoftheLord,
suddenandunexpected:ifthishadbeenmisinterpretedofacomingsoimminentastocausetheordinarydutiesoflifetoloseinterestorclaim,theApostlemightwell,withoutin
consistency,remindtheThessaloniansthathehadwarnedthemofsignswhichmustfirstbefulfilled(2:35).
Amoreseriousdoubtisraisedbytheapocalypticcharacterofthepassage,uniqueinPaul,andheldtoshowbothdependenceonlaterwritingsandallusiontopostPauline
history.Sofar,however,asthethoughtisexceptional,thesectionmayfairlyberegardedasapendanttotheequallyexceptionalsection1Th4:1517(cf.alsoRo7:16,Gal4:21
31),andasmorelikelytobeoriginalthanattributedtoPaulbyalaterimitator.Thequestionratheriswhetheritcanbeaccountedforbycontemporaryideas,orbetraysthefacts
andconceptionsofalatertime.ThegeneralthoughtisthatthecomingofChrististobeheraldedbyanoutburstofiniquity,describedastheapostasy(fallingaway,2:3),either
headedbyorpersonifiedasthemanofsin(RVmthemanoflawlessness),thesonofperdition,thelawlessone(vv.3,8)whosecharacterandcomingaremorefully
describedinvv.4,912.Alreadythemysteryoflawlessnessisatwork(v.7),butthecrisisisdelayed,astheThessaloniansknow,bythatwhichrestraineth(v.6),onewho
restrains(v.7).Indueseasonthisrestraintwillberemoved,thatthelawlessonemayberevealed,tobeslainbytheLordJesus(vv.68).
Now,oftheelementsofthisconception,thatofanapostasyisnotunPauline:itappears2Co11:1315,Ro16:1720(aswellasAc20:2930,andthroughoutthePastoral
Epp.),andisattributedtofalseteachers.ThesameideaoccursinMt24:5,11,12,24||,2Pet.andJude,1Jn2:18,22,4:3,2Jn7.ThiswideprevalenceofthethoughtintheNT
writings,andtheconstantpredictionofmanyfalseteachers,falseprophets,falseChrists,antichrists(1Jn2:18),maysuggestasregardsourpassage(1)thatitdrawsupona
commonstockofeschatologicalideas(2)thatthemanofsinisnotnecessarilyapersonbutratheratype(cf.1Jn2:18,manyantichrists,butv.22andelsewherethe
antichrist),symbolizingtendenciesandmovements,andthereforeonlyatgravehazardtobeidentifiedwithanydefinitehistoricalpersonage.Hencetheallegedreferencetothe
legendofNeroredivivus(Tac.Hist.ii.8),withitsimplicationof A. D.6870astheearliestpossibledatefor2Th.,isquitewithoutwarrant.
ItistruethatourpassagehascloseaffinitieswithRevelation(especially13:1118,19:20,21,20:10),butthisdoesnotnecessarilymeandependence.ForEzk38,39,Dn79,
11,12,andlaterextracanonicalJewishapocalypticliteraturepresent,undervariedhistoriccolouring,thesameconceptionofafinalrallyofthepowersofevilbeforethelastdays,
andofthetriumphofMessiahoverantichrist.In Test.xii.Patr.thisantichristisBelialorBeliar(cf.2Co6:15),inRev.thebeast(symboloftheRoman
EmpireratherthanexclusivelyofNero),anditisnotnecessarytoregardthemanofsinandequivalentexpressionsasmorepersonalthanthese.Whatisreallypeculiarto2Th.is
theassertionofarestrainingpower,holdingincheckthemysteryoflawlessnessalreadyatwork.CanthisbeexplainedashistoricalcolourgivenbySt.Paultocurrentapocalyptic
traditionunderthecircumstancesof A. D.53orthereabouts?
Now,atthatdatetheApostleoftheGentileshadlatelyexperiencedthedeterminedenmityofthe
JewstohiswholeChristianmission,atThessalonica,Bera,andCorinth.ThoughtheParousiaisnotyet(2Th2:2),St.Paulexpectsitwithinhisownlifetime(1Th4:17).The
traditionalantichrististhereforealreadytobelookedfor(2Th2:7),andmightwellbediscoveredinJewishhatred,bentontheverydestructionofChristianity(1Th2:15,16),
fortifiedbyitssecureholdofthenationalsanctuary(2Th2:4),andheldinrestraintonlybytheforcesoforderseatedintheRomanpower,or,possibly,inthebetterelementsof
Judaismitself(2:6,7).Thusinterpreted,thepassagewouldbeadevelopmentonapocalypticlinesoftheoutburstof1:710,andnonecessitywouldremainforthesuggestion,quite
unsupportedbyevidence,that2:112eitherisaninterpolation,orisitselfagenuinePaulinefragmentworkedupintoaspuriousEpistle.
Sofar,then,asdoubtsconcerning2Th.arereducedtoargument,theycanhardlyprevailagainstthetraditionofPaulineauthorship.Whethermisgivingsasto
stylecanberelievedbythesuggestionthatTimothyorSilaswroteintheApostlesnameisdoubtfulatleast,therepeatedwepointstonosuchcooperation(cf.1
Th2:173:1).ThetrendofpresentcriticalopinionisperhapsindicatedinJlichersjudgment,thatthedifficultiescanafterallbemosteasilysolvedunderthe
viewthattheEpistlewaswrittenbySt.Paul.
S.W.GREEN.
THESSALONICA(modernSaloniki).AnimportantcityoftheRomanprovince
Macedonia,situatedontheViaEgnatia,theoverlandroutefromItalytotheE.,andatthenortheasterncorneroftheThermaicGulf.Itsbuildingsroseaboveone
anotherintiersontheslopesofthehills.Thesituationisineveryrespectadmirable,andmusthavebeenearlyoccupied.ThiscitywasfoundedaboutB.C.315,and
namedafterastepsisterofAlexandertheGreat.ItsgreatnessunderMacedonianrulewasevenextendedunderRomanrule.ItbecamethecapitaloftheRoman
provinceMacedonia,constitutedB.C.146.ItwasmadeafreecityinB.C.42(Ac17:5knowsthisfact),andwasruledbyitsownmagistratesundertheratherrare
titlepolitarchs,whowere5or6innumber.ThereweremanyJewshere,asthepossessionofasynagogueshows(Ac17:1),andanumberofproselytes(Ac17:4).
TheenemiesofSt.Paulraisedacryoftreason,andaseriousriotresulted.SomeofPaulsfriendshadtogivesecuritythatthiswouldnotberepeated.Thisforced
Paultoleavethecity.MembersofthechurchherewereJason,Gaius,Secundus,Aristarchus.SeeTHESSALONIANS.
A.S OUTER.
THEUDAS.MentionedbyGamaliel(Ac5:36)astheleaderofanunsuccessfulrebellionof400men.Josephus(Ant.XX.v.1)speaksofaTheudaswho
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THEUDAS.MentionedbyGamaliel(Ac5:36)astheleaderofanunsuccessfulrebellionof400men.Josephus(Ant.XX.v.1)speaksofaTheudaswho
misledthepeopleandgavehimselfoutforaprophet,atleasttenyearsafterGamalielsspeechandalsoalittleafterwards(2)speaksofthesonsofJudasthe
Galilao,theinstigatorofarebellioninthetimeofQuirinius.NowSt.Luke(Ac5:37)speakssuccessivelyofTheudasandJudas,anditisallegedthathe
erroneouslyputtheirnamesintoGamalielsmouthowingtoamisreadingofJosephus.Butthedifferencebetweenthewritersissogreatthatitisimpossibleto
supposethattheoneaccountdependsontheother.IfSt.LukedependsonJosephus,wheredidhegethisnumber400menfrom?Theremayhavebeenmorethan
oneTheudas,andLightfootsuggeststhatthenamemightbeusedastheGreekequivalentofseveraldifferentHebrewones.Therecertainlywere,asJosephustells
us,manyrebellionsatthisperiod.OrthenamemaybeaninterpolationinJosephus,takenfromActsbysomeChristianscribe(Blass)oroneofthewritersmay
havemadeamistakeinthename.Buttheycouldhardlybequoting,eitherfromtheother.
A.J.MACLEAN.
THIGH(Heb.yrk,Gr.mros).ThehollowofJacobsthighwasstrainedashewrestledatPeniel(Gn32:25),andtothisisattributedtheJewishcustom
(enjoinedintheMishna)ofnoteatingthesinewofthehip(v.32).Onthethightheswordwasgirded(Ex32:27,Ps45:3,Ca3:8)Ehudsontherightthigh
becausehewaslefthanded(Jg3:16,21).Underthejealousyordealthewomansthighfallsawayifshehasbeenguiltyofadultery(Nu5:21ff.).Tosmitehipand
thigh(lit.leguponthigh)isaphrasedenotingutterdiscomfitureaccompaniedbygreatslaughter(Jg15:8).Itsoriginisunknown,anditsmeaningmuchdisputed.
IsJer31:19andEzk21:12smitingupononesthighisagestureofsorroworterror.InHeb.(cf.AVm)ofGn46:25,Ex1:5,Jg8:30amanschildrenaredescribed
ascomingoutofhisthigh.Thisexplainstheoathtakenbyplacingthehandunderthethigh(Gn24:2,9,47:29),aspecialsacrednessbeingascribedtotheorgansof
generation.InNTthighoccursonlyinRev19:16,whereperhapsthemeaningisthatthenamewaswrittenonthatpartofthegarmentwhichcoveredthethigh.
J.C.LAMBERT.
THISBE.TheplacefromwhichTobitwascarriedawaycaptivebytheAssyrians(To1:2).Itspositionisdescribedasbeingontherighthand(south)of
KedeshnaphtaliinGalileeaboveAsher.Notraceofthenamehasyetbeenfound.SomecommentatorsmaintainthatThisbewasthehomeofElijahtheTishbite,
butthisisverydoubtful.
THISTLES.SeeTHORNS.
THOCANUS(1Es9:14)=Tikvah,Ezr10:15.
THOMAS.OneofthetwelveApostles.TheearlierEvangelistsmentiononlyhisname(Mt
10:3=Mk3:18=Lk6:15),butSt.Johnhasrescuedhimfromoblivion.HisquestionintheUpperRoom(Jn14:5)proveshimsomewhatslowofunderstanding.
Hewasquerulousandgloomy,alwaysdisposedtolookatthedarkside.Thus,whenJesusontheeveningoftheResurrectiondayappearedtotheApostlesinthe
roomatJerusalemwheretheywereassembledwithcloseddoors,Thomaswasabsent,buriedindespairandwhenheheardthattheyhadseentheLord,hewould
notbelieveit.Hewouldnot,hedeclared,bepersuadedunlesshesawandhandledHispiercedhandsandside(Jn20:1925).ThenextSundayeveningJesus
appearedasbefore,andgaveThomastheevidencehehadcraved.MyLordandmyGod!criedthedoubter,
leapingfromthedepthofdespairtothesummitoffaith(Jn20:26,29).Hisdoubtswereremoved,andhewasoneofthesevenwhojourneyednorthtomeetthe
LordattheLakeofGalilee(21:2).Despondentthoughhewas,Thomaswasnocoward,andhehadagreatdevotiontoJesus.Itwashewho,whentidingsof
LazarussicknesswerebroughttoBethanybeyondJordan,andtherest,fearingtherageoftherulers,weredisposedtolettheMasterventurealoneintoJuda,put
theircowardicetoshame:Letusalsogo,thatwemaydiewithhim!(Jn11:16.)Thomasisnotreallyanamebutanepithet,meaning,likeitsGreekequivalent
Didymus(Jn11:16,20:24,21:2),theTwin.If,asEusebiusstates,theApostlesnamewasJudas,hewouldbestyledtheTwintodistinguishhimfromJudasthe
sonofJamesandJudasIscariot.TraditioncreditshimwiththeauthorshipofaGospel(seeGOSPELS[APOCRYPHAL],6).
DAVIDS MITH.
THOMEI.SeeTEMAH.
THORNS,THISTLES,ETC.SomanywordsareusedintheHeb.forthornyplants,andtheyaresovariouslytranslated,thatitwillbeconvenienttoconsider
themallinonegroup.Inthegreatmajorityofcasesitisimpossibletoidentifythespecialspeciesreferredto.
1. td,Jg9:14f.AV,bramble,mg.thistle,RVmthornPs58:9AVandRVthorns.InGn50:10,11,Atadoccursasapropername.Thetdisprobablythe
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1. td,Jg9:14f.AV,bramble,mg.thistle,RVmthornPs58:9AVandRVthorns.InGn50:10,11,Atadoccursasapropername.Thetdisprobablythe
buckthorn(Rhamnuspalestina),alowlybush.
2. barqnm(Jg8:7,10briers),somekindofthorn.Arab.berqnistheCentaureascoparia,athornyheadedcompositecommoninPalestine.
3. dardar(Gn3:18,Hos10:8),somethistlyorthornyplant.InmodernArab.shauketeldardarisappliedtothestarthistlesorknapweedsofwhichCentaurea
calcitrapaandC.verutumarecommonPalestineforms.
4. chdeq(Pr15:19thorn,Mic7:4 briercf.Arab.chadaqtoenclose),somepricklyplantusedasahedge(Pr15:19).
5. chach(2K14:9,2Ch25:18,andJob31:40thistle2Ch33:11,Ca2:2,andHos9:6thornsIs34:13AVbrambles1S13:6thicketsJob41:2thorn,
wherebook,asinRV,wouldbebetter),someshrub,speciesunknown,withverystrongspines.
6. mskh,athornhedge(Mic7:4).
7. nautsts(Is7:19thorns,55:13thorn),fromAram. naatstoprick),ageneraltermforathorn.
8. srm(Ec7:6,Is34:13,Hos2:6,Nah1:10thorn).Thereferencetothecracklingofthornssuggeststhethornyburnet,whichisburnedalloverPalestinein
limekilns.srth,Am4:2,meansbooks.
9. silln(Ezk28:24briersallnm,Ezk2:6thorns).
10. srbm(Ezk2:6briers, lit.rebels,asinmg.,buttextdoubtful).
11. sirpd(Is55:13brier, lit.theburner,henceperhapsnettle).
12. tsinnm(Job5:5,Pr22:5thorns)tsnnm(Nu33:55,Jos23:13thorns).
13. qts(Gn3:18,Ex22:6,Jg8:7,18etc.),thecommonestandmostgeneralwordforthorns.
14. qimms(Pr24:31thorns),elsewherenettles.SeeNETTLE.
15. sikkm(Nu33:55pricks),cf.Arab.shaukthorn.
16. shayith,onlyinIs.(5:8,7:23f.,9:17,10:17,27:4),alwayswithshmr(brier),andtr.thorns. 17.shmr,inIs.(seeabove)alwaystr.briercf.Arab.samur
athornytree.18.rhamnos(Gr.),Bar6:71(AVandRVthorn).
19. skolops(Gr.),2Co12:7thorn(RVmstake).SeeMEDICINE,p.600bPAUL,p.688a.
20. akanthai(Gr.)=Heb.qts,Mt7:16,13:7,22,27:29etc.thorns.
21. tribolos(Gr.),Mt7:16thistle,He6:8brier.
Thevarietyofwordsusedtodescribethesepricklyplantsisnotsurprising,whenitisrememberedthatsuchplantsareubiquitousthroughoutPalestine,andfor
manymonthsoftheyeararealmosttheonlylivinguncultivatedvegetation.Theyformthecommonfoodofgoatsandcamelstheyareburned(Ec7:6),specially
thethornyburnet(Arab.billn),inovensandlimekilns,largeareasoflandbeingdiligentlyclearedeveryautumnforthispurpose.Giganticthistles,sometimesas
highasahorseshead,coverwholeacresoffallowlandandhavetobeclearedbyfirebeforeploughingcanbegin.Thornsofvariouskinds,e.g.brambles,
oleasters,etc.,arecommonlyusedashedgesandtangledmassesofdeadthornybranchesfromtheZizyphusandsimilartreesareused,particularlyintheJordan
Valley,asdefencesroundfields,flocks,ortents(Pr15:11,Mic7:4etc.).
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
THOUGHT.In1S9:5,inMt6:26(aswellasinthefoll.vv.27,28,31,34),in10:19,in
Mk13:11,andinLk12:11,22,25,26theEng.wordthoughtIsusedinAVintheoldsenseofgrieforanxiety.ThusMk13:11Takenothoughtbeforehand
doesnotmeandonotthinkorplan.butbenotburdenedwithanxietybeforehand.
THOUSAND.SeeARMY,2NUMBER.5.
THRACE.SomehaveproposedtoIdentifyTiras(Gn10:2)withThrace,butthisidentificationisuncertain.AThracianhorsemanismentionedin2Mac
12:35(aboutB.C.163)assavingGorgias,thegovernorofIdumaunderAntiochusEpiphanes,fromcapture.ThenameThraceItwasnottillA.D.46thenameof
aRomanprovincewasappliedtoallthecountrylyingbetweentheriversStrymonandDanube.AfterthedeathofLyslmachus(B.C.281seeTHYATIRA),with
whomtheprospectofcivilizationforthecountrydied,itcontinuedbarbarous,andwasfamousonlyforitssevereclimateanditssoldiers.Ofthelattertherewasa
plentifulsupply,andassoldiersoffortunetheyweretobefoundinthearmiesofthericherStates.TheywerechieflycavalryandlightarmedInfantry.(Thename
Thracianwashenceappliedtogladiatorsarmedinaparticularway.)Kingswhoemployedtheminwarfrequentlysettledthemincoloniesafterpeacewas
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Thracianwashenceappliedtogladiatorsarmedinaparticularway.)Kingswhoemployedtheminwarfrequentlysettledthemincoloniesafterpeacewas
declared.
A.S OUTER.
THRASUS.ThefatherofApollonius(2Mac3:5).
THREE.SeeNUMBER,7.
THREECHILDREN[SONGOF].SeeAPOCRYPHA,6.
THRESHING,THRESHINGFLOOR.SeeAGRICULTURE,3.
THRESHOLD.SeeHouse,6.
THRONE.TheOTtr.ofHeb.kissorkissh.Itisusedofanyseatofhonour:e.g.ofthehighpriest(1S1:9,4:13,18),ofajudge(Ps94:20),ofamilitary
officer(Jer1:15)butmostfrequentlyofaking(e.g.PharaohEx11:6,DavidandSolomon1K2:12etc.),andthusofGodHimself(Ps9:7,11:4,45:6,Is6:1).Fora
descriptionofSolomonsthronesee1K10:1820,2Ch9:1719.Frequentlythroneisusedmetaphoricallyfordignity,royalhonour,andpower.Thusthe
throneofDavidoftenstandsfortheroyalhonourofDavidshouse(2S7:16).SoGodsthroneisHissovereignpower(cf.Ps45:6,93:2).
TheNTtermthronos[once(Ac12:21)bma,judgmentseat.Istr.throne]issimilarlyused.ItisappliedinRev20:4tothethronesoftheassessorsofthe
heavenlyjudge(cf.Mt19:28||,Lk22:30)butismostfrequentlyusedofthethroneofGodorChrist(Mt5:34||,19:28||,Lk1:32,Ac2:30,7:49,He1:8,4:16,8:1,
12:2,Rev1:4,3:21etc.),Forthronesasarankofangels,seeart.DOMINION,andcf.P OWER.
W.F.BOYD.
THROUGHLY.Thisistheolderspellingofthoroughly.Inmod.editionsofAVwefindbothformsused,thoroughlyinEx21:18,2K11:18,and
throughlyelsewherebutintheoriginaleditionof1611thespellingisthroughlyeverywhere.TherewasnodistinctioninearlierEng.betweenthroughand
thorough,throughlyandthoroughly.Inthefirsted.of
AVEx14:16readsthechildrenofIsraelshallgoeondrygroundthorowthemidsoftheSea.
THRUM.SeeS PINNINGANDWEAVING,3,5.
THUMB.Thethumbisassociatedwiththegreattoe,andoccursintwodifferentconnexions.1.WearetoldthatAdonibezeksthumbsandgreattoeswerecut
off(Jg1:8),andthathehimselfhadpractisedthismutilationonseventykings(v.7).Theobjectseemstohavebeentorenderthevanquishedmonarchsunfitforwar
andthusforreigninginawarlikeage.2.IntheritualoftheconsecrationofAaronandhissons(Ex29:20,Lv8:23,24)bloodwassprinkledonthetipoftheright
ear,uponthethumboftherighthandandthegreattoeoftherightfoot.Thecleansedleperwassimilarlysprinkledwithbloodandoil(Lv14:14,17,25,28).The
actionseemstohavesymbolizedtheconsecration(orpurification)ofthewholeman,theextremitiesonlybeingtouched,justasonlythehornsofthealtarwere
sprinkledwiththeblood.
W.F.BOYD.
THUMMIM.SeeURIMANDTHUMMIM.
THUNDER.ThereisnofinerdescriptionofathunderstormthanthatofPs29.Inalandofhighmountainsanddeepgorges,splitthroughoutitslengthbythe
greatcleftoftheJordan,theeffectofthunderispeculiarlyterrible.InPalestineitisconfinedalmostentirelytowinter(1S12:17f.),butthewriteroncewitnesseda
terrificstormlateinApril,amongtheGileaduplands.Itisinvariablyaccompaniedbyrain.AccordingtopoeticandpopularIdeas,thunderwasthevoiceofGod(Ps
104:7,Job37:4etc.),whichasoulgiftedwithinsightmightunderstandandinterpret(Jn12:28f.cf.Mk1:11,Mt3:17etc.).ItistheexpressionofHisresistless
power(1S2:10,Ps
18:13etc.),andofHisinexorablevengeance(Is30:30etc.).Thunderplaysapartinafflictingthe
Egyptians(Ex9:23ff.),atthedeliveryoftheLaw(19:16,20:18),andindiscomfitingthePhilistines(1S7:10).Itisnotguidedbycaprice,butbythewillofGod
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Egyptians(Ex9:23ff.),atthedeliveryoftheLaw(19:16,20:18),andindiscomfitingthePhilistines(1S7:10).Itisnotguidedbycaprice,butbythewillofGod
(Job28:26,38:25).ItappearslargelyinthemoreterribleimageryoftheApocalypse.ForSonsofThunder,see
BOANERGES.
W.EWING.
THYATIRA.ThereisalongvalleyextendingnorthwardandsouthwardandconnectingthevalleysoftheHermusandCaicus.Downthisvalleyastream
flowssouthwards,andontheleftbankofthisstreamwasThyatira.Animportantroadalsoranalongthisvalley,thedirectroutebetweenConstantinopleand
Smyrna,andtherailwaytakesthisroutenow.Thyatirawasalsointhe1stcent.A.D.astationontheImperialPostRoad(overlandroute)fromBrundislumand
DyrrhachiumbyThessalonica,Neapolis(forPhilippi),Troas,Pergamum,PhiladelphiatoTarsus,SyrianAntioch,CsareaofPalestine,andAlexandria.Inits
connexionwithPergamumthisroadhadalwaysagreatimportance.Thyatirawasbuilt(inthemiddleofthevalley,withaslightrisinggroundforanacropolis)by
Seleucus,thefounderoftheSeleuciddynasty,whosevastkingdomextendedfromW.AsiaMinortotheHimalayas.ThecitywasfoundedbetweenB.C.300and
282asadefenceagainstLysimachus,whosekingdomborderedthatofSeleucusontheN.andW.,andthecolonistswereMacedoniansoldiers.In282,Philetrus
revoltedfromLysimachusandfoundedthekingdomofPergamum.AfterthedeathofLysimachus,Thyatirawasausefulgarrisontoholdtheroad,intheinterests
firstoftheSeleucidsandafterwardsofthePergamenians.ThelatterweresafefromtheformeriftheywereinpossessionofThyatira.Therelationbetween
PergamumandThyatirawasthusoftheclosest.Thecity,thoughweakinposition,wasagarrisoncity,andhadtobecarefullyfortified,andeverythingwasdoneto
fosterthemilitaryspirit.ThecharacterofthecitysreligionisillustratedbytheheroTyrimnos,whoisfiguredonitscoins.Heisonhorsebackandhasabattleaxe
onhisshoulder.Thisheroiscloselyrelatedtotheprotectinggodofthecity,whosetemplewasinfrontofthecity.Hewasconsideredthedivineancestorofthecity
anditsleadingfamilies,andwasidentifiedwiththesungod.HealsohadthetitlePythianApollo,thusillustratingthestrangemixtureofAnatolianandGreekideas
andnameswhichissocommonafeatureintheancientreligionsofAsiaMinor.Inconformitywiththis,hewasrepresentedaswearingacloakfastenedbya
brooch,carryingabattleaxe,andwithalaurelbranchinhisrighthand,symbolizinghispurifyingpower.(Itiscertainthattheplacewasinhabitedbeforethetime
ofSeleucus,butmerelyasavillagewithatemple.)ThecityhadPythiangamesonthemodelofthoseinGreeceproper,andinthe3rdcent.A.D.theEmperor
Elagabaluswasassociatedwiththegodintheworshipconnectedwiththem,showingthecloserrelationwhichhadbeeneffectedbetweenthepopularandthe
Imperialreligion.ItisprobablethatSeleucusI.hadsettledJewsinThyatira,ashecertainlydidinsomeofthecitiesofAsia.LydiaofThyatira(Ac16:14)hadcome
withinthecircleofthesynagogue,possiblyinhernativeplace.
Littleisknownofthehistoryofthecity.ItsurrenderedtotheRomansinB.C.190.ItwasoccupiedbyAristonicusduringhisrevoltinB.C.1332.Itmusthave
sufferedseverelyandrepeatedlyduringthefightingbetweenArabsandChristians,andTurksandChristians,intheMiddleAges.Itssituationdemandsthatitbe
capturedandrefortifiedbyeveryrulingpower.InRomantimesithadbeenagreattradingcity,datingitsgreatestperiodofprosperityfromaboutthetimewhenthe
SevenLetterswerewritten.ThereisevidenceofmoretradeguildstherethaninanyotherAsiancity:woolworkers,linenworkers,makersofoutergarments,dyers,
leatherworkers,tanners,bronzesmiths,etc.Lydiaprobablybelongedtooneofthoseguilds.ThepurpleinwhichLydiadealtmusthavebeenaproductofthe
regionofThyatira,andthewellknownTurkeyredmustthereforebemeant.Itisobtainedfrommadderroot,whichgrowsabundantlyinthatregion.Thename
purplehadamuchwidermeaningamongtheancientsthanamongus.
ThebronzeworkofThyatirawasalsoremarkablyfine(cf.Rev2:18).
TheletteraddressedtotheChurchatThyatira(Rev2:1829)isthemostobscureanddifficultofalltheseven,asweknowsolittleoflocalconditions.Itis
remarkablethatthecity,whichwastheleastofalltheseven(withperhapstheexceptionofPhiladelphia),shouldbepromisedstrengthandpower.Theexactnature
oftheNicolaitanswiththeirprophetesscannotbepreciselydetermined.Theprinciplestheyrepresentedwereregardedbytheauthorassubversiveoftrue
Christianity.
A.S OUTER.
THYINEWOOD(Rev18:12)isthecitruswoodoftheRomans,usedforthemanufactureofcostlyfurniture.ThetreeThuiaarticulata,inappearancelikea
cypress,about25feethigh,wasthesourceofthiswood.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
TIBERIAS.AtownbuiltbyHerod(A.D.1622)onthewesternshoreoftheSeaofGalilee(calledtheSeaofTiberiasinJn6:1,21:1,andinmodern
Arabic),andnamedinhonouroftheRomanEmperor.Thatitwaserectedoverthesiteofanancientgraveyard(Jos.Ant.XVIII.ii.3)initselfprovesthatnocityhad
previouslyexistedhere.ThiscircumstancemadeitanuncleanplacetotheJews,andHerodwasobligedtouseforceinordertopeopleitwithanybutthelowestof
thenation.ItwasdesignedentirelyonGreekmodels,andthefactthatitwasinspiritandcivilizationentirelyforeignisperhapsthereasonwhyitishardlyalludedto
intheGospelsthesolereferencebeingJn6:23.ThereisnoevidencethatitwasevervisitedbyChrist.ThecitysurrenderedtoVespasianandbyhimwasrestored69/97
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intheGospelsthesolereferencebeingJn6:23.ThereisnoevidencethatitwasevervisitedbyChrist.ThecitysurrenderedtoVespasianandbyhimwasrestored
toAgrippa.AfterthefallofJerusalemmanyoftheJewstookuptheirabodeinTiberias,andbyastrangereversaloffatethisuncleancitybecameamostimportant
centreofRabbinicteaching.HerelivedJudahtheHoly,editoroftheMishna.HeretheJerusalemTalmudwascompiled.Intheneighbourhoodarethetombsof
AqibaandofMaimonides.
ConstantinebuiltachurchandestablishedabishopricatTiberias,butChristianityneverflourishedthere.TheArabsseizeditinA.D.637theCrusaderslostitto
Saladinin1187.Thecitywasalmostdestroyedbyagreatearthquakein1837.Theprincipalobjectsofinterestaretheruinsofalargecastle(possiblyHerodian),a
veryancientsynagogue,andhalfanhoursjourneytothesouththehotspringsofEmmaus(theHammathofJos19:35),mentionedbyJosephusandPliny.The
cityisdirty,andproverbialforitsvermin.Thereisapopulationofabout4000,morethanhalfofwhomareJews,principallyrefugeesfromPoland.Thereisherean
importantmissionoftheUnitedFreeChurchofScotland.
FortheSeaofTiberias,seeGALILEE[S EAOF].
R.A.S.MACALISTER.
TIBERIUS,whosedesignationasEmperorwasTiberiusCsarAugustus,wasthesonof
TiberiusClaudiusNero(aRomannoble)andLivia,whosesecondhusbandwastheEmperorAugustus.HewasbornB.C.42anddiedA.D.37.Augustus,ashe
grewold,appointedinsuccessionfourofhisrelativesascoregents,ormarkedthemoutashisintendedsuccessors.Itwasclearthathedidnotdesirethesuccession
ofhisstepsonTiberius,whowasreserved,morose,andunlovable.ThesuccessivedeathsofhisnomineescompelledhimtofallbackuponTiberius,whoinA.D.11
wasmadecoemperor.Threeyearslaterhesucceededtothepurple.ItisprobablethatthethirteenthyearinLk3:1runsfromthefirstofthesedates,andthus
meansA.D.2526.TiberiuswasanablegeneralandacompetentEmperor,buttheunhappyexperiencesofhisearlylifemadehimsuspiciousandtimorous,andhe
putmanyofhisrivalsorsupposedrivalstodeath.InhislateryearshewasmuchundertheinfluenceofavillainousschemerSejanus.Hespenttheseyearsin
retirementatCapri.
A.S OUTER.
TIBHATH.AcityofHadarezer,kingofZobah(1Ch18:8).In2S8:8thenameofthetownisBetah,buttheoriginalreadingwasprobablyTebah,asinthe
Syriacversion,andasatribalnameinGn22:24.ThesiteofTibhathisunknown,butitwaspossiblyontheeasternslopesofAntiLebanon.
TIBNI.Arivalwhodisputedthethroneforfouryears(compare1K16:15withv.23)withOmri.
TIDAL.AkingofGoiim,orthenations,whoaccompaniedAmraphelofShinarandAriochofEllasarintheexpeditionmadebyChedorlaomerofElam
againstSodomandthecitiesoftheplain(Gn14:1).ThisnameisprobablytheTudhulorTudhulaofaBritishMuseumtabletoflatedate,whichmentionsalso
Kudurlahmal(?)(Chedorlaomer?)andDurmahlnisonofEriEaku(Arioch?).TudbulisstatedtohavebeensonofGazza[ni?].Whetheritwashewhosmote
(shattered)hisfathersheadwiththeweaponofhishands,themutilationofthetextleavesuncertain.
T.G.P INCHES.
TIGLATHPILESER[in1Ch5:6,26and2Ch28:20corruptedtotheformTilgathPilneser].ThisAssyrianruler,theTukultiapilsharraofthemonuments,
wasthethirdofthename.HebegantoreignaboutB.C.745(13thofIyyar),andissupposedtohavebeenausurper.IntheBabylonianchronologicallistheis
calledPulu,thePulof2K15:19,andthePorosoftheCanonofPtolemy.Hisreignwasaveryactiveandimportantone.Fivemonthsafterhisaccessionhe
marchedintoBabyloniatooverthrowthepoweroftheAramantribes.InB.C.744hewenttoNamritopunishthetribeswhoharassedtheAssyrianborder.InB.C.
743hedefeatedtheforcesofSardurisII.ofAraratatArpad.AmongthosewhogavetributeonthisoccasionwereRezinofDamascus,HiramofTyre,andPisirisof
Carchemish.Arpad,however,revoltedagain,andwasforthreeyearstheobjectiveofTiglathpilesersexpeditions(B.C.742740).In739hewenttoUllubain
Mesopotamia,andthepresenceofhisarmiesthereenabledhim,inB.C.738,tomakeheadagainstSyrianandPhnicianresistance.Onthisoccasionhesubjected
Kullani,supposedtobetheCalnoofIs10:9.RostsuggeststhatAzrianorIzrian(Azariah)ofJudahplayedsomepartinthisexpedition,andamongthosewhogave
