Cassells Carpentry and Joinery 1000007771

CASSELL'S
Carpentry and Joinery

COMPRISING NOTES ON MATERIALS, PROCESSES, PRINCIPLES,
AND PRACTICE, INCLUDING ABOUT 1,800 ENGRAVINGS
AND TWELVE PLATES
EDITED BY
PAUL N. HASLUCK
Editor of ''Building World,1' etc.
PHILADELPHIA
DAVID McKAY, Publisher
610, SOUTH WASHINGTON SQUARE
1907
T^ ^foO'V
?S?3
Ji
PREFACE.
Cassell's Carpentry and Joinery is a practical work on practicalhandicrafts,

and it is published in the confident belief that it is by far the most exhaustive
book on these subjects hitherto produced. Throughout this book actual practice
is recorded; mere discussion of theory has been excluded, except where it is
essential in explaining the principlesunderlying a method, a or the

process,
action of a tool. The tools and processes described are those commonly found
in daily use in the workshop. The expert and well-informed reader will of
course make due allowance for the great diversities of trade practice in
different localities.
Much of the matter appearing in these pages has been written and illustrated
by eminent authorities such as Mr. C. W. D. Boxall, Prof. Henry Adams,
Mr. F. W. Loasby, and several other well-known practical contributors to
"
Building World." The names of these experts are a guarantee of competency
and thoroughness.
Students for examinations in which Carpentry and Joinery
preparing are
involved will welcome this as a text book of the utmost value and importance ;
and its intenselypractical character "

in every possibleinstance the information
illustratingcases that have occurred

is describing,and
imparted by investigating,
in actual experience "
renders the work extremely useful as a guide to everyday
the volume includes virtually everything that relates to the materials,
practice,as
of Carpentry and Joinery.
processes, principles,and practice
The of the work is evident from glance at the list
comprehensive scope a
of contents. Each of the various sections is dealt with in exhaustive detail,
of the sections nearly 100 and the studiously plain

some extending to pages ;
the book is further assisted by the of skilfully

language used throughout use
drawn diagrams, which are supplemented by twelve full-pagecoloured plates.
P. N. HASLUCK.
CONTENTS
PAGE
Hand Tools and Appliances 1
Timber 26
Joints 54
Floors .......
68
Timber Partitions . .
.98
Timber Roofs 112
Framework of Dormer Windows 180
Half-timber Construction 199
Gantries, Staging, and Shoring 215
Arch Centerings 250
Joiners' Rods 289
Doors and Door Frames 312
Window Sashes and Casements .

404
Mouldings: Working and Setting-out 468
Skirtings, Dados, Panelwork, Linings, etc 481
Partitions and Screens 520
Bevels: Finding and Setting-out 550
Index ,,,..".
557
^"
LIST OF COLOURED PLATES.
I. Circular-Headed Casement Window

"
II. Interior Doorway with

Dado
"
III. Boxing Shutters Sash Window

"
to
IV. Lantern Light Gable Ends

"
with
.
V. Carriage Entrance Gates

"
VI. Wooden Framed Stable

"
. . .
VII. Newel Staircase with Winders Half-Space

"
in
.
VIII. Half-Timbered Porch and

Entrance Doorway
"
IX. Construction of a
Lean-to Conservatory
"
X. Design for a
Shop Front
"
XI. Cabinet- Work Fixtures for a

Small Hotel Bar
"
XII. Construction Bell or

Ventilating Turret
"
of a
Framed Roof
to
CARPENTRY and JOINERY.
HAND TOOLS AND APPLIANCES.
Introduction.
testing work "
such tools are rules, straight-
edges,
The reader of this book is assumed to Tools for
gauges, etc. (2) supporting
have acquaintance with woodworking, and holding work such tools
some
; are benches,
and not to stand in need of detail tion
instruc- vices, stools, (3) Paring
etc. or shaving
to the shape, action, and tools, such chisels, spokeshaves,
as care use as planes,
of each and all of woodworker's tools. (4) Saws. (5) Percussion
a etc. or ling
impel-
This information is given in comprehensive tools, such as hammers, mallets,
style in a companion volume, entitled
"
Woodworking," produced by the Editor
of this present book, and sold by the same
Fig. 2. "
Combined Marking
Awl and Striking Knife.
Fig. 1." Twc-foot Rule with Slide Rule. screw -drivers, and (combined with cutting)
hatchets, axes, adzes, etc. (6) Boring
publishers at 9s. Should
any
reader of tools, such as gimlets, brace-bits, etc.
this chapter desire further particulars of (7) Abrading and scraping tools, such as
the tools and appliances here briefly tioned,

men- glasspaper, and implements
rasps, scrapers,
he is recommended to consult that such as whetstones, etc., for sharpening
work, which undoubtedly contains the edged tools.
most complete description of woodworking

Geometrical Tools.
tools yet published.
Rules. For all-round 2-ft.
"
purposes a
Classification of Tools.
four-fold boxwood rule, with or without a
Tools be classed according to their slide rule (Fig. 1), is best. Kules are made
may
functions and modes of action, as follows : in great variety, but the worker's
average
(1) Geometrical tools for laying off and requirements will be best met by a simple one.
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY.
Fig. 10. "Cutting Gauge

Marking and Scribing. The carpenter's Marking "

Work for Sawing." The chalk
lead pencilis of a flat,
oval section,sharpened line is used for long piecesof timber, the
to a chisel edge,which has a greater body pencil and rule for ordinary applications,
of lead than a point,and lasts a reasonable and the scribe for particularwork. The
" "
time beforerequiringto be re-sharpened. chalk line is a piece of fine cord rubbed
The marking awl and the strikingknife, with chalk or black pigment, and strained
shown in Fig. 2 as a combined tool, is taut. To mark the work the chalk line is
used joinersprincipallyfor scribing,
by lifted vertically
and near the centre, and
or the shoulders
cutting-in, of framing,etc. when released makes a fine and perfectly
Greater accuracy can be attained and a straight line upon the work. Coloured
sharper arris is left when sawing than chalks and pigments are also used.
when working to a pencilline. Marking and Cutting Gauges. "
Ordinarily
Straight-edge. Mechanics building the carpenter draws
" in the a line close to and
trades use a straight-edge, usually made to the edge
parallel of a board by means
to the shape shown by Fig.3, and not larger of a rule held in one hand, with the fore-
than 15 ft. long,6 in. wide, and 1J in. thick,
made from a pine board cut from a straight-
Fig. 11. "

Panel Gauge.
grown tree. All straight-edgesshould be

tested occasionally.
Squares and Bevels. " These are used for
settingout and testingwork. The joiner's
steel square is a mere right angle of steel,
sometimes nickel-plated,graduated in inches,
J in. and TV in., or otherwise as required. Fig. 13. Spring
Fig. 12. Wing
"
"
The try square (Fig.4) has a rosewood or Dividers.

Compasses.
ebony stock. The tool shown by Fig. 5 is
also of use in settingout and testingmitres, fingeragainstthe edge of the work and the
but the proper mitre square is shown by pencilheld close againstthe end of the rule ;
Fig. 6. Try squares are also made with but the marking gauge (Fig.8) gives more
iron frames which are channelled and per-
forated accurate results. The gauge may have a
to reduce weight. Adjustable pencil point instead of the steel point
squares with graduated blades are useful shown. Developments are the mortise
in putting fittingson doors and windows. gauge (Fig. 9) and the cutting gauge (Fig.
By means of the sliding bevel (Fig. 7) 10),having either a square or oval sliding
angles are set off in duplicate; the set stock or head. The panel gauge (Fig.11) is
screw secures the blade at any desired used to mark a line parallelto the true edge
anglewith the stock. A crenellated square of a panel or of any pieceof wood too wide for
has a blade which is notched at every the ordinary gauge to take in.
principalgraduation, and is used chiefly Compasses, Dividers, and Callipers. "
for settingout mortises and tenons. Ordinary wing compasses (Fig. 12) are
CARPENTRY AND JOINERY
generally
used, but particular work forfor shooting or
struments
in- planing the mitred ends
with adjustments of stuff previouslysawn
fine or sensitive in the mitre block
are obtainable. Spring dividers (Fig. 13) or box ; in the illustration the rebate or
are used for stepping off a number of equal bed for the work is cut out of the solid,
distances, for transferring measurements and but it is general to build up the block
for scribing.Callipers (Figs.14 and 15),ob-tainable
with three thicknesses of stuff, and so avoid
in many styles,are used for cutting a rebate. The donkey's-earshoot-
ing
block (Fig.19) is used for mitreingor
bevelling the edgesof wide but thin material
with the cut at rightanglesto that adopted
for stouter mouldings; another form of
Fig. 16. "

Shooting Board.
this block (Fig.20) has a rest a for the

material, a bed b for the shootingplane,
a guide c for the plane, and a frame d
which is fixed in the bench screw or to
the tail of the bench. The mitre template
Outside Inside (Fig.21) is another aid to cutting mitres.
Fig. 14." Fig. 15. "
Callipers. Callipers. Its use will be explainedon a later page.

SpiritLevels. " The spiritlevel is used for
measuring diameters of solids
cylindrical determiningthe planesof the horizon " that
and recesses. is,the plane forming a rightangle to the
Shooting Boards. " The shooting board vertical plane. A frame firmly holds a
(Fig. 16) is used for trueing up with a closed glass tube nearly filled with hydrous
an-
plane the edges of square stuff. That ether, or with a mixture of ether
shown simplestpossible,
is the but other and alcohol (see Fig. 22). spirit Good
and improved shapes are obtainable. levels have a graduated scale engraved on
Appliances for Mitreing. The simplest " the glasstube or on a metal rule fastened
appliance used in cutting mitres is the to the frame beside it. There are many
ordinary mitre block, the work being laid varieties of spiritlevels,but all are made
on the same principle.
-"
Fig. 17." Mitre Box with

Dovetail Saw.
Fig. 18." Mitre Shooting Block.
a rebate, and saw kerfs in the upper Plumb Rule and Square. The plumb rule
upon
"
block serving as a guide for the tenon saw. (Fig.23) is used by the carpenter and fixer
Inclined and other varieties of mitre blocks for testing the vertical positionof pieces
are in use. (Fig. 17) is
The mitre box of timber, framing, doorposts, sash frames,
generally used for broader mouldings. etc., which should be fixed upright. The
The mitre shootingblock (Fig.18) is used plumb square (Fig.24) is useful for testing
the squareness of work and at the same worker and by the kind of work to be done.
time the levelness of a head, it being for A joiner's bench of the usual pattern
this purpose sometimes useful than is shown
more by Fig. 25. It is 12 ft. long,by
a spiritlevel. 2 ft. 6 in. wide, and 3 ft. high. The legs
are 4 in. by 4 in. ; bearers and rails, 4 in. by
Fig. 19." Donkey's-ear Shooting Block.
h "
3^2" -
Fig. 20. "

Donkey's-ear Block for Shooting Wide
Surfaces.
Spirit Level.
1 Fig. 21. "

Mitre Template.
Fig. 23." Plumb
Rule.
Tools for Supporting and Holding

Work.
Benches. " The ordinary joiner's bench

should not be less than about 8 ft. long,2 ft.
6 in. to 3 ft. high, and 2 ft. 6 in. wide, and
should be fitted with wood or iron bench Fig. 24." Plumb Square
screws so as to accommodate one or two

workers. Of course, the height of the bench 3 in. ; sides,1J in. by 9 in. ; top, 1| in. by
will be influenced by the stature of the 9 in. The bench top is mortised at A to
Fig. 25." Ordinary Pattern Joiner's Bench.
Fig. 26." Ordinary Joiner's Bench fitted with Instantaneous Vice.

receive the stop, which is of the pattern fits the runner shown inside it, is fixed to
shown by Fig. 32, so that it fits tightly the top rail connecting the legs,and to
againstthe legof the bench. Fig. 26 shows the top and side of the bench. Care is
a b
joiner's ench of another pattern, fitted taken to keep the runner at rightangles
with a good form of instantaneous grip
vice ; and another variety of this useful
Fig. 28. " Wooden Bench Screw Vice.
to the vice cheeks. To fasten the vice

Fig. 27." Bench with Side and Tail Vices. outer cheek and screw together, so that
upon turning the latter the former will

class of vice is shown in section at Fig.31. follow it, a groove e is cut. Then from
A bench with side and tail vices is illus-
trated the under edge of the cheek a mortise is
atFig. 27, and, although not much made, and a hardwood key is driven to
used by joiners, is a very useful form for fit fairlytight into the mortise, its end
small work or as a portablebench. The
top and tail vice cheeks contain holes for
thereceptionof bench stopsof iron or wood,
against which, or between which, work is
held for framing,etc.
Inside View of Screw Vice. Fig. 30. Section through Screw Vice.
Fig. 29. "
"
Bench Screws. form of joiner's entering e.

"
A common
The screw cheek is usually
bench screw by Fig. 28, inside
is shown about 1 ft. 9 in. long, 9 in. wide, and 2 in.
is about 3 in.
and sectional views being shown respectively to 3 in. thick. The runner
cheek by 3 in. and 2 ft. long. The wooden
by Figs. 29 and 30. d is the side or screws
of the bench to which a wooden nut (a) and nuts can be bought ready made.
is screwed. The box which accurately Bench screws are known in great variety,
b,
8 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY.
and include an instantaneous gripvice (Fig. the ordinary

"
knock
"
stop, which is
up
31),a most useful appliance. a piece of hard wood about 2 in. to 2J in.
Bench Stops. There"
are many varieties square, and 9 in. to 18 in. long, fitting
of iron bench stops on the market, but tightlyinto a mortise in the top of the
Fig. 31. "

Instantaneous Grip Vice.
f=}
Fig. 32. " Wooden Bench

Stop.
Figs. 33 and 34. "

Wooden Bench Stop.
Fig. 35. "
Hinge used as Bench Stop.
bench, is still largelyused. This is the

best form of stop for all
ordinary purposes.
It is cut wedge shape, as shown by Fig.32.
This stop is raised and lowered by knocking
Fig. 37. "
Adjustable Iron Bench Stop.
with a hammer at top or bottom. The

Fig. 36." Iron plane is not injuredif it comes into tact
con-
Bench Stop. with the
stop, which also has greater
Fig. 38." Morrill's strength thantemporary stops screwed
able
Adjust-
Bench Stop. to the face of the "bench top. An improved
form of this is shown at Figs. 33 and 34. (Fig.41) is made of wood entirely.It is
A block is screwed to the stop, and to this a very useful tool in the joiner'sshop,
the nut of an ordinary shutter bolt is and is used for holding togetherpieces of
fixed. A slot is cut in the cheek of the wood when
glued for thicknessing It is
up.
bench, as shown. The shoulder of the bolt indispensablewhen glueingup face veneers
works againsta largewasher. This stop can for shop fittings,etc. ; these screws are
readily be raised or lowered. Two or three made in different sizes suitable for heavy
steel nails driven in near the top of the stop and lightwork. Iron G-cramps are a very
and filed to form teeth can be used to hold useful form, the smaller sizes
being made
the work. A very useful stop may be trived,
con- with a thumbscrew (Fig.42) and being used
as shown by Fig. 35, by filing
one for lightpurposes. The stronger and larger
end of a back
flaphinge so as to form teeth, kinds will take in work to 12 in. ; greater
up
the other
flapbeing screwed down to the
bench. A long screw through the middle
hole in the loose flap affords means of
adjustment. By looseningthis long screw,
the front edge of the stop may be raised,
Fig. 39. "

Sawing Stool.
Fig. 40." Bench Holdfast.

but to positionit should
retain it in its
be packed up with a piece of wood, and
the screw tighteneddown again. A plain force being required, the screws are rotated
iron stop with a side spring to keep it at by means of the usual lever. The many
any desired height is shown by Fig. 36. varieties of iron cramps include the Hammer
This form of stop fits into holes mortised instantaneous adjustment cramp and a ing
slid-
through the bench top. Figs. 37 and 38 pattern G-cramp, both of which have
show good forms of adjustablebench stops advantages in many cases over the common
that are obtainable from tool-dealers ; their G-cramp, form of which,
a with thumbscrew,
principleis fairly obvious on reference to is illustrated by Fig. 42 (p. 10). Sash
the illustrations. cramps and
joiner's cramps (alsoshown on
Sawing Stools or Trestles. " The three-leg p. 10 "
Fig.43) are in common

see use, a num-
ber
sawing stool is of but little service and of patent cramps with specialadvan-
tages
almost useless for supporting work in also being known. Figs. 44 and 45
course of sawing. Probably one of the best show useful cramp
a for thin work. The
forms of this useful applianceis the four- wedge cramp (Fig.46),known as a cleat,is
legged stool shown by Fig. 39. This needs also very useful for holding boards together
to be built substantially. after they have been jointedand glued. The
Cramps. " A hold-fast for temporarily cleats are kept on till the glue in the joint
securingwork to the bench is shown by isdry. The wedges prevent the board from
Fig.40. The old-fashioned hand-screw cramp casting. Iron dogs (Figs.47 and 48) are
10 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY
Fig. 41. " Wooden

Hand Screw
Fig. 42. " Iron G-
Cramp with Thumb-
Cramp. screw.
Fig. 43. " Iron Sash Cramp or Joiners' Cramp.
used for driving into the ends of boards

which jointedand glued,to pull
have been
togetherthe joint,and for similar purposes
by the joiner. They are also used for draw-
ing
together face jointswhen glued,but
only in cases where the holes made by the
dogs are to be covered afterwards by another
piece of lining. A stronger form is also
sometimes by the carpenter for
used
common flooring. The dog is driven into
the joistfirmly,there being enough space
45. between the dog and the edge of the floor-
board
Figs. 44 and 45." Wooden Cramp for Thin Work. to admit a pair of folding wedges,
Fig. 51. "
Ordinary Firmer Chisel.
Fig. 52. " Firmer Chisel with Bevelled Edges.
Fig. 53. "
Long Paring Chisel.
Fig. 54. "

Mortise Chisel.
Fig. 55. "

Firmer Gouge.
"
Fig. 56." Draw Knife.
Fig. 57. " Wooden Spokeshave.
Fig. 58." Iron Spokeshave.

HAND TOOLS AND APPLIANCES. 13
Gouges. " These have the same action Planes. " These are the tools used
chiefly
as that of a chisel,but instead of being for smoothing work which has been sawn
to approximate size. The simplestplane

is a chisel firmlyfixed into a wooden block.
The construction of an ordinary plane is
shown in the sectional view (Fig. 59),
in which the stock ; b, the wedge
a shows ;
o, cuttingiron ; d, back iron ; f, screw
and nut for fasteningthe cutting and back
irons together; the mouth through which
the shavingspass upwards is shown. The
jack plane (Fig.60) is the first planeapplied
to the sawn wood ; its parts are : the stock,
17 in. long ; the toat, or handle ; the

wedge ; the cutting iron, or cutter, about
2J in. wide ; and the back iron. The
trying or trueing plane (Fig.61)is of similar
construction,but is much longer, so as to
produce truer surfaces. A stilllongertry-

ing
plane called the jointeris used for
jointingboards in long lengths; since the
introduction of machinery it is seldom used.
Fig. 59." Sectional View of Plane. The smoothing plane (Fig.62) smooths the
work to form a finished surface ; for pine or
flat their sections form arcs of circles other soft woods it is 9 in. long,and its iron
(see Fig. 55). is 2 J in. wide on the cuttingface. Some

Draw Knife." draw
The knife (Fig.56)
is used for roughing stuff to
shape preparatory to working

with finer tools.
Spokeshaves. " An ordinary
spokeshave is merely a knife
edge in a suitable holder (Fig.
57) ; it may jump if the iron
is loose,or if the back part
of the iron touches the work
before the cutting edge. Fig. 60. "
Jack Plane.
Fig. 61. "
Trying Plane.
Spokeshaves are best made with iron stocks smoothingplaneshave iron fronts,as shown
and with screws to regulatethe cutting in the sectional view, Fig. 63 these can
;
iron (Fig/58). be adjustedfor the finest shaving desired.
A good of iron
form smoothing plane is made of steel entirely. The sole of
is shown by Fig. 64 ; this is intended the plane is about long, 2 J
10 in. in. wide,
for superior work. The rebate plane
(Fig. 65) is without a back iron, and
its cutting iron extends the full width
Fig. 64. " Iron Smoothing Plane.
and yV m- thick. It is adjustedby means
of a screw, and with it both concave and

Fig. 62. "
Smoothing Plane.
convex surfaces may be worked perfectly
of the tool, thus enabling the angles of
rebates to be cleaned up. Other varieties
of planesinclude the bead
plane (Figs.66
to 68),used for working singleand return
beads and round rods. Hollows, rounds,
etc. (Figs.69 to 73),are used for working
Fig. 65. "

Rebate Plane.
true and even. There are also employed

ovolo lamb's -
tongue planes for ing

form-
the mouldings on sash stiles and
Fig. 63. "

Iron Mouth-piece for
Smoothing Plane. Fig. 66. Fig. 68.
Figs. 66, 67, and 68. " Bead Plane.

mouldingsof
straight all kinds,but machinery
has of late years been increasinglyused
for such work. Small planes of varying rails. The sash fillister(Fig.74) is generally
shapes are used for forming mouldings on used for making rebates adjacent to the
circular work. The compass plane, used back side of the stuff,its fence working
for forming the face of concave ribs, etc., againstthe face side. When rebates have
was formerly made of beech wood. The to be made next to the face side of the
one generally used at the present time work a side fillister(Fig.75) is most useful ;
its fence is adjustableto the face,allowing the bottoms of rectangularcavities ; the

a rebate to be of any
made width within chariot plane (almost obsolete),
is used for
the breadth of the planeiron. These planes, the small parts of work which the smooth-
Fig. 69." Hollow Plane. Fig. 70." Round Plane. Fig. 75." Side Fillister.
and also the plough (Fig.76),are principally ing plane cannot get at, and for planing
used for grooving with the grain. They end grain and cross-grainwork ; chamfer
are not used so much as formerly,owing planes are used for taking off sharp edges
to the introduction of machinery in large to form chamfers ; mitre shooting planes
S\
Fig. 71." Sash Fig. 72. "

Sash Fig. 73. "
Ogee Fig. 76." Plough.

Plane. Plane. Moulding Plane.
are described
sufficiently by their name ;
shops, but indispensable
they to
are still and the plough plough plane (Fig.76),
or
"
joiners.For the working of hard
"
most used for cutting or ploughing grooves.
gun-metal
woods, to obtain perfectjoints, There are many other varieties of planes;
or iron planes known as the shoulder the names and uses of the more important
plane and bullnose plane are considered dispensable,
in-
as is also the steel smoothing
Fig. 74." Sash Fillister. Fig. 77. "

Ordinary Router.
plane which is used for cleaning face will be treated upon in some of the follow-
ing
up
work. The router, or
"
old woman's sections. Particulars of these may be
tooth "
(Fig.77), is used for working out found readilyby reference to the index.
Hand Saws.
tremes it would be impossibleto substitute
The cannot be classified with the
saw any ripping and panel saws one for the
other tool. It is essentially
a tool for use other. The hand saw, however, which is a
the fibre of the wood, and the separa- kind of compromise between
across tion extremes, is
not a tearingaction,as fully
is a cutting, used indiscriminately
for all purposes,
explainedin the work already alluded to.
The carpenter and joinerhas some six or
Fig. 78." Hand Saw.
Fig. 79." Tenon Saw. Fig. 80. " Bow or Frame Saw.
eight saws, comprising the rip, cross-cut, especially

by the carpenter. Fig. 78 is a
hand, panel,tenon, dovetail,bow or turn-

ing, saw with nibbed back. Straightback and
and keyhole. The hand-saw type in-
cludes skew back or round back saws are made, and
the hand saw proper, the ripping, the teeth of the latter do not requireto be
and panel saws,
half-ripping, all of similar set. The typicalhand saw has a blade which
outline,but differing
in dimensions and in is from 24 in. to 28 in. long. Its blade is
form and size of teeth. There is
no sharp as thin as possible,consistent with cient
suffi-
distinction between these tools, as they strengthto prevent the saw buckling
merge one into the other ; yet at the ex- under thrust ; the taper of the blade is
calculated to withstand the thrusting stress its teeth, three to the inch, are sharpened
without unduly increasingthe mass of square across the blade and set much
metal. very
The teeth are bent to right and forward ; this saw is used for cutting along
left alternatelythis being known the
"
as the grain, known as ripping. The tenon

saw (Fig.79) is used forcuttingshoulders
and in all cases where a clean cut is tial
essen-
; it obtains this by means of its fine

teeth. The dovetail saw is a small tenon
saw, it
being 6 in. or 8 in. long,whereas
the ordinarytenon saw is 12 in. or 14 in.
""""n
', I:.
Fig. 83. Fig. 84.
Figs. 83 and 84. "
Improved Saw Vice.
long. The bow saw, known also as the

turning saw or frame saw (Fig.80),cuts out
curved work with or across the grain, the
compass, turning,or lock saw (Fig.81) being
used for a similar purpose, and in cases where
Fig. 81. "
Compass Saw. Fig. 82." Pad Saw. a large saw could not be employed. A hole
key-
or pad saw (Fig.82) is used for small
set " and their outline is angular. The internal curved work.
teeth are so sharpened that their outer Appliances for Sharpening Saws. " For
points enter the wood first,the fibre being
during process of holding a hand saw the
divided by a gradually incisive kind
(Figs. 83 and 84)
of sharpening, a saw vice
action. Six teeth to the inch are suitable is used, there being many designs to choose
for a hand saw used for cuttingrough stuff, from. For sharpening Englishhand saws,
trimming joists, cutting rafters, etc. For the triangular file (Fig. 85) is corn-
Fig. 85." Triangular Saw File.
joiners'work the panel saw, 2 in. or 3 in. monly used ; its size varies with that of
shorter and much narrower, thinner, and the for which it is
saw required. Special
lighterthan the hand saw, is preferable.The shapes of files are for sharpening
necessary
rip saw has a blade about 28 in. long,and American cross-cut and rip saws. Saw
hammer head. There is the Exeter

files are made degreesof fineness.
in three or
For levellingdown or topping saw teeth London pattern (Fig.90), the Warrington
preparatory to sharpening,a flat file is
necessary. The anglesof saw teeth are set
off with a protractor or hinged rule. For
setting the teeth after they have been
sharpened that is, to bend each alternate
"
tooth to one side saw sets (Fig.86) are "
used, or instead, patent contrivances are
brought into requisition, these being so

arranged that all the teeth can readilybe
set to one line. A useful form of pliersaw
set is shown by Fig. 87, and the method of
91), and the adze-eye claw pattern

92), the last named being less used
Fig. 86. "

Saw Set with Gauge.
using it by Fig. 88. The amount of set

can be regulatedby the adjusting screw a.
For hammer setting,however, a settingiron

with bevelled edges is secured in the vice,
the saw laid flat upon it, and the teeth
struck one at a time with the pene of a small Set.
Fig. 88. " Method of using Plier Saw
hammer (Fig.89). This is the most factory
satis-
method of settingsaw teeth when than the others in the workshop, but being
the operator has the skill. convenient for many kinds of handi-
necessary very
Fig. 89. "

Hammer Setting Saw Teeth
Tools of Percussion and Impulsion. work. The hammer heads are of iron,with
Hammers. " The carpenter and joinerhas steel faces and penes. Two hammers,
the choice between two or three shapes of one weighingfrom 1 lb. to 1J lbs.,and the
also the Canadian or American pattern America, and by their means the screw is
shown by Fig. 95. The adze has a long, driven home merely by pressure on the
curved handle, and the operator stands top of the handle.
with one foot upon the wood in the line
Boring Tools.
of the fibre,and thus assists in steadying
the work. The variety in the of Bradawls. These have round stems and
shape "
the adze heads is very great, but it is suffi-

cient chisel edges (Fig. 99) ; thus the edge cuts
here to show the Scotch pattern the fibres of the wood and the wedge-like
(Fig.96). form of the tool pushes them aside. Its
Screwdrivers. " These are tools of sion,
impul- specialuse is for making comparatively
and at least two or three will be quired
re-
"
long and short, and with wide and

narrow blade. For general work, a tool
of medium length should be obtained, al-
though
there are, on the one hand, enthu-
siastic
advocates of a short tool, and on
the other long tool for each

hand of a
and every purpose. Any advantage gained

by a short over a long tool,or the reverse,
is one of advantage in special circumstances
only,and not one of saved energy ; theoretic-
Fig. 96. "

Scotch Adze Head.
ally,the length does not enter into sideration

con-
at all,except when, in starting

to extract a difficult screw, the driver is
tilted from the upright; but this is at the
risk of a broken tool edge and defaced
screw -head. The worker then must decide
for himself as to which sizes will best suit
his purposes. London screwdrivers have a
plain handle (Fig.97) or oval handle ;

Fig. 97." Plain Handle Fig. 98." Miller's Falls
cabinet screwdrivers are lightertools,and London Screwdriver. Automatic Screwdriver.
there is,indeed, a great variety of patterns
from which the worker can choose the small holes in soft wood, and the principal
tools that suit him. gimlet-handle
The limitation of the tool is that there is no
screwdriver has certain proved advantages ; provisionfor the waste material.

and the brace screwdriver "
a screwdriver Gimlets. " These are made in many forms,
bit used in
ordinary brace
an is useful for the best known being the twist (Fig. 100)
"
drivinggood-sizedscrews easily and quickly. and the shell (Fig.101),lesser known shapes
Short screwdrivers are used in screwing on being the twist-nose (Fig.102) and the auger
drawer locks,there being a much heavier (Fig. 103). Gimlets will bore end grain as
though just as short a tool used for screwing well as across the fibres,but there is a risk,
up plane irons. Automatic drivers

screw- in boring a narrow of
strip, the pointedscrew
(Fig. 98) were introduced from splitting the wood.
Brace and Bits. " There are various kinds of the shape shown for the twist-nose gimlet
of braces on the market, but the more by Fig.102 ; it screws itself into the wood,
generallyused are the two following
: A and the chips tend to rise out of the hole,
wooden brace with brass mountings is It is found to splitnarrow stripsof wood,
shown at Fig. 104. It is better to buy the but it answers well for all other purposes.
bits fitted to this brace, as they are more All the above bits can be obtained in a
truly centred than those bought separate great variety of sizes ; but exact size is
are likelyto be, and the centeringof the bits not guaranteed by the dealers,and the best
is" essential to their proper action. With plan is to bore a hole and measure, rather
the American pattern (Fig.105) this
brace
is not necessary, as by turning the socket
Fig. 101." Shell Gimlet.
Fig. 102. "

Twist-nose Gimlet.
Fig. 103. "
Auger Gimlet.
the jaws are expanded or contracted so as

Fig. 104. "
Wooden Fig. 105." Steel
to grip the shank of any size bit. This Brace. Brace.
kind of brace may be had with a ratchet
movement, which is very useful for boring than measure the bit. Holes are enlarged
or turning screws in corner positionswhere by means of a hollow taper bit. Patent
a complete revolution is not possible. Bits twist bits (Fig.106) having a screw centre
are known in very numerous forms. are known as screw bits, and these bore
The pin bit is like agouge sharpened well in wood and in direction,
any any
both inside and outside ; when its relievingthemselves of the chips and cutting
corners are removed, it becomes a shell
bit suited for boring at right angles
to the fibre of the wood. The spoon bit'
resembles the shell bit, but pointed ; it is
Fig. 106. "
Gedge's Twist Screw Bit.
is found to work easily,freely,and well.
The nose bit is of similar shape, but its true to dimensions. Centre bits are haps
per-
cutting edge a part is of the steel bent the most commonly (seeFigs. used bits
nearly to a right-angleand sharpened to 107 and useful for boring
108) ; they are
form a kind of chisel ; this tool is efficient large holes, and are much superior to shell
for boring the end way of the grain, but type bits in the important point of boring
not across the grain. The twist-nose bit exactly where the hole is required. Ex- panding
or half-twist,or Norwegian bit, is exactly centre bits (Fig. 109) are known,
and are a great convenience if of good edge of the spiralis a nicker which cuts the
quality. The Forstner auger bit (Fig.110) grain of the wood around the edge of the
is guided by its periphery instead of its hollow.
centre, and consequentlyit will bore any
arc of a circle,and can be guided in any
Fig. 112. "

Handled Steel Scraper.
Abrading and Scraping- Tools.
Steel Scrapers. " The scraper is a thin and

very hard steel plate,approximately 5 in.
by 3 in., with or without a handle (see
Fig. 107." Centre Bit Fig. 108." Centre Bit Fig. 112). Its action is reallythat of a
with Pin. with Screw. cuttingtool. It is used on a surface pre-
Fig. 110. "

Forstner Auger Bit.
Fig. 113. "
Action of Steel Scraper.
viouslymade as smooth and level as the

plane can make it. The scraper is so
sharpened that a burr or feather is formed

Fig. 111. "
Auger. along its edges (see the diagram, Fig.113).

The thickness of the scraper blade, which
direction of
regardless grain or knots, leav-
ing is about TV in., is shownexaggerated.
a hollow.
true, polished,cylindrical The edge is filed straight and flat, it is
Augers. " The auger (Fig.Ill) bores well then rubbed along the oilstone to remove
in the direction of the grain of the wood, and file marks, and the
finally edge is turned
is complete in itself. It is a steel rod, and sharpened by two heavy rubs with
having a round eye at one end, through a round steel burnisher held at an angle of
which a round wooden handle passes. At about 30" with the plate.
the other end is a spiraltwist terminatingin Glasspaper. " This is the chief abrading
a conical screw with a sharp point. The material used in woodworking, and consists
of strong paper coated with powdered glass Washita, and Arkansas. The Charnley
secured to the paper with glue. The dif- Forest is of a greenish-slatecolour, and
sometimes has small red or brown spots "
the lighterthe colour the better ; it may

take a little more rubbing than other stones
to get an edge on the tool,but that edge
will be keen and fine. Some Turkey stones
oil-
Rubber. are of a dark slate colour when oiled,,

Fig. 114. "
Glasspaper
with white veining and sometimes white
ferent grades of glasspaperare numbered spots ; they give a keen edge, but wear evenly,
un-
from 3 to 0, and even finer. For properly and also are very brittle ; they are
Fig. 115. "

Half-round Wood Rasp.
Fig. 116." Half-round Wood File.
using glasspapera rubber (Fig.114) is quired,

re- notoriouslyslow -cutting,and are expensive.
this being a shaped wooden block The cheapest oilstone at first cost is the Nova
faced with cork. In use the glasspaperis
folded round it. Glasspaper has entirely
replaced the old-fashioned sandpaper, which
was a similar material, except that fine,
sharp sand was used instead of powdered
glass.
Rasps and Files. " Woodworkers' rasps
are generallyhalf-round,though sometimes
flat. The wood rasp (Fig.115) is coarser
than the cabinet rasp. ordinary The half-

round wood file (bastard cut) is shown at
Fig. 116. Both range from 4 in. to 14 in.
in length. The usual files used for keeping
saws in order chieflyare known as lar
triangu-
taper (Fig.85), and have already been
alluded to.
Grindstones. " The grindstone (Fig.117),
many varieties of which are obtainable, is
an appliance for
removing a superfluous
thickness of metal, not for producing a good
edge. It should be of a lightgrey colour,
even throughout.
Oilstones. On an oilstone
"
the joiner
sharpens his tools, which have been viously
pre-
ground to shape on the grindstone.
The oilstones in most general use are four
in number " the Charnley Forest, Turkey, Fig. 117. " Treadle Grindstone on Iron Stand
Scotia,or Canada stone, which is brownish which is sprinkleda littleflour emery and
yellow in colour when new, changing to a oil, this working more quickly than a
yellowishgrey by use, and wearing away proper stone, but not givingso finished an
rather quickly. The Washita stone cuts edge.
more quickly than a Turkey stone, and Nails, Screws, and Glue.
also more regularly.Some kinds are of a
whitish grey or lightbuff colour when oiled. Nails. "
Nails may be of iron, steel,etc.,
The Arkansas stone is compact and white, wrought, cast, cut, or made of wire. merly
For-
and grain than the Washita.
finer in It nails were said to be 6-lb., 8-lb.,etc.,
wears well and cuts slowly,producing fine accordingas 1,000 of the varietyweighed
edges. Oilstones generallyare about 8 in. that amount hence now such meaningless "
long, 2 in. wide, and 1 in. thick, a very terms as sixpenny, eightpenny,and ten-
" "
convenient width being 1J in. A small oil-stone penny nails,in which penny is a corrup-
tion
"
of 4 in. by 1\ in. is useful for sharpen-
ing of pound." Of the nails commonly
spokeshaves, and pieces or slips of used in carpentry and joinery, the cut clasp
"
nail, machine-made from sheet iron
(probablysteel),
may any be used for almost
purpose, and is not liable to split

the work.
Rose-head nails have a shank parallelin
width, but tapered to a chisel point in
thickness ; these are made of tough
wrought iron, are used chieflyfor and
field-gatesand fencing. Wrought clasp
nails resemble the cut clasp, but have
sharper points, and are used chieflyin
common ledged doors, as they will readily
clinch. Oval steel nails are nicelyshaped,
very tough, and are less likelyto splitthe
material than any other kind of nail ;
slightshallow grooves in the shank increase
Fig. 118. "
Oilstone in Plain Case. the holding power. Brads are known in
more than one variety. The cut-steel large
stone of various sizes and shapes are quired
re- brad is used in flooring,and does not make
for gouges, router cutters, etc. It nail. The
such a largehole as a cut cut-
is usual to keep oilstone in box steel small brad is used for
an a or case general pur-
poses.
(Fig. 118). Neat's-foot oil or sperm oil French nails are of round wire,
commonly is considered best for oilstone round, flat heads they
pointed,and have ;
use lard oil containingsufficient paraffin their unsightlyheads
; are strong,but cause
to prevent it going thick in cold weather their use to be confined to rough work.
is also recommended. Many other oils are
used for the purpose, but all tend to harden

the surface of the stone much more quickly
than neat's-foot or The oil can
sperm.
be kept in a bench oil-can,which will come Fig. 119. "
Square Nail Set or Punch.

in generallyuseful.
Emery Oilstones and Oilstone Substitutes, The double-pointednail is intended for
"
Emery oilstones are an American duction,

intro- dowelling and other purposes.
and are made of Turkish Nail Sets or Punches. For punching nail
emery, "
one face being of fine and the other of heads below the surface of the work a steel
medium coarse material. They have the set (Fig.119) of or round section is
square
advantage over any natural oilstone of being used.
uniform in texture, and of not being brittle. Screws. " The screw nail commonly used
Oilstone substitutes are stripsof zinc upon for unitingwoodwork is known as the wood
screw, and, although it has been in use a nearlytransparent,and with but little taste
long time, the present pointed screw was or smell. It should moderately be hard and
not made prior to the year 1841. The brittle, not readily affected by moisture
screw replacesnails in all fixingwhere the in the atmosphere, and should break sharply,
hammer cannot conveniently be used or but if it shivers as easilyas a pieceof glass
where jarringmust be avoided. The screw it is much too brittle,though at the same
time it must not be tough and leathery.
Roughly speaking,a glue which will sorb
ab-
more water than able.another
prefer- is
Good glue doesgive off an un-
not
pleasant
smell after being prepared a few

Fig. 120." Flat Head Wood Screw. days. In the workshop, different kinds of
glue-potsare used, according to the tity
quan-
required. The usual glue-pothas an
outer and an inner vessel and is shown in

section at Fig. 123. When glue is used
in large quantities,and steam pipes are
Fig. 121. Round Head Wood Screw.
"
laid on for heating purposes, the glue is

kept hot on a water bath heated by steam
pipes. The joinerprepares glueby break-
ing
it into small pieces, soaking these
Fig. 122. "
Cup Wood Screw.
possesses ten times the compression and

attractive strength of ordinary nails,and,
besides, is convenient for use in putting
work together which is soon to be taken Fig. 123. " Section through a Glue-pot.
down. Screws are made in almost endless
variety, but the best known three are : in clean,cold water for several hours, and
flat-head screw (Fig. 120), made of iron, then boilingthe res ulting lumps of jelly "
steel, brass ; round-head

or screw (Fig.121), the superfluouswater having been poured
which is generallyjapanned and used for off " in a double-vessel glue-pot for an
fixingbolts,locks,etc. ; cup screw (Fig.122), hour or two, or until the glue runs easily
the head of which fits into a cup (as illus-
trated) from the brush without breakinginto drops.
which is let into the work flush A glue-brush can be bought for a few
with the surface. pence, and its bristles should be tively
compara-
Glue, Glue-pots, and Glue-brushes. Glue, " short. A cane brush is preferred
size,and gelatine are varieties of the same by many workers, this being made with
substance, differingonly in the quantity a pieceof rattan cane about 8 in. long,the
of moisture and of impuritieswhich they flintyskin for an inch or so at one end
contain. substances
Gelatine-yielding ployed
em- being cut away, the end soaked in boiling
in glue manufacture include skins water for a minute or two, and then mered
ham-
of all animals, tendons, intestines,bladders, tillthe fibres are loosened ; this brush
bones, hoofs, and horns. Glue is manu-
factured lasts as long as there is any cane left from
by boilingthe animal matter and which to hammer out a fresh end.
strainingthe product into coolers,where it Other Tools and Appliances. "
Many other
thickens into a jelly,
which is cut into sheets tools and appliancesnot in such general
and dried in the open air on frames of wire use will be illustrated and described in nection
con-
netting. Glue should be of bright brown

a with the matter treated in some
or amber colour,free from specksor blotches, of the other sections (seeindex).

2
TIMBER.
Growth of Timber Trees.

of the tender sapwood ; it receives tions
addi-
Structure of Tree Trunk. "
Trees which on the inside during the autumn, which
produce timber are known botanically as cause it to crack and become very irregular
exogens, or outward growers, because the in old trees. The mode of growth is as
new wood is added underneath the bark follows : In the spring moisture from the
outside that already formed. The whole earth is absorbed by the roots, and rises
section (Fig. 124) consists of (a) pith in the through the stem as to form the leaves.
sap
centre, which dries up and disappears as The leaves give off moisture and absorb
the tree matures ; (b) woody fibre or long carbon (in the form of carbonic acid gas),
which thickens the In the autumn
sap.
the sap descends inside the bark and adds
a new layer of wood to the tree. The

actual growth is less regular than appears
in Fig. 124, and more resembles Fig. 125.
Formation of Wood. "
Fig. 125 further
illustrates the manner in which the stem
of a timber tree grows by the deposit of
successive layers of wood on the outside
under the bark, while at the same time the

bark becomes thicker by the deposit of
layers on its under side. Upon examining
Fig. 124." Cross Section of Stem of
Timber Tree. the cross section of an oak log as Fig. 125,

it is found that the wood is made up of
tapering bundles of vascular tissue forming several concentric layers or rings, each
the duramen heartwood, in in general of two
or arranged ring consisting parts, the
rings, each of which is considered to sent
repre- outer part being usually darker in colour,
a year's growth, and interspersed with denser, and more solid than the inner part,
(c) medullary rays or transverse septa sisting
con- the difference between the parts varying in
of flat,hard plates of cellular tissue different kinds of trees. These layers are
known to carpenters as
"
silver-grain," or called annual rings, because one of them is,
" "
felt," or flower," and showing most as a rule, deposited every year in a manner
strongly in oak and beech : the heartwood which will be presently explained. In the
is comparatively dry and hard, from the centre of the first layer is a column of pith,
compression produced by the newer layers ; from which planes, seen in section as thin
(d) alburnum, or sapwood, which is the mature
im- lines (in many
woods not discernible),
woody fibre
recently deposited. In radiate the bark, and in some cases towards
coniferous trees
sapwood the
is only dis-
tinguishable
similar lines from the bark towards
converge
by a slight greenish tinge when the centre, but do not reach the pith (see
dry, but when wet it holds the moisture Figs. 125 and 126). These radiating lines
much longer than the heartwood, and known medullary or transverse
can are as rays
often be detected in that (e) the bark, When they of large size and
way ; septa. are
which is protecting in kinds of

a coat on the outside strongly marked, as some oak.
2G
sectionof the annual rings,owing to the At the top end, where the growing is taking
straightcut through the bent tree. The place,the new leaves arise inside the old
medullary rays are seen edgeways as fine ones, and press them outwards and wards
down-
lines in this section, whilst the annual
layers as they grow. The old leaves tually
even-
form beautiful wavy and

hearty grain. A die, and hang like aragged sheath
plank cut so as to contain part of the centre around the stem. The leaves are parallel-
pith of the tree as shown at f, in Fig. 126, veined. The flowers are mostly on the
would be least affected in breadth by plan of three. The seed is entire : hence
shrinking. Monocotyledons. Few endogens live to be
Difference Between Exogenous and genous
Endo- 300 years old. Nearly all the principal
Timber. "
Exogens and endogens are kinds belong to tropicalor sub-tropical

very different in internal structure and in climates examples are the palms,bamboos,
"
outward appearance. The exogens, as has grasses, and lilies. There are no endogenous
been explained, increase in size by the addi-
tion trees indigenous to England, and it is
of new material at the outside of the believed that the only British endogenous
stem "
justunder the bark. They continue shrub is the butcher's broom " Ruscus
to increase in diameter as well as in height aculeatum.
throughout their whole lifetime. This Function of Sap. " The action of the sap
growth may be carried on continuously, may now be described in fuller detail. In
as in the cactuses, or by
intermittently, the springthe roots absorb from the soil
abrupt advances
periodical and cessations, moisture,which, converted into sap, ascends
as in the forest trees. The hardest portion through the cellular tubes to form the
of the stem is towards the centre. The leaves. upperAtsurface of the leaves
the
" "
fibro -vascular bundles are open " that the sap gives off moisture, absorbs carbon
is, capable of further development. There from the air, and becomes denser ; after
is a distinct and separablebark, and usually the leaves are vegetationis
full-grown, pended
sus-
a number of branches. The trunk and until the autumn, when the sap in
branches are crooked.
frequently The leaves its altered state descends, by the under
are articulated,and drop off neat or clean side of the leaves,chiefly between the wood
from the tree. The veins in the leaves and the bark, where it depositsa layer of
ramify,forming an network.
irregular The new wood (the annual ring for that year),
flowers,when present,have, a portionat
as a rule,four the same time being absorbed
or five sepalsand petals,etc., or multiples by the bark. During this time the leaves
of these. The seeds (except in conifers) drop off,the flow
of sap then almost stops,
splitin two. The oak, apple, laburnum, and vegetationis at a standstill for the
and the wallflower are examples of exogens. winter. With the next springthe operation
Some exogens live to be more than a recommences, so that after a year a distinct
thousand years old. Endogens mainly crease layer of wood
in- is added to the tree. The
in size by end growth. There is above descriptionrefers to temperate cli-
mates,
lateral distension for a time, but this soon in which the circulation of sap stops
ceases, and then the tree remains of nearly during the winter ; in tropicalclimates
uniform diameter throughout its life. There it stops during the dry season. Thus, as
are no annual rings " the growth being a rule, the age of the tree can be tained
ascer-
mostly continuous. The hardest portionof from the number of annual rings;
the stem is at the outside, where a false but this is not always the case. times
Some-
rind made up of broken leaf -ends, etc., is a recurrence of exceptionally warm or
formed, but no bark. The fibro -vascular moist weather will produce a second ring
"
bundles become "
limited," or closed," in the same year.
after a certain period,after which they serve Heartwood and Sapwood. " A young tree
only strengthen
to the stem. The trunk is almost sapwood, all but as it matures
is straight,
or nearlyso, and seldom has this is graduallychanged into heartwood
any
branches. If it does have branches, more rapidlythan sapwood is added, and as
any
as in bamboo, then these are straighttoo. the tree increases in age, the inner layersare
TIMBER. 29
filled up and hardened, becoming duramen or this makes it drier, and

lighter, more resilient
heartwood, the remainder being alburnum or springy. It is less liable to twist, warp,
or sapwood. The sapwood is softer and or split. The advantages of using seasoned
lighterin colour than
heartwood, andthe timber are that it works more easilyunder
can generally be easilydistinguishedfrom the saw and plane,and retains its size and
it. In addition to the strengtheningof the shape after it leaves the hands of the penter
car-
wood caused by the drying up of the sap, or joiner. Unseasoned stuff warps
and consequent hardening of the rings,there and shrinks,and, besides being unsightly,is
is another means by which it is strengthened liable to cause failures in structures of which
" that is,by the compressive action of the it may form a it is also very liable to
part ;
bark. Each layer,as it solidifies,
expands, decay from putrefactionof its sap.
exerting a force on the bark, which ally
eventu- Natural Processes of Seasoning Timber. "
yields,but in the meantime offers a Timber produced from a newly felled tree
slight resistance, compressing the tree is full of moisture, and this must be tracted
ex-
throughout its bulk. The sapwood is by drying or seasoning. Timber

generallydistinctlybounded by one of the cut down in the autumn, after the sap has
Fig. 127. "

Hardwood Stacked for Seasoning.
annual rings, and can thus be sometimes formed the new layers of wood, is best
from
distinguished stains of a similar colour, seasoned by cuttingit into planksand stack-
ing
which are caused by dirty water soaking them horizontallyin open order under
into the timber while it is lyingin the ponds. cover, exposed to a free current of air,and
These stains do not generallystop abruptly protected from ground moisture. Hard
upon a ring, but penetrate to different woods generallystacked with thin strips
are
depths, colouringportions of the various between placed transversely every

them,
rings. The heartwood is stronger and more 2 ft. or so (Fig. 127), and soft woods by
lasting than the sapwood, and should laying them on edge with spaces between,
alone be used in good work. The annual the direction being crossed in adjacent
rings are generallythicker on the side of courses. The time occupiedis,say, two years.
the tree that has had most sun and air,and Balk timber is best seasoned by puttingit
the heart is,therefore,seldom in the centre. under water ina running stream for a few
weeks, then stacking it looselywith some
Seasoning Timber.
protectionfrom sun and rain. These are
Advantages of Seasoned Timber. Seasoned termed natural For protecting

processes.
"
timber differs from unseasoned principally the stacked timber from the action of the
in having the sap and moisture removed ; and high winds, shed with ends,
sun a open
or with louvred sides " that is, with sides by 1 in. between each layer,about 2 ft.
after the fashion of Venetian blinds "
proves or 4 ft. apart (Fig. 127), or arranged in

satisfactory.In stackingtimber tally,
horizon- some similar manner, to be kept
theôbject
it should be laid perfectlyflat and level in view being to allow free circulation of air
in breadth and straight in length. The usual round nearlythe whole of each piece, ally
gradu-
" "
plan is to lay sleepers or cross -bearers carrying off a greater part of the sap
on the ground, and then stack upon these. and moisture from the timber. To prevent
The ground on which the timber is to be planks and boards from
splitting the ends
seasoned should be properlydrained so as to up the centre, they are clamped by nailing
carry off
drivingrain. It should also be stripsof wood to the ends as indicated at a
.
protectedfrom vegetablegrowth ; therefore (Fig.127). Timber seasoned as above is said
"
"
Fig. 128. "
Single Sturtevant Apartment Drying Kiln, Section.
it is a good plan to have the ground covered to retain that

properties render it stronger,
with asphaltedpaving, or with a layer of heavier, more elastic and and
flexible, much
smith's or furnace ashes to prevent veget-
able more durable than timber seasoned by
growth contaminating the stacked artificialprocesses.
timber and bringingabout wet rot, or in Seasoning
Artificially Timber. " There are
some cases from becoming the source of the various artificial processes of seasoningin
development of dry rot after the timber has use which expedite the work and shorten
been inserted in a building. The lowest the time necessary between fellingand
layer of timber should rest upon bearers using,but the strength and toughness of
which should be arranged all in one plane the timber are'reduced. The methods are
" that is, out of winding, otherwise the "
desiccating,or using hot-air chambers,

timber stacked upon them would become smoking, steaming, and boiling.To reduce
permanentlytwisted. This is very impor-
tant. the risk of the ends
splitting in the drying
The timber should be stacked in process, they are clamped " that is, thin
layers,with a space between each piece in piecesare nailed over the end grainso that
the same row, and strips of wood about J in. the ends may dry uniformlywith the other
TIMBER. 31
parts. McNeile's process is said to be very Modern Method of Artificially

good : the wood to be seasoned is exposed
Seasoning Timber.
to a moderate heat in a moist atmosphere
charged with the products of combustion, Nature seasoning takes so long that it
say C02, which is supposed to convert the keeps idle a vast amount of capital. By
sap to woody fibre and drive out the mois-
ture. artificial means timber can be dried in fewer
Smoke-drying over an open wood days than it takes months by the natural
" "
Fig. 129. "

Four-chamber Sturtevant Drying Kiln, Section.
fire drives out the sap and moisture and consequentlyimprovements in the
process,
renders the wood more durable and less methodsof seasoningare constantly being
liable to attack by worms. Burying logs in sought for. A large quantity of deals,
sand is a method of artificial seasoning. battens, planks, etc., receive a first season-
ing
The disadvantage of artificial seasoning is before being placed on the market.

that the drying is too rapid, The
method of most effective artificial methods of
and seems to take away the stabilityof the seasoning are probably of American origin.
material, leavingit less firm, more brittle, The followingtwo systems are largelyin
and duller in appearance. use.
The "Sturtevant" System of Drying within the kiln, and thus prevents the
exterior of the stack drying too quickly
Timber.
and becoming simply skin dried. fectly
Per-
Rapid and efficient drying is effected
green coniferous timber one inch
by subjectingthe timber to a continual thick can be dried within six days, other
passage of warm dry air in a kiln structed
con- thicknesses in proportion. It is claimed
of wood or brick into which hot that by this process the outside of the wood
air is introduced by a fan. Fig. 128 shows is kept open, which allows the,,moisture
a sectional view. The from the heart to :,without
escape
air is first heated by splitting,warping, or discolouring
a Sturtevant heater taking place. Pig. 129 is a sectional
e to the desired view of a large kiln having four
temperatureby either compartments. Timber is erected in
ive or exhaust stacks, on trucks running on rails,
Fig. 130. " Erith's Patent Automatic Drying Kiln, General View.
steam, which ensures ture

tempera- that the and is thus easilyconveyed in and out
never exceeds Then, by 212" F. of the kiln.
means of the fan f, it is forced through the
Erith's Patent Automatic Timber
outlets of the supply duct b into the kiln,
Drier.
circulatingcompletely round the timber.
Owing to the high temperature of the air These kilns may be of wood or brick.
it rapidly absorbs moisture and is then For carrying out this system of drying
passed into the atmosphere, or it may be timber one form of kiln is shown at Fig.
returned to the apparatus to be reheated 130. The timber is conveyed into the
and the absorbing process repeated. The kiln by being stacked upon trucks running
return ducts a and c serve a double purpose on rails,and as the timber is dried, it is
by utilising
the remaining air which comes passed out at the opposite end. A canvas
graduallyladen with moisture ; the pro-
cess roller door is provided at each end which
of reheating serves, by regulation, works on the roller-blind but fitting
principle,
to maintain any desired degreeof humidity almost air-tight.This system dries wood
TIMBER. 33
by the circulation of warm but very moist air. Artificially

Seasoning Timber Small
Its operationis automatic, no machinery 5tuff.
or power being required. The apparatus A method
sometimes adoptedfor seasoning
consists of specially
arrangedsteam radiator small
piecesof timber,especially for tool
coils,in which exhaust or live steam may making,and other purposes, ispossible wher-
ever
be used ; they are placedbeneath the rails a Supply of steam from the boiler or "
near the discharging end of the building.exhaust of a steam engine is available. "
Air flows under the radiator coils,

and rises, The piecesof wood are stacked in a
at the same time travelling through the steam chest (seeFig.131) or a barrel (Fig.
stacks of wood, thus graduallydrawing 132) and allowed to become thoroughly
Fig. 131. " Steam Chest for Small Pieces of Timber.
moisture from it. As the air becomes saturated with steam; This will take from
more laden with moisture it sinks between two to twelve hours, accordingto the kind
the rails and flows towards the loadingend, and thickness of the wood. No pressure
where it is allowed to escape. This circu-
lation required,but the door of the chest or
is
may be regulatedby a few simple top of the barrel should be closed with a
dampers. The timber is dried from the lid ; the fitting
is not close,allowing the
centre outwards, the surfaces finishing
last ; steam which has circulated round the wood
therefore case-hardening, splitting,
ing
warp- to escape. For this the apparatus
reason
and other injuries

are prevented. By is kept outside a building.The material
this system it is claimed that timber beingtreated is keptfrom the bottom proper
which would requirea year to dry in the to allow the steam to become evenlydistri-
buted.
open can be dried in a week ; this, of The use of this method is very
course, is a great advantage. limited, because by it the natural colours
2*
:^4 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY.
of many woods are more or of the medullaryrays, the shrink-

less changed, direction
age
in
especially the case of beech,only slight, the
as colour
shown by the board is
of which is changed from a dull white to P, Fig. 126. If the log is whole, the
the familiar reddish tint. After it is taken shrinkage causes shakes and wind -cracks ;
out the wood is piled under cover in the if cut up into planks or quartering, the
ordinary manner and allowed to dry ; shrinkage is determined by the positionof
this, in small thin material, usually the annual rings, and, with care, shakes are
takes three weeks or a month. The not caused. The wood curls or bends
drying time might be considerablyshort-
ened breadthwise,with the edges turning on the
by utilisingthe space above the side which is farthest away from the heart.
boiler as a drying loft. A temperature of This is illustrated at e, g, and h, Fig. 126.
120" F. to 180" F. (obtainableabove most This circumstance must always be considered
in fixingtimber in position.
Preserving Timber.
Bethell 's Process. " There are a number of

preservativeprocesses other than ing
season-
which are of value in increasingthe

durabilityof timber. Bethell's process,
also known as consists
placing
creosoting, in
piecesof seasoned timber in closed wrought-

iron cylinders, from which, and also from
the pores of the wood, the air is extracted.
known
Oil-of-tar, as creosote, is then forced
into the cylindersand pores of the wood,
at a temperature of about 120", and under
a pressure of 60
lb. per square
lb. to 170
inch, accordingto the porosityof the wood
and the purpose for which it is required.
The quantity forced into the wood varies
from 3 lb. per cubic foot in some hard woods
to 12 lb. in soft woods.
Fig. 132. " Barrel for Seasoning Small Timber.
Bouchere's Process. " This consists in
boilers)would get the drying over in a placinga reservoir,containing100 parts in
day or two, but the material should not weight of water to 1 part of sulphateof
be transferred to such apositiondirect copper, in a positionabout 40 ft. or 50 ft.
from the steam-box ; let it have a few days' above the timber, and connecting it by a
ordinary drying first. The apparatus illus-
trated flexible tube to a cap which is fixed tight
by Fig.132 is also suitable for steam- to one end of the piece of timber under
bending purposes. treatment. pressureThe for is sufficient

Shrinkage During Seasoning. During sea-
soning "
the fluid to force out the sap at the other
a large proportion of the moisture end and take its placein the pores of the
evaporates,causingthe fibres to shrink and timber.

the timber to become less in bulk and weight. Burnett's System. "
By this system a fluid

Timber is considered fit for carpenters' is prepared in the proportionof 1 lb. of
work when it has lost one-fifth of its weight, chloride of zinc to 4 gal. of water. The
and for joiners'
work when it has lost one- timber is sometimes laid in a bath of this
third. It also becomes fluid until it has absorbed sufficient ;
lighterin colour or
and more easilyworked. The shrinkageis the solution is forced under pressure into
scarcelyperceptible
in the length,but is the timber. The value of the above cesses
pro-
considerable in the width, measuring lies in the of
preservation the timber
very
circumferentially the annual from dry and wet rot, and, in the of the
on rings (see case
e and g, Fig. 126). Radially,or in the latter two systems, from most insects, so
shown a (Fig.138) is best,and that at b

at and seasoning. It will be
Fig. noticed that
second best, the object being to get the 140 undergoes the least change. At
Fig.143
greatest number of pieces with the face two planks are represented occupying
nearlyparallel
to the medullary rays. The adjacent positionsin the same log. Fig.
method shown at c makes less waste, but 144 indicates the change in shape of each
does not show up the grainso well ; while after conversion and seasoning. The centre
Fig. 140. Fig. 141.
Fig. 140. "

Scantling from Centre.
Fig. 141." Scantling from Side.
Fig. 139. "
Square Scantlings.
Fig. 138. "
Converting Oak into

Fig. 142. "
Scantling from Edge.

Boards.
Fig. 144. "

Alteration of Form
in Planks.
Fig. 143." Planks.
Fig. 145. "
Warping of Planks.
Fig. 148. "

Well Jointed Planks.
Fig. 147. "

Oak Plank showing
Fig. 146. Plank Cut to show
Figure.
"
Figure. Fig. 149." Badly Jointed Planks.
d is the most economical when largerscant-

lings plank and those to the left in Fig. 145
are required. indicate how boards cut from the log tend
to shrink and if unrestrained. If the
warp
How the Cutting of Timber Affects
boards are cut as shown at K, there would
its Use. be the least alteration in form. Timber
The method cuttingtimber has a big should be cut as represented
of at Fig. 146 in
effect upon its use. Fig. 139 shows order to show the figure formed by the
square
scantlings occupying three different positions annual rings. When it is required to obtain
in the same log; Figs.140 to 142 show the oak panels, etc., showing the beautiful
alteration of form in each pieceafter sawing markings of the medullaryrays, the timber
TIMBER. 37
should be cut as shown at Fig. 147. By v/(FD)2 + D B2 ^SO A F

a/(ab)2 (p b)'2-
arranging boards as in Fig. 148 a better
Let 1; then
jointis made than that shown at Fig. 149.
ab = fd
y" x
When mouldings are prepared from wood

which has been cut so that the annual rings FB
^W) + (if =
A
are nearlyparallel
to the breadth (see Fig. -a/2 F B
is almost be AF
,
yp_ ^_ and
150), there sure to more or -,
= 1 =
v/| _ =
a/3 /3 A F
less shrinkage,which will, of course, take
place in the breadth and thus produce an
Fig. 152. "

Strongest Beam from a Round Log,
Fig. 150. "
Shrinkage of Moulding.
i y2 i
.
When the diameter of

open mitre although the work-
asmanshipshown, v/3
'
v/3 ^2-
may be first rate. Fig. 151 shows
i ,7 4.1. a *i
v/2 1-414
the best arrangement, the annual ringsbeing log a b = d, the depth ap = z~ =- " " =
at rightanglesto the breadth.

"816c/,
and the breadth pb = "
= =
Cutting Strongest Beam from Round v/3 1-732

"mid.
Log.
It must be fullyunderstood, of that
By mathematical
investigation Fig. 152 course,
the above shows only the mathematical
shows of findingthe
the graphic method
that can be cut calculation correspondingto the graphic
strongest rectangular
beam
Fig. 151. " Best Arrangement of Grain in Fig. 153. "

Stiffest Beam from a Round Log.
Mouldings.
diagram, and does not in any way prove
out of a round log of timber. The diameter the statement that this beam will be the
is divided into three equal parts,and per- strongestthat can
pendiculars be cut out of a round log.
are raised on oppositesides on The calculations necessary to prove that
the inner ends of the outer divisions. The statement would probably be a laborious
four points in which the circumference is matter. But given such a beam, its strength
touched are then joinedto give the beam could be calculated by ordinary formula,
1 and then another beam
The is
f b
slightlynarrower,
a e b f. proportion and
a/- a beam slightlybroader, both in-scribed
because by Euclid II. 14, âd x in the circle,could be tested by
= f d, and by Euclid I. 47, f b the same formula.
Stiffest Beam from Round the rings the stronger the timber.
Cutting
rower
The colour should be uniform
throughout,
Log.
and not become suddenly lightertowards
The stiffest rectangularbeam that can the edges. Good timber is sonorous when
be cut out of a round log of timber is shown struck ; a dull sound indicates decay. In
in Fig. 153, where the diameter is divided specimens of the same class of timber the
into four equal parts, but otherwise the heavier is generally the stronger.
construction and calculation will be on
Marking Out Timber for Pit Sawing.

Pit sawyers employ various methods for
liningtimber that is to be sawn ; one reli-
Fig. 154." Lining Log Timber.

Fig. 156." Ochre Box,
FB
similar lines to the above, resultingin able method is shown by Fig. 154. The
' 6
AF
j wedge boy (as he is termed) holds the string
" "
-
; and with a log of diameter ab =
"
v o centrallyat one end of the log, and the
d the depth of the stiffest beam will be sawyer holds it at the other end. The
"866d and the breadth '5d. stringis then pulledtight,and one of the
sawyers raises it at the (the string

centre
Selecting- Timber. should not be raised exactlyvertical,but
See that timber is free from sap, large or pulledslightly
at one side),then lets it go,
loose knots,flaws,shakes,stains or blemishes so as to strike lengthof the
a line the whole
of any kind. A lightportionnear edgeone log. plumb-linea is then hung over the
A
indicates sap, and an absence of grainwill end of the log by one of the sawyers, and
be observed on it. This portion decays when perfectly
plumb with the centre line,
first and gets soft. The darker the natural it is pulledtightlyagainstthe bottom edge
of the log. The other sawyer pulls the
stringand strikes a central vertical line,as
shown at b. A similar line is struck at the
other end of the log,after which the thick-
Fig. 157." Wood for Pulling String.
Fig. 155." Lining Balk Timber. ness of the planks that are to be sawn is
pricked off with a pair of compasses, as
wood, the lighter

is the sappy portionusually indicated by the dots on the end of the log.
when dry. Good timber should be uniform The plumb-lineis againhung over the end
in substance, straightin fibre, and not of the log in perfectline with the
compass
twisted,warped, or waney. Diagonalknots marks. Vertical lines,as before,are then
are particularly
objectionablein timber for lines.
struck,then correspondinglongitudinal
piles. Good timber should smell sweet When lininga square balk, a centre line is
when fresh cut, and it has a firm, bright first struck, then the thickness of the planks
surface,and does not clog the saw. The is prickedoff,as shown inFig.155, and the
annularringsshould be fairlyregular and lines are struck. The plumb-lineis then
approximatelycircular ; the closer and nar- hung over the end, as shown, and the vertical
TIMBER. 39
lines are struck. The log or balk is now The safe load in tension and compression
turned over, and longitudinallines corre-
sponding (columns 3 and 4) would be from one-tenth
with the vertical lines are struck. to one-fifteenth of the amounts given. The
To make
an impressionthat may be clearly safe bearing pressure across the grain of
seen, the top and end lines are struck with timber as at the ends of a beam will be about
a string that has been passed through a one-fifth of the amounts given in column 6.
mixture of red ochre and water of the sistency
con- Column 5 gives the coefficient c in the mula
for-
of thin paste. The stringused for w = c b d2 -r- l, and the safe load
liningthe under side of the timber is passed would be about one-sixth of w for temporary
through whiting. A red or dark line can work, or one-tenth for permanent loads.
be better followed by the top sawyer,
while from underneath a white line can be
best seen. The ochre is placed in a little
box (seeFig. 156) and water added. There
is a handle at c, and a notch at d. The
string is placed in the box and drawn
through the notch. A thin piece of Fig. 158. Fig. 159. Fig. 160.
wood, as Fig. 157, is placed on the string Beam
Fig. 158." 6 in. x 6 in. Fig. 159." Beam
while it is being pulledthrough the notch, 6 in. 3 in. Fig. 160." Beam 12 in. x 3 in.
otherwise it would be necessary for the
fingerand thumb guide the string,

to and
Calculating Strength of Timber
to remove the surplusochre that may be
Beams.
on it.
The strength of
solid timber beams varies
Weight and Strength of Timber. as the
square of the depth,directly as the
width, and inversely as the span. Thus, in
These particulars
are given in the panying
accom-
beam 6 in. square
a (Fig.158),multiplying
table.
the width bythe square of the depth gives
6 x 62 = 6 36x 216 ; and if this beam
=
was sawn down the middle, there would be

3 x 62 = 3 x 36 = 108 (Fig.159). Another
case is that of a beam 12 in. deep and 3 in.
wide (Fig. 160), and the corresponding
figure then is 3 x 122 = 3 x 144 = 432.
The ordinaryformula for the strength of a
beam lying loose on the bearingsat each
end, and with central load (Fig.161),is as
O
,
Fig. 161." Loose Beam with Central Load.
follows,when b breadth in inches, d2 =

=
square of depth in inches, l length of =
bearing in feet, c constant, for which =
Barlow and Tredgoldgive a value for

Eiga
of c 4f cwt.
= This constant is obtained
from the results of trials, but it must be
noted that such tests
vary considerably.
The strengthof will vary in the same timber
cargo, and allowance must be made for the
difference in the growth and fibres of the
various pieces,and for the effect of shakes, An experiment was made some time ago
knots, etc. For example, the case of a by Kirkaldy on the strengthadded to a
balk 13J in. square and 10 ft. 6 in. span beam by the fixingon the top of the beam
gave 1,114 cwt. as the result

accordingto of a flat iron bar. The span of the beam
Tredgold, and 1,120 cwt.according to was 24 ft.,and the depth and width were
Barlow. The same size and quality of 14 in. and 12 in. respectively.
According
timber tested by the Mersey Dock Engineers to the above formula, with a constant of 3,
the central breaking load should be
142 x 12 x 3
= 294 cwt. = 14| tons, or
24
142 x 12 x 2-5
with constant of 2*5 = 245
Fig. 162." Beam with Wrought Iron Strap. 24
cwt. = 12 J tons. When
experiment the
gave a result of 610 cwt. only,againstthe was made, however, snapped sud-
denly
the beam
preceding figures.It appears from the with a central load of 10 tons, showing
latter example that the constant should be that the above constants were too high for
reduced to, say, 2*6 2*3,or 2 '5 to 3 this A similar beam
or
say case. (Fig.162) was
for Memel timber. The formula then is then provided with a wrought-ironstrap
D^ C fixed it found that
B on the top, and was then
W
the beam slowlyand graduallyunder
failed
where w is the breaking weight in cwt. in a load of 13 tons an experiment which
"
the centre of the span. We then have for showed that added strengthwas given to
Fig. 163. "
Cup-shake in Log. Fig. 164. "

Cup-shake in Balk. Fig. 165. " Heart-shake in Log.
a beam 12 in. wide, 11 in. deep, and 24 ft. the beam by the addition of the iron bar.
span, a strength of In other kinds of timber possiblythe iron

12 x ll2 x 3 *
strengtheningbar should be on the other
"
^
= 181*5 cwt. = 9 tons H 2 cwt.
24 side of the beam.
Kirkaldy'sexperimentswith a beam of this
span and size showed the strength to be

10 tons. It is considered that timber has
a set with only one-fifth of its breaking load,
and is reallysafe when loaded to only one-
sixth of the breakingload. If the beam is
fixed at both ends, it is strongerthan when
only supported at the ends as 3 is to 2.

Some qualitiesof timber are stronger in Fig. 166. "
Heart-shake in Balk.
tension than in compression, whilst others

Defects in Balk Timber.
have just the oppositequalities.Experi-
ments
Cup-shakes. These cracks extending
show that Dantzig fir is crushed "
are
before it is torn asunder ; or, in other words, circumferentially at one or more places,
that its ultimate compressivestress is less caused by the separation of the annual rings,
than its ultimate tensile stress as 4 is to 5. as in Figs.163 and 164.
TIMBER, 41
Doatiness. " This is a speckledstain found in knots7occur diagonally,

which is liable
in beech, American oak, and other timber, to be sheared
through the knots or severely
due to incipientdecay. It is produced by damaged by the blows of the ram. Dantzic
imperfect seasoning or by exposure for a timber has the largestknots, spruce the
long periodto a stagnant atmosphere. hardest.
Rind-galls. These "
swellings are curved

caused by growth new layersover
the of
a part damaged by insects, or by tearing
Fig. 171. "
Upset or Crushed Fibres.

