BJD

R E V I E W A RT I C L E British Journal of Dermatology

A microbial aetiology of acne: what is the evidence?

B. Shaheen and M. Gonzalez
Department of Dermatology, Cardiff University School of Medicine, Cardiff CF14 4XN, U.K.

Summary

Correspondence A microbial aetiology of acne has been suggested since the beginning of the last
Babar Shaheen. century. There is considerable evidence, circumstantial at best, which suggests
E-mail: babar524@hotmail.com that micro-organisms, particularly Propionibacterium acnes, are important in the path-
ogenesis of acne vulgaris. However, it is still unclear whether P. acnes is actually a
Accepted for publication
5 April 2011 causal agent in the development of noninflamed or inflamed acne lesions. Based
on a review of the microbiological data on normal and acne-affected skin, we
Funding sources propose that P. acnes neither initiates comedogenesis nor has a role in the initia-
None. tion of inflammation in inflamed acne lesions.

Conicts of interest
None declared.

DOI 10.1111/j.1365-2133.2011.10375.x

Propionibacterium acnes has been implicated in the pathogenesis

of acne since the beginning of the last century. It was not
until 1950 that P. acnes came to be regarded as a normal and
ubiquitous member of the resident cutaneous microflora and
its reputation as a pathogen subsequently declined.1 Interest
in the microbial aetiology of acne again developed after the
observation that the P. acnes population increased greatly at
puberty.2 This was observed to coincide with the onset of
acne, and treatment with antibiotics was found to be benefi-
cial in the majority of patients. The presence of significantly
higher levels of antibodies to P. acnes in patients with cystic
and pustular acne compared with mild comedopapular acne
and persons with healthy skin further strengthened the belief
that P. acnes is important in the aetiopathogenesis of acne.3
This also led to the hypothesis that hypersensitivity to P. acnes
may account for the variation in acne severity. The evidence
supporting a role for P. acnes in acne was further strengthened
by the fact that P. acnes produces lipases which release free
fatty acids (FFA) from sebaceous gland triglycerides.4 These
FFA have been found to be comedogenic in the rabbit ear
model.5
Thus, there is considerable evidence, although largely cir-
cumstantial, which suggests that micro-organisms, particularly
P. acnes, are important in the pathogenesis of acne vulgaris.
Despite compelling data it is still unclear whether P. acnes is
actually a causal agent in the development of various acne le-
sions (noninflamed and inflamed), as it is a normal skin com-
mensal and has been found to be present in nearly 100% of
adults.6 The purpose of this article is to review the microbio-
logical data on normal and acne-affected skin, with a view to
revisiting the unresolved controversy of the role of P. acnes in
the initiation of various acne lesions.
Methods
Ovid Medline, PubMed and Embase databases were searched
between October 2009 and July 2010. The publication dates
spanned the period 19502010. The search terms were acne,
Propionibacterium acnes, microbiology, Corynebacterium acnes, acne
vulgaris and pathogenesis, which were then combined. Studies
looking at the propionibacterial colonization of normal pilose-
baceous follicles (PSFs), comedones, papules and pustules cul-
tured individually were considered. Studies looking at only
the aerobic flora were excluded for the purpose of this review.
References from various papers were also scanned to identify
appropriate studies. Table 1 summarizes the salient features of
all the studies that were considered suitable for the purpose of
this review.
Microbial colonization of normal skin
Various micro-organisms normally reside on human skin.
Among the propionibacteria, P. acnes is found to be present in
nearly 100% of adults.6 Although the organism is isolated
from the skin surface, its normal habitat is the PSF. Propionibac-
terium acnes shares this habitat with the yeast Malassezia (formerly
known as Pityrosporum)7 along with the Gram-positive, coagu-
lase-negative cocci, namely staphylococci and micrococci.8
Skin surface microora
Various techniques have been used over the years to study the
cutaneous microflora. The surface scrub technique of William-
son and Kligman,9 which has been extensively used, gives
useful information about the surface flora but yields little or

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474 BJD  2011 British Association of Dermatologists 2011 165, pp474485
 Table 1 Studies on the microbial ecology of normal pilosebaceous follicles (PSFs), comedones and inflamed acne lesions

Abstinence
from Microbiology
Reference antibiotics Culture medium (percentage of
(first author Age range Type of Number of presampling incubation period for lesions

 2011 The Authors

and year) (years) lesions sampled lesions sampled (weeks) Sampling technique P. acnes colonized sterile) Conclusion
Normal PSFs
Leeming 1437 Normal PSFs 140 6 Punch biopsy with Reinforced clostridial Propionibacteria A proportion of normal PSFs
(1984)16 from the back microdissection of medium 12 is colonized by three major
of patients with PSFs from supplemented with Staphylococci 4 genera of micro-organisms,
acne unprepared skin 02% Pityrosporum spp. i.e. Propionibacterium, Staphylococcus
Tween-80 6 days 13 and Pityrosporum. Follicular
Sterile 34 microenvironment may be
responsible for the colonization
of these normal follicles
Till Female 2651 Normal PSFs 48 6 Punch biopsy with Brain-heart infusion Propionibacteria Only a proportion of normal
(2000)18 (19)a from the back microdissection of agar with 17 PSFs is colonized by
Male 2550 of patients with PSFs furazolidone 7 days Staphylococci 10 propionibacteria, therefore,
(17)a acne Malassezia 0 validating the results of
Female 2654 Sterile 90 Leeming et al.16