tributewasMenahemofSamaria(2K15:19).InB.C.737hisobjectivewastheMedes,inmanyofwhosecitieshesetupbasreliefswiththeroyalimage.Afterthis
(B.C.736)hisforceswereagaindirectedagainstMesopotamia,andreachedthemountainofNal.ThisledthewaytotheconquestofAraratin
B.C.735.InB.C.734theAssyrianarmyinvadedPilishta(Philistia)accordingtoRost,the
MediterraneancoastlandS.ofJoppa.Gazawascaptured,andHanun,theking,havingfled,Tiglathpilesermountedthethroneandsetuphisimageinthepalace
there.InB.C.733cametheturnofDamascusandalsoofIsrael,theimmediatecausebeingaffairsinJudah.Azariahhaddied,andaftertheshortreignofhisson
Jotham,JehoahazorAhazcametothethrone.Takingadvantageofthechange,PekahofIsraelmadeanalliancewithRezlnofDamascustoattackJudah,and
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Jotham,JehoahazorAhazcametothethrone.Takingadvantageofthechange,PekahofIsraelmadeanalliancewithRezlnofDamascustoattackJudah,and
capturedElath(2K16:5ff.).FeelingthatJudahwouldbecompelledtosubmittothealliedpowersintheend,AhazturnedtoAssyria,sendingthebestofhisown
treasuresandthoseoftheTempleatJerusalemtomakeaworthypresenttotheAssyrianking(2K16:8),whothereforecametohisaid.PekahandRezlnwithdrew
theirforcesfromJudah,but,insteadofunitingagainstthecommonfoe,awaitedtheAssyriankingsattackeachinhisownterritory.Marchingbythecoastroute,
Tiglathpileserassuredhimselfofthesubmissionofhisvassalsin
N.Phnicia,andattackedN.Israel,capturingIjon,Abelbethmaacah,Janoah,Kedesh,Hazor,Gilead,Galilee,andallthelandofNaphtali(2K15:29).These
namesarenotpreservedintheannals,thoughthebroad(landof)limaybe,asHommeisuggests,thelastnamed.Pekahsavedhislandfromfurtherharmby
payingtribute,butthingswentharderwithRezin,hisally,whoshuthimselfupinDamascus.Thesiegewhichfollowedended,in732,inthecaptureofthecity591
towns,includingHadara,Rezinsowncity,wererazedtotheground.AnattackuponSamsi,queenoftheArabians,followed,theresultbeingthatanumberof
tribesSabans,Masans,etc.,hastenedtopropitiatetheAssyriankingwithgifts.Idibiil,aN.Arabianprince,wasmadegovernorontheMusrianborder.
MeanwhileanumberofIsraelitishnobles,withHosheaasleader,revolted,andPekahfled,butseemstohavebeenmurdered.Hosheathereuponmountedthe
throne,andboughttherecognitionoftheAssyrianking,whohadcontinuedtoravageSyria.MitintiofAshkelon,seeingthefateofRezinofDamascus,seemsto
havegonemad.HewassucceededbyhissonRkipti,whotriedtoatoneforhisfathersdisaffectionbysendingtributeandgifts.MetennaofTyrelikewisebecame
tributary.Afterthefallofthecapital,DamascusbecameanAssyrianprovince.Accordingto2K16:9,thepeopleweretakencaptivetoKir,andRezlnwasslain.It
wasinDamascusthatAhazmadehomagetotheconqueror,andseeingthereanaltarwhichtookhisfancy,hadonemadelikeit.Tiglathpileser,confident,
seemingly,ofhisholduponPalestine,didnotagaininvadethecountry.ItsStatesremainedformanyyearsmoreorlesstributarytoAssyria,accordingasthatpower
seemedstrongorweak.InB.C.731TiglathpileserwasattractedbyeventsinBabylonia.Ukinzr,aChaldanprince,havingseizedtheBabylonianthrone,the
AssyriankingbesiegedhiminhiscapitalSapia,whichhecapturedinB.C.729,takingUkinzrprisoner.InB.C.728TiglathpileserbecamekingofBabylon,but
beyondgraspingthehandofBel(Merodach)asitsruler,tookpartinnofurtherImportantevent.Heprobablydiedwhenmakinganexpeditionagainstacity
whosenameislostandShalmaneserIV.mountedthethrone(25thofTebeth,B.C.727).Whenathome,TiglathpileserresidedinNinevehorinCaiah,wherehe
restoredthecentralpalaceinHittitestyle,decoratingitwithbasreliefsandtheannalsofhisreign.ThisbuildingwaspartlydestroyedbyEsarhaddon.
T.G.P INCHES.
TIGRIS.OnlyinRVmofGn2:14andDn10:4,wherebothAVandRVhaveHiddekel(wh.see).TheTigrisrisesalittleS.ofLakeGljikandflows
southwardtoDiarbekr.AfterpassingDiarbekritreceivestheeasternTigris(whichrisesintheNiphatesmountains)atOsmanKleui.Thenitflowsthroughnarrow
gorgesintotheplateauofMesopotamia,whereitreceivesfromtheeasttheGreaterandLesserZab,theAdhemorRadanu,andtheDiyalehorTornadotus.OntheE.
bank,oppositeMosui,wereNinevehandCalah,alittleN.ofthejunctionoftheTigrisandGreaterZabandontheW.bank,N.oftheLesserZab,wasAssur(now
KalahSherghat),theprimitivecapitalofAssyria.TheTigrisisabout1150milesinlength,andrisesrapidlyinMarchandAprilowingtothemeltingofthesnows,
fallingagainafterthemiddleofMay.Cf.alsoEDEN[GARDENOF].
TIKVAH.1.ThefatherinlawofHuldah(2K22:14)calledin2Ch34:22Tokhath.2.ThefatherofJahzeiah(Ezr10:15)calledin1Es9:14Thocanus.
TILE,TILING.TheformeroccursonlyinEzk4:1forbricktheusualrenderingoftheoriginal.Forplansofacitydrawnonbricksortabletsofsoft
clay,whichwereafterwardsbakedhard,seeEzekiel,inSBOT,inloc.TilingisfoundonlyinLk5:19AV,forwhichRVhasthroughthetiles.St.Lukeseems
heretohaveadaptedthenarrativeofMk.(forwhichseeHOUSE,5)tothestyleofroofcoveredwithtiles(seeTeguiainRichsDict.ofAntiq.),withwhichhis
Westernreadersweremorefamiliarorthroughthetilesisheresimplysynonymouswiththroughtheroof(cf.ourexpressiononthetiles).
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
TILGATHPILNESER.SeeTIGLATHPILESER.
TILON.AsonofShimon(1Ch4:20).
TIMUS.FatherofBartimus(Mk10:46).
TIMBREL.SeeTABRET,andMUSIC,etc.,4(3)(a).
TIME.TheconceptionthatweseemtogatheroftimefromtheHolyScripturesisofasmallblock,asitwere,cutoutofboundlesseternity.Ofpasteternity,if71/97
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TIME.TheconceptionthatweseemtogatheroftimefromtheHolyScripturesisofasmallblock,asitwere,cutoutofboundlesseternity.Ofpasteternity,if
wemayusesuchanexpression,Godistheonlyinhabitantinfutureeternityangelsandmenaretoshare.Andthisblockoftimeisinfinitesimallysmall.InGods
sight,intheDivinemind,athousandyearsarebutasyesterday(Ps90:4cf.2P3:8onedayiswiththeLordasathousandyears,andathousandyearsasone
day).Timehasabeginningithasalso,ifweaccepttheusualtranslationofRev10:6thereshallbetimenolonger,astatedend.ThewordtimeinBiblical
apocalypticliteraturehasanothermeaningtimestandsforayearbothinDaniel(4:16,23,25,32,7:25,wherethepluraltimesseemstostandfortwoyears)
andinRev12:14(derivedfromDn7:25).
Whenoncetheideaoftimeformeditselfinthehumanmind,subdivisionsofitwouldfollowasamatterofcourse.Thedivisionbetweenlightanddarkness,the
rising,thezenith,andthesettingofthesunandthemoon,togetherwiththephasesofthelatter,andthevaryingpositionofthemostnotablestarsinthefirmament,
wouldallsuggestmodesofreckoningtime,tosaynothingofthecircuitoftheseasonsasindicatedbythegrowthanddevelopmentofthefruitsofthefieldand
agriculturaloperations.HencewefindinGn1dayandnightasthefirstdivisionoftime,and,becauselightwasbelievedtobealatercreationthanmatter,one
wholedayissaidtobemadeupofeveningandmorningandthedayisreckoned,asitstillisbytheJewsand,inprinciple,bytheChurchinherecclesiastical
feasts,fromonedisappearanceofthesuntothenext,thedivisionsbetweendayandnightbeingformedbythatappearanceanddisappearance.Inthissame
cosmogonywemeetwithafurtheruseofthelightsinthefirmamentofheaventheyaretobeforsigns,andforseasons,andfordaysandyears(Gn1:14).The
daywouldthusbeanobviousdivisionoftimeforintelligentbeingstomakefromtheveryearliestages.Astimewenton,subdivisionsofthisdaywouldbemade,
derivedfromanobservanceofthesunintheheavensmorning,noondayormidday,andeveningand,byanalogy,therewouldbeamidnight.Theonlyother
expressionwemeetwithisbetweenthetwoevenings(Ex12:6),usedmostprobablyforthetimebetweensunsetanddark,thoughotherstakeitasequivalentto
thetimeofthegoingdownofthesun,i.e.anytimeintheafternoon:anyshortersubdivisionsoftimewerenotknowntotheJewstilltheywerebroughtinto
contactwithWesterncivilizationandtheRomanmilitaryarrangements.TheonlyexceptiontothisisthestepsonthedialofAhaz(2K20:911).Inthepassagesin
DanielwherethewordhouroccursintheEV,thetermisquiteanindefiniteone,theonehourofDn4:19inAVbecomingawhileinRV.TheAram,wordused
inthatbookwasusedintheNewHebrewforthewordhour.IntheApocryphathewordhourisquiteindefinite.ButintheNTwefindtheWesterndivisionof
thedayintotwelvehours,reckoningfromsunrisetosunset,quiteestablished.Aretherenottwelvehoursintheday?saidourLord,inanappealtotheJews(Jn
11:9).WestcottholdsthatinSt.JohnsGospel(1:39,4:6,52,19:14)themodernmodeofreckoningthehoursfrommidnighttomidnightisfollowed.Thestrongest
passageinsupportofthisviewis19:14.Thesetwelvehoursweredividedintothefourmilitarywatchesofthreehourseach(cf.Mt14:25thefourthwatchofthe
night),asdistinguishedfromthethreewatcheswhichseemtohaveprevailedamongtheJews(ifheshallcomeinthesecondwatch,andifinthethird,Lk12:38).
Theonlyothermeasureoftime,quiteindefiniteandinfinitesimal,isthemoment,commontoOT,Apocr.,andNT(weshallallbechanged,inamoment,inthe
twinklingofaneye,1Co15:52).Tomorrow(Ex8:23)andyesterday(Ex5:14),andevenyesternight(Gn31:29),wouldsoontaketheirplaceoneithersideofto
day.TheHebrewwordmeaningliterallythedaybeforeyesterday,isgenerallyusedvaguelyofprevioustime,heretofore.
Thenextobviousdivisionoftimewouldbethemonth.Thephasesofthemoonwouldbewatched,anditwouldsoonbenoticedthattheserecurredatregular
intervals.Eachappearanceofthenewmoonwouldbenotedasthebeginningofanewperiod.ThefirstmentionofthenewmooninBiblicalhistoryisin1S20:5,
thoughthebeginningsofthemonthsarementionedintherituallawsofNu10:10,28:11.OfthetwoHeb.wordsformonth,oneisidenticalwiththewordfor
moon,theothermeansnewness.Thoughtheactualperiodofeachmoonisrathermorethan29days,theactualtimeofitsvisibilitycouldscarcelybemorethan
28days.Thefirstappearanceofthenewmoonwouldbeeagerlywatchedforandmadeamatterofrejoicing.Wefind,infact,thatakeenlookoutwaskeptforit,
andthenewmoonfeastwaskeptwithgreatrejoicings,aswellas,apparentlyinlatertimes,afullmoonfeast(Blowupthetrumpetinthenewmoon,Atthefull
moon,onoursolemnfeastday,Ps81:3).
Giventhisperiodof28days,togetherwiththerecurrentphasesofthemoon,itwouldnaturallybesubdivided,likethedayitself,intofourdivisionsorweeksof
sevendayseach.ThefirstoccurrenceofaweekisinGn29:27,thoughtheCreationisrepresentedashavingbeencompleted,includingtherestoftheAlmighty,in
aperiodofsevendays,andperiodsofsevendaysoccurinthehistoryoftheFlood.OfthetwoHeb.namesforweekoneisderivedfromthenumberseven,and
theotherisidenticalwithSabbath,thedaywhichcompletestheJewishweek.TheNTtakesoverthelatterword,andmakesaGreeknounofit,whilsttothe
ChristianandtotheChristianChurch,thefirstdayoftheweekbecomestheimportantday,insteadoftheseventh,andisforChristiansthedayofgatheringtogether
tobreakbread(Ac20:7),andofmakingcollectionsfortheneedsofthefaithful(1Co16:2),andalsowinsforitselfthenameoftheLordsday(Rev1:10).The
wordweekwasgivenotherapplications.Theseventhyearcompletedaweekofyearsandwasasabbathseventimessevenyearsformedsevensabbathsofyears,
i.e.fortynineyears,andwasfollowedbythejubilee.Fromtheconstantoccurrenceofthetenthdayofthemonthinthedatingofevents,ithasbeensupposedthat
themonthof30dayswasalsosubdividedintoperiodsoftendayseach(see,e.g.,Ex12:3,Lv16:29,Jos4:19,2K25:1etc.).
TherearenonamesintheOTforthedaysoftheweekexceptforthesevenththeSabbath.IntheApocrypha(Jth8:6)thereisanameforFridaywhichis
translatedtheeveoftheSabbathsoinMk15:42thedaybeforetheSabbath.ThisdayisalsocalledthePreparation(Mt27:62,
Mk15:42,Lk23:54,Jn19:31).InRomanCatholicservicebooksGoodFridayisstillcalledFeriaSextainParasceue(i.e.thePreparation),andthefollowing
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Mk15:42,Lk23:54,Jn19:31).InRomanCatholicservicebooksGoodFridayisstillcalledFeriaSextainParasceue(i.e.thePreparation),andthefollowing
SaturdaySabbatumSanctum.
Whilstthesevariousdivisionsoftimewerebeingarrivedat,therewouldbe,concurrentlywiththem,theobviousrecurrenceoftheseasonsintheirdueorder.
OneofthepromisesrepresentedashavingbeenmadebyGodtoNoahimmediatelyaftertheFloodwasthatseedtime(i.e.spring),summer,harvest(i.e.autumn),
andwintershouldnotcease(Gn8:22).ThisistheearliesttimeintheworldshistorytowhichaknowledgeoftheseasonsisattributedintheBible.Afterwards
summerandwinterarefrequentlymentioned.InAVthewordspring,tomeanthatseason,occursonlyinWis2:7,andautumnnotatall,thoughtheword
translatedwinterinAm3:15,Jer36:22,mightequallyberenderedautumn,asthetimereferredtoisthebordertimebetweenautumnandwinter.Itwouldindue
coursebenoticedthattheseasonsrecurredpracticallyafteraseriesoftwelvemoonsormonthshencewouldcomeinthedivisionoftimeintoyearsoftwelvelunar
months.Ayearof360daysisimpliedinthehistoryoftheFlood(Gn68),butnosatisfactoryexplanationhasyetbeengivenoftheschemeofyearsand
chronologyinthegenealogicalaccountofantediluviantimes(Gn5).
Thetwelvemonthsoftheyearwouldbegivennames.TheBiblicalnameswefindforthemare:
1. Abib(Ex13:4),themonthofthegreenearsofcorn,aboutthesameasourApril,calledinpostexilictimes,incorrespondencewithitsBab.name,Nisan(Neh2:1).
ThiswasthemonthinwhichthePassovercame.
2. Ziv(1K6:1),seeminglythebrightmonth,calledlaterIyyar.
3. Sivan(Est8:9),anotherBab.name,occurringonlyinthisonepassageintheOT.
4. ThismonthhasnoBiblicalname,butwascalledinlatertimesTammuz,afterthegodofthatname,inwhosehonourafastwaskeptduringthemonth,whichis
mentionedinZec8:19asthefastofthefourthmonth.
5. ThismonthalsohasnoBiblicalname,butwascalledlaterAb.
6. Elul(Neh6:15,1Mac14:27).TheetymologyofthisnameisunknownitoccursinAssyrian.
7. Ethanim(1K8:2),themonthofconstantflowings,inlatertimescalledTishri.Thiswasthefirstmonthofthecivilyear.
8. Bul(1K6:38),awordofdoubtfuletymology,calledlaterMarcheshvan.
9. Chislev(Neh1:1,Zec7:1,1Mac1:54etc.),aBab.wordofuncertainderivation.
10. Tebeth(Est2:18),takenoverfromtheAssyrian.Ithasbeenconjecturedtomeanthemonthofsinkingin,i.e.themuddymonth.
11. Shebat(Zec1:7,1Mac16:14),takenfromtheBabylonianofdoubtfulmeaning,but,accordingtosome,themonthofdestroyingrain.
12. Adar(Ezr6:15,Est3:7etc.),aBab.word,perhapsmeaningdarkened.In2Mac15:36weareinformedthatthetwelfthmonthiscalledAdarintheSyrian
tongue.
Thenamesgivenare,itwillbeseen,ofrareoccurrence,andonlyfourofthemarepreexilic.Biblicalwritersaregenerallycontenttogivethenumberofthe
month.Someofthemonthswerenotablefortheirecclesiasticalfeasts.InthefirstcamethePassover,onthe14thdayinthethird,theFeastofWeeks(Pentecost)in
theseventh,theFeastofTrumpetsandtheFeastof
Tabernacles,asalsotheFastoftheDayofAtonementintheninth,theFeastofDedicationandinthetwelfth,theFeastofPurim.
Thoughatfirstallthemonthsseemtohavebeenreckonedofequallength,inlatertimestheycontained30and29daysalternately.Thisrenderedan
intercalationintheCalendarnecessary,tokeepthePassoverintherightseasonoftheyearandthisintercalaryperiodwascalledthesecondAdar,andwasinserted
asrequiredtobringAbibtoitsproperplaceintheyear.
ItremainstomentionthatintheApocryphawehavetracesoftheMacedonianCalendar.In2Mac11:21,amonthisnamedDioscorinthius,anamewhichdoes
notoccurelsewhere,andwhichiseitheracorruptionofthetextforDystrus,anameforthetwelfthmonth,whichoccursintheSinaitictextofTo2:12,orthename
ofanintercalarymonthinsertedattheendoftheyear.In2Mac11:30Xanthicus,thenameforthefirstmonthoftheMacedonianyear,occurs.Itanswerstothe
monthAbib.Thesenames,withotherMacedoniannames,areusedbyJosephus.In3Mac6:38twoEgyptianmonths,PachonandEpiphi,occur,theformerbeing
omittedinsometexts.TheyaretheninthandeleventhmonthsoftheEgyptianyear.
Ofepochsorerasthereisbutlittletrace.Thereweretheperiodsofsevenyearsandfiftyyearsalreadymentioned,buttheyneveroccurinanychronological
statement.430yearsisthetimeassignedtothesojourninginEgypt,bothinOTandNT(Ex12:40,Gal3:17),andthecommencementofthebuildingofSolomons
Templeisdated480yearsaftertheExodus.Thechronologyofthetwokingdomsisreckonedbyregnalyears,thoughinsomecasesaregencyperiodiscountedas
partofthelengthofthereign.TwiceinIsaiah(6:1,14:28)thedatenotedisthatoftheyearofthedeathofaking,inanothercasethedateistheinvasionbythe
Tartan(20:1)whilstinAmos(1:1)adateisgivenastwoyearsbeforetheearthquake,apparentlyaparticularlysevereonewhichhappenedduringthereignof
Uzziah,kingofJudah(Zec14:5).TheseventyyearsoftheCaptivityisalsoawellknownperiod,asisthethousandyearsoftheApocalypse(Rev20),withallthe73/97
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Uzziah,kingofJudah(Zec14:5).TheseventyyearsoftheCaptivityisalsoawellknownperiod,asisthethousandyearsoftheApocalypse(Rev20),withallthe
speculationsithasgivenriseto.InlatertimestheyearswerereckonedbythenamesofthosewhofilledtheofficeofhighpriestinLk3:1f.,wehaveacareful
combinationofnamesofvariousofficesheldbyvariouspersonsatthetimeofthecommencementofthepreachingofJohntheBaptist,toindicatethedate.
Ofinstrumentstomeasuretimewehearofonlyone,thesundialofAhaz(2K20:911,Is38:8),butwhatshapeorformthistookwedonotknow.
H.A.REDPATH.
TIMNA.1.AconcubineofEliphaz,sonofEsau(Gn36:12).2.AwomanoftheEsauclanofHorites(Gn36:22,1Ch1:39).3.AdukeofEdom(1Ch1:51,
Gn36:40[whereRVhas,byaslip,Timnah]).
H.L.WILLETT.
TIMNAH.1.AtowninthehighregionofS.Judah,S.E.ofHebron(Jos15:57).ItispossiblethatthiswastheTimnahvisitedbyJudahatthetimeofsheep
shearing(Gn38:12).Oritmayhavebeen2.AplaceontheN.frontierofthetribeofJudahbetweenBethshemeshandEkron(Jos15:10).Atonetimeitwas
countedintheterritoryofDan(Jos19:43),butatanotheritwasinPhilistinepossession(Jg14:1).HereSamsoncelebratedhismarriage.Hisfatherinlawiscalled
theTimnite(Jg15:6).ThetownwasheldbytheHebrewsinthereignofUzziah,butwaslosttothePhilistinesbyAhaz(2Ch28:13).Itisnowidentifiedwith
Tibneh,ontheS.sideoftheWadySarar,2milesW.ofBethshemesh.3.ForGn36:40seeTIMNA,3.
H.L.WILLETT.
TIMNATH.AstrongcitybuiltbyBacchides(1Mac9:50).ItispossiblytheThamnaofJos.BJIII.iii.5,themod.Tibneh,some10milesN.W.ofBethel.Cf.
TIMNATHSERAH.
TIMNATHHERES(inJos19:50,24:30writtenTimnathserah).AplaceassignedtoJoshuaasaninheritanceandburyingplace(Jg2:9).Itisdescribedas
beingInMt.Ephraim,ontheN.sideoftheMountainofGaash.Seenextarticle.
H.L.WILLETT.
TIMNATHSERAH.ThecityinMountEphraimgiventoJoshua(19:50),wherehewasburied(Jos24:30),lyingontheN.oftheMountainofGaash(Jg2:9
Timnathheres).JosephuscallstheburialplaceofJoshuaThamna,andthisprobablycorrespondstoTimnathof1Mac9:50,althoughthereitisreckonedto
Juda.ItwasheadofaJewishtoparchy,andisnamedwithLyddaandEmmaus(BJIII.iii.5,etc.).TheOnomasticonidentifiesitwithTibneh,wherethereare
remainsofanimportantplace,withaspringandancienttombs,ontheRomanroadfromCsareatoJerusalem,about14milesN.E.ofLudd(Lydda).Thetombs
areontheS.oftheroad.
One,distinguishedbysizeandworkmanship,maybethatpointedoutasJoshuasinthetimeofEusebiusandJerome.TheSamaritansplacetheburialofJoshuaat
KefrHris,avillagesome10milesS.ofNblus,withtwosanctuariestotheE.,oneofwhich,NebyKift(theprophetoftheportionorlot),maybeidentifiedwith
Joshua.Inthiscase,onlythesecondelementinthenamehassurvived.Heres,itwillbeobserved,simplyreversestheorderofthelettersinSerah.
W.EWING.
TIMON.OneoftheSeven(Ac6:5).
TIMOTHEUS.1.AleaderoftheAmmoniteswhowasdefeatedinmanybattlesbyJudasMaccabus(1Mac5:6ff.,34ff.,2Mac8:30,9:3,10:2437).2.The
AVformofthenameTimothyeverywhereinNTexcept2Co1:1,1Ti1:2,2Ti1:2,Philem1,He13:23.
TIMOTHY.Ayoungdisciple,anativeofLystra,chosenascompanionandassistantby
Paulwhen,duringhissecondmissionaryjourney,hevisitedthatcityforthesecondtime.Hewasthechildofamixedmarriage,hisfather(probablydeadatthetime
ofhisselectionbyPaul)beingaGreekandhismotheraJewess(Ac16:1).Fromearliestchildhood(babeRV)hehadreceivedreligioustraining,beingtaughtthe
JewishScripturesbyhismotherEuniceandhisgrandmotherLois(2Ti1:5,3:15).ProbablybothheandhismotherwereconvertedduringPaulsfirstsojournat
Lystra,forontheApostlessecondvisithewasalreadyadiscipleofsomestanding,wellreportedofbythebrethren(Ac16:1,2).Indeed,Paulseemstoclaim
himasapersonalconvertin1Co4:17,describinghimashisbelovedandfaithfulchildintheLord.
TheselectionofTimothywasduenotonlytothewishofPaul(Ac16:3),butalsototheopinionoftheChurchatLystra.Inhiscase,asinthecaseofPauland 74/97
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TheselectionofTimothywasduenotonlytothewishofPaul(Ac16:3),butalsototheopinionoftheChurchatLystra.Inhiscase,asinthecaseofPauland
Barnabas(Ac13:2),thelocalprophetsledtheway(1Ti1:18RVm)tohimandhewasthensetapartbyimpositionofhandsbyPaul(2Ti1:6)inconjunctionwith
thelocalpresbyters(1Ti4:14).Possiblyitwasonthisoccasionthatheconfessedthegoodconfession(1Ti6:12).Paulcausedhimtobecircumcised(Ac16:3),
judgingthat,ashismotherwasaJewess,hisnothavingsubmittedtotheritewouldproveanobstacletohisministryamongJews,and,further,thatfromhissemi
Jewishparentage,hedidnotcomewithinthescopeoftheChurchsdecreewhichreleasedGentilesfromcircumcision.
TimothyatonceaccompaniedPaulthroughAsiatoTroas,andthenceintoMacedonia.HewasleftbehindatBerawhentheApostlemovedontoAthens,but
wassummonedtorejoinhim(Ac17:14,15).HewasthencedespatchedbackagaintoMacedoniatoconfirmtheChurchatThessalonica,andtobringnewsofits
statetoPaul.HerejoinedtheApostleinCorinthandcheeredhimbyafavourablereport(1Th3:13,Ac18:5).WhileinCorinth,PaulwrotehisEpistlestothe
Thessalonians,andincludedTimothyinthegreetings(1Th1:1,2Th1:1).HeisnextmentionedatEphesuswithPaulonhisthirdmissionaryjourney,andthenceis
sentwithErastustoMacedoniainadvanceoftheApostle(Ac19:22).ShortlyafterTimothysdeparture,
PauldespatchedbydirectsearoutehisFirstEpistletotheCorinthians.InthishementionsthatTimothy(travellingviaMacedonia)wouldshortlyreachthem(1Co
4:17)hebespeaksakindlywelcomeforhim,andaddsthathewisheshimtoreturnwiththebrethren(i.e.probablythosewhohadbornetheEpistle)toEphesus
(16:10,11and8).TimothymaynothavereachedCorinthonthisoccasion,beingdetainedinMacedoniaandtheabsenceintheSecondEpistleofallmentionof
hisbeingtherepointsinthisdirection.ButinanycaseheisfoundwithPaulagainwhen2Cor.waswritten,inMacedonia(2Co1:1).Paulinduecoursereached
Corinth,andTimothywithhim,forhisnameoccursamongthegreetingsintheEpistletotheRomanswhichwasthenwritten(1Ro16:21cf.Ac20:2).Paulandhe,
afterathreemonthssojourn,returnedbylandtoTroas(Ac20:4,5).TimothyisnotagainmentionedintheActs.ItisclearfromtheEpistlesoftheCaptivitythathe
wasacompanionofPaulduringhisimprisonment(Col1:1,
Philem1,Ph1:1),andthattheApostlemeditatedsendinghimonaspecialmissiontoPhilippi(Ph2:19).FromthePastoralEpistleswelearnthatwhenPaul,after
hisrelease,cameintoAsia,heleftTimothyashisdelegateinEphesus,givinghimfullinstructionsastohowhewastoruletheChurchduringhisabsence,whichhe
realizedmightbelongerthanheanticipated(1Ti1:3,3:14,15).WhenPaulwasasecondtimeimprisoned,andfelthisdeathtobeimminent,hesummoned
Timothytohisside(2Ti4:9,21).IfTimothyeverreachedtheApostle,hemayhavebeenthenhimselfimprisoned,forweread(He13:23)ofhisbeingsetat
liberty.Ofhissubsequenthistorynothingisknownwithcertainty.
TIMOTHY,EPISTLESTO.TheseEpistles,togetherwiththattoTitus,formaspecialgroupamongthePaulineletters,thePastoralEpistles,beingunited
bycommonobjectsinview,andbyacommonliterarystyle.EachEpistleclaimsinitsopeningwordstohaveSt.PaulforitsauthoraclaimwhichtheChurchhas
consistentlyallowedeversincetheideaofaCanonoftheNTcameintoclearconsciousness.Duringthelastcentury,however,theirgenuinenesshasbeen
vigorouslyassailed.Baurrelegatedthemtolateinthe2ndcenturybutmodernhostilecriticismverygenerallyholdsthat,whiletheycontaingenuinefragmentsof
theApostleswriting,theirpresentformistheworkofpseudonymouswriters.
ThereisnodoubtthattheseEpistlespresentveryspecialdifficultiestoscholarshipbuttheseareonthewaytosolution,andthegeneraltendencyofcriticism
maybesaidtobetowardsestablishingtheirgenuineness.
1.Thesituationdisclosedby1and2Tim.isasfollows.Paul,havingtogointoMacedonia,leftTimothyinchargeoftheChurchatEphesus(1Ti1:3)and,
fearinghemightbedetainedlongerthanheanticipated,hewrotetellinghimhowtoactduringhisabsence(1Ti3:14,15).FromotherallusionsintheEpistleswe
gatherthattheApostlevisitednotonlyEphesusandMacedonia,butalsoTroas(2Ti4:13),CorinthandMiletus(4:20),andCrete(Tit1:5),andthathepurposed
winteringinNicopolis(3:12).
NowitisimpossibletofitthesevisitsintotheperiodcoveredbytheActs.NodoubtinActswefindtheApostleremainingtwoyearsinEphesus(Ac19:10),but
onthatoccasionhedidnotleaveTimothybehindwhenhewentintoMacedoniaonthecontrary,hesenthimintothatcountrywhileheremainedatEphesus(Ac
19:22)norwastheretimeduringhistwoyearsinthatcityforsuchlengthenedjourneysastheabovevisitsrequire.Therefore,astheActscloseswithSt.Paulin
Romeinprison(A.D.61),wemustconclude,ifweacceptthePastoralsasgenuine,thattheApostlevisitedEphesus,Macedonia,andCreteafterareleasefrom
imprisonment.
ThosewhoopposethePaulineauthorshiprefusetobelieveinthisrelease,takingastheirgroundthefactofthesilenceoftheActsonthepoint,andchargethose
whoacceptitwithmakinganunwarrantedassumptionbutsurelytheirsistheunwarrantedassumption,fortheyassumethatSt.Paulwasnotreleased,merely
becausetheActsdoesnotcontinueitshistoryfartherthanitdoes.Indeed,evenifwehadnotthedistinctstatementsofthePastorals,weshouldconsideritextremely
likelythathewasthusreleasedforitisclearthatheanticipatedbeingsetatlibertywhen,fromhisimprisonment,hewrotetothePhilippiansthathehopedshortly
tocometothem(Ph2:24),andwhenhebidOnesimuspreparehimalodgingatColoss(Philem22).When,therefore,weaddthefurtherfacts,thattheMuratorian
FragmentstatesthattheApostlefulfilledhisexpressedwishofvisitingSpain(Ro15:24,28),ajourneywhichcertainlynecessitateshisreleasefromhisRoman
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FragmentstatesthattheApostlefulfilledhisexpressedwishofvisitingSpain(Ro15:24,28),ajourneywhichcertainlynecessitateshisreleasefromhisRoman
imprisonmentandthatClementofRometellsofhisreachingtheboundsoftheWest,aphrasewhich,usedbyoneresident,asClement,inRome,canonly
meanSpainwemayholdwithoutmisgivingthatSt.PaulwasreleasedinA.D.61,thathewasagainarrested,andsufferedmartyrdominRome(A.D.64?),that