167. "
Sapwood in Fig. 168. " Star-shake

Balk. in Log.
off or imperfectloppingof a branch. These
Dry Rot. " If the balks have been stacked are shown by the and
grain being irregular
on land with insufficient ventilation, the vacuous.
growth of a fungus over them, like white or Sapwood. " This occurs more in some trees
brown roots, may indicate that dry rot has than in others say, " Dantzic pitch-
much,
already begun, although it is chieflyfound pinelittle. It may be known by its greenish
under kitchen floors. tinge,and holding the water longerthan the
Foxiness. " A reddish or yellowishbrown sound parts after having been wet. If
tint in the grain,caused decay.
by incipient creosoted, the sapwood is as but
lasting,
not so strong as the heartwood. It gener-
ally
occurs at the corners only of the balks,
which arises from the desire to save as
much timber as possible.(See Fig.167.)
Fig. 169. "

Star-shake in Balk.
Heart-shakes. " These are splitsor clefts

occurring in the centre of the tree, as in
Figs. 165 and 166. They are common in
nearly every variety of timber, and are
Fig. 172." Waney Edge in Balk.
very serious when they twist in the length,
as they interfere with the conversion of the
tree into boards
Star-shakes. When several heart-shakes
scantlings. They some-
"
or
occur in one tree (see Figs. 168 and 169)
they are called star-shakes from
the ance
appear-
produced by their radiation from the
centre.
Thunder-shakes. irregularfrac-
tures " These are
Fig. 170." Twisted Fibres. grain, occurringchieflyin

across the
Honduras mahogany.
times divide the log in two for a few feet Twisted Fibres. These are caused by the "
from the end. tree being twisted in its growth, from the
Knots. "
Large, or dead and loose knots action of the wind upon the head. Timber so
are objectionable, they

as weaken the affected is not suitable for cutting up into
timber, and are unsightly. A timber pile, joists
or planks,owing to the fibres running
diagonallyin any longitudinal cut, as in Detection and Treatment of Dry Rot. "
Fig. 170. Oak with twisted fibres will not When dry rot is suspectedin a floor the
retain its shape when squared,but is very floor-boards should be lifted at the corners
suitable for splittingup into wall plugs. of the room, or at dead ends of passages,
Upsets. " These are portionsof the timber or wherever signsof weakness show selves,
them-
where the fibres have been injuredby ing,
crush- and the surfaces of the wall-
joists,
as in Fig. 171. plates,and under side of the floor-boards
Waney Edges. " These occur when the top should be closely examined for fungus,
end of the tree is not largeenough to hold mildew, or any unhealthy sign,such as a
up to the full size to which the lower end brown semi-charred appearance. If any is
is squared,as shown by Fig. 172. These found, the worst parts should be cut out and
balks may be used for pilingwithout ment
detri- renewed, the remainder well scraped over,
if the top end be driven downwards. includingthe walls,and well washed with a
Wide Annual Rings. " These indi-
cate
generally solution of blue copperas (sulphate of copper) .
soft and weak timber. If the earth below is found to be damp, a

Wind-cracks. " Shakes or splitson the layer of cement concrete should be spread
sides of a balk of timber,caused by shrinkage over it,not less than 4 in. thick. Air bricks
of the exterior surface,as in Fig. 172, are and ducts should be placedin. the walls on
called wind-cracks. oppositesides,to get a through current, as
Wet Rot. "
lyinglong moist, warm, stagnant air is the most potent

Timber that has been
in the timber ponds, and subjectedto alter-
nations aid to dry rot ; and every endeavour should
of wet and dry, may be so soft and be made to obtain thorough ventilation.
sodden as to have reached the stage of wet The means of prevention are : Thorough
"
rot. The term wet rot implieschemical seasoning, free ventilation,creosoting or
"
decompositionof the wood ; whereas dry charring if necessarilyexposed to damp

rot is the result of a fungous growth. earth, and paintingwith vitriol or cupric
sulphate.
Dry Rot.
is
Preservation of Wood Underground.
Cause, Cure, and Prevention. "
Dry rot
a specialformdecay of in timber, caused Thebest way to preserve from decay wood
by the growth of a fungus, Merulius that is to be buried in the ground is to creosote

ladhrymans, which spreads over the sur-
face the wood ; this does not mean paintingthe
as a close network of threads, white, wood over with tar, but proper creosoting
yellow,or brown, and causes the inside to by the regularprocess. The butt-end of a
perish and crumble. Various causes may post to be placed in the ground may be
combine to render the timber favourable charred over a wood fire,quenching with
to thegrowth of this fungus namely, large " water when the wood is charred, say, \ in.
proportion of sapwood ; felled at wrong to \ in. deep. This will prevent rottingand
season full of sap ; if cut down
when in the the attacks of worms, but it is necessary that
springor the fall of the year instead of in the wood should be previously well seasoned,
midwinter or midsummer, when the sap is or the confined moisture will cause decay.
at rest ; stacked for seasoningwithout ficient Chloride of zinc and water, about
suf- 1 to 4,
air spaces being left ; fixed before in which wood is steeped under Sir Wm.
thoroughly seasoned ; painted or varnished Burnett's system (see p. 34), preserves
while containingmoisture ; built into wall the timber from decay and renders it in-
combustib
without air space ; covered with linoleum : A method sometimes adopted
exposed to warm, stagnant air, as under is to bed the posts in cement concrete, but
kitchen floors. There is no cure when the this is not quite so good as creosoting.
fungushas obtained a good hold. The worst
be and remainder Soft Woods and Hard Woods.
must cut out painted
with blue vitriol (cupric sulphate).The Timber trees are usuallydivided into two
best preventiveis to use only well-seasoned great classes : "
(a) Soft woods or coniferous

timber and to keep it well ventilated. woods ; (b) hardwoods or leaf woods.
poles,scaffold boards, centering,packing exposed to the weather. It is used for all

cases, etc. and in the better qualities
" for kinds of carpentry and joinery. Its source
dressers and tabletops,bedroom floor-boards, of supply is chiefly

the Baltic ports,whence
cupboard shelves, etc. The wood is of it comes as deals and logs.
yellowishwhite, or sometimes of a brownish Fir Timber, Unconverted. " All Baltic fir
red colour,becoming of a bluish tint when is akin to the Scotch
(Pinus sylvestris) fir
exposed to the weather. The annual rings or the spruce fir (Abies excelsa),the
are generallyclearly defined, the surface wood of the former being known as red fir,
when planed has a silky lustre,and the Baltic fir,Memel fir,etc., in the uncon-
verted
timber contains a largenumber of very hard, state, whilst the wood of the spruce
glassy knots. The sapwood is not dis- is known
tinguishable as spruce fir,or white fir if un-
converted
from the heart. Baltic white ; but as white planks,deals,or

deal is recognisedchiefly
by its small hard battens if converted. At the outset this
and dark
knots, by its woolliness on leaving peculiarityof callingthe same wood red or
the saw, and by its weatheringto a greyish yellow under different circumstances should
tint. When fresh cut, the grain may be be noticed, since the terms applied have
more or less pronounced than that of yellow led to the very prevalent and mistaken
deal. It is subjectto streaks of resin in notion that red, yellow,and white denote ,
long cavities, and to loose dead knots. three, instead of only two, kinds of Baltic
fir.
Riga Fir comes from the Russian port of
= BEST MIDDLING
that name, north of Memel, and is inferior
in strengthto Dantzic and Memel fir of best
=k iCOOD MIDDLING
quality,and does not
average so large. It
runs about 12 in. square and 40 ft. long,but
it is often preferredfor cutting into scant-
lings,
/ =3 COMMON MIDDLING
from
being
knots.
of straighter grain and freer
It is, however, subject to
Fig. 173. " Dantzic Timber Quality Marks. heart-shakes.
White Fir." But little Baltic white fir
In white deal or spruce fir the knots are comes into the market as square timber.
small, darker, more brittle,and opaque. When it does, it is termed white timber or
Scotch Fir. " This is the wood of Finns spruce fir ; but sprucepoles,or the young
sylvestris,and is called also the Northern trees felled and strippedof their branches,
pine and red or yellowpine. From this the are imported from Sweden and Norway
timber known as yellow or red deal is ob-
tained for scaffold the very best being selected
poles,
; it is tough and strong for its weight, as ladder poles. They run in lengths of
durable and easilyworked, cheap and plenti-
ful. from 18 ft. to 50 ft.
Comes principallyfrom the north of Prussian Fir Timber. " Sources : Memel,
Europe, and is shipped at
ports. Baltic Dantzic, Stettin, Konigsberg. The use of
Characteristics : Colour varies
according to the balks is almost entirelyconfined to
soil and habitat ; generallyof a honey heavy timber work, as they are too coarse
yellow,with distinct annual rings darker and opengrain for being wrought for
in the
and harder on the outside of each, some joiners'work. They are used for outdoor
specimens changing to a reddish cast in carpentry and heavy woodwork, such as
seasoning, and others brownish. There are piles,girders, roofs, and joists. Dantzic
no medullary rays visible. The best has Size : 14 in. to 16 in. square, 20 ft. to "
close grain and a medium amount of resin 50 ft. long. Appearance : Subjectto cup-
in it. The wood is silky when planed, and star-shakes and wind-cracks. Knots
and when well seasoned crispand dry to large and numerous, often dead and loose ;
the touch. Its tenacity is 5 tons per they are very objectionable when grouped
square inch, and weight 36 lb. per cubic near the centre of a beam, or for piles when
foot. It requiresperiodical painting when diagonal. Annual rings wide, large pro-
TIMBER. 45
portion of sapwood (frequentlythe whole Soderhamn deals are good for upper ing,
floor-
of the four corners of the circumscribing dressers, shelves,etc., and backing to
square),20 ft. to 45 ft. long,heart sometimes veneers. There are also said to be red deals
loose and "
cuppy." Marks : Scribed near from the Baltic ports and from Canada,
centre, as in Fig. 173. It is used for heavy from the Pinus rubra, used for mould-
ings
outdoor carpentry, where large scantlings and best joinery,very like Memel.
are required. Memel fir is tolerablyfree Swedish woods are never hammer-marked,
from knots, but when they occur the grain but invariablybranded with letters or
near them is and

irregular, is apt to tear up devices stencilled on the ends in red paint,
with the plane. which makes it difficult to judge of their
Norwegian Deals and Balks. " Sources : qualityby inspection, as they are stacked
Christiania, Friedrichstadt, Drontheim, in the timber yards with their ends only
Dram. Size : Average 8 in. to 9 in. showing. Some of the common fourth -
square, generallytapered ; scarcelycalled and fifth-quality Swedish goods are left

"
balk timber ; is known as under-sized." unmarked, but they may generallybe tinguished
dis-
Appearance : Much sap. Marks : on balks, from Russian shipments by the
stencilled in blue on ends.
others by letters, bluer colour of the sapwood. The first and
Uses : Staging, scaffolding, and coarse second in
qualities Swedish deals are classed
"
carpentry, the best converted into deals, together as mixed," being scarcelyever
flooring, and imported joinery. Norwegian
timber is clean and carefullyconverted,
is imported chieflyin the shape of BEST MIDDLING
but
prepared flooring and matchboarding.
Scarce in form of yellow deals,but of high
GOOD MIDDLING
quality. Christiania best, but often con-
tains
sap. Christiania white deal used for

best joinery. Christiania and Dram used
COMMON MIDDLING
for upper floors on account of white colour.
Friedrichstadt has small black knots. Some Riga Timber Quality Marks.
Fig. 174. "
Drammen deals warp and splitin drying.

Swedish Deals. " Sources Stockholm,
: sortedseparately, after which come third-
Gefle. Soderhamn, Gothenburg, Sundsvall, down fifth-quality
to goods. Deals of lower
Holmsund, Hernosand. The greater por-
tion qualitythan third are nearly always shaky,
of this is coarse and bad, but some of or very full of defects of some kind.
the very best Baltic deal comes from Gefle Russian Timber. Sources
Petersburg,
"
:
and Soderhamn. First qualitieshave a high Archangel, Onega, Riga, Wyborg, Narva.
character for freedom from sap, shakes,
heart- These yellow deals are the best for general
etc. The lower
qualitieshave the building work, more free than other sorts
usual defects,being sappy and containing from knots, shakes, sap, etc., clean hard
large,coarse knots. In the best qualities grain and good wearing surface, but do
the knots are small, and largerin the lower not stand damp well. First three used for
qualities.The yellow deal is generally best floors all of them for warehouse floors "
small, coarse, and bad, with large loose and staircases. Wyborg very good, but "
| knots, sappy, liable to warp and twist, but inclined to sap. Riga best balk timber. "
variable,the best being equalto Norwegian, Size : Up to 12 in. square, and 40 ft. long.
owing to care in conversion and sorting Appearance : Knots few and small, very
out into different qualities. The cheap little sap, annual rings close,wood close
imported joineryis made from these deals. and straight-grained, more colour than
They are suitable for floors where warping Dantzic. Marks : Scribed at centre, as in
can be prevented. Gefle and Soderhamn Fig. 174. Uses : For masts and best carpentry
deals are sometimes good. White deals when large enough, also for flooring
very
from Gothenburg, Hernosand and vall
Sunds- and internal joinery.Petersburg inclined "
are used for packing-cases.Gefle and to be shaky. Archangel and Onega knots "
often surrounded by dead bark, and drop Russian Goods : "
out when timber is worked. The Russian

Imperial Appanage Shipment (Czar's
white deals shrink and swell with the weather,
Stock).
even after painting. Best from Onega.
Russian deals unmarked ist. 2nd.
generallycome
into the market, or only dry stamped or
marked at their ends with the blow of a
branding hammer, such marks being also

termed hard brands. In some cases where
the goods are not branded, the second
qualityhave a red mark across the ends,
third- being easilydistinguished from first-
quality goods. The well-known Gromoff
All hammered butt with the
Petersburg deals are, however, marked ou Imperial
Arms (double eagle).
with Co.," the initials
"
C. and of the
shippers (Clarke " Company). Best Archangel Stock : "
First Quality Marks Maimax Shipment.

Yeo. 1 A
Bds. *
A
White
" "
Onega Wood Co.'s Shipment.
Deals
Another good Petersburg7 brand is \ 1 o o
4
Battens j
"
P. B." for best/and" P.
(PeterBelaieff) B. Boards X Red V Red V Black V Red
"
2 for second quality.
Amossoff, Gernet Shipment.
St. Petersburg Brands : "
A G " Co. AG " Co.

Belaiefi's Shipment. A B
First Quality Marks. A G " Co. G
A " Co.
P B S " Co. C D
Second Quality Marks.

Archangel : "
P B S " Co.
E. H. Brandt " Co. Shipment.
2
1st. 2nd. 3rd. 4th.
Third Quality Marks.
P B S " Co. Marks, Archangel : "
3 Olsen " Stampe Shipment.

Russanoff ", Co. OS OS OS OS
I II Ill IV
First
NRi "S Surkow " Shergold Shipment.
Second. S"S S"S S"S StfcS
NR2 "S I II III IV
Surkow " Shergold K E M Shipment.
Third.
N R3 " S KEM. I K E M. 2 K E M. 3 K E IUI.
4
K Pavloff. Russanoff's Mesane Shipment.
First.
R R R R
WOiDA N"S N"S N"S
N"S
LOG
12 3 4
Second. from Russian and Finland
Timbers ports
WOLOGDA are dry-stampedon the ends without colour.
TIMBER. 47
American Yellow Pine. " This is the wood and the high priceof yellow pine. The cost
of Finns strobus, and is known also as is about the same as Gromoff.
American yellow deal, Weymouth pine, American White Spruce. " This is very
American white pine,pattern-maker's pine, like Baltic white timber, but, not being
etc. It is used for panelson account
chiefly equal to it in durability
or strength,it does
of itsgreat width, for moulding on account not command such a largesale as the Baltic
of its uniform grain and freedom from white timber. It is theproduce of two
knots, and for patterns for casting from different trees, the Abies alba, or white
on account of its softness and easy working. spruce, and the Abies nigra,or black spruce,
It is very uniform in texture, of a very pale so named from the colour of their bark ;
honey-yellowor straw colour,turning brown the colour of the wood is white in both
with age, usually free from knots, and cases. The black spruce timber is far better
speciallyrecognisedby short, dark, hair- like than the white, is more plentiful, and grows
markings in the grain when planed, to a greater size.
and its lightweight. It is subjectto cup- Elm. Common English elm (TJlmus
"
shakes and to incipient decay, going brown campestris) is of a reddish brown colour
"
and mothery." It takes glue well, but with light sapwood, the grain being very
splitsin nailing.American woods are not irregularand there being numerous small
branded, as a rule,though some houses use knots. It warps and twists freely, but is
brands in imitation of the Baltic marks, very durable if kept constantly under
though without following any definite rules. water or constantly dry, but it will not
The qualities may, however, very often be bear alternations of wet and dry. One
" " "
known by red marks I.," II.," III.," peculiarity characteristic of elm is that the
upon the sides or ends, but the qualities of sap turns white and becomes foxey, and
American yellow deals are easily told by spection,
in- decays quickly. It is used for coffins,piles
the custom in the London Docks under foundations, pulley blocks, stable
being to stack them on their sides,so as to fittings, etc. It is chieflyhome-grown.
expose their faces to view, and allow of free American Elm. The wood generally "
ventilation. Woods from Canadian ports known American, elm is one of the United
as
have black letters and white letters on the States timbers {TJlmus Americana, L.)
ends, and red marks on the edges. American locallyknown as white elm, or water elm.
yellow pine may be purchasedin balks over The wood is highlyvalued,has many ties
proper-
60 ft. in length and 24 in. square. It is similar to those of American rock elm
not so strong as the American red pine,but TJlmus racemosa Thomas) "
though not,
is much lighter,and so is distinguished when perhaps, quite so tough as that timber
floatingby the heightit stands above the " and is very in cooperage used
extensively ,
water. First-quality pine costs more than saddlery,axe-helves, etc., and wagon- and
any other soft wood used for joinery. boat-building. The tree which furnishes
American Red Pine. " This is the wood of the wood grows to large dimensions, and
the Pinus mitis, which is called in is widely distributed over all the States east
America yellow pine,and is very like
the of the River.
Mississippi
the wood of the Scotch fir,though it does Pitchpine. This is " Pinus Australis or
not equal it in strength or durability, Pinus resinosa, and is

recognised by
neither does it grow so large as the Dantzic its weight and strong reddish yellow grain,
and Memel timber. Being very straight- with distinct and regularannual rings. It
grained and free from knots, it is valuable must be well seasoned and free from sap and
for joiners'
work, when a stronger wood
Pitchpine is very free from knots, shakes.
than yellow pine (describedin the previous but when they occur they are large and
paragraph) is required. It is more pensive
ex- transparent,and give variety to the grain -
than Baltic fir,consequently is not It is used chieflyfor treads of stairs and

so largelyused in England. Red pine has flooring,on account of its hardness and wear-
of late years been used rather extensively resistingqualities ; for doors, staircases,
owing to the scarcity of good yellow deal
.
strings,handrails,and balusters on account
of its stronglymarked and handsome grain; inhigh-class joinery. Its sources are land
Hol-
for open timber roofs on account of its and Riga, being imported in circular
semi-
strength and appearance ; and for outdoor logs. Wainscot oak obtained from
carpentry, such as jetties,

on account of its Riga is spoken of as Riga wainscot. The
length and size. The ornamental grain of term "wainscot" describes the method
pitchpineis due to the annual rings,
not the that is adopted, when convertingthe log
medullary rays as in oak. and the method into boards, in order to show a largeamount
of sawing oak will therefore not suit at all. of silver grain; such ornamental boards are
The objectshould be to cut as many boards speciallysuitable for wainscoting. The

as possibletangent to the annual rings. oaks that grow around the Baltic are closely
About one log in a hundred will show more related to those that grow in England.
or less waviness of the grainowing to an ir- Quercus robur
regular affords the best timber
growth in the tree, and about one in as regards strength and durabilityunder
a thousand will be worth very careful exposure, though some of the other varieties
conversion. To avoid
turning the log so (as, for instance, the Quercus sessiliflora,
often in cuttingthe boards,as in Fig.137 (p. or cluster-fruited oak) have an equally
35), they might be all cut parallel,so pretty figure.Riga oak is not held in such
obtaining a greater number of wide boards high esteem as English oak for outdoor
but not of such grain good figure,the work and for purposes in which great ten-
sile
showing straightlines towards the edges or compressional strength is necessary ;

instead of a fair pattern throughout. Careful but as the medullaryrays are very promin-ent,
and complete seasoningwould be required, Riga oak affords a very pretty silver
on account of the great shrinkageoccurring. grain.Riga oak may be the wood of either
Oak. English oak (Quercus) is of a
"
of the two varieties of Quercus mentioned
light brown or brownish yellow, close- above.
grained,tough,more in its growth
irregular Chestnut. The chestnut timber used for "
than other varieties,and heavier. Its building is the sweet or Spanish chestnut
tenacityis,say, 6J tons per square inch,and (Castanea edibilis),not the common
its weight,55 lb. per cubic foot. Baltic oak horse chestnut, which is a whitish wood of
from Dantzic or Riga is rather darker in but little use. The Spanish chestnut is
and
colour,close-grained, compact, and its grown onlyto a small extent in Great Britain
weight is 49 lb. per cubic foot. Riga oak at the present time ; it mrvy be known by
has more flower than Dantzic. American the leavesbeing smoother, more parallel,
or oak is a reddish brown, with a
Quebec and not radiating so decidedlyfrom one
coarser grain,not so strong or durable as stalk. Spanish chestnut closelyresembles
Englishoak, but straighter in the grain. Its coarse-grained oak in colour and in texture,
tenacity is 4 tons per square inch, and and the wood in all its stages of ture
manufac-
weight 53 lb. per cubic foot. African oak frequentlymistaken
is for oak. The
is not a true oak. Exposed to the weather, bark of the logis like oak bark. The planks
oak changes from a lightbrown or reddish are of practically identical appearance, and
grey to an ashen grey, and becomes striated even after the wood is dressed up the like-
ness
from the softer parts decaying before the is stillvery close. However, when the
harder. In presence of iron it is blackened chestnut is old it has rather more of a cin-
namon
by moisture owing to the formation of cast of colour,has less sapwood, and
tannate of iron, or ordinaryblack ink. generally a closer grain,although softer
Wainscot Oak. "
This, known also as and not so heavy as oak. The chief tinguishin
dis-
':
Dutch wainscot," is a varietyof oak. It characteristic of the chestnut is
has a straightgrain free from knots, is the absence of the distinct medullary rays
easilyworked, and not liable to warp. In which produce the flower in oak ; and old
conversion it is cut to show the flower or roof-timbers, benches, and church-fittings
sectional platesof medullary rays. It is may be discriminated in this way, also by
used for
partitions,dados, and wall panel-
ling the chestnut being more liable to splitin
generally
; also for doors and windows nailing, w hile the nails never blacken the
Fig. 176. After the logs are all stacked, prepared darkening oil, or darkened by
the invoice mark, as "rf", and number of some other method in no
and polished, way
the log are paintedon the end of each with differs in appearance (as far as the un- initiated
white paint identify

to t hem more rapidly; can judge) from the best kinds of
and on the end of a logshowing on the outside mahogany. Lightweight and lack of resist-
ance
of the stack the name of ship and to indentation should, however, make
number of pile are also painted. The one suspectthe qualityof any wood that
number of pileand name of ship are also claims to be true mahogany. However, it
" "
painted at the side of each pile,on one may be said that Panama mahogany
of the logs,as in Fig. 177. The principal includes several useful varieties of woods,
teak yard in London is at the South- to this class belongingSt. Domingo, City
West India Dock. St. Domingo, and Cuba mahoganies. The
Mahogany. The true mahogany (Swietenia grain
" of these varieties is very fine and even,
mahogani) is a dense, hard, strong wood, and the surface of the wood is lustrous,and
of straight growth and close texture, often has a watered satinyappearance.
or
and is a rich brownish red in colour,with These varieties of mahogany are not so
dark wavy markings ; the pores are dark coloured nor so dense as the true
small and are filled with a chalk-like sub-
stance. mahogany (Swietenia mahogani). Some
The weight of the wood, when of the most prominent timber experts state
dry, should average about 65 lb. per cubic that the characteristics of the various
foot. The commoner substitutes for true mahoganies are so confusing that great
difficulty
occurs at times in distinguishing
A one variety from another ; in fact,some go
Tile far to that the wood that is sold
20 so as say
and known commercially as Swietenia
IE nrico
mahogani, or true mahogany, is almost
different from
entirely the specimens of that
""45 wood
not
are
that
prove
inferior to
obtained
are
that
true
exhibited at Kew.
these
from
mahogany,
woods
another
are
and
in any
but that
an
This does
way
they
entirely
Fig. 177. "
Shipping Marks.
different kind of tree. Hence, therefore,
mahogany are numerous, but Honduras densityand colour are two important factors
mahogany (baywood) and Panama gany
maho- that should be whenconsidered
comparing
may be taken as examples. The one variety of mahogany with another.
weights of these kinds of mahogany vary Other more minute pointsof difference are
from 29 lb. to 35 lb. per cubic foot ; hence, only apparent when the wood is examined
weight is evidentlyone of the surest teststhrough a microscope. The term Spanish "
of the quality of mahogany. Generally mahogany is used principally in connec-

tion
"
speaking, these commoner varieties are with Cuban mahogany, but sometimes
much lighterin colour than true mahogany, St. Domingo mahogany is termed Spanish
and are without the fine black lines running mahogany. The term is at best but a vague
through the grain that form one of the dis-
tinguishing
one, and is rarely used in connection with
characteristics of true mahogany. shipments of timber that arrive in this
The hardness of true mahogany is about country from abroad. In such cases the
twice as great as that of the commoner is usually spoken of as so many logs
cargo
kinds ; that is, the best mahogany of Cuban (St.Domingo, Mexican, or other)
may
be taken as being equalin wearingpower to mahogany. In a general sense the term
hornbeam, while the inferior kinds would
Spanish mahogany
"
is used in contra-
distinction "
not be harder than Weymouth pine. A large to baywood or Honduras hogany.

ma-
quantity of the light coloured inferior

-
No rule or regulation states pre-
cisely
mahogany is used for furniture,etc., and that Spanish mahogany must fulfil
after having been treated with a specially certain specified conditions, and a timber
TIMBER. 51
merchant fairlyclaim that he acts Teak is good,but does not weather quiteso
may
justlyby his customer if he supplieshim good a colour ; it is apt to splitwith nail-
ing.
with moderately dense, sound
a quantity Larch is next best.
of Cuban or St. Domingo mahogany, and Pile Foundations. "
Greenheart, oak, elm,

has not suppliedhim with baywood (Hon-
duras creosoted Memel, alder. Greenheart is un-
doubtedly
mahogany) nor any of the many other best, but the cost is prohibitive
so-calledmahoganies, the marked teristics
charac- except for marine work, where it is some-
times
differ widely from Cuban

of which essential,
as sea-worms will not attack
mahogany. Such spurious mahoganies are, it. Oak is next best when it can be afforded.
for example, the so-called African gany
maho- Memel fir (Pinus in
sylvestris) 13 in.
(Khaya Senegalensis) or the wood to 14 in. whole timbers, creosoted or in its
that is known as Australian mahogany natural state, is the most suitable under
{Dysoxylum Fraserianum). ordinary circumstances, owing to its con-
venient
size,length,and generalcharacter.
Timbers for Various Purposes. too small, and Dantzic
Riga fir is generally
In the list the timbers
following are stated fir too largeand coarse. Pitchpineis sidered
con-
in order of superiority for the purposes suitable by some ; its chief advantage
named. All the timber should be specified is the largesize and great lengthin which
according to the precisequalityrequired, it may be obtained. American elm and
"
and not merely as the best." English elm, beech, and alder are suitable
Dock Gates. "
Greenheart, oak, creosoted if wholly immersed, but not otherwise.

Memel. The of
specification the 60-ft. Planking to Earth Waggons. "
Elm, with
entrance lock gates at the Victoria Dock, ash for shafts,if any.
Hull, provided for ribs,heads, and heels of Roof Trusses. "
Oak, chestnut, pitchpine,.
singlesquaredtimbers, either of Englishoak Baltic fir (Dantzic,Memel, or Riga). For
of the very best and quickest grown timber, tie-beams to open timber roof 40-ft. span
or of African oak, but no mixture of the pitchpineis best,as it can be obtained free
two. plankingThe was specified
to be of from knots, in long straightlengths,and
greenheart. the grain is suitable for exposure either
Doors External for Public Buildings. "
plainor varnished. Oregon pine is suitable

Oak used most frequently,
next in order for similar reasons, but not so well marked
mahogany, teak, and pitchpine. in the grain. Riga fir is good material for
Doors Internal
Important Build-
ings. for more roof timbers, but difficult to obtain in long
Oak, mahogany, teak, walnut, pitch-
"
lengths. For tie-beam of king-postroof

pine. Other hardwoods are also used, ac-
cording truss, the same as above, or pitchpine,
to, or in keepingwith, other internal if it is to be wrought and varnished.
fittings. For ordinary buildings,yellow Shop Fronts. Mahogany is the favourite
"
deal for framing and yellow pine for panels. material, and weathers well if kept French
Floor Boards. "
Oak, pitchpine,Stock-
holm polished; black-walnut and teak are perhaps
or Gefle yellow deal ; and for upper next in order.
floors,Dram or Christiania white deal. For of Stairs.
Treads Oak, pitchpine, Memel "
common Swedish
floor-boarding, or wegian
Nor- fir,ordinaryyellowdeal. \A
yellow or white deal. Weather-boarding. Oak is best under all "
Floor Joists. Kussian

"
deals make the circumstances, but is expensive. Larch
best joists,
as they are and
straight-grained (Larix Europoea)perhaps stands next, as
free from knots, sound and tough. Baltic it resists the weather well and bears nails
fir is cheaper and next best. Swedish and without splitting.Ordinaryweather-board-
ing
Norwegian not reliable. consists of yellow deal from various
Half-timber Framing. " Oak
is best, as it ports "
say, four out of a 2J-in.by 7-in.

resists decay the and
longest, can be ob-
tained batten
by or 3-in. 9-in. deal cut feather-
naturallyshapedin curves or straight, edged. For work to be wrought and
as may be required. The colour and tex-
ture painted,American red fir is clean-grained
are also suitable for architectural effect. and cheap. For very common rough work
white deal may The 1st qualitymay have J B the end,

spruce be used as being the on
2nd J B N
cheapest. " " ,.
Window-sills. " Oak or teak for best work ;

pitchpineis used, but
occasionally it is not
so durable as either of the former.
Brands and Marks

or if,instead of firsts and a mixed
seconds,
Shipping on
grade is substituted o
(consisting f mixed
Timber. firsts and seconds),the mark will probably
Simple Explanation. " A few brands and be J *" B. John Brown makes no secret
marks already been illustrated,
have but of these marks, and would gladly inform
the subjectneeds special explanation, there any inquirer of the significance (asto quality)
being a very generalignorance as to the of any given brand. In fact,he is at much
reasons for, and meanings of, the great painsto advertise the fact that these classes
number of marks found on importedtimber. of material are manufactured by him, and
The difficulty of identifyingparcels of that the above arrangement of initials is
timber consigned in the same freight,or to be taken as an indication of the compara-
tive
stored in the same place,but belonging to qualities of the stuff. The two real
different owners, was no doubt the original examples given below will show how the
reason for the introduction of a marking matter works out in practice.
system ; the extension of the system to Holmsunds Marks. " The Holmsunds Ak-
marks that indicate
qualitywas the natural tiebolag(Holmsunds Share Company) manu-
facture
sequel to the marks of ownership. There and export sawn goods and planed
is nothingof a mysteriousor crypticnature goods from Holmsunds, Sweden, and the
in this system of timber marks, nor should is their
following advertised qualitycode :
"
the various marks be regardedin the light Sawn Goods.

of a secret code ; the great increase in the
Mixed D
number of manufacturers and the quent
conse-
Thirds D
of brands
multiplication are the only ...
Fourths H N D
brought about
. . .
causes that have any scurity

ob-
Fifths ...
H F D
that may be thought to exist. There
Sixths H M S
is also generally
an entire want oforganisa-
tion, Inferior Sixths H S U S
each new manufacturer being abso-
lutely
brand Planed Goods.
at libertyto adopt any or
Firsts H S * N D
mark that he may think fit to adopt ; and ,
Seconds H S * N D
though,in most cases, respectis paid to old-
Thirds H L N D
established marks, plenty of examples of Fourths ...
H L D
repetitionand overlappingexist. Reduced
Unsorted (Sawn or Planed) .
H S U N D
to simpleterms, the system (ifsystem it can
be^called) resolves itself into a parallel of Here, obviously,the word Holmsunds has
the imaginary case described below. John been made use of as the base for quality
Brown is a sawmill proprietorand forest variations.
owner in Sweden. He manufactures sawn Wifsta Warfs Marks." The Wifsta Warfs
wood goods for the Englishmarket, and in Bolag,a sawmillingfirm in the Sundswall
order to distinguishthe goods produced at district of Sweden, exportsunder the follow-
ing
his mills from the goods of other sawmillers marks (also,very clearly, derived from
he stamps or stencils on the end of each the name) :"
piecea more or less abbreviated form of his

Mixed W W B
own name ; and, at the same time, uses
WS W
Thirds
variation in the arrangement of the ing
letter-
Fourths WT W
in order to indicate differences in quality. Fifths W F W
Thus may he export six gradesor qualities Sixths WWW
of material : "
Unsorted W WWW
TIMBER. 53
A fact that should be noted with respect to initials and symbols that are peculiar to
Swedish goods is that where a

mixed grade the productions of each. Such a
list has
is shipped usually no separate firsts and been compiled, and is in general use by
seconds are exported, as
these best qualities timber merchants and all connected in
any
not sorted from another. with the timber trade it contains

are one way ;
List of Marks. In the nearly upwards of two thousand marks and brands.
" same way
all other firms in the Baltic and Norway trade One of the essentials of such work is that
a
make of simple method of ing

signify- it should be kept to date, firms
use some up as new
qualities, in which the initials of the and symbols are constantly appearing on
head of the firm or

of the (where the market, while others fall off from time
company
is in proprietorship) form the to time. Lastly, the marking, when applied

a company
chief distinguishing features. Obviously, to logs, assumes

several new
characters
;
therefore, universal key exist that it be said that frequently

no can may group
will at once
make clear all details as to numbers, cutting numbers, private sub-
qualities, port of shipment, etc., except it owner numbers, and marks, contents marks,
be in the nature of a long list of names

and and even dates, are sometimes placed on
addresses of manufacturers, and of the the ends and sides of logs:

JOINTS.
Introduction. "
Full instructions
setting on to provide a collection of illustrations handy
,
out/5 cutting, and joints

fitting most of the for reference, so that the present treatment
used in carpentry and joinery are given in of technical woodworking may not be complete.
in-
"
the companion volume, Woodworking,"
Straight Halved Fig. 179." Fig. 180." Angle Halved Fig. 181." Cross-halved
Fig. 178."
Joint. Angle Halved Joint, Apart. (or Cross Lap) Joint.
Joint.
Fig. 182. " Dovetail Lap

Joint. Fig. 183. " Bevelled Fig. 184. " Shouldered
Halving. Dovetail Halving. Fig. 185." Single Notching.
Fig. 187."
Dovetail Notching,
Fig. 186. "
Double Notching. Wedged.
Fig. 188. " Dovetail Notching.
reader is assumed familiar Joints in Carpentry.

and the to be with
all these processes. The object of the Halved Joints. "
The simplest joints used
present chapter is merely to present brief in carpentry are the various forms of
particulars of the joints in general use and halving : simple halved joints (Figs. 178
54
JOINTS. 55
Fig. 189." Tredgold Bird's-mouthed

Fig. 191. "
Notching. Joint.
Fig. 190. "
Cogging.
Pig. 192." Bridle Joint.

Fig. 194." Dowelled
Post and Sill.
Fig. 193." Oblique Bridle Joint.
Pig. 195. "
Stump or Stub
Tenon. Fig. 196. "
Shouldered Tenon. Fig. 197." Divided Tenon.
Notched and Other Joints. " Of the many

forms of notching there are : singlenotch-ing
(Fig. 185), double notching (Fig.1*0),
dovetail notching (Figs.187 "iad 188), and
Tredgold notching (Fig. 189). Cogging is
shown by Fig.190, the bird's-mouthed joint
by Fig. 191, the bridle jointby Figs. 192
and 193, and dowelling of wood to stone by
Fig. 191.
Tenon Joints (Carpenters').Of tenon "
jointsthere is the stump, or stub tenon (Fig.

Fig. 198." Inserting Tenon in Chase Mortise. 195) ; the shouldered tenon (Fig. 196) ;
the divided tenon (Fig. 197) ; the chase
to 181),dovetail halving(Fig.182),bevelled mortise (Fig.198), in the side of a timber,
halving(Fig.183), and shouldered dovetail with one cheek cut away and the depth
halving(Fig.184). graduallytapering out to the face of the
Fig. 199. "

Section of Tusk Tenon Joint
Fig. 200." Parts of Tusk-

tenoned Joint.
timber. It is used in framed and

doubled floors,for enabling short
such,
joists, as ceilingjoistsbetween Fig. 201 "
the binders,to be got into placeafter Tusk Tenon Joint.

Wedged
the largertimbers are fixed,as shown
in the illustration. The tusk tenon is shown Toe Joints. Simple toe jointsare shown
"
by Figs. 199 to 201 ; struts tenoned into by Figs.205 and 206, and a toe jointwith
the heads of king- or1 queen-posts are tenon by Fig.207.
shown by Figs.202 to 204. Gantry Strut Joints. Bird's -mouth
" and
Fig. 202. Fig. 203. Fig. 204.

Fig. 205." Toe Joint Fig. 206." Toe Joint
Fig. 202. "
Strut Tenoned into King- or Queen-Post. between Principal between Vertical
Rafter and Strut. Post and Strut.
Fig. 203. "
Principal Rafter Tenoned into Queen-

Post, Straining Beam Joggled into same.
Fig. 204. "
Principal Rafters Tenoned into King-

mitred butt jointsfor a gantry strut are
Post. shown by Figs.208 and 209 respectively.

Fig. 222." Tabled Scarf with Keys and Plates.
Fig. 223." Fished Joint, Keyed and Bolted.
Fig. 224." Fished Joint with Hardwood Keys.
Fig. 225." Splayed Scarf with Folding Wedges

and Iron Fish Plates.
Fig. 226. "

Dovetail Splayed Joint.
Fig. 227. "

Dovetail Scarf.
Fig. 228. "

Raking Scarf used for Ridges, etc.
Fig. 232."
Parallel Scarf
Fig. 229."
Vertical Scarf. with Joggled

Ends.
Fig. 231 "
Double Forked
Joint Apart.
Fig. 234. "
Single Fished Fig. 235. " Double Fished
Fig. 230." Butt Joint when Post Butt Joint for Detached
Double Halved is Braced. Post.
or Double
Forked Joint Fig. 233."
Fig. 230. Together. Splayed Scarf. fished,keyed,and bolted;(Fig.

223) ; fished,
with hardwood keys (Fig.224) ; and the
strain is the fished jointwith obliquekeys splayedscarf with iron fish platesand bolts
suitable for tension, (Fig.225),which is used in the warehouses
(Fig. 219). Joints
and cross
compression, strain are as follows at the South-West India Dock, London.
and 221) Other jointsused for lengtheningplates
Fished and tabled (Figs.220
with keys and
tabled scarf, plates(Fig.222) and ridgesare shown at Figs.226, 227, and
JOINTS. 59
228. Joints for beams and posts are : the say 10 in. by 3 in. The jointmay also
vertical scarf
joint (Fig.229),
"
a halved shear across bcoigf, therefore section at
double halved joint(Figs. 230 and 231), 360
scarf with joggledends (Fig.232),
b c or g f must equal 277, say 28 in.
parallel 1-3
splayed scarf (Fig.233), singlefished butt by 10 in. The jointmay also be crushed
jointwhen the post is braced (Fig.234), at b d or g h, therefore section at b d or g h
and the double fished butt joint(Fig.235)

must equal -y-r- =
36, say 10 in. by 3J in.
when the post is detached.
Fig. 236." Tabled Scarf Joint.
Rule for Proportioning Parts of Scarf. "

Thus the beam should be about 10 in.'by
Tredgold givesthe followingpractical rules 10 in.,with wedges as shown ; but in ordinary
for proportioningthe different parts of a practicethe folding wedges do not exceed
scarf according to the strengthpossessed one-fourth the depth of the beam, and are
by the kind of timber in which it is formed, usually placed square to the rake of the
to resist tensional,compressional, or ing
shear- scarf,the scarf being further strengthened
forces respectively. In Fig. 236 c d by bolts and plates.
must be to c b in the ratio that the force Strength of Joints in Struts and Beams. "
to resist detrusion bears in the direct If two deals together,withfdis-

are bolted
cohesion of the material " that is, in oak, tance piecesbetween, they will be stronger
ash, elm, c d must equal to from eight than a
be solid timber strut of the same tional
sec-
to ten times c b ; in fir and other straight- area, because the dimension of
" "
grainedwoods cd must be equal to from least width in the formula for calcula-
tion
sixteen to twenty times c b. The sum of of strengthwill be increased. There
the depth of the indents should be equal to
one and one-third depth of beam. The
length of scarf should bear the following
proportion to the depth of the beam :
"
Fig. 237." Splayed Scarf with Folding Wedges.
would be no appreciable advantage in
making the distance piecesof different thick-

nesses,
to swell or reduce the middle meter
dia-
; they should be all alike,and enough
to make the combined thickness not less
than three-fourths of the width of the deals,
Calculation of a scarfed jointwith folding
and the distance apart in feet should be
wedges as Fig. 237 :"
equal to the lengthof the deal in feet mul-

tiplied
Per sq. in.
Working resistance to tearing . .

= 12 cwt. by its thickness in inches and divided
compression 10
, , , ,
=
1-3
"
by the width in inches. SingleJ-in.bolts
,, ,, shearing.. =
rough carpentry, except for

"
are of no use in
Load equals,say, 360 cwt. direct tension very small work ; instead, two f -in. bolts
beyond that taken by bolts or plates.The should be placed diagonallythrough each
jointmay tear across a b or d e (Fig.237), block. Horizontal connecting rods in
Ofif\
machinery are sometimes swelled in the
therefore section at a b must equal-r^r = 30,
middle to allow for the cross strain upon
Figs. 238 and 239." necting

Con-
Post and Beams
by Tenoning and ging.

Cog-
Fig. 240. Fig. 241.

Fig. 246." Detail of Form of
Figs. 240 and 241. "
Securing Joints
between Post and Beams
Staging stronger than that
by Straps and
shown by Fig. 245.
Bolts.
Fig. 242
Fig. 247. "
Upper Portion of Staging Support-

ing
Figs. 242 and 243." Joints and Fastenings be-
tween Heavy Halved
Loads ; Head Beam and Bolted
Post, Corbel and Beam for Heavy Stage. to Corbel.
JOINTS. 61
them in addition to the end-long strain, the pieces are put together the joint is
while vertical struts have no cross strain masked by the bead, and the tongue pre-
vents
to meet. dust and draught from passing
through, as in
slipfeather is
Fig. 263. A
a pieceof wood inserted in plough grooves,
as in Fig. 260, to strengthen a glued joint,
or to keep out the dust.
It may be of soft wood,
and is then in short lengths,
made by cutting pieces
1 in. wide off the end of
a plank,turning the pieces
over, and cuttingthem into
thin strips,with the grain
across their length. If hard
wood is used, the grain
may run in the direction
of the length. The slipfeathers may also
be double, or dovetailed.
Fig. 248. " Conventional

View of Staging with Head
Beam Halved and Bolted
to Corbel.
Jointing Beams to Posts and Struts. "
The usual methods of formingjointsbetween

beams, posts, struts, and braces as used in
Fig. 249. Fig. 250.
the construction gantries, of
jetties,
stagings,
Fig. 249. "
Strut and Post Joint Supported by
bridges,etc.,are illustrated by Figs.238 to Cleat Spiked to Post.
254. The inscriptionsto the illustrations Fig. 250. " Brace and Post Joint. Brace Tenoned
make the methods quite clear to stand.
under- into Post : Cleat Joggled in and Spiked to Post.
Right Angle Joints. Fourteen "

stylesof
Joints in Joinery.
anglejointsare shown by Figs. 266 to 279.
Edge Joints. " Eleven jointsused in necting
con- Obtuse Angle Joints. " Four kinds'of these
boards edge to edge are shown by jointsare illustrated by Figs. 280 to 283.
Fig. 251. Fig. 252. Fig. 253. Fig. 254.
Fig. 251. " Mitred Butt and Tenoned Joint between Fig. 253. " Treble Abutment Joint between Strut
Brace and Straining Piece. and Straining Piece.
Fig. 252. " Double Abutment Joint between Strut, Fig. 254. "
Tenoned and Bird's-mouth Shouldered
Head, and Straining Piece. Joint between Strut and Straining Piece.
Figs. 255 to 265. Matchboarding is thin Dovetail Joints. These are known in "
stuff with a tongue and bead worked on one great variety, but it will be sufficient to
edge and a groove on the other, so that when show a few kinds only : the ordinary dove-
WT7727PZ
mmm
Butt Joint. Fig. 256. Rebated Joint.
Fig. 255." Edge "
^Mk
Fig. 258. " Grooved and Tongued Joint.
Fig. 257. " Rebated and Filleted Joint.
mmm^Mm* m vmm
Fig. 259." Rebated, Grooved, and Tongued Joint. FiS- 260." Ploughed and Cross Tongued Joint.
WL
Fig. 261. " Dovetail Slip-feather Joint. Fig. 262. " Matched and Beaded Joint.
Fig. 263. "

Matched and Vee Jointed. Fig. 264. "
Splay-rebated Joint.
characteristics. The dovetail ledged and

the diminished dovetail ledged are shown
Fig. 265. "
Dowelled Joint. respectively
by Figs.291 and 292.
Dowelled Joint. The "
ordinary dowelled
tailing(Figs.284 and 285),lapped dovetail
jointis represented by Fig. 293 ; sections
(Fig. 286), two secret double-lap or
showing a dowel fitted incorrectly
or and cor-
rectly
rebated dovetails (Figs.287 and 288), and are /represented by Figs.294 and 295
the secret mitred dovetail (Fig. 289). respectively. A rightangle dowelled joint
The box pin joint (Fig. 290) is not a is shown by Fig. 296. Allied to the dowel
dovetail joint, but has some of the latter's jointis the screwed joint(Figs.
straight 297
Fig. 266. " Plain Butt Joint. Fig. 267. " Rebated Butt Joint. Fig. 268. " Plain Mitre Joint.
Fig. 271. " Rebated and Mitre
Fig. 269." Butt Joint Tongued. Fig. 270." Mitre Joint Tongued. Joint.
JOINTS. 63
Fig. 272." Fig. 273." Fig. 274." Fig. 275."

Mitred, Grooved, and Rebated, Mitred, and Rebated, Tongued, and Rebated and Grooved
Tongued Joint. Double-tongued Joint. Staff Beaded Joint. Joint to Nosing.
EMI
Fig. 276." Fig. 277." Fig- 278." Fig. 279."
Butt Joint with Flush Rebated and Staff Beaded Rebated, Grooved, and
Glued Blockings.
Beads. Joint. Staff Beaded Joint.
Fig. 280."
Obtuse Angle Fig. 281 "
Grooved and Obtuse Angle

Tongued Joint, Rebated Joint.
with Bead to
Break Joint.
Fig. 283." Fig. 282."
Obtuse Angle Re-

bated, Obtuse Angle Box Dovetail Joint formed
Fig. 284. "
Grooved, Mitred, Grooved, Boards.

by Several
and Staff Beaded and Tongued
Joint. Joint.
Box Pin Joint. Fig. 291. " Dovetail Lsdged.
Fig. 290. "
Jig. 306. "

Pair of Single Tenons with Grooves
and Slip Feathers.
JOINTS. 67
Housing. " The simple housing joint is stuff,is used in framing together piecesof
shown by Fig. 301. the same size, the mortise being just long
Tenon Joints (Joiners'). Some " tenon enough to allow of a wedge being driven in
jointshave already been shown under the on each side of the tenon to secure it. A
"
| heading, Joints in
"
Carpentry (p. 55). pairof singletenons, usually called a double
Further tenon joints,more especiallyused tenon, is used for connecting the middle
in joinery,are : the simpleopen tenon and rail of a door to the stiles. A haunched
mortise (Fig. 302) ; closed mortise and tenon for connectingthe top rail of a door
i tenon (Fig. 303) ; pair of single tenons, to the stiles ; the tenon being half the width
| commonly called "
double "
tenons (Fig. of the top rail leaves a haunch or haunching
j 304) ; double or twin tenons (Fig. 305) ; to prevent the rail from twisting. A stump
pair of singletenons, with grooves and slip or stub tenon is used at the foot of a post to
feathers (Fig. 306) ; haunched tenon (Fig. prevent movement. A tusk tenon is used
307) ; dovetail tenon 308) ;
(Fig.. pinned in framing trimmers to trimming joists,
to
tenon (Fig. 309). Stump or stub tenons
and tusk tenons are also used in joinery,
and have already been illustrated (Figs.195
Fig. 311. "

Foxtail Tenons with and without
Housing.
and 200, pp. 55 and 56). The foxtail tenon
(Fig.30) is a good joint; alternative methods

(with and without housing) of applying Fig. 312. "
Hammer-headed Key Joint.
this in rails into
fitting an oak gate-postare
shown by Fig. 311. obtain the maximum support with the
Proportioning Tenons. " There is no versal minimum

uni- reduction of strength. A tenon
rule for but with only shoulder is used in framed
proportioningtenons, one
the practiceis to give from half to the whole and braced batten doors, and in skylights,
of the width of the rail, when this does when the rail requiresto be kept thin for
not exceed 5 in.,for the width of the tenons. other parts to pass over; this is known
half barefaced tenon. A pair of double

If more space than were given to a as a
haunched the end of the stile would tenons is used for the lock rail of a thick
tenon,
be liable to be driven out in wedging door, to receive a mortise lock.
up,
and ftthere is why more Hammer-headed Key Joint. " A tional
conven-
no reason space
should given. Wide tenons are objection-
be able, view of a hammer-headed key joint
owing to their liability to shrink from apart is presented by Fig. 312.
the wedges or the sides of the mortises. Special Joints. Many other jointsadapted "
particularpurposes described in
Applications of Tenon Joints. With "
gard
re- to are
the of the various tenon subsequent sections. Reference to these

to application
few of these noted below easily be found by consulting the
joints,a are : may
A simple tenon, one-third thickness of the index.
FLOORS.
General Considerations. "

The remarks in wet, for as long a period as possible before
this paragraph will be found applicable to they are required use. for Where such" an
all sorts of floors. The joists should be laid arrangement is possible it is well to have^the
across the narrowest part of the room, and boards laid face downwards for some months
girders and binders should be so arranged in the position they are to 'occupy before
as to take a bearing on a solid pier or wall, they are finally nailed.
Fig. 313." Method of Supporting Joists round Brickwork Fender in Basement.
and not over door

or window openings. In Basement or Ground Floors.
cases where along distance has to be versed

tra- The floor in a basement storey, or on
by a joist, which is supported by the ground level where there is no ment,

base-
one or more girders in the length, it should is formed of joists laid on wooden
be made as long as possible. By this means sleepers, themselves bedded on dwarf walls
the strength of the joist is greatly increased, (Figs. 313 and 314). The walls and sleepers
as also is its usefulness as a tie to the walls. are usually 4 ft. or 5 ft. apart, and the joists
Flooring-boards should be cut and prepared, 4 in. to 6 in. deep. Occasionally the walls
and stacked in the open air, with free ventila-
tion and sleepers are further apart, and then
all round, with proper protection from joists 6 in. or even 8 in. deep are used. Fig.
68
FLOORS. 69
313 is a conventional view, and Fig. 314 a Single Floors.

section through a floor of this description, The simplestfloor consists of a row of
clearlyshowing how the joistsare supported beams or joists,
varying in thickness and
by the brick fender round the fireplace.depth with the width or bearing between
Oak is considered best for
sleepers,
and to the walls on which they are supported.
ensure of its being thoroughly seasoned, To the upper sides of these joists
is nailed
YZZZZZZ22
',.O k
2,'; ^ba(-
f. '
"
o
O
o
Fig. 314. "

Section through Basement or Ground Floor.
Fig. 315." Plan of Single Floor showing Trimming to Fireplaces, Well-hole, etc.
ship oak is sometimes specified.Formerly the floor-boarding,

and to the under side
it was the practice, more so than at present, the laths which carry the ceiling. These
to notch or cog the joiststo the sleepers. joistsshould not be placed at a greater
When joistsare deep enough, rows
the of distance than 15 in. from centre to centre.
herringbone strutting are introduced, as An ordinary example of a singlefloor is

indicated at b (Fig. 314), cut and fixed as shown at Fig. 315, this figure being
shown later by Fig. 317. the plan of the timber of a floor of two
rooms, and well-hole for staircase for a 7 ft. wide and 12 ft. long. The floor is structed
con-
dwelling-house, 34 ft. from front to back, to

carry two framed partitions,one
and 20 ft. wide in the clear ; it shows also the 18 ft. from, and parallelto, the front wall,
trimming for two 6 -ft. chimney-breasts in and the other extending from this partition
flank-wall, and for well-hole at opposite to the back wall along the well-hole. The
flank next the back wall. The well-hole is middle bearing is required to be under the
Fig. 316." View of Tusk Tenon
and Keyed Joint to Trimmers
and Joists.
Figs. 318 and 319."
Alternative Methods
of Halving Joists on
Partition Head.
FLOORS. 71
first-mentioned partition.The trimming

joistis 11 in. by 3J in.,and is placed 18 in.
from thechimney-breast. The short trim-
mers
are 11 in.
by 3 in. and represented not
as restingin the party wall, but as being
supported on iron corbels built in the wall.
Fig. 316 shows, to the left,an isometric
view of the tusked and keyed joint to the
trimming round chimney-breast; to the
right, it shows a sectional isometric view
through joint of trimmer and tailing joist.
It also represents the kind of joint that
Figs. 323 and 324. "

Alternative Methods
oT Housing^Joists to Trimmers.
7^ CARPENTRY AND JOINERY.
would be used to connect the

chimney-breast,and the staircase parallelwith the i
trimmer and joists

shown in well.
the joists Fig.317
against trimmers which
are carry
(p. 70) gives a view of the herringbone
the sides of the breasts. Fig. 320 is a reverse
strutting four rows

(2 in. by 1J in.), of which case, there being only one trimmer,
are indicated on the plan. The joists which is parallelto the breast,but two trim-
ming
going from back to front are requiredto be joists,these being at rightanglesto
T RIMMINC
COMMON OR RIDGING
Fig. 327. Section through Binder

"
showing
Bridging Joists Cogged, and Alternative Methods
Fig. 325." Plan of Binder or Double Floor. of Connection with Ceiling Joists.
34 ft.9 in. long ; therefore all,or the greater it. Fig. 321 is a section through the mer,
trim-
part,would have to be formed of two lengths hearth, coach head brick arch, etc.,
and halved on the middle bearing; tive
alterna- shown in plan at Fig. 320. s (Fig.321) is
methods of doing this are shown by a feathered-edge pieceof board (a springing

Figs.318 and 319. piece)nailed to the trimmer for the arch to
SPLAVEO ME1ADINC
tQUBi-E ri_OCR Off JF WITH 8INDERS A FRAME.O FLOOR
Fig. 326. " Section through Joists, showing Side of Binder supported by Wall.
Trimming Round Openings. butt against; f is a filletnailed to the trim-

ming
In where
projections and flues
fireplaces joistsso as to support the piece of
(usuallyknown as chimney breasts) occur scantlingto which the laths are nailed.
in walls it is necessary to trim round them, This construction is clearlyshown at b
so that the nearest timber in front shall be (Fig.322). When a trimmer has to support
at least 18 in. distant,whilst that at the an arch, to prevent any likelihood of the
sides may be only an inch or so. In the arch forcingit back, one or two iron bolts
plan (Fig. 315) the trimming joistruns are inserted,one end being bedded and
which they are should always be

connected
thicker than the
ordinaryjoists.A common
rule is to make the trimmers and trimming
joists J in. thicker for each joistcarried.
Singlefloors may span as great a distance as
18 ft. by using11-in. by 3-in. joists stiffened
with two or three rows of herring-bone or
f solid strutting.
Double Floors.
When the distance between the support-

ing
walls exceeds 14 ft. or 15 ft.,it is usual
to place binders or girdersof wood or iron
at intervals of from 6 ft. to 10 ft.,and on
these to support the bridgingjoists.Floors

so constructed are known as double floors,
having two sets of joists,the lower set
(ceiling
joists)beingsmaller,and used solely
to support the ceiling.Thus the ceiling,
being supportedindependentlyof the floor
joistsabove, is not liable to be jarredby
SECTION ACR05S JOISTS
Fig. 332. " Section across Bridging Joists showing Method of Fixing
Ceiling Joists.
the traffic overhead, and the connection

between the and
ceiling floor being broken
by the space between the two sets of joists,
sound from above is not so audible below
as when the floor is single.
Wooden Binders. "
plan of a
The outline
double floor is given at Fig. 325, and Fig.
326 is a section through the joists,flooring,
II and showing
ceiling, the side of the binder
and also the method supportingit. Fig.
of
327 is a section through the binder showing
alternative ways of connecting the ceiling
joistswith the binder by mortise and tenon
joints. Ceilingjoists which have to be got
into positionafter the binders are built in
have their tenons inserted at one end into
an ordinary mortise,whereas the tenon at
the other end has to slide into a chase

mortise as indicated at Fig.328. To avoid
weakening the binder, sometimes a filletis
joists,
nailed on so as to support the ceiling
which are notched to it as shown at Fig.
329. Fig. 330 illustrates the case where
FLOORS. 75
ceilingjoistsare not used. The binder is sion of sound would be lessened by sound
wrought and stopped chamfered ; the laths boarding and pugging as shown,
for the ceilingwould be nailed to the under Iron Binders." Two sections through a
edges of the bridgingjoists. The transmis- double floor are presentedby Figs. 331 and
Fig. 334." View of Part of Under Side of Floor adjacent to Chimney Breast.
Fig. 335." Method of Fitting Oak
Border to Floor Boards.

FLOORS. 77
332. Just above ceil-

lath-and-plaster
the Fig. 335 shows a method of mitreingand
ing are the joists, running parallel fittingan
ceiling and oak border to the floor-boards
with these is a 10-in. by 5-in. rolled-iron ready to receive the hearth. Figs. 336 and
Fig. 339. "

Steel Binder Projecting Part of its Fig. 340. "
Section showing Arrangement to avoid
Depth below Joists. Binder Showing.
joist (the binder). Fig. 333 shows the 337 are sections
through a somewhat similar
generalconstruction of this floor,the special floor,but of
ordinary character, the
a more
feature of which is that the ceilingjoists ceilingjoistsbeing fixed to each bridging
u4wwv -n-
Fig. 341. "

Plan of a Framed Floor, showing Girders, Binders, Joists, Trimming, etc.
are notched
to and supported by every joist. The binders are of rolled-iron or
fourthbridgingjoist,which are stouter and steel 11 in. deep and 4J in. wide in the
deeper, as shown at a and b (Fig.334). flangesand 10 ft. apart. Fig. 338 illus-
Framed Floors.
The plan of a framed floor, 45 ft.by 26 ft.,

is shown at Fig. 341. Three girders, Sup-
ported
at their centres by iron columns,
carry the binders as shown. The sizes of
the various members are : Girders, 14 in.
by 10 in. sawn, reversed,and bolted with
a f-in.rolled flitch in the centre ; binders,
Fig. 342. " Section through Girder and Joists
Fig. 343." Conventional View of Girders,
Binders, Joists, and Head of Column.
trates a case where the bridgingjoistrests

direct on the iron binder, solid strutting
being inserted between the joiststo keep
them vertical. The is formed
ceiling of either
lath plasteror match-boarding fixed
and
direct to the joists, the binder being cased
round as shown. Fig. 339 illustrates an
arrangement of casingthe under side of a
girderor binder when it is deeper than the
joists.If constructed as shown at Fig. 340 a
flat ceilingcan be obtained under the binder ;
but this construction cannot be adopted
when the iron member has to serve as a
girderfor floors having heavy loads to carry,

as a singlebinder would not be deep enough. '
General View of Part of Framed Floor.

FLOORS. 7^"
9 in. by 6 in.; bridgingjoists, 6 in. by clear. Figs.344 to 346 are details of a double
2J in. ; ceiling 3 in. by 2 in.
joists, Figs, floor for a smaller span. Figs.345 and 346
342 and 343 will make the construction are views taken at right angles to each
"FIRRINC PIECE
Fig. 345. "

Section taken through Girder and Joists.
ji i.
7 x li BOARDSn f x NO 20 HOOP (RON "
Fig. 346." Section taken at Right Angles to Fig. 345.
Fig. 347." View of Under Side of Framed Floor, with Wood Ceiling and Beams Wrought
and Moulded.
other. Fig. 347 is a conventional view ends of the binders,and thus they are well
showing girder,12 in. by 10 in. ; binders, supported without the girderbeing weak-
ened.
8 in. by 6 in. ; bridgingjoists, 8 in. by Two different forms of malleable
2J in-.; and matchboard ceiling.There iron stirrupsare illustrated by Figs. 348
Fig. 348. " Binders supported on Girders by Malleable Iron Stirrup.
Fig. 350."
Wrought-iron Stirrup.
Fig. 349."
Another Form of Stirrup
Fig. 351. "

Method of Hanging Ceiling Joists from Bridging Joists.
beingno ceiling joists,

the girdersand binders and 349, and one of wrought iron by Fig.
have their under-edgesmoulded. To inter-
cept 350. A system of supporting ceilingjoists
sound, the floor may be pugged as by connectingthem to the bridgingjoists
shown. The strength of wooden girders by nailingthem to stripsof wood is shown
often being weakened to the extent of one- at Fig. 351, but it has become obsolete.
Fig. 352. Fig. 353.
Figs. 352 and 353. "

Beam Trussed with One Tension Rod.
mortised Floors with Trussed Beams.

eighth by being and housed to
receive the binders,various forms of stirrup In warehouses and factories where there
irons have been introduced to carry the are heavy loads and vibration the girders
of warehouses, etc., if a wrought-iron bar or per foot span. The trimming joist is made
tube is passed through each joista little J in. thicker for every common joistcarried
above its centre. The bar must have a by the trimmer. A rough rule used some
thread and nut working against years ago was to fix the depth of the joists
at each end
an iron plate, so that the struts and joists at one-sixteenth of the clear span, or j in. to
may be tightenedperfectlyclose to each each foot between the bearings. The
other. A view of this arrangement is given Ecclesiastical Commissioners prescribethe
at Fig.360. size of joists to be 9 in. by 2J in. for 12-ft.
spans and 12 in. by 3 in. for 18-ft. spans. A

Supporting Joists by Walls. metropolitanauthorityhas fixed upon 8J
Joists are now often supported direct by in. by 2 J in.,and 11 J in. by 2 J in. for the
the brickwork or masonry, or they may take
their bearing on a vanised
gal-
tar and sanded or
iron bar.
Figs.361 to 364 show
four generalmethods of bedding platesfor
joistsin or upon the walls. Fig.364 shows
the plate supported by iron corbels built
in the walls. So that the plate may not
project below the ceiling, sometimes the

joistsare notched down to bringtheir lower
edgeslevel with the under side of the plate;

but, of course, this weakens the joists.
Fig. 361. " Joists supported by Wall Plate built

in Wall.
same respectivebearings. By the rough

rule of one-sixteenth the distance between
the bearings,the depth for an 18-ft. span
should be :"
18 x 12 .
= 13^ m.
Yq
If, however, the thickness of the joistis

Fig. 360. "
View of Solid Strutting and Bolt.
taken to be 3 in.,the strengthof the will
joist
allow for
Determining Sizes of Joists.
135s x 3 x 2-5
Common joistsare spaced 12 in. apart, 76 cwt.
18
with herringbone strutting every 4 ft.
Dimensions for common joists
are as follow : central breakingload, or
~
= 12 J cwt.
central safe load, which is considerably
more
than is required(see the calculation given

below).
Weight on Joists.
The weight on ordinary joistsof, say,

18-ft. span, 12 in. deep, and 3 in. thick, and
1 ft. 3 in. centres, may be taken to be as
follows : The superficial
"
space carried on
the joist is 18 ft. by 1 ft, 3 in. 22'5 sq. =
The nearest available size should used,

be ft., and this covered with people at, say,
should be 84 lb. per square foot amounts to 22*5 ft.
and 2 -in. joists
ceiling J in. deep
FLOORS.
by 841b. 1,8901b. 1J cwt. per ft. super., churches and public

The sound-boarding and pug-
ging buildings 1J cwt., and warehouses 2 J cwt.
may be taken at 100 lb. per The weight of the structure must be allowed
yd. super., and the lath,plaster, for in addition to the above loads,and this
etc., at 80 lb.,givinga total is most important to bear in mind in con-
nection
180 lb. per with fireprooffloors. For dwelling

weight of yd.,or per
houses the 1 J cwt. is usuallymade to include
ft. super. ^ = 20 lb. This the weight of the floor itself.
multipliedinto the area gives

22-5 x 20 lb. 450
The floorboards
will be 18 ft. by
15 in. by 1J in. = 2-81 ft. cube
the joists18 ft.
by 1 ft. by 3 in. = 4*50 ft. cube
and the total weight of timber

will be 7-30 ft. by 35 lb. 257
Thus the total distributed
weight is 2,597
2'597
1
1,2991b. central load,
. "
"
This is equalto "
^"
=
or 11*6 cwt. The strength of the joists Fig. 363." Wall Corbelled Out to carry Wall Plate.
under this load will be, by the formula
12'2 x 3 x 2*5 Bridging Joist for i8=ft. Span, Load
already given, "^
" - = 60 cwt.
18 i cwt. per ft. super.
breakingload,or "
10 cwt. safe load. Let requiredto determine the size of
it be
a bridging joistsuitable for a span of 18 ft.
and capableof carryinga load of 1 cwt. per
Estimating Load on Floors.
ft. super., the joistsfixed 12 in. centre to
Floors should be estimated for according
to the nature of the buildingand the probable
Fig. 362." Joists supported by Wall Fig. 364.- -Plate carried by Wrought-iron Corbels built
Plate bedded on Set-off. in Wall.
load. A crowd of persons is variously mated

esti- centre. The preliminary calculation will
to weigh from 41 lb. to 147'4 lb. per be as follows : (1) The total weight on one
square foot of the surface covered. Probably joistis equal to the load the half space
on
a safe average would be 1 cwt. per ft. super, either side of the
on joist that is, 6 in.
"
considered as a live load. Dwellinghouses on each side. Then the total load = 18 x
are usually designed for a dead load of 1 ft. x 1 cwt. = 18 cwt. (2) The load
that may be safelycarried on is a

the joist .-. d = s/1080 = 10 in. nearly,
certain fraction of the breaking weight and b = -3 x d = 3 x 10 = 3 in.
" that is,of the load that would break the
Let c be the constant = 4 cwt. ; b the
joist.This fraction varies,for the different
breadth in inches ; d the depth in inches ;
purposes for which the scantling
is to be used,
L the length in feet ; BAY. the breaking
from one-fifth to one-tenth. In the case
of floor timbers, where the weight = 114 cwt. Therefore a joist10 in.
joisthas to tain
sus-
by 3 in. would be suitable for a of
a live load, it should not exceed one- span
seventh
18 ft.,and would carry a load of 1 cwt. per
or one-eighththe breaking weight.
ft. super. followingrule The is given by
In the example given above, the joisthas to
load of 18 cwt. Hence the breaking
Tredgold for fir joist: "
carry a
weight is equal to 18 8 114 cwt. (3)

The breadth joistmust
or thickness
x =
of the
"" - Vi x 2-2
bear a certain proportion to the depth so as

In this case a breadth must be assumed,
to be satisfactory as regardsstrengthand
which is,in most cases, a difficultand very
economy. Let this proportionfor a bridg-
ing
uncertain proceeding; however, assuming
joist be decided by the formula b '3 d, =
for the present example the breadth to be

where b the breadth and= D the depth "
all in inches. It is evident that the joist

3 in.,
Then
in such a case must be considered as
strutted. The preliminarycalculations as -7". 0.0
regards the joisthaving been made, a mula

for-
applicable for calculating
to every case
b =
;/**i! x o.o.
the strength of timber, no matter where or
for what purpose the scantlingmay be quired,

re- D = \/\ 08 o.o 4-5 x 2-2 = 9 9 in.
must be decided on. A piece of
The result is very much the same as in the
wood of the same kind as that used for the
and
joist, 1 ft. long by 1 in. square, loaded previousexample,but advantage of the the
at the centre tillit breaks, will be the con- first method will be obvious when dealing
stant
for all purposes of calculation when with further calculations,as it is applicable

to other beams than floor timber.
dealingwith the same material. It will be
found that the strength varies directlyas
Determining Size of Binder.
the breadth, directlyas the square of the
depth, and inverselyas the length; this Say it is requiredto determine the size
may be proved by increasing the breadth, of a binder 10 ft. long and fixed 6 ft. apart,
length,and depth,and carefully notingthe capableof carrying a floor weighing 1 cwt.
difference in the loads requiredto break per before,the neces-

ft. super. sary Make, as
the beam in each case. the formula

Briefly, preliminarycalculation. (1) Total load
carried by the binder =10 x 6 60 cwt. =
may be stated thus : BAY. = "

that
j (2) Breaking weight (say)seven times safe
is, for a central load. But a floor-joist load 60 x 7 420 cwt, = (3)Let the ratio =
carries a distributed load,and this load will of the breadth and the depth be as 6 is to
be found to be equal to twice the load it 10, that is *6 d, which is a very suitable ratio
will carry when loaded. for all purposes where stiffness is required.
centrally Then the
formula will be :
"
(4) Let c the constant = 4 cwt. Then,
using the same formula as before,
2 c b cV-
BAY. = 2 c h d'2
" " " i
1
breaking weight = :
2 x 4 x -3d x d2
114 x 4 x -"d x d2
=
18 420 =-
10
144 x 18 420 x 10
and d3 = 1080. d" "
~
~A
= 8?5
2 a
x 4 x ?3 2 x 4 x "o
FLOORS. 85
d ^/"75 not be discussed Tredgold'srule for fir

.-. = = 9-5 nearly,
and b = -U = -6 x 9-5 = 5-7 in. girderis :
Therefore,a binder 9'5 in. x 5*7 in. would Lffx4-2.

carry a floor weighing 1 cwt. ft. super,
per
over a of 10 ft. The followingrule is Let the breadth (which must be assumed)
span
be 12 in. Then :"
givenby Tredgold: "
20 x 20
D:
D x 3-42. 12
" * "
In this case, again, the breadth must be X 4

IT -
assumed. Let this be taken as 5*5 in.,

= VW3 x 4-2
then "-y 10 x
D'D
10
x 3-42 = 3-2
in,
x 4-2
= 14 nearly.
.'" d" VI8 x 3-42
It is evident from this that a girder20 in.
.-. d = 2-7 x 3-42
deep is by far too large,or that a girderof
9-2 nearly,
=
14 in. is much too small. If the formulae
which corresponds very nearly with the in each case are examined it will be found
first case. that the first is based on the strength of a
small beam determined by trial,while the

Determining Size of Girder for
second is doubtful. It is certain,however,
Supporting Floor. that girder,12 in. by 14 in., and 20 ft.
a
Girders 10 ft.
apart from centre to centre long,is not capable of carrying a load of
carry a floor
weighing 1J cwt. per ft. 250 cwt., as determined by the recognised
super. Required, the breadth and depth formulae. It may be mentioned further
for strength; span 20 ft. (1) The total load that the loads are considered as distributed
carried by the girderis 20 x 10 x T25 =
loads, while in realitythey are loads placed
250 cwt. that is, the lengthmultiplied
"
by at certain fixed points, namely, the points

half the bay on either side multipliedby where the binders are connected to the
the load per ft. super. (2) Let B.W. 7 =
girder; consequentlythe dimensions tained
ob-
times the safe load = 250 x 7 =
1,750 cwt. by the formulae are less
slightly than
(3) Let breadth be '6 d. (4) Let c the they ought to be.
constant be 4 cwt. Thus
Then bd2
B.W.
2 c b d2 L
B.W. 11-5 19-25
2x4 x 19-25 x
2 4 -6d d'2 !0
x x x
1750 = 1704-58 cwt.
20
1750 x 20 which is less than the actual breakingweight