BJD  2011 British Association of Dermatologists 2011 165, pp474485

(12)a

Comedones
Shehadeh Adolescent Comedones 71 (45 open; NM Extraction of lesion Brain-heart infusion C. acnes 96 Acne flora is a stable biad
(1963)19 boys and 26 closed) content by sharp blood agar fortified C. acnes and S. albus consisting of C. acnes and S. albus.
girls acne stylet or by 1% 92 These organisms are extension
pointed scalpel glucose 5 days S. albus 96 of those colonizing normal PSFs
after wiping under 90% N2 and Sterile 0
surface with 70% 10% CO2
isopropyl alcohol.
A sopping sponge
left on skin for
3 min
Ganor NM Open 101 (51 acne NM Comedo extraction Glucose blood Acne comedones: Comedonal microflora is
(1969)20 comedones comedones; by acne stylet after agar 7 days Corynebacteria 65 probably of a secondary nature
senile 50 senile wiping surface Staphylococci 51
comedones comedones) with 70% alcohol Yeasts 67
and an Senile comedones:
alcohol-soaked Corynebacteria 36
gauze left on skin Staphylococci 50
for 3 min Yeasts 60
A microbial aetiology of acne?, B. Shaheen and M. Gonzalez 475
 Table 1 Continued

Abstinence
from Microbiology
Reference antibiotics Culture medium (percentage of
(first author Age range Type of Number of presampling incubation period for lesions
and year) (years) lesions sampled lesions sampled (weeks) Sampling technique P. acnes colonized sterile) Conclusion
Marples 1423 Comedones 150 (75 open; 3 Comedo extraction Marshall and Kelsey C. acnes 92 Incidence of cocci, Pityrosporum
(1973)21 75 closed) by Schamberg agar 7 days Aerobes (mainly and C. acnes is nearly 100% in
extractor after coagulase- comedones; the absence of a
wiping skin with negative group, in a given comedone, is
70% ethanol staphylococci) probably due to technical error
85
Yeasts 99
Puhvel 1630 Open 148 3 Comedo extraction Brain-heart infusion Anaerobic The comedonal microflora is an
(1979)22 comedones by a comedo agar supplemented diphtheroids 80 extension of the normal
extractor after with 1% Aerobic cocci 75 follicular flora and is unrelated
476 A microbial aetiology of acne?, B. Shaheen and M. Gonzalez

wiping skin with dextrose 5 days at No anaerobic to the event of comedogenesis

70% alcohol 37 C under 90% diphtheroid or
CO2 and 10% N2 aerobic cocci 7
Lavker 510 (15)a Follicular 88 follicular casts NM Cyanoacrylate Brain-heart infusion No P. acnes yielded Bacteria, particularly P. acnes, are
(1981)23 911 (5)a casts 28 comedones comedo extraction agar with 01% not involved in the initiation of
comedones by Schamberg Tween-80 7 days comedogenesis
extractor.
Information about
surface disinfection
NM
Leeming 1339 Comedones 59 (29 open; 6 Punch biopsy with Reinforced clostridial Propionibacteria The presence of micro-organisms
(1985)17 30 closed) microdissection of medium 55 is not essential for the initiation
PSFs from supplemented with Staphylococci 22 of comedogenesis
unprepared skin 02% Pityrosporum spp.
Tween-80 6 days 74
Sterile: closed
comedones 11;
open comedones
7

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BJD  2011 British Association of Dermatologists 2011 165, pp474485
 Table 1 Continued

Abstinence
from Microbiology
Reference antibiotics Culture medium (percentage of
(first author Age range Type of Number of presampling incubation period for lesions

 2011 The Authors

and year) (years) lesions sampled lesions sampled (weeks) Sampling technique P. acnes colonized sterile) Conclusion
Inflamed acne lesions
Shehadeh Adolescent Papules, 104 NM Extraction of lesion Brain-heart infusion C. acnes 79 Acne flora is a stable biad
(1963)19 boys and pustules, content by sharp blood agar fortified C. acnes and S. albus consisting of C. acnes and S. albus.
girls nodules or acne stylet or by 1% 61 These organisms are extension
cysts pointed scalpel glucose 5 days S. albus 77 of those colonizing normal
after wiping under 90% N2 and Sterile papules 5 PSFs. After rupture of the
surface with 70% 10% CO2 Sterile pustules 5 comedones, the bacteria
isopropyl alcohol. aggravate the inflammatory
A sopping sponge reaction by secondary infection.
left on skin for The antibacterial action of the
3 min host immune response is
responsible for the sterility of a
number of these inflammatory
lesions
Marples 1524 Pustules 109 Of 27 patients Skin wiped with Casein yeast extract C. acnes 73 Normal flora of the face and