betweenthesedateshevisitedSpainintheWest,andvariousChurchesintheEasternMediterranean,andthatduringthisperiodhewrotethePastoralEpistles.
2.TheexternalevidenceinfavouroftheEpistlesisremarkablystrong.Irenus,Clement,Tertullian,theEpistleoftheChurchesofVienneandLyons,
TheophilusofAntioch,wereallclearlyacquaintedwiththem.AsingularlyconvincingquotationisfoundinthewritingsofPolycarp(thediscipleoftheApostle
John,andwhodiedA.D.167),whosays:Theloveofmoneyisthebeginningofalltrouble,knowingthatwebroughtnothingintotheworld,neithercancarry
anythingout(cf.1Ti6:7,10).
Ontheotherhand,notawordisraisedbyearlierwritersagainsttheirgenuineness,savebythehereticsMarcionandBasilidesandtheirrejectionwasduenotto
anystateddoubtsastothePaulineauthorship,butapparentlytodisliketotheteachingoftheEpistles.Verymuchstrongerevidenceagainsttheirauthenticitymust
besuppliedbeforethisweightofevidencecanbeoverturned.
3.MuchdiscussionhasarisenconcerningthenatureoftheheresiesattackedbyPaulinthese
Epistles.SomeseeinthemanincipientGnosticism,theoriesfromwhichthedeveloped
GnosticismofMarcionultimatelysprang.Strengthwaslenttothisviewbythesuppositionthattheendlessgenealogiesmentionedin1Ti1:4andTit3:9werethe
longlistsofemanationsofonsandangelswhichformedpartoftheGnosticsystems.But,asPhiloandothersusethewordgenealogyoftheprimitivehistoryof
thePentateuch,itisnowgenerallyallowedthatthereferenceisnottoGnosticspeculationsbuttothelegendaryhistoryoftheJewishpatriarchs.Othersregardthe
heresiesopposedasessentiallyJewishinorigin,andundoubtedlymanypassagespointinthisdirection.Wereadofwouldbeteachersofthelaw(1Ti1:7),of
theyofthecircumcision(Tit1:10),ofJewishfables(1:14)offightingsaboutthelaw(3:9).Yet,whiletherearethesedistinctevidencesofJewishinfluences,it
seemsdoubtfulifitisrighttomarkalltheheresiesopposedascomingfromthissource.Theerrorsleaningtowardsasceticism,withitsprohibitionofmarriage,and
ofcertainfoods,andperhapsofwinealso(1Ti4:14,8,5:23),mayindeedhavesprungfromformsofJudaismwhichhadbecomeasceticbutjustaslikely
indeedmorelikelytheymayhavecomefromGentilesources.TheseasceticdoctrinesmayhavebeenfoundedontheunJewishbeliefoftheessentialevilof
matteranerrorwhichtheApostleprobablyaimedatwhenhewrotethatGodgaveallthingsrichlytobeenjoyed(6:17).InacitylikeEphesus,Orientalmysticism,
Greekthought,Judaism,andChristianitywouldmeetandtheChurchthere,iflapsingfromtruth,wouldshowsignsofheresyderivedfromallthesesources.In2Ti
2:18oneheresyisdistinctlynamedthebeliefthattheresurrectionwasalreadypastthisopinionmayhavebeenthesameasthatheldbythosewithintheGentile
CorinthianChurchwhosaidtherewasnoresurrection(1Co15:12).
4.WithintheseEpistlesSt.Paulsuseofcertaintheologicaltermsissomewhatdifferentfromthatinhisearlierwritings.Thusfaithisusedmoreoftheobjective
beliefwhichtheindividualholds,thanofthewarmaffectionthatunitesthepersonalsoultoChrist.Similarlyrighteousnessisusedratherofavirtuetobereached
bypersonalstrugglethaninthetechnicalsensefoundintheEpistletotheRomans.Butitmustberememberedthatfaithintheearlierwritingsisnotalways
subjective(e.g.Gal1:23,3:23),norisitalwaysobjectiveinthePastorals(1Ti1:16,Tit3:8),andthatrighteousnessisoftenspokenofelsewhereasavirtuetobe
acquired
(e.g.2Co9:10,Ro6:13,8:10),whilejustificationbyfaithisemphasizedinthePastoralEpistles(2Ti1:9,Tit3:5).Anotherdistinguishingmarkisfoundinthe
tracesofaformulatedcreed,whichshowthemselvesinfrequentquotations,suchasthefivefaithfulsayings,andtherhythmicstanzacommencingHewhowas
manifestedintheflesh(1Ti3:16).ThelatterisclearlypartofahymnembodyingaconfessionoftheChristianfaith.SuchareundoubtedlymarksofaChurchwith
ahistorybehinditbut,assumingthatSt.PaulwrotetheEpistlesshortlybeforehisdeathinA.D.64,ampletimewouldhavepassedsincehefirstevangelized
EphesusinA.D.52.Ittakesbutafewyearsforalivingandactivecommunitytocrystallizeitscommonconvictions.
5.ItisimportanttonotethedevelopmentreachedinChurchorganizationaspresentedinthe
Epistles.TheyshowustheApostlehimselfholdingthereinsofsupremecontrol(1Ti1:20,2:1,2:8),whileTimothyandTitusarehisdelegates.Someyearsbefore,
theyhadactedinthiscapacityonspecialcommissions(1Co4:17,Ph2:19,2Co8:1318)and,asonthoseoccasions,soonthese,theyseemtohavebeen
appointedtemporarilytocarryoutthefunctionsentrustedtothemuntiltheApostlesreturn(1Ti1:3,3:14,4:13,Tit3:12).Butashisdelegates,eventhough
temporarily,theyhadfulljurisdictionoverthevariousofficersoftheChurch,andfullinstructionsaregiventothemtoguidethemastothequalificationsnecessary
tobefoundinthosetobeappointedtotheofficesofbishop(orelder)anddeacon.Thebishopandelderarespokenofasidentical(Tit1:67),showingthatatthe
dateoftheEpistlesthesetwotitleshadnotyetbeengiventodistinctoffices(cf.Ph1:1,Ac20:17,28).Thisisstrongconfirmationoftheaccepteddateofthe
Epistles,for,hadtheybeenwrittenatthetimeassumedbyradicalcriticism,themonarchicalpositionofthebishop,thenreachedinAsiaMinor,wouldhaveshown
itself.Instructionsarealsogivenregardingwomen(1Ti3:11)andwidows(5:3ff.).Astheformerarementionedinthemidstofregulationsconcerningdeacons,
theyprobablyarenotthedeaconswives(asAV),butofficialwomenordeaconesses,holdingsuchanofficeasPhbeheld(Ro16:1RVm).Thisisadistinct
advanceontheecclesiasticalorganizationsdisclosedinearlierNTwritings,butneednotsurpriseus.Thesecludedlifeofwomenmustattheverybeginninghave 76/97
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advanceontheecclesiasticalorganizationsdisclosedinearlierNTwritings,butneednotsurpriseus.Thesecludedlifeofwomenmustattheverybeginninghave
causedafeltwantforwomentoperformforwomenwhatdeaconsdidformen.ThecareofwidowsengagedtheChurchfromthefirst(Ac6:1,Ja1:27).
Theabsenceofallinstructionsregardingprophetsisremarkable.Probablyprophecy,whichisanabnormalgiftandnotastatedfunction,wasnotveryactivein
theEphesianorCretanChurchesatthetime,or,ifactive,wasunderduecontrol,andsodidnotcallforspecialtreatmentasformerlyatCorinth(1Co14:29ff.).
6.TheindividualityofSt.Paulisstronglypresentinallhiswritings,adistinguishingstylemarkingthemashis.AtthesametimehisEpistlesformthemselves
intodifferentgroups,whichvaryconsiderablyinstyleinaccordancewiththeparticularperiodofhislifeinwhichtheywerewritten.SostronglydothePastoral
EpistlesshowthegeneralPaulinestyle,thateventhosewhoopposetheirgenuinenessadmitthattheycontaingenuinefragmentsofhiswriting.But,whilethisisso,
thereisnodoubtthatthereispresentinthemaconsiderablylargerproportionofwordspeculiartothemselvesthanwefindinanyotherofthegroupsintowhichhis
Epistlesaredivided.ThisisthestrongestargumentagainsttheirPaulineauthorship.Theargumentfromstyle,however,isamostprecariousone,especiallyinthe
writingofonewhoshowssuchgreatvarietyofphraseologyinhisothergroupsofEpistles.Indeed,ifwefollowedittoitslogicalissues,itwouldleadusto
concludethateventhethreePastoralEpistlesarethemselvestheworkofdifferentauthors,foreachoftheseEpistlescontainsalargenumberofwordsabsentfrom
theothertwo.
7.ThetrueexplanationofthemarkeddifferenceofstyleofthePastoralsfromtheotherPaulinewritingsappearstobethat,whiletheearlierEpistleswere
writtentoChurchesatanearlystageoftheirdevelopment,andthusdealtmainlywithfundamentaldiscussionsofdoctrine,thesewerewrittentoindividualswho
presidedoverwellestablishedChristiancommunities,andthereforetheydealchieflywithpracticalvirtuesandecclesiasticalorganizations.Suchnewnessofsubject
wouldcompelevenamuchlessversatilewriterthanSt.Paultoenlargeandmodifyhisphraseology.
ThefollowingjudgmentofthelateDr.Hortwill,webelieve,beincreasinglyaccepted:Inspiteofbynomeanstrivialdifficultiesarisingfromcomparisonofthe
dictionofthesewithother
Epistles,Ibelievethemtobehis,andtobehisastheynowstand.
TheFirstEpistletoTimothyandthattoTitusaredevotedchieflytoinstructionsastothegovernanceoftheChurch.TheSecondEpistletoTimothyisthe
outpouringsoftheApostlesheart,whenhefelthisdeathtobeimminent(2Ti4:8),toonewhohadbeenhisfaithfulcompanionandassistantformanyyearsit
showstenderanxietyforhisbelovedchild(1:2),whosestrengthandweaknesseshewellknew,anduponwhosepietyandwisdomsomuchoftheChurchsfuture,
afterhisowndecease,woulddepend.
TIN.SeeMININGANDMETALS.
TINDALESVERSION.SeeENGLISHVERSIONS,12ff.
TIPHSAH(crossing).1.TheclassicalThapsacus,thechiefcrossingplaceonthemiddleEuphratesforcaravansandarmies,afterthedeclineofCarchemish
inthePersianperiod.Itlayontheeastwardbendoftheriverwhereitleavesitssoutherlycourse.ItisnamedasthenortheastlimitofthedominionsofSolomon(1
K4:24).2.TiphsahshouldbecorrectedtoTappuah,withtheLucianLXX,in2K15:18.
J.F.MCCURDY.
TIRAS.AsonofJapheth(Gn10:2),formerlyidentifiedwithThrace,butoflatemuchmoreplausiblywiththeTurusha, a piratical people who invaded
SyriaandEgyptinthe13thcent.B.C.ButTirashasalsobeenidentifiedwithTarsus(=E.Cilicia)andevenTarshish(wh.see).
J.F.MCCURDY.
TIRATHITES.Afamilyofscribes(1Ch2:55).
TIRE.SeeHEADTIRE,andDRESS,5.
TIRHAKAH,kingofCush(2K19:9,Is37:9),marchedoutfromEgyptagainstSennacheribshortlybeforethemysteriousdestructionoftheAssyrianarmy(?
B.C.701).Herodotuspreservesaversionofthesameevent.TirhakahwasthethirdoftheEthiopian(25th)Dyn.,andreignedaskingofEthiopiaandEgyptfrom
aboutB.C.691665towardstheendofhisreign(670665)untilhisdeathhewasengagedinconstantstruggleswiththeAssyrians,whoendeavouredtoestablish
theirpowerinEgyptbymeansofthenativeprincesasagainsttheEthiopian.TirhakahwasquiteunabletoresisttheattacksofEsarhaddonandAshurbanipaleven 77/97
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theirpowerinEgyptbymeansofthenativeprincesasagainsttheEthiopian.TirhakahwasquiteunabletoresisttheattacksofEsarhaddonandAshurbanipaleven
Thebeswassacked,buttheAssyrianswereequallyunabletoholdthecountrytheybadwon.Thechronologyofthereignisnotclear:Tirhakahwasnotkingatthe
timeofSennacheribsexpedition,buthemayhavecommandedthearmyopposingit.WincklerplacesthelaterAssyrianattacksin675668.
F.LL.GRIFFITH.
TIRHANAH.AsonofCaleb(1Ch2:48).
TIRIA.AsonofJehallelel(1Ch4:16).
TIRSHATHA.APersianword=HisExcellency,ormoreprobablyHisReverence,mentionedEzr2:63(=Neh7:65),Neh7:70,8:9,10:1.Inthefirstthree
passagesheisunnamed,butisapparentlyZerubbabelinthelasttwoheisNehemiah.ThetitleisusedinterchangeablywiththeAssyr.pechahorgovernor,of
whichitmaybethePersianequivalent,andapparentlyrepresentsaplenipotentiaryappointedforaspecialmission.
C.W.EMMET.
TIRZAH.1.Oneofthe31citiescapturedbyJoshua(Jos12:24).ItwastheresidenceofJeroboamI.(1K14:17)andhissuccessorsdowntoOmri(1K15:21,
16:6,8,15,17,23).ThedoubtfulreferenceinCa6:4comparestheShulammitetoTirzahinbeauty.Thesiteisuncertain.Threedifferentidentificationshavemet
withfavour:Talluza,avillageE.ofSamariaandN.ofMt.EbaletTireh,avillageclosetoMt.GerizimandTeyasir,11m.N.ofNblus(Shechem)and12m.E.of
Sebastiyeh(Samaria).2.OneofthefivedaughtersofZelophehad(Nu26:33,27:1,36:11,Jos17:3).
H.L.WILLETT.
TISHBITE.ElijahisrepeatedlydesignatedtheTishbite(1K17:1,21:17,28etc.)i.e.
nativeofTishbeh(?Thisbe)inGilead.
TISHRI(month).SeeTIME,p.936b.
TITANS.InGreekmythologytheTitansweredivineorsemidivinebeingswho,endowedwithsupernaturalpowers,wereovercomeonlywiththegreatest
difficulty.Inlatertimestheywereidentifiedwithprimitivegiants.
IntheLXXversionofSamueltheValeofRephaim(2S5:16,22)iscalledtheValeoftheTitans.Hereitisusedinthesenseofgiants,forthesameversion
ofChroniclestranslatesthisnamein1Ch11:15,14:9ValeoftheGiants.Thus,ininterpretingearlyHebrewthoughtforGreekreaders,theoldshadowyRephaim
wereidentifiedwithTitansandgiants.SimilarlyinthesongofvictoryinJth16:7weread:
Forthemightyonedidnotfallbytheyoungmen,
NeitherdidthesonsofTitanssmitehim,
Nordidtallgiantssetuponhim,
ButJudith,thedaughterofMerari
InthislateworkGreekmythologyhasbeenabsorbedbyJewishthought.
GEORGEA.BARTON.
TITHES.AccordingtobothNorthIsraelite(Gn28:22)andJudan(Gn14:20)tradition,Israelspatriarchspaidtithesthecustom,therefore,amongthe
Israeliteswasevidentlyveryancient.Buttheinstitutionofofferingtithesofthefruitsofthefieldandoftheflocksisonewhichdatesbacktoaperiodgreatly
anteriortoIsraelitehistory.Atenthoftheflocks,fruits,andpossessionsofallkinds,aswellasofthespoilsofwar,wasgiventotheirgodsbymanypeoples,not
onlyofSemitic,butalsoofIndoGermanicrace.
IntheOTtwoideaslieattherootofthecustomthemoreantiqueapartfromitspositionintheBibleisthatwhichregardstheofferingofatenthtotheDeity
asHisdue,owingtoHisbeingtheSupremeownerofthelandandallthatitbringsforth,orthatfeedsuponit(Lv27:3033)heretheunderlyingthoughtisthatof
propitiation,iftheSupremeownerdoesnotreceiveHisdue,Hisblessingwillbewantinganotheryear.Theotheridea,whichisobviouslyalaterone,isthatof
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propitiation,iftheSupremeownerdoesnotreceiveHisdue,Hisblessingwillbewantinganotheryear.Theotheridea,whichisobviouslyalaterone,isthatof
thankfulnessfortheblessingsreceived(Gn28:2022)thetithesweregiveninrecognitionofwhattheGiverofallthingshadaccordedtoHisworshippers.
AmongtheIsraelitesthisancientcustomwastakenadvantageofbytheLeviticalpriesthood,who,asthoseemployedinthesanctuaryofJahweh,claimedfor
themselves,onbehalfofHim,atitheofall.AccordingtoNu18:2124theLevitesweretoreceivethisinlieuoftheinheritanceoflandwhichfelltoalltheother
tribesbuttheyreceivedthetitheonbehalfofJahwehstressislaidonthispointinv.24:ForthetitheofthechildrenofIsrael,whichtheyofferasanheaveoffering
untotheLord,IhavegiventotheLevitesforaninheritancetheheavingofanofferingtowardsthealtarwasthesubstitutefortheactualconsumingofitupon
thealtar.Althoughtitheswere,ofcourse,intendedtobeofferedonceayear(Dt14:22),itwouldappearfromAm4:4thoughthewordsareironicalthatintheir
anxietytomorethanfulfiltherequirementsoftheLaw,manyworshippersbroughtthemmorefrequently(theoriginalHebrew,however,isambiguous).Though,
generallyspeaking,titheswereofferedonlytoGod,yetitisclearthattheyweresometimesgivenalsototheking(cf.Gn14:20,1S8:17,He7:2,4)]
W.O.E.OESTERLEY.
TITLE(Jn19:19,20).Theordinarytermforthesuperscription,consistingusuallyofthenameofthecriminalandthecrimewithwhichhewascharged
(Mk15:26),writtenonaboard,which,accordingtoRomanpractice,wascarriedinfront,orhungfromtheneckofaprisonerashewasledthroughthestreetsof
thecitytoexecution,orexposedforpunishment.Incasesofcrucifixiontheinscriptionwasoftenfastenedabovetheheadofthecriminal(Mt27:37).Thispublic
announcementwasintendedtoserveasawarningtoevildoers.
ThefourinscriptionsonthecrossofJesusmentionedintheGospelsaredifferent,thoughthewordstheKingoftheJews(Mk15:26)arecommontoall,and
trulysetforththechargeonwhichJesuswasformallycondemned.Mt.(27:37)adds,thisisJesusLk.(23:38),this(is)andJn.(19:19)JesusofNazareth.The
variationsmaybepartlyexplainedbythestatementof
Jn.thattheinscription(likeRomanedictswhichalsowereoftenpublishedinbothLatinand
Greek)waswritteninHebrew,i.e.Aramaic(whichwasspokenordinarilybythepeopleofJerusalemandthepilgrimsfromPalestine),Latin(theofficiallanguage),
andGreek(thelinguafrancaoftheworld).TheEvangelistsees,inthisannouncementinthethreelanguagesoftheRomanEmpire,asymboloftheproclamationto
theworldoftheMessiahshipofJesus,notwithstandingtheeffortsoftheJewstocoverHimwithignominy.Jn.aloneimpliesthatPilatetookrevengeontheJewsin
preparingtheinscriptionMt.andMk.seemtosuggestthatthesoldiersthemselvesplacedtheinscriptiononthecross,andcrucifiedJesusbetweentworobbersin
ordertoheightentheinsult.
R.A.F ALCONER.
TITTLE.SeeJOT.
TITUS.Aconvertfromheathenism(Gal2:3),probablywonbySt.Paulhimself(Tit1:4).
HeisnotdirectlymentionedinActs,andallthatisknownofhimcomesfromtheEpp.toGal.,2Cor.,andthePastorals.Neitherhisagenorhisplaceofbirthistold
us.WefirsthearofhimwhenheaccompaniesSt.PaulonhisjourneyfromAntiochtoJerusalemajourneyundertakeninconnexionwiththequestionofthe
circumcisionofGentileChristians(Gal2:1).HeisthusincludedinthecertainothersmentionedinAc15:2.TheJudaisticpartywithintheChurchwishedtohave
Tituscircumcised(Gal2:3)buttheApostleandthoserepresentingGentileChristianitystrenuouslyresisted(v.5),andthedecisionoftheChurchwasintheirfavour
(Ac15:23,29).ThecaseofTitusthusseemstohavebeenthetestcaseinthiscontroversy.FromthistimewemaysupposethatTituscontinuedwithSt.Paulasone
ofhismissionarycompanionsandassistants,butwehavenodistinctreferencetohimuntilsome10yearsaftertheCouncilatJerusalem,namely,whentheApostle
wrote2Corinthians.InthisEpistleTitusismentionedninetimes,andfromitwegatherthathevisitedCorinthastheApostlesdelegateprobablythreetimes.On
thefirstoccasion,whichwasayearbefore2Cor.waswritten(2Co8:10),hecamewithanunnamedbrother(12:18),andonhisarrivalsetonfootthenecessary
organizationtosecurethelocalcontributionstowardsthecollectionforthepoorChristiansofJudawhichtheApostlehadinaugurated(1Co16:1,2).Afterhis
departurefromCorinthserioustroublevexedtheChurchthere,andhewasasecondtimesenttoreducematterstoorder.Probablyonthisoccasionhewasthe
beareroftheletterreferredtoin2Co2:3ff.,7:8ff.St.PaulanxiouslyawaitedatTroasthereturnofTitus(2Co2:12)butthejourneytooklongerthanwasexpected
andsotheApostlemovedonintoMacedonia,withaviewtomeetinghimthesooneronhisroad.
HereTitusultimatelyreachedhim,andbringinggoodnewsfromCorinthrefreshedhisspirit(v.14).TituswasthendespatchedathirdtimetoCorinth,bearingthe
2ndEpistle(8:1524),andwaschargedtocompletethecollectiontheorganizationforwhichhehadcommencedtheyearbefore(8:10).
AftertheseeventswedonothearofTitusuntilSt.PauladdressedtohimthePastoralEpistle.FromitwegatherthathehadaccompaniedtheApostle,afterhis
releasefromhisRomanimprisonment,onavisittoCrete,andhadbeenlefttherebyhimtosetinorderthingsthatwerewantingandtoordaineldersinevery
city(Tit1:5).Heischargedtomaintainsounddoctrine(2:1),toavoidunprofitablediscussions(3:9),anddulytoasserthisauthority(2:15).TheApostletellshimof
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city(Tit1:5).Heischargedtomaintainsounddoctrine(2:1),toavoidunprofitablediscussions(3:9),anddulytoasserthisauthority(2:15).TheApostletellshimof
hisintentiontosendArtemasorTychicustohim,andbidshim,whenthisoccurs,toJoinhiminNicopolis,wherehehopestowinter(3:12).Whethertheseplans
wereeverrealizedweknownot.St.PaulmayhavebeenrearrestedbeforereachingNicopolisbutwelearnfrom2Ti4:10thatTituswaswiththeApostleduring
partofhissecondimprisonmentinRome,thoughatthetimeofthewritingofthatEpistlehehadleftforDalmatia.
TitusandTimothysharethehonourofbeingthemosttrustedandefficienthelpersofSt.Paul,andthefactthattheformerwaschosentodealwithsosharpa
crisisaspresenteditselfatCorinthshowsthatprudence,tact,andfirmnessmarkedhisChristiancharacter.
TITUS,EPISTLETO.ThisEpistlewaswrittenbySt.Paul(1:1)toTituswhilethelatterwasactingashisdelegateinCrete(1:5).Itmayhavebeenareplytoa
requestfromTitusforguidance,ormayhavebeenwrittenbytheApostleonhisowninitiative,toassisthisdelegateinthedifficultiesthatfacedhim.St.Paulhad
cometoCreteincompanywithTitus(1:5),but,havingtoleavebeforehecouldcompletehisworkthere,heleftTitusbehindtosetinorderthingsthatwere
wanting.
Asfarasourrecordstellus,thiswasthefirstmissionaryvisitofSt.Paultotheisland.NodoubtonhisjourneyasprisonerfromCsareatoRomehewaswindboundunderits
lee,shelteringfromunfavourablewindsatFairHavens(Ac27:7,8)butwearenottoldthathelandedonthisoccasion,anditisprobablethat,asachangeofwindwasbeing
anxiouslywaitedfor,hewasunabletoleavetheship.Inanycasetherewasnoopportunitythengrantedhimofprosecutinganyeffectiveevangelization.
IthasbeenthoughtpossiblethatthevisitalludedtoinourEpistlemighthavetakenplaceduringtheApostleslengthenedsojournatCorinth(Ac18:11)oratEphesus(19:10).
Suchavisitispossible,butwehavenorecordofitwhilethegeneralliterarystyleoftheEpistlemarksitdistinctlyasbelongingtothesamegroupas1and2Timothy,whichgroup
onstronggroundsmustbeheldtobelongtothatperiodofSt.PaulslifewhichintervenedbetweenhistwoRomanimprisonments(seeT IMOTHY [E PISTLESTO]).
FromtheEpistleitisevidentthat,thoughtheCretanChurchwaslackinginorganization,yetitwasofsomeyearsstanding.Wereadofseveralcitieshaving
congregationsinneedofsupervision(1:5),andofelderstobechosenfromamongthosewhowerefathersofbelieving(i.e.Christian)families(v.5)whilethe
heresiesdealtwitharethosethatareinoppositiontotruedoctrine,ratherthansuchasmightoccurinayoungChurchthroughignoranceoftruth.
TheCretancharacterwasnothigh.Ancientwritersdescribetheiravarice,ferocity,fraud,andmendacity,andtheApostlehimselfquotes(1:12)Epimenides,one
oftheirownpoets,assayingCretansarealwaysliars,evilbeasts,idlegluttons.Christianity,withoutthedisciplineofafirmorganization,springingupinsuchsoil,
wouldnaturallybeweakenedandcorruptedbythenationalvices.Wearenotsurprised,then,tofindtheApostleinthisEpistlelayingthechiefemphasisonthe
importanceofpersonalholinessofcharacter,andinsistingthatrightbeliefmustissueinuseful,fruitfullife(1:15,16,2passim3:8,14).Thechieferrorists
mentionedbyhimareunrulymen,vaintalkers,anddeceivers,especiallythoseofthecircumcision,wholedmenastrayforfilthylucressake(1:10,11),menwho
professedthattheyknewGodbutdeniedHimintheirlives(1:16),andmenwhowereheretical(RVmfactious,3:10).Thetypeoferrortoberesistedisalsoseen
inthecautiongiventoTitustoavoidfoolishquestions,genealogies(i.e.Jewishlegendaryhistory),andstrifesandfightingsabouttheLaw,asunprofitableandvain
(3:9).
ThesedangerstotheChristianfaithareverysimilartothoseopposedin1Timothywith,however,thisdifference,thatnoneofthosementionedhereseemsto
haveitsoriginintheincipientGnosticismwhichinameasureaffectedtheChurchinEphesus,whereTimothywasincharge.ThefalsedoctrinesinCreteare
predominantly,ifnotexclusively,Jewishinorigin,anditisknownthatJewsaboundedinCrete.
Theecclesiasticalorganization,entrustedtoTitusforestablishment,isofthesimplestkind,merelytheordinationofelders(1:5spokenofasbishopsv.7)
officerswhichithadbeenthecustomoftheApostlefromthefirsttoappointintheChurchesheestablished(Ac14:23).Theappointmentofpresbyterswasleft
entirelyinthehandsofTitusbutwhilethiswasso,itisevidentthatitwouldhenecessaryforhimtoconsultthecongregationsoverwhomtheeldersweretobe
appointed,forheischargedtoselectonlythosewhosereputationshouldbeblamelessintheeyesoftheirfellowChristians.Further,thepresbyterisspokenofas
Godssteward,sothattheauthoritycommittedtohimbyTituswasultimatelyderivedfromGodandnotfromman.NomentionismadeinthisEpistleofdeacons,
deaconesses,orwidowsafactwhichsofardistinguishesitfrom1Timothy.
TheEpistleclaimstobewrittenbySt.Paul(1:1)anditsauthenticityisestablishedbythesameconsiderationsasestablishthatof1and2Timothy,withwhich
Epistlesitiscloselyalliedingeneralsituation,externalattestation,andliterarystyle.Foradiscussionofthequestionsinvolvedinthisconnexionthereaderis
referredtoart.TIMOTHY[EPISTLESTO].
TheEpistlewasprobablybroughttoTitusbythehandsofZenasandApollos(3:13).
TITUSJUSTUS.SeeJ
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TITUSJUSTUS.SeeJUSTUS,No.2.TITUSMANIUS.SeeMANIUS.
TIZITE.Adesignation,whoseoriginisunknown,appliedtoJoha,oneofDavidsheroes(1Ch11:45).
TOAH.SeeNAHATH.
TOB.OneofthesmallAramanprincipalitiesfoundedtothesouthofMt.HermonandDamascusinthe12thcent.B.C.,theothersbeingHamath(theless),
Zobah,Bethrehob,MaacahorGeshur.ItwasinTobthatJephthahlivedasanoutlaw(Jg11:3,5).TobjoinedtherestoftheAramans,exceptthoseofHamath(2S
8:9f.),inhelpingtheAmmonitesintheirwaragainstkingDavid(2S10:6ff.).TheexactpositionoftheselittleStatesisuncertain.Tobwasperhapsthemosteasterly
ofthem.PossiblyTobismeantintheregionalludedtoin1Mac5:13[Tubias],2Mac12:17[Tubieni].
J.F.MCCURDY.
TOBADONIJAH.OneoftheLevitessentbyJehoshaphattoteachinthecitiesofJudah(2Ch17:8).
TOBIAH.1.Afamilywhichreturnedfromexile,butcouldnottracetheirgenealogy(Ezr2:60=Neh7:62)corruptedin1Es5:37toBan.2.TheAmmonite
who,inconjunctionwith
Sanballatandothers,persistentlyopposedtheworkofNehemiah(Neh2:10,19,4:3,7,6:17,13:4,8).Cf.art.NEHEMIAH.
TOBIAS.1.ThesonofTobit(To1:9andoften).2.ThefatherofHyrcanus(2Mac3:11).TOBIEL.ThefatherofTobit(To1:1).
TOBIJAH.1.OneoftheLevitessentbyJehoshaphattoteachinthecitiesofJudah(2Ch17:8).2.OneofadeputationthatcamefromBabylontoJerusalem
withcontributionsofgoldandsilver(Zec6:10,14).
TOBIT,BOOKOF.SeeAPOCRYPHA,8.
TOCHEN.AnunidentifiedtownofSimeon(1Ch4:32).
TOGARMAH.ThethirdsonofGomer,hisbrothersbeingAshkenazandRiphath(Gn10:3).InEzekielmentionismadeofthehouseofTogarmah,the
membersofwhichtradedforthewaresofTyrewithhorsesandmules.Fried.DelitzschsuggeststhatTogarmahistheTilgarimmuoftheAssyrianinscriptions,
describedbySargonofAssyriaasthecapitalofMelitene,whichhecapturedandrecolonized.Sennacherib,whoagaincapturedTilgarimmuanddestroyedit,
speaksofitasbeingonthebordersofTabal(Tubal[seeMESHECH]).Thedifferenceinthefirstelement(t=til)makesaslightdifficulty.KiepertandDillmann
regardTogarmahasbeingS.W.Armenia.
T.G.P INCHES.
TOHU.SeeNAHATH.
TOI.SeeTOU.
TOKHATH.SeeTIKVAH,1.
TOLA.ThefirstofthefiveminorJudges(10:1,2).InGn46:13,Nu26:23,1Ch7:1heappearsasthesonofIssacharTolawasapparentlythenameofthe
leadingclanofthetribe.Itmeansaworm,fromwhichcameacrimsondye(Ex16:20,Is1:18)andwasperhapsananimalnameduetototemism.Shamir,his
homeandbirthplace,isunidentified.
C.W.EMMET.
TOLAD.SeeELTOLAD.
TOLBANES.SeeT
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TOLBANES.SeeTELEM,1.
TOLL.SeeTRIBUTE.
TOLMAN.SeeTALMON.
TOMB,GRAVE,SEPULCHRE.ThedisposalofthedeadamongtheIsraeliteswasalwaysbyburial.Whilespicesweresometimessprinkledamongthe
graveclothes,therewasnoreligiousmotivefortheembalmingofthedeadasinEgypt.1.Thecommongravemusthavebeentheusualopeninginthegroundwith
protectivestoneslaidonthesurfaceoronepreparedslabofstoneeitherquitefiat,orwiththeridgeofasarcophaguslid,mightbeused.Tojudgebythecustomof
today,thegravewouldoftenbecutpartlyoraltogetherinrock,notbecausethatwaspreferred,butbecausethevillageeldersusuallymarkedoffforthecemeterya