.-. ds = -.
-
= 7262-5 '
^2 4 calculated for, namely, 1,750 cwt. The

x x -6
.
". d = V7262-5 = 19 -25 in. nearly, strongestfloor,for the quantity of timber
used, is given in the first case, while the
.-. b = -Qd = '6x 19-25 = 11-550 in.
apparent strength shown in the second and
Therefore, the breadth and depth of a third cases results in actual weakness. But
suitable girderfor the requiredpurpose must singlefloors should not be used for spans
be 11*5 in. wide and 19"25 in. deep. It is exceeding 16 ft. ; and though they are
needless to remark that a wooden girder sometimes used for spans up to 24 ft.,in
20 in. deep is impracticable,
and a wrought- such cases deflection is considerable,
resulting
iron girderwould be substituted for it ; but in cracked ceilings,
etc. It may, less,
neverthe-
as the above is merely an illustrative ex-
ample, be stated that each floor has its advan-
tages
the construction of the girderneed and its disadvantages. The above
calculations are not worked out exactly, Shippers'Marks on Floorings(continued)

the nearest fraction being taken in each
H^H 1st. Hudikswall
case.
HT AB 3rd.
Floor-Boards.
JCK 1st. Domsjo
Timber Used for Flooring. Many "
ties
varie-
JD" Co. 2nd. Soderhamn
of wood are manufactured into flooring.
For elaborate purposes wainscot oak, teak, JF J u s. Fredrikstad
etc., are employed ; but for less expensive IKH B g? Extra 1st. Gene
work coniferous timber is used, of which
K + K 3rd. Domsjo
there are several kinds. Pitchpineis the most
and durable other kinds M ^H 1st. Soderhamn
elegant ; are :
Riga (red and white),Bjorneborg (red and N + W 1st. Sundswall

white),Swedish and Norwegian white wood, N = W 2nd.
and Quebec red. White deal is a timber
N W 3rd.
that is seldom if ever kept under cover ; it
isgenerallysawn and wrought direct from IPATI 1st. Hudikswall
exposed stacks. Red

especiallying
floor-
deal "
gP Pe 2nd.
battens and deals is invariablykept
"
S AF 2nd. Gothenburg
under cover. Pitchpineis never imported
SAL 2nd.
in battens,but in logs,deals,and irregular
sized scantlings, which can be with safety S^B Extra 1st. Skonvik
stacked,when pinned,in an exposed place. SB S 1st.
For flooring, etc.,white deal is used to a far SAB 2nd.
greater extent than red deal or pitchpine,
on account of its cheapness and adaptability. S"F 1 st. Gothenburg
List of S F A 1st. Fredrikshald
Shippers' Marks on Floorings. "
The followingis a list of floorings

with SFB 2nd.
the shippers'marks, showing the quality s + w 3rd.
"
and port :"
iSK Bife Extra 1st. Skutska
SKB 1st.
SUND 1st. Sundswall
SViVIK 1 st. Swartwik
S Y * VIK 2nd.
S DD 3rd.
W " Co. 2nd. Fredrikshald
W D " Co. 1st.
WIESE " Co. 1st. Fredrikstad
sb # sk 3rd. Gefle
u/s
Sizes of Floor-Boards. " The sizes of floor-

ing
generallytaken from white deal are
3 in.by J in.,3 in. by 1\ in.,3 in. by If in.,
5 J in.by f in.,6 in. by J in.,6 J in. by | in.,
5J in. by 1J in.,6 in. by 1J-in.,6J in. by \\
in.,and 6 J in. by If in. These sizes do not
include the tongue, or feather,consequently
the stuff is J in. broader in the rough than
when wrought. The most suitable battens
FLOORS. 87
for flooringare 6 in. by 2 in.,6 in. by 2 J in., take J in. off. With evenly sawn wood
6} by 2 J in.,7 in. by 2 J in.,and 7 in. by
in. heavy cutting has seldom to be resorted to.
3 in. When 3-in. by f-in.flooringis being The leading advantage of the scutching-
cut and wrought, the most suitable sized block compared with fixed cutters is that
batten is 7 in. by 3 in.,which gives six the block makes an irregularsurface parallel,
pieces,three saw cuts being sufficient " whereas fixed cutters follow the uneven
nature of the board, and do not alter any
irregularity
which it may have. There are
many cutter heads for the formation of the

tongue and groove. The face-iron side of
the groove and tongue should projecta little
more than the scutched side ; by this means
Fig. 365. "
Ordinary Direction of Grain in Floor-

Boards. the faced side of the flooring,
when driven
home and placed in position,
has a better
namely, deep and one
two flat. This is jointthan it otherwise would have. The
when wrought single with the flooring "
Shimer "
patent heads make the finest
machine. When double with the work
run
; with a feed speed of 60 ft. or 80 ft.
machine two saw cuts through the depth per minute undue chippingis very rare with
sufficient. cutting in this
The flat the "
Shimer "
are patent. A good machine
instance is done flooring machine.
with the can run from 9,000 to 11,000 sup. ft. of 6-in.
The double working of flooringand lining or 6J-in.by If-in. flooring
per day, or 4,000
with machinery, though much the quicker
sup. ft. of narrow flooring.All lf-in.
way, is not so satisfactoryas the single material is taken from 2|-in. battens,
method, for each alternate board has to be whether broad or narrow. Flooringabove
reversed, besides the further disadvantage, If in. thick is sometimes run with two
if the battens are waney, of the groove being instead of .and slip feathers
grooves one,
always on the waney edge. Similar sized are employed in place of the solid formed
flooring(J in.) can also be cut from 7-in. This in.
tongue. plan saves J on the
by 2J-in. battens. Two boards may be breadth of each board.
cut f-in. in thickness and one J in.,thereby Stacking Floor-Boards. " Finished flooring,
utilising the whole batten ; 5J in. by f-in. no matter well it may how be stacked and
boards are taken from 6-in. by 2-in. material ; pinned,is always liable to become twisted
3-in.by lf-in. from 7-in. by 2f-in.,3-in. whilst being seasoned. To obviate this,
by lf-in.from 7-in. by 3-in. the material should be sawn, pinned, and
Operation of Floor-Board Planing Machine. stacked in the Let it for six
rough. season
The fixed cutters or face irons of a ing

floor- or eight weeks then finish it with
;
"
machine produce the best and est

smooth- machinery. Work done in this can
way
work. These tools operate on the under be stored in bulk under cover without
side of the boards ; therefore the freshly being pinned or ventilated. Flooring
sawn placed downwards
side should beto
receive the finishing,
which the face irons
accomplish. The revolving top scutching-
block is not so much used for dressing as
for bringing the boards to an exact ness.
thick-
So long as one side of the board is
Fig. 366. -Direction of Grain for Least Shrinkage
well dressed and of accurate thickness, it is of Floor-Boards.
not important to have the other side so well
done. Some machines have fixed planers wrought on this principledoes not twist,
on the upper side, but such cannot bring cast, or shrink like material finished and
the stuff to an accurate thickness like the stacked at one operation; it is, moreover,
revolvingscutch-block. It is heavy work much more easily laid. This rule applies
for fixed cutters to reduce boards -" m- '"" also to lining.Red deal is
flooring not so
the scutching-block,
however, can easily generally
wrought for stock as white, for
the that red deal battens as a Laying Floor= Boards.

reason are,
rule, kept under cover ; orders can be Folded Floor."" Floors to be laid fold-
ing
executed despatchedwithout
and the sary
neces- with the
jointsbroken means
"
that
seasoning that white deal requires. the heading jointsof the boards are not
Figs. 367 and 368. "
Laying
Folded Floors. Fig. 369. "
Cramping Floor-Boards with Dog and Folding Wedges.
Red deal is more easilymanufactured than to be in line when laid,but are to be crossed
white. It is to a certain degree softer and in as long lengths as possiblefrom joist
not so tough in the reed as spruce. to joist. The system of layingthe boards
Direction of Grain in Floor-Boards. " with a succession of jointsin line causes
If aspecification does not insist on any une venn ess when the boards shrink, and
"
particular position of the grain of the wood, weakens the floor. The term laid fold-
ing
"
it will be complied with by either of the is an old one, and was appliedwhen
examples shown in Figs.365 and 366. If mechanical means were not available for
"
the grainis intended to show annual rings bringing the jointstightlytogether. In
parallelwith the edges," words to that the absence of a floor cramp the boards
effect should be inserted in the specification, may be laid with fairlytight jointsby
"
or it should be stated that all boards are jumping them in, as shown in Fig. 367.
to be cut radially from the tree." No doubt The first board next the wall is laid and
the plank shown in Fig. 366 would be less nailed in its place; then other boards
liable to warp than that shown in Fig.365 ; (sayfive), to make a width of about 3 ft., are
rv^Mv^V^S
v^vvKr^vi^
Fig. 371. "
Ordinary Pattern Floor Cramp.
Fig. 370. "
Floor with Joints broken at 3-ft.
Intervals.
laid down. The final positionof the fifths
but to obtain all like this would mean ing
pick- board having been ascertained,the fifth
very largeparcelof boards
over a in board is nailed down J in. inside the line
order to get the quantity required, and it it takes when only hand tight. The four
may be looked upon as impracticable. other boards are then jumped in and nailed.
battens can be wedged in from the wall, and in floors laid with the
occur joist,
over a
or forced togetherby usinga pieceof quar- aid of boards should have
tering cramp, contiguous
a
as a lever. their heading joints on different joists "
that is, should break joint. The actual

Floor Brads.
jointis made in different ways. In common
Nails used in flooringare called floor floors the boards simply butt up against
brads (Fig.374),and they are driven through each other a (Fig.375) ; in better work the
headingjoints are splayedb (Fig.375). Even
with plainheadings it is usual slightly to
Fig. 376 "
undercut the ends so as to present as close

Straight Floor a surface
jointas possible.Sometimes the
Joint. heading joints are grooved and tongued in
a similar fashion to the longitudinaljoints
described below. In very expensivework
the ends of the boards are cut into a series
Fig. 377 "
of sharp, salient and notches,

re-entering
Rebated Floor
whose ridgesare parallel
to the surface of
Joint.
the floor. These notches fit one another,
and form a tight joint. Such jointsare
sometimes used in oak floors ; they are
Fig. 378." extremely troublesome and expensive to
Rebated and make, and the point nearest the surface of
Filleted Joint. the floor is very liable to break away even
in hard wood.
Edge Joints. The "
ordinary straightjoint
Fig. 379." for the longitudinal edges of floor-boards
Rebated, Grooved is shown in section by Fig.376 ; the rebated
and Tongued Joint joint(Fig.377) is another common method,
for Secret a jointrequiringmore work being the re-
bated
Nailing.
and filleted (Fig.378). The rebated,
grooved, and tongued joint (Fig.379) is
Fig. 380." useful for secret nailing.The jointshown
Iron
in Fig.380 has an iron tongue, and Fig.381
Tongue
Joint.
shows the dowelled joint. The ploughed
and cross-tonguedjoint with slipfeather
(Fig.260, p. 62) is also used. In all floors
which are ceiled underneath, means should
Fig. 381." of
be taken to prevent dust or particles any
Dowelled Floor the boards.
kind from
fallingbetween Any
Joint. accumulation of organicmatter on the upper
surfaces of the plaster is certain to decom-
pose.
The ceiling being, moreover, always
the floor-boards into the joists,two at each less porous, these particles
more or ally
gradu-
passing,about 1 in. from the edge. work their way to the under surface,
and produce a stained appearance, which no
Joints for Floor= Boards.
amount of whitewashing or scrapingwill
Heading Joints." The points of contact remove. The usual method of preventing
between the ends of two floor-boards are this is to form a ploughed and tongued
called headingjoints(Fig.375). a (Fig.375) floor. Each board is grooved on each edge,
shows the section of headingjoint,but butt
a and thin
slips,or tongues, either of wood or
slightlyless simple than the splayed head-
ing of galvanisediron, are then inserted (see
jointshown in section by b (Fig.375). Figs. 260 and 380). If of iron, the tongue
These joints should always be arranged to should be galvanised.The tongue should
FLOORS. 91
be fixed nearer to the lower edge of the feltingremoving entirelythe property which
board than to the upper, so that as much the slag wool possesses of emitting sul- phuretted
wear as possible
can be had out of the floor hydrogen, and also reducing
before the tongue is exposed. Another the weight of the material. Slag material,
method of attaining the object is
same beingfireproof,is to be preferred to sawdust
known as rebatingand filleting
(see Fig. and other combustible materials sometimes
378) ; a rebate is cut on the lower edge of
each board, and a filletof oak or some other
hard wood fixed in the space thus formed.
For superiorwork, a dowelled floor (Fig.
381) has the showing no nails
advantage of
on the surface ; the boards are pinned to-
gether
between the joists with oak dowels,
Fig. 382.
and nailed obliquelyon one edge only.
Dowelled boards should not be more than
S in. wide, and not less than 1| in. thick
" "
when finished. The Pavodilos jointis
as shown slightlymodified
by Fig. 382, a Fig. 383.
form being that shown by Fig. 383, which, and "Pavodilos"

Figs. 382 383. "
Joint in
although the second key is lost,may pos-sibly Flooring.
be preferredon account of the danger,
when used. Fig.384 shows the section of part of
nailingdown the flooring jointed as
in Fig. 382, of
damaging the feather-edge a common floor,showing 9-in. by 3-in. joists,
of the board that is being fixed. and lj-in.boardingwith a rebated heading
"
joint. In addition, pugging and a lath- "
Double boarded Floor. =
and-plasterceilingare shown. The object

An upper layerof thin oak boards is some-
times of the pugging is to reduce the transmission
fixed over a rough deal floor for the of sound. The filletsfor supportingthe pug-
ging
sake of appearance, and also in some cases need not be of the shape indicated in
to obtain an almost impervious surface. Fig. 384. Another means of attainingthe
A floor of this kind, wax-polishedand well desired end is to nail stripsof felt on the
laid,is much to be commended for the ease upper edges of the under
joists, the boards.
floor-
with which it can be cleaned,and for its non- By this means the connection
absorbent nature. between the joistsand boarding is broken.
This arrangement creates some difficulty in
Sound = proof Floors.
fixingthe boards, which can be overcome by
One method of preventingthe sound from nailinga lath alongthe top of the felt.
one room being audible in another room
immediately below is to nail fillets to the

joists, and on these nail a layer of rough
boards, and to fill in on the top of these
boards a stratum of lime-and-hair mortar.
Slag felt,a preparation of slagwool, which
is a material produced by blowing off waste
steam into the slagof iron furnaces,is also Fig. 384. "
Section of Sound-proof Floor with
used for this purpose. In the case of the slag Pugging.
felt the process is as follows : On the under
Fireproof Wooden Floors.
side of the joists,filletsare nailed to wooden
blocks 1 in. thick, and to these fillets the Protected Wooden Floors. " One of the
lathing for the plasterceiling is affixed. simplestand most economical methods of
The slagwool (known as pugging ") is then "
floor is to pro-
constructing a fire-resisting tect
laid on the upper surface of the laths,and an ordinary wooden floor with slabs
is felted by a patent process, this process of of asbestic plasteror of slagwool (silicate
cotton), both of which can be obtained by Messrs. Evans and Swain between 1870
commerciallyin slabs,as cloth,or in the and 1880. The joists,instead of being
form of loose fibre or wool. The loose wool placed at some distance from each other,
is useful for filling
up spaces were the between
together,so that air could laid close
the joists
as a pugging to deaden sound (as not penetrate between them, the planks
alreadydescribed),as well as affordingpro-
tection beingthen spikedas shown in Fig.387. As
againstfire. A convenient method an alternative method, the spikescould be
driven in diagonally, and, if thought neces-
sary,
the under side of the planks could

be protected with a plasterceiling keyed
into grooves formed in the planks. As a
test of the capability of this system, a build-
ing
was erected 14 ft. square inside of 14-in.
brick walls,and measuring 7 ft. from the
Fig. 385. "
Asbestos Slabs under Wooden Floor.
ground to the ceiling.The flooringwas
of attachingthe slabs laid as described above, of deal battens 7 in.
is shown
in Fig. 385.
The slabs are by enclosingsilicate deep by 2 J in. thick,spikedtogetherside by
formed
cotton between sheets of galvanisedwire side. One-third of the under side was tered,
plas-
netting, a nd are made of thicknesses varying the joistsbeing grooved for this
from 1 in. to 3 in. They are secured to purpose ; one-third was plasteredon nails
the under side of the joists, as shown at a, partly driven into the planks, and the
by wooden filletsB b nailed underneath, the remainingthird was left unprotected. The
nails passingthrough the slabs. To these
filletsare secured the laths,when a lath-and-
plaster ceilingc is desired. Additional
securitycan be obtained by placingother
slabs between the joists,restingon tri-
angular
filletsas shown in Fig.386. Owing
to the comparative cheapness of these Fig. 387." Floors of Solid Wood.
methods of construction,and the measure
of securitythey afford,they are worthy of chamber underneath was packed almost full
more general adoption in dwelling-houses of timber, which was then lighted,and it
and office buildings. was not until after five hours' continuous
Solid Wooded Floors. "
Woodwork, when exposure to the flames that the unprotected

used in solid masses, is an excellent material portionof the floor gave way. The system
for fireproof construction. It is extremely was afterwards adopted in largewarehouses
difficult to destroytimber in bulk by fire, for the East and West India Docks, London,
and in America, partlyon this account, and and in other buildings.
also on account of the cheapnessof timber, Other Systems. A modification of the "
system justdescribed has been patentedby

Messrs. Hinton and Day, and is illustrated
in Fig. 388. The joistsare spaced apart
in the ordinaryway, but the spaces are filled
in with solid blocks,having the grainplaced
Fig. 386. "
Asbestos Slabs between Joists. vertically, tongued and grooved togetherin
such a manner that the
passage of air be-
tween
floors and walls are constructed of planks them is prevented. The blocks are
nailed together side by side. The walls of carried by filletsnailed to the sides of the
many of the largegrain elevators and station joist. A test of this system of flooringwas
buildingsare constructed in this way. The made at Westminster. Four walls of 9-in.
system of forming floors by close timbering brickwork were erected, and the under side
instead of the ordinary use of joistsand of the floor to be tested was 9 ft. 6 in. from
flooring boards,was introduced into England the ground. The lower part of the building
FLOORS. 93
was filled three parts full with inflammable the boards wear down the heads project,
material (no petroleum or grease, however), to the discomfort of the users.
and a fierce fire maintained for more than The Wood Blocks. " Wood blocks are
two hours, after which it was extinguished, generallymade from 9 in. to 18 in. long by
and the under side of the floor was found to 3 in. wide, and from 1J in. to 3 in. thick, of
be charred to a depth of " in. In American yellow deal, pitchpine,oak, birch, maple,
factory and workshop buildings a layer of or beech. They should be prepared from
mortar d is often introduced between two thoroughly seasoned and sound stuff. The
thicknesses of flooring, as shown in Fig.389. firms who make a speciality of this work
Here 8-in. by 4-in. wooden joists e support usuallydry the blocks in hot-air chambers
the flooring planks,which are 3 in. thick, after working, and afterwards store them
on which a layer of mortar, " in. thick, is in a dry building. Precautions should there-
fore
spread. Floor-boards 1J in. thick, laid on be taken, when receivinga consign-

ment
the top of this, form the working surface from the factory,to store them under
of the floor. Sometimes the floor-boards cover until they are required; and it is wise
are laid in two thicknesses, crossing each not to order them until the placeis ready,
other diagonally,as shown in Fig. 390, because their storage for any lengthof time
in which f indicates the layer of mortar.
The beams carryingthe floors have air spaces
round each end, and to avoid the danger
of the wall being pulleddown by a falling
Fig. 388. " Solid Blocking carried on Fillets.
beam in case the latter should be burnt
through,the upper end of the beam is cut

Figs. 389 and 390. "
American Systems of
at both ends so that it can fall Wooden Floors.
away
freely.
Wood Block Floors.
in a damp buildingwill defeat the objectof
=
the previous drying,and for this the chaser

pur-
Solid wood-block floors are now much has to pay. The smaller sized blocks
used in the basements of dwelling-houses, are sometimes made with square joints,
and
on the ground floors of and
publicbuildings, are held in place by the cement or mastic
for coveringcertain forms of fireproof
structions
con- with which the foundation is covered, but
in the upper floors of warehouses, in superiorwork the blocks are also nected
con-
etc. The advantages they possess over the

by grooves and tongues or dowels.
ordinaryboarded floor are : damp-proofness, Several patented systems are on the market,
freedom from dry rot, greaterlasting
proper-
ties, some of the best of which are here illus-
trated
and freedom from vibration, and they ; these combine an interlocking of
do not transmit sound nor harbour vermin ; the blocks with the substance of the bed,
they are more sanitary,through the absence by means of dovetailed grooves or inserted
of shrinkage,and consequent open joints of keys, and a connection with each other by
the older system ; and the absence of nails means of pins or tongues.
is also a great advantage, as the holes made Preparing Basement for Wood-Block Floor.
by these are always unsightly,and when " In preparing a basement to receive a
wood-block floor,
the ground should be taken however, be swept thoroughly off before
out from 8 in. to 11 in. (accordingto the running on the mastic. The bitumen is
thickness of the blocks)below the intended sometimes laid in two coats, the firstbeing
floor-line; the surface should be roughly allowed to set before proceedingwith the
levelled and rammed solid ; 1-ft. 6-in. stakes second ; the of this is to
purpose ensure a
are then driven into the bottom about 6 ft. substantial layer of bitumen between the
apart, and levelled off to 6 in. above the blocks and the cement, but this is only
ground ; the site is then filled in with crete
con- necessary on very damp sites.
The objects
to the depth of the stakes, and the of the three different layersunder the floor
surface beaten smooth. A blue lias lime, are : The concrete is to form a substantial
or Portland cement, should be used for the and unyielding foundation, and also to
concrete, in the proportion of 1 cement to 6 prevent the ground-airarising ; the cement
aggregate. The concrete bed should be layer is to form a hard and regularsurface
allowed to settle and dry before proceeding to which the matrix can adhere and the
;
with the step, which is the floating matrix is a damp-prooflayerthat will effectu-
next ally
of the top with a j-in.layer of Portland prevent any moisture that may pass
cement and sand, 5 to 1 ; preparatory to through the cement from reaching the
blocks, and also, being stronglyadhesive,
it keeps the blocks attached to the cement.
Various mixtures are used for matrices,the
best having mineral bitumen as a base ;
but frequentlya simple mixture of Stock- holm
tar and pitch,in the proportionsof
2 of tar to 1 of pitch, is used (note,gas tar
is unsuitable). "When this is laid, in a single
coat, screeds of wood about J in. or f in;
thick are nailed lightly to the cement to form
bays about 4 ft. or 5 ft. square ; two of these

should be filledin with the melted matrix,
which should be boilinghot, and the first
filled in will be ready for layingthe blocks
Fig. 391. "
Herringbone Pattern of Wood-Block

by the time the second is filled. The best
Floor with 18-in. Blocks. consistencyof the matrix for layingis when
it is thick enough to receive the weight of
this screeds of cement about 3 in. wide the block without allowingit to sink in,and
should be run around the margins, and yet warm enough to amalgamate properly
across the room every 6 ft. or 8 ft. ; these with the mixture adhering to the blocks.
should be
accuratelylevelled and struck Scaffold boards should be laid across the
with a long float,
straight and when set will bays,restingon the screeds,for the men to
become levellingpoints from which to kneel on whilst laying.
strike off the surface of the cement ; before Laying the Wood Blocks. " The mastic,as
the latter has become hard it should be the fumes are should be heated
suffocating,
brushed over with a birch broom to score in a large iron cauldron in the open air,
the surface ; it must then be allowed time and brought into the buildingin iron pails.
to become perfectlydry, as any trace of The blocks should be stacked in the room
moisture will be fatal to the adhesion of the near the doorway, each cut to its proper
bitumen coat next to be laid. From seven size and each series stacked by itself. To
to fourteen days, accordingto the state of do the work properlytwo men at least will
the atmosphere, will be required for this be requiredto lay,working into each other's
purpose ; and as an additional precaution hands, and one to deliver the blocks as quired.
re-
justbefore layingthe bitumen, or matrix, as The order of deliveryand of laying

it is termed, dust a little fresh lime or some will depend on the design,as will be men-
tioned
fine dry ashes over the surface ; these must, presently.The blocks are dipped to
FLOORS. 95
half their depth into the pailof mixture, care pairsof contiguousblocks should be laid first
being taken not to allow any to get on the right along that side that is, all of those "
surface, and lightlytapped into place; having mitred ends, as these provide the
when a bay is completed piece quartering startingpoints of the pattern, then follow
a of
about 5 ft. long, with one side planedstraight, on alternately left and right as described.
should be struck on the face of the blocks to A beginning should always be made at the
Fig. 392. "

Double Herringbone Design with
12-in. Blocks. Fig. 394. "
Chequer Design with 9-in. Blocks.
bring them to a uniform level. In laying wall oppositethe door, working towards the
the herringbonedesign(Fig.391),beginwith latter so that no traffic may pass over fresh-
the margin, layingthis as far as the mastic laid work ; and after all the blocks are
ruus ; then taking two blocks, place them down, sawdust should be freelystrewn over
in the left-hand angle,and make a mark on their surface to absorb any mastic that may
the margin where the edge of the second have dropped thereon, and scaffold boards
block reaches. This point for
will be the laid on spare blocks from the doorway,
fixingthe small triangularpiece,marked should it be necessary pass that to way.
No. 1 ; next fix the block marked 2, and At least twenty-fourhours should elapse
then Nos. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, in due order. This before beginningthe cleaningoff,to allow
arrangement makes the insertion of the the mastic time to set hard, and in cleaning
tongues or Having reached No.

pins easy. off plentyof tallow should be used. It will
7, either move right,or let the second
to the be found an advantage to the workmen to
man take up the running with block No. 8, have a pail of whitinghandy, whilst they
whose positionis found by measuring from are layingthe blocks,into which they can
No. 6 with two blocks as before ; then let occasionally dip their hands, as the tar
Fig. 393. Tile Design with 12-in. Blocks. -Panel and Frame Design with Mixed
"
Fig. 395.
Blocks.
him follow on with Nos. 9 to 14 tively,
consecu-
when the first man will lay Nos. 15 burns severelythe unprotected skin. As
and 16, and the second Nos. 17 and 18, and before mentioned, the blocks should be
so on. The shaded portion in Fig. 391 all cut to size before beginning,and this
" "
between chimney- necessitates the settingout of repeat
represents the recess a one
breast and the wall. If a beginningwere of the design full size upon a largeboard or
made againsta straightwall all the three a clean floor. The actual blocks should be
used for this purpose, fixing down the width of the will show the
room quantity
margins,and cuttingand fitting in a bay required. It may be mentioned that these
as shown by the dotted line a (Fig.391). blocks are usuallysold by the hundred.
Once the spreadof a bay is known, it is Jointing and Fixing Wood Blocks.
easy "
Fig.
to space out the quantity for a room and 396 shows the section of a wood-block base-
Fig. 396. "

Section of Herringbone Patterns shown
in Fig. 391. Fig. 398." Duffy's Patent Block Floor.
ascertain how of each ment floor with grooved and tongued joints.
many length and
shape are required. It is best to lay down Fig. 397 represents a section of Turpin's
all recesses like the one shown, and cut in patent interlocking system ; here a tapering
tongue with an undercut shoulder on the
all the blocks, speciallymarking them.
To obtain
the size of the lower side is stuck on the solid all round one
recess, lay down
margin blocks tightbetween the walls, block,
the and a correspondinggroove in the
frame other, and when the two come togetherthey
or a rough template to the opening.
form a dovetail groove into which the mastic
The herringbone pattern must always be
laid square is pressedwhen laying,thus forming a solid
that is, cut ends must
" be a
mitre of forty-five key with the bed. Duffy'spatent is shown
degrees.
in Fig. 398, and consists in the connection
Designs of Wood-Block Floors. Design "
of the blocks by means of dowels ; these

Fig.392 similarly,beginningwith the
is laid
blocks No. 1 and followingon with 2 and are suppliedwith the blocks and driven in
as the blocks are laid. The holes are bored
3, etc. Fig. 393 is an easy design to lay
when once the corner is passed; the numbers by machinery and are at exactlythe same
indicate the order of layingthe blocks. Care

must be taken to keep the sides of each tile
in a straightline,and they should be tested
occasionally with a straightedge.Fig. 394
is an easy designto lay,and looks very well
in pitchpine.Fig. 395 is more elaborate,
but very effective in two coloured woods, the
darker one for the frames and the lighter for
h "
af 6"
Fig. 397." Turpin's Patent Block Floor. Fig. 399. "
Geary's Patent Block Floor.
the panels. All of these designsare based distance apart, whether on the end or side,
on the right-angledtriangle,and, given the and therefore the blocks can be laid in
size of the block,they can be readilyset out several combinations. In Geary's patent
to fit any room ; each pattern being a peat,
re- (Fig.399) each block is fixed to the mastic
one bay multiplied
by the lengthand bv means of two metal keys driven into the
FLOORS. 97
ends of the block these project from the larger portions of the the natural
; patterns,
bottom, and are buried in the bed material. colours of the wood afford sufficient trast,
con-
The key is drawn to enlarged scale in Fig. but for bands in the borders, and for
400 ; it is easily knocked out when a block edgings for the geometric figures,more vivid
has to be cut, and is re-inserted in a small colours are sometimes desirable, and these
mortise. A half dovetail groove is also are obtained by dyeing some light-coloured
worked on the side of each piece, which wood, such as ash or to the
sycamore, quired
re-
forms additional key to the block. In tint. The three forms of

an parquetry in
Fawcett's system, shown in plan at b (Fig. ordinary use are known respectively as thin,
391, p. 94), and in isometric projection by medium, and solid. The two former, which
Fig. 401, the ends of the blocks have a J-in. are respectively out of J-in. and J-in. stuff,
cut across them at an angle of forty- are glued to J-in. or f-in. deal backings in
groove
five degrees, and these, when the blocks are or panels from 10 in. to 18 in.
squares
laid in herringbone pattern, lie in a ous
continu- square, and these panels are grooved and
straight line. Into these grooves a tongued all round, or sometimes dowelled,
f-in. by TVm. steel tongue is inserted as and are attached to the counter-floor either
shown in Fig. 401, the succeeding row of with screws, which are afterwards pelleted,
blocks fitting over and completing the or by gluing down. The former method is
Fig. 400." View of Metal Key. Fig. 401. " Fawcett's Patent Block Floor.
This system is effectual in employed when it is intended to remove the

groove. very
preventing the rising of individual blocks, parquet at some future time ; and the
and is much used on fire-resistingconcrete latter, when the parquet is to be permanent.

floors. The letter references in Figs. 391 to The solid parquet is about 1 in. thick, and
399 not mentioned in the text are : c the various pieces are usually glued direct
d mastic, e cement, f concrete, g to the counter-floor and to each other in

groove,
ground. one operation, design being the as formed
the work proceeds. In this method, all
Parquet Floors.
pieces more than 1J in. wide are dowelled,
Parquetry is a method of covering a floor or, in a cheaper class of work, are nailed to
with hard and richly coloured woods, ranged
ar- each other with wire nails. Borders are
in various fanciful and geometric fixed first, and, as far possible,these are
as
patterns, the effect of the design being made wide enough to bring all small recesses
brought out by the various colours, and by and projections into line, so as to cause no
the direction of the grain in the component interruption in the pattern ; but large
pieces, which are selected chiefly for their openings must have the borders broken and
differences in this respect. Usually, for the returned around them.
TIMBER PARTITIONS.
Common Stud Partitions. This is

by a wall, as by Fig. 402.
shown
This chapter will consist chiefly of trations
illus- built with quartering, and is not braced
showing the construction of timber trussed in but is stiffened by

or any way,
partitions; Such partitions are built in a nogging pieces being notched into the edges
variety of styles, the simplest being the of the studs and nailed as indicated. Fig.
common stud partition, which is supported 403 shows a somewhat similar form, but
the nogging pieces and the brick nogging

shown add to the stability. The partition
can be finished with lath and plaster.
Braced and Trussed Partitions.
Fig. 404 illustrates a form of

partition
the sill of which rests on floor joists whilst
the head serves as a middle bearing for the
floor above. joists underThe the sill are
notched on a plate and supported by a
4J-in. brick partition in which it is assumed
there is at least one opening in the middle,

on account of which the braces and post
king-
are introduced into the partition shown.
When the sill overhangs the joist,as shown
at a, it is housed into the post, and the latter

is supported on a bearer fixed between the
joists, as shown in Fig. 405. Another
method is shown at b (Fig. 404), the post

and sill being mortised and tenoned or tailed
dove-
together and supported by a bearer,

which rests on fillets,nailed to the joists,
as shown by Fig. 406. Sometimes the tition
par-
is framed and fixed with the sill ning
run-
through the openings, as indicated by

the dotted lines at b (Fig. 404) ; just fore
be-
the floor is laid the sill is cut out tween

be-
the A trussed partition is

posts.
usually so built as to carry its own weight,
and often that of one or more floors as well,
and to distribute the weight to particular
made clear
points of support, as will be
by the following examples. Fig. 407 shows
a partition which has to carry its own weight

the of the and also
over greater part span
that of the floor above ; the head of the tion
parti-
Fig. 402. Part Elevation of Common Stud tion
Parti-
joists being
"
serves as a girder, the

supported from below.
TIMBER PARTITIONS. 99
Fig. 403. "

Elevation of Brick-nogged Partition.
Fig. 404. "

Braced Partition Framed for Two Doorways
LOFC.
^\\\\\\\x\\\\^V\^^\^J^^
ss#
notched or cogged to it. The ends of

both head and sill are supported by stone
corbels built in the walls. The sill has an
intermediate support on
passage a wall a.
The foot of the king-postshould be nected

con-
to the sill by a bolt or strap. Figs.

408 to 410 show the form of the three cipal
prin-
joints The trussed partition
.
illustrated
by Fig.411 is designedto answer the follow-
ing
requirements : A trussed framed " "
partitionbetween the front and the back

room and the
bnding of the same house,
providinga door opening on to the landing
7 ft. high by 3 ft. 4 in. wide, and opening
for foldingdoors to back room, 9 ft. high
by 9 ft. wide ; the storey is assumed to be
11 ft. high clear of the joists.Particulars of
the various jointsare given in Figs.412 to
416. This
beingan example of carpentrythat
requires a fair amount of judgment to design
410. "
Joint between Strut and Sill in properly,it will probablyserve as an example
Trussed Partition (see Fig. 407). for reference if it is fullyworked out, because
Fig. 411. " Trussed Cross Partition Frame with Two Openings and to support Upper Floor.
this kind of
partitionfrequentlyforms the Fig. 413, jointsbetween partition head and
1
support of floors,
as shown in Fig.411. It top of door post and strut (seeb, Fig.411).
has-beenassumed that the sillis supported Fig. 414, jointsbetween door post, door
Fig 412." Joint at A (Fig.411). Fig. 415." Joint at D (Fig.411).
rs M
Fig. 413 "
Joint at B
(Fig.411).
Fig. 414." Joint at C (Fig.411)
on a brick partitionwall,except across the Fig. 416." Joints at Foot of Strut and Door Post
passage, where the sillis shown restingon (FiS-411)-

a lintel. The enlargeddetails are explained
as follows : Fig. 412, jointsbetween door head, and strut (seec, Fig.411). Fig.415,
post,door head, and brace (seea, Fig.411). jointat d, Fig.411. Fig.416, jointbetween
sill,brace, and door post (see Fig. 411) ; 419). Fig.421 shows the plan of the cross
alsoshowing sillnotched to receive the joist, and staircase partition.The staircase par-
Figs.417 to 421 illustrate a practical
example titions are 6 ft. from the flank wall,so that
of partitioning to the upper storeys over a the upper staircases may be formed of two
ground floor which is used for business flights.The cross partition(Fig.418) has.
Fig. 418." Elevation of Cross Partitions.
purposes. Sketch plans of the ground and a doorway b leading from the staircase
second floors are given by Figs. 420 and landing,and an opening c is provided for
421. In the ground plan (Fig. 420), a foldingdoors. The head of this partition
privateentrance, 3 ft. wide, and the case
stair- is preparedto act as the middle bearingfor
are enclosedby a 4J-in. brick and and it serves
the second floor joists, also as
studded partition,which is indicated in a sill for the nmn members of the cross
section and elevation at a (Figs.418 and to the

partition second floor,which in turn
supports the third or garret floor joistsas supported by them. One end of these par-
shown. Fig. 419 shows the staircase,partitions is carried by the back wall,and the
titions to the first and second floors,
having other is connected to the cross partitions
door openingse and f. It must be noted by means of f-in.bolts,which are indicated
that these partitions
are not directlyover at a, b, c, d, e, f,and g (Fig.418). Owing
Fig. 419. "

Elevation of Staircase Partitions.
the ground floor partitionA (Fig.418),and to the sill m (Fig.419) of the lower cross
therefore do not receive any direct support partitionhaving to carry the ends of the
' from it. These partitionsare designed to joists,the strongestmethod doubtless would
carry their own weight. The lower one be to fix them to fillets as shown at I (Fig.
supports one end of the first floor joists

of 419). The filletswould be spikedor bolted
the back room and landing, whereas only to the sill; mortising and housing for tusk
the landing of the second floor has to be tenoning,etc., of the joistswould greatly
%
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"""'/" "
ZZ _
" .2
% " .
w " s
o Ph o
I 93
(u "" 02
:~-.rrr---=" --rr-.
"J
"J
.
o
hD O
6X4ii
Fig. 423." Joints at A, B, C, D, E

F, and G (Fig.422).
Fig. 424." Joints at H, J, K, and L

(Fig.422).
Fig. 425. " Trussed Partition framed for One Doorway and to support Two Floors.
weaken the sill. The feet of the studs of are tapped at each end for nuts. Fig. 426
the upper partition(Fig.418) may run down shows a partition which supports similar
and be fixed to the head o or to a thin sill loads, but having two openings. The sillof
n secured tops of the
to the joists' shown.
as the partition
has to as a girder
answer also,
In the conventional view (Fig. 417) the and may have the connected
joists to it by
studs have been omitted, so that the main means of tusk tenoning, housing, etc/;
timbers of the framing may be clearlyseen. formerlythat was the general method, but,
The front second floor joists
have also been of course, the beam is thus greatlyreduced
omitted for a similar reason. in sectional area and strength. A much
Quarter Partition ThroughTwo Storeys. better way is to fix a fillet,
either by
" nails or
Fig.422 is the elevation of

quarterpartition coach screws, to support the ends
a of the
18 ft. wide and 24 ft. high,running through joists,as clearly shown in Fig. 427.
it
uj-ULxa
Fig. 426. " Trussed Partition framed for Two Doorways and to act as Middle Bearing for
Two Floors.
two storeys and self-supporting

over the Further Designs of Trussed Partitions. "
ground floor. On the first floor is a central Assume that a room 15 ft. wide and 11 ft.
doorway 6 ft. 6 in. wide by 7 ft. 6 in. high ; high is to be divided by a quarter partition
on the second floor is a doorway 3 ft. wide having a central opening for a foldingdoor
and 6 ft. 6 in. high, 3 ft. 6 in. from one side 7 ft. wide and 8 ft.high. A suitable trussed
wall ; and another 4 ft. wide and 6 ft. 6 in. would
partition be the one shown by Fig.
high, 2 ft. from the other wall. Figs.423 428, in which all necessary scantlingsare
and 424 give details of and

joints, show the given,and the members named. When a
necessary ironwork, joints

A to G in the lower timber partition
in a storey 12 ft. high has
storey being shown by Fig. 423, and joints a bearing of 21 ft.,and has to carry itself
h to l in the upper storey by Fig. 424. and the floor above, the design may be as
A partitionwith one opening and supporting in Fig. 429, which shows provisionfor a
two floors is shown by Fig. 425. It is door in the centre, and takes consideration
strengthened by two f-in.iron rods, which of the fact that the binders of the floor above
will rest on the top of the partition.All combustible material, the objectbeing to
and
scantlings names oi members are cated. prevent fire passingthrough the partition
indi-
from one room to another. In a case where
Fig. 427." View of Joint at Foot of Queen-
Post, also showing Method of supporting

Ends of Joists on Fillet fixed to Sill.
Fireproof Partitions. the bricks would

studdingsare of 3-in. stuff,
Some bye-laws render it compulsory to be laid on edge. The partition can be
fillin the spaces in a timber with
partition covered in any suitable way " lath and
brickwork, concrete, pugging, or other in- wainscoting,
plaster, etc.
TIMBER ROOFS.
Roof Pitch. should also Where

lap be increased. a
For the roofs of ordinary

buildings, either 2J-in. lap would do for
pitch of 60", a a
30" or 26J" is adopted for the pitch, the 4-in. lap would be desirable for a pitch of
former having a rise of half the length of 22|". When the span and rise are given,
rafter,and the latter having a rise of one- the will be :
rise
pitch (a) (for example,
fourth the span, known also as square span
ARRIS FILLET
out or 4."*Z
Fig. 431." Lean-to Roof for Shed.
pitch. Sometimes, for large sheds with

24-ft. span 6-ft. rise = "
i pitch);
iron roof trusses, the pitch is reduced 24
still more "
to, say, a minimum of 22J".
span
For Gothic work and for exposed positions, or (b) will be a slope of -
to 1 (for
rise
high-pitchedroofs are used, say 45" or 60",
i 24
x
and occasionallymore, covered with shingles, 2-
example, in the given case " " = 2 to
;
slates,or plain tiles. The flatter the roof,
the heavier the slates should be, and the 1) ; or (c) the pitch in degrees will be the
112
TIMBER ROOFS. IIS
rise of the span c set up the perpendicular

c d
anglewhose tangent is (forexample,
J span equal to one part ; joina d. Then a d will
be the requiredpitch. This is the_nattest
in the given [case == *5),which pitch at which tiles should "be laid.
24
26" 33'. Lean=to Roofs.

the tangent of an angle of To set
off the slope of a roof, say, at one-third Lean-to roofs' in their simplestforms are
pitch draw the span a b (Fig.430), divide used for covering sheds and for temporary
it into three equal parts,and at the centre purposes shown in section by Fig. 431..
They are also largelyused for coveringthe

back -and side additions to all kinds of
buildings,the spans varying from a few-
feet up to 20 ft. or more. Fig. 432 is a
conventional view of an ordinary lean-to
roof over a back addition. The head of the
rafters may fit on to a platefixed into the
main wall,or the platemay be supported on
iron corbels, as shown at a. When the
span is more than 8 ft.,a* purlinshould be
Fig. 433. "

Section through Trussed Lean-to Roof for Span of 16 Feet.
introduced. The span for these is unlimited

within reason, but, as in other forms of
roofs,the rafters should be supported by
purlinsat about every 7 ft. In the larger
spans for important work, framed trusses
irom 8 ft. to 10 ft. apart would be introduced.
A section through a roof of this tion
descrip-
isTgiven
at Fig. 433, which, it will be
Fig. 434." Section through Trussed Lean-to Roof for Large Span.
TIMBER ROOFS. 115
seen, is a half king-posttruss. The example case is a proper applicationof the pole
shown at Fig. 431 is a form often adopted plate, which is so named because it has
ior sheds attached to main where
buildings, intermediate supports between the trusses.
it is desirable to have a covered-in space The conventional view (Fig.136) will make
with as little obstruction in the lower part clear the construction at the foot of the
.as possible. One end of each truss is sup- rafters.
Fig. 435." Foot of

Post, showing it
Fig. 436."
Conventional
"View of Framing
at the Foot of
Truss Head of
Post, etc.
Fig. 437. "
Self-supporting Shed Roof.
^portedby a pierbonded to the main building, Fig. 437 illustrates a case where it is
and the other by a head and posts which are desirable to roof over aspace adjacent to
"braced. The foot of each post is sometimes a building,and to leave the front of the
fixed into a stone or iron base (Fig.435). This covered space clear, and at the same time
is to prevent damage by vehicles,etc., and not to to the fix the members of the roof
to prevent decay. The common rafters wall of the buildings.The boarding is
"are supported by a wall platea, by purlins, supportedby small purlins, or, as they are
"and at their feet by a pole plate p. This sometimes called, horizontal rafters. For
this roof to be entirelyself-supported

the But the more common method is to in
post would have to be well bedded in the troduce purlins,one on each side of the
ground. roof, so as to support the centre of the
rafters. If the purlins sufficiently
are
Span, Couple=close, and Collar-beam
strong and bedded in the gablewalls at each
Roofs. and the rafters notched
end, on to them,
Next to the lean-to,the simplestform of there is very little outward thrust on the
roof construction is that known as the span walls at the feet of the rafters. A section
Fig. 439." Section through Span Roof with

Collar Braces.
or couple roof, consistingof two rafters

fixed at the requiredpitch or inclination,and
fastened at the feet to platesembedded on
the tops of the walls,while their heads are

either halved and pinned together, or nailed
to a ridge-board.Such roofs are used
largely
for greenhouses'and similar purposes7 (see
Sig.r440." Half Section through Couple Roof
Fig.438). To remedy the obvious tendency with Purlins.
of such a roof to spread at the foot and
thrust out the walls, which tendency in-
creasesthrough a little more than one half of a roof
with the increase of span, various of this descriptionis given at Fig.440, a
means are adopted. conventional view being shown by Fig/441.
Where it is desirable to have as much The number of purlinsshould be increased
space in the roof as possible,this spreading as the span is increased,so that the common
may be obviated to a great extent by fixing rafters do not have a greater bearingthan
collar braces as shown at Fig. 439. 6 ft, to 8 ft,
TIMBER, ROOFS. 117
adopted for roofingsmall houses, and is an

enlargementof the previous case. tive
Alterna-
methods of fixing
the purlinsare shown,
sides of the purlin are vertical
Fig. 441. " Conventional View

of Half a Couple Roof with
Purlins.
Fig. 442. "

Section through Couple-Close Roof.
The couple-closeroof (Fig. 442) over a
small buildingconsists of rafters,which are

bird's -mouthed and fixed to the wall plates;
ceilingjoists are fixed to the wall plates
and act as ties and counteract the ward
out-
thrust on the walls. The ceiling
joistsare usually supported at the centre
by being nailed up to a beam which is

tied to the ridge by pieces of board 5 ft.
or 6 ft. apart (Fig.443).
A collar-beam is a horizontal beam or
brace, generally of the same scantlingas of

Fig. 443. "
View of Method Tying Ceiling
placedfrom one-third to half-way
the rafters,
Joist to Ridge.
up a span-roofand connected to the rafters
at each side,the roof now becoming a collar- and the rafters are notched on ; whereas
beam roof. at b the purlin is fixed with its sides at
Fig. 444 is a form of roof frequently light angles with the pitch of the rafters,
this being probably the stronger method. Fig. 450 shows the joint between +i,^
the
This roof is additionally strengthenedby principal rafter and tie-beam, which are
inserting a collar to every third or fourth additionally secured by an iron strap, the
rafter as shown by dotted lines. Fig. ends of which are prepared for bolts and
447 (p. 119) shows a common application nuts securinga heel-plate a. It also shows
Fig. 444. " Section through Span Roof for a Small House.
of this kind of roof, largelyadopted for a 4J-in.wall-plate

b, on which the common
dwellings,from the cottage to the villa rafters are bird's-mouthed. Therafters pro -
class; the only servingas ties jectbeyond the wall,and

collars not bearers c are fixed
to strengthen the roof, but also as ceiling to their ends, and also into the wall,so that
joists. In this figurethe collars are shown the soffit boardingand fascia board may be
dovetail notched. Fig. 445 shows another fixed. A cast-iron gutter is shown fixed
form of dovetail notching. Fig. 446 shows to the fascia board, and a tilting f illet d is
a form of notching. When there is no also shown.
Fig. 445. "

Form of Dovetail Notching. Fig. 446. "
Notching Collar into Under Edge

of Rafters.
ceilinga collar is usually fixed to every

third pair of rafters. Fig.451 shows the jointbetween principal
rafter and strut ; cleat,and
purlin, common
King=post Trusses. rafter are also illustrated. The cleats are
A king-posttruss is suitable for any span spikesor coach bolts.

usuallyfixed with
to 30 ft., and the sizes or scantlings
Fig. of
452 shows the jointsand three-way
up
its members are shown in the table given iron strap at the head of the king-post ; also
A cross section of a little more the ridgeand its junctionwith the common
on p. 121.
than one-half of a 28-ft. span roof resting rafters. Fig. 453 is the jointat the foot
on stone templateon 14-in. brick walls with of the king-post, gib,and
with stirrup-iron,
9-in. piersis presented by Fig. 448, and cotters. Fig. 454 is a vertical section-
part longitudinal section at Fig. 449. The through this joint,showing straps, gibs,
common rafters measure 4 in. by 2 in. The and cotters, clearance in mortise at c, and.
eaves overhang and are finished with fascia clearance in strap at d.
and eaves boarding. Certain details of con-

struction Fig. 455 shows the foot of a principal
require to be shown separately rafter and tie-beam connected with a wall
on a largerscale. having a cornice and parapet,with a gutter-
V ^=
TIMBER ROOFS. 121
Fig. 453. Fig. 454
Fig. 453." Detail at Foot of

King-post.
Fig. 454. " Section taken through

Centre of Strap and jKing-post.
Fig. 455. "

Detail at Foot of Truss in Connection with Parapet.
SCANTLINGS FOR TIMBER R00F5.
The table below shows at a glance the respectivescantlings for collar,king-post, and
queen-post roofs.
Fig. 456. " Elevation of Foot of Truss supported Fig. 457. " Part Longitudinal Elevation of Foot of
by Iron Column. Truss, Pole Plate, etc., Boarding removed.
Fig. 459." Heel Strap

and Bolt.
Fig. 458. "

Conventional View showing Joints at Foot of Truss,
at Pole Plate, and Rafters.

TIMBER ROOFS. 123
124 CARPENTKY AND JOINERY.
formed behind the latter. In this case of fasteningfor trusses where half-trusses
the jointbetween the tie-beam and principal have not to be attached to them ; but when
rafter is fastened by means of a bolt. this latter is the case, the stirrupiron -
Fig. 465. "

Section through Main Truss showing Fig. 466. "
Part Elevation of Main Truss showing
Method of connecting Tie-beam, King-post, and King-post and Section of Tie-beam of
Hips to Ridge. Half Truss.
Figs.456 to 459 show the end of a truss leads to rather a clumsy connection ; there-
fore
supported by an iron column. This case the bolt and nut method shown at Figs.
illustrates the use of the pole-plate
and also 461 and 462 isadopted for securingthe tie-
the oblique bridle joint. The pole-plate beam and king-posttogether.
serves two purposes, viz. to connect the
ends of the trusses and
longitudinally to
support the rafters. The tie-beam and

principalrafter are secured together by
the strap shown Fig. 459.
at Obviously
this form of strap, having an adjustable
plateat the top which can be forced close to
the heel of the principalrafter,is rather a
better kind than when simplyin the form of

a -iron.
stirrup
Hipped End of King -
post Roof. " A
conventional view of a portionof a post
king-
roof with hipped end is shown at
Fig. 460. The method of constructing

the truss and half -truss as shown at Fig.
460 is illustrated by Figs. 461 to 467.
Undoubtedly, for most cases, the stirrup -
Fig. 467. "

Isometric View of Lower End of posts
King-
iron with gibs and cotters is the best form and Portion of Tie-beam.
TIMBER ROOFS. 125
Dragon Tie at Foot of Hip Rafter.

Fig. 463 shows part plan of trusses,
J ridge,and hips. Fig. 464 shows the'meet- A dragging tie, or dragon tie or beam
ing of the purlins, which are notched out (Figs.468 and 469),is a framework at the
I for the hip. When this is deep there is no lower end of a hip rafter,
in the angleof the
|notching, the full ends of the purlinsbut- building,connectingit with the wall-plates
1
ting againstit. Fig. 465 shows the tusk in such a way as to resist the thrust of the
joint between the tie-beams, with hip rafter. The foot of the hip rafter is
I tenon
||
necessary straps and bolts ; also the con- halved, notched, stepped,or tenoned into
I nection of king-postsand straps and bolts

||
at head and at c. Fig.466 is part elevation
of main truss. Fig.467 shows the lower ends
and
of king-posts portionsof tie-beam.
s.i
Fig. 468.
Figs. 468 and 469." Plan and Sectional Elevation
shewing Dragon Tie, Angle Tie, and Hip for

Angle of Roof with Overhanging Eaves.
128 CARPENTKY AND JOINERY.
the dragging tie,which is notched at one should be noted that in the plan the hip is
end on to the wall-plates,at the angle not shown.
where they are halved together,and at the
other end is attached to the angle tie or Queen =
post Trusses.
The queen-post suitable for
trusses are
spans of 30 ft. and Suitable lings

scant-
more.
or sizes for the different members are
Fig. 481. " Conventional View of Stirrup-Iron,

Gibs and Cotters at A (Fig.473).
shown in the table on p. 121. Fig. 473

is the elevation of a queen-post truss for
Fig. 478.- -Conventional View of Joints at A
a clear span of 34 ft. Many of the details
(Fig.473).
of this truss are the same as those of the
brace by means of a tusk tenon secured by king-post truss already fully illustrated.
a pin or wedge, the angletie being notched The principal differences are that in this
over the wall-plates to keep it in place. case a horizontal straining beam has to be
There is more than one method of construct-
ing jointedto the queen -posts; the jointis
this joint. The dragon piece and angle clearly shown by Figs.474 to 476, the iron-
work
tie should be used in all hipped roofs,although being illustrated separatelyby Fig.
in small roofs it may be of a simpler 477. The jointand stirrupat the foot of
construction, such as a batten nailed diagon-
ally the queen-post are illustrated by Figs.478
across the plates, the hip rafter notching to 480.
Fig. 479. Fig. 480. Fig. 482. Fig. 483.
Figs. 479 and 480." Enlarged Details of Figs. 482 and 483." Enlarged Detail of Foot of
Joints at A (Fig. 473). Truss, B (Fig.473).
on to it. Fig. 470 is a conventional view Fig. 481 is a conventional view of the
showing the parts separated. gibs,and cotters.
stirrup-iron,
Figs. 471 and 472 illustrate a case where The jointof the principalrafter at its
the hip does not overhang the walls. It foot with the tie-beam is shown in elevation
TIMBER ROOFS. 129
and section by Figs.482 and 483, and con-

ventionally and 491), where the purlinsare shown
by Fig. 484, the heel strap mitred together and also notched out to
being shown by Fig. 485. receive the hip. This latter would also be
Fig. 484. " Conventional View of Joint between

Principal Rafter and Tie-beam.
Fig. 486. " Conventional View of Joints at Head
The of Strut, Cogging of Purlin, etc.
jointsbetween principal rafter,strut,
and purlinare illustrated by Fig. 486.
At Fig.487 is shown the hipped end of a
Fig. 485. "
Conventional
queen-post roof,and Figs.488 and 489 show View of Heel Strap and
part sectional elevation and plan of same. Plate for fastening cipal
Prin-
The upper purlinat the end partlyrests on Rafter to Tie-beam.
Fig. 487. -Conventional View showing'general Construction of Queen-post Roof Truss

with Hipped End.
I the strainingbeam. The upper ends of notched part of its depth so as to fitin
out
I the queen-postsare cut to receive the purlins, with the purlinsin this case.
as shown by the conventional view (Figs.
490 The method of connectingthe half-truss
Fig. 488." Part Sectional Elevation on Line D D (Fig.489) of Queen-post Truss with Hipped End.
Fig. 489." Part Plan of Queen-post Truss with Hipped End, showing Timbers" A, Main Truss,
B, Half Truss, both being connected at C.
TIMBER ROOFS. 131
to the main truss is shown by the part one of connectingthe tie-beams by tusk
elevation and plan (Figs.492 and 493) ; the mortise and tenon joints,and tightening up
construction will be more understood
clearly with keys. Other straps and connections
Fig. 493.
Fig. 490. "

General View showing Construction Fig. 492. "
Enlarged Sectional Elevation at Head
at Heads of Queen-posts. and Foot of Queen-post.
Fig. 491. " General View showing Construction at Fig. 493." Part Plan of Hip and Purlins.
Feet of Queen-posts and Connection of

Tie-beams.
are clearlyshown. At Fig. 494 suitable
forms of jointsare shown for the heads of
from Fig. 491, the tie-beam of former
the the queen-posts,and at Fig. 495 a method
being connected to that of the latter by a
Fig. 494. Forms of Joints Head of Fig. 495. Joints between Hips and Ridge.
"
at Queen- "
posts.
of fixingthe hips to ridgeis illustrated.
the
short stub-tenon, and both being further What is known as king- and queen-post
a
secured by iron straps and bolts. No doubt truss is shown by Fig.496 ; this is suitable
this method is preferableto the old-fashioned for a span of 50 ft.
Other forms of
jointsat head of queen- have only a two-way strap, as illustrated
posts, etc., are shown
by Figs. 497 and at Fig. 501.
498, the latter representingthe better Securing Principal Rafter to Tie-beam.
design, because the main Stresses are Two ways of securingthe principal
rafter
Fig. 498.
Fig. 497.
Figs. 497 and 498. "
Alternative Methods of
forming Joints at Heads
of Queen-posts.
Fig. 496." Half Elevation of King- and Queen-post Roof Truss for 50-Feet Span.
bounded by the tie-beam, by the cipal

prin- to the tie-beam are in occasional use. There
rafters up to the strainingbeam, and may be a bolt as in Fig.455, or a heel strap
by the straining beam itself. The portion as in Fig.499. The bolt and nut are better
of the truss above the beam
straining has
only a very small stress upon it,and it is
therefore unnecessary upper to make the
ends of the principal rafters of such large
scantlingas the lower ends, which form
an essential part of the truss.
Figs.499 and 500 illustratea form of heel

strap; this havingbeen fixed with a bolt and
nut, a hardwood or metal wedge is driven
in between it and the principalrafter as
WETDCE.
si rap
HEEL STRAP \^sd bolt it NUT VH/V

Fig. 499. Fig. 500. Fig. 501. " Two-way Strap for Head of King-post.
Fig. 499. "

Heel Strap connected to Tie-beam by
than of heel strap,which
this form cannot be
Bolt, and tightened to Principal Rafter by Wedge.
View of Bolt. properlytightened; the bolt may be ened,
tight-
Fig. 500. "
General Strap and
but it weakens the timbers a trifleby
shown ; but this is not quitesuch a good loss of sectional area, which, however, is not
form as that illustrated at Fig.459,page 122. serious ; the stirrupweakens the timber
the
Occasionally head of a king-postmay least,and can be tightenedup readily.
TIMBER ROOFS. 133
Joint between Principal Rafter and bindingof a beam so that its centre is raised
Tie = beam. above the ends, causing it to assume an
In the jointbetween
designing the principal arc or arch -like form, the objectbeing to
rafter and the tie-beam, the objectshould be prevent sagging of the middle below the
to obtain the best form of resistance,
it being
noted that the principalrafter and the
portionof the tie-beam beyond that rafter
are in compression. If through faultyroof
design it were possiblefor the principal
rafters to sag, in the case of Fig.502 the
Fig. 504. " Usual Form of Joint at Toe of
Principal Rafter.
straightline joiningthe ends when the

beam is fullyloaded. The followingis a
good example of the objectto be obtained
Fig. 502. "
Improper Way of forming Joint at
by cambering: When a king-posttruss is
Toe of Principal Rafter. being prepared, the king-postis made a
littleshort, to the extent of about \ in. for

rafter would ride on the heel A (Fig.503),and every 10 ft. of span. Then, when the truss
the toe b would rise and splitoff the abut-
ting
piece c ; not admittingthe possibility
of sagging,even then the greatest thrust
would be to the point,and there would still
be the
danger of
shearing splitting. In or
the of Fig. 504

case (where the abutting
surface is at rightanglesto the back of the
Fig. 505." Opening of Joint caused by Sagging of

Principal Rafter when made as at Fig. 504.
is put together,the tie-beam is forced up to

the shoulders of the king-postand held fast
by means of a bolt or strapwith gibs

stirrup
and cotters, already shown. The objectis
twofold. This bending of the tie-beam
Fig. 503." Result of forming Joint as at
Fig. 502.
shortens it to a slightextent, thus bringing
the feet of the principalrafters a little
principalrafter),
sagging,were it possible,
would cause the rafter to ride on the heel
d (Fig.505) and the toe slide
along r g,
to
and there would be no tendency to splitoff
the abutting pieceh. Regarding the thrust
of a perfectlyrigid rafter,the abutment
shown in Fig.504 is better than that shown
in Fig. 502. The compromise (Fig.506),
Fig. 506. -Best Angle for Toe of Principal
in which angleis bisected,is the best form
the
Rafter.
for a properly designed roof,there being
an equal abutment of fibres. Bolts and nearer together,and tightening
up the joints
platesor strapsaffect the shape of the joint. of the truss so that eachshall take its proper
"
Cambering of Tie-beam. " The term bering,"
cam- bearing,and also making each respective
as appliedto carpentry,means the member take its share of the load without
saggingor distortion ; in short,making the desired height for the ceilingline,which

truss rigidand firm. is shown as 8 ft. From c d set off angles
at 30 degreesmeeting in g, which is the
Mansard Roof Trusses.
outline of upper portion of the roof. If
The Mansard form of roof takes its name it is desired to raise the heightof the storey,
from Francois Mansard, French architect shown 10 ft.,the
a as as upper part of the
who was born in 1598 and died in 1666. It roof becomes smaller,the main span remain-
ing
is essentially
a roof with two pitches,and the same as does also the lower pitches.
is usuallyemployed as a means of economis-
ing One of the usual of constructing a
ways
space. There are one or two regular Mansard truss is illustrated by Fig. 509,
which actuallyshows a queen-post truss
surmounted by a king-post
truss. Fig. 510
is a conventional view of a Mansard roof,
Fig. 507." Belidor's Method of
Setting Out Mansard Roof.
Fig. 508. " Practical Method of
determining Outline of Mansard

Roof according to Height of
Storey.
methods of gettingthe two slopes.Fig.507 showing complete timbering. It illus-

the trates
shows Belidor's system. On the line equal where
a the roof is designed
case
to the span describe a semicircle. Divide to provide a room with as large a floor
the circumference into five parts,numbering area as possible, this being often desirable
the points1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, as shown. Join for trade purposes. An enlarged detail of
points 1 and 2 and 5 and 6. Divide the the foot of the main tie-beam, principal
space between 3 and 4 equally, numbering rafter and queen-post,with section through
the point 7 ; then join 2 to 7 and 7 to 5. parapet, gutter and wall,is given at Figs.
The heightof the storeyis often the practical 511 and 512. There should be a stanchion
consideration, and therefore the above or similar support a (Fig.510) in the event
method is not always so applicable as that of the floor being laden above the ordinary.
shown at Fig. 508. Set out the span and A dormer is provided,the timbers of which
the outline for the lower part of the roof are connected with the rafters,etc., as
at an angle of 60 or 70 degrees (a and b) ; shown. The joistsare

ceiling fixed to the
then draw the horizontal line c d at the top edge of the upper tie-beam ; the main
tie-beam acts as a binder for the floor,

the joistsbeing supported by it. Two
good methods of doing this are shown
by Figs.512 and 513 ; the joists a are
a t
notched out to fit on the tie-beam, and
their lower edges are further supported
by a filletfixed to the beam ; filletand
Fig. 511. "

Joint of Tie-beam and Principal Rafter, also Section
through Parapet and Gutter. Fig. 512. Joint at Foot of
"
Queen-post and Tie-beam. Fig. 513." Section through Tie-

beam : A, Under Edge of Joint supported on Fillet ; B, Alter-
native
Method of Housing Lower Half of Joint into Tie-beam.
Fig. 514. Conventional
"
View showing Tie-beam Housed to
receive Joist (as at B, Fig. 513). Fig. 515." Joints at Foot
Fig. 511. of Upper Truss with Section through Pole Plate, Wooden
Brackets. Fig. 516. Elevation of Gutter, Fascia and Dental Brackets.
Gutter, Fascia and Dental "
TIMBER ROOFS. 137
beam may be finished off with ajnouldingas tie-beamand principalrafter,also section

shown. At b the joistsare notched on through pole plate,wooden gutter,fascia
to the tie-beam and their lower halves and dental brackets ; an elevation of a
Fig. 517. "

Mansard Roof constructed without Trusses.
housed in, as will be seen by reference to portion of the latter is given by Fig. 516.
Fig. 514. The detail figuresshow general The head of the queen-post and upper tie-
sizes,
which, of course, would be increased or beam may be strappedtogetheras indicated
diminished accordingto the loading. Fig. by the dotted lines in Fig. 515, or the
515 shows the connection at the head of arrangement as shown by Fig.520 (p.138)
the principal rafter, queen-post, upper may be adopted.
Mansard Roof without Trusses. " Of fixed joists.The

to the
upper rafters
late years the custom has increased to have central
bearing on
a purlins,and
dispense with trusses in roofs of moderate the ceiling joistsare connected to a binding
spans. The ends of the purlins 15 ft. piece which is tied to the purlinsas shown,
to 35 ft. long can be carried on party or the joists also being fixed to the partition
division walls,and the top storey is divided head. Although there is no truss, clearly
into rooms by partitions.Fig. 517 repre-
sents the whole is triangulated and supported to
such example ; the floor joists
an are form a substantial roof.
fixed to plates at each end, and rest at Principles in Designing a Mansard Truss.
" In the
considering stresses borne by the
members of a Mansard truss, it might
be
thought that the queen posts are
-
nothing more than mere vertical posts
4X2
Fig. 518. "

Detail of Junction at Lower and
Upper Rafters.
their centres on the wall below, thus

partition
actingas ties to the back and front walls. A
plate which receives the lower ends of
the rafters is fixed to the top edges of the
joists.The top ends of these rafters are
Fig. 520. "

Construction at the Head of Lower
and Upper Truss.
carrying a king-post truss, whereas the

objectof a king- or queen-post is to support
the tie-beam and prevent it from sagging,
thereby sustainingtensional stress. Actually,
however, no compressionwhatever is thrown
on the queen-posts,however they may be
placed,as the lower rafter
principal takes
all the thrust from the load above, whether
that load be a lead flat,an ordinarypurlin
roof, or the king-posttruss of a Mansard
rig. 519. "
Weak Method of Construction at Head
of in Mansard Roof. roof ; and as a matter of fact, in many
Queen-post
Mansard roofs of small span the queen-posts
fixed to a plate,upon which the ends of the are omitted altogether,as they are only
upper rafters and the ends of the ceiling necessary when the lower tie-beam has to
joistsare fixed, the latter tying in the be supported near its middle for the pur-
pose
platesand thus preventingany forcing-out of carryinga floor,etc. Queen-posts
action of the rafters. The heads of the are omitted, for instance, when the purlin
studs are also fixed into this the
plate, lower or plate which takes the top ends of the
ends of the studs being connected to a sill lower common rafters and the bottom ends
TIMBER ROOFS.
5-5* "
12 " "
*1
-
" "S
a) "u 2
"
i -S -J
i " "B "D
|."""
+3 re
0 ,fH
1 P rt ffi
j.
fcuo fen to
W W %"
o
"S '3 .S
-a " " 3
of the rafters is supported by main the whole of the load carried

upper by the upper
walls,intermediate walls,or partitionsnot truss would have to be supported by the cleat
more than about 15 ft. apart, this arrange- spikedto the queen-post and the stub tenon
on the end of the upper tie-beam (Fig.519),
DETA1L AT A a most inefficient support ; the effect or
stress of the load would, of course, be with-
stood
by the strut or principalrafter so
long as the connections held good, as the

head of the queen-post merely forms a venient
con-
abutment for
connectingthe two
trusses. The designerof the truss shown
"
526." Outline of Roof Truss

for 40-ft. Span.
4-0' oM
rnent rendering the construction-

of the by Fig. 519 proceededon the false assump-
tion
lower truss unnecessary.They, however, that the queen-posts of the ordinary
are an advantage constructivelyin another Mansard were in compression,and his system
way, as they afford a means of triangulating was an attempt to avoid this. However, in
the enclosed and
figure, thus renderingthe an ordinary Mansard truss, the head of
truss immovable by
pressure. wind Lest the queen-post is, of course, a direct port
sup-
any student should be tempted to copy a to the king-posttruss, and therefore
form of truss (Fig.519) which has been carries the weight of that truss and
roofing,
proposedas an improvement on the ordinary and thus, from the head of the
queen-post
Mansard truss, it may be pointedout that to the bottom of the joint(seea, Fig.520),
TIMBER ROOFS. 141
w
o
boa
o a"
.3 to
PI
Ph
-J
where it is connected with the lower prin-

cipal short ; then the tie-beam is forced to the
rafter,is in compression " but only shoulders of the queen-posts,and secured by
this portion. The compressionalstress is straps or bolts,and this clearly produces
then transmitted to the lower principal tension in the queen-posts from their nection
con-
rafter, the remainder of the queen-post with the
tie-beam to the shoulders
of the principal
rafter (a, Fig. 520). It is
also to be noticed that the connection
between the queen-post and tie-beam vents
pre-
an inward turningaction which would
Fig. 532. " General Outside View of Apse End of Collar Beam Truss Roof.
being in tension ; this may be curious,take place (as indicated

otherwise by the
but is nevertheless a fact. The object of Fig. 520) about the top of the
arrow in
the tie-beam is to extend from wall to queen-post (b, Fig. 520), by the inward
wall,takingthe ends rafters, thrust on it by the lower principal
of the principal rafter.
and thus preventing the outward thrust of This quite refutes any statement that the
the principalrafters on the walls, which queen-posts,instead of supporting the tie-
would occur if a tie-beam were not used. beam, add their load to it.
Then, prevent the tie-beam sagging,the
to Mansard Roof over a Room with an
queen-posts run down to it and support it. Arched Ceiling. Figs.521

" to 525 show a
When these trusses are properly made, Mansard roofdesigned for a span of 34 ft.,
it is usual to have the queen-posts a little the room having an arched or coved ceiling
purlinswould be made out of two nesses

thick- securelylashed to the principal to prevent
jointsbreaking. The leading its being strained during the operationof

with
dimensions will be found clearlystated in hoisting.Treble-sheave blocks will be ample
the figures. for the purpose, seeingthat each rope will
Hammer Beam Roofs. Figs. 539 to "
554 fullyillustrate the roofingto a church.

The roof to the nave is supported by
beam trusses of simple construction. The
dimensions of the main members are as
follow :
"
Principalrafters,hammer beam,
purlinsand collar,10 in. by 7 in. ; ribs out
of stuff 4 in. thick. A hammer beam
truss of a good ornamental designis shown
Longitudinal Section
Pig. 534. "
through Apse End of Collar
Beam Truss Roof.
by Fig. 555. Details of construction are have to lift only about half a ton ; if double -
illustrated by Figs.556 to 560. sheave blocks are used, the time occupied
in hoistingwill be lessened,but more than
Raising Roof Principal. one man must pullat each rope. A 3J-in.
raisinginto positiona hammer
For beam good qualityhemp rope cwt. will lift 11
principalweighing about 1 ton, two right easily
up- with an ample margin of safety. A
polesmay be used ; and a horizontal method recommended by an experienced
pole,as indicated in Fig. 561, should be carpenterfor raisinginto position a hammer-
11!
1 N PI
/ (IJIIiJ?"
hBH ^H If
'
i
t"35
iO
2
XUJO
1-Q h-
llfiiBl
TIMBER ROOFS. 145
beam truss of 50-ft. span is as follows : "
requiredby men working the crab; To

A derrick is erected and held in nearlyan prevent the truss swayingand doingdamage
A block and during ascent, it is guided by workmen
uprightposition
by guy ropes.
tackle secured to the top of the derrick,
are holding ropes tied to it. The truss is next
at the lower end of which a single block is placed as nearlyas possible in its position,
then plumbed, adjusted,and stayed tem-
porarily
with piecesof timber attached to
the plate,or other convenient fixing,until
Fig. 535." Part Cross Section
and Part Elevation of Main

Truss.
fixed. The other end of the tackle is nected

con- it can be connected to others by purlins,
to the truss, and the free end of the ridge,etc. At the present time derrick
|cordpasses through the top block and down cranes are frequentlyused for hoisting,in
throughthe singlepulleyfixed at the lower which cases the trusses would be raised,
end of the derrick,from which the cord is guided,and placedin position
more speedily
continued and connected to a crab. The than by the method above described of
truss is now graduallyraised to the height using a block and tackle.
7
Fig. 536.-A, Joint between King-post and Head of Principal Rafter. B, Joint between Front of Upper
Riband Collar Beam C Joint between Collar Beam and Principal Rafter and Iron Strap. D Joint
X \K??r" Rafter.
receive Principal Rafters to Upper End
E, Jointing of
of
Lower Ribs, F,
King-post to Mam
J^^^t^
and Half Trusses.
T^'sT-Zntl
Fig. 537.-Jomts
at Bottom End of King-post and Half Collars with Collar to Mam Truss (G).
TIMBER ROOFS.
TIMBER ROOFS.
in ."
till!
I Cm
I'
Fig. 585. " Section through Roof Trussed for

Lead Flat.
Fig. 586. " Detail of Junction at A (Fig.585).