BJD  2011 British Association of Dermatologists 2011 165, pp474485

(1970)24 sampled, 21 70% ethyl alcohol lactate glucose Gram-positive acne pustules is similar,
had not and pus collected agar 7 days in N2 cocci comprising C. acnes and
received by a sterile blood and CO2 (predominantly Gram-positive cocci. The
antibiotics lancet S. epidermidis) 60 antibacterial action of the host
for at least Gram-negative immune response is responsible
3 weeks rods 10 for the sterility of a number of
Lipophilic these pustules
diphtheroids 8
Sterile pustules 12
Brook 1235 Pustules 32 4 Expression of the Vitamin K1-enriched Only aerobes and Bacteria other than P. acnes and
(1995)25 lesion content after Brucella blood agar facultative Staphylococcus spp. may contribute
cleansing surface and thioglycolate anaerobes to the inflammatory process in
skin with broth 5 days on (predominantly acne vulgaris
povidone-iodine Brucella blood agar S. epidermidis) 47
followed by and 14 days on Only anaerobes
alcohol swab thioglycolate broth (predominantly
Peptostreptococcus
spp.) 34
Mixed aerobes
and anaerobes
18
A microbial aetiology of acne?, B. Shaheen and M. Gonzalez 477
 Table 1 Continued

Abstinence
from Microbiology
Reference antibiotics Culture medium (percentage of
(first author Age range Type of Number of presampling incubation period for lesions
and year) (years) lesions sampled lesions sampled (weeks) Sampling technique P. acnes colonized sterile) Conclusion
Nishijima 1343 Pustules 24 NM, although The contents of Brucella HK agar Propionibacteria S. epidermidis and P. acnes may be
(2000)26 none of the pustules squeezed medium (predominantly the representative bacteria in
patients had out and collected supplemented with P. acnes) 79 any acne lesion. Other bacterial
any previous using a comedonal 5% defibrinated S epidermidis 83 species may be contaminants
oral and or extractor after horse blood NM P. acnes and
topical cleaning skin with S. epidermidis 58
antimicrobial 70% ethanol
treatment for
acne
Leeming 1339 Inflammatory 1 day papule 52 4 Punch biopsy with Reinforced clostridial 1 day papule: Micro-organisms found in
478 A microbial aetiology of acne?, B. Shaheen and M. Gonzalez

(1988)27 papules from 3 day papule 19 microdissection of medium Propionibacteria papules are an extension of
the back of PSFs from supplemented with 68 comedonal microflora and their
patients with unprepared skin 02% Staphylococci 19 presence is not essential for the
acne Tween-80 6 days Pityrosporum spp. initiation of inflammation in
52 acne
Sterile 10
3 day papule:
Propionibacteria
79
Staphylococci 32
Pityrosporum spp.
68
Sterile 0
Till Female 2651 Inflammatory 26 6 Punch biopsy with Brain-heart infusion Propionibacteria The presence of micro-organisms
(2000)18 (10)a papules microdissection of agar with 60 is not a prerequisite for the
Male 2550 (duration PSFs furazolidone 7 days Staphylococci 24 initiation of inflammation in
(10)a unknown) Malassezia 32 acne. However,
Female 2654 Sterile 10 micro-organisms may be
(6)a involved in the inflammatory
process at some stage

P. acnes (synonymous with C. acnes), Propionibacterium acnes; S. albus, Staphylococcus albus; S. epidermidis, Staphylococcus epidermidis; NM, not mentioned. aNumber of patients in each group in parentheses.

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BJD  2011 British Association of Dermatologists 2011 165, pp474485