sectionofgroundthatwastoorockyforpurposesofcultivation.2.Tombsofamoreimportantkindweremadebyexcavatinginthefaceofarocktoforma
chamberabout8or9feetoneachside.Attheoppositeendandonthetwosideswerethreenarrowrecesses,Heb.kokim,6or7feetlongandabout2feetwide,cut
intotherockatrightanglestoeachwall.Intooneofthesethedeadbodywasinsertedwiththefeettowardstheentrance,whichwasthencoveredwithaslabsealed
aroundtheedgeswithplaster.3.DuringthetwocenturiesofGreekinfluencebeforethe
Christianera,asomewhatlargerformoftombcameintouse.Thecommonchamberhadoneachofitsthreesidestwo,andoccasionallythree,shallowarched
recesses,andineachrecessasarcophaguswaslaidalongthelineofthewall.Fromthefactthatthetwoangelscouldbeseen,oneattheheadandtheotheratthe
footofthereceptacleforChristsbody(Jn20:12),itisevidentthatthetombbelongingtoJosephofArimathawasofthislatercharacter.Theopeningtothecentral
chamberwasguardedbyalargeandheavydiscofrockwhichcouldrollalongagrooveslightlydepressedatthecentre,infrontofthetombentrance.Boththe
primitiveIsraelitesepulchreanditsGreeksuccessormightbeofacompoundform,havingapassageleadingfromonechambertoanother,eachwithitskokimor
loculi.ThemostextensiveexampleofsuchtombsisfoundinthecatacombsofRome.
Fromtimeimmemorialatombwasasacredplacewhichitwasanactofprofanationtoviolate,andofceremonialpollutiontouseforotherpurposes,suchasthe
erectionofahouseuponthesite.Thetombofasaintbecameashrine,andthatofaChristianmartyrwasveneratedasthememorialandaltarofalivingsacrifice.
Religiousmeetingswereheldthere,andpilgrimagesweremadetoitastoaheathenoracle,andvotiveofferingsgraduallyadornedthewallsofthebuildingerected
overit.AtthepresentdaythepeasantsofPalestinecanleaveclothingandagriculturalimplements,withperfectsafety,besidethetomb,underthetemporary
guardianshipofthesaint.IncourseoftimethispowerofprotectionbecametransferredtotheChurchasthecommoninstitutionofthesaints.
G.M.MACKIE.
TONGS.SeeARTSANDCRAFTS,2TABERNACLE,6(b).
TONGUES,CONFUSIONOF.Thebeliefthattheworld,aftertheFlood,wasrepopulatedbytheprogenyofasinglefamily,speakingonelanguage,is
reconciledintheBiblewiththeexistingdiversityoftonguesbyastorywhichrelateshowthedescendantsofNoah,inthecourseoftheirwanderings,settledinthe
plainofShinar,orBabylonia,andtherebuiltofbrickacity,andatowerhighenoughtoreachheaven,asamonumenttopreservetheirfame,andasacentreof
socialcohesionandunion.ButtheLorddiscernedtheirambitiouspurposes,and,afterconsultingwiththeDivinebeingswhoconstitutedHiscouncilandcourt(cf.
Gn1:26,3:22),frustratedtheirdesignbyconfoundingtheirspeech,sothatconcertedactionwasnolongerpossibleforthem.Inconsequence,thenameofthecity
wascalledBabel(seebelow),anditsbuilderswerecompelledtodisperseoverthefaceoftheearth(Gn11:19).
Thestorybelongstoaclassofnarratives(ofwhichthereareseveralintheBible)intendedtoexplaintheoriginofvariousinstitutions,orusages,theexistenceof
whichexcitedthecuriosityofaprimitiverace.Amongthesewastheprevalenceintheworldofdifferentlanguages,whichcontributedsogreatlytoproduce
betweenthevariouspeoples,whowerethusunintelligibletooneanother,feelingsofmutualsuspicionandfear(cf.Dt28:49,Is28:11,33:19,Jer5:15).The
particularexplanationfurnishedwasdoubtlesssuggestedpartlybythenameofthecityofBabel,orBabylon(which,thoughreallymeaninggateofGod,wasbya
popularetymologyconnectedwiththeHeb.wordblal,toconfuse),andpartlybythepresence,atornearBabylon,oftheruinsofsomegreattower,which
lookedasthoughithadoriginallybeendesignedasameanstoscaleheaven.Twosuchtowers,orziqqurats,werethetempleofMerodach(orMarduk)inBabylon
(supposedtobebeneaththemoundofBabil),andthetempleofNeboinBorsippa(theruinsofwhichformthemoundofBirsNimroud)andknowledgeofoneor
otherofthesemayhavehelpedtoshapethenarrative.Thecharacterofthenarrativemakesitimpossibletoconsideritasrealhistory:itbearsonitssurfacemanifest
evidencethatitisacreationofprimitivefancy.Thequestionwhetherthevariouslanguagesofmankindhavereallybeenderivedfromonecommontonguecannot
beseparatedfromthequestion(intowhichitisunnecessarytoenterhere)whetherthevariousracesofmenhavesprungfromasinglestock,i.e.whetherman
appearedoriginallyontheglobeatonecentreoratmanycentres.Itmaybesaid,however,thatphilologicalresearchhasprovedthatthenumerousexisting
languagesaremembersofacomparativelysmallnumberoffamiliesofspeech(suchastheIndoEuropean,theSemitic,etc.)butthatbetweenthesefamiliesof
speechthereissogreatadifferenceofstructure,thattheirdescentfromoneoriginaltongueseemshighlyimprobable.Atthesametime,alllanguagesmusthave
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speechthereissogreatadifferenceofstructure,thattheirdescentfromoneoriginaltongueseemshighlyimprobable.Atthesametime,alllanguagesmusthave
arisenfromcertainfacultiesandinstinctscommontohumannatureandthepresence,inlanguagesbelongingtodistinctfamilies,ofonomatopoetic,orimitative,
wordsservestoillustratetheessentialsimilarityofhumantendenciesinthesphereofspeechalltheworldover.
G.W.WADE.
TONGUES,GIFTOF
1.InNTwereadofspeakingwithtonguesorinatongueasaremarkablesignoftheoutpouringoftheHolySpiritbuttheexactmeaningofthe
phenomenondescribedhasbeenmuchdisputed.Wemaytakethepassagesinthechronologicalorderofwriting.(a)TheEpistles.In1Co1214,amongthe
charismataor(spiritual)giftsarediverskindsoftonguesandtheinterpretationoftongues(12:10,30).YetSt.Paul,whopossessedthegifthimself(14:18),
considersittobeoflittleimportanceascomparedwithprophecy.InitselfitisaddressedtoGod,andunlessinterpreteditisuselesstothoseassembleditisasignto
believers,butwillnotedify,butratherexcitetheridiculeof,unlearnedpersonsorheathens(14:23).Whateverthegiftwas,speakingwithtongueswasatCorinth
ordinarilyunintelligibletothehearers,andsometimeseventothespeaker(14:14),thoughtheEnglishreadermustnotethatthewordunknowninAVisan
interpolation.Thegiftwasnottobeforbidden,buteverythingwastobedonedecentlyandinorder(14:40).Indicationsofthegiftarethoughttobefoundin1Th
5:19,Ro8:15,26,Gal4:6,Eph5:19,butnotatallinthePastoral,Petrine,orJohannineEpistles.ItseemstohavebelongedtotheinfancyoftheChurch(1Co13:8.
Tonguesshallcease).[Irenus,apparentlyspeakingatsecondhand,saysthatthegiftexistedinthe2ndcent.butthisisverydoubtful.Chrysostomsaysthatit
wasnonexistentinthe4thcentury.](b)Acts.AtPentecost,inadditiontothemightywindandthetonguespartingasunderlikeasoffire,wereadthatthe
assembleddisciplesspokewithothertonguesastheSpiritgavethemutterance(2:4).Themultitudesfrommanycountries,comingtogether,heardthemspeakin
theirtonguesthemightyworksofGod(2:11),whilesomethoughtthattheyweredrunken(2:13cf.1Co14:23).Wereadagainofthegiftintheconversionof
Corneliusandhishousehold(10:46)St.PeterexpresslysaysthatitwasthesameasatPentecost(11:15)andatEphesus(19:8)andprobablythesameis
intendedinthestoryoftheSamaritanconverts(8:17f.:SimonsawthattheHolyGhostwasgiven).(c)IntheAppendixtoMark(which,evenifMarkan,is
comparativelylate)wehavethepromisethatthedisciplesshallspeakwith[new]tongues(16:17:newisprobablynotofthebesttext).
2.Meaningofthegift.RelyingchieflyonthepassagesofActs,mostoftheFathers(asOrigen,Chrysostom,Theodoret,GregoryofNyssa,Gregoryof
Nazianzus)understandthegiftasbeingforpurposesofevangelization,asifthedisciplesreceivedamiraculousendowmentofforeignlanguagestoenablethemto
preachGregoryofNyssaandotherstakethegiftasamiracleofhearing,thedisciplesspeakingintheirownlanguage,butthepeopleunderstandingtheirspeech
eachinhisowntongue.Thisviewstartswiththedoubtlesstrueideathattonguemeanslanguagehere.ButActssaysnothing,aboutpreachingthegiftisnever
foundinNTinconnexionwithevangelizationthepassagesin1Cor.,wheretheutterancesareoftenunintelligibleeventotheutterer,areclearlyrepugnanttothis
interpretation,andwehavenoproofthattheApostleseverpreachedinanylanguagebutGreekandAramaic,eventothebarbarousheathen,suchasthe
LycaoniansorMaltese.Indeed,PaulandBarnabasclearlydidnotknowLycaonian(Ac14:11,14).PeterprobablydidnotknowGreekwellenoughtopreachinit,
forMarkwashisinterpreter(Papias,Irenus).Wecannot,then,followthemajorityoftheFathersintheirinterpretation.Haditbeenthetrueone,St.Paulwould
haveencouragedtheCorinthianstousethegifttotheutmost.
Unfortunately,wedonotknowhowtheearlier2ndcent.FathersunderstoodthematterbutTertullianapparentlyjudgedthegifttobeanecstaticutteranceof
praise(adv.Marc.v.8).Thisismuchmoreprobablethantheotherview.AtPentecostthedisciplesspokethemightyworksofGod.AlltheNTpassageseither
suggestoragreewiththeideaofworship.Thisdoesnot,indeed,exhaustallourdifficultiesbutperhapsthefollowingconsiderationsmaysolveatleastsomeof
them.(a)Thedisciples,atacriticalperiodoftheChurch,wereinastateofintenseexcitement.ButSt.Paulswordsdonotmeanthattheirutterancesweremere
gibberishonthecontrary,theywerecapableofinterpretationifonewhohadthatgiftwerepresent.AndatPentecosttheywere,asamatteroffact,understood.
(b)Ithasbeensuggestedthatwearetounderstandtongues,notaslanguages,butaspoeticorsymbolicspeech,notreadilyunderstoodbytheunlearned.But
thisviewdoesnotsatisfyAc2,thoughinitselfitmaybetrueinaword,thisisaninsufficientexplanation.(c)ThelanguagesrequiredbyAc2areactuallyonly
twoGreekandAramaic.ForthosepresentatPentecostwereJewsthelistinv.9ff.isofcountries,notoflanguages.AlltheJewsofthesecountriesspokeeither
GreekorAramaic.Thisisadifficultyininterpretingthenarrative,whichgivesustheimpressionofalargenumberofdifferentlanguages.Butprobablywhatis
intendedisalargenumberofdialectsofGreekandAramaic,especiallyofthelatteritwouldbeasthoughaSomersetmanheardonewhohabituallyspokebroad
ScotspraisingGodintheSomersetdialect.AndwhatwouldstrikethepilgrimJewspresentwasthatthespeakersatPentecostweremainlythosewhothemselves
spokeanuncouthAramaicdialect,thatofGalilee(Mt26:73).(d)Thisconsiderationmayleadusastepfurther.WemayrecognizeinthePentecostalwondera
stirringofmemory,arecallingofutterancespreviouslyheardbythedisciplesatformerfeastswhenapolyglotmultitudeofJews(polyglotatleastindialects)was
assembled,thespeakersutteringwhattheyhadunconsciouslyalreadytakenintotheirmemories.Thiswouldaccountfortheirwordsbeingsoreadilyunderstood
someofthespeakerswouldbepraisingGodinonedialect,someinanother.(e)SomethingofthissortmayhavehappenedatCorinth,oneofthemost
cosmopolitanofcities.HerethepossessionofthegiftwasnotconfinedtothoseofJewishbirth.ButnaturallytheresidentChristiancommunityatCorinthwould
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cosmopolitanofcities.HerethepossessionofthegiftwasnotconfinedtothoseofJewishbirth.ButnaturallytheresidentChristiancommunityatCorinthwould
ordinarilynotunderstandthestrangedialectsgivenutteranceto.ThecaseisnotthesameasthatofPentecost,whenmanydifferentpeoplesweregatheredtogether.
Tosumup,itseemsprobablethatthegiftoftongueswasanecstaticutteranceofpraise,notonlyinpoeticandsymbolicspeech,butalsoinlanguagesordialects
notordinarilyspokenbythosewhohadthegiftapowergivenatatimeofgreatenthusiasmandexcitement,atacriticalperiodoftheworldshistory,butnotmeant
tobeapermanentgiftfortheChurch,andnotrankingsohighasothercharismata,especiallynotsohighasprophecy.ThatitsurvivedtheApostolicageishardly
probable.
A.J.MACLEAN.
TOOLS.SeeARTSANDCRAFTS.
TOPARCHY.AcompoundwordfromGreektopos(place)andarch(rule),foundonlyin1Mac11:28(cf.1Mac10:30,38,1134)amongthesacred
books,butverymanytimesinthepapyriofEgypt(withreferencetothatcountry).Itmeansaverysmalladministrativedivisionofterritory.Threetoparchieswere
detachedfromSamariaandaddedtoJudainMaccabantimes.
A.S OUTER.
TOPAZ.SeeJEWELSANDP RECIOUSS TONES.
TOPHEL.SeeDIZAHAB.
TOPHETH.Atermofuncertainetymology,designatingsomelocalityinoneofthevalleysnearJerusalem,verypossiblyintheValleyofHinnom(2K
23:10),ornearthepointofjunctureofthethreevalleysofJerusalem.ItwastherethattheJewsunderAhabandManassehperformedtheritesofhumansacrifice
(Jer7:3132),offeringchildrentoBaal,Molech,andotherheathengods.ItwasdefiledbyJosiahasapartofhisreligiousreformation,andsocametobean
abominableplacewheretherefusewasdestroyed,andthusasynonymofGehenna(wh.see).
S HAILERMATHEWS.
TORAH.SeeLAW(INOT),2,3.
TORCH.SeeLAMP,1LANTERN.
TORMAH.InthemarginofJg9:31inTormahisgivenasanalternativerenderingoftheHebrewwordtranslatedcraftily(AVprivily).Some
commentatorshavesuggestedthatTormahisacorruptionofArumah(v.41).
TORTOISE(tsb,Lv11:29RVgreatlizard).SeveralkindsoflandandwatertortoisesarecommonintheHolyLand,butherethereferenceisprobablyto
somekindoflizard.See
LIZARD.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
TOU.KingofHamathontheOrontes,whosentanembassytocongratulateDavidonhisdefeatofHadadezer(1Ch18:9f.).Intheparallelpassage,2S8:9f.,
thenameappearsasToi,which,however,islessprobablephilologically.
TOWER.SeeF ORTIFICATIONANDS IEGECRAFT,2,4.ForTowerofBabelseeTONGUES[CONFUSIONOF].
TOWN.SeeCITY,VILLAGE.
TOWNCLERK.InGrcoAsiaticcitiesundertheRomanEmpirethegrammateus(tr.townclerk)wasresponsiblefortheformofdecreespresentedtothe
popularassembly.Theywerefirstapprovedbythesenateandthensenttotheassembly,whichformallypassedthem.AtEphesus(Ac19:35)theclerkfearedthathe
wouldhavetoaccounttotheRomangovernorfortheirregularlyconstitutedassembly.
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A.S OUTER.
TRACHONITIS.MentionedinLk3:1asthenameofthetetrarchyofPhilip.ItistobeidentifiedwiththelavaregionS.E.ofDamascus,knowntotheGreeks
asTrachon,andtomodernArabsastheLej.AninscriptiondiscoveredbyBurckhardtin1810atMismiyehdispelsalldoubtastotheidentityofthisregionwith
Trachon.Ithaseverbeenregardedasarefugefrominvaders.Josephusfrequentlyspeaksoftheinhabitantsofthesepartsaspredatory(Ant.XVI.ix.1,x.1).
Philipsrule,ontheotherhand,hedescribesasjustandgentle(Ib.XVIII.iv.6).TrajaninA.D.106transformedTrachonitisintoanewprovince,whichhecalled
Arabia,makingBosraitscapital.
GEORGEL.ROBINSON.
TRADEANDCOMMERCE.Theprocessesbywhichinternationaltradeiscarriedonconsistintheinterchangeofcommoditiesorofservices,andthese
lattermaybepositiveornegativeincharacter:theymayberepresentedbyactualperformanceorbythewithdrawalofopposition.Suchprocedureastheoccupation
ofpassesorothernaturalchannelsfortraffic,withtheviewofdemandingtollsofthetraderswhousethem,isthesubjectoffewallusionsintheOTyetthelocation
oftheIsraelitishkingdomswassuchastofavourtheproductionofrevenueinthisway.ThemostpracticableroutesbothfromtheNorthandfromtheEasttothe
RedSealaythroughtheircountryandthelandroutefromEgypttoAsiaeithertraversedorskirtedit.Unitedunderapowerfulsovereign,Palestinecouldlevylarge
contributionsonthetrafficofthesurroundingnationsandthisappearstohavebeendoneinSolomonstime.
1.TheproductsofCanaanwereinthemainagricultural,horticultural,andpastoral,andsomeofthesecouldbeexported.OilwassenttoEgypt(Hos12:1)
andPhnicia(Ezk27:17)winetothelattercountry(2Ch2:10),aswellaswheat(Ezk.l.c.,2Ch.l.c.),barley(2Ch.l.c.),oaktimber(Ezk27:6)fromBashan,
honey(ordibs)andbalsam(Ezk27:17),andanunknownsubstancecalledpannag(Ezk.l.c.).Otherpossibleobjectsforexportationweresandforglass
manufacture,bitumen,thepurplefish,wool,andleatherandcertainfruitsandspices(Gn43:11).
2.OfnationalindustrieswehearverylittlenordoesitappearthatanyarticlesofIsraelitishworkmanshipacquiredfameinforeignlands.Afewnoticescan,
however,becollected,whichindicatetheexistenceofmanufactures,andofasortthatmayhavebeenexported.ThehousewifeofPr31notonlymakesherown
clothes,butsellssometotheCanaaniteorpedlarandin1Ch4:21thereismentionofaJewishfamilythatownedabyssusfactory.Further,therearenotafew
referencestopotteries,andtoworkdoneinbrass,thepreciousmetals,stoneandwood.TheiconoclasticattitudewhichprevailsintheOTcausestheplasticartsto
beordinarilyreferredtowithscornandindignationbutoftheirexistenceinPalestinethereisnodoubt,andtheconsiderablemarketthatexistedforimages
probablyledtonosmalldevelopment.Thatanyofthesemanufactureswasexportedisnotattestedbyanyevidencethathasasyetcometolightbutthereis
apparentlynoapriorireasonagainstsuchasupposition.
Priortothesettlementofthecountrybytheexertionsofthekings,tradecanhavebeencarriedonbyIsraelitesonlytoaninsignificantextent.InSaulsdays,
accordingto1S13:18,therewerenoIsraelitishsmithsafactthereexplainedasduetothetyrannicalprecautionsofthePhilistinesbutperhapsweshouldinfer
thattheIsraeliteshadasyetlearnednocrafts,sinceeveninSolomonstimewefindthatartificershadtobeimportedforthebuildingoftheroyaledifices.Theplace
ofindustryhadtobesuppliedbyraiding,andSaulhimselfispraisedforhavingstrippedthefineryofhisenemieswomentoputitonhisown(2S1:24).The
heroicDavidfightswithrusticweaponsandwithoutarmour.Thepossibilityofthepeacefulprogresswhichisthepreliminaryconditionoftradewouldseemtohave
beenprovidedbythefirsttwokings.
3.Wehaveunfortunatelynoaccountofthefinancialsystemwhichmusthavebeenintroducedwiththefoundationofthekingdom,thoughtheprophecyof
Samuel(1S8:1117)suggeststhatthekingclaimedatitheofallproduce,butintheoryhadarighttoboththepersonsandpossessionsofhissubjects.Beforethe
endofDavidsreignwehearofpermanentofficialsappointedbythekingandtheneedforsteadysourcesofrevenuewhencethestipendsofsuchofficialscould
besupplied,issufficienttocausetheerectionofanelaboratefinancialsystem,withsurveysandassessments,taxgatherersandclerks.Thenumberingofthe
people,whichlivedoninpopulartraditionasaniniquityearningcondignpunishment,doubtlessbelongedtothecommencementsoforderlygovernment.For
Solomonstimewehavesomethinglikethefragmentofabudget(1K10:14,15),accordingtowhichitwouldappearthatthekinghadthreesourcesofrevenue
onenotfurtherspecified,butprobablyalandtaxanother,tributefromsubjectStates,governedbysatrapsandathirdconnectedwithcommerce,andprobably
equivalenttoexciseandcustoms.Thetextimpliesthatthesevariousformsofrevenuewerepaidingold,whichwasthenstoredbythekingintheformofshields
andvessels.
Thisgoldmustallhavebeenimported,astherearenominesinPalestineandindeedwearetoldthatitcame,withotherproduceaswellassilver,fromthe
mysteriousOphirandTarshishandthattheenterprisewasajointventureofSolomonandthekingofTyre,thelatterprobablysupplyingthevessels,theformerthe
producewhichwasexchangedforthesegoods,unlessindeedthegoldwasprocuredbyraiding.Ifitwasobtainedinexchangeforcommodities,wemustsuppose
eitherthatthelatterwereidenticalwiththoseofwhichweafterwardsreadinEzekiel,orthatthecommoditiestobeexchangedwereallsuppliedbythePhnicians,
theservicebywhichtheIsraelitesearnedtheirsharebeingthatofgivingtheformeraccesstotheharbourofEziongeber.Infavourofthelattersupposition,ithas
beenpointedoutthatthecommoditiesknowntohavebeenexportedfromPalestineatonetime,oranotherwereillsuitedforconveyanceonlengthyvoyages,and85/97
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beenpointedoutthatthecommoditiesknowntohavebeenexportedfromPalestineatonetime,oranotherwereillsuitedforconveyanceonlengthyvoyages,and
unlikelytoberequiredinthecountrieswherethegoldwasprocured.ThereisintheOTnoallusiontothepracticeofcoiningmetal,andwheresumsofmoneyare
mentionedtheyaregiveninsilvertheeffect,however,ofthequantitiesofgoldbroughtintoPalestineinSolomonstimewasnot,accordingtothehistorian,to
appreciatesilver,asmighthavebeenexpected,buttodepreciateit,andrenderitunfashionable.YetthenoticeofpricesinthetimeofSolomon(1K10:29)suggests
thatsilverwasbynomeansvalueless,whateverweightweassigntotheshekelofthetime.Whileitisclearthatallsilverinusemusthavecomeinbyimportation,
thenoticesintheOToftransactionsinwhichitwouldprobablybeemployedaretooscantytopermitofevenaguessastotheamountinuseandthoughitislikely
that(asinEasterncountriestothisday)foreigncoinswerelargelyincirculation,thereislittleauthorityforthissupposition.
4.IflittleisknownofIsraelitishexports,manyobjectsarementionedintheOTwhichwerecertainlyimportedfromforeigncountries.Thesewerelargely
objectsofluxury,especiallyinthewayofclothesorstuffsthematerialcalledtn(Pr7:15RVyarn)wasimportedfromEgypttheivory,towhichreferenceis
frequentlymadeduringtheperiodofthekingdom,fromEthiopia,throughEgyptorArabiaandthegemsfromoneorotherofthesecountries.Variousobjectsare
mentionedinconnexionwithSolomonsenterprises,asnewlyintroducedintoPalestine.Forlater(Talmudic)timesalistof118articleshasbeendrawnupwhich
camefromforeigncountriesintothePalestinianmarketthislistcontainsmanyfoodsandfoodstuffs,materialsforwearingapparel,anddomesticutensils.We
shouldrathergatherthatinpreexilictimesfoodwasnotordinarilyimported,exceptintimesoffamine.Importsofrawmaterialsmusthavebeenconsiderableas
soonasthepeoplebegantosettleintownsforthereisnonativeiron,andlittlenativewood,andtheseaswellasothermaterialswouldberequiredforeventhe
simplestmanufactures.Probably,inthecaseofinstruments,themorevaluableandelaboratesortcamefromabroad,whilethepoorerclasseshadtocontent
themselveswithhomemadearticles.ThefindsthathavehithertobeenmadeofIsraelitishutensilsareinsufficienttodeterminethispoint.Amongthemoreimportant
importsinBiblicaltimeswerehorses,whichseemtohavebeenprocuredregularlyfromEgypt.OftheslavetradethereareveryfewnoticesintheOT,anditmay
bethatthereductionoftheaboriginalpopulationbytheIsraelitestoserfs,andthealmostcontinuouswarfareleadingtotheconstantcaptureofprisoners,rendered
theimportationofslavesordinarilyunnecessary.AccordingtoJoel(3:47),thePhniciansactedasdealers,purchasingprisonersofwar(inthiscaseJews),and
exportingthemtoforeigncountries.Thesamemayhavebeenthefateofthosepersonswho,fornonpaymentofdebt,wereassignedtotheircreditors(2K4:1).
5.Personsengagedincommerce.ThewordsusedintheOTformerchantsaresuchassignifyprimarilytraveller(1K10:15RVchapmen,merchants,
traffic),andconveytheideasofspyingandmakingcircuits.TheuseofthewordCanaaniteforpedlarhasbeennoticed.InJer37:15thereisanallusiontoa
placeinJerusalemcalledthebooths,butreferencestoshopkeepingarerarebeforetheExile.InNehemiahstimedifferentclassesofdealershadtheirlocationsin
Jerusalemgoldsmithsandgrocers(3:32),fishmongers(13:16)butmostarticlesofgeneralconsumptionseemtohavebeenbroughtindaybydaybyforeigners
andothers(10:32and13:20).andsoldinthestreets.ThedistinctionbetweenwholesaleandretaildealersperhapsfirstoccursintheApocrypha(Sir26:20).Itis
worthobservingthatinthepropheticdenunciationsofluxurywemissallusionstotheshopsorstoresinwhichsuchobjectsmightbesupposedtobeofferedforsale
(Is3:1824).Moreover,theverseofEzk.(7:12)letnotthebuyerrejoicenorthesellermournsuggeststhatthelatteroperationwasnotordinarilythoughtofasit
isincommunitiesalargeportionofwhichlivesbytrade,butratherasahumiliationrequiredattimesbysternnecessityandtherearefewallusionstotradeinthe
codesembodiedinthePentateuch,thoughsucharenotabsolutelywanting.Perhaps,then,wearejustifiedinconcludingthatthepracticeoftradewasinpreexilic
timeslargelyinthehandsofitinerantforeignersanditisonlyinNTtimesthatmerchandiseisregardedasanoccupationasnormalasagriculture(Mt22:5).Tothe
cumbrousprocessofbargainingthereisanallusioninPr20:14.
Allusionstothecorntradearerathermorecommonthantoanyotherbusiness,andtocertaininiquitiesconnectedwithitprobably,inthemain,formsofthe
practicebywhichcornwaswithdrawnfromthemarketinthehopeofsellingitatfamineprices:thisatleastseemstobethereferenceinPr11:26,thoughSirach
(34:23,24)seemstohaveinterpretedthepassagemerelyofliberalityandstinginess.InAm9:48thereferenceismoredistinct,andimpliesboththeoffence
mentionedaboveandtheuseofdeceitfulmeasures,awrongalsocondemnedbyMicahinasimilarcontext(6:10).Theinterpretationofthesepassagesmustremain
obscureuntilmorelightisthrownonlandtenureinIsrael,andtheprocessbywhichthekingsshareintheproducewascollected.
TheforeigncommerceconductedinkingSolomonstimeisrepresentedinhisbiographyasaventureofhisown,whencethegoodsbroughthomewerehis
ownpossessionsandthesameholdsgoodofcommerceinthetimeofJehoshaphat(1K22:49,50).ThereisnoevidencethatIsraelitishcommercewasconducted
onanyotherprinciplebeforetheExile,afterwhichisolatedindividualsdoubtlessendeavouredtoearntheirlivelihoodbytradeventures.Theforeigncommerceof
whichweoccasionallyhearintheOTwasalsoconductedbycommunities(e.g.Gn37:25,28),tobecomparedwiththetribeswhomwefindatthecommencement
ofIslamengagedinjointenterprisesofasimilarkind.In1K20:34thereappearstobeareferencetoapracticebywhichsovereignsobtainedtherighttothe
possessionofbazaarsineachotherscapitalsthenearestapproachtoacommercialtreatythatwefindinthisliterature.Butatsuchtimesastheconditionofthe
Israelitishcitiesallowedofthepurchaseofluxuriesi.e.aftersuccessfulcampaignsorlongspellsofpeace,permittingofaccumulationsofproduceitisprobable
thatthearrivalandresidenceofforeignmerchantswerefacilitatedbythepracticeofprotection,acitizenrenderinghimselfresponsiblefortheforeignvisitors,and
makingtheirinterestshisowndoubtlessinmostcasesforaconsideration.ThespiritoftheMosaiclegislation(likethatofPlatosandAristotlestheories)is
againstsuchintermixingwithforeignersandexceptforforcessuchasonlypowerfulchieftainscouldcollect,journeyswhetheronseaorlandweredangerous.Of 86/97
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againstsuchintermixingwithforeignersandexceptforforcessuchasonlypowerfulchieftainscouldcollect,journeyswhetheronseaorlandweredangerous.Of
anexpedientforcommerceliketheArabianmonthsofsacredtrucetheOTcontainsnohint.
6.ThechiefpassageintheOTdealingwithcommerceisEzekielsprophecyagainstTyre,inwhichthechiefTyrianwaresareenumerated,andthecountries
whencetheTyriansimportedthem(ch.27).ThatchapterwouldseemtobebasedonsomestatisticalaccountofTyre,similartothosewhichatasomewhatlaterdate
weremadeoutconcerningtheGreekStates.InaprophecyinsertedintheBookofIsaiah(ch.23)Tyreisalsodescribedasthegreatmartofthetime,serving,it