Fig. 587." Section through B B (Fig. 586).
Fig. 588. " Detail' of Foot of Principal Rafter at
C (Fig. 585).
Fig. 588.
TIMBER ROOFS. 153
connections are designedas in Figs.576 to trusses are spaced 10 ft. apart, and the
584. camber is in. for every 10 ft. between the
j
wall and the centre rod. This will represent,
Composite Truss for Flat Roof.
roughly,a lj-in.rise at the centre, which
For the span of 47 ft. between pierwalls can be obtained by springing
the lower chord
" "
shown in Fig.585, the Howe form of truss and marking shoulder lines on the braces
illustrated is quite as suitable as the queen- when framing. The material may be Memel
post truss sometimes adopted. It is pro- fir or
portioned pitch-pine.The stuff is framed up
carry to a 6-lb. lead flat,with from the saw to 8 in. by 8 in. for principal
side slopesbattened and tiled,as well as a rafters, top chord, and second panel braces,
plasterceilingsupported on 2-in. by 6-in. with 8 -in. by 6-in. middle braces, and
ceilingjoists,suspended from the lower 8 -in. by 8J-in.or 9 -in. lower chord or tie-
chord or tie-beam, which, without over- beam. The round iron tie-rods have
stressingthe truss proper, can be of an riched
en- diameters as follow : Outside rod, If in. ;
class of decoration, suitable for a second rod, 1| in. ; and
centre rod, 1 in. The
rods are threaded at both ends for hexagon
or square nuts, with 2|-in.by J-in.plates,
7 in. long,to each nut, the lower platesbeing
let into the under side of the tie-beam, as
shown at Fig. 589. The braces are bolted
to the chords with f-in. bolts. The
feet
of the rafters
principal are further secured
Fig. 589." Detail at D (Fig.585). Fig. 590." Section through E E (Fig.589).
public hall or concert room. Allowance with double bolt-ended straps,forged out
has been made for a snow-load of 5 lb. per of 2J-in.by J-in.flat plate-iron,
with top
square foot,and for a wind pressure of 26 lb. plates (of the
dimensions) drilled
same
per square foot on the side slopes. Fig. 585 to receive the
f-in. bolt ends. At the
is a half-elevation ; Fig. 586, a detail at A head of the principalrafters,an angle
(Fig.585) at the top of the rafter ;
principal plateof f-in.iron, 4 in. wide, is drilled for
Fig.587, a section on the line b b (Fig.586) ; f-in.bolts and nuts, an auxiliaryangle plate
Fig. 588, a detail at o (Fig. 585)at the being placed at right angles,to line with
junctionof principalrafter and tie-beam ; the purlins,and bolted up with the corner
Fig. 589, a detail at d (Fig.585) at foot of plate mentioned above. This plate is
brace ;Fig. 590, a section on the line
and bolted to the under side of the purlinswith
e e(Fig.589). The details are as follow : two J-in.bolts,each 10 in. long. The lins
pur-
Width between pierwalls,47 ft. ; extreme are notched J in. on to the top chord.
lengthof lower chord (tie-beam), 50 ft. 1 in. ; In the half-elevation (Fig.585), the outer
between external pointsof principal rafters, purlinis shown partlyremoved, in order that
48 ft. 4 in.,which is divided into six panels the angle plate on the truss may be seen.
8 ft. wide and 8 ft. high on the centre lines ; Details of the lead flat, the tiled slope, and
hence all braces are inclined at 45",approxi-
mately, the plasterceilingare clearly shown in the
and the tie-rods are vertical. The illustrations. A gutter is providedto drain
the lead flat,with down Belfast, Irish, or Bowstring Truss.

pipesleadingto
cesspoolsat the lowest levels of the bottom The Belfast,Irish,or bowstring roof (Fig.
gutters. The lead apron is copper-nailed 591) is a cheap form of construction exten-
sively
under the lap of the roof-sheeting.This used for largespans. The truss con-
sists
board may be rounded on the edge and re-

bated of the sole-piecea, made double, as
out to the thickness of the lead apron ; shown, of two pieces of 9-in. by lj-in.
or, alternatively,
a thinner outside board pitch-pine
; the bows b, also double, are of
may be used. A fascia board (1J in.) is 3-in. bent

by lj-in.pitch-pine, to the curve,
nailed to the end of the rafters to serve as and struts or lattices c, of 3-in. by J-in.
backingwhen dressingthe lead apron, which spruce, passingbetween the sole-pieces
and
Section through Belfast Roof. Fig. 592."

Fig. 591. "
l Section
through
M AB
(Fig. 591).
Fig. 593." Enlarged Detail of Foot at G Fig. 594. "

Enlarged Detail of Ventilator of
(Fig.591). Belfast Roof.
comes down on the tilesa sufficientdistance bows, and clippingthe purlins. They are
to cover the jointsat the lap. The side usuallyput together with wire nails,one-
rafters,2J in. by 5 in.,are bird's-mouthed and
half being laid out and nailed together,
on to the poleplate,which is secured to the the other half of bows and tie-beam or sole-
tie-beam with four coach screws (each 9 in. pieceput top on together.Rough
and nailed
long),and has a bearing on the brickwork timber is generallyused. The purlinsd,
of the main wall. The scale of Fig. 585 at 2 -ft. centres, are usuallydouble, about
in. to 1
is T3(r ft.,and the other illustrations 3 J in. by 1J in., and are covered with f-in.
(Figs.586 to 590) are reproducedto a scale rebated ortongued and grooved boarding
of J in. to 1 ft. E, and roofingfelt well lapped at the joints,
TIMBER ROOFS. 155
well coated with varnish,and sanded. The

trusses are most usuallymade by the local
felt manufacturers, of which there are
severallargefirms in Belfast. The trusses
Fig. 606. "

Cross Section
showing Elevation of
Half Truss.
Fig. 607." Part Longitudinal
Section of Truss through C C. Fig. 608."
Head of King-post and Collar (D and E, Fig.
607). Fig. 609." Conventional View at F.
Fig. 610." Conventional View at G. Fig. 611.
" Conventional View at H.
are used for spans up to 70 ft.,spaced at

6-ft. to 9-ft. centres ; that shown by Fig.
591 is suitable for a span of from 30 ft. to
40 ft.,with a rise of ^ of span, the sole-
pieceto camber 4 in. The sole-piece should
be cambered not lessthan 1 in. to 10 ft. Fig.
592 is a vertical section on the dotted line in
TIMBER ROOFS. 159
Fig. 591, showing the beaded cover board r 8 in.,centre to

centre. Fig.597 illustrates
underneath the sole-piece. Fig. 593 is an the method of
bracingthe trusses together.
If inside is desired,grooved
enlargeddetail at g (Fig.591), h being a a neat appearance
wood block supporting the gutter. Fig. and tongued boarding 1 in. thick would be
594 is an enlargeddetail of the ventilator, most suitable as an inner covering. The
the louvres 1-in. stuff ;
J being of 6-in. by outer coveringshould be of felt,corrugated
k is an oak rod for openingthe louvres ; l, iron, or similar material. Fig.598 is a ventional
con-
the ridge roll of 2|-in.by lj-in. stuff ; and view of a little more than half of
m the ridgeof 6-in. by lj-in.stuff. a completed truss, Fig.599 being a tional
conven-
view of the two separate thicknesses,

Light Truss with Bent Rib. and of the necessary breakingof the joints,
The of the
principle truss shown in Fig. etc. The several parts of the trusses must
595 appliedin
was the Bristol Exhibition be nailed together.
Buildingsin 1893. The bent rib is built
Plank Truss Roof to Cover Large
up with stuff of 1 in. or 1J in. thickness,each
Area.
bent separately position
into ; the whole is
held togetherwith iron bands. This method A plank truss roof to cover a largearea
such as a drill hall or similar buildingis
Lff
Fig. 613. "
Elevation of Irregular
Hipped Roof.
Fig. 612. " Plan of Irregular Hipped

Roof.
es o
is superiorin many respects to bending a illustrated by Figs. 600 to 605. This
any weakness, in the

solid rib, distributing roof has been
designed to span 60 ft.,
shape of knots,
cross-grain, etc.,that other-
wise the trusses being 12 ft. apart. The princi-
pal
endanger the
would solid rib, and rafters,collars and ribs are built up in
counteracting any excessive strain on the three thicknesses, the centre planks being
convex and concave surfaces of any timber 11 in. by 3 in. and the two outer ones
so bent, the surfaces being in length as quired

re- 11 in. by 2 in. ; the braces and struts are
the sweep.
by For the same reasons 4J in.
by 3 in. and
are notched into the
the rib would have little or no tendency to central planks as shown by the conventional
revert to a straightposition. view (Fig. 604). The whole is bolted
togetherby 7-in. by f-in. bolts and nuts,
Circular Roof constructed of Boards.
as illustrated. The feet of the trusses
At Fig. 597 is shown a transverse section are fixed into an 11 -in. by 4-in. oak sillwhich
and also a part of a longitudinalsection runs the whole length of each side of the
through a circular roof made
purlins cheaply ofby 3 in., building. The are 8 in.
boards. The ribs of the trusses
placed about 3 ft. apart, and are connected
are made
out of two thicknesses of 9-in. by lj-in. to the principal rafters by being housed
boards, and are finished to a parallelwidth and notched as shown in Fig. 605 ; lj-in.
of 6 in. The truss braces also are made of grooved and tongued and beaded boarding
6-in. by l|-in.stuff. For a buildingabout is fixed to the purlinsto form the ceiling,
47 ft. long,eleven would be a suitable number and so is carried across level with the top
of trusses, spacingthem out at about 4 ft. of the collar.
Roof for Large Open Shed. which is perhaps the one that is most ally
gener-
.
The construction of a roof for a largespan useful,may be adopted. In this case
shed is illustrated by Figs. 606 to 611. the roof is truncated " that is,it is treated
In such
constructing a roof,the aim should as if the upper portioncontained within the
Fig. 614." Method of Obtaining Positions of Hips.
be to avoid complicatedjoints. Therefore,

the collar A and tie-beam (Fig.606) are
made of two thicknesses,the former being Fig. 616." Elevation of Corbelled Wall.
bolted to the king-post,brace and principal
rafter,and the latter being bolted to the dotted outline in Fig. 613 were cut off ;
brace and head of the post. The general then a flat is formed on the top, as shown
further construction is clearlyshown by in the plan by triangleabc;
the the in-
clination
the detailed views (Figs.608 to 611). To of the lower portionbeing every-
where
prevent the shed being lifted by wind, the alike,and the lengthsof the rafters
post should be let some distance into the being the same on each of the four sides.
ground and there connected by ties as Setting Out the In settingout a
Roof. "
indicated at k (Figs.606 and 607). roof of this description,the first process,

after the plan of the roof is drawn in out-
line,
Irregular Hipped Roof.
is to ascertain the position of the hips.
There are coveringa build-
several ways ing of
erected upon an irregular site,such as
that shown in the plan (Fig.612). First the
ridge may be kept level,and the rafters
thrown into winding ; secondly,the planes
of the sides of the roof may be kept true,
and the ridgethrown out of level,as indi-
cated
by the dotted outline in Fig. 613 ;
Fig. 617." Method of CorbellingWall to carry

Fig. 615." Detail of Irregular Hipped Roof Truss. Plate.
the ridge may

thirdly, be kept level,and
method is shown in a separatediagram
The
the inclinations of the various sides of the largerscale (Fig.614). Each of the angles
to
roof made to differ; and, lastly,the method formed by the wall platesis bisected as
shown in the accompanying illustrations,shown, and the bisectors (which are the
TIMBER ROOFS. 161
seats of the hips) are produced until of the trusses cross the outlines of the fiat,
they intersect,the point of intersection draw perpendiculars to the seat lines,as
being the centre line of the ridge, ridges. shown ; make these equal in length to the
or
Having drawn the plans of the hips, from heightof the roof, as given,and join these
the point of intersection at a draw lines a b points by straightlines to each other, and
and a c parallelto the respective walls, and the intersection of the seat line with the
from the pointsof intersection of these lines, wall. The outlines so obtained will be the
with the hip lines at the wide end, draw the shape of the respective
trusses ; or rather,
line b c, which, if the construction is correct,
will be
parallelto the wall at that end. The
triangle
so formed is the outline of the flat
to be covered with lead or zinc. Next, to
obtain the shape of the trusses, determine
their positionand number, which would
depend on the size of the roof and
the nature of the covering. In the
four
illustration, are shown. Draw the
centre line a e, which would represent the
ridge if the roof was carried up to a single
ridge, and draw the seats of the trusses
s, s, s, s, at rightanglesto this central line.

From the pointsin the plan where the seats
the outline of common rafters and bearers, bearers framed into it,and a central bearer |
as shown inFig.615 ; the truss is drawn to at b, to carry the other ends of the cross
the same shape,but within the outlines,
as
shown. It will be noticed that the truss at

the narrow end is a king-posttruss, the Wll
'!!!'i
remainder
common
being queen-post trusses.
rafters,a few only of which are
The
I i ii
i 'i
i
""
shown, should be drawn at rightanglesto

1
iPVlW5S5T-5
the walls ; if laid otherwise, their edges
will not lie in one plane,and the boards or
battens will not sit solidly on them. The
jack rafters are cut against the hips in the
usual manner. The thick lines in Fig. 613
represent the trusses,the thin lines the
Fig. 621." Timbering for Villa Roof.
rafters. Fig. 615 represents an enlarged bearers ; this is sometimes raised to give
detail at the head of one of the trusses, a fall to either side of the lead flat. Figs,
showing one of the ridgeboards r, with cross 616 and 617 show a method of carryingthe
TIMBER ROOFS. 163
wall plateat the wide end of the building continued. A stouter rafter as shown at
when the roof is pitched from an existing d, to meet on the oppositeside of the ridge
wall. Three courses of bricks are corbelled where the valleyrafter and the hip rafter
out to take the wall plate,and about every b and c meet, would be advantageous.
Second Example. " In Fig. 619 A is gable,
end, b lean-to,c valleyrafter. The arrange-
ment
of the various members of the roof
is shown. The sizes are as follows : mon
Com-
rafters,4 in. or 4J in. by 2 in. ; ridger
11 in. by 1J in. ; purlins, 9 in. by 4 in. ;:
valleyrafter,11 in. by 1 J in. ; wall plates r
4J in. by 3 in. At g is shown a valleyrafter ;

at f is an alternate method, in which the
common rafters continue to the wall plater
and a valleyboard is nailed to them, to
which the feet of the short rafters of the
Fig. 622. Section through Gutter behind
covering to nailed indicated.
"
the bay are as

Parapet.
Third Example. " For the villa roof shown
by Fig. 620 the arrangement of timbers will
8 ft. a short pieris built out restingupon a
stone corbel. This is done in order to obtain be as in Fig. 621. The outside dimensions*
the necessary weight to prevent the upper
of the whole roof are, roughly,42 ft. by
overturning. 45 ft. Suitable sizes for the roof timbers-
courses
are as follows : Purlins, 7 in. by 4 in. r
Arrangement of Roof Timbers to Suit and

valleyrafters,11 in. by 2 in. ; common
Given Plan. in.
jackrafters,
3 J in. by 2| in. ; ridges,7 by
First Example. " The arrangement of the 1J in. The thickness of the external walls
timbers for a roof of the plan shown in shouhj be brick and a half (13J in.). The
internal walls,which are connected with the
Fig. 623. "

Arrangement of Bearers behind Parapet Fig. 624. " Cross Section through Trough Gutter
Wall. supported by Iron Column.
Fig. 618 will be as shown in that tion.

illustra- chimney breasts,must be at least 9 in. ;
The valley rafter b and the hip the other internal walls should be 9 in. for
rafter c would fit together against the good substantial work, but ordinary
for
ridge a, and the hip rafter c need not be purposes the walls are more frequentlyonly
1(51 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY.
half a brick thick (4J in.). Of course, the JSL JUL

best method constructionallyis to build up
the but
internal walls to carry the purlins,
this is seldom done, as the purlinscan be
supportedby struts restingon platesbedded
on the walls. The feet of the rafters along
a A can be carried by bird's-mouthing them
on to two 9-in. by 3-in. deals bolted gether,
to-
then the V gutter is formed between
the rafters in the usual manner with two drips
and falls as indicated on the plan (Fig.620) .
Gutters behind Parapet, behind

W "IS
Chimney, and to "M" Roof. Fig. 626." Plan of Trimming and Bearers for
Gutter to Chimney.
Fig.622 shows a section through a gutter
behind a parapet : a is the tilting fillet,
B the bearer ; drips and fall are
shown. The conventional view (Fig.623)

clearly shows a method of constructing
and fixing the bearers ; those at a are
arranged to form a drip. Gutter board-
ing
is shown at b. Fig. 624 is a cross
section through a trough gutter in an
" "
M roof showing falls,dripsand cesspool,
also outlet in a cast-iron column ; the
"column assists in supporting the roof.
Fig. 627. -Vertical Section of Trimming and

Gutter behind Chimney.
The conventional sectional view (Fig.625)

makes clear the generalconstruction. The
beams a act as the sides of the gutters,and
a as for
pole-plates the feet of the rafters ;
b is the gutter board, c bearer, d cesspool,
and e head of column. Figs.626 to 628
show the trimming and construction of a
gutter behind a chimney. The gutter in

Fig. 628 is formed to dischargethe water
rain-
Fig. 625. " Conventional Sectional View of Trough
on both sides. Gutter supported by Iron Column.
stone corbellingbuilt in the chimney as with purlins,and the latter being a

two
Fig. 630. In the case when

illustrated at view of the
hip and purlinstaken parallel
the positionfor the purlin has not been to the purlina (Fig.631). Fig. 633 is a
and
anticipated, thus no h
corbelling as been view of the hip and purlinb. These views
clearlyshow a generalmethod of abutting
the purlinsagainstthe hips.
Fixing Valley and Jack Rafters.
Fig.634 shows the valleyrafter notched

over the wall plate,and cut between the
ridges. The jack rafters are also shown
fixed to the valleyrafter and ridges.
Bevels and Lengths for Hips and
Fig. 633 Rafters.
The is a simplemethod of obtain-
following
the lengthsof timber and bevels of hips
Fig. 634. -Fixing Valley and Jack

'
Rafter.
Fig. 631. "

Plan of Joints of Purlins
and Hip.
Fig. 632. Elevation;

" View taken
parallel to Purlin A (Fig. 631).
633. "
Elevation ; View taken
parallel to Hip.
provided,a good plan is to rake out a joint and rafters. First set up the elevation of
and fix an iron corbel with cement. pitchas shown in Fig.635, and in the plan
in Fig.636. To obtain the lengthof the hip
Joints between Purlins and Hips. set up c e at rightanglesto b c, and, making
The proper way to support the purlinsat c E equal to the heightc' d, join b e, which
thehipped end of an ordinaryroof is shown gives the lengthrequired. The bevels for
by Figs.631 and 632, the former being a application to the side of the hip are shown
plan of the hip and the meeting of the hip at 1 and 2. ^ The bevel for the edge is shown
TIMBER ROOFS. 167
at 3. This bevel is obtained as follows :
Produce ridge line as shown

the by c f,
making it any length, project fgh at
right angles to bc and H K at rightangles

to b e, make h k equal to f g, join e k,
which gives the bevel shown at 3. Take
S any point l in the plan of the hip and draw
L n at rightanglesto b e, then from l draw
l m at right anglesto bc; then with l as
centre ;and n as radius draw the arc n o ;

join m o, then the bevel shown at 4 is for
the backing of the hip. The bevel for the
top end of the jack rafters is shown at 5
Fig. 637. "

Backing of Hip Rafter.
to get this,use b as centre and e as radius,

Fig. 639. and ridgeline in p; join a p, and
cut the
draw r s at right angles to a b. If r x
is the plan of a jack rafter,r s will be its
true length. Another method of obtaining
the length of these rafters is also shown.
Let t u and v w be the plansof two rafters,
projectu u' and w w' as shown, then a' u'
givesthe length of the rafter shown in plan
t u, and a' w' that of v w. The bevels to
apply to the sides of rafters are shown at

" F 6 and 7.
Fig. 638." Line of Pitch of Roof at A B C. Backing of Hip Rafter. " The bevel shown
Fig. 639." Plan of Roof at D E F G. at 4 (Fig.636) is for the backingof the hip"
that is, planing the upper edge into two is the formation of the top edge into ,."two
surfaces,so that each is in the same plane planes,as shown and described above. The
as the adjacenttop edgesof the rafters ; this followingmethod can be adopted for find-
ing
will be clearly understood by referringto backing to hips. Set out to scale the
Fig. 637. The objectof the backing is to line of the pitch of the roof as shown at
Fig. 640." Bevel applied

to Hip.
Fig. 642. "

Diagram showing pictoriallyhow to
obtain Bevels for Jack Rafters.
abc (Fig.638), and a portionof the plan

defg (Fig.639) ; e g will be the plan of
the hip. At rightanglesto eg set up g h,
making it the same length as the height

B c, then e h is the pitchof the hip. In e g
take any point,as k, and at rightanglesto

this line draw d f through k. With K as
centre draw the arc l m tangent to e h as
shown, join M f, which is the angle of the

backing. Set the bevel to the drawing as
shown. Fig. 640 is a sketch showing the
bevel being appliedto the hip. A drawing
as shown at Figs.638 and 639 can be sketched
on a board to about 1-in.scale on a building,
and it will be found
up much less to take
time than the rule-of-thumb method of guess
and trial. If work is to be done properly,
Fig. 641. "
Geometrical Method of obtaining and without mistakes,time must be allowed
Bevels for Jack Rafters. to set it out. There is no other proper way.
direct bearingfor the Bevels for Jack Rafters.

prepare a boardingor
slatingbattens. The term backing of hip The making of a cardboard model, as
is sometimes used to denote the distance described in this paragraph, will greatly
from the back of the hip to the edge of the help to make clear the method of determin-
ing
plate,but the proper meaning of the term the bevels for jack rafters. On a piece
TIMBER ROOFS. 169
of ^card,say about 6 in. square (Fig.641), shown at Fig. 642. It will then be seen
draw a line x Y ; then set up a c equal to that the bevel at 4 is the one required,
and
the pitchof the roof at rightanglesto x Y. that it stands over its plan as shown at 3
Draw A b, which correspondsto the wall in Fig.642.
plate. Now draw bc as the line plateof
Taking off Bevels for Rafters.
Bevels for rafters are taken off the drawing
and put on the stuff to be cut in the way-
Fig. 645." Applying Bevel to Side of Rafter.
described below. Set out for the bevels

Fig. 643." Taking off Bevels for Rafters. as shown at Fig. 643, the bevel at a being
for the vertical cut, and that at b for the
the hip ; then from c raise projection
a to bevel to be appliedat the edge of the rafter.
c1. There is now a line plan of a portion The bevels can be set from the drawing
of the roof, and also a line elevation. In as shown Fig. 643. Fig. 644 shows the
at
the elevation at 1 and 2 are the bevels for bevel b (Fig.643) appliedto the top edge
the feet and head
of the rafters,and at 3 is of the rafter,and Fig. 645 shows bevel a
shown the plan of the bevel requiredfor the (Fig.643) appliedto the side of it. This
top edges of the rafters. Now, to get the
true shape of this bevel, rotate the plane
abc into the horizontal plane. To do this,
with centre a describe the arc c1 d, and join
B d ; then a b d is the true shape of A b c,
and the bevel shown at 4 is the one re-
Fig. 646." Application of Bevels to Side and

Fig. 644. "
Applying Bevel to Edge of Rafter.

Edge of Rafter.
quired. To make the construction quite will ^perhaps be more clearlyunderstood

clear,cut out a piece of card the shape of from the isometric view
given at Fig. 646,
abd; fold the horizontal
plane and the which shows the applicationof the bevels.
vertical plane at rightanglesto each other, The form of the cut c (Fig.643) is the bevel
and placethe piecesof card in position,as for feet of rafters.
8
bevel shownm is for application

at to the
Bevels for Hips, etc., to Roofs over
edges of the
jack rafters. To obtain the
Obtuse or Acute Angles.
development of the hip end agb, produce
foregoingcases
The of obtaining bevels a b and draw x y at rightangles; project
for hips and rafters have been for roofs from G, and make x g' equal to e f. Join
with the wall platesat rightanglesand the g' to h, so obtainingthe inclination of the
plan of the hip bisectingthe angle between hipped end of the roof. With H as centre
them. Many students are able to deal and g' as radius,obtain the pointk'. From
with such
readily examples; but when a case G project down at right angles to the
ispresentedas shown by Fig.647, where the line a b ; this gives the point k. Then
plan of the platesat a makes an obtuse the bevels shown at k will be for the jack
Fig. 647." Method of obtaining Bevels for Feet and Side Cuts, and also the Backing of Hips.
angle,and at B anangle,and the plan rafters on each side. The bevels for the
acute
of the hips does not angles,they side top cuts are shown at e and g', and for
bisect the
To obtain the bevels
often cannot get a correct result,although the feet at c, d, and h.
the geometricalprinciples are similar,as for the backing of the hip at a g, at any
will be shown. At cde set up the pitch pointin its plan draw a b at rightanglesto
of the roof taken at rightangles to the a g. Set up g c at rightangles to A g,

plates; producer c and f d indefinitely ; from making it equalto e f. Join A c. On the line
c with c e as radius obtain point n ; from ac set up e d at rightanglesto a c, cutting
radius, obtain point o ; in d. "With d as centre, draw an arc

d, with d e as ag
draw n L parallel to A c, obtainingthe point tangent to a c, with radius d e, and so

l. Join a l ; then clearlyalnc is the obtain point /. Join a f b f ; then the
development of the side of the roof a c f g, bevels shown at / will be for the backing of
and the bevel at l is for the top cuts of the the will be for the vertical cut of
hip,that at c
The development of the side the hip, whereas that at a will be for the
jack rafters.
of the roof b g f d has been obtained in foot. If this working has been carefully
exactly similar manner at b d o m, and the followed no will
difficulty be found in setting
TIMBER ROOFS. 171
out the bevels for the acute angleat b. The then from d, d at rightangles to
c a c, from
plan acdb has been
reproduced in Fig. b and c set the pitches of the roof
up faces,
sur-
648 with the complete setting out of the as shown by lines b e and c f. Set out
timbers, and also the development of the the sections of the purlinsfrom b and c and
sides of the roof which give the true length at rightanglesto the lines b e and
c f. ject
Pro-
of each timber and the bevel for the top down from the section g' and h' to
at
cut againstthe hip. A cardboard model g, and so obtain the plan of the top edge and
set out
on this principle,
and folded up, inner surface of the purlin; from pr n' to 1
would prove the working. The bevels and 2 the plan of the edge and side of the
shown at 1, 2, 3, and 4 are similar to the adjacentpurlin is obtained. To make the
correspondingones at Fig. 647. working clearer,assume that the end of the
'
K\
Fig. 648. " Plan of Timbering of Hipped End Roof, with Wall Plates making Obtuse and Acute
Angles ; also Development of each Side of Roof.
Bevels for Purlins. againstthe hip haslbeen

purlinwhich fits
The will
following be found a positionnop
good general removed
(which, of to the
method for obtainingthe bevels for purlins. course, is parallelto 1 and 2). Continue
Assume that the plans of the wall plates d b, takingthis line as an x y ; then, with
are at right anglesto each other, and that b as centre and pr and n' as radii, obtain
the plan of the hip bisects the angle between points g'r',thus constructingthe edge and
the plates. To an enlarged scale side of the purlininto the horizontal plane.
set out a portion of the plan as at a b c Then projectdown from q' and r' parallel to
(Fig.649). Set out the plan of the hip,its b c, and from p and n parallel to x Y, thus
centre line beingb d as shown. Fix on any obtaining points q and r. Then the true
point a in the centre line of the hip, and shape of the end of the side of the purlinis
draw ab, ac parallelto the plan of the line shown by the bevel e, and that for the edge
of wall platesab, b c. At any convenient at f. The application of these bevels to the
point in a b draw b d at rightanglesto ab ; purlinis shown by Fig. 650. The case just
Fig. 650. " Conventional View showing-

Application of Bevels to Purlins.
Fig. 649. " Bevels for Purlins where the Corner of the
Building is a Right Angle, and the Plan of^the
Hip bisects it.
Fig. 651." Obtaining Bevels

for Purlins where the
Plans of the Wall Plates
make an Acute Angle,
and the Plan of the Hip
does not bisect it (as
at B, Fig. 648).
TIMBER ROOFS. 175
vertical trace ; projectfrom d and obtain ing. Fig.654 is a conventional view of the
d' ; from c' at right anglesto the vertical hipsin their positionsagainstthe ridge,and
trace obtain is equalto c'. From
c", which indicates the applicationof the bevels to
a, set rightangles
out at to the vertical the top edge and side of hip, where the
trace, making a' h' equal to a b ; joinV to hips are mitred together, and also butt
c" and c" to d''. Then the bevel k is for the
edge of the hip,that at l, of course, being

for the side. If cuts be made along the
lines a' V, V c", e" d\ and folds made along
the line a' d\ and also alongthe line x y, the
Fig. 660. " Plan of Octagonal

Pyramidal Roof.
Fig. 659."
Elevation of Octagonal
Pyramidal Roof when Boarded.
m^rtm
true shape of
the edge can be made to stand against the end of the ridge,as shown by
over its
plan, as indicated by the conven-
tional Fig.655. The geometricalprinciplesof this
sketch (Fig.653),which can be easily are exactly the same as explainedin the
followed,as the same lettering is adopted as previous case, and the working is shown at
in Fig. 652. A model made as suggested Fig. 656, where m and l are the required
in thick paper or card would prove the work- bevels for the edge,and n for the side. Fig.
657 is a conventional view of a model made is the line of boarding. The other half,
to prove the
working of Fig. 656. If the a 3 4 5 6 b, it will be noticed,is a littleless,
method shownby Fig. 652 has been tered,
mas- this being the line of rafters. To avoid
no will be
difficulty found in this confusingthe diagrams with a number of
example. Fig. 658 shows the hips mitred lines,the line of the wall has been omitted ;
and butted againstend of ridge. it would, of course, form a smaller parallel
octagon to those shown. Next set out line
Octagonal Pyramidal Roof at the
a b, which is the line of feet of and
rafters,
Angle of a Building*.
The method of obtainingthe intersections,
and the method of construction of an
octagonalpyramidalroof intersecting at the
angleof a hipped roof,will now be described.

Figs.659 and 660 show, respectively, the
Fig. 661. "

Plan of Hips, Rafters,
etc., of Octagonal Pyramidal
Roof, and also Section of Foot
of Main Roof.
elevation and plan,and also the intersections e f, which is the line of face of the fascia
where the pyramidal roof meets the hipped board of the main roof, also the line of
roof, as a, b, c, d, e, f, g. Before the inter-
sections the main hip, as shown at right
g h. At
shown by Figs.659 and 660, and anglesto 1 8, draw o p, and at rightanglesto
the timbers shown by Figs.661 to 663, can this line set up o R, making it equal to the
be properlyset out, it will be to height. Join p r, which is the true tion
inclina-
necessary
obtain the intersections of the boarded faces
sur- pyramidal roof. At
of the sides of the
geometrically.The method of draw x y at rightangles
doing any pointalong e f
this is shown by Fig.664, and is as follows : to it,and set up the pitchof the main roof
Set out the half octagon a 2 1 8 7 b, which as shown by x s. Now take any point t on
TIMBER ROOFS. 177
this pitch line,and project down at right

angles to x y, meeting it in a, as shown.
From o mark off o v equal to the height
t u. From v project across to w, parallel to
o p. From w project
down at rightangles
to o p, meeting it in
d. Then from d draw
d a parallelto 18,
which will meet t u
in a. Join e a, which
givesthe intersection
of the surface o 1 8,
and the main roof.
For the next inter-
section from where w a cuts o 8 in e,
draw a line parallelto 7 8. Now pro-
duce t u, which meets the last line in /.
Then from b draw through / to meet o 7 in
g. This gives the intersection of the main
roof with the portion o
triangular 7 8. The
Fig.662." Vertical Section of
Octagonal Pyramidal side b 7 should be continued so as to meet
Roof showing PrincipalTimbers. in h. Join h g, and
e p produce to g. Then
g g is half of the intersection of the surface
7 o 6. Workers having a knowledge of
geometry will see that the principleof ing
work-
has been based on a problem in hori-
zontal
projection,the specificproblem
being : Given the horizontal traces and the
inclinations of planes,find their tions.
intersec-
Developments of Surfaces. "

If it is desired
to obtain the
developments of
the several faces,
sur-
they can
be obtained in
the following
manner :" Draw
p o at rightangles
to 1 8, and o e
at rightanglesto
o p. Measure on
o R the height.
Join p r, which gives the inclination and
true length of the centre line of the
full surfaces. Bisect line 2 3, and at
right angles to it draw a k, making a k
the same length as p p. Join 2 k and
3 k, which gives the true shape of each of
the full surfaces. This development can
be used to show the true shape of the faces

sur-
Fig. 663. "
Elevation of Octagonal Pyramidal Roof
ready for Boarding, which intersect with the roof. From
a1a
11
.;
TIMBER ROOFS. 179
b projectup to meet the line p r in b',make the valleyrafters shown by 1, 2, 3 (Fig.661)

a z equal to p b',then through z draw line have their upper edgesin the same plane as
g' z m parallel
to a 3 ; next make 3 l equalto the main roof ; therefore it will be necessary
e 8. Then 2 l m k is the true shape of the to obtain a bevel for the preparationof these
side 1 e b o. From g draw a parallel to 7 8, edges. The geometricalconstruction for this
meeting 8 o in k, then from the point h draw is as follows : From
any point in the plan
"
a line parallelto 1 8, and continue it to of the valley,as h (Fig.661),draw the hori-

zontal
meet p r in !. Now measure off on line h k and draw h l at rightangles
the line a k a distance a x equal to p I. to 2 3 ; then
at any pointin h l draw x y at
Through x draw a parallel

to 2 3, meeting3 k rightanglesto it,and cuttingline h k in k.
in point n. Join q, thenn n
q K is the true From where h k cuts the pitch of the roof
shape of the surface g b o. From g draw as shown at m, draw m n at rightangles to
g m n s parallel
to b 7 8 p. From s project h k. Then from
drop a perpendicularl to
up to meet p r in r. Make a u equal to r p. m n as shown. Next projectl p at right

Join, n u and u v ; then n uv k is the true anglesto x y, and make it equalin lengthto
development of the surface j g g o. n o. Now joink p ; then with l as centre,
Bevels of Parts, and Backing of Hips. "
draw an arc tangent to k p, meeting x y
The method of obtainingthe bevels of the in R. Join r h, which will give the bevel
several parts may now be
described,the requiredas shown at 25. The bevels for
means of obtainingthe backing of the hips applicationto the sides of the jack rafters
being first shown. At rightangles to o 4 are shown at 20 and 21 (Fig.664),whilst the
set up 9, and make it
o equalto the height ; bevel at 13 is for application
to the tops of the
join 4 9, which gives the true rake of the jack rafters. The methods of obtainingthe
hips. At 11 is shown the bevel for- the bevels jack rafters for the main roof
for the
vertical cut of the top, and at 12 that for are shown
by 22, 23, and 24 (Fig. 664)
the foot. As will be seen, one edge of this respectively.
bevel is adjacent to
pitch line ; the the Further Constructional Details. The hip "
other,being horizontal,
is drawn parallel to of the main roof,as will be noticed,requires
o 4. For the backing of the hips,join3 5, supportingat the lower end. This is done
and from where this line meets o 4 in point by placing a beam across the
octagonal
10, draw an arc tangent to the pitch line space, as shown at s and s' (Figs.661 and
4 9. From where the arc meets 4 10 in point 662). Then the end of the hip is bird's-
11, jointo 5 and 3 as shown ; then d is the mouthed on to this beam, an isometric
bevel required. The bevel for where the detail of which is shown at Fig. 665 ; this
hipsmeet each other is shown at 13. ence
Refer- figurealso shows how the mast forks over
to Fig. 662 will show

the end of the hip,and has two stub tenons where this bevel
will be required,and fitting into mortises made in the beam
also that so as the upper
part of the mast or central post is octagonal. to keep the whole secure. The ceiling
This allows the upper cuts of the hips to be joists in the octagonalspace are built into
made square through their thickness,and the walls as shown in plan (Fig.661) and
therefore no bevel is required. The develop-
ment section (Fig.662). Of course, as is usual,
of the intersection shown at the ceiling joistsunder the main roof run
3 M n K v q 2 gives us the bevels for the feet parallelto one of the front walls. The
of the hips and rafters a, b, c, d, e, f, and ends of four of these (u, v, w, and z) cannot
G (Fig.661). The bevels 14, 15, 16, and 17 be carried
to any wall,therefore a trimmer
(Fig.664) are for the feet of the hips a, b, e, is provided of stouter scantlingto carry
and f respectively (Fig.661). These bevels these ends, as shown in the plan and section
are for after
application thehips have been (Figs.661 and
662). The boarding is clearly
backed. The bevels to apply to the backs shown in Figs. 659 and 660, and therefore
of the feet of the jack rafters at c and d does not requirefurther description. There
(Fig.661) are shown at 18 (Fig.664),whilst are other littlepointswhich are fullyshown
the bevel for the foot of g (Fig.661) is shown in the but
illustrations, it is not necessary
at 19 (Fig.664). It will be noticed that to enlarge upon them here.
FRAMEWORK OF DORMER WINDOWS.
Introduction. "
A dormer window is a window framing erected vertically on the rafters,
formed in a sloping roof, the window pierc- Dormer windows are much in use in modern
ing through the incline and having its buildings, to give adequate light to rooms
Fig. 667. " Section
of Gabled Dormer
through A A (Fig.
Fig. 666." Elevation of 666).
Gabled Dormer.
formed in the roof,and to afford a good view Gabled Dormer.

of the surrounding district. They are also Figs.666 to 672 show the leadingdetails
used to add to the architectural effect of of construction of a dormer window, the
Fig. 672." Enlarged Section of Dormer through

Fig. 671." Section Through Sill,etc.,of Dormer. B B (Fig. 666).
Fig. 673." Section of Dormer through Portion Fig. 674." Part Elevation of Framework, etc.
of One End of Roof. of Dormer in Mansard Roof.
the roof. The construction differsin vari- lower part of which front wall of
is in the
ous parts of the country,as will be gathered the house ; the oak sill of the casement
from the typicalillustrations given in this frame rests on the stone sill,connected to
section. it by a water bar, as shown. The upper
FRAMEWORK OF DORMER WINDOWS. 183
part of the window is constructed mainly view (Fig.668) clearlyshows the relation
of wood, the exposed woodwork being and arrangement of the several timbers.
moulded as shown. The roof and the sides The trimming pieceshown at c is tenoned
of the dormer are prepared for coveringwith through the two main rafters and keyed.
lead or zinc. The advantage claimed for The two rafters at d and e are stub-tenoned
this kind of dormer, as compared with those into the trimmer. Fig.669 shows the joints
situated whollyin the roof,is a larger
window at " (Fig.668). At a in Fig.670 the collar
Fig. 675. "

Oblique Projection of Framework of Dormer in Mansard Roof.
openingand a higherceilingto the roof next is shown into

dovetail-lapped the rafter.
the front wall (seeFig. 667). The roof has At b another method is shown, the collar
overhanging eaves, with the feet of the being halved and lapped on to the rafter.
rafters moulded as shown, an ogee gutter Fig. 671 shows the oak sill,
bottom rail of
being fixed. The form of the exposed casement, nosing connection to stone sill,
woodwork is shown in the elevation given etc. At Fig. 672 is givenan enlargeddetail
(Fig. 666). Fig. 667 is a section through through b b (Fig.666), showing the joint
a a (Fig.666), which exhibits the construc-
tion between the frame and the stile of the case-
ments,
of most of the parts. The isometrical also of the boarding nailed to the
frame and covered with lead or zinc. After to 675. In constructingthe framework, the
this boarding has been fixed,the moulding followingare the principalpointsrequiring
g is attached as shown. The dimensions attention. The wall is IS in. thick,and is
shown of some of the principal
parts should finished with a stone cornice. The top
Fig. 676. " General View of Complete Framing of Bay Dormer Window.
be rather
regardedas suggestive than lute.
abso- surface of this is hollowed out of the solid
stone, and afterwards lead is dressed in so
Dormer Window in Mansard

as to form the gutter (seeG, Fig.673, which
Small
shows the brickwork,stonework, and timber
Root.
framing). The main tie-beam is supported
The bare framework of a small dormer by a stone corbel as shown. This beam
in a Mansard roof is illustrated by Figs.673 also acts as a girderto support the floor and
Fig. 677." Elevation of work

Frame-
of Bay Dormer Window.
Fig. 678." Side Elevation of
Bay Dormer.
Fig. 679. " Plan of Framework
of Bay Dormer Window.
Fig. 679.
ceilingjoists.The former sufficiently

are show 681
the construction,and
cogged to
the tie-beam, but the latter need only be therefore
only the leadingpoints need be
notched on. The two rafters a mentioned. and b (Pig.
The joists rest on a wall plate
674), to which the framing of the dormer is in the usual manner, and a second plate,
attached,are thicker than the other rafters. supportingthe rafters, is fixed to the upper
The opening between these two rafters is edges of the joists, the ends of the rafters
formed by the trimming pieces d and e. also being attached to the joists.The
The lower wall plateis held fast to each tie- gutter is of wood, supported on wooden
beam by iron straps as shown at c (Fig. bearers built into the wall as shown at Figs.
Fig. 680." Longitudinal

Section of Bay Dormer.
673). Suggestivesizes are figuredon the 676 and 680. At Fig. 676, in order that
differentmembers, but of course these the constructionmay be clearlyshown,
would vary accordingto circumstances. the brickwork is carried up level with the
lower plateonly ; but, of course, the wall
Bay Dormer Window. flush,
when completed would be finished
At Fig. 676 are shown
conventionally with the tops of the rafters. The first
the timbers connected with the framing of trimmer for the dormer would be formed
a bay dormer window, ready for boarding, by the two stout rafters,having a trimmer
battening, slating, leadwork, etc. The side-
lights fixed at the lower end of the window and
of the window are fixtures,
the front another at the ceiling level of it,the short
casement opening outwards. Figs. 676 to rafters beingfixed to these trimmers as shown.
FRAMEWORK OF DORMER WINDOWS. W,
North Country Style. roof timbers trimmed

are to give the sary
neces-
The arrangement next shown is that most opening,and two stout raking pieces,
generallyfavoured in the North of England, 9 in. by 3 in., are provided to the
carry
sides of the dormer where the latter is of
largesize. These rakers are notched (prefer-
II .14 B1RGE BOW-
Fig. 682." Front of Dormer, North Country Style.
ably dovetailed)to purlinsas will be illus-

trated,
and are fixed with jointbolts at their
head and foot. Any intermediate purlin
\tfW can be trimmed into these rakers where
Fig. 684. " Joints in Angle Post. necessary, and the design,as well as the
dimensions, can be easilyadapted to suit
where side-lights
and casement sashes local conditions the special require-
are or ments
required. In constructing
the window, the of any given case.
|AW"2T(
I .-"M x5 Spar
|'*L^4'Jl2-Spiv,
Purlin 11A.
Fig. 685." Construction of North Country Dormer Window.
5 a li capping Construction of North Country

Dormer Window.
The dormer consists of a front (Fig.682)

BflRCE Bohro 1"
and two side frames (Fig. 683), the latter
beingmade to the slopeof the roof,and being
rebated for the insertion of a 2-in. sash from
the outside. The stile of the side frame
serves as the angle post, and in a small
dormer the head and sillof the front frame
are tenoned directlyinto it. In a larger
dormer, however, the method here shown is
much more convenient to adopt, especially
where there are muntins in the front frame,
as the latter is made as a separate frame,
with lightstiles tenoned to the head and
Tig.
which
sill, are tenoned to the angleposts and
686. "
Enlarged
Section of North
secured and drawn tightwith bed bolts as
Country Dormer
shown in detail (Fig.684). When fixed,the
Window. stile of the front frame should also be
screwed through the rebate to make a fectly
per-
close jointbetween the angle post
and the front frame. The roof in this case
is made to overhang all round (seeFig. 685).

The ridge and heads of the side frames are
allowed projectbeyond the gable,to carry

to
the overhanging spars, bargeboards,and
2 X.1 RiiCN MOULT
fmial. The overhanging sides are formed
by the spars projectingto the required
covered the
amount ; the spar feet are on
soffit by a soffit board tongued into the

head of the frame and into a fascia board
Fig. 691.-Conventional View of Trimming and

Dormer completely framed together for niacin*
in position and fixing.
Fig. 692."
Enlarged Details
woodwork (exceptthe sills of the frames
through Sill and
and sashes) is of first-class
red or yellow Head of Frame.
deal, free from any defects,
especially
sap
and is painted two coats of good red-lead
and oil paint before being fixed. The sills
of the frames and sashes are of sound oak.
ine jointsof the woodwork are wedged and
pinned with oak pins, each joint being 6 x 4
coated with thick
white-lead or red-lead
paint before insertion. The casement sashes
have brass shutter squares at their salient
angles,to prevent alterationof form through
Fig. 693. "
Enlarged
Section through C C,
Fig. 690.
Fig. 697."
Conventional
View of Joints
between Head
Post, and Top
Bail of Side
Light.
Fig. 694. "

Enlarged Detail of Head
of Side Light and Foot of
Rafter.
4 x
Fig. 695."
Enlarged Section
through ments
Case-
and Angle
Posts D D, Fig.
689.
Fig. 696. "
Conventional Views of Joints
between Post, Sill, and Bottom Rail of
Side Light (Fig. 697).
the weight of the glazing. It is not tended representsthe

in- elevation, Fig. 690 being a
to describe the construction of longitudinalsection. It will be seen that

sashes in this chapter,that subjectbeing the front consists of a frame with casement
reserved for exhaustive later.
treatment "
sashes opening outwards " and the side is
Fig. 699. " Plan of Naked Framework.
FiR 698 -Elevation of the Naked Timber Work of the Framing for a Large and a Small Dormer,
in the Side and End of Hipped End Mansard Roof.
framed with bars for glazing. At Fig. 691

Another North Country Dormer
the trimming is clearly shown ; on each
Window.
side of theopeninga stout rafter,4 in. by 3 in.,
The kind of dormer that is used where is provided,and at the top of the openinga
it is desired to gain as much lightas sible
pos- trimmer is tenoned through the rafter and
is shown by Figs.689 and 690. Fig. 689 keyed (Fig.691). This trimmer is mortised
"
bo o
" _
.j-Hrg
" PI
o w
02 0)
bo
to receive the upper rafters as shown at A. or bed screws may be used ifj'desired.
A deeperpieceof stuff is used for the trimmer, Fig.697 shows the connections for the' post,
B, againstwhich the lower rafters butt. This the head, and the top rail of light,the
trimmer is fixed to the stout rafters,
and is jointsbeing firmlyheld together by a bolt
allowed to projectas shown so as to port
sup- inserted from the outside of the top rail.
the sill of the dormer. Fig. 691, This bolt is passed through into the head in
which is a conventional view of the dormer which has been made a mortice to receive a
framed together ready to be fixed in its nut, as indicated at b, Fig. 697. The
proper also
position, shows how the stout bottom and top rails of the side lightsare
rafters are supported by ashleringstuds connected by mortice and tenon jointsat
which are fixed to them. their upper end The top rails are made to
Fig. 701. " View of Stone Dormer in End of completed Mansard Roof.
Constructional Details.
projectbeyond the posts so that the lower
The preparing of a dormer of this tion
descrip- ends of the bargeboardsmay be fixed to
is the work of a joinerrather than of a them. The ridge also projects,and is
carpenter. A few leading particulars of tenoned into the finial to which the upper
the construction will now be given. The ends of the bargeboards and moulding
angle posts are rebated and beaded to receive are butted and fixed. The top end of the
casement sashes ; they are also chamfered top rail and end of
ridge piece are con-
nected
on the outside and moulded on the inside as by means of two pieces of J-in.
shown by the enlarged section,Fig. 695. boards. The ceilingjoistsof the dormer
These angle posts are connected to the double are notched down on the top rails of the
sunk oak sill in the way represented at side lights and nailed. The rafters of
Fig. 696, and to the bottom rail of the side spars are cut to fit the ridge,and are notched
light by a barefaced haunched tenon as on to the top rails as shown. The two
shown at a in the same illustration. These pieces of board before mentioned receive
joints may be held together more firmly the ends of the small jack rafters. The
by the insertion of stout screws 5 in. long, gabled part of the dormer is formed by a
and fixed Stone Gabled Dormer.

rest
upon are to the stout rafters,
and the finish on
the inside is formed by A more important case
with regard to
fixing a
beaded lining as
shown in section dormers is shown by Figs. 698 to 701.
at Fig. 693. The leading dimensions of the Reference to Figs. 698 and 699 will show
e,
various parts are figured on

the illustrations, that the side of the hipped end of a Mansard
OF DORMER WINDOWS. 197
FRAMEWORK
used
I
roof has been designedto providefor a large with one piece,or smaller sheets may be
with rolls,but these not shown. This
|stone-gableddormer in the end, a general are
701. A is important example, both regards

j view of which is given at Fig. an as
dormer of equal height but narrower is roofingand dormers ; but further description
for the side. Framing for is thought unnecessary, as careful attention
! provided on
has been given in the preparation of the
these dormers is of such magnitude as to
of valley rafters, illustrations to show clearly all the essential
necessitate the provision
699. The framing points of construction, and therefore they
a, b, c, and d, Fig.
should difficulty
to the careful
jfor smaller dormer
the is similar to that present no
! for the largerone ; therefore it has not been reader.
Fig. 706. "

Front Elevation of completed Dormer
Window and Junction of Side and Flat.
shown in the conventional view, Fig. 700,

which is drawn so as to leave exposed some
of the main members of the roof. It should

be noted that in Figs.698, 699, and 700 the
j masonry is only carried up level with the
wall plate; the parapet and gutter bearers
and boarding are omitted so as to make clear
the more important construction. Fig. 701 Fig- 707. -Sectional Elevation through B B,
is a conventional view" of the stone gable, Fig. 706.
which also shows the two inclined surfaces

Dormer in Half Mansard with Flat
of the main roof slated and with moulded
fascia and with lead apron under. Top Roof.
guttering, a
The roof and side of the dormer are shown Unlike the Mansard roof proper, this kind
covered with lead. Each part may be covered has practically no upper pitch,nor trusses,
rafters, etc., to the portion, and thus nail the boarding for the flat. This ing
board-
upper
there is no
loss of It is used largely should be 1J in. thick, grooved and
space.
where intermediate walls or partitions for tongued, and cleaned off smooth to receive
support are
available to assist in carrying the lead. The boarding should always be
the flat, and also where it is desired to get fixed running parallel with the fall of the
large a room as possible. Dormers flat, so

that in the event of of the boards
as space any
are
almost always framed, and form an curling up
and thus forming hollows in the
important part of the construction of this lead, the rain will not be retained in
kind of roof. Figs. 702 to 707 fully show puddles, as

its flow is not interfered with.
the construction of this description of a

roof Grooved and tongued lj-in. boarding is
with dormers, etc. The following are

the nailed diagonally on
the rafters to receive
general particulars. The bridging joists of the lead, as shown at Fig. 704. The curb
the floor are cogged and nailed on to a bated

re- plate having to 8 ft. over
the dormer,
span
wall plate, or
which has a
fillet nailed it is strengthened by a
6-in. by 4|-in. lintel
on
it. The plate to receive the lower ends bolted to its under side and supported by the
of the rafters is notched and secured to angle studs, as

indicated at Fig. 704. The
the top edges of the joists as indicated, the front elevation and side elevation of the
rafters being notched into this plate as completed Venetian dormer window are
shown at Fig. 705. The curb plate is shown at Figs. 706 and 707. The ceiling
ported
sup-
by the rafters, and also by the ding

stud- of this is arched
;
the ribs to
carry
this and
as shown, the latter of course ing

tenon- the boarding are
shown at Fig. 704. The
into the under side of the plate. The framework to receive the completed window
bridging joists for the flat are out of 8-in. is fully shown at Fig. 704. The junction
by 2J-in., and to produce the fall between the side and flat is finished with an
necessary
the first 7 ft. is tapered from 6 in. to 8 in. fascia and a

lower fascia, and soffit
upper
(see a to Fig. 703), then the remaining 7 ft. boards, moulded modillions, guttering, etc.,
b,
as a firring piece 2 in. thick, increasing to as

shown in elevation and section (Figs. 706
4 in. thick, nailed on as shown at B to c and 707). The construction of the dormer
(Fig. 703), the drip being provided for at frame, casements, etc., will be treated of in
B. Scantlings are nailed on to the firring a subsequent chapter, where a

number of
described, forming the joists on

which to detail illustrations will be given.
HALF-TIMBER CONSTRUCTION.
Introduction. " In substantial half -timber substituted. Head and gill should run
work, English oak is used, but sound, sinous

re- through and be framed with the angle
pitchpine or Scotch pine is often posts. Mullions should be tenoned into
the horizontal members, and
secured by draw-boring,the pins
being oak f to 1 in. in diameter,
Splitand then shaped, and allowed
to project from the sur-
face
about | in. All curved

braces should be made from
natural curved (compass) ber.
tim-
Diagonal braces should be
halved togetherat their centres
Fig. 708. "

Section showing Front filled in with
4^ -in. Brickwork Back-lathed and Plastered.
{For Figs. 711

and 712 see
next page.)
Fig. 713." Alternative Method of

Fig. 709. "
Section showing External Stucco, Middle Coat
forming Angle Post of Two Pieces
of Lath and Plaster, and Internal Lathing and Plastering.
mitred and bolted together.
The angleposts are usually8 in.,

9 in., or 10 in. square, and
the intermediate posts the same
width, but 4 in. or 6 in. thick.

The head pieces and sill pieces
are of the same scantlingas the
angle posts,and are halved at the
angles,and mortised for the ten-

ons.
Fig. 710." Section through Post filled in with 9-in. Brickwork The exposed faces of the
" Front Stuccoed ; Inside Plastered. timbers are wrought and oiled or
199
Fig. 712." Angle Post
formed of Two Pieces
butting and bolted
together.
Fig. 715. " Method of connecting Window Frames
Fig. 714. "

Method of fixing Door Frame in Half- in Half-timbered Work.
timbered Work.
(For Fig. 713, see
preuious page.)
"
Fig. 716. "

Front Portion of Half-timbered Cottage.
HALF-TIMBER CONSTRUCTION. 201
painted,red-lead mixed with boiled oil ensures greater warmth and dryness. The
being used for all joints.Various forms fillets and battens are fixed to the sides
of half-timber work are shown in section and backs of the timbers to receive the
708 713 (scale 1 in. lath and plastering.The intermediate studs
by Figs. to = to
1 ft.). In Fig. 708 the angleposts shown are shown to be rebated for the middle coat
are 8 in. by 8 in.,and the intermediate posts of plaster,but this rebating is not pensable.
indis-
8 in. by 4 J in.,grooved at the sides,and In the example represented
Fig. 717. Fig. 718.
Fig. 717." Front Elevation of Half-timbered Cottage.

Fig. 718." Part Side Elevation of Half-timbered Cottage.
filled in with 4J-in, brickwork, which is by Fig. 710 the timbers are filled in with
rendered at the back with cement, while 9-in. brickwork, roughcast face. The with
small filletsfixed to the sides of the up-
rights angle posts are 9 in. square, and the inter-
mediate
keep the brickwork in position. posts 9 in. by 4- in.,splay-grooved

Battens are fixed to the backs of the timbers along the outer edge. This form is very
to take the work.
lath-and-plaster Sometimes substantial,and some building bye-laws
the horizontal timbers are covered on the demand it. According to some bye-laws,
upper side with sheet lead. Fig. 709 shows there must be at least 4J in. of brickwork
the angle posts 6 in. square, and the inter-
mediate behind all timber ; then if the angle post
ones 6 in. by 3 in.,grooved along is above 5 in. 5 in.,it must
by be rebated at
the outer edge for external stucco or cast.
rough- the back (seeFig.711), or it must be formed
A middle coat of plaster shown of two pieces bolted togetheras shown in
section by Fig. 712, or mitred and bolted

Half = timbered Cottage.
togetheras in Fig.713 (p.199).
The
application of half-timber work to a
Fixing Door= and Window frames. is shown in Figs.716 to 721. Figs.
=
cottage
Figs.714 and 715 (scale 1 in. to
= 1 ft.) 717 and 718 are reproduced to a scale of
show common methods of fixingthe door- J in. to 1 ft. The followingwould be the
Fig. 719. " Conventional View of naked Timber Work fitted together.
and window-frames in half-timber work. The leading points in the

specification : The "
posts are in each case rebated for the frame, timber(oak,fir, or pitchpine) t o be of sound
and sometimes extend the full thickness of quality,without defects, thoroughly seasoned,
the wall. and wrought on the exposed sides.

therefore the window would have to be the gable,a moulding being plantedon the
built of stone with mullions strong enough upper edge. The heads of the side framings
to give the necessary support. The sills project,and are supported by brackets.
(shown as moulded) are supported at the These heads and also the purlinsand ridge
Fig. 722."
South Elevation of
Half-timbered House.
Fig. 723."
West Elevation of
Half-timbered House
angles by wooden bracket pieces whose the first rafter,bargeboard,and

support
bottom ends rest stone
on corbels. In the finial. Fig. 719 shows a part of the naked
best class work the sills are moulded on the framework fitted together,and Fig. 720
solid,but more frequently
the moulding is shows the various jointsin the framework.
planted on (see a, Fig. 721) ; the meeting Fig. 721 is a generalview of the bracket
surfaces should be well painted. A
ing
project- supportingthe angle,also the under side of
transom is shown in the upper portion of the joists.
for Half-timbered House.

wood framing,and the open panelsplastered
Design
on to lathing,with grooves in the sides and
The south elevation (Fig. 722), west top of the timber, so as to give a key for
elevation (Fig.723),sectional elevation (Fig. the plaster.The face of the plasteris kept
Fig. 724."
Sectional Elevation
of Half-timbered House
Fig. 725."
East Elevation of
Half-timbered House.
724), and east elevation (Fig.725) show a back about " in. from the face of the wood-
work
half-timbered house suitable for the country ; the inside is lathed and plastered,'
or
or suburbs. Red facingbrick is used from it may be of wood framing,with rough brick
the base to the first floor,the remaining nogging between the panels,and then plas-
tered
portion being half-timbered work. The on the front of the bricks,also on the
last-named can be carried out with strong outside of the framing as before.
should be set back 1 in. to 1J in. from the

Old-fashioned Half-timbered Gable.
face of the posts. The members of the
Figs. 726 to 729 show part of the half- framing should be
grooved to receive the
timber work for a house, the
designbeing plasterpanel. The gablebargeboardis cut
based on old-fashioned examples. The out of 2-in. stuff and chamfered. Fig. 726
and
gableprojects, is supportedby the joists, is a generalview, Fig.727 a front elevation,
which overhang and are tenoned into the and Fig.728 a vertical section.
Fig. 726. "

General View of Half-timber Gabled House based on Old Design.
and
sill, some additional support is rendered Sham Half=timber Work.
by the three solid wooden brackets, two
bolted the Sham half-timber work (Figs. 730 and
being to posts of the porch and
the third built into the lower masonry. A 731) is formed of piecesof scantlingonly
wide the
small projectingoriel window is supported 1J in. or 2 in. thick, but as as
on brackets as shown. The woodwork timbers used in real half-timber work. The
should be cut from sound dry balk timbers, piecesare mortised and tenoned together,
mitred and tenoned together,and secured and often pinnedas Often the whole
shown.
f-in. oak is in position,the brickwork

with pegs, which should project framing set up
1 in. from the face. it,and stripsof wood or
about The wood ing
fram- carried against
up
is shown backed with brickwork, which wooden bricks,which are fixed to the backs of
Fig. 728.
Fig. 727.
Fig. 729.
Fig. 727." Front Elevation of Half-timber Gabled House. Fig. 728." Vertical Section of Half-timber
Gabled House. Fig. 729." Section of Half-timber Gabled House through A B.
Fig. 732." Method
of supporting
Angle by Ornamental
Wooden Corbel.
the members, are bonded in. Probably this the stucco or roughcast. The sham sill
is the best method. An alternative is first is often finished off with a moulding which
Fig. 730. " General View of
Gable formed of Sham
Half-timber Work.
Fig. 731. "

Conventional View
showing Brickwork with Sham

Half-timber Work fixed to it.
to build the brickwork up, and then to fix issplayedon its upper edge for weathering,
the wooden framing to wooden bricks or Fig.732 illustrates a case where the side sill
plugs. The edges are bevelled in to receive b runs forward and has its end carved. The
Fig. 733. " Conventional View of Projecting Window supported on Moulded Brackets.
front sill c tenons into this.

The joistsare notched out
to projectunder the and
sill,
have their ends ornamented
as shown. The angle is
supported by the moulded
wooden corbel a.
Supporting Upper
Windows.
One of the general methods
of supportingan upper jecting
pro-
window by shaped
brackets fixed to the posts
is illustrated by Fig. 733.
A carved bracket is shown
in Fig. 734. The fixingfor
the corbels or brackets is
obtained by housingthe back
edge into the posts about
2 in. ; where there are no
posts below the projecting

window, the brackets are Fig. 734. " Pierced and Carved Bracket for
built into the wall. supporting Window.
210
in Fig. 736. In the case of the two

Gable Treatment: Panelling, upper
storeys in the projecting gable of a house
Bargeboards, etc.
(Fig. 737), the first floor portion is foimed of
Fig. 735 shows the upper portion of a timber work, with brick or one of the other
gable and part of the side of a half-timbered genera] fillings.The outside is covered with
Fig. 735." Design for Gable End and Side of House based on Old Examples.
house, with posts, sill,

transoms, and intertie, tiles, which are fixed to oak laths (see Fig-
filled in with Half -timber work similar to what
the panelling being partly 738).
ornamental woodwork. The is based has already been explained forms the wall-
design
old The of the attic second Figs.
floor. 739
upon a good example. treatment ing or
of the upper portion of a small gable is shown to 756 are designs for bargeboards.
Fig. 738."
General View of
Timber Work and
Tiling.
Fig. 744.
Fig. 739."
Bargeboard Ornamented and Chamfered. Fig. 740." Section of Bargeboard onA B

(Fig. 739). Fig. 741. "
Section showing Joint of Bargeboard. Fig. 742." Elevation of board
Barge-
Moulded and Dentils. Fig. 743."
Section of Bargeboard through D D (Fig. 742). Fig.
744. "
Section of Jointing of Bargeboard (Fig. 743).
Section
Fig. 747." Horizontal
through Bargeboard and Drop
Pendant.
Fig. 746. "

Section
through Bargeboard
on E F (Fig.745).
Fig. 751." Apex of Shaped and Chamfered Fig. 749. "

Section through
Bargeboard. G H (Fig.748).
Fig. 753. "

Horizontal
Section through Bargeboard

and Finial.
Fig. 752. "

Apex Ends of Bargeboards
with Dentils and Moulded with
Drop Pendant.
Fig. 755." Sectional
Elevation of Bargeboard.
Fig. 754. " Gothic Design of
Bargeboard.
Fig. 756. "

Enlarged Detail of Upper
Part of Gothic Bargeboard (portion
of Fig. 756).
GANTRIES, STAGING AND SHORING.
Buildei's Gantry. be spaced out into spans ranging from

may
A gantry, forming a temporary wooden 6 ft. to 10 ft. in the lengthof the gantry,and
staging,erected over a publicfootway,is an into one or two bays in the width from
elevated basis from which buildingopera -
buildingline to kerb. The timber gener-
Fig. 757." Front Elevation of Two Bays~of Builder's Gantry.
tions are conducted. A gantry also has in ally used for standards and heads is square,
many cases to carry all the front scaffolding but commonly any section, from 9 in. by
of the building; such an instance is illus- 3 in. up to 12 in. by 12 in.,is used. In the
trated by Figs. 757 and 758. The bays accompanying illustrations the sections used
215
216 CARPENTRY AND JOINER
are :
" Fender a, 12 in. by 12 in. ; sole centres. Those coming immediately
piecesb, 4 in. ; uprightsc and heads
8 in. by the uprightsare dogged to the heads
d, 8 in. by 8 in. ; joists e, 9 in. by 3 in. ;
struts p, 4 in. by 3 in. ; sheeting g, 9 in.
by 3 in.,or 9 in. by 1| in. (seeh) ; guard
frame J, 4 in. by 2 in. ; guard boarding k,
6 in. by f in. ; cleats l, 9 in. by 4 in. by 3 in. ;
handrail m, 4 in. by 3 in. ;
and impost N,
8 in. by 4 in. dogs are out of f-in.
The
square iron (see Figs.760 and 761).
Fig. 759. "Enlarged View of Impost Piece of

Builder's Gantry.
those shown at Fig. 761 (sometimesknown

as "bitches"). The gantry may now be
braced as shown in Figs.757 and 758, the
Fig. 760. "
Dog used for Fig. 761. "

Bitch used for
Builder's Gantry. Builder's Gantry.
latter showing three different methods of

cuttingthe braces in generaluse. Fig. 759
used for the pur-
illustrates an impost piece,
Sectional Elevation of Builder's

Fig. 762
Fig. 758. "
Gantry.
Erecting the Gantry. " In erecting the

gantry, the practice is to first lay down
the sole pieces,then set out the position of
the standards on them. These standards
are then cut off to the
requiredlength,allow-
ing Fig. 763.
for the difference in level
owing to the
fall of the footway. The uprightsare now
Fig. 762." Method of Finishing End of Fender of
placedin position, dogged to the sole pieces, Builder's Gantry.
and temporarily braced with scaffold boards
Fig. 763. "
Enlarged View of Cleat for Builder's

or any other handy material. The heads Gantry.
are next laid on the uprightsand dogged to
them ; the bridging joists
are thrown across pose of giving a greater bearing surface
the heads and spikedat from 15-in. to 2-ft. where a jointoccurs in the head. Fig. 757
GANTRIES, STAGING, AND SHORING. 217
! illustrates two methods of sheeting.If the contact with it will glideoff ; this is a very
I9-in. 3-in. used, then the
sheeting be desirable precaution.
by
|whole area of the platformshould,previous Dogs. Figs. 760 and 761 are the types
"
to layingthe deals,be covered with tarred of dogs used in the above class of work.
felt,to prevent water percolating through They run from 12 in. to 18 in. in length,
to the annoyance of the public. Or, if and with pointsfrom 2 in. to 3 in.
long.
double sheetingscaffold boards be used, the That shown at Fig.760 is used for heading,
Fig. 764. "

Conventional View of Gantry.
joints, both lateral and heading,should be lateral,and shoulder joints,and that at

lapped. The platformis then sanded, and Fig. 761 (which is made with its pointsdl
the sand worked into the jointswith a broom. rightangles to each other,and, as already.?
"
The guard frame is then fixed and boarded remarked, is sometimes known as a bitch ")
to the height shown at Figs.757 and 758. is used in positionswhere it holds more
The fender may now be laid in the gutter effectively than the other, such as the fender
and dogged to the and
uprights, the handrail to the uprights and the joists to the heads,
fixed to cleats between the upright,at etc. They are made rightsand lefts, or, as
from 3 ft. to 3 ft. 6 in. from the ground. it is often termed, in pairs. Fig. 763 is a
Fig. 762 shows how the end of the fender view of a cleat as spikedto the uprightto
should be cut so that any vehicle coming in receive the thrust of the strut.
10
1 " Boarding
".
Head 9 a 9'
r-.1~i
SrKUTS 7X7
Standards 9X9'
Sleeper 9X9
d" n
JL iFender tg*!2
Fig. 765. " Elevation of Gantry. Fig. 766. " Section through Gantry.
Another Gantry.
Figs.764 to 766 are illustrationsof a gantry
for use over a pavement 8 ft. wide and with
staging 12 ft. from the ground, A con
ventional sketch of the gantry is given at
Fig.764, and views of the necessarv joints
by Figs.767 to 769.
Fig. 767." Conventional Detail at Head of Post.
Fig. 769." View of Straining Piece and Strut Fig. 768. " View showing Cleats supporting
butting against it. Posts.
Derrick Tower Gantry. usuallybuilt of baulk timber, whereas the

A generalview of one of tliese is given at towers, etc., are built
principally of 7-in.
Fig. 773. There are now very 'few large
buildings erected without the aid of this
form of gantry, and it is graduallysuper-
seding
other forms, on account of the follow-
ing
considerations : Occupying a small
space, by the double movement of thejib,

material can be raised from the ground on
Fig. 773. " General View of Derrick Tower Gantry.
one side of the building,

and deposited battens or 9-in. deals. There are three or
direct in its proper position on an opposite four towers, but usuallyonly three. They
side. The cost of erectingis low compared are about 6 ft.square, and are so arranged
with other kinds of stagings,which are that lines joiningat the centre of the plan of
each tower form an isosceles triangle.Each material ; thus the back is anchored down.
tower has four posts,formed either of three The front or king tower has a standard
battens,or three 9-in. by 3-in.
7-in. by 2 J-in. throughthe centre of its whole length,
which
deals (Fig. 774) the layers,
bolted together, of is held tothe posts by bracing. This stan-
dard
course,breaking joint.Transoms, 8 ft.to 10 ft. is to give additional strength, for the
apart,of similar scantlings,
connect the posts support of the machinery of the crane, etc.
Fig. 774. " View of Timber Foundation and a Bottom Bay of an Anchor Tower.
by being bolted to them. The spaces tween

be- The upper ends of the towers are connected
the transoms are braced as trated.
illus- by trussed girders, as illustrated,the heads
Each
tower rests on a double plank and sills being about 9 in. by 4 in. and the
foundation (Fig.774). In the two back or braces and struts 4 in. by 4 in.,the whole
anchor towers the platforms and foundation being held togetherby f-in.or f-in.bolts
planks (seeFig.775) are connected together passing through the heads and sills, and
by means of a strong chain, the lower bay thus connectingthem. The towers are often
being loaded with bricks or other heavy tied togetherby bracing.

in connection with the construction of dock

and other similar work. The illustration
represents a gantry about 25 ft. high,18 ft.
clear between the sides of the framing.
^
Fig. 775." Half Plan of Platform, and Half Plan
of Timbers under Planking.
Fig. 776." Conventional View of a Movable Gantry to support Traveller.
Movable Gantry to Support Traveller. The beams the rails are

for SUpporting 34 ft.,
A is illustrated allowingthe traveller to work the out-
gantry of this description on
at Fig. 776. These are used principally side of the side frames when required.
trussed with rods Window Stand.