no information about the microbial ecology of an individual
PSF. By using this technique, it has been shown that propioni-
bacterial colonization of normal skin shows significant age-
related and body site-related differences.2,6,10 Propionibacterium
acnes density, as well as prevalence, is highest in the oily
regions of the body such as the face and upper trunk. Body
sites with few sebaceous glands show a lower prevalence and
much lower mean densities.10 Propionibacterium acnes counts on
scalp and face can be as high as 105 organisms per cm2.6 Pro-
pionibacterium granulosum is also found in the oily regions but at a
lower density and prevalence, while P. avidum is normally iso-
lated from wet areas of the body such as the axilla, groin and
rectum.6 It is well recognized that P. acnes uses triglycerides in
sebum as a carbon and energy source with the resultant libera-
tion of FFA. The evidence in favour of this process includes
the following observations: (i) Marples et al.4 established that
P. acnes lipase is responsible for the cleavage of sebaceous tri-
glycerides into glycerol and FFA; (ii) Rebillo and Hawk11
demonstrated an inverse correlation between skin surface glyc-
erol levels and the P. acnes population, suggesting that glycerol
may be a substrate for P. acnes; and (iii) results of two studies
in which drugs were used either to increase or to decrease
sebum production, resulting in a concomitant increase or
decrease in the numbers of propionibacteria, helped to
strengthen this hypothesis further.12,13 Thus a high density
and prevalence of P. acnes at skin sites with large numbers of
sebaceous glands is not unexpected.
Likewise, age-related differences have been found in P. acnes
colonization, with infants and young children up to the age of
5 years carrying significantly higher numbers than older chil-
dren up to age 10 years.2 Sebum production by the sebaceous
glands is androgen dependent so that at puberty there is an
increase in the sebum excretion rate14,15 which is accompa-
nied by a rise in the population density of cutaneous propioni-
bacteria.2 The population density keeps increasing until the
age of 25 years, remaining constant thereafter through adult-
hood and middle age.2 A declining trend is seen after age
70 years,2 which is consistent with decreasing sebaceous
secretion at that time.14,15 After age 20 years, men carry sig-
nificantly higher numbers of P. acnes as compared with
women.2 This is in accordance with the observation that nor-
mal men over the age of 20 years produce greater quantities
of sebum than women.14,15 No significant racial difference in
the population density of P. acnes has been found in healthy
black and white individuals.2 Moreover, the pattern for aero-
bic bacterial population, particularly cocci, in relation to age,
sex and race has been found to be the same as for P. acnes.2
Microbial ecology of normal pilosebaceous follicles
The surface scrub technique is useful for removing micro-
organisms that are located on or near the skin surface, but it
is likely that most of the follicular inhabitants are not
removed. As acne is a disease of the PSFs, the microbial eco-
logy of individual follicles is more relevant when dealing with
acne-affected skin and gaining this knowledge could yield
 2011 The Authors
BJD  2011 British Association of Dermatologists 2011 165, pp474485
A microbial aetiology of acne?, B. Shaheen and M. Gonzalez 479
more information about the role of micro-organisms in acne
vulgaris. Leeming et al.16 used punch biopsies to separate the
epidermis with intact follicles from the dermis after CaCl2
treatment, in order to study the microbiology of normal folli-
cles from the upper back of patients with acne. This technique
enables quantification of bacteria from a single PSF but has the
drawback that it is dependent on obtaining biopsies of skin
for sampling. Of 140 normal follicles isolated from 54
patients, only 12% of the follicles were colonized by propioni-
bacteria, with a mean population density of 26 105 per fol-
licle.16 Similarly, the incidence of Staphylococcus and Pityrosporum
was 4% and 13%, respectively. The geometric mean density of
staphylococci was found to be 55 103, with S. epidermidis
being the major colonizing species (approximately 50% of all
staphylococci). Colonized follicles, in this study, were
described as those containing high densities of bacteria, and
PSFs with low numbers were considered to have contami-
nants.16 Intriguingly, approximately 34% of the normal folli-
cles were found to be sterile even if the micro-organisms
thought to be contaminants were included as colonists.17 Like-
wise, Till et al.,18 by using the same technique, found propioni-
bacteria and Staphylococcus to colonize only 17% and 10% of 48
normal follicles from the back of patients with persistent and
late-onset acne, respectively. They were, however, unable to
detect any viable Malassezia in these follicles. Moreover, like
Leeming et al.,16 they also found 90% of these normal PSFs to
be sterile.
Despite the scarcity of data on the microbiology of normal
PSFs, based on the findings of Leeming et al.16 and Till et al.18
it can be concluded that only a proportion of normal PSFs is
colonized by bacteria. Furthermore, Leeming et al.16 observed
the proportion of follicles colonized by micro-organisms to
vary widely among patients, which can probably explain indi-
vidual differences in microbial densities found at the skin sur-
face. The slightly higher prevalence of propionibacteria and
staphylococci in the study of Till et al.18 may be explained by
the fact that no attempt was made to differentiate colonized
follicles from those having contaminants only.
Microbiology of acne lesions
In the hope of establishing a microbial aetiology for acne, var-
ious investigators have extensively studied the microbiology of
acne lesions.1727 The sampling technique varied with the type
of lesion being studied.
Microbiology of comedones
Microbial ecology of extracted comedones
Shehadeh and Kligman19 examined (Gram-stained smears) and
cultured a total of 71 comedones (45 open; 26 closed), from
over 100 adolescent boys and girls, and found Corynebacterium
acnes (synonymous with P. acnes) and C. acnes along with S. albus