wouldseem,asthechiefexchangeandcentreofdistributionforgoodsofallkinds.Ezk26:2issometimesinterpretedasimplyingthatJerusalemwasacompetitor
withTyreforthetradeoftheworld,butperhapsitmeansonlythatthetakingofanygreatcityledtotheTyrianmerchantsobtainingthespoilatlowprices.
7.Traderoutes.Palestinehasnointernalwaterways,andgoodsbroughttoitfromothercountrieshadtoreachiteitherbyseaoracrossdesert.Asystemof
roadsleadingfromArabia,Egypt,andMesopotamiaappearstohaveconvergedatSelaorPetra,whencetwobranchesspreadnorthwards,toGazaandtothe
easternshoreoftheDeadSea,continuingnorthwardsontheleftbankoftheJordan.FromGazaandAcreroadsmetintheplainofEsdraelon,theformergoing
throughthedepressionsofJudaandSamaria.FromtheplainofEsdraelonaroadledtoDamascus,touchingtheN.W.bankoftheSeaofGalilee.WhenJerusalem
becamethecapitalofthecountry,goodswerebroughtthither,probablybythesameroutesaswereinusetilltheconstructionoftherailwaysbutitisuncertain
whenJoppafirstbecametheportofJerusalem,forthestatementin2Ch2:15thatJoppawassousedinSolomonstimeisnotfoundintheauthenticchronicleof1
K5:9,whereignoranceisclearlyacknowledgedonthissubject.Ontheotherhand,theearlierchroniclestatesthatElathservedastheportofJerusalemontheRed
Sea,and,afterSolomonstime,wasrepeatedlytakenoutofthepossessionoftheJewishkings,andrecaptured.Josephus(Ant.VIII.vii.4)assertsthatSolomon
hadtheroadsleadingtoJerusalempavedwithblackstone,buthisauthorityforthisstatementisunknown.Theprocessofroadmakingisdescribedinthefamiliar
passageIs40:4,withallusionstotheoperationsofmoundingandexcavating,possiblyofpavingbuttheseoperationsmayhavebeenlearnedfromBabylonianor
PersianratherthanIsraelitishexamples.Moreover,suchroadswerenecessaryformilitaryratherthancommercialexpeditions,inwhichwheeledvehicleswerenot
ordinarilyused.
8.Transport.BeforetheconstructionofrailwaysinPalestine,transportwasordinarilyonthebacksofmenoranimals,andofthelattercamelsare
mentionedinconnexionwithgoodsbroughtfromArabia(1K10:2,Is60:6etc.),andevenwithsuchaswerecarriedinSyriaandPalestine(2K8:9,1Ch12:40).
Inthelastreferencetheseanimalsarementionedtogetherwithasses,oxen,andmulesandprobablythefirstandlastoftheseweremoreordinarilyemployedfor
internaltraffic.Atalatertimetheyfirstappeartohavebeenemployedalmostexclusivelyinthecorntrade,inwhichtheyfigureasearlyasGn42:26.Theallusions
totheemploymentofhumantransportaremoreoftenmetaphoricalthanliteralyetsuchpassagesasIs58:6seemdistinctlytorefertoitandtotheinstruments
employedinfixingtheburdensontheslavespersons.CaravansarementionedinJob6:18f.,Is21:13,Ezk27:25[allRV],andJg5:6(RVm).
9.Commercialinstruments.ThemoneylenderappearsattheverycommencementofthehistoryoftheIsraelitishkingdom,wherewearetoldthatDavids
followersweretosomeextentinsolventdebtorsandtheJewishlawallowedthetakingofpledges,butnot(itwouldseem)thetakingofinterest,exceptfrom
foreigners.TheresultofsimilarlegislationinMoslemcountriesistomaketherateofinterestenormouslyhigh,andinPalestineitmayhavehadthesameeffect.
DeedsofloanappearnottobementionedintheOT,thoughthereisfrequentreferencetothedangerofgivingsecurity.Totheinstitutionofbankingthereisa
familiarreferenceintheNT(Mt25:27)thepersonstherereferredtolikethebankersofmoderntimesundertookthechargeofdepositsfortheuseofwhichthey
paidsomeinterestthemoneychangers(Mt21:12etc.)were,asnow,inasmallerwayofbusiness.Thosewhohoardedmoneymoreoftenputitunderthestone
(Sir29:10)thanentrustedittobankersandthisisstillprobablythefavouritepracticealloverthenearerEast.Anothercommonpracticewastodepositmoneywith
trustworthypersons,towhichthereisareferenceinTobit(4:20etc.).Inmostancientcitiesthetemplesservedasplacesofsecurity,wheretreasurecouldbestored,
andthisislikelytohavebeenthecaseinIsraelitishcitiesalso.
10.DevelopmentoftheIsraelitesintoacommercialpeople.Theprophetsappeartohaveanticipatedthattheexileswouldcarryonintheirnewhomethe
sameagriculturalpursuitsashadoccupiedtheminPalestine(Jer29:5)anditwouldappearthattillthetakingofJerusalembyTitus,andperhapsevenlater,
agricultureremainedthenormaloccupationoftheIsraelites,whereasinmoderntimesthispursuithaspassedentirelyoutoftheirhands.TheJewsoftheTurkish
empire(e.g.)aresaidtofurnishnocultivatorsofthesoil,whereastheChristianpopulation,whosepoliticalstatusisthesame,arelargelyagricultural.The
separationofgreatnumbersofthepeoplefromthePalestiniansoil,insuccessivecaptivities,mustdoubtlesshaveledmanyofthemtotaketocommerce,towhich
perhapsthosewhohadnosettledhomewouldfeelleastrepugnancewhilethesettlementofgroupsinanumberofdifferentregionswouldfurnishthemwiththe
advantagethatcompaniesnowsecurebytheestablishmentofagenciesinvariousplaces.AftertheconquestsofAlexander,ghettosbegantobeformedinthegreat
Helleniccities,andtheRomanconquestssoonledtocoloniesofJewssettlingyetfartherwest.
D.S.MARGOLIOUTH.
TRADES.SeeARTSANDCRAFTS.
TRADITION.SeeL
http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/t.htm ( NT),1. 87/97
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TRADITION.SeeLAW(INNT),1.
TRAGACANTH.SeeS PICE.
TRANCE.Aconditioninwhichthementalpowersarepartlyorwhollyunresponsivetoexternalimpressionswhiledominatedbysubjectiveexcitement,orleft
frestocontemplatemysteriesincapableofapprehensionbytheusualrationalprocesses.ThewordoccursinEVonlyinNu24:4,15[butcf.RV],Ac10:10,11:5,
22:17.See,further,artt.DREAMS,VISION.
H.L.WILLETT.
TRANSFIGURATION.TheTransfigurationisamysteriousoccurrenceinthelifeofourLord,whichmustbeseenandfelt,ratherthanunderstood.It
producedasenseofaweintheheartsofthedisciples(Mt17:6).Itsvalueissymbolic.SilenceregardingitisenjoinedbyJesus,andpractisedbythedisciplesuntil
theResurrection,withwhichitiscloselyconnectedinsignificance.TheproblemofthetransfiguredbodyofJesusandoftheResurrectionbodyisthesame.The
eventisreferredtobyJesusHimselfasavision(horma,Mt17:9)itisvouchedforbythethreeSynoptists(Lk9:2838,Mk9:213,Mt17:113).Elsewherein
theNTitisreferredtoonlyin2P1:1618.TheFourthEvangelist,afterhisownmanner,undoubtedlyexpressesitsinnersignificanceforfaithinJn12:2336.The
mountainonwhichittookplacewasprobablyHermon.Thetimewasnight(Lk9:32).Itwasashewasprayingthatthetransfigurationoffaceandraiment
appeared.
Asregardstheinnersignificanceoftheoccurrence,oneexpressioninSt.Lukesnarrativeisofgreatimportanceleukosexastraptn(v.29),waswhiteand
glistering(AV).Thesenseisreallygieamedoutwhite.Thegloryisnotthatofreflectedlightitssourceisinward.Itisthemanifestationofamentalprocess.The
noteoftime(sixdaysafter[Mt.Mk.]abouteightdaysafter[Lk.])affordsthekeytoHisthoughtsandthesubjectofHisprayers.Afterwhat?AfterPeters
confession(Lk9:1827),andthepredictionofChristsdeath(v.22).RecognizedasMessiahbythedisciples,Hemustnowpreparethemtomeetthestumbling
blockofthecross.ThustheTransfigurationhad(1)adeepsignificanceforJesusHimself.HewasstrengthenedbytheappearanceofMosesandElias,whospokeof
Hisdecease(Lk9:31).Theyrepresentedthesaintsinheaven,whounderstood.AgaintheVoicestoodfortheacceptanceofHisworkbyGod,andHewasenabied
toyieldupHisheartandlifeanewtothewillofGod.(2)ThegreatlessonforthediscipleswasthatthedreadfulshameofHiscrosswasreallyglory,andthatall
sufferingisultimatelyradiantwithheavenlybeauty,beingperfectedinChrist.Peterssuggestionofthethreetentsisanattempttomaterializeandmakepermanent
thevision,towinthecrownwithoutthecross.Thevisionvanished,andtheysawJesusonly.Itwasreal,butonlyaglimpseandforetaste.Byloyaityoncemoreto
theMaster,inthecommonwaysoflifetowhichtheyreturned,thediscipleswouldcometosharetheeternalgloryoftheRisenLord.
R.H.S TRACHAN.
TRANSGRESSION.SeeS IN.
TRAVAIL.TheFr.travail,meaninglabourortrouble,wastakenintoEng.withoutalterationofmeaningorspelling.ThisspellingisfoundinAV,anditis
stillsometimesused,especiallyforthelabourofchildbirth.Butthespellingtravelafterwardsbecamecommon,andthewordwasthenconfinedtojourneying,
thatbeingarecognizedformoftoiiandtroubleinthosedays.InNu20:14Thouknowestallthetravelthathathbefallenus,themeaningismorethanjourneying,
andsoRVspellsthewordtravail,whichwastheoriginalspellingofAValso.
TREASURE,TREASURY,TREASURER
1.InOTtreasureandtreasurystandforvariousHeb.terms,butbothwordsusuallyrendertsr.Thisshowsthattreasureandtreasuryarenotcarefully
distinguishedinEV,orelsethattsritselfmaystandforeither.Asamatteroffactthetruthlieswithbothalternatives.Strictly,atreasureisastoreofwealth,while
atreasuryisastorehouse,aplacewheretreasureiskept.Sometimes,however,treasureoccursinAVwheretreasuryismeant,asJob38:22Hastthouentered
intothetreasures(RVtreasuries)ofthesnow?and,ontheotherhand,treasuryissometimesfoundwheretreasurewouldbethemorecorrectrendering,asJos
6:19,24andRVofEzr2:69.Theindeterminatenessoftsrisshownbyitsconstantemploymentfortreasureandtreasuryalike.Thetreasure(RVstore)
citiesofEx1:11(cf.1K9:19,2Ch8:4)arecitiesinwhichprovisionswerestoredup(cf.Gn41:48,56).
2.InNTwefindalikeambiguousnessintheuseoftreasure,andalsooftheGr.thsaurosforwhichitstands.ThetreasuresoftheMagi(Mt2:11)andthe
treasureinheaven(Mt19:21)refertopreciousstoresbutitisoutofhistreasuryratherthanhistreasurethatthegoodmanbringsforthgoodthings(Mt12:35),and
thehouseholderthingsnewandold(13:52).InAc8:27treasurerendersgaza,awordofPersianorigin.InMt27:6treasuryrepresentskorbans(thedepository
ofthecorban,seeS ACRIFICEANDOFFERING,1(a)),thesacredtreasuryintowhichthechiefpriestswouldnotputJudas30piecesofsilver.Forthetreasuryof
theTemple(gazophylakion)intowhichJewishworshipperscasttheirofferings(Mk12:41,43,Lk21:1)seeTEMPLE,11(b).WhenJesusissaidtohavespoken
inthetreasury(Jn8:20),themeaningprobablyisthatHewasteachinginthecolonnadeoftheTemplewherestoodthetreasureboxesintowhichtheofferings
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inthetreasury(Jn8:20),themeaningprobablyisthatHewasteachinginthecolonnadeoftheTemplewherestoodthetreasureboxesintowhichtheofferings
werecast.
TreasureroccursinOTinNeh12:13,Ezr1:8,7:21,Is22:15,Dn3:2,3,representingadifferenttermineachwriter.ThewordisfoundinNTonlyinRVofRo
16:23assubstituteforAVchamberlain(Gr.oikonomos),buttheEthiopianeunuchissaidtohavehadchargeofallthetreasureofqueenCandace.
J.C.LAMBERT.
TREE.TreeisusedasapoeticnamefortheCrossinAc5:30,10:39,13:29,1P2:24cf.Gal3:12.ForsacredtreesseeHIGHP LACE,1andISRAEL,II.1(5)
and,forthevarioustreesoftheBible,theartt.undertheirrespectivenames.
TRESPASSOFFERING.SeeS ACRIFICE,15.
TRIAL.SeeTEMPTATION.
TRIBESOFISRAEL.ThenumberofthetribesofIsraelvariedatdifferentperiods.Thenumber12isanartificialone,asisseenfromitsapplicationtothe
descendantsofIshmael(Gn17:20,25:1315),ofNahor(Gn22:2024),andofEsau(Gn36:1519,4043).SimeonandLeviweredividedinJacobandscattered
inIsrael(Gn49:7)whenthetribeofBenjaminarose,sothatatthattimetherewouldbenot12butonly11tribes.Reuben,likewise,intheperiodofthekings,was
aninsignificantremnant,and,thoughmentionedin1Ch5:26asstillexistingin734,hadapparentlybecomedisintegratedlongbefore.AsStade(GVII.146)
correctlyremarks,severalofthelargesttribesJudah,Ephraim,Manasseh,Gadcontainedmanyminortribeswhichsurpassedinnumber,possessions,and
politicalsignificanceseveralofthosecountedinthetwelvetribes.
Thenumberofthetribes,accordingtoJEsgenealogy(Gn2930),isnot12but13,andinthefollowingorder:
LeahtribesReuben,Simeon,Levi,Judah 4
Bilhah(Rachel)tribesDan,Naphtali 2
Zilpah(Leah)tribesGad,Asher 2
LeahtribesIssachar,Zebulun 2
2
RacheltribesJoseph=(Manasseh,
Ephraim)
Benjamin(borninPalestine),Gn35:18 1
13
Toobtainthenumber12fromthisschemeitisnecessarytoomitLevi,ortocountManassehandEphraimasone.
Whythenumbertwelvewaschosencannotbeansweredwithcertainty.Whetheritisastronomicalormythological,i.e.connectedwiththe12signsofthe
Zodiacandthe12monthsintheyearinwhichcaseitwouldbetraceabletoBabylonia,asGunkeisuggestsinhisGenesis(p.300),andWinckierholds(Gesch.
Israels,ii.p.57,whereheconnectstheZwlfShne
(Jacobs)withtheZwlfMonaten),orwhetheritrestsuponSolomonspartitionofthelandinto
12divisionssothateachmightprovisiontheroyalhouseholdonemonthintheyear(1K4:7),asLutherthinks(ZATWxxi.34),orwhetherthetrueexplanationhas
yettobediscovered,cannotbeaffirmed.Themythologicalexplanationhastothepresentwriterthegreaterprobabilityinitsfavour.
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TheinterpretationofthegenealogicalschemeofJE,whichappealstobemostacceptabletoscholars,maybebrieflysummarizedfromGuthe,GVI,p.49b.Benjaminappearsas
thelastofthesonsbecausethistribecameintoexistencelastofall,andinPalestine(Gn35:1620).JosephisyoungerthantheothersbecauseitenteredandsettledinCanaanlater
thanSimeon,Levi,andJudah,etc.EvidenceofthisisfoundinJg1:1ff.,22ff.,andGn34,whichshowsJosephinpossessionoftheregionofShechem,formerlyoccupiedby
SimeonandLevi.Theorderofarrangement,itwouldthereforeseem,dependedupontheauthorsviewofthetimeofatribesrespectivesettlementororigininCanaan.Danand
Naphtali,GadandAshertheCanaanitetribesoftheconcubineswhowereadmittedtounionwiththeothertribesowetheirpositionalsototheseprinciples.ExcludingBenjamin,
whowasborninCanaan,andthefourtribesdescendedfromtheconcubines,thereremainonlysevenasextraCanaanitish.Themothers,LeahandRachel,representdifferenttribal
groupsattheheadofwhichstandrespectivelyReubenandJoseph(1Ch5:1,2).History,however,givesusnorecordofReubenspriorityinleadership,butassignsthatrleto
Joseph,sothattheprimacyoftheReubentribemustgobacktoanearliertimeandtotheEastJordan.ItispossiblethatthetribeswhichenteredCanaanunderReubensleadership,
orduringhissupremacy,wereclassedunderLeah,whilethosewhichfollowedundertheleadofJosephwereclassedunderRachel.ThepositionofIssacharandZebulunindicates
thattheywerelaterinacquiringafootholdthanthefourearlierLeahtribes,yetearlierthanJoseph.ThepositionassignedtotheBilhahandZilpahtribes,Guthethinks,maybe
explainedbytheirhavingcomeintocloserrelationstoJoseph,andtoReubenorthelastofthetwoLeahtribesrespectively,andhencetheirmothersweregivenashandmaidsto
RachelandLeah.Thisisallsuggestive,butnocertaintyisreached.Reubensposition(inviewoftheinferiorr1eofthetribeinhistoricaltimes)remainsasaproblemtobesolved,
andthegroupings,e.g.AsherwithGadasZilpahtribes,despitetheirwideseparation,IssacharandZebulunwithJudahasLeahtribes,areofdoubtfulimport.
JAMESA.CRAIO.
TRIBUTE,TOLL,TAXING
1.InOTthesubjectisobscure.Thewordmostfrequentlyrenderedtributeismas,whichdenotesabodyofforcedlabourers(2S20:24,1K9:21etc.see
RV),andthenlaterforcedservicethefeudalcorve.Solomonhadaregularsystemoflevyingprovisionsforthemaintenanceoftheroyalestablishment(1K
4:719),andlabourersfortheexecutionofhisvastbuildingschemes(5:13ff.,9:15),andalsoexactedtollfromthecaravansofmerchantsthatpassedthroughhis
kingdom(10:15).AfterthefailoftheJewishState,tributewasimposedonthelandbyitsforeignmasters(2K23:33,Ezr4:13etc.).Inthelastmentionedpassage
(cf.v.20,7:24)wereadoftribute,custom,ortoll,buthavenoinformationastotheprecisemeaningsofthetermsandthedistinctionsbetweenthem.Cf.TRADE
ANDCOMMERCE,3.
2.InNTtributerepresents3Gr.words.(1)phorosisproperlyalandtax(2)knsos(originallyapropertyregister),acapitationorpolltax.Bothweredirect
ImperialtaxespayablebytheJewsasRomansubjectstheformerinkind,thelatterinRomanmoney.InNT,however,thedistinctionisnotcarefullyobserved(cf.
Mt22:17,Lk20:22).ForthetributemoneyofMt22:19seeMONEY,7(b).(3)didrachmon(Mt17:24,RVthehalfshekel)wasthesumpaidbyeverymale
IsraelitetomeetthecostofthedailyservicesintheTemple.SeeMONEY,7(d).Toil(telos,AVcustomtelnionplaceoftoll,AVreceiptofcustom)mustbe
carefullydistinguishedfromtribute(cf.Mt17:25,Ro13:7).Itwasnotadirecttaxlike(1)and(2),butanimpostonthevalueofexportedgoods.Fordetailsseeartt.
CUSTOM(S),P UBLICAN.Taxing(apograph,RVenrolment,Lk2:2,Ac5:37)denotesaregistrationwithaviewtotaxationforImperialpurposes.SeeQUIRINIUS.
J.C.LAMBERT.
TRINITY
1.Thedoctrineapproached.ItissometimesaskedwhywearenotgivenadefinitestatementthattherearethreePersonsintheGodhead.Onereasonfor
theabsenceofanysuchcategoricalanddogmaticteachingisprobablytobefoundinthefactthattheearliesthearersofthegospelwereJews,andthatanysuch
pronouncementmight(andprobablywould)haveseemedacontradictionoftheirowngreattruthoftheunityoftheGodhead.Consequently,insteadofgivingan
intellectualstatementofdoctrine,whichmighthaveledtotheologicalandphilosophicdiscussion,andendedonlyinmoreIntenseoppositiontoChristianity,the
ApostlespreachedJesusofNazarethasapersonalRedeemerfromsin,andurgedoneveryonetheacceptanceofHimandHisclaims.Then,induecourse,would
cometheinevitableprocessofthoughtandmeditationuponthispersonalexperience,andthiswouldinturnleadtotheinferencethatJesus,fromwhom,andin
whom,theseexperienceswerebeingenjoyed,mustbemorethanman,mustbenoneotherthanDivine,forwhocanforgivesinsbutGodonly?Throughsucha
personalimpressionandinferencebasedonexperience,adistinctionintheGodheadwouldatonceberealized.Then,inthecourseoftheirChristianlife,and
throughfullerinstruction,wouldbeaddedthepersonalknowledgeandexperienceoftheHolySpirit,andonceagainasimilarinferencewouldinduecoursefollow,
makinganotherdistinctionintheirthoughtoftheGodhead.Theintellectualconceptionandexpressionofthesedistinctionsprobablyconcernedonlycomparatively
fewoftheearlybelievers,butneverthelessallofthemhadintheirlivesanexperienceofdefiniteactionandblessingwhichcouldonlyhavebeenfromabove,and
whichnodifficultyofintellectualcorrelationoroftheologicalcoordinationwithformerteachingscouldinvalidateanddestroy.
2.Thedoctrinederived.ThedoctrineoftheTrinityisanexpansionofthedoctrineoftheIncarnation,andemergesoutofthepersonalclaimofourLord.
WebelievethispositioncanbemadegoodfromtheNT.WetakefirsttheGospels,andnotethatourLordsmethodofrevealingHimselftoHisdiscipleswasby
meansofpersonalimpressionandinfluence.Hischaracter,teaching,andclaimformedthecentreandcoreofeverything,andHisoneobjectwas,asitwere,to
stampHimselfonHisdisciples,knowingthatinthelightoffullerexperienceHistruenatureandrelationswouldbecomecleartothem.Weseetheculminationof
thisimpressionandexperienceintheconfessionoftheApostle,MyLordandmyGod.Then,asweturntotheActsoftheApostles,wefindSt.Peterpreachingto90/97
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thisimpressionandexperienceintheconfessionoftheApostle,MyLordandmyGod.Then,asweturntotheActsoftheApostles,wefindSt.Peterpreachingto
Jews,andemphasizingtwoassociatedtruths:(1)theSonshipandMessiahshipofJesus,asprovedbytheResurrection,and(2)theconsequentrelationofthe
hearerstoHimastoaSaviourandMaster.Theemphasisislaidonthepersonalexperienceofforgivenessandgrace,withoutanyattempttostateourLords
positioninrelationtoGod.Indeed,thereferencestoJesusChristastheServant[wronglyrenderedinAVSon]ofGodinAc3:13,26and4:27,seemtoshow
thattheChristianthoughtregardingourLordwasstillimmature,sofarastherewasanypurelyIntellectualconsiderationofit.Itisworthyofnotethatthisphrase,
whichisdoubtlesstheNTcounterpartofIsaiahsteachingontheServantofthe
Lord,isnotfoundintheNTlaterthantheseearlierchaptersoftheActs.Yetinthepreachingof
St.PetertheclaimmadeforJesusofNazarethastheSourceofhealing(3:6,16),thePrinceLeaderofLife(3:15),theHeadStoneofthecorner(4:11),andtheone
andonlyWayofSalvation(4:12),wasanunmistakableassumptionofthepositionandpowerofGodhead.InthesamewaythedoctrineoftheGodheadoftheHoly
SpiritarisesdirectlyoutofourLordsrevelation.OncegrantarealpersonaldistinctionbetweentheFatherandtheSon,anditiseasytobelieveitalsooftheSpirit
asrevealedbytheSon.AslongasChristwaspresentonearththerewasnoroomandnoneedforthespecificworkoftheHolySpirit,butasChristwasdeparting
fromtheworldHerevealedadoctrinewhichclearlyassociatedtheHolySpiritwithHimselfandtheFatherinanewanduniqueway(Jn14:16,17,26,15:26,16:7
15).Arisingimmediatelyoutofthis,andconsonantwithit,istheplacegiventotheHolySpiritintheBookoftheActs.Fromch.5,wherelyingagainsttheHoly
SpiritisequivalenttolyingagainstGod(5:3,4,9),weseethroughoutthebooktheessentialDeityoftheHolySpiritintheworkattributedtoHimofsuperintending
andcontrollingthelifeoftheApostolicChurch(2:4,8:29,10:19,13:2,4,16:6,7,20:25).
Then,aswepasstotheEpistles,wefindreferencestoourLordJesusandtotheHolySpiritwhichimplyunmistakablythefunctionsofGodhead.Intheopening
salutationsourLordisassociatedwithGodastheSourceofgraceandpeace(1Th1:1f.,1P1:2),andintheclosingbenedictionsastheDivineSourceofblessing
(Ro15:30,2Th3:16,18).InthedoctrinalstatementsHeisreferredtoinpracticalrelationtousandtoourspirituallifeintermsthatcanbepredicatedofGodonly,
andintherevelationsconcerningthingstocomeHeisstatedtobeabouttooccupyapositionwhichcanrefertoGodonly.Inlikemanner,thecorrelationofthe
HolySpiritwiththeFatherandtheSoninmattersessentiallyDivineisclear(1Co2:46,2Co13:14,1P1:2).
InalltheseassertionsandimplicationsoftheGodheadofJesusChrist,itistobenotedverycarefullythatSt.PaulhasnotthefaintestideaofcontradictinghisJewish
monotheism.ThoughheandothersthusproclaimedtheGodheadofChrist,itisofgreatmomenttorememberthatChristianitywasneveraccusedofpolytheism.TheNTdoctrineof
Godisessentiallyaformofmonotheism,andstandsinnorelationtopolytheism.Therecanbenodoubtthat,howeverandwhenevertheTrinitarianideawasformulated,itarosein
immediateconnexionwiththemonotheismofJudaandtheApostles,Jewsthoughtheywere,instatingsounmistakablytheGodheadofJesusChrist,areneveronceconsciousof
teachinganythinginconsistentwiththeirmostcherishedideasabouttheunityofGod.
3.Thedoctrineconfirmed.Whenwehaveapproachedthedoctrinebymeansofthepersonalexperienceofredemption,wearepreparedtogivefull
considerationtothetwolinesofteachingfoundintheNT.(a)OnelineofteachinginsistsontheunityoftheGodhead(1Co8:4,Ja2:19)and(b)theotherline
revealsdistinctionswithintheGodhead(Mt3:16,17and28:19,2
Co13:14).Weseeclearlythat(1)theFatherisGod(Mt11:25,Ro15:6,Eph4:6)(2)theSonis
God(Jn1:1,18,20:28,Ac20:26,Ro9:5,He1:8,Col2:9,Ph2:6,2P1:1)(3)theHolySpiritisGod(Ac5:3,4,1Co2:10,11,Eph2:22)(4)theFather,Son,and
HolySpiritaredistinctfromoneanother,sendingandbeingsent,honouringandbeinghonoured.TheFatherhonourstheSon,theSonhonourstheFather,andthe
HolySpirithonourstheSon(Jn15:26,16:13,14,17:1,8,18,23).(5)Nevertheless,whateverrelationsofsubordinationtheremaybebetweenthePersonsin
workingoutredemption,thethreearealikeregardedasGod.ThedoctrineoftheTrinityisthecorrelation,coordination,andsynthesisoftheteachingofthese
passages.IntheUnityoftheGodheadthereisaTrinityofPersonsworkingoutredemption.GodtheFatheristheCreatorand
RulerofmanandtheProviderofredemptionthroughHislove(Jn3:16).GodtheSonisthe
Redeemer,whobecamemanforthepurposeofourredemption.GodtheHolySpiritistheExecutiveoftheGodhead,whoappliestoeachbelievingsoulthe
benefitsofredemption.Theelementsoftheplanofredemptionthusfindtheirroot,foundation,andspringinthenatureoftheGodheadandtheobviousreason
whythesedistinctionswhichweexpressbythetermsPersonandTrinitywerenotrevealedearlierthanNTtimesisthatnotuntilthenwasredemption
accomplished.
4.Thedoctrinestated.BytheTrinity,therefore,wemeanthespecificandunique
ChristianideaoftheGodhead.ThefoundationoftheChristianideaoftheGodheadisthatoftheOneSupremeAlmightySpiritwhomweworship,towhomwe
pray,fromwhomwereceivegrace,andwhomweserve.ButthespecificChristianthoughtofGodisthatofaSpirit,intheunityofwhosebeingisrevealeda
distinctionofPersonswhomwecallFather,Son,andHolySpirittheGodfromwhom,throughwhom,andbywhomallthingscometheFatherastheprimal
Source,theSonastheredemptiveMediator,andtheHolySpiritasthepersonalApplieroflifeandgrace.TheChristianideaoftheTrinitymaybesummedupinthe
familiarwords:TheFatherisGod,theSonisGod,andtheHolyGhostisGod.AndyettheyarenotthreeGods,butoneGod.TheGodheadoftheFather,andof 91/97
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familiarwords:TheFatherisGod,theSonisGod,andtheHolyGhostisGod.AndyettheyarenotthreeGods,butoneGod.TheGodheadoftheFather,andof
theSon,andoftheHolyGhostisallone,theGloryequal,theMajestycoeternal.AndinthisTrinitynoneisaforeorafterother:noneisgreaterorlessthananother,
butthewholethreePersonsarecoeternaltogetherandcoequal.
ThetermTrinitydatesfromthesecondcentury,beingfoundinGreekinTheophilusofAntioch
(A. D.181)andtheactualLatinword,fromwhichwederiveourEnglishterm,inTertullian(A. D.200).ItsuseissometimescriticisedbecauseitisnotfoundintheBible,butthisis
novalidobjectiontoit.Likeotherwords.e.g.Incarnation,itexpressesintechnicallanguagethetruthabouttheGodheadwhichisfoundimplicitlyintheNT.Therealquestionis
whetheritistrue,andwhetheritisfairlyexpressiveoftheBibletruth.ItisintendedtoexpressandsafeguardthatrealandessentialunityoftheGodheadwhichisattherootofthe
distinctions of Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. The term Person is also sometimes objected to. Like all human language, it is liable to be accused of inadequacy and even positive
error.Itcertainlymustnotbepressedtoofar,oritwillleadtoTritheism.WhileweusethetermtodenotedistinctionsintheGodhead,wedonotimplydistinctionswhichamountto
separateness,butdistinctionswhichareassociatedwithessentialmutualcoinherenceorinclusiveness.WeintendbythetermPersontoexpressthoserealdistinctionsofFather,Son,
andHolySpiritwhicharefoundamidtheonenessoftheGodhead,distinctionswhicharenomeretemporarymanifestationsofDeity,butessentialandpermanentelementswithinthe
Divineunity.
5.Thedoctrinesupported.Whenallthisisgrantedandsofarsettled,wemayfindasecondlineofteachingtosupporttheforegoingintherevelationof
GodasLove.FollowingthesuggestionofSt.Augustine,mostmoderntheologianshaverightlyseeninthisasafegroundforourbelief.Ittranscends,andperhaps
rendersunnecessary,allargumentsdrawnfromhumanandnaturalanalogiesofthedoctrine.Godislovemeans,assomeonehaswellsaid,GodastheInfinite
homeofallmoralemotions,thefullestandmosthighlydifferentiatedlife.Lovemustimplyrelationships,and,asHeiseternallyperfectinHimself,Hecanrealize