These are lj-in.tension
as shown. The main members are 12 in. Figs.778 and 779 show the construction
by 12 in.,braces a 10 in. by 12 in.,internal of a stand for the a window
private of
braces 10 in. by 8 in.,braces from the rail house. This will
thirtypersons, in
seat
beams to the posts 8 in. by 6 in.,sills14 in. a space of 8 ft. by 7 ft. 3 in. Every
by 12 in. The principal jointsare secured precautionmust be taken, in erectingthese
togetherby straps and bolts as illustrated. stands, to ensure absolute safety and
The traveller,being engineer'swork, is stability. County Council and other officials
omitted. are, quite justifiably,most stringentin
their demands for proper and safe struc-
tures
Gantry for Traveller.
; and no fear need be entertained
Fig. 777 illustrates a form of gantry ful
use- upon this head if the structures here d
for liftingheavy blocks of masonry re- scribed are carefully erected as shown.
Fig. 777." General View of a Gantry for Traveller.
quired in buildingthick walls. To allow

Stands for
of free movement
Spectators.
of the blocks,intermediate
bracingis not obtainable,therefore this has In Figs.780 and 781, which illustrate
3 a
to be arrangedfor at the outside as shown. stand to accommodate about 1,000 persons,

ns.
This kind of gantry is usuallybuilt of baulk the letteringis explained as follows :
timber from 8 in. by 8 in. upwards, according a, Brace shouldered over half thickness ;
to the height and strengthrequired. The B, braces halved together; c, brace cut in
feet of the outer braces are frequently
bolted between principals
; d, short tenon ; e,
to stakes driven firmly in the ground as through and wedged ; f,
tenon mortised
indicated in' Fig. 777, which givesa general brace bolted on face of principal ; G, bearers
view, in which the principles of construction mortised and tenoned togetherand pinned ;
are shown with sufficientclearness to render h, bearer mortised into raking beam and
further description superfluous to the prac-
tical pinned ; I, rail dovetailed to post ; J, post
builder. mortised to receive tenon on raking beam
XT
"o
Sl== "S"2
O d
J
i-ls%=lltiftfi"
K "
10*
.1
Ph
o
oo
t-
fab
X4IMOULDED
CAST /IRON
GUTTER
5-2|'.0x2f.0x6?Y0RK
PC. CONCRETE
Fig. 782." Part Elevation for Grand Stand for Sports Ground.
GROUNC
REFRESHMENTS
Fig. 783." Plan of Grand Stand for Sports Ground.
Grand Stand for Sports Ground.
Fig. 782 shows part elevation,Fig. 783

a plan, and Fig. 784 a section of a stand,
192 ft. long by 19 ft. wide, with seating x4;mouj.oecv
GUTTER
accommodation for one thousand spectators.
The stand is constructed entirelyof timber,
trussed and braced as necessary to make a
perfectlysafe structure. Twenty trusses

are framed as shown in
Fig. 784, and tied
together with raking braces, forming the
entire length of the stand. Each post in
the truss stands on a Portland cement
concrete base,2 ft.by 1 ft. 6 in. by 1 ft. 6 in.
The seatingand floor are carried upon 9-in.
by 3-in. deals,spaced between the trusses,
and with 4J-in. by 3-in. framed bracketing.
The floor is composed of lj-in. wrought-one-
side boarding,
the risers of 1-in. floorboards.
The seats are of 11-in. by lj-in.wrought
pitchpineboards with rounded edges. The
front of the stand is matchboarded on 3-in.
by 2-in. wrought framing,with a moulded Fig. 784." Section of Grand Stand for Sports
capping. The usual offices, with refresh- Ground.
ment bar, etc.,etc.,are provided;

and a space called the press box
is set apart for reporters. The
seats are reached by nights of
steps, as shown. The roof is
13 0
Fig. 786. " Side Elevation of Portable Gallery.

Fig. 787." Back Elevation of Portable Gallery.
and finished with handrail to the rake of screwed into position. In Fig. 783, the
the seating. The stand is covered with letters rbo indicate reserved box over ;
corrugated-iron sheeting,No. 16 gauge, and p B o, press box over.
Portable Gallery.
A portable gallery,
suitable for a public
hall or other similar is illustrated
building,
by Figs.785 to 791. The structure is one
that can be erected and taken to pieceswith

littletrouble,
and the materials can be stored
away until again required. The size and

form of the will,of
gallery vary with
course,
the requirements to be fulfilled;but the
method of framing set out below should be
observed,for the safetyof
strictly the struc-
ture
depends on the care with which this part

of the work is carried out. The framing
should be properlymortised and tenoned,
and in some parts lap-jointed,
as shown in
Figs. 785 to 789. The tenons that go
through should be wedged into their tive
respec-
mortices; in other cases, the joints
should be secured by bolts and nuts. fly
Butter-
nuts will be very useful,as they are
readilyadjusted. The jointsat A and b

(Fig.786) are shown in detail by Figs.788
Fig. 788. -Enlarged View of Mortice and Tenon and 789 respectively. Each piece of fram-
ing
Joints at A (Fig. 786). should be properlybraced (seeFigs.785
and 786), and should be again well tied with an iron pin or bolt. Suitable sizes of
together by braces as shown in Figs. 785 timber will be 4 in. by 2 in. for the smaller
and 787. It will be observed that these
parts are notched and lapped,as little as

of
possible the wood beingcut away, so that
the framing may not be weakened more
than is absolutely necessary. The main

standards should be about 9 ft. apart, as
shown ; the standards between these need
not, for ordinary purposes, have more than
one brace,which is indicated by dotted lines
(Fig.785). This intermediate standard is
intended to support the boarding forming
Fig. 790. "

Enlarged View of Triangular Support,
and Method of connecting it to
Boarding.
Fig. 789." Enlarged View of Joints at B
(Fig.786).
the staging. If the galleryis for children,

triangularpieces cut out of 11-in. by 2-in.
stuff, and firmly secured by nails,will be
suitable (seeFigs.785, 786, and 790) ; but
if it is intended for adults, greater height
and breadth will be and
required, it will be
necessary to frame the supports for boarding
of 2-in. by 2J-in.stuff,
as shown at Fig.791.
Fig. 791. Frame Triangular Support.
These supports should be halved togetherand "
stub-tenoned into shallow mortices (Fig.

791),and firmlysecured by nails. A simple braces, and 4 in. by 3 in. for the larger
method of securing the boarding is shown braces.
at Fig. 790. On
the under side, ledgesare
Shoring.
nailed so asclipon each side of the sup-
to port
; then by boring holes, as shown at Shoringmay be described briefly
as porary
tem-
a and a', these ledgescan be held together supports for walls that are considered
rl
Fig. 793." Detail of Head of Strut.
dead shores. Every other kind of shoring

appears to be an adaptationof one or other
Fig. 792." Single Strut Raking Shore.
of these three kinds. In shoringand pinning,
under-
probably as much as in any other
unsafe,or for
girders,etc.,in course of erec-
tion
or repair. The three most typical

kinds of shoringare raking,horizontal, and
Fig. 794." Foot of Strut with Groove for

Tightening Up.
Fig. 795." Triple System Raking Shore. Fig. 796." Raking Shore.
branch buildingtrade, a ripe experi-

of the ence explainsitself in the lightof the foregoing
is essential to success. It is necessary description.The top and middle shores are
to be thoroughlyprepared for any emer-
gency called top and middle rakers respectively
;
that may arise ; for it is only when the underneath one of all is the bottom
the cutting away is actuallycommenced shore. This arrangement strength-
ened has to be
that it becomes possibleto find out exactly by more than
secondary strut,
one
what circumstances have to be met. The on account of the length of the top raker,
first and" the most important thing " is to and for this purpose pieces of timber are
secure a solid base to shore from. If this is brought right back to the wall and nailed
not obtained,the support given,or supposed to the shores and wall-piece
as shown at a
to be given, is a deceit. There may be a in Fig. 795. In the still more intricate
cellar at the point where the shores have system of four shores sometimes seen, the
to be erected. If a strong wall of the cellar topmost strut is called the rider shore.
is not available at a suitable point,then the Scantlings of Shoring Timbers." The lowing
fol-
point of support must be found outside on table of shores and scantlingshas
the pavement or roadway. If it is earthy been found useful (takingthe angle of the
ground, try it with a crowbar. Ifmay be shore at about 65") : "
solidified to a certain extent by ramming,

or thick planks may be placed to form a
solid platform.
Raking Shores. The most simpletype of "
raking shore is that consisting of only one

principal strut, as shown in Fig. 792. It is
erected thus : At a little way down, usually
"
"
at about 2 ft. from one end of the wall-
piece," a hole,rectangularin shape,is cut Beyond 50 ifthe
ft., distance apart between
" "
to take the needle ; and when the wall- each system exceeds 12 ft.,the scantlingof
piece is in position,the needle fits into a each shore should be 12 in. by 9 in.
hole in the wall made to receive it by moving
re- Erecting a Raking Shore. " Let it be
a half -brick. also jects
The
pro- needle assumed that a buildingrequires support,
on each side of the wall-piece
to receive and that rakingshores are in this case most
the head of the principal
strut. To act
counter- suitable. The work can be carried out
the upward thrust of the shore, a cleat is according to the followingdirections given
nailed over the needle. These details are by Mr. H. A. Davey in a paper read in 1899
shown more in Fig.793.
clearly A secondary at the British Institute of Certified ters.
Carpen-
strut, as is
illustrated, necessary. The sole All the window openings must be
piece or footingblock is a timber balk let strutted, and care must be taken that the
into the ground, and a cleat is nailed on that brickwork is not jarredmore than is abso-
lutely
also to keep the foot of the shore from ping.
slip- unavoidable. Next find out the
In soft soils a littletimber platformis heightsof the floors and the thickness of the
placedto receive the sole piece indicated in wall,and make a rough sketch, to any scale,
Fig. 795. Sometimes wedges are driven in of a vertical section of the wall. The next
at the foot of the principalstrut, but the step is to decide where to pitchthe foot of
heavy hammering necessary to drive them the shores, and great care must be taken
home is likely to defeat the purpose for which in making this selection ; for the shores,
the shore is being erected. The more should the footblock yield to their pressure,
approved method of tighteningup is to cut would become a source of danger instead
a groove in the foot of the shore (Fig.794), of a support. Old drains and vaults will
and graduallylever it into position.The probably give most trouble in this respect,
most common type ofraking shore is that but everything must be made solid before
shown in Fig. 795, which is reallya triple the shore is put into position. In the case
system on the same principleas that shown of a vault,Mr. Davey found the most factory
satis-
by Fig. 792. The illustration therefore treatment was to run the shore
through the crown to firm ground. Old (thisis quite near enough for all practical
drains can, as a rule,be either cleared away purposes),and from e draw a vertical line
or filled in. The angle the shore should intersectingd produced at f, arid the sultant
re-
make with the horizon is decided

generally H of the forces d and c will lie be-
tween
by the width of the pavement ; but assuming B and F and in the direction of the
that there is no distance given, then, to foot of the shore ; so a line drawn from g
obtain the maximum thrust,the shore would to the centre of b f will be the mean of the
have to be inclined at an angle of 45" with directions the resultant H will take. At g
the ground ; but there are two reasons draw a line at h, and this
rightangles to
against so large an angle: (1) The shore line will representthe face of the footblock.
wouldtake up too much space ; (2) increased It will/beseen by this that the footblock
lengthsof timber would be required. It has cannot be at rightanglesto the shore,owing
been that in practice
decided, therefore, the to the "resultant of the forces actingoutside
9x 2
Fig. 797." Single Flying Shore. Fig. 798. " View of Head of Raker and Needle.
best anglefor
the top raker shall be between the shore. The shore should |be levered
60" and 70" (seeFig. 796). Draw the face into its placewith a crowbar, and fixed to
of wall,position of joistsand wall plateon the footblock with iron dogs. The practice
face of wall,draw a line from a making an of drivingwedges in with a sledge-hammer
angle of 60" with the ground line ; on each is most dangerous,and no man ing
understand-
side of this line set off half the thickness of the nature of the work would run such
the shore
(assumingwhole timber is being a risk. Sometimes when the buildingis
used, which should always be the case), very high it is necessary to put up the top
and where the centre line intersects the raker in two pieces. The top pieceis then
wall plateat B draw lines to represent the called a rider,but it is much better in one
needle, and cleat nailed above it ; this pieceif it managed, can be on account of
finishes the head of the shore for the present. the objectionto wedging. Three or four
^
Now discover the anglethe footbiock should piecesof 1-in. boarding are nailed to the
make with the shore. Draw lines c and d sides of the shores and wall plate,to hold
to represent the horizontal and vertical them togetherand to act as struts and ties.
forces actingat the back of the wall and For this reason all the shores in a system
opposite the head of the shore, assume the should be of the same size. The distance
centre of gravity of the shore to be at e between the shores should not be more than
Flying Shore for Houses

pitchpinemay be obtained in 70-ft. lengths, Fig. 804."
of unequal Heights over a Narrow
so that if flyingshores are the best for the
there is no need to trouble about Space.
purpose,
the length. Flying shores are superiorto
rakingshores,because their thrust is immediately
oppositethe disturbingforce. The
most common type of flyingor horizontal
shore is that shown in Fig.797. For detail
of the jointbetween needle and strut see
Fig. 798. In a case where two houses of
18-ft. frontage, each in a terrace, have been
pulled down, and shoring is required for
supporting the adjoininghouses on each
side, the strut just shown, or, preferably,
the one shown by Fig. 799, would be suit-
able.
The jointshown at Figs.798 and 800
is to be preferredfor this,and frequently
the struts are simply butted againstcleats,
as shown at Fig. 800 ; these should be
housed-in as well as being spiked to the
wall-pieceas indicated. The method of
wedging and connecting the jointswith dog-
irons and straps is shown by Figs.801 to
803. It is best, where practicable,to have
the horizontal shores cut justtightbetween
the wall plates, but should they be a little
short, a pair of foldingwedges may be
driven between one end of each shore and
the wall- piece.
Flying Shores for Buildings of
Unequal Heights.
The examples of flyingshores that have
justbeen illustrated are in generaluse for
buildings that are of equal,or nearlyequal,
heights. When the buildings are not about
the same heightthe shores are usuallyof a
specialdesignmore or less complicatedto
suit each particular requirementof the work
to be executed. Figs.804, 805, and 806
show three systems which are somewhat
similar to those illustrated as
generally able
suit-
for cases where it is necessary to sup-
port
a high house by means of a flyingshore
againsta lower house. The spans would not
be so great as is shown
Fig.807, which is in
a typicalcase of shoringup the side of a
five-storey
house,standingin a narrow street,
the traffic of which must not be obstructed
by raking shores. On the oppositeside of
the street is house that has to be used for Fig. 806." Inclined Flying Shore with
a
Raking Strut and Braces.

support ; this being two storeys lower,care
GANTRIES, STAGING, AND SHORING. 231;
Fig. 807. "

Flying Shores over Thoroughfare between Two Houses of unequal Heights.
must be taken to distribute as much as sible

pos- ing pointse, f, and G ; in the same way, if
the thrustingforce of the shores so as there is a pressure againstany or all of the
to prevent injuryto the supportinghouse. pointsa, b, c, and d, the pressure is also
It will be seen by examining the illustra- transmitted to the same points. To carry
out effectively this system of distributing
the pressure, largecleats are bolted to the
horizontal timbers to form a firm abutment
for the feet of the struts. The timber for the
Fig. 808." Elevation of Dead Shoring for verting

con- Fig. 809." Section on Line X Z (Fig.808).
Ground Storey of Small House
into Shop.
main members would vary from 5 in. to
tion that the bracingand strutting has been 9 in. by 8 in. the span, and the
accordingto
arrangedso that when the wall of the higher amount of the thrust would be a necessary
house exerts pressure at either one of the factor for
a
specialconsideration in each case.
pointsa, b, c, or d, this pressure againstthe The braces and struts would be proportionate
lower house is transmitted to the three bear- to the size of the other members.
openings,but when the piersare very wide

Vertical or Dead Shores.
it is sometimes necessary to insert two
Vertical or dead shores are in generaluse needles,as shown in the illustrations. The
for the
following (1) When the cases : needles are supported by dead shores at
foundations of a buildinghave given way each end (Figs.808 and 809),both inside
s
and it is necessary to support the walls by and outside the building. These shores rest
shoringin sections so as to underpin them upon continuous sills,

and are fixed tight
during the renewal of the foundations. (2) under the needles by the insertion of oak
When ground storey of a privatehouse
the wedges w. It is usual to brace the outer
is converted into a shop, the upper part dead shores to the needle by a piece of
of the house is supportedby shoring until scantling
as shown at c. The feet and head
the bressummer is fixed in its placeand the of the shores are also secured to the head
new brickwork built upon it to support the and sill by iron dogs. Next, it is usual to
old wall. (3) Where it is desired to raise remove sufficient of the brickwork to allow
the front of a shop,then it is necessary to of the insertion of the bressummer which
support the upper part of the structure spans the opening and to which the floor
whilst a new bressummer or girderis being joists are fixed in some one of the various
fixed in
position so that it can carry the wall ways. Next the wallingis made good, with
above. In larger and more important classes brick or stone laid in Portland cement, as far
of buildings,which range from 'three storeys as this can be done without removing the
high upwards, it is usual, in addition to needles ; after the new work has properly
dead raking shores, with the
shores, to use set the shoringis removed, and the making
object of steadying the walls, as well as good of the wall is completed. When ing
plac-
givinga certain amount of support,and thus the shores on the ground floor it should
to minimise the chance of accident to the be noted
carefully whether this is sufficiently
building. strong to support the shoring. If not, part
should be taken up and the sills bedded
Dead Shoring for Converting Private
firmlyon the solid earth. In the case where
Dwelling into Shop. there is a basement it would be necessary
and usual to support the ground floor by a sill-head
Figs. 808 809 represent a
method of of and dead shores, as shown in Figs.808 and

shoringin the common case
convertingthe ground storey of a small 809. With small

jobs,sometimes the inner
privatedwelling house into a shop. In many standard supportingthe needle is dispensed

cities,for such small jobs as this, raking with pieces of square
; timber about 3 ft.
shores are not used. The leadingmethods long, (Fig.809),rest
d on the floor directly
of proceduremay be summarised as follows : over the head b ; the inner end of the needle
The windows are strutted by pieces of timber rests on these square timbers ; and if quired,
re-
about 3 in. by 3 in. or 3 in. by 4 in. The pairs of wedges are driven between
sillshown at a is supported on the ground the timber and the needle,as indicated at e.
floor,and a head is put plumb over this

House for
Shoring Large Corner
against the ceiling,
as shown at b (Figs.
Converting the Ground Storey
808 and 809) ; three or more vertical posts
into Shop.
are cut to a lengthto fittightly
between the
head and the sill. Sometimes the posts are A familiar example, but not such a
cut a little short so as to allow of a pair of common one as that justdescribed,and one
oak wedges to be driven between the post that is of much greatermagnitude,is illus-
trated
and sill;
in this way the dead shores or by Figs.810 to 815. A case of this
posts support the floor,and thus the front descriptiongenerallycalls for the exercise
wall is relieved of its weight. Holes are of considerable skill and judgment, especi-
ally
then cut through the front wall about 6 in. if the house is an old one. Figs.x810
or a foot above the floor,for the insertion of and 811 show a five-storeycorner house,
needles n (Figs.808 and 809). It is usual with an area on the two fronts. It is shown
to put a needle under each pier between shored up for the conversion of the ground
floor into shop premises. The rakingshores should rest on a solid foundation formed by
would first be erected,and it being a high the solid earth. Standards marked a, b,
house, there would be two rakers,and also a would rest on this silland carry the head b.
rider g to k 811);these
(Fig. shores wouldvary In this way the ground floor would be ported,
sup-
in size from 6 in. by 6 in. to 7 in. by 7 in., and in its turn this would support the
Fig. 810. " General View of Shoring to large Private House the Ground Storey of which
is to be altered into Shop.
requirementsof the
accordingto the special sill c, the standards,the head, and, in a
particularcase. To give the best support way, the whole of the firstfloor. ally
Occasion-
the needles at the head of the rakers should the shoringis continued through the
be inserted justbelow each floor. As there is floor above, and this wouldj to some extent,
an area, the feet of the shores would require reduce the load on the needles. Next, holes
to have a foundation to rest on, f (Fig.811) would be cut in the walls for the insertion of
placed at least 2 to 3 ft. from the area the needles,then the first floor d (Fig.811)
wall. The sillin the basement, a (Fig.811), would have a hole cut for the inner dead
shore to pass through,and this shore would angle of the buildingshould be timbers of
carry the end of the needle. The outer much greatersectional area, as they have to
dead shore l (Fig.811) should be long support a greaterweight,and all chances of
enough to rest on a sillbedded firmlyin the movement must be guarded against. Fig.
area as shown. As a stay to these standards, 812 is the generalview of the top end of a
Fig. 816. "

Shoring required for the removal of a Capital.
Fig. 817. "

Shoring necessary when an Arched Stone has to be renewed.
a raking strut e could be birdsmouthed raker at its connection the needle,

with
on to a plateand its head cut to fit against the cleat, and the wall
piece. Fig. 813
the shore, which would have a cleat fas-
tened shows each one of these parts separated.
to it. When these do not fit tight Fig.814 is an enlargeddetail at g (Fig.811),
againstthe walls of the area, blocks should showing wedges,etc., at the foot of the
the
be placedbetween as shown at m (Fig.811). rider. Fig. 815 gives enlargeddetails at
The needles and the standards carryingthe b, c, and d respectively in Fig. 811
Arcade. vary according to the weight above the

Shoring an
arches. If there are very high and heavy-
Fig. 816 shows the method of shoring clerestory and roof, an additional shore
required when it is necessary to remove might be necessary, but should be kept
the capital of a column a. Sole plates almost vertical. Fig.817 shows the timber-
ing
are cut between the bases of the columns necessary when one of the arch stones,
on each side of the one from which the as at c, is to be cut out. Fig.818 shows an
is to be removed. Ribs cut from elevation,and Fig. 819 section of the

cap a
6 -in. planks are fitted into the arch, the timberingnecessary for the removal of the
edges fittingperfectlyto the soffits ; the shaft d. The capitalis kept in positionby
butt joints,cut radiatingwith the centre, the collar e, which is fitted round it and
must also fit perfectly,
and the planks are bolted together, and in turn fixed to the
held togetherby iron dogs ; or the joint shores. Struts f and shores g are cut tight
may be crossed with piecesof lj-in.deal,as under the collar. The centeringin each
Fig. 818. " Elevation and Section of Shoring required for the removal of a Column.
in making an ordinary centre. Stretcher case be made additionally and

may secure
pieces are cut tightin between the arches strong by the free use of braces and struts.
at the springing. Shores of 12-in. by 6-in.
Shoring the Arcade of a Church.
timber are then up as shown.
cut Folding
wedges are not used, the shore beingpinched This work calls for the highestskill and
up tightwith an iron bar ; and wiien it is judgment. The one example here illustrated
home, piecesof timber are cut in between and described will serve to give some idea
and spiked to the sole plate. The shores of the nature of this kind of work. In the
are pitched to about 85", and sufficient portion of a church arcade shown by Fig.
room is allowed for the removal and the 819 there are cracks in the masonry, ing
indicat-
reinstatement of the capital.Horizontal a subsidence in the foundation of one or
pieces are fixed on each side of the shores more of the pillars
; it is assumed that it is
at B ; these are allowed wide enough to found necessary to renew the foundation.
scribe around the shaft,and so hold it rigid The first thing will be to construct strong
during the process of removal and fixing. centres. In the case illustrated the arch
The free use of iron dogs is recommended, mouldings can be supported on three centres ;
and the work must be well done to ensure the middle one is constructed of stuff 7 in.
success. The size of the timbers would thick, and those on each side of stuff 3 in.
Eh
he
I
o
ho
thick. So that the ribs May properlyfit the Fig. 821). The raking shores l h and K m
_
intrados of the arches, templates made of are made to spread at the bottom, the sill
J-in.boardingshould be carefully
scribed to being notched out of the solid to receive the
fit ; then these should be used for making ends of these ; they are further
square
Fig. 821. " Conventional View of Central Trestle and one adjacent to Pillar, also of
Part of Centres, Collars, etc.
the timber ribs,which are out of 7-in. by secured by fixingon cleats. The whole of
12-in. and 3-in.
by 11 -in. stuff respectively. the trestle is supported by a large timber
The jointsbetween the ribs, tie,king-post, sleeper12 in. by 12 in. or more, as the case
struts, etc., are clearlyillustrated at A, B, may demand. The object of the above
and c (Fig.823). Strong trestle shores are arrangement is to obtain the necessary port
sup-
next made to the sizes and form clearly for the shoring,at sufficient distance
shown in the illustrations (especially see from the pillar to allow ample room for its
removal or the further shoringof it,and to the load on the shores adjacentto the pillars,
allow sufficient space for the excavation and obviously lessen the weight on the
for the new foundation. The ground near the foundation. In the case
necessary
Fig. 823. " Conventional View of Joints of Centres.
the middle of ordinary earths the excavation for the

centres are also supportedin by
trestle which will take full share of foundation would require to be timbered
shoring, a
the load, and thus to a largeextent reduce strongly,so as to prevent any movement.
The shoringhaving been placedin position,
the centres can next be erected and forced
home so as to fit the arch, by wedging up
from the head pieces of the shore as in-
dicated
in the illustrations,and also the
several parts of the centres themselves, by
the wedges shown at d, e, f, and G (Fig.819).
The centres should be connected together
blocks
by fixing between them, or by bracing
them togetherwith pieces of scantling. As
the centres might not directlysupport some
of the stones resting on the capital, two
collars should be made ; these are shown in
position in Figs. 819 to 821. A tional
conven-
Fig. 822." Conventional View of Collars to view of them is given at Fig. 822,
support
the Springing of Arches. in which the collar at h shows piecesof
timber which have accurately scribed

been similar to those which have been treated,
to fit the soffit and mouldings adjacent to but of larger scantlings.
it near the springing of the arches. The
collar at k is at rightanglesto h, and has
Shoring to Railway Arch.
had blocks scribed to fit the
moulding and
the front and back immediately above the illustrations (Figs.824 to 830) show
The
capital. These blocks are bolted to the the centering and struttingemployed for
main pieces of the collars as indicated. shoring up two arches of a viaduct over a
The collars are made to grip firmly to the shallow river. A scaffold and staging to
Fig. 824. " Part Elevation of Shoring, showing Half a Fig. 825. " Part Transverse Section
Principal, One Main Strut, etc. through Arch and Shoring on Line 0 P.
stonework by tighteningup the iron bolts work upon are erected,holes are cut into
as shown. In heavy work, of course, it the piersat about 6-ft. centres, and wood
might be necessary to have two bolts at each corbels 9 in. by 9 in. (g and h, Figs.824 and
end so as to prevent accident by the break-
ing 825) are set in firmlyby wedging and filling
of one. The lower collar is supported in with Portland cement. On the upper
on the heads of the trestle shores, and it in corbels transoms K are placed,their centres
its turn supports the upper collar. If it is being supported by the shores l. The corbels
desired not to remove the the collars
capital, G support a plate M from which the shores
would be scribed to fitthe immediately
pillars are wedged. The radii and span of the
below it,in which case the collar would be arches being known, a full-size drawing is
supported by transoms fixed to the trestles. set out. The templates for the several
In this kind of shoringdogs should be freely piecesof ribs are next made ; they are used
used. In some cases it might be necessary for cutting out by the bandsaw pieces of
to support the wall of the arcade on each timber stuff for the ribs. The struts, tie-
side ; these shores would be somewhat beam, and other members are next set out
from the drawings and the various

joints forced up as close as possibleto the soffitof
made. The ribs jointed the arch by drivingin the wedges on the
are set out and
with the tie,heads of struts and king-post. plate n. If a lagging does not fit close,
Each principal is now fitted together, and force it up by drivingwedges under it on the
when found satisfactory each of the parts top of the rib,the objectbeing to make the
Fig. 826. " General View looking from the Under Side, showing the Arrangement of the Various
Members of the Shoring.
joiningtogetheris worked, thus allowing laggingstake their proper share of bearing.

each principalto be taken to piecesand sent To keep the centres upright, braces are fixed
to the job. Iron straps are provided to between each pair,as shown by Figs.825
secure the principals when re-erected. tween and 826.
Be- The former figurerepresentsa part
the platesn and the tie-beams of the transverse section through arch and shoring
centres, wedges are inserted. Battens are on line o p (Fig.824),the latter a general
next placedon the ribs to form the laggings. view (lookingfrom the under side)showing
Each principaland the laggingsare then the arrangement of the various members.
ARCH CENTERINGS.
Setting Out for Segmental Arches. the is and the of it

arc drawn, centre
The wooden centerings or centres used squaremeasured applied off. The is then
for supportingbrick or stone arches until to the chord, as shown, and by means of a
the construction is complete,or until the straightedge a line is drawn at rightangles
mortar or cement is dry, are made by car-
penters, to the chord, bisecting it at its centre, and
who find it necessary to be able to intersectingthe perpendicularline at K,
set out the particular curve requiredbefore which is the centre of the curve required.
starting the actual construction of the wood-
work. This method, while correct in theory,is un- scientific
The curves for constructing the in practice, being too dependent

centres or turning-pieces, or for settingout on crude mechanical aids,and is not credit-
able
to an intelligent craftsman. On the
right-hand side of Fig. 832 a better and
more expeditiousmethod is shown, as fol-
lows
:" First draw the line a b, and mark
off the span ; then with A and B as centres
mark off equal distances at E and r. With
E and f as centres anyand with radius
greaterthan half the distance between them,
draw intersecting
the arcs G and H ; through
the pointsof intersection draw the lines c d.
Mark off at c the rise above the line a b,

and, with c and B as centres, draw ing
intersect-
arcs ; a line drawn through the points
Fig. 832." Drawing Curves of Arch from a Centre.
of intersection will bisect equally the line
B c at J, and being continued will intersect
the voussoirs or members of segmental and the line cd at k, which is the centre quired.
re-
cambered arches,can be obtained by several A lightdeal rod and a fine bradawl

different methods. The practice, generally, for a pivot centre will make an excellent
among engineers,architects,and surveyors compass for this purpose, and is called a
is merely to indicate the width of the open- radius rod.

ing
to be spanned, and the height or rise Formula for Arch Curves. " For various
above the level line of the springingat the reasons, such as the absence of anything
abutments, and
long as the completed
so upon which it can be worked out, and the
work is in conformitywith such instructions small round-up of the curve, it is not always
the artisan is allowed to produce it by the convenient to adopt the method just de-
scribed,
method he is best acquainted with. Fig. and in cases of this kind the mathe-
matical
832 shows a segmental arch nearly approach-
ing formula
a semicircle,and on the left-hand side J span f span
Diameter = + rise
of the figureis indicated a very common rise
method of producing it. The chord of half is extremely useful.
250
ARCH CENTERINGS. 251
Obtaining Radius of Segment of Circle. " in Fig. 833, and these divisions may be sub-
divided
To get the radius of any segment of a circle, as indicated. The object of bi-
secting
the followingrule should be committed to the arcs is to get the lines radial. ,
memory : " Given the span or line,

chord
Setting- Out Curves for Large Arches
and versed sine (rise),
square half the chord,
of Moderate Rise.
divide by the rise,and to the quotientadd
the rise. This gives the diameter ; divide Arches of
large span and moderate rise
by 2 for radius. Referring
to Fig.832 as an cannot conveniently be struck out from
example, half chord =2 ft. 11 in. = 35 x a centre, owing to the length of the radius,
35 = 1225 -r 7 = 175 + 7 = 182 4- 2 = neither can small arches that have but
91 in. = 7 ft. 7 in. radius. very little rise. Fig. 834 shows a method
Fig. 835.
Fig. 833. -Marking out Voussoirs without the aid

of a Centre.
Fig. 834. "

Drawing Curves of Arch without a Centre by means of a Frame.
Fig. 835. "

Enlarged View of Apex of Frame shown in
Fig. 834.
Fig. 836. " Alternative Frame to that shown in Fig. 834.
of drawing the curves without the aid of a

Setting Out Curves with Radius Rod.
centre. the purpose of elucidation the
For
Centres for segmental arches larger of shows
figurenecessarily considerable round-
up.
dimensions,and others of irregular off on line cd;
propor-
tions, The span is marked
should be struck out with a radius rod. the centre line a b is drawn at rightangles
After finding the radius by calculation, to it,and the rise is marked off at a. Two
measure off the distance on the radius rod, French nails are driven in at c and d, and a
and beyond this mark off the depth of the triangular frame is made as shown, using deal
face of the arch. Insert the bradawl in battens about 1 in. thick for a very large
these points,and draw the curves ; cut off arch ; for an arch of moderate size slate
a portion of the inner curve so that its battens will do ; the legs touch the nails
chord is equal to the
span, and draw the c d, and at the apex at the pointof the rise
voussoirs or members. This may be done a small notch is made to accommodate the
by dividingout either the inner or the outer pencilas shown at a in Fig. 835. The pencil
curve,and bisecting
the divisions as shown being in positionat a, the frame is moved
round indicated by the dotted lines,care rise ; parallel the

as to edge of the board a line
being taken that it is always in contact with is then drawn from point
until it inter-
sects a
the nails at c and d, and a true segment of a with the line of abutment at c, and
circle is then struck (Euclid,bk. iii.prop. 21).
The frame must be altered,and the nails
shifted to E and f to draw the outer curve.
The voussoirs or members can be set out as
alreadyexplained(see Fig. 833). Fig. 836

is a much better appliance,
and is arranged
to suit the arch shown in Fig.834 ; it is not
Fig. 839." Camber or Straight Arch.
so clumsy to work, and it requiresa third
nail at d; it is used in the same manner as the triangularpiece from c b is removed.
the board shown in Figs.837 and 838, and Three nails are inserted at b, c, and d (Fig.
is identical with it. 837), and the board (known as a camber
Fig. 837.
Fig. 838.
V
Ifr
Fig. 837. "Drawing Curves of Arches with a Board. Fig. 838. " Board used in Fig. 837.
Setting Out Curve for Camber Arch.

slip)is moved round (the pencilbeing held
in contact with it at point e),as shown in
Fig.837 is an example of a camber arch the dotted lines. As in the former the
case,
whose members do not radiate from the board must be altered and the nails shifted
centre of curvature, but from some point in order to draw the outer curve f, g, h.
within it. The centre lying at The
some siderable
con- camber slipis based on the principle
distance,the members, if radiat-
ing that all anglesin a segment of a circle are
from it,would be nearlyparallelthat another
so equal to one ; so by having a long
they would offer no key. In Fig. 837 it is and wide
slip tapering both ends, the
presumed that the rise is less than plank middle pin marking the rise could be dis-
pensed
width, namely, 11 in. At the centre of a with ; but such a slip is unwieldy,as
board (Fig.838) rather longerthan the span only half its lengthis of use in marking a
required,a line a b is squared equal to the centre.
settingout true and

elliptic oval arches.
So=called Straight Arch.
The first method, illustrated at Fig. 840, is
Fig. 839 is an illustration of a so-called almost universallyused by mechanics, as
straightarch whose intrados is reallycam-

ber it is easilydrawn, and can be adapted to
; properly speaking, not less than arches of any size. It has also the advan-
tage
that no centres required,
are the inter-
section
of the lines givingthe pointsthrough
Fig. 840." Method of Setting Out Ellipse by

Intersecting Lines.
Fig. 842." General View of Trammel and Cross
for Setting Out Elliptical Arches.
-| in. per foot of span. The method last
described is about only way in which
the The
which the curve passes. transverse or
this arch can be expeditiouslyset out.
major axis a b, and the conjugateor minor
axis c d, being given, enclose the space by
Setting Out Curves for Elliptical the parallelogram eegh. Divide the lines
Arches.
a e, e c, each into any number of equalparts
" "
Commonly, an ellipse is set out from (inthis case six),draw the lines 1 1, 2 2, 3 3,
three centres with compasses, but a three- i 4, and 5 5, and the intersection of the lines
Fig. 843. "

Enlarged Detail of End of Trammel and
Eod for Setting Out EllipticalArches.
-Method of Setting Out Ellipse with will give the points in the curve for one
Trammel. quarter of the figure. Kepeat the operation
for the other three quarters,then bend a thin
centred arch is not an arch
elliptical " it is flexible rod round the pointsobtained, and
only an approximation. The true ellipse draw the curve. It is interestingto note
is obtained from an oblique section of a that the granitearches of 50-ft. span cross-
ing
cone or cylinder, and no portionof its curve the roadway at the Tower Bridge were set
is part of a circle this method. Although it does not
; therefore an ellipse
not
can- out by
be drawn by compasses or from centres. form a perfectly true ellipse, an arch set out
The following methods are for describingand in this manner is by no means unpleasing.
Fig. 845. " View of Joint
at A (Fig.844).
Fig. 844." Centre for a Stone Arch of 20-ft. Span
Another Method. "

The second method of heads, is now placedin position as shown in
settingout an illustrated
ellipse, by Eig. the diagram. This position is obtained by
841, is probably the best yet devised ; it is making the distance from 2 to 1 equal to
half the shortest diameter of the ellipse
LAGGING. 3*2 gh, and the distance from 1 to 3 equal to
half the longestdiameter e f. The points
Qf~~\BOLTS
WEDGE.3
Fig. 847." Detail of Joint at B (Fig.844).
Fig. View of Joint C

of the heads are inserted into the centres of
846." at (Fig. 844), also
showing Method of the bars
sliding at 2 and 3, and by moving
supporting Wedges, etc.
the rod round (the outside head having a
done by means of a trammel, which

gives pencil fitted in it) the ellipse is described
a curve by one continuous motion. The by one continuous line. Eig. 842 shows the
trammel consists of a wooden cross abcd, trammel in position,while Eig. 843 shows
each arm. of which is slotted or grooved. an enlargeddetail of one end of the bar.
In these grooves two small hardwood sliding The frame of the trammel is usuallymade
bars are carefully fitted,so that they can of mahogany or some other hard wood, and
be moved smoothly to and fro. A rod, 1, 2, the slidingbars are of ebony. The heads
3, provided with three adjustabletrammel are similar to those used for beam com-
passes, and are adjustedby a screw pressing

againstthe radius rod on which they slide.
Fig. 848." Detail of Ribs, and Joints at D and E (Fig.844).
The frame of the trammel is held together Centerings for Semicircular Arches.
by a small wood screw at each corner. Its Centres for semicircular stone arches,
size depends, of course, upon the size of having generallyto bear a largeamount of
the ellipse to be described,but one frame weight,are usuallybuilt up of plank and
will describe ellipses
of various diameters. which
batten scantlings, are roughlyframed
Fig. 849." Eleva-

tion
of Four-ring
Arch and Centre.
Fig. 850.-
Section
through
Centre.
together,and fixed with bolts and dog irons, wedges are used for raisingor loweringthe
as indicated in the sketches. Fig.844 shows centre slightly,
so as to adjustit to its exact
a centre braced so that it is only necessary positionprevious buildingthe arch ; and,
to
to be supported at each end, leavinga free secondly,when the arch is finished,to ease
ZZVHMJS^
LAGGING 3xH
-Isometric View of Centre at Springing,

showing Support Wedges, etc.
the centre from the intrados

by gradually
slackeningthe wedges. They also allow of
Fig. 852." Section through Figs. 851 and 854. the centre being taken down without undue
Centre for an Elliptical Arch.
underneath. The jointsused are which would be otherwise caused:

vibration,
passage
shown by Figs. 845 to 848. Wedges are Fig.849 is the part elevation of a four-ring
placedin pairsdirectlybetween the top of brick arch with centering, the struts of the
the supports and the bottom of the centre, latter finishing againstthe ribs as shown in
as shown by Fig.846. In the firstplace,
the the vertical section (Fig.850).
at Fig. 859, plan of the ribs at a, the

the the ribs and soffit as indicated at a and b
laggingsat b (Fig.860),and the

plan of the (Fig.860). In Fig. 859 the line of ribs is
development of the soffit at c. The shapes shown on the whilst
left, the line of laggings
. I
Fig. 857. " Elevation of Circle-on-Circle Opening, with Soffit parallel at the Springing and
level at the Crown.
Fig. 858." Plan of Soffit (Fig. 857).
of the inner and outer ribs are identical. is shown at right. In the elevation,
the
How to obtain their shapeswill now be plained.
ex- divide the arcan equalnumber of parts,
into
First draw the elevation of the as a',b',etc.,draw ordinates to the springing
centre as shown in Fig.859, and the plansof line,and projectdown to the plan of the
ARCH CENTERINGS. 259-
ribs,as a, b,c, d, e, and 1. At rightanglesto Centre for Circle = on = Circle Arch with
the plan of the ribs, draw the ordinates,
Radial Jambs or Reveals.
making them of the same lengthsas those in
the elevation ; thus a series of points is Figs. 861 and 862 show the elevation and
obtained, as c" to 1", through which the plan of a circle-on-circle window or door
curve for the ribs is drawn. To obtain the opening with radial jambs or reveals. Fig.
soffit mould, divide the line of laggingsinto 863 gives the elevation of the front and back
equal parts as o' to V, and projectdown to of the centre, at the left and rightrespec-
tively.
the plan. Through point o in the plan, The face moulds for the ribs are
draw the horizontal line o to 1" and mark obtained in exactlysimilar manner to those
Fig. 859. " Elevation of Centre
for Opening (Fig. 857).
Fig. 860." Plan of Centre, and Geometrical
Setting Out for Fig. 857.
in the case illustrated by Figs.859 and 860.

For the development of the soffit mould, a
separate drawing must be made as shown at
Fig. 865. Set out the elevation and plan of

soffit and radial lines meeting at
any con-
venient
off distances on it equal to the divisions

point a',divide o', the elevation into a
6',5', etc., in elevation. From these
of equal parts as shown
points number
from 1 to
draw lines at rightanglesto o 1", and project 8 (a), and project these points down to the
from the corresponding points in the plan,givingcorrespondingnumbered points.
plan. Through the points thus obtained the From these last points draw lines radiating
development of the soffit may be drawn. to a', these being plans of generatorsof the
After the ribs are sawn out, the edge should conoidal surfaces which are shown by the
be planed in such a way that it is level at the conventional view (Fig. 866). Projectors
top, but graduallybevels until at the spring-
ing have not been drawn for the right-hand half
it is at the angle shown in the plan. of the plan,as this is exactlythe same as the
The construction of the centre is clearly left-hand half. From points 1 to 7 in the
shown in the illustrations. elevation draw the elevation of the generators
-260 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY.
meeting the line a 8 in pointsas shown ; at development of the front edge,set a pair of
rightanglesto 1' a' draw a' 8' (c). Mark off compasses to one of the equal distances of
Fig. 861. " Elevation of Circle-on-Circle Opening, with Soffit converging at the Springing
and level at the Crown.
Fig. 862." Plan of Soffit (Fig.861).
distances on it exactly equal to those on the elevation,and another pair or a radius

*a (a),which give the points where the rod to the lengthof the generators. (Note,
generators start from. This will be under-
stood these are all one length.)Then using point 1
by reference to Fig. 866. For the (b) as centre, describe an arc with the com-
ARCH CENTERINGS. 26 1
passes ; then with b as centre in a' 8' (c) is the^'

point 2 (c). Each of the other points
draw an arc with a radius equal to the in the development is obtained in precisely
generators ; where these two arcs intersect the same manner, and the curve can be
Fig. 863." Half Outside vation

Ele-
of Ribs for Centre,
and Half Inside Elevation
of Ribs for same for Arck
(Fig. 861).
9
Fig. 864." Plan of Fig. 863, and
Setting Out for True Snaps of
Ribs.
Fig. 867. " General View of Centres for Arcb
(Fig.861).
2(i2 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY.
drawn in as shown. For most practical In a segmental-on-plancentre, supports

.
purposes half would be but

sufficient, the must be given by sturts fixed at an angle
whole has been shown. The method of of 45" from the vertical side posts.
Tig. 865." Setting Out for Development for

Soffit of Arch.
Tig. 866. " Conventional View

of Conoidal Surface formed
by Soffit of Arch.
buildingup the centre with the ribs in two Centre for Opening with Converging
thicknesses is fullyshown at Figs.863, 864,
Outer Reveals and Parallel Inner
and 867. And the last-named figurealso
the Reveals.
shows generalconstruction of the centre,
its support, with wedges, etc. A central At Figs.868 and 869 are shown in elevation
support is not shown, but if by any means and plan the necessary centering for an
this can be arranged for it will be found opening with converging outer reveals and
advantageous. inner
parallel (cylindrical) reveals. The
true geometricalworking for obtainingthe

shape of the ribs and development of
the
half the inner soffitis shown, but not for the
Fig. 868
Fig. 870. " Conventional View of Centre

for converging Jambs (Fig.868).
871. " General View of Inner Centres
for Parallel Reveals (Fig.868).
Fig. 868." Elevation of Centering for an Opening

with External Reveals converging, the
Internal Reveals being parallel.
Fig. 869." Plan of Centering, Setting Out for
Ribs, etc.
have been so fullydescribed. Figs.870 and

871, which represent respectively a ventional
con-
view of a centre for converging

Fig. 869.
jambs, and a generalview of inner centres

clear
forconvergingreveals,will convey a
soffit with the converging reveals ; but the idea of the method of constructingthese
careful reader will have little difficulty
if he centres when they are for a span of an
that 877 shows

note this case is a combination of the ordinary sifced opening. Fig.
two previous ones be cut to connect the
(Figs.859 to 867),which how a block may
heads of the ribs,as (Fig.876) ; and

at a
for
Centering a Gothic = on = Circle
the centre may be further
strengthenedby Arch.
fixingin a tie,and bracingas indicated by
the dotted lines. The close laggingshown is The elevation and plan of the soffitof an
most suitable for brickwork, but in the case arch of this is shown
description at Figs.
Fig. 873. Plan of Soffit (Fig.872).
of a stone arch the laggingsare usuallyof a 872 and 873. The soffit of the arch at the
stouter character,and put at intervals of springingconverges, but finishes in a level
2 in. or more apart, so as to support the line. Details of the geometricalsetting
stonework and tie the ribs together. out of the ribs and generalconstruction are
Centering for a Stone Arch and Centre for Gothic Arch to the Arcade
Brick Back Arch. of a Church.
Figs.878 and 879 show the arrangement An example of centeringof this description
of centeringoften used when the front of an is illustrated by Figs.880 to 885. It will be
arch is of stone and the backing is of brick seen that in this example,where the mould-
Fig. 876." General View of Centre, with Wedges, etc.
with 4J-in.reveal. The centre for the ings of the arch for the most in
a are part
brickwork is largerto allow of the 4"-in. chamfered with
planes,the ordinary centre
reveal with laggingas shown, whereas rib it would
a laggingwould be unsuitable, as
centre built up of two thicknesses as shown only give direct support to the centre ing
mould-
is sufficient to support the voussoir if the or surface formingthe soffit of the arch.
centre of gravityof the stones falls within As these arches are usuallybuilt in at least
the ribs. When this is not the case another
rib would have to be made largeenough to
be in contact with some member of the
moulding. In the case that is here shown
the rib might be adjustedagainst the flat
part of the hollow a or againstthe square b. Fig. 877. " Block for fixing between Head of
The two parts of the centre are connected Ribs as shown at A (Fig. 876).
togetherby nailingon blocks as shown at
C, D, and E (Fig.879). The block shown at two rings of courses, the centre would not
f is nearlybehind the head and top of the directlytouch the second ring,therefore the
standards in the same plane,and thus they centres have to be constructed so as to give
c n be more easilybraced. direct support to each ring. This is gener-
Fig. 878. " Half Elevation showing Centering to a Stone Arch ; also Half Elevation of Centering
to Internal Brick Arch.
allydone by supportingeach, ring upon one section (Fig.882) it will be seen that the
or more ribs,the case here dealt with being middle centre b is smaller. It is formed of
so treated. By reference to the half-sec- two ribs,and gives support to the stones
tional elevation (Fig.880) and the transverse forming the soffitof the first ringof the arch.
Fig. 879. " Conventional View showing the General Arrangement

of Centering,Wedges, Means of Support, etc.
itr vn^v vv
The outer ribs shown

two at A (Figs.880 to
Centering for Barrel Vaulting.
882) are largerso as to support the series of
s'iones forming the second ring. The con-
ventional The isometrical view (Fig.886) will convey
view (Fig.883),showingpart of the a generalidea of the centeringand timbering
ribs,the wedges,and the method of support-
ing, required in the construction of four circular
semi-
will make the construction clear. Each barrel vaults, which intersect at
rib is built up of two thicknesses of 11 -in. rightanglesin groinsas shown. To give a
887." Elevation of Cross

Rib for Vaulting.
Fig. 888. "Plan of Centering at Intersection of Vaults : C, Plan of Intermediate Principal,

or Rib. D, Elevation of Same. E, True Form of Half Diagonal Principal. F, Develop-
ment
of Lagging.
boards from 1 in. to 1J in. thick,according better view of the centeringconnected with
to the weight to be supported, nailed to-
gether thegroiningof the vaults, the ribs a and B
in the usual The 886) have been purposelyshown farther
manner. struts (Fig.
also be of board stuff, 4-in. by 3-in. should reality,and
may or apart than they be in
to 6-in. by 3-in. scantling be used
may and consequentlythe standards would be placed
shouldered to the ribs as shown by Figs.884 much nearer togetherthan shown. All
and 885. The ribs should be braced together main members have been shown where prac-
ticable,
as indicated in the elevations and section. but for clearness some of the minor
timbers, such as braces, have been omitted. quadrant a' to In'into any number of equal
For a similar reason the walls nearest to parts, and from these draw ordinates at
the spectator have not been shown above right anglesto 7, 8. Project each of these
the ground level. The strength of the ribs down to the plan of the diagonal9, 10. At
and of the supportingtimbers would be rightangles to this line set up ordinates as
varied accordingto the material they would shown at h, the length of each of these
have support.to Generally,in the case of being, of course, equal to itscorresponding
stonework, the weight to be supported member at g. Through the pointsthus ob-
tained
would be much greaterthan in the case of draw the curve. It will be clear to the
brickwork, therefore all members of the reader that this is a quadrant of an ellipse,
timbers should be increased.
proportionately and that in nearly every practicalcase it
The laggings at the intersection of the would be more convenient to draw in the
vaults would be supported principally
by
ribs across the diagonalsas shown in the
conventional view (Fig. 886), and in the
plan (Fig. 888). One principalwould be
framed up of several thicknesses so as to
span one of the

diagonals; this should be
well supported by a head, standards, braces,
and sill. The other diagonal would be
spanned by two half -principals
; these would
be fixed to the main principalby straps and
bolts,and supported by a head, standards,
etc. It will be noticed that these principal
ribs are representedas being backed ; that
is, the edge of half the thickness of each
principalrib is bevelled to keep it in the
same cylindricalsurface as the laggingit
will have to support, so as to afford a firm
bearing to the latter. As the space from
one of the
ordinary ribs (shown in plan at
a, Fig. 888) to the intersection at b would
be too great for the laggings,part prin-
cipals Fig. 890
would be constructed and fixed to
Fig. 889. " Geometrical Setting Out for obtaining
those spanning the diagonals as indicated True Form of Edge of Diagonal Principal.
in plan at c. An elevation of one of these is
Fig. 890. " Geometrical Construction for obtaining
projected at d. A half -elevation of one of
Development of Curve for Intersection of
the diagonalprincipals is shown at e. Also Laggings.
development of portion of the lagging is
shown at f. The methods of setting out curve by means of an trammel
elliptic or other
the curves for
diagonal principalsis the of the methods
practical described pp. 250 on
shown separatelyat Fig. 889, and that for to 252. To obtain the development of the
the developmentof the laggingsat Fig. 890. laggingson?'a level with 7, 8 at G, draw 7, 8
At g half the transverse section, from the at k(Fig.890) ; then draw in the quadrant
springing
to the crown of the vault, is shown 7 to 0, equal to 7 to 0 at g ; projectacross
from 7 to 0. To set this out, mark off the from points 0 to 7 at g, and obtain cor-responding
thickness of the laggingand draw in the points on the quadrant at k.

quadrant as shown from a' to W ; then, at Produce 0, 8, of course at rightanglesto 8, 7,
any convenient position below, draw lines and at any point 0 in 0, 7, at l, draw 0 P at
9, 11, and 9, 10 ; the former represents the rightangles. Obtain the stretch out of the
plan of the line of transverse section of the quadrant 0,7, and mark it off from 0 to 7
vault and the latter the plan of the line of at l, dividinginto the same number of equal
intersection of two vaults. Divide the parts as the quadrant. Projecting down
272 CAKPENTRY AND JOINERY.
from these pointsin the quadrant, and from turningmovement. In the case of vaulting
the correspondingnumbered pointsin the spanninga greaterdistance,thicker material
line 0 7 at l, pointsfor the curve are tained, would
ob- be necessary, and in some cases it
and this may be drawn in as shown, would be considered necessary to frame the
by which a portionof the laggingis obtained principals
togetherout of battens and deals
Fig. 891. " Part Elevation of Centering and Fig. 892. " Part Longitudinal Section through A B
Supports. (Fig.891),showing Bracing connecting Principals.
as indicated at m. The construction of the 3 in. by 4 in.,connectingthe joints

together
ribs or principalsfor vaultingdiffers very by stub tenons, dogs and straps, as found
much accordingto the magnitude of the job. most serviceable.
Conventional View showing the General Arrangement of the Main Timbers.
For small vaults spanning not more than

Centre for a Segmental Bridge,
8 ft.or 9 ft. they would be made of lj-in.or
30=ft. Span.
lj-in. boarding, nailed together in two
thicknesses and supported on standards The accompanying Figs. 891 to 897
6 in. by 4 in. or 6 in. by 6 in.,these being illustrate the construction of the centre for
properly braced so as to prevent any a stone and brick segmentalbridge of 30-ft.

"2:\ CARPENTRY AND JOINERY.
Fig. 900. " Half Elevation of Centering for Span

of 100 ft. This is a Design of a Centre
suggested by Tredgold.
3MZZ3
t^^
Fig. 902. "Enlarged Details of Joints, etc., at Fig. 901." Longitudinal Section through A B
C, D, and E (Fig. 900). (Fig. 900).

a and of the heel pieceb by bolts. By ence

refer-
to Fig.899 it will be seen that these two
thicknesses graduallybrought together
are
so that they equal to the thickness

become
of the king-post to which they are connected
and strapped. This allows an uninterrupted
horizontal brace to run through on each
side of the principal, so that it can be bolted
to each member which it crosses. The ends
of these horizontal braces are connected by
bolts to a pieceof scantlingcut between the
struts d and e. When the arch is loaded,
this allows these braces to serve as struts.
Two pairsof wedges are shown under the end
of each their
principal, purpose being to give
a greater bearing surface, to obviate any
chance of the wedges being crushed, and
also to of
facilitate the easing or striking
Fig. 903." Enlarged Details of Joints at F and G
the principals. (Fig. 900).
Design for Centre suggested by

Tredgold.
Figs.900 to 904 are the elevation, section,
and details of the centeringfor an elliptical
stone arch
designed by the well-known
as
authority,Tredgold. This particularcon-

struction
may be used for any span from

60 ft. to 100 ft.,and the centres of similar
design,modified to specialrequirements,
have proved successful. In Fig.900 a special
form of wedging for adjustingthe principals
and strikingthem is shown in elevation at
h. The particularshape of each piece will
be understood by reference to Fig. 904.
The pairsof wedges k are for insertion in the
four spaces shown at h (Fig.900). These
wedges are used for adjustingthe principals.
When it is desired to ease the principals,
to
prevent any slippingof the main wedges,
these smaller wedges are loosened, and the
centre wedge is struck at the end h. Or,
upon the centres being struck, the smaller
wedges would be taken right out and the
centre wedge h driven back to its full tent.
ex-
Sometimes the end H is shod with

iron to prevent whilst being driven.
splitting
Centering for a Segmental Stone Arch,
70= ft. Span, resting on Five
Fig. 904. Enlarged Detail of the System of
Supports. "
Wedging for Striking Centre at H

The designfor the centeringfor a segmental
(Fig. 900).
stone arch for a 70-ft. span and 30-ft. rise
is shown by Figs.905 and 906. This form The right-handhalf shows an alternative
is where
applicable intermediate supports method where the head beam a is supported
are permissible.The left-hand half shows at five but only four

positions, rows of piles
how the timbering would be arrangedif sup-
ported or standards are needed. This arrange-
ment
on five rows of pilesor standards. would provide for a space of about
Fig. 906." Longitudinal ^

Section on A B (Fig. 905).
Fig. 908. " Transverse Section through a Tunnel,

showing Alternative Methods of Centering.
32 ft.for navigation
or traffic. The left-hand
half shows ordinary pairs
wedges for of
easing and striking, whilst on the right
simpleforms of screw jacksare shown. The
bodies of these jacksare castings fixed on the
transom beams, the heads of the screws
bearing against malleable cast platesbolted

to the under edge of the tie beam. An larged
en-
detail of one of these jacks is shown

at Fig. 907.
Centering for a Tunnel.
A transverse section through a tunnel

is given at Fig. 908, where it will be seen
that the trusses for the ribs have queen-

posts ; this principleof construction gives
great strength,and is in general favour for
this class of work. Alternative designsfor
trusses are given at a and b ; as also for
the supportingtimberingat d and e. When
a section of the arch has been completed,
arrangement is made to lower the centering
a little from the soffit,
and then to push
Fig. 907." General View of Screw Jack for
easing Principals.
the centeringforward and raise it to its
Fig. 909."
Elevation of Bridge
with Skew Arch.
Fig. 910." Plan, Transverse Section
Development of Soffit.
proper height by supporting on wedges.

To facilitate the pushing forward of the
a method
centering, which was used many
years ago in France is sometimes adopted,
by fixingstrongaxle rollers as indicated at
f. Thus when the wedges are taken out
the rollers are received by planks as shown, placed as indicated in the plan (Fig.912) ;
and the centering levered forward.
is easily but it will be seen that for the
present case
(shown by a, b, c, d) this arrangement would
Centering for a Skew Arch Bridge. of the
be unsuitable, because largepropor-
tion
The elevation of a bridgewith a skew arch of some of the ribs at each end, which
is shown by Fig.909, where it will be noted is not requiredto support the arch ; also the
that the face of the arch is ; but
elliptical thrust of the masonry at the loaded ends
by reference to Fig.910 it will be seen that would necessitate the other ends being
the transverse section a of the arch is a semi-
circle. strongly shored to prevent movement.
At Fig. 911 is given an elevation When the axis of the arch is less obliqueto
of one rib
elliptical and the pân of seven the face, as indicated by the dotted lines
ribs. Sometimes the ribs for skew arches e p and G h, square centeringis permissible,
are made to fit the transverse section,and and often an advantage. The development
1
as shown at d (Fig.917). The geometrical to half the breadth of the board in its
method of
doing this is as follows :" From widest part, join0 10, and continue the other
any convenient pointsin the plan of the arcs to touch 0 10 as shown by the dotted
Jace of the rib,as 0 to 9, projectup to the lines (Fig.917). Now draw the plans of
front arris of the soffit in elevation. But as these as shown by 1 to 9 (Fig.916). Then
Fig. 919. " Conventional View showing arrangement of Ribs for Soffit.
Fig. 920." Elevation of Rib A (Fig. 916). Fig. 921." Elevation of Rib B (Fig. 916).
in this case the ellipse

in plan is the same as from where each of the dotted arcs cuts line
in elevation,points 0 be used as
to b 0 10 (Fig.917) project parallelto 0 9 to
may
shown. Draw 0 9 (Fig.
917) in the same line intersect with their plans at Fig. 916. One
as 0 9 (Fig. 916). Along 0 9 (Fig. 917) of the is
projectors lettered h h (Figs.916
mark off distances 0 to 9 equal to 0 to 9 and 917). Producing these projectors to
alongthe ellipticcurve 0 to 9 (Fig.916),con-
tinue the right,until they cut the ordinates 0 to
the arc g e as e 10, make e 10 equal 9 (Fig.917),a series of points are obtained
284 CARPENTRY AND JOIXERY.
through which the curve 0 p q can be scribed

de-
Centering- for Groin Vaulting.
as shown. The other half 0 v s is
the same shape. To keep the working on Fig. 024 is agroin vaulting
sketch of
the illustrations as clear as possible,the over part ofoctagonalspace as shown
an
spheroidalsurface has been continued in by the plan (Fig.925), which also shows
front as indicated at e (Fig. 916). The the plansof the ribs for the centering. The
Fig. 922." Elevation of Rib C (Fig.916). Fig. 923. "Elevation of Rib D (Fig.916).
Fig. 924." Sectional Elevation of Vaulting taken on Line A B (Fig. 925)
method of drawing normals, or rather joint left half illustrates only the elevation of the
lines,of the voussoirs of the arch is shown centres carrying the main ribs of the vault-
ing
at Fig.913. First find the foci pointsof the shown in plan by A and l (Fig. 925),but
ellipse(ab), then, at the points where the on the rightall the ribs of the centeringare.
jointcommences, draw lines from each focus shown. It will be observed that on each
point and continue it as shown by D and E ; side of the centres carryingthe main ribs of
bisect the angle by c f, which gives the the vaultingthere is provided a rib made of
direction of the jointline required. The two thicknesses to helpto carry the stones of
other lines that are required are obtained the panels; these ribs are lettered gh,de,
in the same manner. etc. Under the intersection of the panels
rib is shown at f and p, and at the wall end By projectinghorizontally from

a
points 1
these ribs are shown by r and s. Small rib to 5 and af to e' (Fig.927) the positionsof
piecesmarked v are shown, connected to the the rib pieceshave been determined at 1
ribs e, f p, etc. These are cut to the form to 5, etc., in the elevation (Fig.926). A
that is desired for the soffits of the panels. method of obtainingthe true curvature of
A method of
obtainingthe shape of these is the outline for the centre for the main ribs
shown Fig. 927. The line 1 to x is the
at is shown at Fig.928, which is projectedfrom
true shape of the intersection between the Fig. 925.
panels; 6 a' x is the elevation of the line
of intersection as indicated by 1 to 5 (Fig. Centering- for a Hemispherical Dome.
927) ; radial lines are drawn to this curve, The illustrations (Figs.929 to 935) show
meeting the intersection 6fl'x in a' to e'. the necessary centeringand timber support
Fig. 929. -Half Sectional Elevation of Dome, and Fig. 930. " Half Elevation of Centering, and
Elevation of a Main Rib. Timber Stage for supporting it.
Horizontallyfrom these, points are jected

pro- for the erection of a hemisphericaldome,
as shown ; also with these points as 30 ft. to 40 ft. diameter. Fig.929 is a half-
centres, arcs are drawn meeting the zontals
hori- sectional elevation of the dome, and also
in points 6' to 10' ; then project shows the construction of one of the main
down from these pointsand obtain points ribs. At Fig.930 are shown a half elevation
6 to 10 in pointsa' to e' project
w z. From of the main and secondary ribs with wedges,
down to Y z, obtainingpoints a to e. Now and also the method of timber supports-
by drawing arcs joininga 6, bl, etc., the under. The plan of all the ribs and main
shape of the edge of each rib-pieceis tained
ob- timberingis clearlyshown at Fig. 931. A
as shown. The curvature of these quarter plan,lookingup, and a quarter plan
arcs can be varied from almost a straight of the upper side of the supporting stage,
line to an amount which would make the aregiven at Fig.932. The conventional view
intersection of the panels disappear by (Fig.933) will convey a fair idea of this-
taking the centres on the plan of it (w z). supporting timber work. It also shows a
central post, or mast, to which some of the at A (Fig.934),which also shows a form of
main members are attached. The necessary laggingvery convenient for work of this
Fig. 931. " Plan of Ribs and
Main Timbering.
Fig. 932." Quarter Plan, looking up, of Timber Stage, and Quarter Plan of Top of Stage.
wedges, etc., are also illustrated. The class,made by piecesof scantlinghaving an
method of connecting the secondary ribs to edge cut to the curvature of the soffit of the
the main ones by a trimming pieceis shown dome ; their edges are all struck from the
Fig. 935."
Construction
of a
Secondary
Rib.
Fig. 933." Conventional View of Timbering and Staging, and Part View of a Main Rib.
Fig. 934. Conventional View showing Connection of Secondary Rib with Main Ribs, and Method
"
of Lagging Centering.
same centre, thus they can be cut from one same distance,as indicated at b and c (Fig.
mould by a bandsaw, then notched down 934). The construction of a secondary rib
on the ribs so that they all projectup the is shown by Fig.935.
JOINERS' RODS.
Introduction. " A rod stands in the same wide being made in the brickwork to receive
relation to a craftsman as a scaled drawing it. The lines meet at a a. The two
does to a designer.In most shops the work posts b b are next filled in, the outside of
is done by a setter-out, who makes his the frames being marked off J in. less than
drawings from full-sized details prepared the opening, which saves scribing,as the
by the architect. The most convenient size brickwork is always more or less rough.
of rod for general use is about 10 ft. by Fig. 938 shows a mould of a wood jamb or
11 in. by f in.,but a varied stock should be post used in Fig.936. If several patterns of
kept. Rods should be of pine, free from moulds are kept in stock, much time will be
shakes and loose knots. Pine is chosen on saved in settingout. A space of 2 ft. 6 in.
account of its softness and grain,
evenness of is requiredin the clear of the frame, the
which enables lines of equal firmness,and posts being 2| in. when planed,and a 3-in.
not easily erasable, to be drawn. The jamb is allowed for. A line is next drawn
boards should be nicelysmoothed, whitened joining the rebate at each end, as shown,
over, and rubbed with fine glass-paperto the thickness of the door and a depth of
produce an even surface. The edges should J in. being included. The space between
be kept square. For making drawings on the two jambs is divided into five equal
the rods, squares with 6-in., 12-in., and parts, the two outer boards which fit into
36-in. blades, a trammel, dividers,pencil the rebates being J in. wider than the
compasses, and a five-foot rule, will be others, so that they show equal on the face.
found most useful On each side of the tongued edge at the
for
boarding jointsa tongue and bead is filled
Rods Ledged and Beaded Door
in. The projection marked c (Fig.936) re-
presents
and Frame. the ledge on the back, forming a
Fig. 936, Rod 1 (scale = f in. to 1 ft.), rail to which the boards are fixed. It is
shows the plan of a ledgedand beaded door, made 1J in. thick, with a f-in. chamfer.
in a 4|-in. by 3-in. rebated and beaded Where possible,
an elevation is drawn at one
frame, fixed in a 4|-in. wall. (Fig. 937 end of the plan rod, as shown at Fig. 936
shows a section of the door and frame, and (enlargedat Fig. 939),for general guidance.
will be referred to later.)This kind of door The
rod is turned over and the height drawn
is generallyused for outhouses. First lay in section (seeFig.937). Parallel lines 4J in;
the rod on the bench and draw a line parallel apart are drawn as before, a a is squared
to the front about 1 in. from the edge, which across, and the head filled in with the mould
will represent the face of the wall. At a shown in Fig. 938. From a a set down
distance of 4" in. from it draw line
parallel 6 ft. 9 in.,the height required,which
a givesa
to represent the thickness of the wall. As 6-ft.6"-in. door. The ledges or rails are
plasteris not required,the framework will filled in

as shown, the middle one being 3 ft.
be of the same thickness,an opening 3 ft. from the bottom, the lower one 1 ft. from
13 289
the bottom, and the top one 9 in. down to

the under side. The top rail is 4| in. wide
Fig. 938." Mould of Jamb used in Fig. 936.
and chamfered on the top and bottom

edges,the lower ones 7 in.
Rods for Four=panelled Moulded and

Square Door and Frame.
o
p
Rod 2 (Fig.940) (scale f in. to 1 ft.)=
represents the plan of a four-panelled

moulded and square door (that is,with a
mould on one side only),having double

rebated casings,set in.'a 9-in. brick wall
9
o
xn
Elevation of Ledged Door.

Fig. 939."
which plastered
is on both sides. (Fig.941
is the height rod showing section of the
JOINERS' RODS. 291
door.) The door casing has deal splayed

grounds and moulded architraves. First
draw parallel lines 1J in. from the edge for
the face of the plaster. The rod being only
11 in. wide, there will not be sufficientspace
to show the width with the architrave in full.
It has therefore to be set out with a broken
line,the out-to-out widths being indicated
by figures. At a distance of 8 in. from the
last,a second parallelline is drawn, represent-
ing
the face of the plasteron the opposite
side, 10J in. being figuredin ; that is,9 in:
for the brickwork and f in. on each side for
the plaster. As a door 6 ft. 8 in. by 2 ft. 8 in.
by 2 in. is required in this case, an opening
of 3 ft. is made, which will allow for lj-in.
casings with proper backings. Draw two
lines 3 ft. apart, meeting the parallel lines
at d d, and draw another line,at a distance
i a-.
Fig 942. " Mould of Architrave used

in Fig. 940.
of \ in.,to form the back side of the casing.

Another line,drawn at a distance of 1J in.
9
from the latter, will form the face of the
'%
o skeleton frame and the door rebate. The
fit
m
width of the stiles is rilled in at e. They
"a
o should always be made at least 1 in. wider
than the thickness of the door, which in
this case is 2 in. The stiles should therefore
v.
not be less than 3 in.,so that sufficient width
is allowed for the proper fixingof the stop.
The finished thickness of a 2-in. door being
1J in.,the stop will be 3| in. narrower than
the entire width of the framed lining,and
as the latter is 10 \ in.,the stop will be 6| in.
wide and \ in. thick. Jamb linings
are quently
fre-
01 made in the solid,and, if so required,
the settingout will be as shown on the left-
hand side of the opening f. A 2-in. by f-in:
splayed deal ground G is provided at the
F--6--I back of the linings,and a 3-in. moulded
architrave as seen in Fig. 942 filled in. This
will cover the jointwhere the plastermeets
the ground. Next fillin the door, and draw
a line to meet
parallel the rebate at hh on
each side. This gives the thickness,the

k- e stiles being 4| in. wide. Take a mould
similar to^that
shown at Fig. 943, and mark on the rod as before,leavingJ in. over the
its outline on the rod at eachside in the quirk of the bead (seel, Fig.948). Draw a
positionindicated by j. Fill in the'muntin line parallel to the back of the frame (the
in the centre of the
width, with a panel
same inside edge),and one to meet the rebate for
10 J in.
by 9| in.,sightsize. Draw the two the door. Fill in the stiles and the muntin
parallellines k k representingthe panels, with the same mould as before,the panels
the moulding on the face of the latter being being bead flush that is, beaded all round, "
filled in with the mould shown in Fig. 944. and level with the face of the door. Fill
An elevation is given at the end of the rod in with the mould shown in Fig. 949, a
(seeFig.940, and enlargementat Fig. 945). tongue and bead being formed. Square
Turn over the rod and fillin the height,as across from the groove on the inside edge
at Fig. 941, followingthe same rules as
before. The door is shown on one side 6 ft.
8 in. high, with bottom and middle rails
each 9 in. wide, and a top rail 4| in. wide.
The distance from the top edge of the
middle rail to the bottom
of the door is 3 ft.
In the oppositerebate the rails of the skeleton
U7^
Fig. 943. Fig. 944.
Fig. 943." Mould of Stile J (Fig.940).