in 96% and 92% of the lesions, respectively. Likewise, S. albus
was isolated from 96% of the lesions while none of the come-
480 A microbial aetiology of acne?, B. Shaheen and M. Gonzalez
dones was found to be sterile. Similarly, Ganor and Sacks20
compared the microbial flora of senile and acne comedones
and found corynebacteria (synonymous with propionibacteria)
and staphylococci in 65% and 51% of the acne comedones,
respectively. Moreover, yeasts were seen in 67% of these le-
sions. The investigators failed to culture all the corynebacteria
identified microscopically and, therefore, corynebacteria from
only 20% of the acne comedones were identified as C. acnes.
Similarly, staphylococci from only 41% of the comedones
were identified as S. albus.20 No significant difference was
found in the incidence of staphylococci or Pityrosporum spp.
between the acne and senile comedones. However, corynebac-
teria were found less frequently in the senile compared with
acne comedones.20 Both these studies showed that < 100% of
comedones are colonized by propionibacteria or staphylococci
but the researchers failed to mention the avoidance of antibi-
otics (presampling) in their cohort of patients. Therefore, it is
difficult to rule out completely the role of antibiotics affecting
the bacterial colonization in these studies.
Subsequently, Marples et al.,21 in their attempt to quantify
the microbial population of individual comedones, studied the
microflora of open and closed comedones in 15 patients with
acne and isolated C. acnes in 92% of the lesions at a geometric
mean density of 82 104 per comedone. Furthermore, aer-
obes (mainly coagulase-negative staphylococci) were recov-
ered from 85% of all lesions while yeasts were seen in all but
one preparation.21 Similarly, Puhvel and Amirian22 studied the
bacterial ecology of 148 open comedones from the face and
back of 38 patients with acne and cultured anaerobic diphthe-
roids (synonymous with propionibacteria) and aerobic cocci
from 80% and 75% of the lesions, respectively. Seven per cent
of the comedones were found to harbour neither of the two
micro-organisms. The results of this study were in agreement
with the findings of Shehadeh and Kligman, Ganor and Sacks
and Marples et al.1921 who also showed that comedones are
not universally colonized by P. acnes, supporting the argument
that the presence of P. acnes is not a prerequisite for comedo-
genesis.
Microbial ecology of follicular casts comedones isolated
by the cyanoacrylate sampling technique
In an attempt to evaluate the role of P. acnes in the initiation
of comedogenesis, Lavker et al.23 investigated the structural
organization and bacteriological profile of follicular casts (iso-
lated by the cyanoacrylate method) and early comedones
(sampled by a Schamberg extractor) in prepubertal and early
pubertal individuals. Neither follicular casts nor comedones
(collected from five children aged 911 years with early acne
vulgaris) yielded P. acnes when cultured. Additionally, in 10 of
the 15 prepubertal children, cultures obtained from the fore-
head and cheek by the surface scrub technique also failed to
yield any P. acnes. Furthermore, both light and electron
microscopy failed to show any bacteria in the prepubertal
follicular casts. Prepubertal follicular casts contained all of
the abnormalities usually seen in follicular casts and biopsy
material from patients with acne, which suggests that these
casts represent potential comedones. The authors concluded
that as these abnormalities occurred in the complete absence
of bacteria, therefore bacteria are not essential for the forma-
tion of follicular casts or comedones.23 Complete absence of
P. acnes in the follicular casts was validated by various tech-
niques and yielded compelling evidence against the role of
P. acnes in the initiation of comedogenesis. However, whether
these prepubertal children did develop acne at puberty is
unknown. A long-term study investigating the occur-
rence prevalence of acne in this group would have been
more informative in drawing conclusions as to the role of
P. acnes in comedogenesis.
Microbial ecology of comedones isolated by
microdissection from skin biopsies
In order to resolve the ongoing controversy of the role of
P. acnes in the initiation of comedogenesis, Leeming et al.17
studied the bacteriology of 59 comedones (29 open; 30
closed), isolated by microdissection from skin biopsies, from
the upper back of 49 patients with acne. Approximately 55%
and 22% of the comedones were found to be colonized by
propionibacteria and staphylococci, respectively. Likewise, Pity-
rosporum spp. colonized 74% of these lesions.17 Comparing
these results with the findings of their study on the microbial
ecology of normal PSFs, no significant difference was observed
in the population density of propionibacteria among normal
follicles and comedones. However, micro-organisms were
found to colonize significantly more comedones. Moreover,
compared with 34% of the normal follicles, approximately
11% of closed and 7% of open comedones were found to be
sterile.16,17
Because of the different sampling and culturing techniques
used by various investigators it is difficult to compare all the
microbiological data on comedones. However, one consistent
observation that can be made is the fact that there was not
universal colonization of these lesions by a single microbial
agent. Secondly, some of the lesions have been found to be
sterile,17,22 again arguing against the role of micro-organisms
in the initiation of comedogenesis.
Microbiology of inamed acne lesions
Over the years, various researchers have investigated the
microbial ecology of inflamed acne lesions, in order to test
the hypothesis that the microflora of noninflamed and
inflamed acne lesions may be different.
Inamed lesions (predominantly pustules)
Shehadeh and Kligman19 examined a total of 104 inflamed
acne lesions (papule, pustule, nodule or cyst) from over 100
adolescent boys and girls, and found C. acnes and C. acnes along
with S. albus in 79% and 61% of the lesions, respectively. Five
per cent of the papules as well as pustules were found to be
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BJD  2011 British Association of Dermatologists 2011 165, pp474485