HimselfasLoveonlythroughrelationshipswithinHisownBeing.WemaygosofarastosaythatthisistheonlywayofobtainingalivingthoughtaboutGod.
BeliefinTheismpostulatesaselfexistentGod,andyetitisimpossibletothinkofaGodwithoutrelationships.TheserelationshipsmustbeeternalandpriortoHis
temporalrelationshipstotheuniverseofHisowncreation.Hemusthaverelationshipseternallyadequate,andworthy,andwhenoncewerealizethatlovemust
haveanobjectinGodaswellasinourselves,wehavethegermofthatdistinctionintheGodheadwhichistheologicallyknownastheTrinity.
6.Thedoctrineanticipated.Atthisstage,andonlyhere,wemayseekanothersupportforthedoctrine.InthelightofthefactsoftheNTwecannotrefrain
fromaskingwhethertheremaynothavebeensomeadumbrationsofitintheOT.AsthedoctrinearisesdirectlyoutofthefactsoftheNT,wedonotforaninstant
lookforanyfulldiscoveryofitintheOT.Butifthedoctrinebetrue,wemightexpectthatChristianJews,atanyrate,wouldseekforsomeanticipationofitinthe
OT.Webelievewefinditthere.(a)ThereferencestotheAngelofJehovahpreparethewayfortheChristiandoctrineofadistinctionintheGodhead(Gn18:2,16,
17:22with19:1,Jos5:1315with6:1,Jg13:821,Zec13:7).(b)AllusionstotheSpiritofJehovahformanotherlineofOTteaching.InGn1:2theSpiritisan
energyonly,butinsubsequentbooksanagent(Is40:13,48:16,59:19,63:10f.).(c)ThepersonificationofDivineWisdomisalsotobeobserved,fortheconnexion
betweenthepersonificationofWisdominPr8,theLogosofJn1:118,andthewisdomof1Co1:24canhardlybeaccidental.(d)Therearealsootherhints,
suchasthetriplicityoftheDivineNames(Nu6:2427,Ps29:35,Is6:3),whichmaynotbepressed,butcanhardlybeoverlooked.Hintsareallthatweretobe
expectedordesireduntilthefulnessoftimeshouldhavecome.ThefunctionofIsraelwastoguardGodstranscendenceandomnipresenceitwasforChristianityto
developthedoctrineoftheGodheadintothefulness,depth,andrichnessthatwefindintherevelationoftheIncarnateSonofGod.
7.Thedoctrinejustified.(a)FromthefactsofScripture.ItemergesclearlyfromtheclaimofChristitisanextensionofthedoctrineoftheIncarnation.If
theIncarnationwasreal,theTrinityistrue.(b)FromthefactsofChristianexperience.ItisasimplefactthatChristiansofallperiodsofhistoryclaimtohave
personaldirectfellowshipwithChrist.Thisclaimmustbeaccountedfor.ItispossibleonlybypredicatingDeityofourLord,forsuchfellowshipwouldbe
impossiblewithonewhoisnotGod.(c)Fromthefactsofhistory.Comparedwithotherreligions,ChristianitymakesGodarealityinawayinwhichnoother
systemdoes.ThedoctrineoftheTrinityhasseveralpositivetheologicalandphilosophicaladvantagesovertheUnitarianconceptionofGod,butespeciallyisthisso
inreferencetotherelationofGodtotheworld.TherearetwoconceivablerelationsofGodtotheworldastranscendent(inMohammedanism),orasimmanent(in
Buddhism).ThefirstalonemeansDeism,thesecondalonePantheism.ButtheChristianideaisofGodasatoncetranscendentandimmanent.Itisthereforethetrue
protectionofalivingTheism,whichotherwiseoscillatesuncertainlybetweenthesetwoextremesofDeismandPantheism,eitherofwhichisfalsetoIt.Itisonlyin
ChristianitythattheSemiticandAryanconceptionsofGodareunited,blended,correlated,balanced,andpreserved.(d)Fromreason.Itissimpletruthtosaythat,if
JesusbenotGod,Christiansareidolaters,fortheyworshipOnewhoisnotGod.Thereisnootheralternative.ButwhenoncethetruthofthedoctrineoftheTrinity
isregardedasarisingoutofChristsclaimtoGodheadasDivineRedeemer,reasonsoonfindsitswarrantforthedoctrine.ThedoctrineoftheTrinitycomestousby
revelationandnotbynature,thoughitissoonseentohavepointsofcontactwiththoughtandreason.
Thedoctrinestartedintheconcrete,withthebaptismalformulaemanatingfromJesusChrist.Andthroughoutthehistoryofitsdogmaticformulation,weareconfronted
withthisfact.Itwasregardedasarevelationbythemenwhoshapeditsintellectualexpressionanditwasonlyintheprocessofthatexpressionthatitscongruitywithhuman
psychologycameoutthatpsychologyinfactbeingdistinctlydevelopedintheefforttogiveitutterance.TheydidnotaccommodateChristianreligiontotheirphilosophy,but
philosophytotheirChristianreligion.Thisdoctrineappealedfirsttounsophisticatedmen,farremovedfromAlexandriaorAthensyettheverywordsinwhichitdoesso,turnout,
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philosophytotheirChristianreligion.Thisdoctrineappealedfirsttounsophisticatedmen,farremovedfromAlexandriaorAthensyettheverywordsinwhichitdoesso,turnout,
uponanalysis,toinvolveaviewofpersonalitywhichtheworldhadnotattained,butwhich,oncestated,isseentobeprofoundly,philosophicallytrue(Illingworth,Personality,p.
212f.).
W.H.GRIFFITHTHOMAS.
TRIPOLIS.AnimportanttowninnorthernPhnicla,whereDemetriusSoterlandedwhenhemadehissuccessfulattackagainstAntiochusv.(2Mac14:1).It
wasdividedintothreeparts,originatingincoloniesfromTyre,Sidon,andArvadhencethename.ThemodernTarbulsistwomilesinland,itsfortoccupying
thesiteoftheancientcityonthecoast.
J.F.MCCURDY.
TROAS.AcityofMysiaontheN.W.coastofAsiaMinor.ItwasintheRomanprovinceAsia.ItwasfoundedbyAntigonus,andrefoundedinB.C.300by
Lysimachus,whonameditAlexandriaTroas.ForatimeundertheSeleucidkingsofSyria,itgaineditsfreedom,andbegantostrikeitsowncoins(examplesexist
fromB.C.164to65).ItsfreedomcontinuedunderPergamenianandafterwards,fromB.C.133,underRomanrule.AugustusmadeitaRomancolony,andit
becameoneofthegreatestcitiesofN.W.Asia.TheRomanpreferencewaspartlyexplainedbytheirbeliefintheearlyconnexionbetweenTroyandtheirown
capital.ThisplacewasaregularportofcalloncoastingvoyagesbetweenMacedoniaandAsia(cf.Ac16:8,20:5,2Co2:12).St.Paul,withSilasandTimothy,
approachedTroasfromtheAsianBithynianfrontiernearDorylumorCotium(Ac16:68).HedidnotpreachinMysiaonthefirstvisit,thoughtheWesterntext
atAc16:5makeshimdoso.
A.S OUTER.
TROGYLLIUM.AccordingtotheAV(Ac20:15),whichherefollowstheWesterntext,
St.Paulsship,aftertouchingatSamos,andbeforeputtinginatMiletus,tarriedatTrogyllium.ThisstatementisnopartoftheNTtextasnowcommonlyread,but
it is not impossible, and perhaps embodies a real tradition. Trogyllium is a promontory which projects from the mainland and overlaps the eastern extremity of
Samos,soastoformastraitlessthanamilewide.Thereisananchoragenear,stillcalledSt.PaulsPort.
A.S OUTER.
TROPHIMUS.AGentileChristian,anativeofEphesus(Ac21:29),who,withTychicus,alsooftheprovinceAsia(20:4),andothers,accompaniedSt.Paulto
Jerusalem.TheJews,seeingTrophimuswiththeApostleinthecity,hastilyconcludedthatSt.PaulhadbroughthimintotheinnercourtoftheTemple,separated
fromtheouterCourtoftheGentilesbyabarrieronwhichwereinscriptionsinGreekandLatinforbiddinganynonJewtoenteronpainofdeath.Thisoccasioned
theriotwhichledtoSt.Paulsarrest.SomeyearslaterTrophimuswasleftatMiletussick(2Ti4:20).
A.J.MACLEAN.
TROW.Totrowwasoriginallytotrust,withwhichitisconnectedinoriginbutitcametomeannomorethanthinkorsuppose.ThisisthemeaninginLk
17:9,itsonlyoccurrenceinAV.
TRUMPET.SeeMUSIC,4(2)(e).
TRUMPETS,FEASTOF.The1stdayofTishri(October),the7thmonthofthesacredyear,wassignalizedbyamemorialofblowingtrumpets,tocallboth
Godandthepeopletoremembranceoftheirreciprocalpositions.Itwasadayofholyconvocation,onwhichnoservileworkmightbedone.Thetrumpetsblown
wereprobablyofadifferentkindfromthoseusedattheordinarynewmoonfestivals.AttheFeastofTrumpetsspecialofferingsweremade:aburntofferingofa
bullock,aram,and7lambs,andasinofferingofakidofthegoatstheseinadditiontotheordinarydailyandmonthlyofferings(cf.Nu29:16,Lv23:24,25).
ThiswasoneofthelunarfestivalsoftheJewishcalendar,andwasthemostimportantofthenewmooncelebrations.
A.W.F.BLUNT.
TRUST.SeeF AITH.
TRUTH
1.InOT(meth,mnh).Firmnessorstabilityisthefundamentalideaoftheroot,andtothisradicalthoughtmostoftheusesoftheHeb.nounsmaybe
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1.InOT(meth,mnh).Firmnessorstabilityisthefundamentalideaoftheroot,andtothisradicalthoughtmostoftheusesoftheHeb.nounsmaybe
traced.Oftentheysignifytruthinthecommonmeaningoftheword,thecorrespondence,viz.,betweenspeechandfact(Dt13:14,Pr12:17).Atfirstthestandards
ofveracitywerelow(Gn12:11ff.,20:2ff.,26:7ff.,
27:18ff.etc.)buttruthfulnessinwitnessbearingisacommandmentoftheDecalogue(Ex
20:18),andfromthepropheticageonwardsfalsehoodofeverykindisrecognizedasagravesin
(Hos4:2,Ps59:12,Pr12:22).See,further,LIE.Sometimestruthdenotesjusticeasadministeredbyarulerorajudge(Ex18:21,Pr20:28),and,inparticular,by
theMessianicKing
(Ps45:4,Is42:3).Frequentlyitdenotesfaithfulness,especiallythefaithfulnessofamantoGod(2K20:3)andofGodtomen(Gn32:10).WhenGodisdescribed
asaGodoftruth,HisfaithfulnesstoHispromisesmaybeespeciallyinview(Ps31:5).Butnotfarawayisthesenseoflivingrealityindistinctionfromthelying
vanitiesinwhichthosetrusttowhomJahwehisunknown(v.6cf.Dt32:4).Insomelatercanonicalwritingsthereappearsauseoftruthorthetruthas
equivalenttoDivinerevelation(Dn8:12,9:13),orasasynonymforthewisdominwhichthetruephilosophyoflifeconsists(Pr23:23).IntheApocr.booksthis
usebecomesfrequent(1Es4:33ff.,Wis3:9,Sir4:28etc.).
2.InNT(altheia).TheGr.word(whichisemployedinLXXtorenderbothmethandmnh)hasthefundamentalmeaningofreality,asopposedtomere
appearanceorfalsepretence.FromthisthesenseofveracitycomesquitenaturallyandveracityfindsahighplaceamongtheNTvirtues.TheOTlawforbadethe
bearingoffalsewitnessagainstonesneighbourthelawofChristenjoinstruthspeakinginallsocialintercourse(Eph4:25),andfurtherdemandsthatthistruth
speakingshallbeanimatedbylove(v.15cf.v.25forwearemembersoneofanother).
Specialattentionmustbepaidtosomedistinctiveemploymentsoftheword.(a)InthePaulinewritingsthereisaconstantuseofthetruthtodescribeGods
willasrevealedprimarilytothereasonandconscienceofthenaturalman(Ro1:18,25),butespeciallyinthegospelofJesusChrist(2Co4:2,Gal3:1etc.).The
truththusbecomessynonymouswiththegospel(Eph1:13cf.Gal2:5,14etc.,wherethetruthofthegospelevidentlymeansthetruthdeclaredinthegospel).
InthePastoralEpistlesthegospelasthetruthorthewordoftruthappearstobepassingintothesenseofasettledbodyofChristiandoctrine(1Ti3:15,2Ti2:16
etc.).Itistobenotedthat,thoughtheaboveusagesaremostcharacteristicofthePaulinecycleofwritings,theyareoccasionallytobefoundelsewhere,e.g.He
10:26,Ja1:18,1P1:22,2P1:12.
(b)IntheJohanninebooks(withtheexceptionofRev.)altheiaisaleadingandsignificantterminasensethatisquitedistinctive(cf.lightandlife).To
Pilatesquestion,Whatistruth?(Jn18:38),Jesusgavenoanswer.ButHehadjustdeclaredthatHecameintotheworldtobearwitnessuntothetruth(v.37),and
theFourthGospelmightbedescribedasanelaborateexpositionofthenatureofthetruthasrevealedbyJesus,andofthewayinwhichHerevealedit.InJohnthe
truthstandsfortheabsoluteDivinerealityasdistinguishedfromallexistencethatisfalseormerelyseeming(cf.8:40ff.,whereJesuscontrastsHisFather,from
whomHehadheardthetruth,withyourfatherthedevil,whostoodnotinthetruth,becausethereisnotruthinhim).JesuscamefromthebosomoftheFather
(Jn1:18),andtruthcamebyHim(v.17)becauseastheWordofGodHewasfullofit(v.14).ThetruthisincarnatedandpersonalizedinJesus,andsoHeis
HimselftheTruth(14:6).ThetruthwhichresidesinHisownPersonHeimpartstoHisdisciples(8:31f.)andonHisdepartureHebestowstheSpiritoftruthtoabide
withthemandbeinthemforever(14:17).HencethetruthisintheChristianastheverygroundworkandessenceofhisspiritualbeing(1Jn1:8,2:4,2Jn1:2).Itis
therebothasamoralandasanintellectualqualitystandingmidway,asitwere,betweenlifeandlight,twootherrulingJohannineideaswithwhichitisclosely
associated.Primarilyitisamoralpower.ItmakesChristsdisciplesfree(Jn8:32)freei.e.,asthecontextshows,fromthebondageofsin(vv.
33ff.).Ithasasanctifyingforce(Jn17:1719)itensuresthekeepingofthecommandments(1Jn2:4)andthelifeofChristianlove(3:18f.).And,while
subjectivelyitisamoralinfluence,objectivelyitisamoralvocationsomethingnotonlytobeknown(Jn8:32)andbelieved(vv.45f.),butrequiringtobedone
(Jn3:21,1Jn1:6).Fromthismoralqualityofthetruth,however,therespringsapowerofspiritualIllumination.Thetruththatislifepassesintothetruththatislight
(Jn3:21).EveryonethatisofthetruthhearethChristsvoice(18:37)ifanymanwillethtodoHiswill,heshallknowofthedoctrine(7:17)theSpiritoftruth,when
Heiscome,shallguidethedisciplesintoallthetruth(16:13).
J.C.LAMBERT.
TRYPHNA.GreetedalongwithTryphosabySt.PaulinRo16:12,anddescribedbyhimaslabouringintheLord.Theywereprobablysistersornear
relations,foritwasusualtodesignatemembersofthesamefamilybyderivativesofthesameroot.Thecommonrootmakestheirnamessignifydelicate,
luxuriousameaningwhichcontrastswiththeiractiveChristiantoil.InscriptionsinacemeteryusedchieflyfortheEmperorsservants,containbothnamesifwe
identifythemwiththese,thentheywouldbeamongthesaintsofCsarshousehold(Ph4:22).
ATryphnaplaysaprominentpartintheapocryphalActsofPaulandThecla.
TRYPHON.AnofficerofAlexanderBalas,who,afterthedeathofthelatter,tookadvantageoftheunpopularityofDemetriustoputforwardAntiochus,the 94/97
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TRYPHON.AnofficerofAlexanderBalas,who,afterthedeathofthelatter,tookadvantageoftheunpopularityofDemetriustoputforwardAntiochus,the
sonofBalas,asaclaimanttothethrone(1Mac11:39).Hisrealaim,however,wastogainthecrownforhimself,andthisheaccomplishedafterhehadmurderedin
successionJonathantheMaccabee(12:3950)andAntiochus(13:31f.).HisrapacityledSimontoappealtoDemetrius(13:34).Thelatterwasorganizingan
expeditionagainstTryphonwhenhewashimselfmadeprisonerbyArsaces(14:13).Intheend,AntiochusSidetes,thebrotherofDemetrius,attackedTryphon,
besiegedhiminDor,andpursuedhimwhenheescapedthencetoOrthesia(15:1014,3739).TryphonwasfinallyshutupinApamea,wherehecommitted
suicide(Strabo,p.668Jos.Ant.XIII.vii.2App.Syr.68).
TRYPHOSA.SeeTRYPHNA.
TUBAL.AcountryandpeopleinAsiaMinormentionedonlyinassociationwithMeshech(wh.see).
J.F.MCCURDY.
TUBALCAIN.InGn4:22thefatherofeveryforgerofcopperandiron(soread,withslighttextualcorrection),i.e.thefounderoftheguildorprofessionof
metalworkers.ThenameseemstobemadeupofTubal(ortheTibareni,notedforproductionofbronzearticles(Ezk
27:13))andCain(smith),astheancestoroftheKenitesorSmiths.
J.F.MCCURDY.
TUBIAS,TUBIENI.SeeTOB.
TUNIC.SeeDRESS,2(d).
TURBAN.SeeDRESS,5,BONNET,MITRE.
TURPENTINETREE.SeeTEREBINTH.
TURTLEDOVE.SeeDOVE.
TUTOR.SeeS CHOOL.
TWELVE.SeeNUMBER,7.
TWELVEAPOSTLES,GOSPELOF.SeeGOSPELS[APOCR.],10.
TWINBROTHERS.SeeDIOSCURI.
TWO.SeeNUMBER,7.
TYCHICUS.AnativeoftheprovinceAsia,likeTrophimus,andacompanionofSt.PaulonthejourneytoJerusalem(Ac20:4).Hewasthebearerofthe
circularlettertoAsiawhichwecallEphesians(Eph6:21f.),andofColossians(Col4:7f.).InlateryearseitherheorArtemaswastohavebeensenttoCrete,
apparentlytotakeTitusplace(Tit3:12)buthewassenttoEphesus,probablyinsteadoftoCrete(2Ti4:12).
A.J.MACLEAN.
TYRANNUS.ThismanismentionedonlyinAc19:9.St.PaulinEphesuspreachedbeforetheJewsandproselytesinthesynagogueforthreemonths.
Findingthemdeterminedlyhostile,heresortedtotheschoolofTyrannus,wherehereasonedeveryday.Theexpressionissomewhatenigmaticaltous,aswehave
nootherreferencetothisinstitutionbywhichtoillustrateit.TheGreekwordmaybetranslatedeitherschoolorlectureroom,andTyrannusmayhavebeeneither
aschoolmasterorwhatwecallaprofessor.ThereisthefurtherdifficultythatTyrannusmayhavebeendeadatthetime,andthatthebuildingmayhavebeenmerely
knownasTyrannussschool,inmemoryofaoncefamousteacherwhotaughtthere.Alltheprobabilitiesareinfavourofthishavingbeenthenameofanoted
publicbuildinginEphesus.PermissiontousethisbuildingwasgiventoPaulperhapsitwashiredbyhimorhisfriends.Allthismaybeinferredfromwhatisthe
generallyacceptedtextofthepassageinthepresentday.TheWesternandothertextshavetouchedupthissimplertext,andchangedthesituationconsiderably. 95/97
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generallyacceptedtextofthepassageinthepresentday.TheWesternandothertextshavetouchedupthissimplertext,andchangedthesituationconsiderably.
TheyhaveinsertedthewordacertainbeforeTyrannus,andthisatonceconvertsthepublicbuildingintoaprivateone.ThepersonTyrannuswouldthenbe
unknowntothereaders,andwouldbeonenotunfavourabletoSt.Paul,wholenthimhisownbuildingwithorwithoutfee.ThemostnotableMSoftheWestern
textaddsthewords:fromthefifthhourtillthetenth.ThisadditionisallofapiecewiththeideathatTyrannuswasaschoolmasterorprofessor,whosework,
accordingtotheancientcustom,wouldbeoverearlyintheday,thusleavingthebuildingfreefortherestoftheday.Juvenaldescribestoushowtheboysreadtheir
lessonstothemasterevenbeforedawn.Augustine,himselfaprofessor,tellsusthathislecturingworkwasoverearlyintheday.Theexperienceofmodernsin
southerncountriesconfirmsthis:theearlymorningisthetimeforbrainworkintheSouth,astheyoungJuliusCharlesHareandhisbrotherfoundwhenresidentas
boysinItaly.ThehallwasfreetoPaulatthehottestperiodoftheday,whenitmusthavebeenhardforpeopletolisten,andyetharderforhimtopreach.Allthisis
conveyedbythereadingofthechiefrepresentativeoftheWesterntext,butthepresentwriterhasnodoubtthathere,aselsewhere,thereviserhasbeen
endeavouringtoremoveobscurityfromthenarrative.AlmostalltheWesternvariantscanbeexplainedbyagreaterorlessefforttosmoothdifficultiesofvarious
sorts.Theshorterreadingdiscussedintheearlierparagraphisthegenuineone.
A.S OUTER.
TYRE(Tsrrock,Jos19:29)wassituatedonthecoastofPalestineabouthalfwaybetweenCarmelandBeyrout.Thenarrowstripoflandbetweenthesea
andthebackgroundofmountainswasalmostinaccessibleowingtomassiverockypromontories(themostfamousbeingtheLadderofTyre),whichbarredthe
approachofinvaders.ThedateofthefoundationofTyreisunknown.ThatgivenbyHerodotusisB.C.2740,byJosephusaboutB.C.1217.Isaiah(23:7)callsher
thejoyouscitywhoseantiquityisofancientdaysStrabo,themostancientofallPhnicla.HeroriginalinhabitantsprobablycamefromtheSemitichomeland
nearthePersian
Gulf.ButTyrewasnotthemostancient.Isaiah(23:2,12)callsherdaughterofSidon(cf.Gn10:15)HomermentionsSidonianwares,butignoresTyre.Justin
saysSidonsufferedsoseverelyatthehandsofAscalonthathertradepassedtoherdaughterTyre.TheTellelAmarnaletters(c.B.C.1430)revealAbimilki,kingof
Tyre,sendingappealstohislordAmenhotepIV.forassistanceagainsttheswarmsofKhabiri,whowereravagingtheland,whilethecitizensweredyingofwanton
theisletsoffthecoast.AttheconquestofCanaan,JoshuaassignedtheTyrianterritorytoAsher,thoughitwasperhapsneveroccupied(Jos19:29,butcf.2S24:7).
Forthenext430yearsthecityshistoryisablank.ItwasHiram,Davidscontemporary,whoraisedTyretofame.OldTyre(Paltyrus),onthemainland,he
stronglyfortified,itswallsbeing15milesincircumference.HiramnowbuiltNewTyrebyunitingthescatteredislands,halfamileouttosea,tilltheyenclosedan
area21/2milesincircumference.AttheN.end,twostonepiers,about100ft.apart,extendedE.andW.for700ft.Thesewiththeshorelineembracedanarea(the
ZidonHarbour)of70,000sq.yds.AttheS.endasimilarharbour(theEgyptian),80,000sq.yds.Inarea,wasenclosedbyavastpier200yds.long,anda
breakwater35ft.wideandnearly2milesinlength.Thetwoharbourswereunitedbyacanalacrosstheisland.Thecityroseupintiersofhouses,gardens,orchards,
andvineyards,andwasembellishedbyanewandsplendidtempleofMelkarth,aroyalpalace,andagreatpiazza(theEurychorus)fornationalassemblies.The
cityswealthwasfurnishedlargelyfromthetradeinpurpledye,thesecretoftheextractionofwhichfromtwospeciesofmurextheTyrianspossessed.Thegradual
failureofthesupplyoftheseshellfishontheirownshoresledthecitizenstobecomegreatexplorers.Everyislandandcoastlineweresearchedfortheseprecious
molluscs.Tradenaturallyfollowed.TheytraffickeduptheNileasfarasMemphisworkedcopperminesinCyprusandCrete(cf.Phenice,Ac27:12)erected
stationsontheBosporus,theEuxine,andtheCrimeaestablishedcoloniesontheN.Africanshores,Malta,Sicily,Sardinia,Marseilles,etc.,andexploitedthegold,
silver,lead,andotherminesofSpainfromtheiremporiumTartessus(prob.theTarshishofGn10:4,Ps72:10,Is66:19).EventheAtlanticwasbraved,andthey
workedthetindepositsofCornwall,andhaddeptsintheScillyIslesandtheIsleofWight.HiramcooperatedwithDavidintheerectionofthelatterspalacein
Jerusalem,sendingcedarsfromLebanon(1Ch14:1).UnderSolomon,TyrianartizansbuilttheTempleonPhnicianmodels(2Ch2).HiramandSolomonhad
jointmaritimeadventures,JewishshipswithTyrianseamentradingtoOphlreverythreeyears(1K9:26,10:22).HiramsTomb,amassivelimestonesarcophagus,
isstillshownontheshore6milesS.ofTyre.
TheyearsfollowingHiramsdeathwereverytroubled,changesofdynastyoccurringthroughrepeatedassassinations.AtlengthEthbaal,bythemurderofhis
brother,seizedthethrone,andmarriedhisdaughterJezebeltoAhab(1K16:31).SometimeafterthedeathofEthbaaladomesticrebellionledtotheemigrationof
theTyrianprincessElissa,whoissaidtohavefledfromTyrewithhermurderedhusbandsrichesandtohavefoundedCarthage,therebywinningfameforherselfas
theDidoofVirgilsneid.AboutB.C.880AssyriabegantointerferewithWesternpolitics.TyrepurchasedherlibertyfromAssurnazirpalbyaheavyindemnity.
InD.C.726ShalmaneserIV.cameagainstthecity,but,havingnoships,couldnotreachtheislandfortresstillhehadbribedSidontofurnish60vessels.Thesethe
Tyrians,withonly12ships,easilyrouted.Shalmaneserretired,leavingagarrisoninOldTyre,whichkeptupafruitlessblockadeforfiveyears.Atthenextattack,
underSennacherib,Elulus,theking,fledindespairtoCyprus,theAssyriansappointingatributaryking,Tubaal,inhisstead(B.C.705).UnderEsarhaddon,Tyre
rebelled.TheAssyriansheldtheshore,andcapturedSidon,butTyreagainescaped.InB.C.664itsubmittedtoAshurbanipalonhonourableterms.Onthedecline
ofNineveh,Tyreagainproclaimedherindependence(B.C.630),andafterNinevehfell(B.C.606)shereachedthezenithofherglory.Ezekiel(2728)givesa
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ofNineveh,Tyreagainproclaimedherindependence(B.C.630),andafterNinevehfell(B.C.606)shereachedthezenithofherglory.Ezekiel(2728)givesa
marvellouslyvividpictureoftheislandcityatthisperiod,yetprophesiesherfallonaccountofhercolossalsins.
IntheearlyunsettleddaysoftheNewBabylonianEmpiretheTyriansenteredintoaleaguewithPharaohnechoofEgypt.Theywereinvitedtomakeacanal
fromtheMediterraneantotheRedSea,andeventocircumnavigateAfrica.Thelatterfeattheyaccomplishedinthreeyears,thevoyagerssailingdowntheE.coast,
andreachingthePillarsofHerculesafterafeatofunheardofdaring.NebuchadnezzarII.attackedTyre,andbesiegeditfor13years.OldTyrewasdestroyed
(Ezk26:712),buttheBabylonianarmyinvainwearieditselfintryingtosubduetheisland(29:18).Itisprobablethatthecityfinallycapitulatedonfavourable
terms.Thelongsiege,however,hadruinedhercommerce,andfor50yearsTyrewasapovertystrickentown.Anattemptatarepublicdidnotimproveher
fortunes.ShewasinvolvedinthestrugglebetweenNebuchadnezzarII.andPharaohhophra(Jer44:30).wasforatimeunderEgypt,butfinallyfelltoBabylon,and
remainedadependencyuntiltheoverthrowoftheBabylonianEmpire.Herhumbledstatedidnotchangeherpeoplestemper.Theirpride(Ezk28:2),theircontempt
fortherightsofman(Am1:9),theirslavetradingpropensities(Jl3:48)aredenouncedbytheHebrewprophets.InB.C.538CyrusII.,thefounderofthePersian
Empire,orderedTyrianworkmentoassistwithLebanoncedarsintherebuildingoftheJewishTemple(Ezk3:7).CambysesII.
engagedtheTyrianstosupplyafleetforhisinvasionofEgypt.OnhisproposingtosendthemtosubdueCarthagetheyrefused,onthescoreoftheirblood
relationshipwiththedaughtercolonyofTyre.UnderArtaxerxesLongimanus(B.C.430)wereadofTyrianfishmerchantsatthegatesofJerusalem(Neh13:16).In
thePersianGreekwarsTyrianfleetsfoughtonthePersianside,till,afterthePeaceofAntalkidas(B.C.387),TyretransferredherallegiancetoPersiasenemies.
ArtaxerxesIII.(Ochus)tookfearfulvengeance.Sidondisappearedinflameandtorrentsofblood.Tyreinhorroropenedhergates,andwasspared.InB.C.332
AlexandertheGreatappearedinfrontofthecity.TheTyriansdeclinedtoallowhimtosacrificepersonallytoMelkarthintheirfortress.Thememorablesiegebegan.
Alexanderbuiltamole200ft.wideouttowardstheisland.Itwasrepeatedlydestroyed.Thedefencewasdesperateandsuccessful,tillAlexanderinvestedthecity
withafleetof224ships.Tyrewasstormed,8000ofherinhabitantsmassacred,2000crucifiedontheshore,and30,000soldintoslavery.Tyreceasedtobean
island,andhenceforthwaspermanentlyjoinedtothemainland.Onlyabluntheadlandtodaysuggeststheexistenceoftheformerislandfortress.Themoleisnow
1/ milebroad.
2
Tyrewasagainrepeopled.ShefiguredinthewarsofthePtolemysandSeleucld.InB.C.
314Antigonusbesiegedherfor15months.After70yearssubjectiontoEgyptshewasunderAntiochtillB.C.65,whentheRomansmadeherafreecity.Someof
hercitizenscametohearthepreachingofJesus(Mk3:8).Christvisitedtheneighbourhood(Mk7:2431),andgotafavourablereception(Lk10:13).Tyrefigured
inconnexionwithSt.PaulinApostolictimes(Ac12:20,21:37).WastheChurchinTyrenotafulfilmentofPs87:4?AChristianchurchwasbuiltonthesiteof
theMelkarthtemple.OrigenfoundrefugeinTyre,anddiedthere.Jerome(4thcent.)speaksofitasthemostnobleandbeautifulcityofPhnicia.Capturedbythe
Saracens(A.D.638),itwasrecovered(A.D.1124),andWilliamofTyrecelebratesitsfameundertheCrusaders.HerewasburledFrederickBarbarossa.Saladinwas
repelledin1187,butthespotwasabandonedin1291,andtheMoslemstookpossessionofit.Tyrehassincesunktoamiserablestagnantvillage,wherethewaves
mournfullycrashamidtheruinsofherformermagnificence.
G.A.F RANKKNIGHT.
TZADE.TheeighteenthletteroftheHeb.alphabet,andassuchemployedinthe119thPsalmtodesignatethe18thpart,eachverseofwhichbeginswiththis
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UCAL.SeeITHIEL,2
UEL.OneofthesonsofBaniwhohadmarriedaforeignwife(Ezr10:34)calledin1Es9:34Juel.
UKNAZ.In1Ch4:15AVmgivesUknazinsteadofevenKenaz(AV)orandKenaz(RV).Inallprobabilitysomethinghasdroppedoutofthetext,which
hadreadoriginallythesonsofElah:andKenaz.Thisisfavouredbythepluralsons.
ULAI.AlargeriverofElam,emptyingintothePersianGulf.AccordingtoDn8:2,16andtheAssyrianinscriptions,itflowedpastthecityofShushan(Susa).