Fig. 944." Mould used in Fig. 940.
frame may be shown as seen in Fig.941,

or left blank if a solid liningis to be
provided.
Rods for 2 J-in. Deal Door, Bead Butt

and Square.
On Rod 3, shown
by Fig. 946 (scale
= } in. to
ft.),set out a 4J-in.by 3-in.
1
Fig. 945. " Elevation of Four-panelled Moulded
solid rebated, beaded, and staff-beaded
Door.
frame fixed in a 14-in. wall. The door is a
2J-in.deal one, bead butt and square, and of the frame to meet a line 10J in. from the
isprovided with a left-hand mortice lock. face of the frame. This will form the face
(Fig.947 shows the heightrod, givingsection of the lining. The thickness is given by
of door frame.) The frame has 1-in. setting back
and 1 in.,and squaring across as
side linings with splayedgrounds, before.
and soffit, The plan will be completed when
and moulded architraves on the inside. The the 2-in. splayedground and moulded archi-
trave
total width of the frame and liningsis 10J have been filled in, and a sketch,
in.,being a 4J-in.brick reveal. The reveal elevation has been drawn as before (see
is shown by two square lines 3 ft. apart, Figs.946 and 950). On the other side of
and 1 in. from the edge of the rod. At each the rod set out the height, with rails of
end draw a parallelline 3 in. long to form a the same depth, and complete the rod by
rebate for the deal frame, which is 3 in. filling in the head and soffit lining,the
thick. Mark the mould shown in Fig. 948 ground and the architrave.
JOINERS' RODS. 293
Rods for Boxed Sash Frame.
It is desirable that not only the joiner's

work shall be shown on the rod, but the
nx
1
s_
Fig. 948." Fig. 949."
Mould of Frame used Mould of Panel
in Fig. 946. in Fig. 946.
9
o
o
.a
w
E
W
Fig. 950. " Elevation of Four-panelled Door.
brickwork in which it is placed,and the

method of obtainingthe interior finishings.
The settingout a rod for an ordinary boxed
sash frame, of which Fig. 951 is a plan,at
the window-board level,and a horizontal
section through the frame and brickwork,
will be first considered. (Fig. 952 is the
vertical section of the sash.) The frame is 1 in. from the edge 3 ft. 9 in. long,parallel
6 ft. high by 3 ft. wide" that is, fronrthe with
it, and from each extremity set in
top of the stone sill to the springingof "the 4J in.,leavingthe 3-ft. reveal a a. It is
immaterial what portion of the brick reveal
is shown ; the rod being too narrow to show
the usual 4J in.,an inch is sufficient for the
purpose. Square across from each tremity
ex-
a line 9| in. long,and from each

point of the last lines draw another parallel
to b b. These
lines represent the face of
the plaster, and a line | in. from the line
b b will give the thickness of the plaster.
These parts,from a to b on each side,should
be marked with red crayon to indicate that
it is solid brickwork,blue crayon beingput on
9
a
%
o
o
.a
"
Fig. 953. "

Enlarged Section through Side
Boxings of Frame.
bp for the plaster.Next proceed to fillin the

frame and In this instance
finishings. the
sashes are 2 in. thick with 1 in. outer and
inner linings,making the total thickness
6 J in. as shown in the erlargeddetail (Fig.
953). Draw a line 6J in. from the face line
c to represent the thickness of the frame ;
at a distance of J in. from the same line
draw another to represent the thickness of
the outer lining; fillin the lines at d d to
form the pulleystiles,and draw the line e
1"-in. from the line d d for the thickness of.

the pulley stile. From the inner line of the
frame liningJ in. thickât
fillin the inside
arch, and between the brick reveals,which f f ; also add tongues to the pulleystiles.
is thegeneralmethod for givingthe sizes of The width of the inner and outer linings is
frames. Take a rod 8 ft. long and 12 in. the same, being 4 J in.,the outer one ing
project-
wide, and prepare it as before. Draw a line f in. to form the stop for the sash and
number of the job on the rod, and sketch in square of the moulding is the same
" in both
the elevation as shown at Fig. 959. Figs. lights;To obtain the exact positionsof the
951 and 952 are drawn to a scale of " in. to centre or meeting stiles,first fill in the
1 ft.,Fig. 959 to a scale of \ in. to 1 ft.,
Fig. 954 half full size,and the remaining
figuresone-third full size.
Rods for Solid Casement Frame.
Figs.960 to 962 show a plan,section,and

elevation of a solid casement frame. Take
a rod of the same size as the last and set
Fig. 959. " Elevation of Sash Frame.
out the plan as at Fig. 960. The frame is

set in a 9-in. wall with a 3-ft. 6-in. reveal.
Draw line of any length an
a inch from h-
a
the edge of the rod, and square lines

across
at b b 4J in. long,another line c beingdrawn

parallelwith a and projecting 3 J in. at each
side beyond the 3-ft. 6-in. reveal. The
thickness of the wall is givenby drawing a
line 9 in. from the line a. With the mould
shown in Fig. 963, fillin the jamb of the
frame at each side, projectingj in. from
brickwork as shown (see line d, Fig. 963).
Fill in the sash stileswith the mould shown
in Fig.955 (p.295),allowingsufficient width
in the meeting stiles to form the hook hanging stiles and divide the space into
and
joint, sufficientwidth on the outer stiles two equal parts, working from the centre
to form the circular tongue. The sight point outwards for distance. The method
size " that is, the clear size between the of working from a centre will be found far
JOINERS' RODS. 297
preferable
to any other, as it enables the of it set up 1 ft. 5J in. to the under side of the
work to be done more exactly. After rillinghead. The head is filledin with the mould
in the sashes, continue all lines as shown, shown in Fig.967. With the mould shown
and fillin the architraves with the mould at Fig. 964 fillin the architrave,continuing
seen in Fig. 964, leavinga proper margin. all lines shown. The mouldings of the
as
The brickwork and plasterare filled in from sash rails are filledin with the mould shown in
the moulding as before. Turn the rod Fig.955 (p.295),the widths beingthose usual,
_* ^
Fig. 965." Mould for Oak Sill

used in Fig-.961.
Fig. 963." Mould for Jamb

used in Fig. 960.
Fig. 962." Elevation of Solid

Casement Frame.
Fig. 964." Mould for Architrave Fig. 966." Mould for Transom Fig. 967." Mould for Head used
used in Figs. 960 and 961. used in Fig. 961. in Fig. 961.
round and set out the section shown in Fig. as shown. A mould for each width should
961. The distance from
the top of the stone be kept for generaluse. Figs.960 and 961
sill to the under side of the arch at spring-
ing are drawn to a scale of f in. to 1 ft.,Fig.962
is 6 ft. From the front edge of the rod, to a scale of J in. to 1 ft.,and the remaining
square a line across to represent the top one-third
figures full size.
of the sill,and another 6 ft. from it for
Rods for Square Bay Window.
the springing.Show the reveal as before
4J in. from the face of the frame to the face Take a rod 8 ft. long by 3 ft. wide, and
of the wall. With the mould shown in Fig. set out a square bay window, with solid
965 fillin the oak sill,
and from the top of frame, by 2 ft.
6 ft. The width rod is repre-
sented
the latter set up 4 ft. to the under side of the by Fig. 968, and the height rod by
transom. With the mould shown by Fig. Fig. 969. Draw a line for the face of the
966 fillin the transom, and from the top wall (see Fig. 968), and from it draw two
13*
lines 6 ft.apart and each 2 ft. long. Join angleposts and the mullions being 1 ft. 7 in.
the pointsforming the outside of the
two Mark on the section of the mullion with the
bay, fillin the angle posts with the mould mould shown in Fig.972, the hollows in the
o
m
PQ
bo
%
o
fap
seen in Fig. 970, and with the mould seen rebating being filled in as required. With
in Fig. 971 fillin the wall posts as shown. the mould seen in Fig. 955 (p. 295), fillin
Divide the distance between angleposts
the the sash and
stiles, continue all the lines as
into three parts,allowing 7 in. for the thick-

ness before, carryingthe width of the casement
of the mullions,the distance between the into the space as shown. Fill in the stiles,
JOINERS' RODS. -"JJiJ
divide the space between

sightlines into the and fill in the head with the mould seen
four parts, deducting bars, and 3 in. for in Fig. 974, and the transom with the
the plan of the fanlightwill be complete mould seen in Fig. 966 (p. 297). The rails
(see b, Fig. 968). In the inner edge of the are filled in as described in the previous
Fig. 970." Mould for Angle Post Fig. 971." Mould for Wall Post Fig. 972." Mould for Mullion
used in Fig. 968. used in Fig. 968. used in Fig. 968.
M
mrn
Fig. 973." Mould for Sill used in
Fig. 969.
-Mould for Head used

in Fig. 969. Fig. 975." Elevation for Square Bay Window.
wall posts plough groovea to receive the paragraph, and the upper sash divided
tongue on the lininga, and fillin the lining into squares as shown in Figs.969 and 975,
and bead to the broken line. Turn over the latter figurealso showing the stops on
the rod, and set out the section or height the moulding of the angle post. Figs.
shown in Fig. 969. This is 6 ft. from the 968 and 969 are drawn to a scale of | in.
top of the stone sill to the top of the head to the foot,Fig. 975 to a scale of \ in. to
of the frame. Commence as before, and fill the foot, and the remainingfigures
are one-
in the sill with the mould seen in Fig. 973, third full size.
3()i) CARPENTRY AND JOINERY.
the lines
parallel are made with the aid of a
Rods for Canted Bay Window.
and
straightedge theperpendicularwith a
Figs.976 and 977 represent respectively set-square. If the bay window is required
the width rod and heightrod for a canted to be made in wood without stone mullions,
Fig. 978." Mould
for Horn used
in Fig.
I 977.
CO
bay window set in stone mullions and jambs. etc., the work is similarly
set out, but the
These are set out in the same manner as boxings for the weights are kept as small as
the frame described on Rod 1 (Figs.936 and possible,and the outer liningsmitred at
937, p. 290),except that at the sides or cants the angles, intro-
a mouldingbeinggenerally
JOINERS' RODS. 301
Fig. 979. " Joiners' Rods for Skylight.
Fig. 980." Section through Side of Skylight.
"4 0 "2:
"2?*
Fig. 981." Transverse Section through Skylight, etc.
r
.0
V
L -".L
L"l *- -12;" Hr
T
~12^
is fe
i J"
*2,k " " """" " ------ -g 0 -
__.____-_.-
Fig. 982." Longitudinal Section through Skylight.

duced to form a margin round each frame. shape and fixed on the outside ; f -in. board-
ing
Fig. 978 shows the mould for the
finishing horn
flush with the face or on the inside
projectingend of the upper sash at the of the apron lining, and the ends buttingon
meeting rail. All the other moulds for this the top edge of the latter lining. Get a
rod can be made by modifying those ously
previ- rod 8 ft. long by 3 ft. wide ; from the edge
described. Figs. 976 and 977 are draw a parallel line 1 in. from it ; set up a
drawn to a scale of J in. to the foot, and perpendicular for the centre line,the rough
Fig. 978 is one-third full size. curb being 4 ft. in the clear ; measure off
2 ft. on each side from the centre line,and
Rods for Skylight. lines in.
set up llf high, representing
To set out the skylightshown in Figs; trimmers and plaster. Now draw a line
979 to 982 it will be first necessary to set
out Fig.981, which, being the'section,

shows
Fig. 983." Detail at Apex of Skylight, showing

Ridge Roll.
allfinishings.The curb forms the trimmer

joistsof the flat. The two long sides are Fig. 984." Section through Curb of Skylight,
splayedto the pitchof the roof or light.The showing Apron Lining and Moulding.
rough curb is 6 ft. by 4 ft. in clear,the roof
rising1 ft. 6 in. ; the apron liningwhich with
parallel the first,meeting at the two
covers the rough curb is of 1-in. stuff beaded points a a (Fig. 981). The latter line will
on the bottom edge and grooved for the be the level of the upper edge of the curb.
plasteredceilingon the back side ; the From the point of intersection of the latter
moulding runninground alongthe top of the line with the centre at B, set up 1 ft. 6 in.,
is hollow topon the to form a densation
con- this being the rise of the roof on the inside
apron
gutter. The lightitself is 2 in. face of the framing at c. Now draw lines
thick,with and bars moulded.

top rails,
stiles, cuttingc a on each side, allowing the lines
The bottom rail is left square on the top to projectto beyond a. Measure off 2 in.
edge, and grooved on the under side at the from this line, and fillin the thickness of
bottom to form a drip for rainwater the the skylight. Add also the ridge roll (see
;
top failand ridge roll are covered with 5 -lb. Fig. 983). Now fill in lines representing
lead,dressed to the in the the liningat d. Seven -eighthsof an
so as cover putty apron
groove of the top rail. The ends are formed inch from the curb, form a |-in.bead on the
by fixinga fillet on the upper edge of the bottom edge as shown. The upper edge
curb side of the stiles of the the curb fill
; also on the under will be spkyed same as ;
the light1-in. rough boardingis cut spandril in the thickness of the curb 2J in. ; form a
8 ft. long by 11 in. wide, and proceed with \\ in.,allowingJ in. on each face for the
the settingout shown at Figs. 987 and 988. plaster a a. The brickwork on the right-
The cupboard front will be 7 ft. high from hand side is part of the side wall of the
room, while that on the left hand is part
of the side of the chimney breast,which is
Îf
6\\
"S3 Fig. 989. " Detail of Cornice of Recess Cupboard.

szsfe
o
u
Pi
Pi hi 4.0* "
o
I *
CD
O
^3
Fig. 990. " Elevation of Recess Cupboard Front.
'8
^Mtfi
"--,j6r-"^
Fig. 991. Detail of Angle Stile to Chimney
Breast.
9 in. deep. Fill in a f- in. from

line the
the floor level to the top of the cornice, chimnev breast to representthe face of the
4 ft. 1 \ in. wide between the brickwork of the plasterat b. Next draw a line parallelwith
recess, and 9 in. deep between the faces of the edge of the rod, and J in. from the face
the brickwork reveal. Begin as before with of the plasterb, to representthe face of the
the rod by settingout the brickwork 4 ft. cupboard framing c. Draw a parallelline
JOINERS' RODS. 305
1| in. from the last,

to represent 1J in.
front, finishingthe
line on right-hand
side at the work,
brick-
and on the
left-hand side at the
face of the plaster.
Fill in the stile and
anglebead d with the
mould seen at Fig.
991. The stiles must
be set out to the
figured dimensions.
The doors are hung
folding
in two widths,
the centre of the
rebate being equidis-
tant
from the outer
hanging stiles.
Square across the
sight lines of the
framing from the
edge of the rod, and
fillin the panels | in.
thick and f in. from
the face of the door
framing. If moulding
is required,the' panel
will need to be set
back accordingly.
Turn the rod over,
and set out the
height as shown in
the section (Fig.988).
The heightbeing 7 ft,,
square a line across
the rod at each end

to represent it, and
draw the face and
thickness lines paral-
lel
as before. Work-
ing
from the dimen-
sions
given on the
width rod
(Fig.987),
the height from the
floor to the top of
the lower doors will
be 2 ft. 9 in., these
being surmounted by
a 3-in. dividingrail.
Fill in the beads on
the edges of the

horizontalrails,and projectthe top of the driven into the jointsof the brickwork,
cupboard sufficientlyto take the moulding When fixed they form a stop for the doors,
shown at Fig. 989, which forms a cornice, The left-hand doors are secured by necked
and returns into and stops on the face of the bolts fixed on the inside and shot into the
Fig. 998. " Detail of Front

of Tray of Linen Press.
Fig. 995. " Width Rod showing Sectional Plan of Linen Press on
Line A A (Fig.993).
Fig. 996." Width Rod showing Sectional Plan of Linen Press on
Line B B (Fig.993).
Fig. 997." Detail of ing

Meet-
Stiles of Doors of
Linen Press.
Rod 2
Fig. 999." Height Rod, showing Vertical Section of Linen Press on Line C C (Fig.995).
plasteras seen at Fig. 990, or on the face upper face of the shelf. Figs.987 and 988
of the top rail. The shelves are conveni- are drawn to a scale of " in. to the foot,
ently distanced apart, and are generally Fig.990 to a scale of J in. to the foot,the re-
fixed on fillets or bearers,secured to plugs being
mainingfigures one-third full size.
JOINERS' RODS. 30';
positionof the door stiles ; add the

in the
Rods for Linen Press.
moulding. The ends are framed
panelsand
Figs.992, 993, and 994 show respectively together with solid panels,the bead being
external elevation, an internal elevation, flush on the outside. Fill in the stiles and
an
and an end elevation of a linen press. The the tongues and beads on the panels,and
will be seen, is fitted up with allow J in. for the panelledframing at the
interior,as
Fig. 1002." Detail of Plinth of Linen Press.
Fig. 1000." Detail of Section through Drawer of

\E~-
Linen Press.
i-"1
Fig. 1003." Detail showing Dovetail Runner

Fig. 1001. " Detail of Cornice of Linen Press. with Dovetailed Front and Endjto Tray.
drawers and trays,the former being arranged back. Divide the press up as shown in
at the bottom and the latter at the top. Fig. 996, making the panels flush on the
lines shown the side
in-
The press is 7 ft. high, 5 ft. wide, and 2 ft. inside. The double on
deep, and the front is formed by a pair of of the framing at Fig. 995 represent
five-panelledmoulded doors. The cornice the thickness of the sides of the tray, which
is made separate, and drops on the top of is | (see detail Fig. 998). These trays
in.
the carcase. Take a rod 8 ft. long and 2 ft. are made of mahogany, and have holes cut
6 in. wide, and proceed plans, to set out the in the front for the hand, as shown at Fig.
shown at Figs.995 and
Fig. 995 is a 996. 993. Turn over the rod and set out the plan
horizontal sectional plan at a a (Fig. 993), of the drawers. The length is 2 ft. 4 J in.
and Fig. 996 is a similar plan at b b (Fig. between the standard and ends. Let the
993),showing the drawers. Draw the outer drawers stand back 1 in. from the face edge
lines in the usual manner, and take a mould, of the end to give room for the drop handle.
similar to that shown by Fig. 997, and fill On another rod (2) set out the vertical
section,shown at Fig. 999. Divide up the door, the square on the upper edge of the
hgured in.
spaces'as A detail of the drawer plinthforminga margin along the front and
in section is given at Fig. 1000 ; a similar ends. Fig. 1003 shows the front d and the
detail of the tray is shown at Fig. 998 ; a end e of tray, dotted lines representing
a the
detail of the cornice at Fig. 1001 ; and the dovetails. The top edge of the rim is
plinthat Fig.1002. It will be noticed that mitred at the angles,and the" hardwood
ther bottom projectssufficiently from the runner f is dovetailed into the end G and
face of the ends to take the thickness of the stopped 2 in. from the face edge of the end
JOINERS' RODS. 309
of the Figs.992 to 996 and Fig.

carcase. and each is 2 ft. 10J in. in the
compartment
999 are drawna scale of^Jin. to the foot ;
to clear,with l|-in.ends and division standards,
the remaining figuresare one-third full which stand flush with the face of the doors
size.
-Detail of Portable Cupboard at C
(Fig. 1006). Detail of Portable B

Fig. 1011." Cupboard at
(Fig.1008).
Rods for Portable Cupboard.
Figs.1004 and 1005 show a portablecup-
board in each case. The width from back to front
adapted for glass and china. Two of the lower part,exclusive of the projection
heights are given for this cupboard, but of the top, is 2 ft. ; the upper one is 13 in.
Fig. 1010." Detail of Portable Cupboard at D (Fig.1006).
each is and
completein itself, each is divided The height from floor level to the top of the
into three compartments, with foldingdoors lower part is 2 ft. 10 in. ; the upper part
to the upper part and slidingdoors to the from top to top, 4 ft. 2 in.,making in all 7 ft.
lower. The back of the cupboard is posed
com- The shelves are divided equally,9J in. and
f-in.V-jointedmatching in narrow
of 11 J in. respectively.Prepare moulds for
widths, the top, bottom, and ends being each separatepart to details,
and retain for
rebated to receive it. The ends of the lower future use. Take a rod 2 ft. 4 in. wide and
cupboard are panelled; those of the upper 10 ft. long,and set out the plan of the upper
one are solid. The extreme width of the and lower cupboards as in Figs.1006 and
cupboard is 9 ft.,exclusive of the projection, 1007, one on each side. Begin by drawing
DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES.
Varieties of Common Doors.

for doors are given in the section on joiners'
Common doors are constructed in a number rods (see pp. 289 to 311), and these struction
in-
of styles. The principalthree are the fol-
lowing, will form a basis from which to
which are presentedin the order of prepare rods for any of the doors here tioned.
men-
their cost and strength: the ledged door
Fig. 1015. Fig. 1016. Fig. 1017. Fig. 1018. Fig. 1019. Fig. 1020.
Fig. 1015. Back of Ledged Door Fig. 1016." Back Edge of Door.
"
Ledged Fig. 1017." Front

of Ledged Door. Fig. 1018." Front Edge of Ledged Door. Fig. 1019." Back of Ledged
and Braced Door. Fig. 1020." Section of Ledged and Braced Door.
(Figs.1015 to 1018) ; the ledgedand braced

Ledged Doors and Frame.
door (Figs.
1019 to 1022) ; and the framed and
braced narrow batten door
(Figs.1023 to The construction of one of the simplest
1026). With regard to the
settingout of and commonest forms of ledged door and
these, instructions on preparingjoiners'rods frame is illustrated by inside and outside
312
DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. 313
ob q
Fig. 1021. Fig. 1022. Fig. 1023. Fig. 1024. Fig. 1025. Fig. 1026.
Fig. 1021. -Front of Framed and Braced Door. Fig. 1022." Section through Stile. ""[Fig.1023." Back
of Ledged and Braced Door. Fig. 1024. " Vertical Section through Door. Fig. 1025. " Front of
Ledged and Braced Door. Fig. 1026. " Elevation of Shutting Edge.
elevations and edge view at Figs.1027 to [

1029. The frame is quitesquare without any
beads and stops, the door overhangingand
shuttingagainstthe outer faces of the jambs.
Only a few chief points in the preparing,
h
making, and fixingof the frame will here
be explained,because the generalprocesses
involved in the making are somewhat
similar,although perhaps not requiring
the same degree of accuracy as for more portant
im-
doors and frames. The leading
operationsin the making of these will be
described fully in the examples that will
follow. The head and jambs of the frame
are generallymade of scantling3 in. by
2 in. or more. This should be of good red
deal for external work, and when there is a
wood sillit should be of

English oak. The
three or four piecescomposing the frame are "
planed up, the jambs or posts are then set

out from the rod marking the shoulders
and tenons at the top end, and a scribe line Fig 1027. Fig. 1028. Fig. 1029.
is drawn at the bottom for fittingto the

Fig. 1027. "
External Elevation of Ledged Door and
stone sill; or if the sillis of wood the posts Frame. Fig. 1028." Vertical Section. Fig.
are marked for tenons. The head is set 1029. " Inside Elevation.
14
out for either a close or a slot mortice ; the side of the hole of the cheek and on a line
latter is the one shown in this example about 45 degrees from the centre. This
(Fig.1030). As there are no stops or beads mark a shows the centre for the hole to be
to work on the frame, the settingout is bored in the tenon. If the holes in the
cheeks and
the tenon are bored thus, the
pin, when driven in,tends to draw together
the shoulders of the jointand also the side
of the tenon againstthe end of the mortice.
Another method
largelyadopted, but not
so good, is to cramp the jointstogether;
then at one operation bore through cheeks
and tenon, and drive in the prepared pin.
In very common door frames a couple of
3-in. or 4-in. nails are driven obliquely
into the top of the frame-head, the nails
passing into the tenon and shoulders.
Usuallya pieceof wood is nailed across the
lower part of the jambs so as to keep them
until the frame is fixed across
parallel in its
place. Before being put together, the parts
Fig. 1030. " Slot Mortice and Tenon Joint between

Head and Jamb.
very simple. After the jambs are made and

fitted,they should be draw-bored for draw-
pinning; the process is often termed draw-
boring. This is done by boringthrough the Fig. 1032." Detail of Hook and Plate Hinge.
cheeks of the mortice as indicated at Fig.
1031, using a J-in. or f-in. auger. The of the jointsare painted,which,
generally
shoulders of the jointare then put together, for exposure the is considered
to weather,
more durable than gluing.
Fixing the Door Frame.
This class of door frame is largelyused

for and
outbuildings, when these are built
of brick or stone, the frame is usuallyplaced
and
in its position held by one or two raking
struts so as to keep it plumb and firm until
the brickwork or masonry is built around
it. Usuallythe head-pieceis made to pro-
ject
a few inches beyond the posts, as dicated
in-
in the illustrations. These tions
projec-
" "
are called horns and are useful
for bonding into the brickwork. When
Fig. 1031. Method of Bering for Draw-pinning.
"
there is a wood sill it is similarlyshaped.

As the brickwork is built up, two or three
and a marking awl is used
(orpricker) in the wood bricks are built in as a jointbetween
hole of the cheek to make a mark in the tenon two courses. These wood bricks may be
as indicated at a (Fig.1031), where it will peicesof 3 in. by 4 in. by 6 in. or 9 in. long,
be seen that this mark is_made against J}he or piecesabout J in. thick, 4 in. wide, and
j4 in. to 9 in. long. These are built in the then beaded, or the meeting edgesare fered
cham-
I brickwork againstthe frame, which is nailed to form a V joint. (See page 62, Fig.
to them. 263.) The ledges are next prepared and
chamfered as shown in Figs.1028 and 1029.
Preparing- the Ledged Door. Two piecesof quarteringare laid across the
The vertical boards for the door vary bench, and the boards are placed face down-
wards
from 3 in. to 7 in. in width, the narrower on these. The is applied,
cramp
Fig. 1033. Fig. 1035. Fig. 1031.
Fig. 1033. " Inside Elevation of Ledged. and Braced Door. Fig. 1034. " Outside Elevation of Ledged.
and Braced Door. Fig. 1035. " Vertical Section of Ledged and Braced Door.
being better, as when shrinkage occurs and then lines are squared across to show
there is less space between the jointswith the positionof the ledges, the cramp being
the narrower boards. The thickness varies applied near each ledge,so as to keep the-
from f in. to \\ in. The boards are faced joints of the boards close, and these are
up, thicknessed, and jointed; then ploughed secured by a few nails or preferablyscrews.
and tongued, or more frequently grooved The door is now turned over face side up
and tongued. One edge of each board is and lined out for nailing. Care is taken to
space the nails in diagonallines so as not the hammer and punch ; thus the nails are
to spliteither boarding or ledges. A piece clenched. In
doing this the punch must
of waste wood is placed under each ledge be held slantingso as not to drive the nails
in turn duringnailing.Wrought-ironnails back. The and bottom of the
top door
should be sawn square and planed.
Hanging- the Door.
This door is cut off level at the bottom,

and it does not requirefitting between the
Fig. 1038. -Alternative Method of Joining Head
Fig. 1036. " Joint between Sill and Post. and Post.
are often used

sufficiently long to project jambs. The hingesshown are of the hook
beyond theof the ledgesafter being and platepattern,a detail of which is given
face
punched in from the face. The points of at Fig. 1032. These are screwed on in the
these nails penetrate into the pieceof waste positionsillustrated,
care being taken to
wood so as to prevent splitting piecesout keep an equalmargin of the lap of the door
of the ledges. The door is again turned over the frame.
Fig. 1039." Joint between Brace and Ledge.
Ledged and Braced Door and

Frame.
A door and frame of this descriptionis

Fig. 1037. " Joint between Head and Post. shown by Figs. 1033 to 1039. The chief
in the preparingand fixingof this
points
over, and the points of the nails are bent door and frame will now be explained. It
of and will be from the figuresthat the frame
over by means the nail punch seen
and in the form of hook. is beaded round the inner edge, and that
hammer, a They
then driven below the surface by the beaded stops nailed
are slightly are on.
the Door Frame.

settingout for the shoulder as well as the
Preparing-
gauging should be completed as shown at
All the stuff should be carefully
planed up Fig. 1041. The rod should be applied and
out of winding and square, and the oak the frame head set out for mortising as
sillis slightlysplayed. Place the two posts shown at Figs. 1042 and 1043. The former
face sides together and face edges out-
wards, shows the settingout on the soffit of the
indicated at Fig. 1040. Then head and the latter the
as
top side of the head,
"d
Fig. 1040." Setting Out Posts for Shoulders.

Fig. 1045." Mortice and Tenon
Joint Wedged.
Fig. 1041. "

Setting Out Head for Mortices.
7Z~ZZ/
'/
//
Fig. 1042." Setting Out on Soffit Fig. 1043." Setting Out on Top Fig. 1046." Draw-boring Mortice
of Head. of Head. and Tenon.
in which allowance is made for the necessary
wedging if the mortices are to be closed.
Next the mortices are made and the tenons

cut. The shoulder must not be cut until
the beading is done. The bead should now
be worked on the inner edge of the posts

and the head. The shoulders should be
cut, and the between the head and

part
mortice sawn out and pared as shown at
Fig. 1044." Mitering Bead. a (Fig.1044) ; then with a mitre template
and chisel form the mitre as indicated.
apply the rod and mark off for the shoulders The beads at the of the post should also
top
shown (Fig.1037). The
at top and bottom. The splay for the sill be mitred as at b
(Fig. 1036) must be allowed for as shown jointsshould be fitted,painted,cramped to-

gether,
at a (Fig. 1040). The inner shoulder d and wedged as shown at Fig. 1045.
must be carried beyond the outer one c, If the joint is draw -bored and pinned,the
so as to allow for the bead on the inner edges holes should be made on the cheeks of the
of the frame (Figs.1037 and 1038). The mortice as indicated by the circle c (Fig.
318 CAEPENTRY AND JOINERY.
1046), and the hole in the tenon as cated

indi- joiningthe braces to the ledgesis shown
by the circle d, partly shown by clearlyat Fig. 1039. Of course, the braces
dotted line. It will be noticed that the are nailed to the boards. This door is
end of the tenon (Fig.1046) projectsslightly hung with cross-garnet hinges,also known
and is also chamfered off. This allows the as T hinges. A rim and lock
stapleare
tenon to enter the mortice and
easily, the shown. The methods fitting
and of
fixing
projection allows a little extra strength be-
hind these will be explained in a subsequent
the pin. The projecting part is ally
gener- example.
sawn off at the time of fixing.
Framed and Braced Door and
Forming the Stops. Frame.
The stops are prepared by facingup a The general details of a door and frame
board, shootingthe edge, settinga gauge of this description
are shown at Figs.1049
to 1061. All the chief measurements are
figured on the illustrations. The chief

points to notice in
preparing the frame are
that it is rebated of the solid,
out and beaded
inside and outside,this involvingmore care
in setting
out. At a in Fig.1057 part of the
rod is represented,and at b the
top part
of a post is shown raised above, and the
projectorsshow the relation of the rod to
Fig. 1047." Preparing Beaded Stop. the settingout the It will be
on post.
noticed that the shoulder lines are not in the
to;the breadth of the stop, and gauging as same plane,and each is marked long enough
shown at a (Fig. 1047). A J-in.or f-in. to fit againstthe quirks of the beads in the
bead is next planedalong the edge,forming heads of the frame.
Fig. 1058 shows the
as shown. A saw-cut is now made just out-
side top part of the post gauged for the rebate,
the gauge line (Fig.1047), then the and with the tenon cut. The depth of the
edge is planed justdown to the line. Any rebate is usuallyJ in. to f in. The head
projectionleft beyond quirk,as indi-
cated
the should next be set out from the rod. This
at b (Fig.1047),is removed by planing, is shown at Fig. 1060 ; a and b indicating
and thus the stop is brought to thickness as the mitre lines for the beads.
shown at Fig^l048. The stops are next
of the cated
indi- Rebating- the Frame.
mitred at each corner head, as
at c and d (Fig.1037). These may The next operationwould be the rebating,

be paintedat the back and nailed on at the which be done in several Only
may ways.
one will be explainedhere,and other methods
will be treated of in other examples. With a
plough fitted with a f-in.or J-in.iron, make

a the face of the post, as indicated
groove on
at (Fig. 1059). Next chisel away

a the
Fig. 1048." Preparing Beaded Stop. greater part of the waste, using a mallet ;
then the rebate may be finished with a rebate
bench, or just tacked on temporarilyand
trying and smoothing plane. plane and a
finally fixed at the time of hingingthe door.

But a quicker and better result can be ob-
tained
These door frames are usuallybuilt in the
by using a panel plane, if one is
walls as explained on p. 314 in describing available, than by using a rebate plane and
the previous example. The making of this trying plane. The beads should next be
\oot would be a somewhat similar process stuck. Usual sizes are : for the inside,J in.
co making the ledged door, except that to f in. ; for the outside, J in. to f in.
braces are introduced to prevent the door In fittingthe tenon it will be seen (Fig.
dropping out of square. The method of 1056)that this projectsboth into the rebate
fitting,wedging up, finishing,etc., being the bottom, so that the screws should not
common to many examples of joiners'work, be too near a tenon, the top butt being
will be treated
fully in the cases which follow. 6 in. or 7 in. down. Doors of this kind
are often hung with three butts, the third
Fig. 1058. " Post Gauged for Rebating and Tenons

Cut.
Fig. 1055." Bottom of Door Post with Metal

Dowel for Fixing to Stone Sill.
Fig. 1059. " Post Ploughed for Rebate shown at

A ; Rebate completed shown at B.
Fig. 1056. -Joint between Post and Head of

Frame.
Fig. 1060. " One End of Head of Frame Set Out.
Fig. 1061." One End of Head of Frame

completed.
Fig. 1057. Showing Top of Post Set Out from

Rod.
being central. Heavier doors of this class
Hanging
are usuallyhung with some form of hook
and Fastening.
and strap hinges,of which there are various
This form of door would be hung with kinds. Fastenings for this door are : A
4-in. to 5-in. wrought butt hinges, Norfolk latch,and a dead lock,which is a lock
the lower one being fixed about 11 in. from without a spindleand handles.
IS
CD
f-l "
"" to
W "
"
Q
if o
O IS
to
14*
o Q
6 in. in. ; top rail,6| in. by 2J in. ;

by 2J
Large Framed and Braced Door.
bottom rail,10| in. by 2J in. ; middle iail,
The construction of a singleframed and lOf in. by If in. ; boarding,1J in. ; braces,
braced door, such as is often used for stables, 6 in. by If in. The jointsconnectingthe
archway entrances, etc., is shown in Figs. stiles and rails are shown by Figs.1068 and
1065 to 1067. The finished dimensions are : 1069. At the connection of the m'ddle rail
Door, 8 ft. high and 6 ft, wide ; stiles, and stile barefaced tenons are shown. The
bottom and top rails finish flush with the it is preferredto form short barefaced stub
outside of the stiles,and the jointbetween tenons on the lower
of the braces, and
ends
these and the boards forming the panel is let these fitinto correspondingmortices in the
broken by means of a bead, as shown by rails and stiles. Stronghinges are necessary
Fig. 1068." Joints between Rails and Stiles.

Fig. 1070." Conventional Detail of Corner of
Door at A, B, C (Fig. 1065).
Fig.1070. The plough groove is so arranged
as to have one side of it in the same planeas
the mortices. The braces butt againstthe rail
and stile at their lower ends, and their upper
Fig. 1071. " Outside Elevation of Stable Doors.
Fig. 1069." Joint between Brace and Rail.
Fig. 1072. " Horizontal Section of Stable Doors.
ends are lappedand joggledin as illustrated

at the bottom of Fig.10G9. It is frequently for this door. These may be made
specially
considered sufficient merely to butt the ends by good smith, but excellent hinges for
a
the
of these braces as described, but sometimes purpose are Collinge'spatent.
the doors. The exterior and interior jambs

Frameless Stable Doors.
have rounded bull-nosed bricks,to prevent
In many country districts "
particularly injuryto the horses passingin and out of the

in certain parts of Shropshire wood " frames doorway. Fig.1078 shows the method used
to stable doors are often dispensedwith, for door jambs where 9-in. walls are erected,
it'being urged againstthem that they are the 14-in. jambs beingformed as a pier,and
apt to become loose, and that rot is apt to then reduced to the 9 in. The doors should
Pig. 1073." Vertical Fig. 1074. " Inside Elevation of Stable Fig. 1075." Part Exterior vation
Ele-
Section of Stable Doers. showing Central Pier
Doors. where Doors Meet.
Fig. 1076." Plan of Pier, etc. Fig. 1077." Enlarged Detail Fig. 1078." Horizontal Section of
(Fig.1075). Plan of Hook Stone. 14-in. Brick Pier and Jamb.
set in towards the bottom when the frame is good sound and dry red deal,framed,
be of
let into thestep. Figs.1071 to 1078 show ledged, and braced as shown. The two
frameless doors,Fig. 1071 being the front stiles and the top rail are of equal thick-
ness
elevation of a door in two leaves. The namely, 2J in. ; the other rails and
"
hinge-hooksand latch-hooks are leaded in braces only 1J in.,and are flush on the
are
the stone and built in the brick jambs as rear framing,and so arranged that
side of the
the work proceeds. Figs.1072 and 1073 the f-in.sheetingwhen nailed to them is
show the brick jambs rebated to receive flush on the face side. The upper ends and
ho a)
00 g
s"3
fab
G
outside edge of the sheetingare tongued into the sheeting. The wrought-ironstraps and
a. groove running round the framing. All latches should be strong, and secured with
jointsin these doors should be painted,and bolts and nuts. Take care that the hinges
not glued; and this remark appliesalso to and hooks are so fixed that the doors will
all the edges and tongues in the jointsof open and lie back againstthe face of the wall.
ends work in slots cut in the iron boxes.

Large Framed and Braced Sliding
Door.
Fig. 1085 shows a sectional view of one of
these boxes and wheels. To fix them,
Slidingdoors and gates of this description sockets should be cut to the depth of a box
;
are often used for coach-houses, entrances four stout screws will hold each in position.
to factory yards, and similar purposes.
They have no frame, the opening being Preparing Joiners' Work principally
formed by the brickwork and a wooden by Hand.
lintel,which is often flitched as shown The

followingparticularstreat of some
(Fig.1081). The generalconstruction would of the
most usual methods adopted by
be similar to the last example (Fig.1065) joinersin the cuttingout, planingup, set-ting
,
except, as will be noticed, the rails are of the out, and finishing at the bench, doors,
panelledframing,and bench work generally.
After setting out the rod,careful note
Fig. 1085. " Conventional

Sectional View of Box
and Wheel.
Fig. 1084." Vertical

Section through Lower
Rail, Wheel and Box.
Fig. 1083. " Conventional View of Upper Rail,

Wheel, and Strap (Fig. 1082). be taken of the number of
must pieces
required,togetherwith their sizes. When
same thickness as the stiles,
althoughsome-
times dealingwith largepiece of framing,it is
a
the bottom rail may be thinner,so as well to write down these particulars. The
to allow the boardingto extend down ; also stuff should next be carefullyselected and
the middle rail may be treated in the same lined out for the various pieces. Although
way. To prevent any chance of racking, this may seem a simple matter, it often re-
quires
four braces are introduced. The important great deal of judgment. So much
a
parts to notice are : To facilitate sliding,

a is this a fact that,in largeshops,a leading
rail shown in section by Fig.1084 has screws hand or deputy foreman is appointed speci-
ally
inserted at intervals in the under side. A for this work, an arrangement that is
groove is cut into the stone floor to the undoubtedly advantageous to the firm. The
shape shown, the rail is then placedin posi-
tion, stuff should next be cut down the grain with,
and molten lead is run in. Reference a rip saw, and across the grainwith a panel
to Figs.1079, 1081, and 1084 shows that the or hand saw.
door does not touch the ground ; therefore to Trying Up. Most joiners,
" before putting
enable the rail to take some of the weight a a plane on timber, brush the latter with a
couple of grooved wheels are fixed to the little wire brush kept on the bench for the
door, the axles are cast on the solid,and their purpose. This removes all the grit from
of the rails ; this is clearlyshown at Fig. then by usingthe square and tickingoff on
1088. The muntins can now be removed the back
arris,as indicated by the dotted
lines,and also marking off about \ in.
or f in. (accordingto the size of the work)
for wedging, the back edges should be
marked for the mortices as indicated at
Fig. 1090.
SettingOut Rails. When there is a bottom "
a middle
rail, rail,and a top rail,
they usually
are in panelframing,all of one length,and
therefore the distances for shoulders,posi-
tions
for mortices and muntins, should be
pricked off from the rod. The three rails
can now be placed with their face edges
outward, and then squared down as shown
at Fig. 1091 at operation. The lines
one
b and g are for shoulders,a and h for haunch-

ings,d and e for mortices for the muntins,
and c and / positionswhere edges of munt-
ins
meet the rails,the distances between
each pair of lines
being y1^ in. less than the
depth of theploughedgroove, which usually
ranges from f in. to f in. The settingout
(without gauging)of the top rail is shown
by Fig. 1092, of the middle rail by Fig.
1093, and of the bottom rail by Fig. 1094
respectively. The breadth of the tenons is
next set out, and the waste parts removed
as shown at Figs.1095, 1096, and 1097, the
cuts along the haunch lines a and b (Figs.
1095 and 1096) being made with a bow saw.
Some joinersprefer to cut through the

whole breadth of the rail,and use the parts
between the tenons for wedges, as indicated
at Fig. 1099. Select a mortice chisel about
one-third the thickness of the stuff,and set
the teeth of a mortice gauge, so that the
chisel justsinks between the points(seeFig.
1098). Adjust the gauge stocks so that the
teeth will be in a positionto scribe the
mortice in the desired place,which usually
is in the centre of the stuff ; but there are,
of course, exceptionsto this rule. All the
parts for mortices and tenons should now
be gauged,taking care that the stock of the
gauge is used always againstthe face side of

the stuff.
Making Mortice and Tenon Joints. The "
next thing is to mortise the stiles with a
mortice chisel and mallet. The mortices

and scribed all round for the shoulders. The should be made halfway through from the
setting out on the edges for the mortices back edges ; then the stiles should be turned
should be completeas shown at Fig. 1089 ; over and mortised through from the face
Fig. 1089. "

Setting Out for Mortices on Face
Edges of Stiles : A shows part of Rod.
Fig. 1090. Setting Out Mortices

"
on
Back Edge of Stiles for Middle Fig. 1091. "

Setting Out on
Rail. Face Edge of Rails.
Fig. 1092." Top Rail Set Out for
Shoulders, Haunchings, and Muntins.
Fig. 1099. " Alternative

Method of Preparing
Tenons and Wedges.
Fig. 1093." Middle Rail Set Out for
Shoulders, Haunchings, etc.
Fig. 1100." Snows

Double Tenons Set Out
for Mortices for Lock
Rail. Fig. 1094." Bottom Rail Set Out
for Shoulders, etc.
A m
Figs. 1095, 1096, and 1097." One End of each Rail with Waste Fig. 1098." Method of Setting
removed, and completely Set Out ready for Tenon Cutting. Mortice Gauge to Chisel.
edges. The wedging should be done fully

care- only like this,the muntin tenons being left
from the back edges. Clean out these from the plough. Next mark out the tenons
mortices by drivingthe core through from as shown in Fig.1099 ; but before cutting out
front to back with a wood called
slipof hard the portions indicated by the dimensions,
a core-driver. Clean the mortices sparingly mark with lead pencil as many wedges as
with and the
paringchisel,
a stiles are ready theseportionswill allow,as shown, and cut
for ploughing. Now mortise the top, lock, them down ; then, in cuttingalong the
and bottom rails. These mortices should go haunching lines with a bow saw, these
in only about 2 in.,or 2J in.,as the tenons wedges will fall out, and, when trimmed
of the muntins are onlystumped in. Clean and pointed,can be utilised for wedging up
these mortices out, and the rails will then be the tenons, and will be the exact thickness
ready for ploughing. For cuttingtenons, necessary to fillthe mortices. Just nip the
put one of the rails in the bench screw, tilted extreme corner off each tenon with a chisel
as shown Fig. 1101, and with a rip saw
in to give a start in the mortices,and put the
cut down the tenon just by the side of framing temporarilytogether,and let it
the gauge-mark,leavinghalf of it visible. stand while the panelsare prepared.It might
Do not force the saw, but work it freely,
and keep it parallel w ith the gauge-mark,
both down the side and across the end.
When the saw is down about 3 in.,take out
the rail and serve the oppositeside of the
tenon in the same way for about the same
depth ; then, perfectly

screwing the rail
uprightin the screw, connect the two saw
kerfs, by nice easy strokes, and cut down
to the shoulder ; serve all the rails and
muntins like this. The two outside portions
are called the tenon cheeks, and the inner Fig 1101." Method of Fixing Rails in Screw for
portion the tenon. The tenon cheeks must starting Saw Kerf of Tenons.
not be cut off until later on. An enced

experi-
man can cut his tenons down straight be left for several months with advantage,
away. With a plough-ironof proper the and, if kept dry, all shrinkagewould take
size,plough from the tried-upface the tried- placewhile all the shoulders were free. On
up edges of the stiles from end to end, also wedging up, it would be thoroughlyseasoned,
the bottom
edge of top rail,both and would remain a edges of good job throughoutits
the middle rail, top edge of bottom ordinary life as a door. rail,and
both edges of top and bottom muntins. If Panels. For ordinary work panelsshould "
the plough is set to the rightdepth, it is im-

possiblebe made from sound yellow pine,free from
to go any deeper. The shoulders knots and shakes. Their dimensions can be
can now be cut with a tenon saw, leaving measured from the framing. Cut them out
half the scribe line as when cutting the in the rough, jack them over, and bend
tenons, also under-cuttingthem the least each one on the edge of the bench. If there
bit so that the jointswill come togetherclose should be a shake it will betray itself,and
on the face. Having cut off all the tenon for a first-class job the panel would be jected
re-
cheeks, if the rails have been cut through ; for commoner work, however,
their whole breadth,as in Fig.1099, prepare these shakes should have a little whiting
a stripof wood about 9 in. long and about and glue rubbed in with a hammer and lowed
al-
TV in. narrower than the depth of the dry. Now try up the face
to and shoot
plough groove ; lay this on the shoulders one edge, not forgettingto put on the tried-
just cut, and mark
pencil in lead across up marks. With the panel gauge, scribe the
the tenons (Fig.1099). The portionsthus
a finished width, which, to allow for swelling,
marked will form the haunchingsto fitin the must be about J in. less on each side than the
grooves (seeFig. 1099). Serve all the rails actual width when driven
finally home into
the plough grooves. Square and cut off both squaring rod mentioned below is not so
ends, allowing the J-in*play also. Make a necessary when gluing up four-paneldoors
mullet (Fig.1102) from any odd bit of stuff as for skeleton frames and doors containing
ploughed with the iron used for the fram-
ing. very narrow rails. Carefullynote that the
Slide this round the edge of each rails are in their correct position,which can
panel as it lies projecting

a little over the be seen by the marks on the stiles ; the rails
edge of the bench, and it will indicate at can be regulatedto these by a blow or two
once any placethat will be tightwhen driven on their outer edge. This knocking may also
home, and which must be eased accordingly. be necessary to close the shoulders between
The panelsmust fit the mullet without ing.
bind- the rails and Then, dipping the
muntins.
With a sharp smoothingplane,get very trimmed and
pointed wedges in the glue,
fine,smooth up both sides,and, with some insert them just tight. It is then usual
fine glasspaperfolded on a cork pad, rub to drive the outer wedge, c or d\(Fig. 1103),
both sides across the grain until a fine level most at first,so as to ensure the jointsof
surface is acquired. The panelsmay be put the muntins being closed ; both wedges
in by removing one stile at a time and c and a are afterwards driven to hold the
gently driving them home with the hand. tenon and mortice. It may be necessary to
Gluing and Wedging-up Doors and give the muntins a knock or two to get
Fig. 1102." Mulleting Panels.
Framing. " This is a two-handed job, and them in their exact but
positions, in doing
to carry it through the services of a mate this interpose
a pieceof wood between work
on the other side of the bench will be sary.
neces- and hammer to avoid bruises "
a precaution
Clear away all tools, etc.,lay some which apply in knocking up the stiles
will also
scantlingacross the bench, place the door and rails.
have waste pieces for the
Also
on these (see Fig. 1103, which shows the cheeks of the cramp to screw against.
wedging up of a two-panel door), knock Having finished wedging up, take off the
all shoulders about 3 in. apart, and then, oil the tenon saw with olive oil
cramp,
with some thin hot glue,rub the haunch- (not linseed),and cut off the projecting
ings,shoulders,and tenons with the brush. ends of the tenons and wedges. When the
Also brush the glue in the mortices from door or framing has stood for a day or two
the back edge. Turn the door quickly it will be ready for cleaning off in the
and serve the other side the same way. manner described below.
Knock the stiles up and put on a Cleaning When ready to clean off,
Off.
cramp, "
screwingup tightuntil all shoulders are up. lay the framing on the bench, and
door or
The cramp should be placed in the centre cut and nail two piecesof stuff between the
of the middle rail, or, better still,two horns at each end, so as to keep the door solid
cramps should be in use one on either side for planing. Clean the superfluous glue from
"of the rail. The shoulders of the rails having the jointswith a chisel,and try, smooth, and
been cut quite square, the door be glasspaperthe face side first. Now set the
may
wedged up so that the shoulders fit. The gauge to the thickness the door or framing
is to be, which is the finished thickness,and kinds of doors and

some framinghave to
run it down each edge, and clean off the be treated in different way the
a as regard?,
Fig. 1103. "

Wedging up a Two-panel Door.
other^"side,
down to this gauge mark, in
the same
way. Of course, this last process
of gauging is unnecessary if all the stuff is
thickened as planed ; but for commoner
work the method described is often adopted.
Do not shoot the edges or cut the horns off
the ends. This is done when the door is
fitted and hung the
framing fixed.
or
Planting Door Mouldings. To plant the "
mouldings, get a length of ordinary ogee

mould, see that it is quite clean ; if not,
get some glasspaperand take out the rough
parts ; then cut a mitre at one end.fpush
it gently up into place,mark the opposite
end, and cut that mitre to it. Lay this on
the framingby the side where it is to go, and
proceed to cut the rest in the same way.
Note that these pieceswill all be the dead
length from shoulder to shoulder. Now
placethe end piecesin first, and then, plac-
ing
one of the side-piece mitres in position,
bend the moulding over the fingersand
springit into positionagainstthe bottom
one. When this is pressed and bradded
down, both mitres will press home, and
good mitres will be the result. Serve all the Fig. lioo.
Fig 1107#
mouldings in the same way, and then brad

Fig. 1104. " Half Elevation of a Battened Framed
in, taking care to keep the brads well
Door and Solid Frame in a Partition Wall.
bevelled from the worker, or the panel will Fig. 1105." Half Horizontal Section (Fig.1104).
choked. Half Elevation of a Door, Framed
be splitand Now drive in the Fig. 1106. "
"
Square out of Deal Stun7, with Solid Frame

brads with a small steel punch, and the door
in a Partition Wall. Fig. 1107. Half "
or framing is completed. As alreadystated, Horizontal Section (Fig.1106).

panels and moulds, but they all 5 in. by 3 in.,tried

are con-
up, and squared on three
istructedin the same way as regards the sides. The posts and head are mortised
framing. and tenoned together as represented at
Fig. 1108. The
upper part of the post a,
i Four panelled Doors and Solid Frames
=
above the head, is reduced on each side by
in Partitions. about J in.,as shown, thus making it the
Fig.1104 is a half elevation and Fig.1105 same thickness as the
bricknoggingor
half ^horizontal section of a battened studding of the partition.Each side is
Fig. 1108. " Joint between Post and Head. Fig. 1110.
Fig. nil.
Fig. 1109." Joint of Middle Rail Figs. 1110 and 1111. " Details of Joints between
and Stile. Post and Head of Frame.
square-frameddoor, 6 ft. 6 in.^high

by 2 ft. generallyfinished by fixingsome form of
6 in. wide, with solid wrought frame and plainarchitrave, as shown at b (Fig.1105),
stops a nailed on, and 3-in. by lj-in.square which projectsover the plastering
as cated.
indi-
and splayedarchitrave. Doors and frames The stop a is square-edged and
of this descriptionare often used for nailed on.
attics and small houses, and

for openings in The Door. " This is frequentlymade out
studded bricknogged partitions.
or of battens by 1^ in.,used full width at
7 in.
The Frame. This usually forms a part
" the bottom and middle rails,and sawn down
of Hhe partition, and is made of stuff about the centre to make the top rails,muntins,
Fig. 1114. "

Elevation of Four-panel Framed and Moulded Door Fig. 1116.- -Vertical Section
with Linings, etc., in Partition. through A B (Fig. 1114).
Fig. 1115." Horizontal Section of Fig. 1114.
UN
Fig. 1113." Finish of
Fig. 1112." Enlarged Detail through Jamb, Eoor Skirting against

Stile, Architraves, etc. (Fig. 1106). Architrave.
using wedges is thatthe jambs can be ad-

justed
more accurately for straightness.
For fixingthe architraves,
grounds are fixed
Fig. 1120." Detail of Groove and Tongue Joint

at E (Fig. 1119).
Fig. 1121. Showing

"
a Corner of Jambs with
Single Rebate out of the Solid.
Fig. 1122. "

Showing an Angle of Jambs with
Solid Stops.
to the posts and head, so that their faces

are flush with the edges of the jamb, as dicated
in-
Fig. 1119.
at These grounds are
Conventional View splayedat the

generally back edges as trated,
illus-
Fig. 1119." showing Method
of Fixing Jamb Linings, Grounds, etc. to form a key for the plastering.In
HALF TIMBERED PORCH AND ENTRANCE DOORWAY

the case of commoner work, instead of pre-

paring door should this happen to be a little out
and fixinggrounds,pieces of board, of truth ; and should the jamb-linings
be
2 in. or 3 in. wide and 1 ft. or so long, are fixed out of truth "
especiallywhen the
fixed at intervals of 12 in. or 15 in.,as indi-
cated jambs waywind
and the door the other
one
at h and d (Fig.1119). This example way the difference is intensified,

"
and causes
shows the stops nailed on. Two other kinds considerable trouble to the workman. For
the sake of example,suppose a door 6 ft. 8 in.
by 2 ft. 8 in. by 2 in. thick,prepared for a
mortice lock, has to be hung This means

that one end of the middle rail has four tenons
instead of two, this provisionbeingnecessary
in order that when the mortice for the lock
has been cut, the wedging between the tenons
shall not be cut away ; were they cut away,
Fig. 1123." Taking Width of Door with Two there would be nothing to hold the stile to
Rods. the rail,and very soon the stile would come
away from the shoulder. If it has not viously

pre-
of jamb liningsare representedat Figs.1121 been arbitrarilydecided to which
and 1122. The form at Fig. 1121 has a jamb the door has to be hung, it should be
single
rebate made out the jamb
solid, of the so arranged that the door, when slightly
and head being grooved and tongued to- open, will hide most of the interior of the
jgether as shown. A rebate on each side is room. When a doorway is arranged near
shown at Fig. 1122 ; thus a solid stop is the centre of one side of a room, it is not
Fig. 1124." Door in Position for Shooting Edge.
formed as illustrated. The grooving and so very important which side the door is
tongueing of the jambs and head are of a hung, although it is more usual for a door
more complicated character. to open againstthe fireplace; but when,
as is generallythe case, the doorway is
I Hanging- Ordinary Four panel Door.
=
near a corner, the door should be hung

The method of hanging an ordinary four- to the jamb farthest from the corner.
jpanel door will now be described. The The side of the door which has double
frames or jambs to which doors are hung tenons is the side for the lock, so the other
are either rebated out of the solid or have must be the one for the hinges. Mark on
stops nailed on. For inside work, if the the muntin of the door to indicate which is
stops are planted on after the door is hung, the inside face,and stand it againstthe wall.
the carpenter is able to make them fit the Then take two short stripsof wood, and,
15
;:;* CARPENTRY AND JOINERY.
holdingthem together in the middle, care-

fully
way, put a wedge, about 1 ft. long and 1 in.
take the width of the opening about a thick,the thin edge under the low stile,
and
foot above the floor,as indicated at Fig. force it in until the door stands square with
1123. Mark this measurement on the the jambs, and shows an equal joint from
door at about the same height,allowing top to bottom. Observe how each stile fits
for taking as much off one edge as the each jamb, and also whether the jointsare
other, so as not to make one stile appear even. If not mark
quite satisfactory, the
narrower than the other ; also allow a, good parts, take down the door, and plane the
yV in. each side for the joint. Follow the stiles where necessary. Replace in position
and keep one stile close to a jamb. Now
push the blade of a square under the head
of the door jamb, in the jointof the door,
and mark across the edge (Fig.1125) ; then
Fig. 1126. Fig. 1127.
Fig. 1126. "

Projection of Knuckle of Butt.
Fig. 1127. " Joint between Door and Frame.
square this mark across the stile of the door,

and do the same oppositestile. Take on the
the compasses, and, setting them to the
Fig. 1125. Scribing Door for Height. narrowest part of the top rail left above
the marks just made (seea, Fig.1125),prick
same procedure at the upper part of the off two marks above those made with the
door about a foot below the head. Test square on the stile. This will give the actual
each jamb with a straightedgeso as to note shape of the door of its
head, irrespective
whether to planethe stilesstraightor to allow squareness ; and if, without shiftingthe
for any inequalities. Next hold the door compasses, the floor line is scribed across
on its edge as shown at Fig. 1124 and both stiles and the bottom rail as shown at
plane the edges down to the marks, taking Fig.1125, the exact heightof the door,with-
out
care to leave them a little out of square in allowinganything for joint,will be ob- ,
favour of the outside of the door. Stand tained. Lay the door on two stools,mark f
the door up in its place,
and, if it leans either across from the marks at the top made by the
compasses, and also at the bottom, after al-

lowing and the door is left slightly
open, people
f in. for the jointsat top and bottom. can peep in and see all over the room.
Saw off the surplusstuff to these marks, take No doubt there is truth in this ; but, on
off the rough arrises with the jack plane,and the other hand, if this course is followed,
the door is fitted. Stand the door on one the joint of the door comes so close
side for a few minutes, and fitthe door stops. that it will not
open much more than
Cut the head to length first,and tap it in ; square before it binds on the mouldings. The
then square off the side stops a little shorter first man coming in with the furniture pushes
than height of the opening,mark them
the the door right open, as he thinks ; but as
to exact length,and spring them into their

places. Try the door in position,
and ease it
if necessary ; if not, then stand it on one
Fig. 1129." Flange of Butt Screwed to Stile.
this cannot be done, the result is that the

Edge for Flange of
door partly torn from its hinges. It is
is
Fig. 1128. -Setting Out on
therefore preferableto keep the top hinge
Butt.
out nearly J in.,and the bottom one^J in.
Fig. 1131." Showing Stile of Door Planed to
Allow for Clearance in Opening.
side and let in the hinges,the top one about

6 in. or 7 in. down, and the bottom one just
above the bottom rail. There is no par-
ticular Fig. 1130. "
Marking along Knuckle of Butt for
rule to go by as to height,and half Letting into Jamb.

an inch more or less makes no difference,
as long as the butts are never let into the more. Set out the hinges on the stile as
stiles at the ends of the tenons of the rails.

Fig. 1128, the lines a and b being shown at
Putting on the Hinges. Some joinersin-

sist made with
"
a marking gauge. Saw and
that the hinges should be let in so that pare out and then screw the of
flange the butt
their centres come to the centre of the joint in positionas shown at Fig. 1129 ; its sur-
face
of the door (Figs. 1126 and 1127) ; the should be just flush with the edge of
reason given is that if this is not done, the door. Next offer the door in position,
pushing the wedge underneath until a joint Door Panels.

about
Repairing and Replacing
the thickness of apenny is obtained
at each side and at the top. Mark the Cause of Panels Splitting."One of the most
positionof the hinges both at top and general causes of door panels splitting
up
bottom with a chisel ; then with the chisel the middle is the improper fixing of the
mark the thickness of the knuckle on mouldings ; the nails beng inserted so that
the edge of the jamb, as shown at Fig. they pass througha portionof the panelinto
1130. This will give the depth to which the framing as indicated at a (Fig.1132),
to let the hinge in. The other edge of the whereas the moulding should be secured to
hinge should not be let in more than its own the framing only,as indicated at b. It will
Fig. 1132." Part Horizontal Section through Split Door Panel, etc.
Fig. 1133. " Part Elevation of Split Door Panel, etc.
thickness,and care should be taken to drive be seen that in the former case the panelhas
the screws in square with the hinge. no chance of shrinkinga little in the plough
Completing the Hanging. Get the posi-
tion groove ; hence the splitting.(Figs.1132
"
of the stops, close the door, and knock and 1133 are part section and part elevation
it gentlyuntil it is flush with the jamb at respectively
of a splitpanel in a door.)
the spot where the lock will come ; then nail Another cause of splitting of
is the fitting
on the stops so that they fitclose on the lock the panels too tightlyinto the plough
and allow about
stile, jointon
/,,-in. the head grooves.
and hanging stile to allow for paint. Drive Repairing Split Panel. " To repaira split
in the nails about 1 ft. apart,and on nate
alter- panelin which the is not
split of long stand-
ing,
edges, so thatthe stops shall not curl and in which, when the parts are forced
away from the jamb. The planingunder of together,a fair joint will result,first care-
fully
door stiles that

"
is, planing them out of take out the mouldings from each side,
square so that they do not bind on the inner then make six or eight blocks and wedges
edge when closed " is shown in the section similar to those shown in Fig. 1134 ; screw
(Fig. 1131). the blocks to the panel as indicated, taking
pose ; and after being finished off with fine plane. Of course, littleof this will be sary
neces-
the
glasspaper, piecesof moulding may be if the parts have been fitted.
carefully
re-inserted. The mouldingsmay then and
be re-inserted,
Replacing Panel in Door. " Sometimes a the job thus completedas far as is
the joiner
panel may be so much damaged that it concerned.
must be replaced,and in especi- Four
ally some cases,
panelled Moulded Door, with =
with good doors, it is objectionable to

Plain Framed Jamb Linings in
take off the stiles because of the liabilityto
an i8=in. Wall.
spoil the latter and the rails,particularly
where the jointshave been well glued and The Door. A door and jamb linings "
wedged together. The method about to which will usuallybe found in a larger ing
build-
be described will obviate these objections than in the preceding case are shown at
and produce a good sound job : First take Figs. 1137 to 1142. This door is repre-
"
sented
out the mouldingson each side of the panel, as being 7 ft. by 3 ft. and 2 in. to
and cut out the panel. This may be done 1\ in. thick, panelled and moulded as
by making a hole with a brace and bit and shown. The framing of doors of this kind,
sawing down a short distance with a pad when of deal or pine,is generally made from
saw, the remainder being cut with a panel stuff 11 in. wide ; therefore the finished sizes
saw. The main portionhaving been taken are usually about as follows : Bottom rail
out, the piecescan be removed from the and middle rail 10J in. wide, and stile, top
Fig. 1136. " Section of Panel with Rebated Fillets.
plough grooves with a chisel. Now make a rail,and muntins 5J in. wide. The upper
new panel in the followingway. Prepare part of the door is divided into two panels
two stripsabout J in. wide, and the same by the horizontal frieze rail. The tion
construc-
thickness as the panel. Next prepare the of the different jointswould be very
panel,and rebate this and the stripstogether similar to that shown and explainedin the
as shown
at Fig.1136, so that when they are example on p. 329, except for the tenons on
put together their combined width will be the middle rail where the mortice lock is
exactlythe same as the distance between the provided for. In the present example
plough grooves of the stile and muntin. double twin tenons would be made and
Next fit the rebated filletsinto the plough fitted into corresponding mortices,cut in the
grooves, and cut off the panel to length. stiles as represented at Fig. 1141. These
It is not possibleto cut it off long enough double tenons are provided with the
object
to go the full distance into the top and that when the mortice is cut through the
bottom plough grooves ; but if it is cut off stile for the mortice lock it does not fere
inter-
the lengthbetween the rails plus the depth with or weaken the wood in the same
;
of one plough groove it will, when put in vertical planesas the tenons.
position, be of sufficient length to extend Framed Jamb Linings, Grounds, etc. "
halfway into each plough groove. When These are fitted in an 18-in. wall, which
found to fit satisfactorily,the panel may means that, with the plastering,
the jamb
be slippedout, and, its rebated edges and liningswill have to be 20 in. wide. It is
also those of the fillets being glued,it may usual to frame the jamb linings out of stuff
be pushed back into its proper position, 2| in. to 3| in. wide and about \\ in. to
care beingtaken that at the top and bottom If in. thick. The rails and stiles of
it extends into the plough grooves. tional
Addi- these liningsare mortised and tenoned
securitymay be obtained by ing
insert- together,wedged up, and cleaned off in
few fine diagonally indicated the usual i
a screws as manner, as clearlyshown at
in Fig. 1136. AVhen the glue is dry, the Fig.1142. The jambs and head stiles are
jointsmay be cleaned off with a small rebate also grooved and tongued together,as
Fig. 1139.
Fig. 1137." Half Inside and

Half Outside Elevation
of Four-panelled Door.
Fig. 1138." Half Plan ing

look-
down, and Half Plan
looking up.
Fig. 1139. " Transverse

Section.
shown. The jambs are placedplumb and driven in. Any necessary faring,either in
fastened wooden the form of would be placed
wedges or strips,
out of winding, and to
Fig. 1142. -Conventional View of Framed Jamb
Linings, Grounds, etc.
Fig. 1141." Conventional View of Double Twin

bricks or to breeze bricks built in the sides of Tenons for Lock Rail.
the opening; or if these are not provided,
some of the mortar jointsbetween the brick- between the wood bricks and the back of
work would be cut out and wooden plugs the linings,
so that the latter might be fixed
Fig. 1143. Fig. 1145.
Fig. 1143." Elevation of Six-
panelled Door'
Fig. 1144." Half Plan looking up,

and Half Plan looking down.
Fig. 1145. " Transverse Section
through Door Head and

Elevation of Jamb.
Fig. 1144.
15*
plumb, and
straight, out of winding. Where Outer Door with Bead Butt Panels
wood lintels are there is very
used as shown, and Frame with Fanlight.
the head.
in fixing
little difficulty Grounds
to form a base for the architraves are now A four-panelled outer door, the inside
fixed round each side of the openini,flush beingmoulded, and the outside having bead
with the edges of the jamb linings
as shown butt panels, is illustrated in elevation,plan,
at'L (Fig.1142). A board of the necessary and section at Figs. 1147 to 1149. The
width, which J in.,by Jin.
in this case is 15 frame is fixed in an 18-in. brick wail with
to f in. in thickness, would be fixed to the 4J-in.reveals ; the finish to the
openingon
framing round the jamb linings, as indicated the inside is by splayedlinings,
as shown.
by the portionshown at s (Fig.1142),thus The sizes are figured on the drawings.

forming on each side a rebate equal to the Door Frame. " The chief pointsto notice
thickness of the door. in this are the forms of the jointsbetween
the head and jambs,as represented at Fig.
1150, and that between the jambs and
transom shown at Fig. 1151. Another
view of the transom isgiven at Fig. 1152
so as to show the construction more clearly.
It will be seen that the frame is rebated out
of the solid and inside ; itbeaded on the
is also ploughedto receive the tongues of the
jambs,the splayedlinings,
and the soffit of
same ; the outside edge of the frame has
an ovolo worked on. The mitering and
intersection of the beads between the head
post and transom are shown at Figs.1150
to 1152. This frame would be built in be-
tween
the brickwork as described for previ-
ous
examples,or it would be fixed to wood
bricks or plugs. The rebate of the head of
the frame is splayedas shown, to facilitate
the opening and closingof the fanlight.
Detail through Head of Splayed Linings. These would be tongued "
Fig. 1146." Enlarged

and grooved together in a somewhat similar
Linings, Architraves, etc.
manner as the jamb linings (Fig.1042, p.
344). They should also have tongues
Six =
panelled Door with Framed and
formed on their inner edges so as to fit into
Panelled Linings in an i8=in. Wall.
the correspondinggrooves in the frame as-
A door and jamb liningsof rather a more indicated at Figs. 1153 and 1154. These
important character are illustrated by would

linings be sufficientlywide to project
Figs. 1143 to 1146. The generalconstruc-

tion about | in. beyond the brickwork, which is
of the door would be similar to that in the thickness of the plaster.The linings,
the previous case. The jamb linings in would be fixed to wood bricks or plugspro-
vided
this example are formed of panelledand in the brickwork, with necessary
moulded framing, so as to correspondwith packing pieces or wedges, so that they are
the door. It will be noticed that the stiles and
straight out of winding. The grounds
are rebated out of the solid,forming a recess vary from 3 in. to 5 in. wide, according to
and stop for the door on one side and the breadth of the architrave which is to be
simply a rebate on the other. The fixing fixed to them. These should next be fixed,
of the and grounds
linings would be very so that their faces are flush with the face of
similar to that in the last example, except thesplayedfinings round the edge which has.
that in the last example the fixingof the to be next to the plastering,this being
liningsis mostly hidden by the stop. splayed so as to form a key.
Fig. 1149.
Fig. 1147." Half Inside

and Half Outside vation.
Ele-
Fig. 1148. "
Horizontal Section.
Fig. 1149. " Vertical

Section.
Fig. 1150." Joint between Post and Head.
Fig. 1154. "

Enlarged Detail through Stile, Post,
Linings, etc.
Fig. 1151.
Figs. 1151 and 1152." Joint between Post and

Transom.
Fig. 1155. " Conventional View showing Portion Fig. 1153. "
Enlarged Detail through Head and
of Head and Butt Panels and Framing. Transom of Frame.
Fig. 1159.
Fig 1156." Outside Elevation

of Door and Shutter.
Fig. 1157." Half Horizontal

Section through A A
(Fig. 1156).
Fig. 1159. " Vertical Section
through C C (Fig. 1156).
Fig. 1157.
the upper part of the framing of the door.