sterile and were observed to contain very few organisms on
Gram-stained smears.19 Likewise, Marples and Izumi24 investi-
gated the bacteriology of pustular acne in 109 pustules from
27 patients with acne and found C. acnes in 73%, Gram-posi-
tive cocci in 60% (predominantly S. epidermidis), and Gram-
negative rods in 10% of these lesions. Furthermore, 12% of
the pustules were found to be sterile, with microscopic exami-
nation of the Gram-stained smears substantiating the negative
culture results.24 Brook et al.,25 who also studied the bacteriol-
ogy of 32 pustular acne lesions, isolated only aerobes (pre-
dominantly S. epidermidis) and anaerobes (predominantly
Peptostreptococcus followed by Propionibacterium spp.) from 47% and
34% of the lesions, respectively. The results from the study of
Nishijima et al.26 also yielded propionibacteria (predominantly
P. acnes) and S. epidermidis as the most common (but never
100%) micro-organisms colonizing acne pustules. All these
studies were limited by the fact that the duration of individual
lesions was not given and it is possible that the antimicrobial
effect of the host immune response could have been responsi-
ble for the sterility of a number of these lesions. Furthermore,
provision of some essential information, such as avoidance of
antibiotics, presampling, in a number of these studies, would
have been more informative in drawing conclusions about the
bacterial ecology of these lesions.
Inamed lesions (papules)
A key shortcoming of the above studies, i.e. not mentioning
the duration of individual inflamed lesions, was finally reme-
died by Leeming et al.27 They studied the microbiology of in-
flammatory papules which had been inflamed for only short
periods, and used microdissection from skin biopsies to isolate
52 1 day and 19 3 day papules from the upper back of
patients with acne.27 They found propionibacteria and staphy-
lococci to have a colonizing population (i.e. 200 organisms
per papule) in only 71% and 23% of the papules, respec-
tively.27 Moreover, 3 day papules were observed to be colo-
nized more frequently than 1 day papules, although this
difference was not statistically significant. Interestingly, bacte-
rial cultures from 20% and 54% of the papules (including le-
sions with both high and low microbial densities) were
negative for propionibacteria and staphylococci (along with
other aerobes), respectively. Furthermore, 10% of 1 day pap-
ules were found not to be colonized by any micro-organism
(Pityrosporum, Propionibacterium or Staphylococcus spp.) while all the
3 day lesions were found to be colonized. The population
density of propionibacteria and staphylococci in 3 day pap-
ules was almost 2 and 26 times greater than in 1 day le-
sions, respectively. No bacteria were observed on microscopic
examination of the papules without associated bacterial
growth, further validating the negative culture results. Com-
paring these results with the findings of their studies on the
microbial ecology of normal PSFs and comedones, propioni-
bacteria, staphylococci and Pityrosporum spp. were found to col-
onize significantly more lesions. However, no significant
difference was noted in the bacterial and yeast colonization
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BJD  2011 British Association of Dermatologists 2011 165, pp474485
A microbial aetiology of acne?, B. Shaheen and M. Gonzalez 481
rates among the comedones and the two types of papules.
Although a rising trend was seen in the bacterial population
densities among the normal PSFs, comedones and inflamed le-
sions, with the highest being in the 3 day papules, this was
not found to be statistically significant.16,17,27 The authors
concluded that micro-organisms found in inflamed lesions are
just an extension of those colonizing comedones and that their
presence is not necessary for the initiation of inflammation in
acne.
Similarly Till et al.,18 by using the sampling technique
adopted by Leeming et al.,16 also studied the microbiology of
acne papules and found propionibacteria and staphylococci in
60% and 24% of the inflamed lesions, respectively. Malassezia
spp. were found in 32% while 10% of the inflamed follicles
had no detectable viable micro-organisms. Comparing these
findings with the results obtained from the normal PSFs, biop-
sied from the same cohort of patients, the inflamed lesions
were found to have significantly higher density and prevalence
of propionibacteria.18 These results also supported the work of
Leeming et al.27 who suggested that the inflammatory response
in the follicles is not always initiated by the micro-organisms.
Discussion
From the above discussion, one consistent observation that
can be made is that only a proportion of normal as well as
acne-affected PSFs, whether inflamed or noninflamed, is colo-
nized by any specific microbial agent. Further, the microflora
of normal or acne-affected PSFs (inflamed and noninflamed)
generally consists of three major genera of micro-organisms
(Propionibacterium, Staphylococcus and Malassezia). We propose that
bacteria, particularly P. acnes, are not a requirement for
comedogenesis. The evidence for this is provided by a number
of studies which failed to yield P. acnes from a proportion of
noninflamed acne lesions.17,1923 However, after colonization
of the PSFs by P. acnes, the organism can potentially aggravate
or intensify abnormal desquamation by various mechanisms
(Fig. 1). The fact that P. acnes produces lipases which release
FFA from triglycerides4 and that FFA have been found to be
comedogenic in the rabbit ear model5 suggests a possible
mechanism by which P. acnes can influence comedogenesis.
Propionibacterium acnes through its production of porphyrins
may act as a catalytic agent in squalene oxidation.28 Oxidized
squalene has been found to be comedogenic in the rabbit ear
model29 and this may be another possible mechanism by
which the organism can be involved in comedogenesis. It has
also been proposed that P. acnes biofilm may act as a biological
glue causing adhesiveness of keratinocytes, thus aggravating
comedogenesis.30
Both viable and formalin-killed P. acnes have been shown to
augment sebum production and accumulation by increasing
diacylglycerol acyltransferase activity in hamster sebocytes,
in vivo and in vitro.31 Patients with acne are known to have a
high rate of sebum excretion14 with low linoleic acid levels.32
The linoleate concentration returns to normal, with a concom-
itant decrease in sebum excretion rate, after treatment with
482 A microbial aetiology of acne?, B. Shaheen and M. Gonzalez