ItisthemodernKarn,which,however,doesnotnowflowclosetothesiteofSusa,buttotheeastofit.Cf.also
HYDASPES.
J.F.MCCURDY.
ULAM.1.AManassitefamily(1Ch7:18,17).2.ABenjamitefamily,speciallynotedasarchers(1Ch8:39,40cf.also2Ch14:7(8)).
ULLA.AnAsheritefamily(1Ch7:39).
UMMAH.AnAsheritecity(Jos19:30),probablyaslip,owingtoresemblanceofHeb.
lettersmandk,forAcco(Ptolemais).
UNCHASTITY.SeeMARRIAGE,7.8.
UNCLEAN,UNCLEANNESS.SeeCLEANANDUNCLEAN.
UNCTION.ThesameGr.wordasthattranslatedanointingin1Jn2:27isin2:20renderedunction(RVanointing).Itisusedtheremetaphoricallyofthe
effectofthepresenceoftheHolySpirituponthebeliever.
UNDERGIRDING.SeeHELPSS HIPS,etc.,p.850b.
UNDERSETTER.Only1K7:30,34,inthedifficultdescriptionofSolomonslavers(TEMPLE,6(d)).InolderEnglishitmeantsupporttheHeb.wordis
lit.shoulders,anddenotessomethingofthenatureofastrutorbrace.Seethereff.intheabovementionedarticle.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
UNICORN(rem,Nu23:22etc.rm,Job39:9RVinallpassageswildox).ThisisundoubtedlythermuoftheAssyrians,oftenfiguredontheir
sculptures.AfinebasreliefofthisanimalwasuncoveredrecentlybytheexcavationsofNineveh.ItisprobablyidenticalwiththeaurochsorBosprimigenius,the
urusofJuliusCsar.Itwasofgreatsizeandstrength(Nu23:22,24:8,Ps22:21),verywildandferocious(Job39:912),andspeciallydangerouswhenhunted,
becauseofitspowerfuldoublehorns(Ps92:10,Dt33:17).InconnexionwithIs34:7itisinterestingtonotetheinscriptionofShalmaneserII.,whosays,HislandI
troddownlikearmu.TheArab.rim,thegracefulAntilopeleucoryxofArabia,isaverydifferentanimal.
E.W.G.MASTERMAN.
UNKNOWNGOD.St.Paul,wanderingalongthestreetsofAthens,sawanaltarbearingthededication,ToanUnknownGod(Ac17:23).Heusedthisasthe
textofhissermonbeforetheAreopagus.Thereisevidenceinotherancientwritersinfavouroftheexistenceofsuchadedication,andtheconjecturemaybe
permittedthatthealtarwaserectedasathankofferingforlifepreservedinsomeforeigncountry,thenameoftheproperdivinityofwhichaveryimportantthing
inGreekritualwasunknowntothepersonpreserved.
A.S OUTER.
UNLEAVENEDBREAD.SeeB
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UNLEAVENEDBREAD.SeeBREAD,LEAVEN,P ASSOVER.
UNNI.1.ALeviticalfamily(1Ch15:18).2.SeeUNNO.
UNNO(soKethibh,followedbyRVKerUnni[soAV,cf.1Ch15:18,20]).AfamilyofLevitesthatreturnedwithZerub.(Neh12:8(9)).
UNTOWARD.Untowardisnottoward,i.e.notwelldisposed.ItoccursinAc2:40
thisuntowardgeneration.Cf.untowardtoallgoodforwardtoevilJudgementoftheSynodeatDort,p.32.Thesubst.untowardnessoccursintheheading
ofIs28,Hos6.Thewordisstilloccasionallyused,butinthemoremodernsenseofunfortunateasanuntowardaccident.
UNWRITTENSAYINGS.ThenameAgraphaorUnwrittenSayings,isappliedto
sayingsascribedtoJesuswhicharenotfoundinthetruetextofthecanonicalGospels.ThatsomegenuinesayingsoftheLordnotrecordedbytheEvangelists
shouldlingerintheoraltraditionoftheearlyChurchisonlywhatweshouldexpect,butoftheextantAgraphaitisonlyasmallnumberthatmeetthetestsoftextual
criticism,orsatisfytherequirementsofmoralprobability.ItissignificantofthevalueofthecanonicalGospelsashistoricalrecordsthatoutsideofthemthereareso
fewsayingsofJesusthatcouldpossiblybeacceptedasconveyingaveritabletraditionofHisactualwords.TheUnwrittenSayingsmaybeclassifiedasfollows:
1.ThoseintheNT.Twovarietiesmeetushere.(a)ThosewhicharefoundinsomeMSSoftheGospels,butwhoseauthenticitytextualcriticismrenders
doubtful.AmongthemostimportantoftheseareMt6:13,17:21,Mk9:49b,Lk9:55f.,23:34,whichallfindaplaceinTRandarereproducedinAV,whileRV
removesallofthemexceptthelasttothemargin.TothislistmustbeaddedthesayingsofJesusinMk16:1518andJn8:7,11,theconclusionofMk.(16:920)
andthePericopeAdulterinJn.(7:538:11)beingregardedbycriticalscholarsasadditionstotheoriginaltexts,whichmayatthesametimeembodyauthentic
traditions.BetweenLk6:4and5Cod.Dgivesthestrikingsaying:
OnthesamedayhesawoneworkingontheSabbath,andsaidtohim,Man,ifthouknowestwhatthoudoest,blessedartthoubutifthouknowestnot,thouartaccursedanda
transgressorofthelaw.
(b)ThoseoutsideoftheGospels.ThemostnotableisAc20:35,buttothismaybeaddedAc1:5(cf.11:16)andthelastpartof1Co11:25(Thisdo,asoftas
yedrinkit,inremembranceofme).Intheopinionofsomecommentators,Ja1:12thecrownoflifewhichtheLordpromisedtothemthatlovehim,isasemi
quotationofsomesayingofChrists.
2.InApocryphalGospels.Seethesefullygiveninart.GOSPELS[APOCRYPHAL],III.1.2.
3.IntheFathersandotherearlyChurchwriters(cf.p.443).Onlyafewexamplesofthesecanbesetdown:
Clem.Alex.,Strom.vi.5:WhereforePetersaysthattheLordsaidtotheapostles,ifthenanyoneofIsraelwishestorepentandbelieveonGodthroughmyname,hissinsshall
beforgivenhim.Aftertwelveyearsgoforthintotheworld,lestanyonesay,Wedidnothear.
Origen,inJer.xx.3:ButtheSaviourhimselfsaith,Hewhoisnearmeisnearthefirehewhoisfarfrommeisfarfromthekingdom.
Origen,inJoh.xix.,speaksofthecommandmentofJesuswhichsaith,Proveyourselvestrustworthymoneychangers.
Tertullian,deBapt.xx.,commentingonthewordsWatchandpray,addressedtoSt.Peterin
Gethsemane,adds:Forthesayinghadalsopreceded,thatnooneuntemptedshouldattaintotheheavenlykingdoms.
4.InMohammedanwriters.AlargenumberofAgrapha,collectedbyProfessorD.S.MargollouthfromelGhazzalisRevivaloftheReligiousSciencesand
othersources,werepublishedbyhiminaseriesofpapersinExpTv.[189394](cf.HastingsDB,Ext.Vol.350,DCGii.882).Thoughinterestingandsometimes
striking,thesehavenoclaimtorepresentoriginaltraditions,butarefrequentlytraceabletoGospelscanonicalorapocryphal.Thefollowingareamongthebest
specimens:
Jesusonedaywalkedwithhisapostles,andtheypassedbythecarcaseofadog.Theapostlessaid,
Howfoulisthesmellofthisdog!ButJesussaid,Howwhiteareitsteeth!
Jesussaid,Takenottheworldforyourlord,lestittakeyouforitsslaves.
Jesussaid,Whosoknowsanddoesandteaches,shallbecalledgreatinthekingdomofheaven.
5. IntheOxyrhynchuspapyri.SpecialinterestattachestotheSayingsofJesusunearthedatOxyryhnchusbyMessrs.GrenfellandHunt,allthemoreas
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5.IntheOxyrhynchuspapyri.SpecialinterestattachestotheSayingsofJesusunearthedatOxyryhnchusbyMessrs.GrenfellandHunt,allthemoreas
theyopenaprospectoffurtherdiscoveriesofalikekind.Thefirstseriesofthese,publishedin1897,containedsomesayingsthathaveGospelparallels,butthe
followingstrikeanoteoftheirown:
Jesussaith,Exceptyefasttotheworld,yeshallinnowisefindthekingdomofGodandexceptyemakethesabbatharealsabbath,yeshallnotseetheFather.
Jesussaith,Istoodinthemidstoftheworld,andinthefleshwasIseenofthem,andIfoundallmendrunken,andnonefoundIathirstamongthem,andmysoulgrievethover
thesonsofmen,becausetheyareblindintheirheartandseenot.
Jesussaith,Wherevertherearetwo,theyarenotwithoutGodandwhereverthereisonealone,Isay,
Iamwithhim.RaisethestoneandtherethoushaltfindmecleavethewoodandthereamI.
MorerecentlythesamescholarsdiscoveredanotherpapyruswithadditionalSayingsofJesus.Inthiscase,unfortunately,theleafwasinamutilatedcondition,
andbothreconstructionandinterpretationaredifficult.AgoodaccountofthissecondseriesofSayingswiththeGr.textasrestoredbyGrenfellandHunt
themselves,willbefoundinanarticlebyProfessorSweteinExpTxv.[190304]p.488,withwhichcf.hisart.onthe1897OxyrhynchusfragmentinExpTviii.
[189697]p.544.HereagainsomeoftheSayingshaveGospelparallels,whileothersbearamoreoriginalcharacter.Fromthetwomostimportantthefollowing
extracts(basedonatextthatispartlyconjectural)maybegiven:
JesussaithIfyeshalltrulyknowyourselves,yearethesonsanddaughtersoftheFather
Almighty,andyeshallknowyourselvestobeinthecityofGod,andyearethecity.
JesussaithDonothingsavethethingsthatbelongtothetruth,forifyedothese,yeshallknowahiddenmystery.
OfthevalueoftheOxyrhynchusSayingsverydifferentestimateshavebeenformed.Butitisprettygenerallyagreedthat,intheirpresentshapeatallevents,
theywerenotutteredbyJesus,anddonotbelongtothefirstChristianage.
J.C.LAMBERT.
UPHARSIN.SeeMENEMENETEKELUPHARSIN.
UPHAZ.AsupposedcountryorregionmentionedinJer10:9,Dn10:5,asasourceofgold.ProbablythewordismiswrittenforOphir(wh.see).
J.F.MCCURDY.
UPPERROOM.SeeHOUSE,5.
UR.FatherofoneofDavidsheroes(1Ch11:35).
UROFTHECHALDEES,whenceAbrahamsetoutuponhisjourneytoCanaan(Gn
11:2831,15:7,Neh9:7),isusuallyidentifiedwiththewellknowncityofUruinsouthernBabylonia,thesiteofwhichismarkedbythemoundsofMuqayyar.This
citywasinexistenceintheearliestperiodofBabylonianhistory,andwastheseatofadynastyofearlykingsbeforethefoundationoftheBab.monarchyitwas
alwaysthecentreoftheworshipofthemoongodinSouthernBabylonia.
Theidentificationhasnotbeenuniversallyaccepted,sincefromthenarrativeinGn11itwouldappearthatHarranwaspassedonthejourneyfromUroftheChaldeestoCanaan
hence,too,thetraditionalidentificationoftheplacewithUrfa,theGr.Edessa.Thedifficultymayperhapsbeexplainedbythesuppositionthatthenarrativeincorporatesvariant
traditionswithregardtoAbrahamsoriginthefactthatUruandHarranwerebothofthemcentresofmoonworshipispossiblysignificant.
L.W.KING.
URBANUS.AChristiangreetedbySt.PaulinRo16:8.Thenameiscommonamongslaves,andisfoundininscriptionsoftheImperialhousehold.
URI.1.ThefatherofBezalel(Ex31:2,35:3038:22,1Ch2:20,2Ch1:5).2.FatherofGeber(1K4:19).3.Aporter(Ezr10:24).
URIAH,orURIJAH(inAV1belowappearsasUriah[Mt1:6Urias],2asUriahinIs8:2andUrijahin2K16:1016,and4asUriahinEzr8:33andUrijahin 3/7
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URIAH,orURIJAH(inAV1belowappearsasUriah[Mt1:6Urias],2asUriahinIs8:2andUrijahin2K16:1016,and4asUriahinEzr8:33andUrijahin
Neh3:4,21whileUrijahonlyisfoundinthecaseof3and5.InRVUrijahisfoundonlyin2K16:1016,Uriahelsewhere).1.OneofDavids30heroes,the
husbandofBathsheba.HewasaHittite,but,asthenameindicates,doubtlessaworshipperofJahweh(2S11,12:9,10,15,1k15:6,Mt1:6).AfterDavids
ineffectualattempttousehimasashieldforhisownsin,hewaskilledinbattleinaccordancewiththeinstructionsofDavidtoJoab.2.Highpriestinthereignof
AhazcalledafaithfulwitnessinIs8:2,butsubservienttotheinnovationsofAhazin2K16:1016.Theomissionofthenamein1Ch6:415maybedueto
textualcorruption,sinceitappearsinJos.Ant.X.viii.6,whichisbasedonChronicles.3.Aprophet,sonofShemaiahofKiriathjearim.
HisdenunciationsagainstJudahandJerusaleminthestyleofJeremiaharousedthewrathofkingJehoiakim.UriahfledtoEgypt,wasseizedandslainbyorderof
Jehoiakim,andwasburiedinthecommongraveyard(Jer26:2023).4.Apriest(Neh3:4,21),son(representative)ofHakkoz,doubtlessoneofthecoursesofthe
priests(1Ch24:10).Hewasfather(orancestor)of
Meremoth,aneminentpriest(Ezr8:33[1Es8:62Urias]).5.AmanwhostoodontherighthandofEzrawhenhereadtheLaw(Neh8:4[1Es9:43Urias]).
GEORGER.BERRY.
URIAS.1.1Es8:52=Ezr8:33Uriahperhapsidenticalwith2.1Es9:43=Neh8:4Uriah.
URIEL(flameofGodormylightisGod).1.Mentionedingenealogies:(a)1Ch6:24,15:5,11.(b)2Ch13:2.2.Theangelwhorebukesthepresumption
ofEsdrasinquestioningthewaysofGod(2Es4:1,5:20ff.,10:28),andconverseswithhimatlength.In4:36RVreadsJeremiel.InEnoch9.1Uriel,orUrjan,is
oneofthefourarchangels,butin40.9and71hisplaceistakenbyPhanuel.In19.1,20.2heisoneofthewatchers,theangelovertheworldandTartarusandin
21,27heexplainsthefateofthefallenangels(cf.Sib.Orac.,wherehebringsthemtojudgment).In72ff.Uriel,whomtheeternalLordofglorysetsoverallthe
luminariesofheaven,showsEnochthecelestialphenomenaIn33.3,4hewritesthemdown.InthelostPrayerofJosephheistheangelwithwhomJacob
wrestled,theeighthinrankfromGod,Jacobbeingthefirst.
C.W.EMMET.
URIMANDTHUMMIM.ThesedenotethetwoessentialpartsofthesacredoraclebywhichinearlytimestheHebrewssoughttoascertainthewillofGod.
OurOTRevisersgiveastheirmeaningtheLightsandthePerfections(Ex28:36RVm).Thisrenderingorrather,takingthewordsasabstractplurals,Lightand
PerfectionseemstoreflecttheviewsofthelateJewishscholarstowhomweowethepresentvocalizationoftheOTtextbuttheoldestreferencetothesacredlot
suggeststhatthewordsexpresstwosharplycontrastedideas.HenceifThummim,asmostbelieve,denotesinnocence,Urimshoulddenoteguiltasensewhich
somewouldgiveitbyconnectingitwiththeverbmeaningtocurse.Wincklerandhisfollowers,ontheotherhand,startfromlightasthemeaningofUrim,and
interpretThummimasdarkness(thecompletionofthesunscourse).UrimandThummimarelifeanddeath,yesandno,lightanddarkness(A.Jeremias,DasAT
imLichted.alt.Orient8:2,450cf.Benzinger,Heb.Arch.2459f.).Thereisthusawidedivergenceamongscholarsastotheoriginalsignificationofthewords.
Astotheprecisenatureofthesemysteriousobjectstherealsoexistsaconsiderable,thoughlessmarked,divergenceofopinion,notwithstandingthenumerous
recentinvestigationsbyBritish,American,andContinentalscholars,ofwhichthetwolatestarethosebyKautzschin
HaucksPRE3xx.328336[1907],withliteraturetodate,andMNeile,TheBookofExodus[1908],181184.Themostinstructive,asitishistoricallytheoldest,
passagedealingwithUrimandThummimis1S14:41f.,aspreservedinthefullerGreektext.Thelatterrunsthus:AndSaulsaid,OJGodofIsrael,whyhastthou
notansweredthyservantthisday?IftheiniquitybeinmeorinmysonJonathan,JGodofIsrael,giveUrimbutifthousayestthus.TheIniquityisinthypeople
Israel,giveThummim.AndSaulandJonathanweretaken,butthepeopleescaped,etc.Now,ifthispassagebecomparedwithseveralothersintheoldernarratives
ofSamuel,e.g.1S23:24,30:7,8,2S2:1,wherementionismadeofenquiringoftheLORDbymeansofthesacredlotassociatedwiththeephod,thefollowing
pointsemerge:(1)Thereisgoodreason,asmostscholarsadmit,forbelievingthattheUrimandThummimweretwolotscloselyconnectedinsomeway,nolonger
intelligible,withtheequallymysteriousephod.(2)Asthelotswereonlytwoinnumber,onlyonequestioncouldbeputatatime,capableofbeingansweredbya
simpleyesorno,accordingtothelotwhichcameout.(3)When,aswasthecasein1S14,thesituationwasmorecomplicated,itwasnecessarytoagree
beforehandastothesignificancetobeattachedtothetwolots.
Astothematerial,shape,etc.,ofthetwolotsandtheprecisemethodoftheirmanipulation,wearelefttoconjecture.Itseems,onthewhole,themostprobable
viewthattheyweretwosmallstones,eitherintheshapeofdiceorintabletform,perhapsalsoofdifferentcolours.Others,includingKautzsch(op.cit.),favourthe
viewthattheywerearrows,ontheanalogyofawellknownBabylonianandArabianmethodofdivination(cf.Ezk21:21).Inadditiontothetwoalternativesabove
considered,itmaybeinferredfrom1S28:6thatneitherlotmightbecast.Weretheycontainedwithinthehollowephodimage,whichwasprovidedwithanarrow
aperture,sothatitwaspossibletoshaketheimageandyetneitherlotcomeout?(Thelotistechnicallysaidtofallorcomeout,thelatterJos16:1RV,19:1,etc.)
Theearlynarrativesabovecitedshowthatthemanipulationofthesacredlotwasaspecialprerogativeofthepriests,asisexpresslystatedinDt33:8(cf.LXX),
wheretheDivineUrimandThummimareassignedtothepriestlytribeofLevi,andconfirmedbyEzr2:63=Neh7:65.
InthePriestsCodetheUrimandThummimareintroducedinEx28:30,Lv8:8,Nu27:21,butwithouttheslightestclueastotheirnaturebeyondtheinference 4/7
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wheretheDivineUrimandThummimareassignedtothepriestlytribeofLevi,andconfirmedbyEzr2:63=Neh7:65.
InthePriestsCodetheUrimandThummimareintroducedinEx28:30,Lv8:8,Nu27:21,butwithouttheslightestclueastotheirnaturebeyondtheinference
astotheirsmallsize,tobedrawnfromthefactthattheyweretobeinsertedinthehighpriestsbreastplateofjudgment(seeB REASTPLATE).Butthisismerelyan
attemptonthepartofthePriestlywritertodivesttheseoldworldmysteriesoftheirassociationwithideasofdivinationnowoutgrown,and,moreover,forbidden
bytheLaw.Itis,besides,doubtfulifPwasacquainted,anymorethanourselves,withtheUrimandThummimoftheBooksofSamuel,forthepassageabovecited
fromEzr.Neh.showsthattheywereunknowninthepostexilicperiod.Inspeciallyplacingthemwithinthebreastplateofjudgment,itisnotimpossiblethatPwas
influencedbytheanalogyoftheBabyloniantabletsofdestinywornbyMardukonhisbreast,butthefurtherpositionthattheseandtheUrimandThummimwere
originallyoneandthesame(MussArnoit,UrimandThummim,213andpassim),ashasbeenrecentlymaintained,hasyettobeproved.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
USURY,INTEREST,INCREASE.AtthedateofourAVusuryhadnotacquireditsmodernconnotationofexorbitantinteresthenceitshouldbereplaced
inOTbyinterest,asinAmer.RV,andastheEnglishRevisershavedoneinNT(seebelow).TheOTlawcodesforbidthetakingofinterestonloansbyone
Hebrewfromanother,seeEx22:25(BookoftheCovenant),Dt23:19f.,Lv25:3538(LawofHoliness).OfthetwotermsconstantlyassociatedandinEVrendered
usury(neshek)andincrease(tarbth),theformer,tojudgefromLv25:37,denotesinterestonloansofmoney,thelatterinterestonotheradvances,suchasfood
stuffs,seedcorn,andthelike,whichwaspaidinkind.InDt23:20neshekisappliedtobothkindsofloan.ForthedistinctioninNTtimes,seeMishna,Babamezia,
v.1.Cf.alsoStracksart.WucherinPRE3xxi.AlargepartoftheBabylonianloansystem,whichwasfullydevelopedbeforeB.C.2000,consistedofsuchloans
(Johns,Bab.andAssyr.Laws,ch.xxiii.LoansandDeposits).
ToappreciatethemotivesoftheHebrewlegislators,itmustberememberedthat,untilalateperiodintheirhistory,theHebrewswerealmostentirelydevotedto
agriculturalandpastoralpursuits.Theloansherecontemplatedarethereforenotadvancesrequiredfortradingcapital,butforthereliefofapoorbrother
temporarilyindistress,whowouldotherwisebecompelledtosellhimselfasaslave(Lv25:47ff.).Wehavetodowithanactofcharity,notwithacommercial
transaction.InsimilarcircumstancesloanswithoutinterestweremadefromtheBabyloniantemplefundsandbyprivateindividuals,asisstilldonebytheArabsto
day(Doughty,ArabiaDeserta,i.318).
InNTtimesconditionshadgreatlychanged,andcapitalwasrequiredformanytradingconcerns.OurLordtwiceintroduceswithapprobationtheinvestmentof
moneywiththebankers,soastoyieldaproperinterest(Mt25:27,Lk19:23bothRV).Therateofinterestintheancientworldwasveryhigh.InBabyloniaone
shekelperminapermonth,whichis20percent,perannum,wasausualrateforadvancesofgrain,for400or300kathereturnwas100ka,
i.e.25to33percent,perannum(Meissner,Ausd.altbab.Recht,15).Forshortloansfor15daysortherebytheratemightriseashighas300percent.perannuml
(Johns,op.cit.).InEgypt30percent.wasnotunusual.EveninGreece12percent.wasconsideredalowrateofinterest.Therecentlydiscoveredpapyrifrom
ElephantineinEgyptshowmembersoftheJewishcolonytherealreadyengaged(c.B.C.430)inthecharacteristicallyJewishbusinessofmoneylending.Seealso
DEBT.
A.R.S.KENNEDY.
UTA(1Es5:30).HissonsreturnedamongtheTempleservantsunderZerub.(Ezr.andNeh.omit).
UTHAI.1.AfamilyofJudahaftertheCaptivity(1Ch9:4)=Neh11:4Athaiah.2.OneofthesonsofBigvai(Ezr8:14)=1Es8:40Uthi.
UTHI(1Es8:40)=Ezr8:14Uthai.
UZ.1.AsonofAram,grandsonofShem(Gn10:23and1Ch1:17[inemendedtext]).2.AsonofNahor(Gn22:21,AVHuz),whosedescendantsareplaced
inAramnaharaim(Gn24:10).3.OneoftheHoritesinthelandofEdom(Gn36:28[v.21andv.30],1Ch1:42).4.Aregionwhichiscalledthedwellingplaceof
thedaughterofEdom(La4:21).5.Adistrictcontaininganumberofkings,situatedbetweenPhilistiaandEgypt,or,withadifferentpointingoftheconsonantsof
oneword,betweenPhilistiaandthecountryoftheBedouin(Jer25:20:thenamenotinLXX).6.Jobscountry(Job1:1).Asthefirstthreeareprobablytribal
designations,allmayberegardedasgeographicalterms.Itisnotcertainthattheyallrefertothesameregion.Nos.1and2seemtopointtoMesopotamia.Nos.3
and4,andperhaps5,indicateEdomoritsneighbourhood.ThelocalityofNo.6isobscure.Ancienttraditionisthreefold.InLXXofJob42:19Uzisaffirmed,on
theauthorityoftheSyriacbook,tolieonthebordersofldumaandArabia.Inv.23itislocatedonthebordersoftheEuphrates.Josephus(Ant.I.vi.4)
associatestheUzofNo.1withDamascusandTrachonitis.TheevidenceoftheBookofJobitselfaboutitsheroshomeseemstofavourtheneighbourhoodof
EdomorN.Arabia.Teman(2:11)wasanEdomitedistrictcontainingthecityofBozrah(Am1:12),andEliphazwasanEdomitename(Gn36:4).TheSabans(
Job1:15,6:19)wereaS.Arabianpeoplewhohadsettlementsinthenorth.Tema(6:19)layinN.Arabia,about250milesS.E.ofEdom.ThedescriptionofJob,
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Job1:15,6:19)wereaS.Arabianpeoplewhohadsettlementsinthenorth.Tema(6:19)layinN.Arabia,about250milesS.E.ofEdom.ThedescriptionofJob,
however,asoneofthechildrenoftheEast(1:3)ismostnaturallyunderstoodtorefertotheeastof
Palestine.ThecuneiforminscriptionshaveanameUzzai,whichhasbeenidentifiedwithUz,buttheidentificationisextremelyuncertain.
Moderntradition,whichcanbetracedbacktoearlyChristiantimes,locatesJobintheHauran,wheretheGermanexplorerJ.G.Wetzsteinfoundamonasteryof
Job,atombandfountainandstoneofJob,andsmallroundstonescalledwormsofJob.AnotherGermanexplorer,Glaser,findsUzinW.Arabia,ataconsiderable
distancetotheN.W.ofMedina.Decisionatpresentisunattainable,bothonthegeneralquestionofthesignificationofUzinOTandonthespecialquestionofits
meaningintheBookofJob.AllthatcanbesaidisthatthenamepointstotheE.andS.E.ofPalestine,andthattheBookofJobappearstorepresentitsheroas
livingintheneighbourhoodoftheArabianorSyroArabiandesert.
W.TAYLORS MITH.
UZAI.FatherofPalal(Neh3:25).
UZAL.1.AsonofJoktan(Gn10:27,1Ch1:21).2.AplacenamedinEzk27:19(RVmfromUzal,AVmMeuzal)adifficultpassage,thetextbeingin
disorder.Davidson(Ezekiel,inloc.)suggeststhat,althoughthemostseriousobjectionsoccurtotherendering,itmightread,VedanandJavanofUzalfurnished
theirwares,etc.UzalisthoughttobetheancientnameofSana,thecapitalofelYemen.ThenameSanamayhavebeengivenbytheAbyssinians,inwhose
tongueitmeansfortress.ThemodernJewishinhabitants,whooccupyaseparatequarter,arereportedtohavecomefromIndia.Butalthoughnoneofthepre
IslamicJewishstockremains,theywereinfluentialinthecenturybeforeMohammed(Harris,elYemen,313).ProbablythenameAzalorIzal,bywhichthetown
wasthenknown,mayhavebeenduetotheirrevivaloftheancientname(Glaser,Skizze,ii.427).InArabicazalmeanseternity.ThismayaccountfortheArabs
beliefthatitistheworldsoldestcity(MargoliouthinHastingsDB,
s.v.).IronisfoundinseveraldistrictsofCentralArabia(Doughty,ArabiaDeserta).ThesteelmadeinSanaisstillhighlyesteemed,especiallytheswordand
daggerblades(Harris,op.cit.
310ff.).
Standingonthefloorofaspaciousvalley,7250feetabovethelevelofthesea,SanaisdominatedbyafortressonJebelNujm,whichrisesabruptlytotheeast.
Theheightrenderstheclimatedelightful.Thegardensandorchardsareluxuriousandfruitful.Ariverbedliesthroughthecity,andintherainyseasonisfullof
water.Inthedrymonthswaterissuppliedbydeepwells.ThesplendidpalaceofGhumdan,andtheadjoiningtemplededicatedtoZahrah,theArabianVenus,were
destroyedbyOthman,thethirdCaliph.Thesamefatebefellthefamous
ChristianchurchbuiltbyAbrahaelAshran,viceroyofelYemenundertheAbyssinianking
Aryat,forthebuildingofwhichtheEmperorofRomeissaidtohavesentmarbleandworkmen(Harris,op.cit.291322).AccordingtoIbnKhaldun,Sanawasthe
seatoftheHimyaritekingsforcenturiesbeforeIslam.
W.EWING.
UZZA.1.ABenjamitefamily(1Ch8:7).2.AfamilyofNethinim(Ezr2:48=Neh7:51[1
Es5:31Ozias]).3.ThedriverofthecartonwhichthearkwasremovedfromKiriathjearim(2S6:3,6,7,8[invv.68thenameisUzzah]=1Ch13:7,9,10,11)
.Uzzassuddendeathataplacecalled,incommemorationofthisuntowardincident,Perezuzzah(breachofUzzah),ledtothetemporaryabandonmentof
DavidsprojectoftransportingthearktoJerusalem.UzzasdeathwasattributedbythepopularmindtoangeronthepartofJahwehathishavingpresumedto
handlethesacredemhlemtoofamiliarly.4.AgardenofUzza(2K21:18,26)wasattachedtothepalaceofManasseh.
UZZAH.1.AMeraritefamily(1Ch6:29(14)).2.SeeUZZA,3.
UZZENSHEERAH.SeeS HEERAH.
UZZI.1.AdescendantofAaron(1Ch6:5,9,51,Ezr7:4[1Es8:2Savias]).2.AfamilyofIssachar(1Ch7:2,9).3.ABenjamitefamily(1Ch7:7,9:8).4.A
Levite(Neh11:22).5.Apriestlyfamily(Neh12:19,42).
UZZIA.OneofDavidsheroes(1Ch11:44).
UZZIAH.1.AkingofJudah.Seenextarticle.2.AKohathiteLevite(1Ch6:24).3.ThefatherofanofficerofDavid(1Ch27:25).4.Apriest(Ezr10:21[1
6/29/2017 U
UZZIAH.1.AkingofJudah.Seenextarticle.2.AKohathiteLevite(1Ch6:24).3.ThefatherofanofficerofDavid(1Ch27:25).4.Apriest(Ezr10:21[1
Es9:21Azarias]).5.AJudahite(Neh11:4).
UZZIAH,alsocalledAZARIAH,waskingofJudahafterhisfatherAmaziah.HisnamewasAzariahoriginally,whetherabbreviatedinpopularusageor
corruptedinthewrittenformcannolongerbemadeoutwithcertainty.Hisreignissaidtohavebeenfiftytwoyearsinlength.Religiouslyheisclassedamongthe
goodkings(2K15:1ff.).TheonlyeventrecordedofthiskingbytheBookofKingsistherestorationofElath,thetownattheheadoftheGulfofAkabah.Ashis
fatherAmaziahhadconqueredEdom,weconcludethatthisnationhadrevoltedattheaccessionofUzziah.TherebuildingofElath(14:22)pointstosomeattempt
atcommerce,butofthisoursourcessaynothing.WeshouldbegladtoknowwhetherthesubjectionofJudahtoIsraeleffectedbyJehoashcontinuedinthisreign
buthereagainwearelefttoconjecture.TheChronicler(2Ch26)knows,indeed,ofsuccessesagainstthePhilistines,Arabs,andAmmonites,aswellasofextensive
buildingoperations,butthetraditionsdrawnuponbythisauthorarenotalwaysreliable.
TheadditionalfactrelatedbytheBookofKingsisthatthekingwasaleper.Onaccountofthisdiseasehewithdrewfrompublicbusiness,andhissonJotham
actedashisrepresentative(2K15:5).Thisregency,asitmaybecalled,mayaccountforsomeofthechronologicaldifficultiesoftheperiod.Uzziahseemsnotto
havebeencompelledtoleavehispalace.TheChroniclerhasthestoryofaconflictbetweenUzziahandthepriesthood,accordingtowhichthemonarchattempted
tousurpthefunctionofthechiefpriestandofferincense.Forthistheplaguewassentuponhim,afterwhichhewasthrustoutasunclean.
UzziahhasbeensupposedtobementionedintheAssyrianinscriptionsinconnexionwithacampaignofTiglathpileserintheLebanonregion.Butitisnow
generallyconcededthattheinscriptioninquestionhasreferencetosomeprinceofNorthernSyria.
H.P.S MITH.
UZZIEL(mystrengthisEl).1.AsonofKohath(Ex6:18,22,Lv10:4,Nu3:19,30,1
Ch6:2,18,15:10,23:12,20,24:24)gentilicUzzielites(Nu3:27,1Ch26:23).2.ASimeonite(1
Ch4:42).3.FounderofaBenjamitefamily(1Ch7:7).4.Amusician,ofthesonsofHeman(1Ch25:4[v.18Azarel]).5.ALevite,ofthesonsofJeduthun(2Ch
29:14).6.Agoldsmithwhoaidedinrepairingthewall(Neh3:8).
GEORGER.BERRY.