It projectsabout half its thickness on the
inside, so as to allow a recess sufficient to
receive the shutter ; this will be clearly
understood by reference to a (Fig. 1159),
and also to Figs.1161, 1163, and 1164.
Fig.1160." Enlarged Details of D

(Fig. 1157) and of E (Fig. 1157).
Fig. 1162. "

Enlarged Conventional Details of
Bottom Rail, Muntin, and Panel of Shutter.
Fi*. 1161. Enlarged Detail through Lower

"
Panel, Middle Rail, and Bottom Rails of

Sash and Shutter.
Outer Door and Frame, Lower Panels

Bead and Flush. Upper Part of
Door prepared for Sash and Lifting

Shutter.
This example is illustrated by Figs.1156

to 1180. Reference to Fig. 1156, which is
an outside elevation, will show that the
bottom panelshave a continuous bead round
them, and this kind of panel is known as
bead flush. The upper part has a movable

shutter,which also has bead flush panels ;
a conventional view of one of these is shown
at Fig. 1162. A half inside elevation with
Fig. 1163. "
Enlarged Conventional Details of
the shutter removed is given at Fig. 1158, Corner of Sash, showing it fitted to Framing
which bringsinto view the sash, fitted into of Door.
:;:"2 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY.
Frame, Linings,Grounds, etc. " The struction

con- settingout and making new features are
of the frame being similar to vious
pre- introduced,it will be necessary to explain
examples, it will not be necessary to them. The stuff for cuttingout the pair
enter into a lengthydescription of it. It of stilescan usuallybe lined out on a
is ploughedto receive the tongues of the board as represented at Fig. 1167. Here
square linings,
as shown in planand section the upper part of one stileis shown adjacent
to the lower part of the other stile. This
method leaves
spare stripbetween
a the
stiles,which may be taken out in two
pieces. Perhapsa better method is to cut
off from one edge of the board a longstrip,
as shown at a(Fig.1167). The more general
method in tryingup the stilesis to firsttrue
up the face sides ; then the back edgesare
shot straightand also square to these sides,
and then the lower parts of the stiles are
gauged and planedto a breadth, and, of
course, square to the face side as low
made
as convenient,which is usually a few inches
off the exact distance. The sash parts of
Fig. 1164. Conventional

"
Detail showing Thumb
Screw, etc., for Fastening Bottom of Shutter.
(Figs.1157 and 1159),and in an enlarged

detail(Fig.1160). In this case the grounds
have ovolo-moulded edges,and are slightly
rebated so as to fix to the outer edgesof the
linings,
as shown at a (Fig.1160). These
groundsalso serve as part of the architrave,
and thus allow a narrower architrave mould-
ing
the frame,which at Fig. 1166." Completed End of Middle Rail.
beingused round
the stilesare sometimes gaugedand worked,

but perhapsthe better planis to leave this
operationuntil afterthe stileshave been set
out and mortised. When all the stuff for
the framework of the door has been trued
up, the setting
out would be proceeded with.
The rod for the lengthis represented at a
1168). From this the sash and
(Fig. shutter
have been
purposely omitted for the sake of
clearness. One of the stiles should be
placedon the rod,and the positions for the
Fig. 1165. Stub and Plate for Securing Top of railsmarked off ; then the sizesof the tenons
Shutter. and allowance for haunchingsshould also
be prickedoff. The face sides of this pair
the time producesan effect equalto a
same of stilesshould next be placed with
together
broader architrave moulding. the face edgesoutwards ; then squared down
Door. The construction of this door is
"
for the mortices,etc.,as represented at B

similar in some respectsto those already (Fig. 1168). The positions for the mortices
described,and therefore these pointsneed can then be transferred to the back edges
not be recapitulated. However, as in the of the stiles,
as indicated by the dotted lines.
The relation between the rod and the part of the settingout of the three rails
settingout of the stiles is clearly
shown by from this is clearly
shown projectedabove at
the projectors.The settingout for the d. The setting out for the shoulders,
mortices and wedging can be completed on haunchings,and mortices for muntins for
Fig. 1173.
Fig. 1171 D.
Fig. 1171 C.
Fig. 1171 C" Width Rod. Fig. 1171 D." Rails Set Out onÊdges ; the Projectors from the Rod
show the Connection of the Setting Out with it. Fig. 1173." Middle Rail Set Out.
the back edges,as representedat Fig.11G9. the bottom rail is shown at Fig. 1172. The
The muntins can also be placedon the stiles complete settingout for the shoulders,etc.,
and' marked for the shoulders,as of the middle rail is shown
sented
repre- at Fig.1173. Bv
then these be taken off, and referring
to Fig. 1171 and
; F, it will
can c at e
squared round for the shoulders as shown be seen that the front and back shoulders
at Fig. 1170. The rod for the width of the of the middle rail are not in one plane,owing
door is shown at c (Fig.1171),and the first to the small bead worked round the out-
DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES 355
side of the framing to break jointwith the m (Fig.1175),and then marking the thick-
ness
shutter. The beads start from the same of the bead from the gauge line n, draw
line at the bottom edge as a b (Fig. the short line parallel
to this as shown at
square
1173),but the one finishes the breadth of the
bead in front of the other, as indicated at
d and e, the exact amount being the bead

and quirk, the stile diminishing the dis-
tance
a h on the outside and AG on the
inside. Squaring the line across from G,
as by the
represented dotted line,and then
Fig. 1175. Setting Out of Shoulders on Face

Side of Stiles.
Fig. 1176. -Setting Out of Shoulders on Back

Side of Stiles.
down the edge, the point d is found, and

Fig. 1177. "
Application of Adjustable Square
joiningd to a, the inside shoulder is shown. for Setting Out Shoulders on Stiles.
Now squaringacross from h as shown by
the second dotted line,the point k is ob-
tained o. Thus point f is obtained, and joining
; from the arris measuring the ness
thick- F to b gives the shoulder line. On the in-
side
of the bead, the point f is obtained ; of the stile (Fig. 1176) across
square
joining
f to b givesthe outside shoulder. The from the line L, and where this intersects
Fig. 1178. "

Application of Adjustable Square for Setting Out Shoulders on Middle Rail.
settingout for the top rail is shown at Fig. with the gauge line p, it gives the point D,
1174, the difference between the front and and joiningd to a givesthe shoulder line.
back shoulders being equal to the thickness An adjustablesquare will be found very
of the bead. The shoulder lines can now be useful in settingout the shoulders both on
set out on the stiles ; Fig. 1175 represents the stiles and rails. One is illustrated at
the outside portion of the stile,whereas Figs.1177 Usually the stock is
and 1178.
Fig. 1176 represents the inside. bering
Remem- the hngth shown from a to b, but by having
what has been stated about setting it longer,as shown, the inner edge of the
out the middle rail,first squaringon the side lower part of the stile can be worked from
instead of the back edge, and this is an vantage.between

ad- what will form the quirksfor the
The longerstock is also an vantage,top and
ad- bottom
beads, as indicated by solid
as there is more of it to adjustto lines in Fig. 1179, in which the dotted
the rail (see Fig. 1178). When the square lines represent the full length of the
is true and properlyadjusted,then ously,
obvi- panelafter the insertion of the top and tom
bot-
if the stuff is planed up true, the bead. Next rebate and bead the
shoulders can be accuratelymarked out by edges,and then,with a short thin chisel and
the aid of this square. a mallet, cut out the wider rebates at each
The work can now be gauged, the tices
mor- end, as shown at Fig. 1180. Take a piece
made, and the tenons cut. Perhaps the of board equal to about the thickness of
best method of mortising is to do all the the panel less the tongue which goes into
mortices of the stiles before the splay the plough groove, and on this stick cient
suffi-
shoulders are cut ; is
especially this more beading for the
ends of the panels,
saw this down, leavinga little more
than the quirk on, plane down to
the quirk, cut of? to lengths,mitre
the ends and also the ends of the
1179." Panel Gauged and Set Out
ready for Rebating.
convenient when the mortising is

to be done mortisingmachine.
by a When Fig. 1180." Panel Rebated, Side Beads Stuck
having to mortise entirelyby hand, many ready for Mitering for Ends of Beads.
joinersprefer, before mortising,to trim the

splayed shoulders near to within the hues, bead stuck on the side of the panels;
consideringit saving in labour. then secure these beads in their position
The stiles and rails should
ploughed, be by a little glue and a few brads. In Fig.
the beads on, worked splayed and the 1162 at a the bead is shown fixed in tion.
posi-
shoulders of the stiles accuratelyformed to At b part of the bead is in position,
the lines,a bullnose plane sometimes being and at c the other part is shown projected
found useful for this kind of shoulder. The up so as to give a view of the mitering at
shoulders of the rails can now be cut and d. When the door is fitted together,the
the framing fitted together in the usual combined breadth of the panelsand muntin
manner. A conventional view of a pleted
com- should be from T\ in. to J in. less the length
end of the middle rail is shown at of the middle and bottom rails measured tween
be-
Fig. 1166. If it is desired to make vision
pro- the shoulders so as to allow for closely
for a mortice lock,double twin tenons, cramping up the shoulders of the stiles and
as shown at Fig. 1141, p. 344, would take rails. The making of the sash will be scribed
de-
the placeof those shown
Fig. 1166. at in the section on sash-making.
Bead and Flush Panels. In making the "
Making the Shutter. " This should present

bead and flush panels,the special pointsare : no its construction beingsimilar
difficulty, to
being faced up and thicknessed, they should that of the lower part of the door, as shown
next be gauged for width and set out for in the illustrations. After being wedged
length J in. less each way than the distance and cleaned off,it should be fitted in the
between the plough grooves, then sawn and recess framing,so as to leave a good
in the
shot to these lines. They should next be in. all round
,',., the jointto allow for paint
lUed for rebating,and set out for length. and a slightclearance. A thumb-screw
The lengthhere referred to is the distance and platessuitable for securingthe bottom
is commonly used in houses of the ban

subur- finished off with bolection moulding. The
villa class. The door has a lower stiles are known as diminished or gunstock
panelplain-faced
on the inside,with mould- stiles,in which the
upper part, being nar-
rower,
forms largeropening for glazing.

a
Four bars are provided, forming what is

known as marginal lights.The frame is
23/4 x2!4
Fig. 1186." Enlarged Details of Head of Frame,

Door, Soffit,etc.
Fig. 1187." Setting Out Top of Post.
beaded on the inside and moulded on the

Fig. 1184. Fig. 1185. outside. The frame is inserted in a 20-in.
of Outside stone wall.
Splayed linings,which also,
Fig. 1184. Enlarged Details
Elevation (Fig.1181). have splayed soffit,
a are tongued into the
Enlarged Details of Vertical Section. frame as shown. In the making and fixing
Fig. 1185.
of this door, frame, linings, etc., the points
ing round the framing. The outside of the which are common to other examples,and
panel has a sunk margin with a moulding which have been already treated, will -not
worked on the edge of the raising,and be recapitulated ; only the principal' new
features will be explained and trated.

illus- is less compb'cated,whilst the amount of
labour involved is no more by havingdouble
Frame. " A portion of the rod with the mortices and tenons each of 1 in.,as shown,
head set out is shown at Fig. 1187 ; jected
pro- and the shoulders can be kept better
up
above this, the top end of the post than with one largetenon. Next set out
Fig. 1188. Setting Out for Mortices in Head of Fig. 11S0." Showirg Grooved and Tougued Joint
Frame. between Jamb and Soffit of Linings.
Fig. 1192.
Fig. 1191.
G
"
%
Fig. 1189. -Completed Joint between Head and Figs. 1191 and 1192." Setting Out of Bevels for
Post of Frame. Intersection at Head of Linings.
is shown set out. The shoulder at b has the head. Part of the rod for this is shown
been set out from
the square of the moulding at Fig.1188, and the settingout of the head
at a, and the inner shoulder is set out from is projectedover it. The mortice adjacent
the quirk of the bead c, indicated by the to the rebate is narrow, and the other mortice
dotted line d. When moulded and beaded is equal to the whole thickness of the stuff.
as here illustrated,
the settingout of a frame The mortices and tenons can now be marked..
gauging from the face edge only for both now be cut, and the mitering of the mould-
ing
of them. Having cut the mortices and the and bead done to the post as shown at
tenons, the ploughing for the tongues of a(Fig. 1189), and that for the head as
the liningsand rebating should be done, representedat b (Fig.

1189). In these large
after which the bead may be stuck and then mouldings sometimes that on the jamb is
Fig. 1193. " Bevel Set Out for preparing Edges

of Linings.
Fig. 1194. "

Lining Marked Out and p Gauged for
Bevelling of Edges.
Fig. 1195." Rebating to form Tongue on Edge of Fig. 1196." Joint between Stile and Middle Rail
Lining. prepared for Mortice Lock.
the ogee moulding should be worked as will scribed over that on the head instead of miter-
ing,
be explained in a later section. Before and this method will be illustrated in a
stickinga largemoulding, it is as well to run future example. The frame, after fitting,
lines,one for working the distance would be nailed
gauge wedged up, and a stretcher
on, and the other for working the distance across the bottom in the usual way.
down to. The shoulders of the post can Splayed Linings. In these " the only new
feature is that the soffitis splayedas well the

as
gauge line through the latter ; with the
as jambs, this involves a little more
the angle a of the bevel draw the angle shown
geometrical
construction,which is illustrated at d. Plane off these edges,using the bevel
in Figs.1191 and 1192. Let d e represent in the the Next
same way as try square.
the line plan of the inner edge of linings, place the wood edgewiseup, holdingit in
c b the outer edge, and a b the face of the some convenient and with the lister
fil-
manner,
rebate the back, thus forming the
tongue illustrated at Fig. 1195.
as ence
Refer-
to Fig. 1183 shows that the head is
cradled out to admit the soffit lining.
Setting Out the Door. " In setting out
the stiles,the mortices must be marked
off from the rod for the cross bars. The
vertical bars may be placed on the stiles
and set out both for shoulders and where
they intersect each other. The rails can
Fig. 1197." Portions of Stile and Middle Rail, next be set out, and also the cross bars with
showing Mouldings Scribed Together. them. The settingout of the splayed
shoulders,both in the middle rail and in
and
linings, it will also representthe plan the stiles,will be rather simpler than in
of the intersection between the jamb and the previousexample, because the sticking
the soffit. Projectingup, por-
tion obtain the
down of the ovolo and the depth of the
of the elevation shown by 1 b' c',2 a' d',
rebate being equal, the shoulders on each
and then a' b' is the elevation of the inter-
section
side will be in one plane. The setting
out
between the two linings.Now with
of one end of a vertical bar and one end of
a as centre and B as radius draw the arc
a cross bar, and also for their intersection,
b e project
; up from e, drawingthe line 3 e'. is clearly
shown The dotted
at Fig. 1199.
Projectinghorizontallyfrom b' we mine
deter-
lines indicate where the each of
square
the point e' ; jointhis to a',and thus
member intersects with that adjacent to
the bevel at x is that requiredfor the jamb. it, and the space between these and the
If the face of the soffit marks the same
solid lines shows the amount that must
angle with the plan of the door frame, the be allowed for moulding or rebating.
same bevel will do for both. Where this is
not the case, from
projectvertically b',
then with a' as centre and e' as radius draw
an arc which intersects with the line jected
pro-
from b', givingpoint f ; draw f c"
parallel
to b c'. Then joinf to a", giving
the bevel y for applicationto the soffit.
Fig. 1190 shows one angle of the linings

grooved and tongued. A few hints on pre-
paring
splayed liningswill here be given.
The stuff is faced up, and the edge to be
tongued is shot straight. The bevel (Fi"" Fig. 1198." Joint .between Top Rail and Stile of
1193) is set to the splay that the lining Door
makes with the frame, and is applied
so that
the line a b (Fig.1194),equal to the depth Tenons of Bars. " The tenons of the bars
of the tongue, is drawn with the angleA of should next be sawn down to the shoulder
the bevel, this latter being applied to the lines as shown at Fig.1199. The shoulders
edge of the lining. Then with the angle b should be cut in with a fine saw about J in.
(Fig.1193),the line b c (Fig.1194)is drawn. The sawing of the shoulders must not be
From the line e f is gauged. From the completed until after the
a
moulding and bating
re-
rod obtain the breadth e to G, and draw are finished.
16
Rebating and Moulding. " For a post rebated and stuck with the ovolo planes.
(shown at a, Fig.1196),as the sash fillister A stickingboard will,of be necessary
course,
cannot be used to the shoulders of the for this purpose. Particulars of this will be
up
sufficientof the rebate
stiles, should first be found in the section on sash-making.
Scribing, Haunching, etc. "

Provision
for a mortice lock is shown by the double
twin tenons and mortices Figs.1196 and at
1197. At c c (Fig.1196),the mouldings of
the rail and stiles are shown mitered. An
alternative method by scribingis shown at
dd (Figs.1197 and 1198). The special
kind of jointbetween the top rail and stile
is shown at Fig. 1198, where the square
left from the moulding on the stile is left on
to form a haunch, and a pieceis mortised out
above the tenon to fit over this,as shown
Fig. 1199." Bars Set Out, Tenons Cut, and at f (Fig.1198). Where the bars intersect
Shoulders Entered. with the stiles,
they should be scribed as
shown at a (Fig.1200),so as to fit over the

made by gauging,and paring out with a solid mould of the stile. The intersection
chisel a portion as shown at A (Fig.1196) ; between a horizontal and a vertical bar is
a plane is useful for this purpose.
bull-nose
The same remark appliesto the moulding.
A portionb (Fig.1196) must be worked by
'iLJ1^
Fig. 1200. Bars Scribed for Fitting Together and to Stile.
paring,or a pair of routers of the same shown at b. The square on each side of the
pattern as the ovolo planes may be used vertical bar is cut down to the level of the
with advantage. The bars should next be rebate,and the mouldingis also cut down to
the same level,thus forming a square surface grain,and afterwards the two sides with the
from the square of the rebate to that of the grain may be done. The conventional view
moulding. Then, by cutting out a rectangular (Fig.1201) will make Glear the construction
piece from the horizontal bar, as of the paneland also of the bolection ing
mould-
indicated at b, and then cutting a rectangular mitered round the outside. The glass
piece from the vertical bar as is fixed in with beads as shown.
shown at c, the two can be pushed together.
Panelled Linings for Doorways.
For scribing the moulding, ovolo templates
are useful if the irons of the planes Panelled for doorways, examples of
linings
are carefullysharpened to the same shape. which are illustrated
by Figs.1202 and 1203,
method is to mitre called because they framed that
A good alternative use a are so are "
is to say, mortised and tenoned, the panels

being inserted in grooves like the panels of a
door ; in fact,they are panelledto match
the door that is intended to be hung to
them. They are also ornamented with the
same kind of moulding as the door "
times
some-
with moulding put in on the panel,but

not quiteflush with the surface of the fram-
ing,
sometimes with bolection moulding,
which fits partly on the panel and partlyon
the framing,the angleof the framingfitting
into the rebate. More care is requiredin
putting the latter moulding in than in the
case of the former " called a sunk moulding "
for, besides having the mitre to cut, the

moulding has to be put on a mitre shoot and
the ends planed with a trying-plane
to the
exact length and correct angle.
Fittingthe Mouldings. " The way to ascer-
tain
the cuttinglength of the moulding is to

take a small piece,an inch or two in length,
and lay it on the panel in the same position
as that in which it is to be fixed,and as near
the corner of each panelas it will go. Hold

Fig. 1201. " Conventional Sectional View, showing a pencilagainst the part which rests on the
Panel, Bolection Moulding, and Inside Moulding. framing,and draw a little line | in. or so
long. When each panel has been

gone round
template,and firstcut a mitre on the mould in this way, the width -
of the rebate will be
;ing,which will produce an arris ; and if this marked exactly. Cut the mitre at one end,
'is accuratelyworked to with the scribing lay the pieceof moulding on, with the point
gauge, the fitting should prove satisfactory. to one of these marks, and mark the length
The Panel. The panel
" is first made J in. longer than the pencil mark on the
TV in. less all round than the distance between oppositeside of the panel ; the spare J in.
the ploughgrooves ; then it is gauged will allow for planingto fit. Procure four
the
jfor breadth and of the
sinkings. piecesof wood, 3 in. or 4 in. long by 2J in.
depth
IThe two sinkingsacross the grain should or 3 in. wide, and about the depth the panel
firstbe made either with a rebate plane or a is sunk down from the surface of the framing.
[panelplane,after first running a coupleof Lay them flat on the panel, one at each
saw kerfs across the grain. The sinkingwith corner, and placethe
four lengthsof mould-
ing
the graincan now be made, the aim being to on them, one at a t'.me,as they are shot.
make all four sinkings in one plane. The Make them fit closelyone againstthe other,
moulding should firstbe stuck on across the so that when the last is inserted it will want
just a slighttap of the hammer to get it appearance and in other respects. A very
down level. With the aid of a bradawl or good kind of jamb, however, is sometimes
some sharp-pointedtool,slide out the four used when the doorway is in a 9-in. wall.
slipsof wood, each towards the centre of the Such jambs are jambs. The
called skeleton
panel,and drive down the moulding. Lay stiles and rails are generally3 in. by 1J in.,
a flat stripof wood across the panel corner- but vary according to circumstances. They
i
Fig. 1203. "Section through
Internal Doorway, showing Jamb
and part of Door in Section.
wise, and Strike this with the hammer, to are planedtrue on one side and one edge,and
prevent the mouldingfrom beingbruised. If mortised and tenoned, have three rails in
the mitre shoot was true, every mitre will the head (orsoffit ascalled), it is
and about
fit as closely and nicelyas possible. four in the jambs or uprights,or
perhaps
Skeleton
Jambs. Every doorway must
"
five,accordingto height,but no panels.

have a lining of some kind to hide the rough They are fixed in the opening,and the door
material of the wall. A single plainboard, is hung to them. To form the rebate,a wide
wide enough for a 14-in. or 18-in. brick wall, stripof J-in. stuff is nailed on over the
would be very unsatisfactory indeed in framing,showing a rebate on the oppooite
Fig. 1205. " Elevation of Entrance Door and Framing-.
Fig. 1207. Plan of Entrance Door and Framing.

exclusive of rebates. The "bottom edge the fixed sidelights

(seeFig.1209),and is per-
of the door is rebated and throated, and manently grooved into the bottom rail and
shuts against a 1-in. by f-in wrought-iron bedded in red-lead. The inside face of the
bressummer is lathed for plastering.The
rib extending from the head
of the frame to
the soffitof the arch is out of 1-in. stuff,with
a scotia worked on the bottom edge. Fig.
1210 shows a part section of the door panels,
which are bead flush inside ; the bevel of the
raised portionof the outside of the panelwill,
of course, depend upon its width, but in no
case must it rise above the line of the out-

side
member of the bolection moulding.
Fig. 1208. " Section through Fig. 1209." Weather Joint

Weather Bar, showing between Bottom Rail of
Weathering for Bottom Side Framing and Stone

Rail of Door. Sill.
Fig. 1210. " Section through Panels and Bolection

Moulding.
Fig. 1211 shows a section of the architrave

moulding, which is 5J in. wide and 1J in.
thick (reduced at the front edge to f in.);
plinth blocks, 12 in. deep, receive the ends
Fig. 1211
Fig. 1206." Section through Entrance Door and of the moulding, beyond which they should
Framing. show J in. margin at the front and ends, and
-", in. in front of beads both ways. The
weather bar shown in rods having been prepared,the work
as Fig. 1208, which is can
Sunk and cemented in. into the 3-in. be proceeded with. The frame will be
J
stone A similar bar is let in under made first. The selection of the stuff is
step.
sometimes left to the workman, and, as the can be scribed,as shown at d (Fig.1214).
jambs are out of 5| in. by 3 in.,it will mean Then turn the stile with the rebatededge
one rip down an 11 In
-in. by 3-in. plank. upwards, and mark for the shoulder in a
some shops this size of stuff is kept ready for similar manner to that shown in Figs.1213
use. The correct lengthsfor cuttingwill be and 1215.
ascertained from the drawings, to which an Setting Out Frame. " Take a thin slipof
inch or so must be added. The planing up wood aboutlong,planed up J in. thick,
9 in.
must be done true and and
parallel, in favour and gauged off to If in. (the extent to which
of the stickingside ; the backs that go the ovolo works on) for 3 in. alongit ; then
next the brickwork, etc., need not be gauge xf in. for another 2 in.,which equals
Fig. 1214." Shoulders Set Out on Moulded

Fig. 1212. "
Application of Slip for Setting Out
Shoulders for Ovolo Edge of Posts and Edge.
Muntins.
the depth the ovolo works down ; then gauge

touched, except for jackingover where the J in. for the last 3 in.,equalto the depth the
mortice gauge is run down. rebate is worked down for the doors ; these
Frame and Many
Linings. "
cesses
proof the away should be accurately
cut down to the
involved in out and making the
setting lines,then the slip will have the
gauge
frame have alreadybeen explainedin con-
nection appearance shown in Fig. 1216. Lay one
with cases previouslytreated. Thus, jamb on the bench, mark and square off
Fig. 1215." Shoulder Set Out for Rebated

Fig. 1213." Application of Slip for Setting Out
Shoulders to" fit to Rebates. Edge.
to explainthe with the knife the line to cut off at bottom,

it wTillonly be necessary new
features. Only the sight lines, not the mark off above this 7 ft.(the height of
shoulders, may be taken from the rod. The transom then
rail), 2 J in. (thefinished thick-
ness
the distances between the of transom rail); above this mark

sight lines are
1 ft. 6 in.,and the head is reached. Mark

intersection of the square part of the
the other jamb and the two mullions from
frame as indicated Figs.1212 and at a in
1213. Then by means of a preparedslip, this,of course using the slip the shoulder
for
mark out for the moulding and rebate as of the muntin ; and at the pointwhere the
with line the mullions cut the latter
follows : Now apply the slip one edge transom crosses
line then, in halves just midway between the shoulders.

against the sight a (Fig.1212) ;
Allow for the shoulders on the jambs and
prickingoff the breadth, as indicated at
c, givesthe pointthrough which the
shoulder mullions by using the ff-in.portionof the
slip (the depth the ovolo drops down) on lines with a half-rip
saw outside the gauge
the face edge and the J-in.portion(thedepth lines and shoulder to within J in. of saw
of the rebate)on the back edge. The jambs cut. Mortices should be cut throughsquare
must be squaredround in pencilat the point and true inside the lines,and J-in.
gauge
where the transom enters, and room must wedging room cut through straightand to
be allowed for wedging at the back. Now within about 1 in. of face.
Rebating. Before
rebating the frame,
"
plough,with a f-in.iron,the back side for

T the inside lin'ngs,
then, with the same iron
7T \
set to -^ in.,plough from the back edge for
the rebate to within -^ in. of the gauge line.
Fig. 1216. -Setting Out Slip for Moulding and Chop out the intervening wood ; finish down
Rebate for Frame. to gauge line with a rebate plane,using the
J-in.end of the slipto see that the correct
lay the head face upon the bench (it will depth is maintained on the back.
have been cut off to about 7 ft. 6 in. long), Moulding." As it would probablybe diffi-
cult
square a line across it 6 in. from the end to obtain an ovolo plane of the size re-
(thisis the allowance for horn and mortice),
set off 1 ft. 6 in., then the thickness of
mullion, then 3 ft.,again the thickness of
mullion, and finally1 ft. 6 in.,leavingthe
other horn and mortice. Set out the som
tran-
from at the ends in
this,using the slips
the same way as with the jambs ; square
round in pencilfor the mortices and wedging
room on the head ; but in the case of the
transom the mortices will require marking
square across on the top and under side with
the knife. Now, with a mortice gauge set to
the flat portion of jamb, gauge both back
and front faces for mortices, and all round Fig. 1218. "
Finishing Ovolo Mould with Hollows.
the ends for tenons. Set gauges to the slips,

and run these down the stuff,the ~f in. quired for this job, the moulding must be
down the face edge, the 1J in. down the worked with hollows (unlessit be machine
made) ; and, to ensure accuracy, a zinc
or cardboard template must be provided
with which to mark the ends of the stuff.
Plough grooves should be made as dicated
in-
at a and b (Fig.1217) ; then waste
c cut away with a, chisel. Work as near
the line as with

possible a jack plane. The
round of the mould can be finished with
hollows,as indicated at Fig. 1218. At least
two should be used, the shape of the mould-
ing
Fig. 1217." Piece of Frame : the End Set Out for Of
being elliptical. large course, in most
Moulding and Rebate, and Ploughed for
shops the moulding and rebatingwould be
Rebating and Moulding. done at the machine, and only finished by
hand. Assuming that the mouldings are
face from both edges,and the J in. down the all worked and the top edge of the tran-
som
back edge, these lines being for moulding is weathered, the sawing down of the
and rebate. tenon cheeks may be finished,the cheeks
Mortising and Tenoning Frame. " The knocked off, and the mitering proceeded
tenons should be cut down to the shoulder with.
16*
Mitering. " From the pattern of the mould-

ing Measuring for Doors and Lights. Before
"
a reverse mould, about 8 in. or 9 in. removing the frame from the bench, it will
long,should be worked (seeFig.1219),and be necessary to take the measurements for
accurate mitres shot at each end. This will constructingthe doors and lights.The
form the template with which to cut all proper way to do this is to set out the dead
mitres. Great care must be taken in this heightsand widths on a lath. It should be
the
operation, chisel not
being allowed to go done very accurately, to avoid subsequent
the least bit beyond the line cut by the errors. This lath will also be found useful
Fig. 1219."
Mitering
Template.
knife.
setting-out The parts of the frame
here referred to as requiring"
mitering and
fitting
togetherare shown by the enlarged Fig. 1220." Conventional View
conventional view, Fig. 1220. of the Joints connecting the
Putting Together Frame. " The jambs Parts of the Frame.
should be bored for drawing ; and the tenons
of the mullions, where they butt-jointin the
transom rail,should be bored for and held in cuttingoff the stuff. Door stiles and
together with f in. glued oak or pitchpine rails should be made from stuff 2 in. thick,
dowels. The frame can now be put gether, the
to- bars from f-in.stuff ; and, in planing
pinned,and wedged up, then cleaned up, the best sides should, as far as possible,
off,and the plough groove run along the be selected for working the mouldings.
head for the casing Mitre the cove round After cuttingthe door stiles to the ished
dimin-
the rame, square the bottoms of jambs size, they should be planed up, and
and mullions,and up the centre of each bore the tried-upmark put on the back edge,
a f-in.hole, and drive in square galvanised as an indication of the stage to which the
iron dowels, leavingf-in.projections, which work has been brought.
will be subsequently let into the step. The Setting Out Doors and Lights." The stuff
frame is now finished. for the top lightsmust be gauged to 2| in.
DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES. ^71
by 1J in. ; for door and side lightrails, 10J rebate ; c equals the depth of the rebate
in. by If in. ; for the diminishing stilesfor for bars "
namely, in this case, T\ in. In

doors, 4| in. to 2" in. by 1| in. ; for the side settingout the vertical marginal bars, from
lights, 4 in. to 2f in. by If in. ; bars,1J in. the back edge of the pattern stile set out
by f in. In settingout the stiles of the door, one bar, then, placingit on the outside of
mark off on the back edge of one of them the remainder of the bars, cramp them all
the dead height of the door from the rod, together,and square across both sides for
allowing J in. for fitting.Then mark on mortices and tenons ; note that the shoulders
2" in. for the top rail,10J in. for the bottom should be a shade long. These may now
rail ; and 3 ft. 2 in. from the bottom set off be set on one side ; but later, when the
lOf in.,which will be the top edge of the lock
rail ; 2 in. from the inside marks of the top
and ôck rails,mark f-in. spaces for the
transverse marginalbars. The marks must
be squared round to the inside edge, and
wedging room allowed on the back. Mark
? CD
Fig. 1222. " Part Views of Lock Rail and ished

Dimin-
41
Stile of Door, indicating Method of
Setting Out. \
the g^-in.portion of the slip (Fig.1221)
inside the top edge of the lock rail and the
bottom edge of the top rail,this being the
depth the ovolo mould works down, also the
depth of the rebate. From this pattern
stile,the other door stileand the stiles of the mortice gauge is set, run it round them as
side lights,must be altogetherand set out they are, and cut the shoulders with a dove-
tail
in to setting-out,
pairs. Previous it will be saw, proper haunchingsbeing left in all
necessary to make the slip(Fig.1221) for cases. Rails of doors and lightsshould be
setting-outpurposes. This slip,
it need not be set out from the rod, the width of stiles
said,must agree in essential particulars with setback, and the width
slipat b set of the
the proposedmoulding and rebate. ing
Assum- forward, and the shoulders squared round,
that the mould selected works f in. on the settingout of these being done as de-scribed
and ^2
m- when
down, the slip, made, will in connection with Figs.1198 to 1200.
have the appearance shown, and may be Cross bars may be set out from this,allow-
ing
explained thus : a equals the depth the them to be
slightlylonger for good
ovolo works on ; b equalsthe depth the ovolo joints. The settingout of the top lights
works down, and is also the depth of the is a simple matter, the height of the stiles
being marked from the rod. Below is the and framing and fanlight,also the lintel
method of
settingout the lock rail,the and finishings inside the door frame, of
letters corresponding to those in Fig. 1222, which a plan is shown by Fig. 1207.
which is supposed to be an inside view, Mortising and Tenoning Door. The setting "
the oppositeend to the lock ; it is therefore out having been completed, the stuff must
not double-tenoned : a is the shoulder line be gauged for mortices and tenons, the
under side of rail ; B is the vertical line with mortice being set for a f-in.chisel,
gauge
a ; b to c is the difference between width and the nearest prick mark from the face
of stile at top and bottom "
namely If in. ; being set to the slip at h. One end of

c to d is the depth the ovolo works down ; the lock rail and the corresponding stile
e to a is the shoulder line. In settingout of the door must be gauged for double
mark a on bottom of rail and b on top,set on tenons as in the previous example, the
c and d with the slip; gauge down to e gauge being set for a -^--in.chisel,and
and mark e to a. In settingout the dimin-
ishing "yq
in. from face for one tenon and mortice
stiles, is the F pointwhere the bottom and 1J in. from the face for .the other. The
mortices being made and tenons cut down
to the home line, the shoulders may be
partlycut in. The stuff may now be rebated
for the glass, using a sash fillister,
and the
ovolo worked on each portionat the same
time, using No. 1 moulding plane first, and
finishing off with No. 2. The bars must be
worked on a stickingboard, which may be
made from a piece of 7-in. by lj-in.stuff
about 6 ft. long. The bars are held in position
against a screw stop at one end, and
by a bench knife at the other. The stiles
Fig. 1223." Views showing Haunching and should be ploughedfor the panels,
the tenon
Scribing
between Top Rail and Stile. cheeks cut off,and the tenons cut to fit
the mortices, proper haunchings being
of the rail joinsthe stile,and corresponds allowed.
with a ; g is the point where the top of the
Haunching, Scribing,etc. " The ends of the
rail joinsthe stile,
and corresponds with c rails for
; haunching and scribingpurposes
h is the point where the shoulder line shown
mences
com- are by Fig. 1223. These have been
; i is the depth the ovolo works described and illustrated in Figs.1196 to
down ; k is the surplusstuff on the edge of 1198; a equals the portion cut back on
the stile ; l is the point of intersection of h the end of the rails to the depth of the
and i ; l to r is the shoulder line. In rebate fit round
to the square left on after
settingout, proceed as follows : Mark f and moulding and rebatingat b on the stile ;
g, mark h on with the slip,run the gauge c is a face view of the rail with dotted
line down point
i ; also from the
lines showing the direction where H
and extent
and i connect and In
making the joint of the cuttingback at a. The rails only
l f.
after mortising,tenoning, moulding, and
requirepartlyscribing through as shown at
ploughingare done at the point E on the e (Fig.1223),and
"
a piecewill be required
rail,pare down square to the tenon before to be taken out of the stiles to correspond
scribingthe ovolo. After the surplusstuff with the square shoulder above these. The
k on the stile has been cut and the
away scribingmay now be done, and particular
shoulder cut and pared true, cut out the attention must be paid to the intersection of
groove for the haunching. The ovolo will the lock rail and stile at e and h in Fig.
requireworking with gouges up to the point 1222. The scribingtemplates and gouges
l on the stile,and the rebate must be pared will of course be requiredfor this process.
out with the chisel up to the same point. Panels. The doors and lightsmay now "
Fig.1206 shows a section through the door be knocked together,and the size of the
Fig. 1224." Double-margin Door, External Elevation.
Fig. 1225." Horizontal Section of Double-margin Door.
Fig. 1226." Plan showing Centre Stile Fitted Fig. 1227." View of Top Rail prepared to
Over Top Rail. receive End of Centre Stile.
with the middle stile in two but

pieces, the strengthen double-margindoors, iron bars
elevation remains the same for either are sometimes let into the top and bottom
method. When the middle stile is structed
con- rails,and screwed to them. In this case
in two portions,each half of the the bars should stop short of each edge of
the door, so as not to show on the edge.
Another and more general method of structing
con-
a double-margindoor will be plained

ex-
in a later example.
Composite Door,
This class of door is unusual in ordinary

joinerywork, but is occasionally employed
for showing two classes of treatment in
detail. This is essentially a soft pine door,
with a veneered oak face,the oak face being
on the room side,so as to correspondwith
oak furniture and fittings ; the pine,finished
with either white or cream enamel, faces a
corridor. The centre panel on the painted
Fig. 1228.- -Securing Intermediate Rails by side of the door forms a notice-board for
Fox Wedging. postinglecture announcements, etc., as in
a school of science or collegelaboratory.
door is framed together, but not glued Fig. 1231 (scale J in. to 1 ft.)represents =
up. Then the rails are glued and wedged an elevation of the corridor side (painted),
to each half of the middle stile and allowed and Fig. 1232 a vertical section through door
to dry. The two halves of the middle stile and opening. Fig. 1233 shows the room side,
are then shot and fitted. The ends of the with the oak face with round-edgedframing
tenons to the rails'should be cut J in. and raised panel. Two methods of struction
con-
below the joiningsurfaces of the middle are illustrated by Figs.1234 and

stile,so as to prevent the jointbeing forced 1235 ; the former shows the pine stiles,
"775^5
wmm,
Fig. 1229. " Horizontal Section through Centre" Fig. 1230. " Horizontal Section through Panels,
Stiles when in Two Pieces. Moulding, etc.
in case of shrinkage. Fig.1226 is a plan the oak sandwiched

etc., containing between
of the top rail. When the middle stile is in them. The two faces of the oak are glued
one piece,the top and bottom rails are con-tinuous, simultaneously, and pressed between the
and fit over the middle stile by the pine by suitable shop methods ; then, when
use of a bridle joint,similar to that shown the work is thoroughlydry, it is ripped down
in Fig. 1227. To prevent the shoulders by hand, or sawn down the middle with a
rising one above the other, cross tongues circular saw, forming two stiles, etc. When
can be used as shown. The same plan of the door is framed up, gluedup, and partly
joiningthe top and bottom rails to the cleaned off,the lock stile is veneered on the
middle stile can be adopted when the stile edge ; the tenons being well cut back, for
is in two pieces. As the tenons in the middle obvious reasons. The hinge stile is not neered.
ve-
stile cannot be wedged in the ordinaryway, Fig.1235 shows an alternative way

it is best to fox-wedge them as shown of
treatingthe stiles,
in the detail showing the
Fig. 1228, to prevent the shoulder joints edge veneered first and then the face. Of
from starting(a section on the line a b course the tenons on this side will be blind,
is shown by Fig. 1229). Further to but will run through the hinge stile. All
"
s
to
.a o
o .a
I Pi
gluesurfaces should be toothed on the spriggedto the framing (not)'to the panels).
ing
veneer-
faces ; the and hot The

water mouldings to the baize-covered panel
are
sponge
freelyused on the work in progress if perfect are neatlyheld in placewith small brass cups
| jointsare required; and the work must be and screws, to allow the easy removal of the
| done in a warm temperature. baize when worn or damaged. Figs.1238
Panels, etc., of Composite Door. " The and 1239 show sections of the architraves
Ipanelsare double (composite),oak and pine, (oak and deal),the panelled jambs, plinths,
blocks,etc., of the oak face. All mitres on
the oak side must be well glued,screwed,
and pelleted.The coke breeze lintel over the
door opening (Fig. 1238) is reinforced with
Fig. 1234. Fig. 1235.
Figs. 1234 and 1235." Isometric Details of Methods

of Jointing Oak for Door.
Fig. 1239.
Fig. 1238.
1238 and 1239. " Details of Architraves and
Top Rail of Door in Section.
Fig. 1236." Sectional Fig. 1237." Detail

Detail of Frieze Rail, showing Shutting expanded metal. The of
silver-grain the
showing Double Stile Veneered on
oak is shown to its best advantage by arrang-
ing
Panels. Edge. to have either framing and
fine-grained
coarse-grainedpanels,or the reverse. All
with a composite centre panel covered with the architraves must be dovetailed to plinth
green or dark red baize,to receive the notices, blocks. The shuttingstile is prepared for a
etc. On the oak side the panels are raised, mortice lock
; and the door is hung with steel
with a bead on the flat as shown, to be bushed brass The double
hinges. tenons
worked in the solid. Figs.1236 and 1238 show at every jointin the framing. The edges of
clearly
the panelling
and framing.All panels the deal jambs in which the door shuts are
must have glued pine blocks (dry) between oak colour.
stained The hingeside is painted
them, as usual in double-panelled doors of to match the exterior face.
thin sectioned panels. The rounded edge
to the framingof the oak side will be found Baize= covered Doors.
to accentuate the raised panels,without ing
mak- Two methods of baize-
constructing
the door too bold on the interior or covered doors will now be described. Flat
room side. The panels on the
painted side surfaces on each side of the door are usual,
have ordinary ovolo mouldings glued and but flush -paneldoor will
a answer admirably
if the flush side only is required to be boards partlyglued on, the door will be
are
covered. Figs.1240 and 1241 show tively

respec- found to be rigid,and free from
sufficiently
front elevation and section, and it tendencyto drop. Fig.1241 shows a top
any
will be seen that in order to lightenthe corner, and indicates the method of struction.
con-
door, J-in.full panels (from f-in.stuff in

the rough) are used, double or flush each side. Covering Doors with Baize. " The ing
cover-
To stiffen these panels,J-in.thick by 6-in. appliedto this class of door should be of
wide cross-rails are tenoned into muntins the best qualityprocurable, and should be
obtained of such a width as to prevent waste.
It is fastened on with stout tacks into plough
grooves on the edges and at the sides, as
shown in Fig.1246, which representsa hori-
Fig. 1242. " Cross Rail acting as Stiffener to

Fig. 1240. Fig. 1241. Panels.
Fig. 1240. " Front Elevation of Double-panel Baize-

covered Door. zontal section of door stilesfora swing door,
Fig. 1241." Vertical Section (Fig.1240). the edges of which should preferablybe
rounded slightly, to prevent the baize from
and as shown
side stiles respectively, in Fig. being cut by the stretching process. It is
1242, which shows also the back rebating of customary to line out the panelsby means of
the panels. The panelsare centrallyscrewed round-headed brass nails of French facture,
manu-
to these stiffeners,
thus allowing freedom and further to elaborate the baize
for shrinkage from sides to middle. The by using green tape of a lighteror darker
tenons are of the usual kind for this class of tint (seeFig.1247) ; but these are matters of
door. Figs. 1243 and 1244 show an tive
alterna- taste. tape is neatly nailed to chalk
The
method of construction, which would lines sprung at the proper spacing,and
be cheaper ifmachine-worked stuff were used. should be kept moderatelytaut while nail-
ing
The framing is mortised and tenoned, and on. In the case of the double-panel
is covered on both sides with tongued and door, the nails should, if possible,
clear the
grooved boards forming the flush faces of groove. If baize-covered doors are used in
the door. Bracing can be used, but if the entrances near the street, they are apt to
harbour dust, and to be spattered with mud, glasscan be replacedwhen necessary with-
out
and the lower part of doors in this situation injuringthe door or beads. Fig. 1251
should be covered with an oak board about
J in. thick,and of any suitable width, and
painted to match.
Circular Doors.
The door (Fig.1248)about to be described

is on plan curved to a 2-ft. radius,but it
Fig. 1245. "Detail of Top Corner (Fig.1243).
is an enlargedsection at the top edge of the

middle rail with the glassand beads in posi-
tion.
The wood used in circular work must
Fig. 1246. "

Fastening Ends of Covering.
be thoroughlyseasoned and free from defects.

In beginninga job of this sort, it is necessary
to make a templateand set it out full size on
Fig. 1243. Fig. 1244.

Fig. 1243. " Elevation showing Alternate Methods
of Constructing Baize-covered Door.
Fig. 1244." Vertical Section (Fig.1243).
may, of course, have any sweep desired. It

should alwaysbe set out from a centre, as the
shoulder lines will be struck from the centre
point. The panelsare bead flush,with bolec-
tion moulding mitered round the front as
shown in planby Fig.1249, also by Fig. 1250,
which is an enlargedsection at the top edge
of the bottom rail,with the paneland mould-
ing
on the outside and the bead flush on the Fig. 1247. "
Covering and Taping Baize.
inside. The top space is left for glass,
which
is secured by means of beads screwed round a board from a centre. When this has been
the stiles and rails ; by this arrangement the done, the ribs may be prepared. The plank
3S0 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY.
it is intended to use should be trued up out

of windingand gauged to the requiredthick-
ness.
The trammel with which the plan
has been set out can be used to line out the A
Fig. 1249. "Plan of Door (Fig.1248).
Fig. 1250." Section Fig. 1251." Section
through Top Edge through Top Edge

of Bottom Rail (Fig. of Middle Rail (Fig.
1248). 1248).
Fig. 1248. " Front Elevation of Circular Door.
ribs for the three rails; these can be cut Fig. 1252." Side Saw for Cutting Rails, etc.
out with a band-saw, or with a side-saw if the

former is not available. A side-saw (see
Fig.1252) is much like a bow-saw, only it is
worked up and down ; l and R show tively
respec-
the positionof left and right hand
when usingthe saw. The ribs having been
cut out and toothed ready for gluingto-
gether,
it will be seen (Fig.1253)that they are Fig. 1253." Building Up Rails in Ribs.
.182 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY.
Fig. 1256." Front tion.

Eleva-
Fig. 1257." Half

Horizontal Section
fW ^~n through Lower Panels,
and Half Horizontal
Section through Centre
Panels on Lines A B and
C D. Fig. 1258." tical
Ver-
Section through
Centre of Fanlight and
Fig. 1257. Centre of Panels.
Fig. 1259." Inside Elevation.
as an attempt to save time here may lead to test between the reveals and the ing,
spring-
to costly errors. The architect's drawings in case any slight discrepancy has
should be carefullyconsulted, particularly occurred in the dimensions between the
i
the enlargeddetails to half-inch or larger masonry and the drawings. From the formation
in-
scale, together with full-size sections of thus obtained,the rod can be set
mouldings and panels,which are generally out. This would show the whole of the plan
supplied by leading architects. If the or horizontal section of the woodwork as
buildingis sufficiently
advanced, it is well at Fig. 1257. A complete vertical section
of the woodwork should be set out for the

heightsas atFig. 1258. For the framing,
the head and fanlight, the liningsand archi-
traves,
a board should be used largeenough
to strike out the main lines of each of these ;
and it will be found very useful for setting
out these various parts.
The Frame. " The posts should be set
out for the tenons of the transom. By
reference to Figs.1259 and 1260, it will be
seen that the transom is built up, and that
two equal - sized tenons are made, the
bottom edges of which are level with the
rebate. The mitering of the mouldings
between the posts and transom is shown
atFig. 1260, and, as explainedin previous
examples,this must be allowed for in set-
ting
out. It should be noted that the
tenon to the inner portionof the transom a
(Figs.1259 and 1260) has the upper portion

of it haunched into the post, and does
not have a tenon the whole width. The
pieces to form the circular head should
next be cut out. Make a template from
the rod, and line out the stuff for the
"
head full." The head may be in two
pieces,with a joint at the crown, or in

which
three pieces, is perhaps a little more
economical in material,but the former no
doubt involves
less labour in jointingand
even in moulding. The crown jointshould
be accuratelymade, and must also fit when
placedon the rod. This jointmay be held
together by a hammer-headed key and
tongues, or by a stout handrail screw and
dowels, which is the more modern method
and equallyeffectual. The jointsbetween
the posts and head at the springingmay
be held togetherby handrail screws and
dowels, but the hammer-headed key tenon,
as illustrated at Fig.1260, is stillin favour.
When the head and posts are tried together,
and the jointstemporarilytightenedup,
the posts must be quite parallel
and actly
ex-
the same distances apart, and the

jointsmust be eased until thus correct. The
soffit of the head, as it is not yet trued up,
shouldproject over the posts a little. This
projectionshould be carefullyscribed from
the posts, and then by means of a template
or radius rod the curve for the soffit can be
of Upper Part of set out. It will be found an advantage to

Fig. 1260. -Enlarged Detail
turn the frame over and mark the other
Vertical Section (Fig.1258).
side as well. The piecescan now be ated

separ- and rounds. For working the curved
and the soffit planed to the lines by mouldings of the head, small hollows and
a compass plane or other similar means. rounds, known as thumb planes, or some
and the tenon

The settingout, the mortising, other method, would be adopted, as will
Fig. 1261. "

Conventional Detail of
Joints, etc., of Post, Head, and
Transom.
cutting""(not
shoulders)having beei
a pattern of the
moulds, made of a piece of
hardwood zinc, should be marked
or on
the ends of the several pieces. If machinery

is at hand, the mouldings would be stuck
by it, and would only require finishing by
hand. If all the work is to be done by
hand, gauge lines should be run round, and
a series of rebates and grooves made, and Fig. 1262." Enlarged Section through Lower Panel
the curved members finished with hollows Moulding. Door Post, etc.
17
be described in a later section. Sometimes round the head could be prepared to

these circular heads
the
formed
to
"
glued and
break
the
stop part
of one
screwed
built up of two thick-
jointtakingplace in
of the
more
joint,"and the two

together as
a line
nesses,
are
with
rebate.
piece than
One
the trave
layer is
other,
layersare
illustrated
fit
same
each
two
and
Another
together in
as
or
those
three pieces round
method
two pieces,in breadth the
for the jambs, but of course
portionwould be formed of at least
the semicircle,
breaking jointwith the one above it.
would be to build up the
at Fig. 1263, the screws being inserted head moulding in four thicknesses,making
outside the line of the seen margin. This each thickness break jointwith that below
method is somewhat more economical in it,as illustrated at Fig.1265, gluingtogether
material and labour, as rebatingout of the and screwingfrom the back. A method of
solid is avoided, and on this account it is connecting the circular head architrave
more frequentlyadopted for ordinarywork. to the vertical parts is
shown at Fig.1266.
Some leading architects,however, would At the back a lap dovetail is made on the
not sanction this method of tion.
construc- end of the member, fittinginto a corre-
sponding
The mouldings should be mitered, recess made in the circular one ;

and the shoulders between the post and by gluing, cramping and screwing, and
transom prepared; these should be leavingtill dry,a good sound jointcan thus
loosened, glued,wedged and tightenedup, be made.
cleaning off the flat surfaces and the Secret Fixing of Architraves. " The plete
com-
junctionof the mouldings. This will plete

com- architrave must be offered up in tion,
posi-
the frame, excepting the cornice por-
tion the side margins accuratelyregulated,
of the outside part of the transom, and, settinga pair of compasses from the
which should be preparedand fitted in and, arris of the head liningto the edge of the
if desired,fixed ; but sometimes it is more architrave less the amount of margin to be
convenient to fix this temporarilyonly, so shown, scribe the bottom of the traves
archi-
that it can be more easilyscribed to the to the floor. The plinth at the
stonework after the frame is in position. bottom of the outer members of the archi-
trave
Splayed Linings. " The head part of these not extending the whole breadth,
may be built up in sections or veneered the outer members are cut away and the
and blocked. The method of preparing plinthblocks fitted as shown at Fig. 1272,
these will be fullydescribed in the section the two parts being firmly held together
dealingwith the subject. by gluing and screwing from the back.
Framed Grounds. " The architraves being The system of fixing here shown is by
wide, the grounds are framed of stripsof boring a series of holes in the back of
stuff 2 in. or more wide for stiles,and the architraves,as illustrated at Figs.
pieces2 in. to 4 in. wide for rails. These 1267 to 1269. A hole is bored a little
are simply mortised and tenoned together, larger than the head of a screw, about
and gluedand wedged in the usual way, and J in. or f in. deep ; then with a bit the
they would be continued round the circular size of the shank of the screw a second hole
head as shown at Fig. 1264. A simpleway is bored about f in. above ; the wood tween
be-
of jointingup parts round the head is
the the two holes is mortised
out, leaving
to have the rails about 4 in. wide, tenoned a chase ; then, by usinga very thin chisel or
at each end, and the curved stiles fitting
on other convenient tool, a V-shaped slot is
to these with open mortices, as will be formed on each side of this chase as cated
indi-
understood by reference to Fig.1264. These at a (Fig.1267) ; then, takinga screw
would be fixed round the opening flush with (the same size as the one to be used) turned
the edge of the splayed liningsby nailing into a piece of hardwood and allowed to
to wood bricks or other usual means. projectthe exact required distance, insert
Architraves. " These beingwide and ing
vary- the screw into the holes in turn, and,
much thickness,the jamb portions striking the end of the wood, drive the
in
are prepared in two pieces, grooved and screw head along the V-shaped chase made
tongued togetheras illustrated. The archi- in the backs of the architraves. Now,
marking the exact for the centre

positions essentially two doors. After the parts of
of the screws on the grounds (these, these have been preparedand fittedtogether,
to
of course, exactly correspondingto the and additional mortices made through
chases on the back of the architraves),
turn screws into these so that the heads
projectexactlythe same distance as that
in the hardwood block mentioned. When
the architraves are placed against the
grounds and lifted about | in. from the
floor,the heads of the screws should sink
Fig. 1268.
the meeting stiles

as indicated at a (Fig.
1270) to wedges, the two separate

receive
leaves have the jointsof their meeting
stiles and rails glued,cramped and wedged
up without any panels or moulding being
Fig. 1267.
Figs. 1267, 1268, and 1269." Preparing Slots for

Screws.
into the holes made for them in the back ;
then, by forcingand jarringthe architraves

down, the screws will firmlyhold them, if
the work has carefully
been and accurately
done. complete
The architrave may now be
raised and taken down, and the edge against
the splayed liningsrapidly glued. It is
then put back and finallyjarred and Fig. 1269.
forced into its permanent position.

The Door. The preparingof the framing
"
in. Then the two meeting stiles are shot
of this will,in a generalway, be similar so as accuratelyto fit,and both leaves are
to the cases previously treated. It is in one plane; then the meeting edges are
DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES.
moulded, or beaded and ploughed for

tongues (seeFig.1254). Hardwood keys or
wedges are prepared, and sometimes tional
addi-
ci: ::i gib pieces a (Fig. 1270) are also
provided ; cross tongues are glued into one
of the stiles ; then both the meeting edges

are glued; the wedges are also glued and
quickly inserted, cramps put on, and the
"=V:
Fig. 1270. " Skeleton Framing for Double-margin

Door.
LUib
Fig. 1271. " Conventional Sectional View of Rail,

Panels, etc., at A (Fig. 1259).
wedges connecting the stiles finallydriven

tight. After the glue is dry, the ends of
these are cut out level with the bottom of
the plough grooves. The panels can then
be inserted and the door wedged up. The
bolection mouldings on the outside, as
also those on the inside,are to be held in

Fig. 1272." Conventional View of Architrave and position without visible fixing. There-
fore,
Base Block reversed at Fig. 1262. these mouldings have been provided
with small tongues which fit

into corresponding plough
grooves made in the stiles and
rails as illustrated. This system
of construction necessitates the
preparing and cleaningoff (all
but the final finish) of the
shoulders and framework rally
gene-
before wedging up, because
very little of this can be done

afterwards owing to the mould-
ings
having to be fitted. Their
mitres are often grooved for
tongues slipfeathers,and thus

or
have to be placed in their

positions before the wedging up
takes place. The conventional
detail at a (Fig.1271) will make
clear the construction at the
and
apron panel and moulding,
also that at the back. The joint
at the end of the architrave with
base blocks is shown at Fig.1272.
Entrance Doors and Frame,
Circular on Plan, and
Circular = headed in Ele=
vation.
Fig. 1273 shows the elevation

of a pair of doors at the corner
of an important stone building.

The frame has a circular
head, fanlight,
etc. The corner
Outside Elevation of Doors, Frame,

is circular, forming quadrant a
Fig. 1273."
of 6 ft. radius, corresponding
Fanlight, etc.
with the plan of the building.
The doors and frame follow the
same curve, as shown by the
plan,Fig. 1274. The masonry

arch is semicircular in elevation,
and stilted 4 in. The outer
arris of the soffit of the arch

is taken semicircle (see
as a
ab, Fig. 1273). The reveals

radiate, and therefore the soffit
at the springingon each side
also radiates, but it finishes
level at the crown as shown at
c. Thus the arris of the soffit

of the arch adjacentto the head
Fig. 1274." Plan of Masonry at Level of Springing,
Section of Doors taken through Upper
of the door frame is elliptical
Horizontal
in elevation,as shown ; and it
Panels.
Fig 1277. "

Enlarged Vertical Section through
Middle Panel and Lower Portion of Upper Panel.
Fig. 1276. "

Enlarged Vertical Section through
Head, Transom, and Centre of Upper Panels.
Fig. 1275. "

Enlarged Horizontal Section through Door, taken through Centre of Lower Panel.
is this line which must be used for work-

ing the dotted arc a b, for the outer arris of
from when striking
out the door frame the soffit; projectfrom y and obtain the
head. dotted curveis the inner arris
c b, which
up from D obtain
of the soffit; projecting
pointd' ; from b (Fig.1279)measure down
the margin for the head of the frame ;
Fig. 1279
then the curve d' to l is the elevation of
the curve of the outer arris for the head
of the frame. This line from d' to c is a
little nearer, and graduallywidens from

the dotted line c b until 1' is reached. Take
any convenient
points on the curve d'
to L (Fig.1279),project down from these
pointsto the curve in plan,and obtain a
number of pointsin plan and elevation
as shown. From these pointsin plan draw
converging lines to the centre x, remember-
ing
these are horizontal generators.Pro-
jecting
out from d',e',f',g',
horizontally
h',k', we obtain points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and
6, as shown on the centre line in elevation.
Projectfrom 1 to 1',from 2 to 2',and so
on to point6 projectinghorizontally
; then
from e',f',g', h', k/, pointsfrom 1' to 6'
are obtained,throughwhich can be drawn
the curve V to l, which representsthe
inner arris of the head. The outer arris of
the head, as represented by the curve 7 to
8, can next be drawn in, as shown. In
the planFig.1278 draw the line o p through
v and
w, and parallel
to this draw M n
tangent to the curve u l ; the distances

between these two lines represent the
thickness of the plank required.Parallel
to the line m n set up the distance of the
springing(in this case 4 in.),continuing
the lines radiatingfrom x from each point
d to l until the y meet m n (Fig.1278).
A number of pointsare obtained on mn,
from which ordinates are drawn at right
angles,as shown at a. Marking off the
distances on each ordinate ing
spring- from the
line Q R, equal to corresponding
its
ordinate shown in elevation (Fig.1279),
the outer face mould can be drawn as
Fig. 1278.
represented
at B. The method for obtaining
the face mould for the inside is similar,
as
Figs. 1278 and 1279. " Geometrical Construction shown at c (Fig.1278).

for Setting Out Face Moulds. Setting Out for Soffit Mould." The half
planis re-drawn (forclearness)at Fig.1280.
SettingOut for Face Moulds. " Set out the At rightanglesto n x draw x l ; on this
half planof the head of the frame, as shown set up distances 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, l equalto
by z y (Fig.1278); projectingup from z draw the correspondingdistances at Fig. 1279.
Now with compasses set to the distance with compass set to e", f" (a, Fig.1278),
d", e" (Fig.1278),and using m as centre, draw the arc 8',and cut it with the beam
Fig. 1280." Setting Out to Obtain Soffit Mould.
compass set to the distance 8.

Proceeding
x
in this manner, the irregularline n n' is

obtained, which is the development of the
line m n shown in plan ; then settingoff
distances e' to i/ correspondingto those
in plan from D to l, points are obtained
through which the curved lines for the

soffit mould can be drawn as shown.
Application of Moulds and Making
Joints. The application
"
of the face moulds
to the plank is shown at Fig.1281, the solid
curve lines representingthe outer face
mould appliedto the face of plank. Square
through the plank to the line a b, also to
the line e d, which is at rightangles to
Fig. 1281." Plan and Elevation showing Piece of d p ; then setting a bevel to the angle
Plank with Face Moulds and Bevels Applied. in plan x, Q, M, this can be applied
to the surface E D, as shown in plan
describe the arc 7' ; next, with beam passes
com- at x. The bevel can also be applied to
set to x 7, cut the arc 7',and then, the end a b, as indicated by the dotted
17*
lines at Y. Then by squaring over, the done, the jointsshould next be set out for
face mould for the inside can be applied handrail and dowels
screws ; the boring
to the back side of the plank,as indicated and paring for nuts should next be done,
by* the dotted curves. The next process the screws and dowels inserted,and the
will be to saw to these lines as near as joints drawn tight; then the work
up
possible,after which the jointsshould be should be tested,and any necessary easing
made. In making these,a horizontal and done.
Fig. 1283. " Head with Curved Stretcher

and Soffit Set Out from Mould.
Fig. 1282." Method of Testing Joints with

vertical tangent line,which]ha sjbeendrawn Try Square and Bevel Applied to Tangent
on the face mould as shown, should be Lines.
transferred to the face of the plank, as
indicated at Fig. 1282 ; these lines will be Squaring up the Head. Separate the "
found very useful for the applicationof posts from the head, then true up the soffit
the try square when testingfor the face of the head, of course working exactlyto
edges of the jointsas indicated at a. The the lines made by the aid of the face moulds.
springingjointis also square through the Prepare piece of inch stuff
a the exact
plank, but the crown jointmust have the curve of the plan,bore each end to spond
corre-
bevel applied through the thickness, as with the jointsat the springing,and
indicated at b. The jointsat the tops of fasten on as shown at Fig. 1283. Fasten
the posts should now be planed true. This this piece of board to the springingjoints
Pig. 1287." Conventional View showing the General Construction of Transom and Cornice,
and the Intersection with Stonework and Door Post.
Fig. 1289.
Fig. 1288.
Figs. 1288 and 1289." Methods of Secret Fixing of Mouldings.

mouldings on the outside are cured

se-
by screwing from the inside

of the panels as illustrated at a
(Figs.1288 1289). To obviate

and
any chance of the panels splitting

should shrinkage occur, the holes
in the panels are made by boring
and countersinking two holes the
size of the shank of the screws, and
cutting out the material between ;
thus slots are formed as shown at a
(Figs. 1288 and 1289). These slots

are made longways across the grain.
The inside mouldings are inserted
afterwards ; and by preparingthem
with a movable member as shown
at c (Figs.1288 and 1289), these
can be secured by screws to the
edges of the stiles and rail,as shown,
and then the member c is glued and
inserted in the grooves made to ceive
re-
it.
Apron. "
The carved apron under
the moulding of the top panel is
worked on the solid of the rail as
indicated in the section at a (Fig.

1277) ; although a little more trouble,
this method is superior to planting
on. The small carved scroll pedi-
ments,
which form a finish to the top
panels, are drawn in section at a
(Fig. 1276), where they are shown

Fig. 1290. Fig. 1291.
tongued to the top rail ; being ellip-
tical
on the inside allows of this Fig. 1290. -Elevation of Circle-on- Circle Door and
fixingbeing hidden by the ing

mould- Frame.
b (Fig.1276). The inner reveals

Fig. 1291. Section of Circle-on-Circle Door Frame.
for these frames are very often
built parallel, and sometimes a
toothingis left ; the space being built

up close,or near to, and after the
frame has been
position; placed in
wood blocks or other means of fixing
being built in the wall as required.
Although the foregoingdescriptionis
necessarilybrief, the accompanying
illustrations are sufficiently clear to
show all details, the more ordinary
construction being similar to previous
examples.
Circle = on = Circle Work.
Figs. 1290 to 1300 illustrate an
example very similar to the last ; Fig. 1292." Plan of Circle-on-Circle Door Frame.
as a rule, it [would be found only in top. When the

jointis made, try the head,
buildings of rather ordinary class. It which will have
the appearance
now of Fig.
will be seen by the plan that the jambs 1293, without the lines,over its plan ; its
of the I parts do not radiate ; the inner back and front faces should stand perpendicu-
larly
arris of the soffit of the arch is a circle,
semi- the lines 1'eg and a'
over c d, and its
and thus, on account of the radius ends completelycover the sections of the
of the plan not being great and the tures
curva- jambs (Fig.1292). The head has now to
being very flat,the outer arris of be worked to the plan curve.
the head of the frame can also be taken Ascertaining Plan Curves. " Divide the
as a semicircle. A simple method will soffit of the head of the frame into
now be shown and explainedof settingout any number of equal parts between the
and the
constructing head with one mould springinglines (as in Fig. 1290), number-
ing
only. them on each side, from springingto
Circle-on-Circle Door Frame constructed centre ; the greater the number of parts,
with One Mould. "
Fig.1290 shows the front the more accurate will be the curve. From
elevation of aby 3-in. semicircular- these points drop perpendiculars
4-in. into the
headed solid door frame, with single plan,cuttingthe tangents or block lines of
rebated paralleljambs, oak sill,double the head (seeFig.1292),and numbering the
rebated and 2-in.
weathered
a lines to correspondwith the elevation.
transom, The
and
glazed fixed fanlight, four-panel utility of projecting 2-in.
the plan from the eleva-
a tion
door, moulded outside, with the bottom will now be apparent. Next, placethe
panels bead flush inside. Fig. 1291 shows head over its plan,as shown in Fig. 1293,
a central vertical section, and Fig. 1292 the keeping its centre perpendicularly over the
plan. In beginninga job of this description,centre line in the plan ; with the aid of a set
an elevation of the head down to the transom square, transfer to its face the lines 1, 2, 3, 4,
should be get out full size on a rod, and mediately
im- etc., from the like numbered points in the
beneath it,and projectedfrom it, plan. Lines must now be drawn on the
the plan should also be set out. To get the top and bottom edges from these, parallel
thickness of the stuff requiredout of which with the joint; and to do this,take the joint
to get the head, assuming that the head will bevel,and applyit to each line in succession,
be made in two piecesjointedat the centre, holdingthe stock level,and the inside edge
draw lines from the centre to the outside of the blade to the point from which the
edgesof the jambs, on the inside of the plan line has to be drawn. The head now having
(gee a' c d, Fig. 1292) ; also draw two lines the lines drawn as in plan and elevation
with
parallel these, touching the curve on must have the points marked where the
the outside, as 1' e g, which gives the curve intersects these lines. Set a pair of
thickness of the pieceof stuff required. To compasses or springdividers to the widths
find its length,either go through the same r a and r a' (Fig.1292),and transfer them
process in the elevation,drawing the ends to the head at the springingjointon each
square with the tangent lines,or preferably, side. Do the same throughout the series b',
make the mould fg,jh squared out from each
transferring width to its proper position
the lines justdrawn, usingordinates to obtain on the top and bottom edges of the head,
this, as in the previous example ; pointshave been prickedoff, or it until all the
can be struck out with a trammel, being a as shown in the enlargedsketch of one side
quarter of an ellipse. Cut out two pieces of the head (Fig.1294). Now draw the curve
make
to this mould square from the face,and through the points thus obtained,either by
the jointsat the centre and springingthe freehand or by the aid of a thin stripbent
same as the end of the mould. For the round the head and kept to the points. The
horizontal cut, set a bevel as shown on the two pieces can be worked off to the lines,
plan,and applyit on the edge of the stuff from keeping them straight across the face in
the face. A handrail screw and a coupleof the direction of the ordinates. They
cross-tongues may be used for the head should be tested by moving a set square,
the nuts,
joint, of course, goingin from the held perfectlyupright, carefullyaround
the curve, and seeingwhether the face fits groove made in the end, thus drawing
close up to it. the curve as true as if it had been struck on
Lining Out Elevation Curve. " The plan a flat surface ; the operation should be re-peated
I curves having been worked, the next thing on the other side of the head, first
iis to line out the elevation curve. This is taking the stretcher off and turning it over.
|done in the manner shown by Fig. 1295. Moulding and Rebating Frame Head. "
'"
Cut in tightlybetween the ends of the head The soffit having been worked off to the
Ia stretcher as shown, and screwing it to the lines,the head is ready for moulding and
! joints.Lay the head on the bench top,
j packingit up level ; then fix a small block
J in the middle of the stretcher, of such a
height as to bring its top level with the
highestpoint on the head. Draw a line to
representthe springingline,and upon this

mark the exact centre ; this will be the point
Fig. 1294." Back of Head
of Circle-on-Circle Door
Frame, showing Method
Fig. 1293. " Sketch of Head of Circle-on-Circle Door Frame of Obtaining Points in
before Shaping. the Curve.
from which to describe the semicircles of rebating,as, unless the frame is going into
the elevation with the fallingcompass now a stone reveal, it will be unnecessary to do
to be described. Get a piece of lightdeal anything to the back of the head. The
about 2 ft. long,f in. thick, and 2 in. wide rebate should be worked first,
a quirkrouter
at one end, tapering to \ in. at the other, being used to sink small groove,
a \ in. deep,
and in it cut slight hollow
a or V as and 2 in. from the inside face ; run a ting
cut-
a bed for the pencil. Mark on the edge gauge, with a rounded fence, set to
the distances of the inside and outside of \ in., round the inside face, and remove
the jamb, and bore holes with a bradawl the core with a bent chisel. Finish up the
through these points, square from the rebate with a round-soled thumb rebate
bottom edge ; these will give the radii plane,and work a f -in. bead on the rebated
for soffit and outside lines of the head. edge and a bead on the
-J-in. outside.
Fix the compass as shown in Fig.1295, and, Circle-on-Circle Door Frame : Completion.
beginning at the crown, move it steadily " The head can now be gluedup at the centre
round, lettingthe pencil slip down the jointand cleaned off,the stretcher screwed
on and this part set aside whilst the remain-

ing width of the jamb, and it will eventually be
portionsof the frame are being worked. cut f in. back from the face edge in order to
The transom and the oak sillwill be got out clear the rebate in the head ; reference to
to the plan moulds and worked to their Fig.1298 will make this plain. The end of
respectivesections after having been tised
mor-
and tenoned. In settingout the sill
Fig. 1298." Enlarged Section of Jamb for Circle-
on-Circle Door Frame.

Fig. 1295. " Sketch of Head of Circle-on-Circle Door
Frame Shaped to Plan Curve, with Falling
the key head should be tapered,to avoid
Compass Describing Elevation Curve.
weakening the head more than can be
and transom to width, work to the sight avoided, and the sides of the keys should be
lines of the head, making the shoulders to cut to the same bevel as the jambs are worked
the to. The shoulders should also be
quirksof the beads on it. Get out the cross-
jambs from stuff about 8 in. longer than tongued and stopped inside,as shown.Âs
the lengthbetween the springingand under
side of the sill,
to allow for the key tenon
at the springing,
and true up these to the
Fig. 1299." Enlarged Section of Transom for

Circle-on-Circle Door Frame.
mentioned, double tenons are used for" the

transom ; this is to avoid "cutting
the fibres
at the root of the key, and the insides of the
mortices should come in line with the outside
lines of the key, and in thickness they should
be TV in. under the half of the remaining
wood. Fig.1299 is a section of the transom ;
Figs. 1296 and 1297." Enlarged Details of Joint at
Springing of Circle-on-Circle Door Frame.
Fig. 1300. -Enlarged Section of Head at Crown of
section shown Set these out Circle-on-Circle Door Frame.

at Fig. 1298.
from the section, or height rod, for mor-
tising,
as shown at Figs. 1296 and 1297, and Fig. 1300 a section of head at crown.
for Having set the sightlines of the jambs on the

also for shoulders key tenon as
shown. The thickness of the stem face edge of the transom, measure out and :
thickness of
should be just under one-third of the pencil lines representingthe
jamb,prickthe mortice gauge upon these two

lines namely, the inside and
"
outside of the
jamb and jointhe pointsby
"
a straightline ;
this will give the sides of tenons. Next
the jambs for the rebate and beads.
gauge
These will be worked aftermortising the
and tenoning are completed. In wedging
paint the tenons of the transom and
up,
enter them ; glue the keys on the jambs,
cramp up, and drive the sillon dry to keep
all square ; wedge up the head, then the
transom, cramp the sillfrom the projecting
ends of the keys, and wedge up, painting
both wedges and tenons. If the work is
true and out of winding, a straightedge
applied to the sill and transom inside will
touch the face of the head all round, and a
set-square held to it will fit the soffit in

any part. The fanlight will be managed in
the same way as the head of the frame, in
respectof the plan curve ; finish the fitting
by scribing it into the rebate, one pieceat
a time, fitting the back edge in the same
way, then lininground the soffitwith a slip
of wood the width of the margin. Joint up
at the centre, and work the rebates and
moulding, set the bottom rail out with
square shoulders in both directions, and,

when working the head, make the portion
below the springing square from it. This
will be mortised, the tenon being on the
bottom rail ; the joint in the head will
have to be glued up at the same time as
the rail is wedged.