Comedogenesis
Inflammation

Squalene oxidation by Complement Classical pathway

P.acnes porphyrin activation

Alternative pathway
Free fatty acid Cell mediated
production secondary immunity
to P.acnes lipase From
keratinocytes
Humoral
P.acnes biofilm acting Immunity (IL-1, TNF-,
as biological glue Propionibacterium acnes GM-CSF)
Cytokines
Abnormal proliferation
and differentiation of From
keratinocytes Induction and mononuclear
activation of cells
toll-like
Increased receptors 2 (IL-1, TNF-,
diacylglycerol and 4 IL-8)
acyltransferase
activity, leading to
increased sebum Extracellular
production which may enzymes
contribute to linoleic
acid deficiency seen in
Chemotactic For monocytes
acne patients.
substances

For neutrophils
Increased production
of IL-1 by the
keratinocytes

Fig 1. Possible ways of involvement of Propionibacterium acnes in comedogenesis and inflammation in acne. IL, interleukin; GM CSF,
granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor; TNF, tumour necrosis factor.

antiandrogens.33 These results indicate that the proportion of
linoleic acid in sebum is influenced by sebum excretion rate.
A low concentration of linoleate in sebum has been proposed
to cause follicular hyperkeratosis and decreased barrier func-
tion.34 It is, thus, understandable that P. acnes, by increasing
lipogenesis, can further aggravate linoleic acid deficiency and
as a result may aggravate comedogenesis.
Aberrant a6 integrin expression has been demonstrated
around clinically normal follicles and early inflamed lesions of
patients with acne when compared with normal controls.35
Integrins are thought to be important in the proliferation and
differentiation of keratinocytes36 and an in vitro study has dem-
onstrated that P. acnes can induce the expression of b1, a3, a6
and aVb6 integrins and filaggrin on epidermal cells.37 These
data provide other potential pathways through which P. acnes
may potentiate comedogenesis. Moreover, P. acnes-stimulated
keratinocytes have been shown to cause significantly higher
production of interleukin (IL)-1a compared with unstimulated
keratinocytes.38 IL-1a has been demonstrated to cause hyper-
cornification of the follicular infundibulum, which can be
blocked by IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra).39 Ingham
et al.,40 however, failed to demonstrate that cutaneous micro-
organisms or their products directly upregulated IL-1a release,
in vitro, by the keratinocytes. Hence it is difficult to interpret
these findings as supporting a comedogenic role for P. acnes.
Likewise, P. acnes is probably not necessary for the initiation
of inflammation, as it is never isolated from 100% of inflamed
lesions and various investigators also found a proportion of
these lesions to be sterile.18,19,2427 However, P. acnes, in colo-
nized lesions, may play a role in the intensification of the
inflammatory process by its enzymatic,41,42 antigenic,3,43,44
chemoattractant45,46 and complement activation47,48 activities
(Fig. 1). Furthermore, various investigators have demonstrated
the production of proinflammatory cytokines by keratino-
cytes38 (IL-1a, tumour necrosis factor-a and granulocyte
macrophage colony-stimulating factor) and peripheral blood
mononuclear cells49 (IL-1b, tumour necrosis factor-a and IL-8)
after P. acnes stimulation. These proinflammatory cytokines
may also intensify inflammation in patients with acne. Induc-
tion50 and stimulation51 of toll-like receptors 2 and 4 can be
another mechanism by which P. acnes can intensify inflamma-
tion in acne. This still does not rule out the role of other
micro-organisms (Staphylococcus and Malassezia) in acne pathogen-
esis, as not enough research has been done on their specific
role in acne.
It has been postulated that the microenvironment of indi-
vidual follicles, whether normal or acne affected, is important
for colonization as well as the production of extracellular
enzymes by the micro-organisms.52,53 Oxygen and carbon
dioxide tension, water availability and follicular pH are some
of the possible factors that might differ from one PSF to
another and may determine colonization and enzyme produc-
tion by the micro-organisms.52 Comparing the available data
on the microbiology of normal follicles with the microbio-
logical information obtained from comedones and inflamed
lesions by Leeming et al., it seems that the microenvironment