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ONYX.SeeJEWELSANDP RECIOUSS TONES,ONYCHA.

ii.S KETCHOFS T.P AULSLIFE

http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/p.htm W.E . 37/144

(a) InCol2:9St.PauldeclaresthatinChristdweilethallthefulnessoftheGodheadbodily.TheassertionnegativestheAlexandrianphilosophywithits 86/144

http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/r.htm J.G.T . 1/40

RUBY.SeeJEWELSANDP RECIOUSS TONES.

(14) ThelastentryinthisvocabularyofOTsacrificeisreservedfortheobscuretermazkrh,memorialoffering,appliedespeciallytothehandfulof 6/116

SAPPHIRE.SeeJEWELSANDP RECIOUSS TONES.

SCALINGLADDER.SeeF ORTIFICATIONANDS IEGECRAFT,6.

http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/s.htm SEDEKIAS.1.AnancestorofBaruch(Bar1:1).2.1Es1:46,Bar1:8=Zedekiah(wh. 39/116

http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/s.htm G A.B . 67/116

SHULAMMITE.SeeS HUNEM,S ONGOFS ONGS.

STRONGHOLD.SeeCITY,F ORTIFICATIONANDS IEGECRAFT.

http://www.areopage.net/PDF/HBD/s.htm S.R.D .109/116

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