 2011 The Authors

BJD  2011 British Association of Dermatologists 2011 165, pp474485

Pilosebaceous follicles
Microcomedones
Inflammation
Fig 2. Possible sequence of events for the involvement of Propionibacterium acnes in acne.
of a proportion of microcomedones (earliest subclinical acne
lesion) is more suitable for microbial growth. This leads to a
significantly greater colonization of these lesions compared
with the unaffected follicles (Fig. 2).16,17 The microenviron-
ment in microcomedones may also be more suitable for the
production of extracellular enzymes by micro-organisms,
particularly P. acnes, and can aggravate comedogenesis. The fact
that Leeming et al.27 found 10% of the 1 day papules not to
be colonized by any micro-organism while all the 3 day
lesions were found colonized suggests that these early lesions
might be free from any microbial colonization at the start of
inflammation. This may partly explain the sterility of a signifi-
cant proportion of inflamed lesions within patients with
acne as reported by various investigators. As 3 day papules
were also found to have the highest microbial density (albeit
a nonsignificant difference), it is plausible that an inflamed le-
sion may provide an enriched environment not only for the
colonization but also for the proliferation of cutaneous micro-
organisms. Once inflammation has started in an acne lesion,
P. acnes can cause intensification of the inflammatory process
by a number of different mechanisms mentioned above; how-
ever, P. acnes presence is not a prerequisite for its initiation.
The results from other studies on the microbial ecology of
comedones and inflamed lesions could not be compared
because of differences in the sampling techniques used by the
researchers.
 2011 The Authors
BJD  2011 British Association of Dermatologists 2011 165, pp474485
A microbial aetiology of acne?, B. Shaheen and M. Gonzalez 483
A proportion of normal
pilosebaceous follicles
are colonised by P.acnes
A favourable
microenvironment
leads to increased
colonisation of
microcomedones by
P.acnes which may
further aggravate
comedogenesis
An inflamed lesion
may further provide an
enriched environment
for the colonisation as
well as proliferation of
P.acnes. P.acnes can
intensify the
inflammatory process
but is not a
prerequisite for its
initiation.
This still leaves us with the as yet unanswered question of
what initiates comedogenesis and inflammation in acne. How-
ever, these findings can explain why acne resolves in a pro-
portion of patients, without a significant reduction in the
population density of P. acnes. It has been postulated that like
the hair follicles, PSFs and comedones undergo cyclical
growth.54,55 It might be possible that an individual PSF under-
goes only a certain number of cycles during its lifetime and,
therefore, depending on how many active PSFs are left in
acne-prone areas, acne might decrease in severity and eventu-
ally subside. Another possible explanation may be the resis-
tance of PSFs to the factor factors triggering comedogenesis,
therefore, leading to the clinical resolution of the disease.
Upregulation of IL-1Ra and or IL-1 receptor type II (IL-1R2)
may be one of the mechanisms of such resistance.56 IL-1Ra
binds tightly to IL-1 receptor while IL-1R2 acts as a decoy
receptor blocking the action of IL-1 on various cells. These
two physiological mechanisms help to regulate the activity of
IL-1 in various tissues.
In summary, there is at present no incontrovertible evidence
that micro-organisms, particularly P. acnes, initiate either
comedogenesis or inflammation in acne vulgaris. Antibiotics
such as tetracycline have been shown to have anti-inflamma-
tory effects in addition to their antibacterial activity, which
may in part explain the improvement delivered by these
agents.57 Similarly, although patients with severe acne produce
484 A microbial aetiology of acne?, B. Shaheen and M. Gonzalez
more antibodies to P. acnes than do normal controls,3,43 the
antibody titres of patients with mild to moderate acne have
not been found to differ significantly compared with normal
controls.43 Furthermore, patients with severe acne do not har-
bour significantly larger numbers of P. acnes.5860 Thus, it is
possible that the increased level of antibodies to P. acnes in
patients with severe acne is due to an increased exposure of
these individuals to the immunogen as a result of their
pathological condition. Likewise, cell-mediated immunity
(CMI) to P. acnes may be a contributing factor in the inflam-
matory response in acne but this has been found to occur late
in the chain of events and does not necessarily initiate inflam-
mation in all patients with acne.61 Moreover, Gowland et al.61
found only four of 22 patients with moderate acne and 12 of
22 patients with severe acne to have CMI to P. acnes. Addition-
ally, they did not find any evidence of CMI to P. acnes in 13-
to 14-year-old children with severe acne. This suggests that an
exaggerated immune response (humoral or cell-mediated) to
P. acnes cannot solely be held responsible either for the initia-
tion of inflammation in inflamed acne lesions or for the varia-
tion in its severity.
Conclusions
We conclude that P. acnes is likely to be a bystander and not
an active participant in the development of noninflamed and
inflamed acne lesions and factors other than micro-organisms,
i.e. androgens, abnormalities of the sebaceous lipids or key
cytokines such as IL-1a may play an important role in the
initiation of acne vulgaris.
Whats already known about this topic?
Propionibacterium acnes is regarded as one of the pathoge-
netic factors in acne vulgaris.
It is still not clear whether it is actually a causal agent in
the development of noninflamed and inflamed acne le-
sions.
What does this study add?
Our review summarizes the microbiological data on nor-
mal and acne-affected skin.
We suggest that P. acnes is likely to be a bystander and
not an active participant in the development of nonin-
flamed and inflamed acne lesions.
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