Circle = on = Circle Swing Doors with
Fanlight.
Figs.1301 and 1302 show a pair of 2J-in.
circle-on-circleswing doors in a solid frame,
with fanlightabove, with a chord rise of
15 in. Details are given in the sectional
views (Figs.
1303 to 1307). The doors are half
Fig. 1301. -Elevation of Circle-on-Circle Swing
glass,with diminished stiles and marginal Doors with Fanlight.
bars, the upper part divided into sections
with concentric radiatingand inverted bars,
the spandrilcorners filled in with sunk and
moulded panels ; apron lining on middle
rail ; ovolo moulded and hollowed frame,
with moulded and denticulated cornice.
The fanlightis fixed in the centre of the
frame, with concentric and radiating bars.
The head of the frame,and the fanlight,
must
Fig. 1302. " Sectional Plan of Circle-on-Circle
be prepared on a cylinder.These could Swing Doors with Fanlight.
40: CARPENTRY AND JOINERY.
Fig. 1303. Fig. 1304. Fig. 1305.
Fig. 1303. "

Enlarged Section of Circle-on- Circle Swing Doors through Transom and Fanlight on
Line A A (Fig. 1301). Fig. 1304. "

Enlarged Section through Upper Part of Circle-on-Circle
Swing Doors on Line B B (Fig. 1301). Fig. 1305. "
Enlarged Section through Lower Part of

Circle-on-Circle Swing Doors on Line C C (Fig. 1301).
Fig. 1306. "

Enlarged Section through Stiles of Circle-on-Circle Swing Doors on Line D D
(Fig.1301).
WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS.
|-in.tongues and \ in. for shooting. The

Sash Frame.
length of the back liningshould be taken
For the present purpose it will be posed
sup- from the under side of the head to the weath-
ering
that a window frame and sashes are of the the width
being \ in. more
sill,
to be made
entirelyby hand, no machine- than from the inside of
liningto the out-
side one
prepared material being used. The sash of the other. The parting slips should
frame is shown by Figs.1310 to 1312, and be of similar length,and If in. by J in. in
it will also be assumed that a rod has section ; the parting beads, also of the
been set out, as explained and illustrated same length, should be preparedout of J-in.
on p. 294, containing the two sections by 1-in. stuff ; the two upright inside or
(Figs. 1310 and 1312). It will be noticed guard beads, of the same length,should be
that the pulleystiles are drawn in line with \\ in. wide, and prepared out of f-in.by
the brick reveal,and the head in line with 1 J -in. stuff. The head and sillbeads should
the head of the brick opening. When thus be a little longer than width the clear
arranged,the size of the openingin the brick-
work between the
pulleystiles,the sill bead to
affords the necessary data for setting be \ in. wider to allow for bevelling. For
out the size of the frame. the sashes, cut all the stuff the exact width,
Materials. " The firstthing to do is to take so that no labour is lost in shooting off
off the quantitiesof the stuff requiredfor superfluousmaterial. Sashes require at
the job : the lengthsof the uprightpieces least TV in. play,and if they are made to
will be taken from the vertical section,and exact width, there will be still sufficient
their widths and thicknesses from the material to allow fitting. The stiles
for
plan ; and the lengths of the horizontal should be \\ in. longer than required,and
pieceswill be found on the plan,and their the rails J in. Cut the bottom rail f in.
widths and thicknesses on the vertical tion.
sec- wider than the finished size, to allow for
Cut the stuff for the inside and side
out- the splay. A careful workman will form
1| in. longerthan
linings as shown on the the splayto fit the sill before gluingup the
height rod, so that when nailed on they will sash. Do not overlook the brackets or
run over each end. Linings are usuallyar-

ranged horns on the stiles of the upper sash.
so that two of equal width may be Preparing the Stuff. " The side and head
cut out of a 9-in. board ; the head linings liningsshould be faced on their best sides,
should be cut \ in. longer than the clear shot on their best edges, and gauged to
length between the pulleystiles ; and the thickness for \\ in. from their face edges ;
head and sill should be each 2 in. or 3 in. the remaining portion of the back sides,
longerthan the width of the frame over all. being hidden in the casing,need not be
When fitting up, the horns should be left on, planed,except when the liningis considerably
as they are sometimes handy for fixing,and, thicker than required, then it must be
if not required, they can always be cut off. either thicknessed the whole breadth or
The lengthof the pulleystiles should be equal rebated out to the distance of the back of
to the distance from the top of the head to the pulley stile,otherwise the shoulder
the weatheringof the sill; and the width formed on the edge of the stile by the
should be f in. more than the clear width rebate for tongue would require to be
between the linings, which allows for two splayed,and much time would be lost in
404
WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS. 405
/ k
Fig. 1310. " Vertical Section Fig. 1311." Outside Elevation.

of Sash Frame.
3 0
Fig. 1312." Horizontal Section.

fitting.Put the best stuff on the inside of round or a proper throating

plane. Plough
the frame, as nearly all the outside lining in the two grooves for the window nosing !
is hidden in the brickwork. The head and and water bar, the former " in. by | in.,
the pulleystiles should be planed straight
and of winding,and be gauged to width,
out
includingthe tongues ; the inside edges

should be the back sides
gauged to thickness,
being left
rough. The oak sill is usually
suppliedof rough wedge-shape section, as
shown at Fig. 1317, which facilitates work-
ing
and economises material. Commence
by takingthe bottom or the flat side out of
winding. Square the widest edge from this,
and gauge it to 3 in. thick, as indicated at
Fig. 1313." Enlarged Detail at Sill.
Fig. 1318. Gauge the width J in. more

A,
than the thickness of the frame over all,in
order to allow for subsequent shrinkage.
Most shops keep standard patterns of sills,
which should be used for marking the ends
indicated at Fig. 1317 ; but if one of these
is not to hand, carefully mark the section
shown on the rod upon each end, gauging
and ploughingfrom the inside to the sary
neces-
widths and depths. The best method

will be to first work off the top flat square
with the face (Fig. 1318), then to set the
plough to the inside of the partingbead

(see Fig. 1319),and run a J-in.groove to
Fig. 1314." Housings at Head and Sill.
the depth of sinking; gauge the outside
edge If in., and work off the weathering

with a badger plane. Next the width the latter J in. by J in.,completing the
gauge
the bevel to the sash planing up as shown at Fig. 1320. The
of the flat, set
slope, and work off to the bevel ; then positionof the water bar being taken from
with either No. 1 the stone sill,it often in line with
work the throating t a comes
the outer edge pulleystile (see Fig.

of the above the rod at Fig. 1323. Square
1310).
need
should
not
be
The backliningsand partingslips
be wrought.
stuck on
The partingbeads
the edge of a so-called
jected up the inside lines or faces of the pulley
Fig. 1317. "

Rough Sill with Template Applied.
Fig. 1318." Sill with Surfaces ABC

and D Worked.
Fig. 1315." Enlarged Detail through Pulley

Stile, etc.
j |-in.board with a TVin- bead plane,gauged

; to | in.wide, and mulleted to f-in. tight.
The Fig. 1319." Sill Ploughed and Set Out for
,
guard beads can be worked on the face
i of Weatherings.
a lj-in.board with a -f-in.bead plane as
shown at Fig. 1321, then sawn justoutside
Fig. 1320." Sill Worked, and Set Out for Housings

and Linings.
Fig. 1321. -Preparing Guard Bead on Flat of

Board.
Fig. 1316." Enlarged Detail at Head.
the quirkand planedto it,or on the edge of

a f-in.board, as indicated at Fig. 1322, and
then cut off IJin. wide, and planed to the
quirk for thickness.
Setting Out the Frame. "
Lay the sill on
the width rod with the face upwards and Fig. 1322. -Preparing Guard Bead on Edge of
the face edge inwards. The sillis shown pro- Board.

stiles,
and square the lines over the top and across the top of sill by placingthe plate
tem-
bottom, indicated at a, and b in Fig. 1323. againstthe shoulder lines a and e and
To facilitatemarking the weathered side, scribing.Gauge up from the bottom
on of the
make block template of sill for the
a square or a depth of the sinkingso that it
piece of stuff. To do this, plane up a will come J in. below the lowest point of the
Fig. 1323." Sill Set Out from Rod, and ApplicatioiTof Template'A.
Fig. 1324." Setting Out Head from Sill.
Fig. 1325. " End of Head Mortised for Parting Slip and Pared to receive Linings.
pieceof deal 10 in. long,5 in. wide, and thick weathering see the dotted line between
"
e
enough to plane up, taperingfrom 2 in. to and g (Fig. 1323). Gauge the sinkings
1J in. in the breadth of the sill as indicated for the linings
at each end, as shown at H
at c and d in Fig. 1323. Next rebate one and k (Fig.1323),the outside one being set
side to fit the section of the sillas shown at equal to the width a to B. In working,
Fig. 1321. With this the thickness of the chase the cross then
sinking first, rip out
pulleystiles plusthe wedging can be marked the liningsinkingsas shown by Fig. 1314.
WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS.
SettingOut Sash Frame Head." To set out tongues should be cut off ateach end, as
the head, placethe sill on it and mark the shown at Figs.1324 and 1325,for the linings
*
' facelines of the pulleystile, a and to bed.
as b
(Fig.1324) ; square over the face,and gauge Setting Out Pulley Stiles." Set out the
for the housing f in.,which may be made pulleystiles from the heightrod, and mark
Fig. 1327." First Stage

of SettingOut Pulley
Stiles from Rod.
Fig. 1328. Second Stage of Setting Out Pulley

Stiles.
Fig. 1329." Third Stage of Setting Out Pulley

Stiles.
Fig. 1330." Pulley Stile Rebated, Mortised for
Pulleys, and Tongued.
shown off the sight lines of the head and sill.

to receive a J-in.tongue as at a, or
the full thickness of the pulleystile as at b Mark off the lengthsfor the housingsat each
(Fig. 1324). Mark off a lf-in. end, also for pocketsand
J-in. by pulleys,
as shown,
mortice at each end, J in. behind each pulley run down gauge lines for the tongues, and
the for the parting bead.
stilein the centre of the width for the parting plough groove
f -in. each edge, the The bead is not in the middle ; its position
slip. Gauge a tongue on
inside one on the back and the outside one will be found on the rod (see Fig. 1310).
shown 1324. These Next finish cutting out the pocket,which is
on the face, as at Fig.
18
usuallyabout 6 in. up from the sill and shown by Fig.1311, 5 in. down and f in. on,
about in.
long on the inside portionof
12 but leave the bottom end until fitting
on.
the stile; the length will be determined Working the Stuff. " The method of work-
ing
by the height of the sashes. Square these the sillhas

alreadybeen explained; it
should always be prepared before
settingout the frame. In preparing
the head, the housing for the stiles
should be worked then mortices
first,
cut for parting slips,and the
the
edges rebated for the tongues. In
preparingthe pulley stiles,square
the ends, mortise for the pulleys(see
Fig. 1331. Back of Pulley Stile Bored and Sawn for Fig. 1330), and plough the parting
Pocket. groove \ in. by f in. In cuttingthe
pocket, if it is desired to utilise
lines over from the inside edge to the the removed material for the pocket
ploughed groove e f (Fig.1328). Mark piece,make a fine cut with a dovetail saw
two other lines J in. within them for the halfway through at the lower end, and a
rebates, and square these over on the similar one at the top end, but undercut as
back side. In settingout the mortices for shown at a in Fig. 1331, and in Fig. 1332.
the pulleys,
note must be taken of the ticular
par- Turn over the stile and bore a f-in.hole at
kind in use. The top of the plateis each end exactlywhere the rebate fines cross
usuallykept 1 J in. down from the

the partinggroove. Stop the hole when it
head, and
the mortice is made tightly. reaches the groove, and run the saw down
to fit the case
To ascertain the position, mark the thick-

ness on the lines halfway through, as shown by
of the sash on each side of the parting Fig. 1331. With a pad-saw cut a fine fine
groove, and gauge in the centre ; pair the halfway down the parting groove as near
pulleystiles,and strike the lines over and the outside as possible(see b, Fig. 1331),
gauge as indicated at Figs.1328 and 1329.

The only settingout needed for the linings
is the gauging for the grooves. The tion
posi-
of the pulleystiles,head, and back lining
will be found on the width rod (seealso Figs.
-Front and Edge Views of Pocket Fig. 1333." End of Pulley Stile Wedged and Nailed
Fig. 1332.
Piece in Sill.
1315 and 1316). The back is ploughed

fining but do not knock the piece out. Form
into the inside liningand nailed on the edge rebates as on the head, and fitin the pulleys,
of the outside lining. The top ends of the Before screwing these in, take a shaving
be cut and mitered with smoothing plane off the face of the
outside linings
may as a
Fig. 1341." Stiles of Top Sash. First
Setting Out from Rod.
Fig. 1338." First Setting

Out from Rod for
Stiles of Bottom
Sash.
Fig. 1337." Height Rod
for Sashes. Bottom Stiles

Fig. 1339."
completely Set Out
Fig. 1340." Bottom Stile

Fig. 1342." Top Stiles
completed Ready to Receive
completely Set Out.
Rails.
Fig. 1343." Top Stile pletely

com-
Worked to Receive
Rails.
the bottom of the sill as illustrated at Fig. lj-in.nails. Cut one end of the head lining
1334. Test the frame for squareness with square, put it in place,mark the length,
a rod, pushing the skeleton in either tion
direc- and square off slightly
full ; this will make
until the lengthsbetween the opposite a good shoulder. Keep the linings
flush on
corners are equal, then lightlydrive a the back side, and drive a nail through the
Fig. 1347." Top

Rail completely
Set Out.
Fig. 1346."
Bottom Rail pletely

com-
Set Out.
Fig. 1345." First
Setting Out of
Rails from Rod.
1344." Width Rod for Sashes.
coupleof nails through the backôfthe head back edge as shown by Fig.1335. Fit in the
into the quartering.Cut off the projecting beads tightly; the head and sillbeads should
ends of the wedges,the tongues on the head not be mitered right through, but stopped
beyond the stiles,and the tongue off the side halfway, and rebated, as shown by Fig.
of the pocket piece. Give the lower end of the 1336 ; drive one brad in each to keep
pocketpiecea smart blow with the hammer it in place. Cut the liningsoff flush with
from the back ; this will break it at the the sill,
and smooth up. Turn the frame
rebate. Next nail on the side liningswith over and test whether it is square " if
not, make it so ; then put in the parting

keeping them
slips, 1 in. short of the sill,
and drive a nail through the top end, as
shown at r (Fig.1316) ; put on the outside

linings,trimming off the sill to the level of
Fig. 1348." End of Top Rail, showing Moulded
thepulleystiles if necessary ; fix the back
Edge and Scribing. liningwith 1-in. nails ; nail the head linings
as before ; cut off the ends and smooth up.
Only f in. of the frame is seen on this side,
so not much trouble need be taken, except
with the sill. Stand the frame up and glue
in theangleblocks on the head about 3 in.
apart, care being taken to have one over
Fig. 1349. " End of Top Rail, showing Haunching. each shoulder (see Fig. 1335). The frame
is now finished,and may be stood aside
while the sashes are being prepared.
Fig. 1350." End of Meeting Rail of Bottom Sash
l
Set Out.
Fig. 1355. " Portion of Rail completed.
Setting Out Sashes. Lay a stileon the rod "
as shown in Fig. 1337, in which the frame

has been omitted for clearness,and square
up the sightlines, pairthe stiles,and set out
mortices for top and bottom rails half the
Fig. 1351." Tenon Sawn and

width of the stuff,
or a little more (seea and
Ploughed.
D, Figs. 1338
1341), and and the joints
for the meeting rails full width, which will
be dovetails instead of mortices (seeB and c,
Figs. 1338 and 1341). Square the line of
the bracket over on the top stiles,and
mark two lines on the back edge of the
stiles 10 in. and 14 in. from
respectively the
Fig. 1352." End of Bottom Meeting Rail pleted
com-
top ends for the line groove and the knot
(scribedat A) for fitting into Stile.
hole. The remainder of the settingout and
completion of the stiles will be stood
under-
from Figs. 1338 and 1343. Set out
the bars from the stiles,
allowingextra at
each end for the sticking
; in the case
of lj-in.sashes this would be in. Next

y~-
set out the rails from the width rod (Fig.
Fig. 1353." Top Sash Meeting Rail Set Out.
1344), but do not overlook the sticking;
place the four togetheras shown at Fig.
1345 ; square the sightlines,and continue
these over the back edges of the top and
bottom rails for the haunching,as shown at
Figs.1346 and 1347. Set a mortice gauge

to the size of the square shown, which,
Fig. 1354." Tenons Cut and Rebated. together with the will
sticking, be | in.
Allow for the moulding J in. on, and run the The bevelled sides are not to be cut at the
gauge down all the face edges, with the shoulder,but must run over the faces of the
exceptionof the top meeting rail ; also set and, for preference,
stiles, are sunk in J-in.
a gauge to -yw in.,and run it on both faces of dovetailingas indicated at Figs. 1340
all the stuff. The entire operation,from and 1343. Plough a J-in. groove in
first marking off the rod to the completion the back of each stile,down to the 10-in.
of the top and bottom rails,is shown line for the cord. Bore a f-in.hole at the
by" Figs. 1345 to 1349. Mark a dovetail
as shown by Fig. 1340 on the upper ends
of the bottom stiles,and draw or trace the
profileof the brackets on the top stiles.
Working the Sashes. " Mortise the stiles
and tenon the rails,mortisingthe backs of
these for the haunching (seeFigs.1348 and
1349) ; also cut the dovetails in the meeting
rails (Figs.1351 and 1354) ; then work
the rebates with a sash fillister,and stick
the moulding a (Figs. 1349 and 1352).
Cut the shoulders of the tenons, and scribe
them to the section of the moulding. Cut
away the moulding on the stiles at

the mortices to within | in. of the sight
" "
line,but let the
square remain on to
form the haunching,as shown by Figs.1340
and 1343. When the bars, remem-
scribing ber
that the end of the top one which fits in

the meeting rail i.3to be left square, as there
is no moulding on this rail as shown at Fig.
1356. The moulded horns or brackets at
the ends of the stiles should be worked,
cramping together one or more pairs of
with
stiles, a piece of against waste wood
the last stile to
prevent the edge from
breaking(seeFig. 1357). The meeting rails
should be gauged to T%- in. wider than
the thickness of the stiles, and bevelled in
pairs as shown by Figs.1351, 1352, and 1355.
Fig. 1356.
Fig. 1356. " Joints of Bar

with Top Rail 'and
Meeting Rail.
Fig. 1357." Method of
Moulding Horns of Stiles
Fig. 1357 to Top Sash.

14-in. line,f in. deep, and meet it with sashes, cut off .the horns, shoot the top rails
a f-in.hole bored down from the bottom of and
straight, fit the sashes into the frame.
the plough Fit the rails into the Take the side beads
groove. out, also the parting
stiles,
and the bars into the rails. Take a beads, cut a rod TV in. shorter than the clear
shaving off all the inside edges and the length between the pulley stiles,and try
meeting ends of the stiles, also the bottom it on the sash ; if it is too
top wide, reduce
side of the top meeting rail, and knock the the stiles equallyto the width of the rod.
sashes together preparatory to gluingthem Cut the overhanging part of the meeting
up. Lay a pairof sash cramps on the bench rail back for f in. flush with the stile,
try the
so^thatthey will pinch either on or outside sash in the frame, and put in the parting
t"
Fig. 1359." Joint of Outside
Lining with Sill".
Fig. 1358." Joint between

Bottom Rail and Stile. Joint
Fig. 1360. " of Top Meeting
Rail and Stile.
Fig. 1361." Dovetail Joint of Fig. 1362." Enlarged

Bottom Meeting Rail and Section through Meeting
Stile. Rails. Fig. 1363." Face of Template.
the rails; if inside they will bend the stiles. beads. The sash should run freely,with
An alternative way is to lay two piecesof about -3Vin. clearance all round ; fix it in
quartering
out of winding on the bench, lay placewith a prop. Shoot the bottom sash
the sashes these, and use cramps
on above. to the width of the rod, and try it in the
Knock the stiles off,glue the tenons of the frame. Set a pairof compasses to the width
bars, knock the rails on, place the ends between the top sides of the meeting rails
of the tenons into the mortices, glue both (or a shaving less, in order to allow for
mortices and tenons, and cramp and wedge shrinkage in the bottom rail),and scribe
up, a rod havingbeen previously

used diagon-
ally along the outside of the bottom rail from
in order to make sure that the work is the bevel on the sill. Mark the bevel from
quite square. Put a screw through the this line on the and
stiles, work the sash
bottom meetingrail from the back side,and accordingly.Run a weather groove along
wedge the bars straight. If they are then the bottom edge, and bevel off the face to
crooked, drive the wedge most on the hollow fit the bead. Put the sash in place,and
side. When the glue is dry, clean up the replacethe guard beads. Figs.1358 to 1362
show details of the in

joints the sashes. The pieceof hardwood, about 6 in. long,of the
letter references in Figs. 1310 to 1335 are : same width as the sash stuff " which may
A, insidelining; b, d,outside lining; c and be taken at If in.,and -^ in. thick. Square
head lining; e, pulleystile ; f, frame head ; each end, and, distant therefrom the thick-
ness
G, guard bead ; h, head bead ; J, parting of the meeting rail,each end should
slip; k, back lining; m, parting bead ; n, be squared round and sunk as shown in the
side view given in Fig. 1365. The mortice
gauge, having been set to the work, should
now be run along each face from its tried-
up edge, and the dovetails marked and
cut, givingthem about J-in.bevel. One end
" "
should be legiblymarked top and the
"
other bottom," and the tried-up mark
should be placedon both faces and to one
edge. To
template,proceed as
use the
follows : Take the bottom pair of stiles
" which should be about -^ in. too long at
the top end laythem togetheron the bench
"
with the tried-upedges outwards in each

Fig. 1364. -Template applied to Stile of Bottom
setting-out case, of them,
set to one on the
Sash.
meeting rail,that line of the under side of
sash rail ; R, sill; s, sillbead ; t, throating. portion of the templatesquared across and
"
The description of the construction of the marked bottom," so that its tried-upedge
sash frame and sashes is now complete,but corresponds with the tried-upedge of the
the next four paragraphs will discuss in pulleystile,and then mark the dovetails
detail some of the operationsbriefly de- with
scribed the setting-out knife as cated
indi-
at Fig. 1364. Serve the other stile
above, and will suggest alternative
methods. the same by turning the template over
on it,then take the meeting rail of the
to
Dovetailing Meeting Rails of Sashes. bottom sash, fix it in the bench screw with
Several methods are adopted in making its face-mark away from the bench, and set
the jointsbetween the meeting rails and

stiles of sashes, and perhapsthe most com-
mon
form of joint is that of the mortice

and tenon, the being stiles to allowed
extend about beyond
3 in. the meeting rails,
and the horns being worked
projecting and
moulded as brackets. This method, ever,
how-
is seldom resorted to in first-classwork,
the jointbeing either mortised and tenoned
in the ordinary way, or else dovetailed.
In the former case no matter how good
"
the jointmay be as the mortice is cut with

"
a saw in the same way as the tenon, there

is always a risk of thejoint becoming Fig. 1365." Template applied to End of Meeting
loosened by the frequent use of the sash :; Rail of Bottom Sash.
this trouble may be entirelyobviated by
" "
the adoption of the dovetail jointalready the end of the templatemarked bottom
illustrated and described. Assuming on the end of the rail ; make their tried-up
that the stuff for the sashes is planed edges agree, and then mark the end
up and set out, it will be necessary of the rail as shown at Fig. 1365.
to prepare a template as shown in If these ends are previously rubbed

Fig. 1363 ; this should be made out of a with chalk it will be found an advantage.
18*
The oppositeend of the same rail is marked meeting rail runningthroughfor the purpose
in similar way
by turningthe templateover. of
a
bevelling;while b shows a projection
The top stiles and meeting rails are marked of the stile and meeting rail of the top sash,
in a similar manner, using the end of the with the moulding cut away on the stile
"
template marked top ; but the tried-
"
and the meeting rail runningthrough on the
up side of the template is used from the inside for bevellingpurposes. In putting
rebated side of the rail and stile instead the sashes together,these jointsshould be
of from the face or tried-up side. A mortice pinned ; and if these instructions are fol-lowed,
gauge set to the tops of the dovetails should the difficultiesexperiencedwill be
now be run across the ends of the stiles, few and slight.
and should also be set for and run alongthe
tops and under
sides of the rails ; these lines Cutting Pockets in Sash Frames.
are requiredtoto, and the cutting

cut should There are several methods of cutting
be done in the same manner as for ordinary pockets in sash frames, and one has been
Fig. 1366. "

A, Dovetailed Joint between Meeting Rail and Stile of Bottom Sash ; B, Dovetailed
Joint between Meeting Rail and Stile of Top Sash.
mortising and tenoning namely, " outside described at pp. 409 and 410. An old-
the line for the tenon or dovetail,and side
in- fashioned
by Figs.1367 to method is shown
for the mortice. The mortised portions 1369, which represent the pocket as being
on the stiles and rails should be cut out, cut in the centre of the pulley stile. This was
and the shoulders should be partlycut in at one time the generalmethod, but it is
previousto rebatingand moulding. This seldom resorted to now, for the following
completed,it will be found that at the tops reasons : The hole,when cut in the centre
"
of the bottom stiles a small portion of of the stile, necessitated the use of a new
the square will be left which will require piece of stuff to form the pocketpiece, and,
chiselling off ; but on the bottom of the in varnished work, the new piece had to j
top stiles the whole of the mould will match in grainas nearlyas possible to the
requireremoving up to the setting-out line, pulleystile. This involved loss of time,first

as well as a Small portion of the square left in selecting the piece,and afterwards in
on the rebate side. Of course, it will be fitting it. When cords were renewed, the
noted that the shoulders on the rails re-
quire removal of the pocketpiecebroke the surface
to be longerby the distance of the of the paint,and its outline looked ragged
rebate and of the moulding. A reference to and unsightly when replaced, a portion of it
the isometrical views (a and b, Fig.1366)will beingalwaysexposed to view. Figs.1370 to

explainthe processes : a showinga projection 1372 represent a method now generally
of the bottom stile and meeting rail,with adopted. It is superiorto the old,because
the moulding left on the stile, the meeting it takes less time, and is easier of construction.
rail scribed round it,and the back of the The original piececut out is re-used to close
give the pocket piecea tap or two with a is cut out and re-used in the same manner
mallet, and it will break off. The ragged as in the ordinary method, but the top and
stripof timber that formed the junctioncan
be pared off with the chisel on the stile and
planed off on the pocket piece. With the
bevel at the same angle as before,but re-versed,
mark and cut off from the top or
apex of the pocket piece the cleat f (Fig.

1371). Fix the pocket piece in its place
with a fine screw at the bottom (asshown),
Say a No. 6, but do not countersink the
head, because, if the frame is painted, this
would be puttiedup and would be difficult to
find when wanted. Reverse the stile,and *
fix the cleat which has been cut off the
top of the pocket pieceby forcingit down
into its positiona trifle inside the throat of
the Glue and Fig. 1373. Fig. 1374.
pocket at the top, as shown.
securelysprigit,then put it on one side to
dry. The pocket piece will be found to |.cs^=c==^
stand well flush with the face of the stile,as
shown in dotted lines. Clean it off (tem-

porarily
removing screw),and run the plough
up the groove to sink it to the same depth
as that on the pulleystile. If this is not
done, the partingbead cannot be driven
Figs. 1373 to 1375. " Part Plan, Elevation, and
home level its entire length,as it should be. Section of Pulley Stile,showing Improved Method
More Elaborate Method." Figs. 1373 to of Cutting Pocket in Sash Frame.
1375 representa somewhat but more
similar,
elaborate,method of constructingpockets bottom of the opening,etc.,are dealt with
" suitable for better class work. The The
piece differently. top cut is the same, but
Fig. 1376." General View of
Cramps and Sash Cramped

Up.
less acute, and, instead of a bevelled saw fittingand fixingthe hardwood stop B
cut at the bottom, two transverse cuts a a shown in Fig. 1374.

(Figs.1373 and 1374) are made, one at the
Wedging Up Sashes.
back and one at the front,J in. apart. When
the piece is knocked out, this cally
verti-
splits A method of wedging up sashes is de-
scribed
down the centre between the two cuts, on p. 416. A simple improvised
and must be left so. At the top of the
opening at back, and in the centre, let in a
pieceof oak b 2 in. long,1 in. wide, and \ in.
thick,gluedand screwed in as shown. This
forms a cleat against which the pocket
pieceis checked ; in the latter a chase is cut
Fig. 1377. "

Enlarged Detail of Cramp and Wedge for "Wedging Window Sashes.
to correspond. It is important that no cramp used for this purpose is illustrated in

more should be cut out to form this chase Fig. 1376. It can be made out of ing
quarter-
than is absolutely
necessary, so as to ensure about 3 in. by 3 in. Of course, smaller
good jointsat c and d. Let the saw cuts or largersizes used, according to the
can be
a a be slightlypitched towards the front, sizes of the be wedged up.
sashes At
to
as this will facilitate fitting
in the pocket one end a 1-in. or lj-in.mortice must be
piece. Screw in when finished. In common made rightthrough as shown at Fig. 1377,
work pad-saw
a is used in place of the where it will be seen that the back of the
pocket chisel,the saw being started from mortice is vertical,and the front part
a centre-bit hole in the corner. This method splayedso as to fitthe wedge. Then a cleat
requires more care in fixing,and is less should be nailed or screwed on, and the end
satisfactory
than the use of the pocket of it that comes in contact with the wedge
chisel. Another method, and one that is should be splayedat the same angleas the
frequently
used, is to cut the top end on both
sides with a pocket chisel or dovetail saw
Fig. 1379." Application of Rod for Testing

Fig. 1378. " Rod for Testing Diagonals. Diagonals.
as shown at Fig.1331. The jointa, formed mortice. important point to keep in

An
by breaking away pocket the piece from the view is thatback of the wedge which
the
stile,acts as a stop, and so obviates the fits against the piecethat goes against the
additional cost which would result from stile should all the while keep vertical while
beingdriven down. At the other end of the is shown at Fig. 1378, and the method of
piece of quarteringa cleat should be nailed using it is indicated by the dotted lines at
on. It will be found .best to make the Fig. 1379. Say diagonala c is longerthan
wedges of hardwood. The distance between that at b d, then the end of the stile at c
the back of the cleat and the back of the or at a must be struck with the hammer
wedge should be sufficient to allow of the until the diagonalsare
to be equal. found
insertion of a piece of stuff at each end, The next thing will
gluethe ends of the be to
to fit up against each stile as shown at a wedges. This is usuallydone by dippingthe
and b (Fig.1376). These piecesshould be ends in the glue-pot.They should then be
about 1 in. off at each end from the tenons inserted in the holes which have been made
and mortices. The object of these
pieces for them, then the inner wedges should just
is to prevent cramps the bending in the be driven in hand-tight. Then the four
stiles. If it is desired to glue up only two outer wedges should be driven well home,
or three sashes, one cramp will be sufficient. and the inner wedges driven home.
finally
If there are several,it would be decidedly
better to have two cramps, as shown at Fig.
Fig. 1380." Mouse for Sash Line.
Fig. 1381. Attaching Fig. 1382. Attaching

1376 gluing up, the four
because when " "
;
Cord to Sash by a Knot. Cord to Sash by Nails.
jointshave to be glued at one time, and in
usingone cramp, whilst two jointsare being
Replacing Broken Sash -line.
wedged up, the glue is settingin the other
two, whereas by using two cramps the four Materials, etc. "
Replacinga broken sash-

jointscan be cramped up at once. In line,althoughapparentlya very easy job,
wedging up, the cramps must be fixed across is not reallyso. It is assumed that the
the bench the rightdistance apart, and so disabled sash is the top First procure one.
that they are quite out of winding. The a sufficient lengthof sash-line ; this is sold
" "
sash should be face side down across the in knots of twelve yards,and the proper
cramps, then the stiles should be knocked kind is a plaitedcord formed with four
down halfway off the tenons. Then the strands of hemp fibre,and about f in. in
tenons and shoulders on that side should be diameter. A few town clout nails will also
glued. Care must wanted, and a hammer, a 1-in. or lj-in.
be taken not to get any be
glue on the ovolo moulding, or chisel,pairof pincers, bradawl, punch, and
to put it
"
so near that the glue squeezes out on to the a mouse." The last is formed by rolling
moulding. The sash should be quickly a small pieceof sheet lead,about 2J in. wide,
turned over, so that the face side is up, and into a cylinder,in which is embedded the
the tenons and shoulders on that side glued. end of about a yard of fine cord ; and its
Then the
jointsshould be driven home, and purpose is to pass over the sheave of the
"
the piecesplacedagainstthe sash stiles and pulley,taking first its tail,"and then the
the wedgestightened.Next test the diagon-
als sash-line which is attached to it,down the
with a rod. The generalform of this rod inside of the frame until it reaches the
)ocket or hole where it can be fastened to fixing

is shown in Fig. 1382 ; here a plough
" "
the weight. The mouse is shown bent groove is made, extendinghalfway down the
in Fig. 1380, and attached to the cord, stile,
and the cord is simply nailed in with
ready for passing over the pulley; the tail clouts. To remove these, grasp the cord
in the illustration is short.
relatively with the pincers as close as possible to
Removing First carefullyremove
Beads. "
the nail,lever it steadily
out, and proceed
the guard partingbeads which keep the
and with the others in the same way ; having
sashes in the frame, avoiding bruisingthe released the cord, with an assistant holding
edges of the frame with the chisel,which the sash, tie a slip-knot
in the cord and let
should be a wide If possible,avoid it run
one.
up to the pulley. The bottom sash
bending or breaking the nails which hold having been removed, take off the parting
the bead in ; if this operationis managed beads. Begin at the bottom of these,driv-
ing
the
properly, nails' may be drawn out with the chisel in at the side of the bead
the beads, and may be re-inserted in the
originalholes without driving the heads
back. Insert the chisel at about the middle
of the length of the side bead, and gently
priseit off,working graduallytowards each
end, until all the nails have started, then
pullfirmlywith one hand at the middle of
the bead, so that it may be bent out in a
curve towards the oppositeside. Then sert

in-
the chisel between the sash and the
bottom of the bead, and cause
end the latter
to slippast the mitre of the sill bead, when
it will spring out into the hand. The end
nails will probablybe bent in
slightly this
operation,and should be straightenedwith
the hammer on spare a pieceof wood. If
the sashes fit well,the oppositebead must
also be removed in a similar manner ; but
usuallythere is sufficient play for the sash
to be drawn out diagonally.The broken
cord being in the top sash,the bottom one
must be got out of the way, and with a
strongassistant and a little scheming it may Fig. 1383. "

Removing Pocket Piece of Sash.
be possible
to of the way without
hold it out
removing the cords ; but generallyone at gently,and, as it is levered down, tap the
least of these must be removed, and then edge of the bead on each side with the
the sash can be turned aside horizontally, hammer, when it will spring out of the
hangingby the other. groove ; then carefullyease it past the
Removing and Attaching Cords. " One shoulder on the meeting rail of the top
method of cords
attaching to sashes is shown sash, when it can be drawn out entirely
:
in Fig. 1381 ; here the cord lies in a plough noting which side the beads come from, so
groove in the back of the and
stile, its end, as not transpose them
to when replacing.
passingthrough a hole made at the bottom Draw down the top sash and remove it from
of the groove, comes out into a largerhole the frame, when the end of the broken cord
lower down, where it is tied into a knot to can be extracted and the sash left hanging
prevent it slippingback. To remove this by the other cord for the present. The
all that
fastening, is necessary is to slacken next step is topocket pieceremove the "
the line,draw out the knotted end, and untie a kind of trap-door in the pulley stile,
it with pincers,when
the the end can be through which the weights are inserted ; it
drawn method of will be found either in the middle of the
through. A commoner
\-2\ CARPENTRY AND JOINERY.
pulleystile,justbelow the positionof the of the pocket piece,and, pullingit firmly,

meeting rails,or between the inside edge tap sharplyat the same time with the ham-
and the parting groove, as shown in Fig. mer on the face of the pulleystile,and the
1314. Insert a bradawl near the lower end piecewill be released. Next slipthe hand
Fig. 1384." Weight Sash.
Fig. 1385. " Elevation of Double-Hung Window.
Fig. 1386. "

Horizontal Section of Double-Hung Window.
throughthe opening,pushingthe loose part-

ing
slipon one side, when the disconnected
weight will be found and can be drawn out.
Replacing the Sash-line. " Cut and remove
the broken line from the

eye, and replace
the weight in the opening with its head
sticking
out ; then stretch the cord as much
as possible,cut off the end square with a
"
sharp knife or chisel,
and fasten the tail "
of the mouse to it, just as a rope-end is

" "
whipped ; that is,by a series of half-
hitches drawn tightand close to the end of
the cord, as in Fig. 1380. The cord being
tied bend
securely, the mouse slightly,
as
shown, and pass it over the pulley,and,

keeping the stringin the middle with the
ringers, allow the mouse to run down until
the end of the sash-line can be passed
through the face of the pulley,when the
mouse may be reached with the ringers
through the pocket,and the end of the line
drawn down to the opening. It may next
be fastened to the weight,passingthe end
through the hole in the head, shown in Fig.
1384, and pushing it out through the eye
with a bradawl, when it can be knotted and
drawn back, the knot being hammered into
the eye until it is flush with the sides.
Measure the distance of the end of the
cord
original from thetop edge of the sash
as shown by the and
nail-holes, mark the
same distance on the pulleystile from the
head of frame.
the Pull up the weight
about 1J in. from the bottom, and cut the
cord off to the mark justmade, or, in case of
a knotted cord,as shown in Fig. 1381, suffi-
cient
being added to make the knot. Bring
the sashup position,into
and fix the cord
either by knot or nails as required, taking
care when replacingthe weight that it
goes in on the outside of the partingslip
in the boxing,so that the sliplies between
the two weights. Eeplace the pocketpiece,
the upper end being inserted first and then
the lower knocked home, and fix the part-
ing
beads in place. To get these in, bring
the top sash down to the and
sill, slipthe
lower end of the partingbead between the
overhanging end of the meeting rail and
the groove ; then bend it out slightly in the
middle until the top end will go in its place,
when the remainder may be sprung back and
knocked home. The bottom sash is next
brought round into position,and the leased

re- proceduredescribed above being in obtain-
ing
cord
pulledout straight from its slip-
knot the length of the cord : in this case
and re-fastened in its originalplace. measure the distance of the end of the cord
When re-nxing~theguard beads, enter the from the bottom edge of the sash,and mark
Fig. 1388." Conventional Section of Double-Hung Window.
j^
nh
^J
Fig. 1389. " Joint at Meeting Rail of Top Sash. Fig. 1390. " Joint at Meeting Rail of Bottom Sash.
top end in the mitre, and bend out the it on the pulleystile upwards from the~sill,
middle until the lower end will pass into its and transfer the mark to the cord when the
place. Should the broken cord be in the weightis drawn nearlyclose up to the pulley.
bottom sash,obviously only that one need It sometimes happens that cords are put in
be out, and only the parting bead
taken without being stretched,and, in conse-
quence,
the
covering pocketon the side of the break the weightssoon touch bottom, with
needs removal, the singlevariation in the the result that the top sash will not keep
is tenoned into the jambs,and its lower sur- follows : Jambs, head, and sill of frame,
face is rebated and chamfered similarlyto 2f in. by 3| in. ; bars,1 in.
by If in. ; sash,
the bars. Its upper surface is splayedand stiles,
and top rail,
If in. by If in. ; bottom
rebated to receive the bottom rail of the sash. rail of sash, If in. by 2J in. in its
Fig. 1398. " Joints between Bars
of Solid Window.
widest part ; frieze rail of frame which

meets bottom rail of sash, If in. by 1J in.
Fig. 1395." Detail of Joints at Bottom of Framings

at Transom and Head.
and 1396. -Detail of Joints in Top Sash.

This is shown at Figs. 1392 ;
The under of the frame,

surface of the head
Old-style Casement Windows.
it will be noticed,is splayeda little. This
is to allow the bead marked b, which has Figs.1401 and 1402 are respectively
tions
sec-
to be nailed to the top rail of the sash, to through the jamb, head, and sill of
clear the head of the frame as the sash is a solid casement frame, sunk flush with the
opened. The leadingfinished sizes are as face of a stone wall,which is duly checked
fc=^
Fig. 1406. " Joints at Corners of Frame
and Casements.
Fig. 1400. " Horizontal Section.
Fig. 1405. " Isometric View showing

Method of Fixing Frame.
Fig. 1401. " Vertical Section.
Fig. 1402. "

Horizontal Section.
in order to cover the joint,which mitres

into the lower member of the cornice, as
shown in Fig. 1402. A lead flashinglaid
Fig. 1403. " Section through Head.
to receive the frame. The sillis shown bated

re-
" in. deep, and should be bedded in Section

Fig. 1404." through Sill.
cement, and its ends built into the wall. If
the cornice is carried over the face of the over the cover board of the cornice and up
wall and returned upon it, then the head the face of the wall will prevent the ingress
of the frame can be likewise built in, which of the wet. The
casements, of which there
is the preferablemethod ; otherwise the are out, and are
three, open hung to the
frame may be secured by wedging from the jambs, the centre leaf being fixed. The
lintel,as shown in Fig. 1401. A stout meeting stiles are rebated together. The
mouldingis plantedon the face of the jambs glazing is a leaded lattice. The sections
(Figs.1400 to 1405) show a more unusual should be used

in puttingtrese franes to-
gether,
case ; here the frame projectsbeyond the but
joints the
should be well painted
" "
face of the wall. A j-in.check or rebate with a thick or round oil paint. The
is made all round the inner edge of the wall ties should either be galvanisedor
frame, and the jointin this case should be painted before fixing.
made with red-lead and oil. The frame is
secured by wrought-ironforked angle-ties
sunk back face of the frame
flush into the
and built into the wall (seeFig.1400) ; two
ties on each jamb will be sufficient. The
ties may either be turned up square at the
ends so as to hook behind a stone, or drawn
out to a pin end and sunk into a hole cut in
Fig. 1407. Fig. 1408.
Fig. 1407. " Outside Elevation of Small Casement

Window.
Fig. 1408. " Vertical Section of Small Casement

Window.
Fig. 1409. " Horizontal Section of Small Casement

Window.
the stone. The bracketingfor the cornice

may either be built into the wall,which is
advisable if hardwood is employed for the
cornice,or the stools may be secured to the
wall with jointhooks. Fig. 1406 indicates
the method of joiningthe angles of the Fig. 1410. -Joints of Jamb and Head, and Jamb
frame and casements. The head of the and Sill.
frame runs over the jamb, and is cut off

flush with Small Casement Window.
the outside. The jointis secured
with wedged tenons, which may also be Theconstruction of a solid frame and case-
ment
pinned: In the casement, however, the is shown by Figs.1407 to 1409. The

stile runs through in the usual way, the frame is made of 4-in. by 3-in. stuff,mor-
tised
rails being tenoned into the stile. No glue and tenoned togetherat the jointsas
showr fct Fig. 1410. The frame is also rebated and beaded, the rebates being
rebated'; the rebate on the sillbeingsplayed splayedas shown at Fig. 1412, so that they
for weathering. It will be noticed that the will open more easily.
shoulder to the tenon on the stiles will have
Venetian Sash Frames.
to be^cut on the splayso as to fit the sill as
showr. atFig.1410. The ordinarymethod is Wide sash frames, divided into three or
to jointsand wedges when wedg-

paintthe ing more lightsall in the same plane,are called
but additional securityis obtained Venetian frames ; but if two of the lights
are
up,
inclination the frame
by pinning. The stilesand head are beaded at an to other, the
inside and out as shown. The sides and top becomes a bay. If a frame contains two
rails of the casements are of lf-in.by lf-in. pairs of sashes in the same plane,that is,
and
sizes),
stuff (finished are rebated for the side by side,it is called a double window, or
a two frame
-light ; but if the frame contains
two sets of sashes,not in the same plane,but
behind each other, it is a double-sash frame.
Solid Mullion Venetian Sash Frame.
Venetian frames are of three varieties,

each of which requiresdifferent treatment
Fig. 1411." Joint of Stile both in planningand making. The first is

and Top Rail. the solid mullion frame shown in Figs.1414 to
1420, Fig. 1414 showing half outside eleva-
tion,
and Fig. 1416 half inside elevation.
This is the commonest kind, and is intended
for narrow openings,where the- span is
not too great to be supported by a lintel
and the frame. In this class it is usual to
make the central sashes much wider than
the side ones, and to fix these latter. Much
of the information given at the opening of
Fig. 1412. " Conventional View
this chapter on the construction of a sash
of Meeting Stiles.
frame is applicable
to the present case. In
making a frame similar to the shown,
one
proceed to make a plan and vertical section,

full size,on a board or rod. Beginningwith
the size of the opening,draw, for the width,
the faces of the pulleystiles in a line with
the reveals of the
brickwork, or according
Joint of Bottom Rail and Stile. to the architect's
plans, and with these
Fig. 1413. "
as startingpoints proceed to space out the

glass and chamfered and mortised and mullions,linings,sashes, beads, etc., work-
ing
tenoned together. In the joint shown from the specification
or whatever data
at Fig. 1411, it will be seen that may be available. In setting out the
the shoulder on the head is scribed to fit rod, it is advisable to consider the practice
the chamfer on the stiles. The bottom of the shop for which the work has to
rail,If in. by 3J in., is also rebated and be done, whether it is the custom to work
chamfered, and is mortised and tenoned to to drawing, or to reputed sizes, the
the stile as shown in Fig.1413. The joints former being the practicein most machine
of these casements are glued and wedged shops,the latter the one in favour with hand
together in the ordinary manner. The shops ; for instance, in a machine shop the
bottom rail is splayed on its under edge, sashes would leave the
stilesfor 1^-in. planing
and grooved to prevent moisture risingby machine 1^ in. thick exactly; the path for
capillaryaction. The meeting stiles are them would be set out 1^ in. wide, and the
Fig. 1414." Half Outside Elevation of Solid Mullion Frame.

DESIGN FOR A SHOP FRONT.

subsequent cleaningoff would afford the in arched openings; in this case allowance
necessary clearance ; but in a hand shop must be made for the rise,as the section
lj-in.sashes would be made from reputed shown on the rod should be a central one ;
H-in. or one-cut stuff,which, by the time draw in the head of the frame in line with
Fig. 1418. " Conventional View of Solid Mullion Frame.
it was cleaned off,would only hold If in. the under side of the arch,and the thickness
bare,and the path of the sash would require of the oak sill above the sill line,and space
in. full. On the remainingheights as shown in Fig.
drawing If heightrod the
the out
size of the taken from 1415. As this is solid mullion frame with
opening is frequently a
the of the stone sill to the under side of the side lightsfixed, provision has to be
top
for carryingthe cords from the central
the soffit of the reveal,or the springingline made
pairof sashes to the weights in the outside 1 in. longer than clear
linings, between head
boxings. In the case of the top sash, this is and sill,by 1 in. by 3J in. parting ; six
accomplished by making a plough groove beads, inside of head to out of sill, by f in.
in the head of the outside side lightsas by 1 in. ; two parting slipsditto by J in. by
shown at a in the conventional view (Fig. 2 in. ; six guard beads 1 in. longerthan inside
1418), and in the bottom sash by taking of head to inside of sillby J in. by 1 J in. ; one
the cord over pulleysin the mullion and ditto lengthof central opening head ; three
pulleystile,
and concealingit in the side sill guard beads, length between pulley
openingsby cover slips,
as shown at b in the stiles and mullions by J in. by 1 J in. bevelled
conventional view (Fig.1418). These must to section ; two cover beads, lengthequal
be wide enough to reach from the face of the width of side lightsby " in. by 3J in. This
top lightto the face of the frame, must be completesthe frame. Sizes for sashes will
beaded on the edge to match the guard be taken from the rod in a similar manner,
beads with which they mitre, and ploughed allowing1 J in. longer over all for stiles,and
| in. longerfor rails and bars. Remember
that brackets are to be worked on top
Fig. 1420. "

Top of Mullion, showing Pulleys and
Tenon.
Isometric View of Joint of Mullion sashes (see a, Fig. 1343). The above sizes
Fig. 1419. "
and Lining with Sill. are finished ones for the planingmachinist.
The converter will requirea separate list,
on the rear side with a similar groove to the with an extra J in. allowed for each side
head of the top light. This arrangement wrought. Thus the mullion size to him
is shown at Fig. 1418. It is assumed that would be, length as above, by 2J in. by
the stuff is machine wrought. 4| in.,and so on.
Quantities for Solid Mullion Frame. "

Construction of Solid Mullion Frame. "
One oak sill,length 2 in. longer than out Before beginning to set out the stuff,con-
sider
to out of frame, 3 in. by 5f in.,wrought to how the frame is to be constructed.

section ; one head, length ditto by 1J in. The pulleystiles will be housed into head
by 4J in. ; two mullions,lengthout of head and sillin the usual way, as explainedat the
to out of sill,2 in. by 4J in. ; two pulley beginning of this section. The mullions
stiles,length clear between sight lines of will be tenoned through head and sill as
head and sillplushousingsby 1 in. by 4| in. ; indicated in Figs. 1419 and 1420, and
two back lengthinside
linings, of head to out painted and wedged ; they will also be kept
of sill,
by J in. by 5 in. ; two inside linings, flush on the inside as shown in the half
1J in. longerthan height of frame over all, horizontal section (Fig. 1417), the outside
by 1 in. by 4f in. ; one head lining(inside), liningbeing nailed on. The head linings
length1 in. longerthan clear between pulley will run right across the frame until they
by 1 in. by 3 in.
stiles, ; one head liningside), meet
(out- the side linings ; they are not cut
length ditto by 1 in. by 4| in. ; two between the mullions (see Fig. 1418,
outside ditto
linings to inside ; two mullion which shows the arrangement of the
cords),as this weakens the frame.

housings. Set out the pocket The at top for
cover beads are cut tightbetween pulley
the sightline ; the lengthwill 6 in. up from
stile and mullion, and are held in posi-
vary as the heightof frame ; usuallykeep-
tion
by the guard bead on them 2 in. shorter than the weights. Mark
one edge and
the parting bead on the other ; remember over at the top end mortices for pulleys.
that this cuts under the cover piece (see (It will be noted that the pulleyshave to be
Fig.1418). Pocket piecesshould be cut in kept close up to the head of the frame,
the centre of the pulleystiles, and not at allowingjust clearance for the wheels to
the side,otherwise inside linings cannot be turn ; sometimes purpose-made pulleysare-
fixed for a distance of 15 in. or 18 in.,which used ; where ordinarypulleys are used, file
is objectionable to some architects, who the top ends off J in. above the wheel,and,
consider that the pulley stiles are thus when fixing,keep them J in. above the
considerablyweakened. shoulder of the mullion, as shown in Fig.
Setting Out Solid Mullion Frame. " As a 1420, and house them into the head, thus-
precaution,run the rule over the stuff and fixingthe top ends.) Gauge the rebates,
see that the sizes are correct ; if not, note the inside one on the face,the outside one
the necessary allowances to be made. Take on the
back, and plough groove f in. for
the head, lay it on the rod, face side down, partingbead, which is as much out of centre
and strike over sightor face lines of pulley of the stile as the guard bead overhangsthe
stiles,mullions, and parting slips.Turn inside lining(see Figs. 1417 and 1418).
it back ; mark over J-in.grooves for heads With the squaringover of the shoulder of the
of pulleystiles; set mortices for mullions housing on the top back side,and gauging
J in. back from the sightline,and mortices \ in. full tongue on the end, the pulley
for parting slipsto lines drawn ; gauge the stiles are finished ; the mullions may be
mullion mortices from inside f in. thick set out from these. "With the exception
and one side in line with parting bead (see that nohousingshave to be allowed,the top
Figs.1417 and 1419). Mortices for parting ends beingshouldered at the sightline,and
slipsmay be pencilled
on in line with the the bottom the same inside (on outside allow-
ing
parting bead (see rod, Fig. 1417). Gauge the sinking,and marking the shoulder
everythingfrom the inside. Pair the sill to bevel of it is a wise precautionto
sill),
with strike over
the head, and all the sight allow this rather full,as sills may vary.
lines with exceptionof the parting slip
the Gauge for parting grooves and tenons. To
mortices. Outside the pulleystileface lines, find the positionfor mortices for pulleys,
mark the housing, which is of the thickness draw lines equal to the thickness of the
of the pulleystile plus the wedging. The sashes on each side of the partinggroove ;
depth should be J in. more than the lower the centre of this will be the centre of the
point of the weathering; more is unneces-
sary, mortices " make them so that the box of the
merely weakening the sill without pulleyfitstight. The liningsrequiregauging
strengthening the stile. Square over the for the various plough grooves, or rather,
shoulder lines of the linings on both faces one of each kind should be sufficient for the
in line with the pulleystile ; run the gauge machine, as, when once set, all will be run
on for the sinkings ; these will be found on through exactly alike. Mark sight lines
plan. Square over the mortices for the on the edge of the outside linings,
and run
mullions, run the mortice gauge on the end, f-gauge on each end for a saw cut. The
and transfer the lines to the sunk faces pieces will be cut off when fitting
up.
with the rule from outside. Gauge the Cover Beads. " Draw these on the section,
plough grooves for the window -board and and gauge the groove on the back (seeFig.
the water bar (seesection,Fig. 1415). 1418).
Pulley Stiles of Solid Mullion Frame." Beads.- " Draw on sections,
and that pletes
com-
Lay one the rod, and strike over

on the sight the settingout of the frame. In
lines of head and sill, turn up, and mark settingout for machine work, all stuff that
over If in. at bottom this amount will " is moulded should have a section drawn
vary, however, with weathering " and f in. on the face of one piece,with a reference
le
-to the number required. These sections nailing the pulley stiles (note, avoid the
should be drawn exactlyto size,without any pulleys); lay it on the bench, outside down,
.allowances ; mark these on the length of and square the frame ; cramp up the mul-
the shoulders, etc. On the other hand, all lions,paint the wedges, and wedge up. Fix
tongues, rebates, cross-cut grooves, etc., the sill to a bench piece,square with a rod,
should have allowances for fittingand and fix the head to bench top, cut off ends of
"cleaningoff, and sections drawn ingly
accord- wedges, level sinkingof sillwith pulleystile,
; plough grooves in the direction of cut away the pieceof tongue on the ends
grain, and mortices, should be marked of head to let liningrun, up and fix on
exactly as wanted. The setting out of inside linings; cut the head liningtightly
sashes, having been fully described early between these, and nail on. Keep the out-
side
in this section, will not be repeated here. edge flush on back, clean off, and fit
Remember, however, that as side lightsin guard beads in ; these should be rebate
Fig. 1421. " Half Horizontal Section through Venetian Sash Frame with Double Weights.
wmmm.
Fig. 1422. " Horizontal Section through Mullion Fig. 1423. "
Horizontal Section through Mullion
arranged for Four Weights. arranged for Double Weights.
this frame have to be fixed,they should mitered (see Fig. 1436). Turn over and peat
re-
"be set out rather wider than would be the in partingbeads

the process, first fitting
case if they were hung. and slips, finallynailingon the back linings,
FittingUp Solid Mullion Frame. " Examine and blocking the head. Kub a block on
all grooves, housings, and mortices ; see the joint.

that they are of the requireddepth, and
Double Weight Venetian Sash Frame.
"clear the wedging. Next fit the pocket
pieces,running the plough groove through ; The second class of Venetian frames,
fit in the pulleys,and clean off the stiles. shown in the half horizontal (Fig.section
Do the same with the mullions, and fit the 1421), is for wider openings supportedand
parting beads ; also fit, that is, mullet, divided by thin brick or stone mullions. In
alltongues. Take a shaving off the edges these cases the whole six sashes can be hung ;
and bottom ends of the outside linings; but they must be about equal in size. Full
these cannot be done afterwards, as the details are illustrated in Figs. 1421 to 1437.
sill projects\ in.,or should do, to allow for If it is desired to hang all the sashes, and
shrinkage. Wedge the pulleystiles in the the size of the pieror mullion restricts the
sillout of winding with each other, drive in boxing to about 6 in., there would not be
the mullions, and put the head on, well room for two sets of weights. A special
form of weight then used in the centre ings

box- edge of the sash stile. Fig."1423 shows an
is square in section, with a pulleycast enlargedsection of the boxed mullion ; Fig.

in the top end through which the cord is 1425 a sectional elevation
of the top end
passed, with its ends taken over the pulleys with the outside off,
lining showingweightin
and fastened to the top or bottom sashes on positionwith top sash down and bottom one
each side, as shown in the sectional view, up. The housingsfor the*pulley
stiles of the
(S feg-^ f~*~") m^ =3
Fig. 1425. "

Sectional tion
Eleva-
through Upper Part of
Boxing (One Weight serving

Two Sashes).
Fig. 1424." Vertical

Section through Head
Fig. 1426." Portion of Sill showing-
and Sill.
Housings, Weathering, etc.
Thus, for each set of three sashes, millions stopped on the outside of the
Fig.1425. are
four weights are made to answer. Of sill as shown Fig. 1426, and the bottom
in
course, in this kind the sashes must be very ends of the outside liningsshould be tongued
similar in size,as the double weight has to on the back side into the sill. The inside
equaltwice the half weightof each sash ; and should

linings run over the sill and head as
if one sash was much heavier than ordinary frame, so as to tie the frame
the other, in an
the lighterone would be continuallypulled together,as there is no wedged mullion in

This tendency can to some extent be this case. The pulleyscan be fixed as usual
up.
checked by insertinga piece of cork in the about lh in. down from the top ; only one
: pocket will be wanted in each mullion. and sill (see Fig. 1426) to keep it in tion
posi-
| Thinner pulleystiles are occasionallyused whilst fixing the outside linings.
in the mullions, to gain additional room. Several variations have been introduced
into this frame, which is frequentlymade
Large Venetian Sash Frame.
entirelyof oak. The head is made 2 in.
The third class of Venetian frame is"for the thick, with a planted tongue on the inside
I widest openings,with thick stone or brick to economise labour and material. The
Fig. 1427. "

Half Horizontal Section through Venetian Sash Frame.
Fig. 1428. "

Conventional Sectional View through Boxings and Mullions of Sash Frame.
piersand wide
correspondingly mullions in tongues are necessary because in hardwood
the frames,in which the sashes may vary in the would
linings be fixed with brads driven
width according to taste, and may all be on the skew through the edge and hidden
hung, or part hung and part fixed. In Fig. by the beads, which would be fixed with cups
1427 is shown half horizontal very section of a and Screws. The inside linings are kept
largeframe, with sashes of varying width and J in. back from the face
pulley-stile to form
a wide boxed mullion to cover a brick pier, a rebate for the bead and also to hide the
there being ample room for two sets of joint. settingback must be allowed
This
weights here. The conventional sectional for when housing the sill, for the shoulders
view (Fig. 1428) will convey a general on the sill abuttingthe liningswill stand
idea of the construction of this class of J in. in front of pulleystile (seeFigs.1424 and
frame. The box is divided by a central 1427). The partingbead is run through the
lining,
which should be housed into head head, the sides being scribed up to it. The
Fig. 1429." Lower

Part of Pulley Stile
prepared for Pocket

Piece and for tilator
Ven-
Slip.
Fig. 1430." End

of Ventilator
Slip.
Fig. 1431." End of

Inside Lining
Notched to receive
Ventilator Slip.
Fig. 1434
Fig. 1432. Fig. 1433.
Figs. 1432 and 1433." Upper Corner of Inside

Fig. 1435
Linings Framed by Mortice-and-Tenon and
Wedging.
Figs. 1434 and 1435. " Dovetail Joint between
Meeting Rail and Stile of Lower Sash.
2J-in.weathered and beaded piece shown

on the sillat o (Fig.1424) is a ventilator slip.
Its purpose is to allow of the window being
opened 2 in. between the meeting rails for
whilst avoidinga
ventilation, direct draught
Fig. 1436. Fig. 1437. at the bottom rail. It is weathered so that
Figs. 1436 and 1437." Method of Rebating and the bottom rail of the sash shall fit
tightly
Mitering Beads. againstit when shut, but instantlyrelease
44*2 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY.
of the outside, which is built in Flemish various parts being prepared to the sizes
bond on the face, with old Englishbacking. indicated in the
enlargeddetail (Fig.1448).
A camber gauged arch is shown, having a The sill is ploughed and connected to the
straightextrados and cambered intrados, stone sill by a 1-in. by J-in. galvanisediron
the depth of the arch at the springing being bar. The wooden sill is also prepared to
12 in. Fig.1443, which is a sectional view receive the tongue of the window-board as
of the window from the inside, shown Fig. 1447. The head
as seen at liningand
Fig. 1441. " Conventional tional

Sec- Fig. 1442. " Sectional View of Fig. 1443. " Sectional View
View of Top Corner of Bottom Corner of Window of Window from Inside.
Window. showing Sill,etc.
shows the top corners of the sash,shutters, the upper ends of the inside liningare
and architraves. Conventional views showing grooved to receive the tongue of the soffit
the details of the brickwork inside are given lining. Both this liningand the window-
at Figs.1445 and 1446 ;/4Jin. reveals''are board have to be cut round the frame as
provided for the sash frame, and there is a shown at Fig. 1447. The window-board is
4J-in.recess for the shutters. A wooden lintel
is shown, on which a core is formed, and on
Fig. 1444. " Conventional View from Inside of Fig. 1445. "
General View from Inside of Upper
Lower Corner of Window, Shutters, etc. Part of Opening
this a two arch

-ringrelieving is built. The ploughedto a small
receive
moulding under-
neath,
stone sillis shown 6 in. by 11 in.,with level as Figs.1438 and 1439. It
shown at ,
stools at each end jambs. It is

for brick is also preparedwith a nosing,and returned
tool-sunk and and grooved
weather-throated, at the ends as shown. The vertical inside
for the metal weather-bar as shown at Fig. linings
are grooved to receive the tongue of
1449. The cased sash frame with double- the filleta, to which the shutters are hung.
hung sashes is of the ordinarycharacter,the Liningsb (Fig.1448) are providedwith re-
bates on the outer edge for the beads of the is shown at Fig. 1438. On the inside,the
shutters to stop against. These openingis finished with 5-in. by f-in.facing
liningsare
tongued into the soffit liningsand into the grounds d (Fig.1448),the outer edge being
window -board (seeFig. 1447), and are also ovolo -moulded and the back edge splayed
slightly plaster- to receive plastering.On
bevelled to form a key for ing. these facing
A filletc (Fig.1448),with a bead stuck grounds4J-in.by 1^-in.architrave mouldings
on its edge, is fixed to the back edge of the are fixed as shown.
vertical linings of the sash frame, and is
French Casements to Open Inwards.
Figs. 1450 to 1457 show a pair of French

casements hung to a solid frame, with som,
tran-
fanlight,
splayedlinings, etc.
Frame and Linings. " It will not be
necessary to describe in detail the construc-
Fig. 1446. " General View from Inside of

Lower Part of Opening.
Fig. 1448." Enlarged Detail of

Horizontal Section.
Fig. 1447. " Joints in Linings, etc.
tion of these, as it is similar to work that
Fig. 1449." Detail of Stone Sill. has already received attention. General
views of the jointsin the frame are shown
splayedto
slightly form a key for the ing.
plaster- by Figs. 1456 and 1457. A part of the
As will be seen, there is one framed horizontal section is shown on a largerscale
and panelledshutter on each side,the panels by Fig.1453.
being bead-flush on the inside,and with Casements and Fanlight. " The tion
construc-
mouldings plantedon to the face side. Each of the casements and fanlightis
shutter is hung with 3-in. wrought-iron identical with that involved in sash work
butts to the fillets previouslymentioned. alreadytreated ; it is therefore only neces-
sary
The shutters are made with a flap,which now to enumerate the specialfeatures
(beingnarrow) is not framed, but is formed of this example. The casements are structed
con-
of a piece of board and inwards,and when therefore

clamped at each to open
end to prevent warping. The shutter and they occupy exposed situations, arrange-
ments
flap are connected by 2J-in. back-flap must be made for excluding wet and
hinges. A shutter bar of an ordinaryform draught. The sill,made either of oak or
U^
'A'
Fig. 1450.
Fig. 1450." Half Outside and Half Inside

Elevation of French Casements
^V"^ ^J^ Inwards.
to Open
^^f Fig. 1451. "

Vertical Section of
Fig. 1450.
Fig. 1452. " Horizontal Section of
Fig. 1450.
Fig. 1452.
teak, is double-sunk and splayedto receive

a special
water bar as shown. This is ably
prob-
one of the best methods of excluding
wet. The hinged, and, when
water bar is
the casements are closed,is held up against
the moulded weatherboard (as shown at
Fig. 1454) by the strikingplate screwed to

the bottom rail of the casements. The under
side of the sill is throated for weathering,
and ploughed for a metal water bar, which is
Fig. 1453. "
Enlarged Detail of Horizontal Section
(Fig. 1452).
inserted to prevent water findingits way

between the wooden sill and the stone sill.
The wooden sill is to be also ploughed on
the inside to receive the floorboards. A
section through the silland water -bar when
the casements are open is presentedby Fig.
1455. The frame is ovolo-moulded outside,
and lamb's-tongue moulded inside. The Fig. 1454."
jambs are moulded inside and out, rebated Enlarged Detail
of Vertical
with hollow sinkingto receive round projec-
tion
of stile of casement, and
Section (Fig.
ploughed on
1451),
the inside to receive splaylinings,
as shown
at Figs. 1452 and 1453. The transom is of the architrave,which is stopped at the
moulded inside and out, and rebated to ceive
re- bottom by a plinthas shown.
the head of the casement ; and on the
Elliptical-headed Window with
upper side is sunk, splayed,and throated
Casements and Fanlight in
to receive the bottom rail of the fanlight
of Solid Frame.
(see Figs. 1451 and 1454). The head
the frame is moulded, rebated for the head The case illustrated by Figs.1458 to 1465
of the fanlight,
and ploughed to receive the shows a solid frame with a transom and an
head of the splay linings,as shown

at Figs. 1451 and 1454. The casements
Fig. 1455." Section through Sill and

Water Bar (Casements Open).
are ovolo-moulded and hung folding,the

meeting stiles having a hooked jointwith
moulded fillet on the outside. This fillet Fig. 1457. " Joint between
may be worked on the solid as shown in the Transom and Jamb.
but
illustrations, it is frequentlynailed on.
The glassis shown fixed in with beads from

the outside. The bottom rail is prepared
for the metal water bar, and a moulded elliptical
head, a pairof casements opening
weatherboard is fixed to it (see Figs.1451 inwards, and a fanlightwhich, being hinged
and 1454). The fanlightis hung to the to the transom, also opens inwards if desired.
Casements opening inwards are less fre-
quently
adopted than those opening wards.
out-
Objectionsto the former are that
in exposed situations it is comparatively
difficult to make them weather-tight ; while,
if they are not kept securely fastened,they
are apt to be blown open by a sudden gust
of wind, when more or less serious damage
may be done. They also interfere with the
window hangings,furniture, ornaments, etc.,
which are often placed near windows. In
spiteof their obvious disadvantages, ever,
how-
inwardlyopeningcasements are times
some-
adopted ; hence it has been deemed

desirable to treat of a typicalexample here.
The Frame. " The principalpointsin the
construction of the frame are as follows.
As will be seen from Figs.1461 and 1463,
the outside edge of the moulding has a large
Fig. 1456. Joint between Jamb and Head. ovolo moulding worked while the inner
on,
"
edge is finished with an ogee. The jambs

transom to open inwards, as shown. The have tenons wedged into mortices in the
ground is ploughed to receive the tongue of oak sill,as illustrated in previous cases.
the linings.It will be seen that this ground The oak sill is rebated, throated, splayed,
also forms a facing, thus representing part and weathered on the under edge8 and
WINDOW SASHES AND CASEMENTS. 44?
ploughedto receive the tongue of the window (Fig.1462). The head is constructed in two
board and the metal water bar as illustrated thicknesses, each layer breaking joint as
in section at a (Fig.1462). Any moisture indicated at a b c (Fig.1464). The jambs
findingits way under the bottom rail of are cut to receive each thickness of the head
Fig. 1461. "

Horizontal Section
through Casement.
Fig- 1464. " Construction of Head, and Method of
Jointing with Jamb and Transom.
the casements would drip into the throating Fig. 1465." Method of Jointing Soffit Lining and
of the sill,and for carryingoff this moisture Jamb Lining.
three or four holes should be bored from
the out- shown at (Fig. 1464). Mortices are
the throatingto the weathering of side as d
bottom of the sill, shown at preparedas indicated at c and d to receive

edge as b
i
similar to that explained early in this so that they can be rebated and moulded
i section when dealing with sashes. The in reasonable lengths. Fig. 1483 shows a
lower portion of the stile is mortice-rebated, portion of the width rod for casements.
Fig. 1470. "

Enlarged Detail
of Horizontal Section at A
(Fig. 1467).
6x2
the moulding mitered ; and the inside

shoulder and haunching,iormed so that it
is so far completed to receive the rail, is
shown at Fig. 1482. On account of the
hooked joint between the meeting stiles,
the top and bottom rails should have double
tenons in breadth fittingto these stiles.
When only single tenons are used, the
short end-grainof the tenon is liable to break
away when being formed into the hooked
joint. For the hanging stiles,singletenons
would be best, because of the -projection.
Fig.1480 representsa vertical bar set out for
tenons and mortised. Fig. 1481 shows one
stripof stuff set out for parts of the light
b, c and d (Fig.1466). When gauging for
the mortices and tenons for the tion
intersec-
of the bars, it should be noted that the
mortices and tenons are thinner where the 6x2!4
bars intersect than where they join the

stiles and rails. This is shown at b and e
(Fig.1473),and also where the bars are set "A*

out in Figs. 1480 to 1486, and 1491. By
placingfour stripstogether and settingthem
out, and then cramping them togetheras
shown at Fig. 1491, the shoulders may be Fig. of Vertical Section
1471. "
Enlarged Detail
entered with a dovetail saw as indicated, at A, B, and C (Fig. 1468)
Fig. 1472." Conventional Sectional View of Inside Top Left-hand Comer

Projectedabove it,at Fig. 1484 (which shows Fig. 1489 shows a piece of the horizontal
the top rail
completelyset out),a top cross-
bar similarly prepared, with dovetail socket cut
is shown set out for mortices and tenons ready for completion as shown at Fig.1477.
(Fig.1485). A horizontal bar at (Fig. Where the
as f
tongues of the bars mitre gether,
to-
1466) is shown set out at Fig. I486. The they may be strengthened by ting
cut-
ends A and b are afterwards dovetailed and chase shown at and
a as a b (Figs.1475
mitered. Four of these bars will be required, to 1477), and gluingin a small hardwood
and they should be set out together. The key.
method of settingout and entering for the
shoulders and tenons for the four bars form-
ing
the marginal square in the top of the Fig. 1474.
Figs. 1474 and 1475."
Elevation and Plan dicating

in-
Dovetail Joint
at the Mitering of Bars

as at A (Fig. 1466).
Fig. 1475.
Fig. 1473." Details
of Joints, Mitering,
and Scribing tween
be-
Stiles, Rails,
and Bars.
Fig. 1477."
Mitering and
Dovetail Socket
of Horizontal
Bar.
Fig. 1476."
Mitering and Dove-
tail
Pin of Vertical
Bar.
casements is shown at Figs.1488 and 1489. Rebating and Moulding Sash Bars on
To make good job of these four angle- the Sticking Board.

a A short length of "
jointsof the marginal squares (one angle of a suitable form of sticking board for the
which is lettered a, Fig. 1466),they should rebating and moulding of the bars is shown
be dovetailed and mitered as shown by the at Fig. 1490. It is made of a board 6 in.
enlargedelevation and plan (Figs.1474 and to 9 in. wide, and of any suitable length,
1475), but the joint will be more clearly the base being dovetail-keyedon the under
understood on reference to Figs. 1476 and side as indicated at d and e (Fig.1490) to
1477. Fig. 1488 shows the settingout, the prevent warping. A rebate is made equal
cutting of the dovetail pin, and the enter-
ing in depth to the rebate of the bar, so that
of the shoulders of a bar ready for the tongue may properlybed as shown at
moulding (shown completed at Fig.1476). a whilst the oppositeside is being rebated..
4:"4 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY.
At f is shown a pieceof bar in positionfor

the first rebate. The stripc is ploughed
so as exactly to fit the tongue of the bar
whilst the stickingof the moulding is being
done, as indicated at h and k. The rebate
and plough grooves must vary accordingto
the size of the
bars being worked ; hence
several stickingboards, each for a different
size, will be found in most workshops. A
stout screw is generallyused for a stop,and
the back end is heldby a bench knife being
driven into the cheek and board. In this
example mitering is shown at the intersection
of the mouldings of the stiles and
rails (seeA B, Fig.1473),and where the bars
intersect with each other scribingis illus-
trated,
as at d and e (Fig.1473).
Fanlight. The only point that calls
"
for specialattention in this is that both

the head and the curved marginal bar
may be got out in one piece.
Fitting the Casements. The meeting "
stiles are rebated, splayed, and hooked

togetheras shown by the section (Fig.1470).
When this jointis found to be satisfactory,
the bead on the inside to break the joint
is worked, and the moulded weathering
ploughed for and fitted in. The top and
bottom of the casements have next to be
fitted to the head and the
sill, bottom rail
being rebated and throated as shown. The
casements are now with
placedtogether, their
meeting stiles fitting,
and the width between
the rebates of the frame accuratelymarked
off on stiles at the top
the hanging and
bottom. hanging stiles areThe
next bated,
re-
sufficient being left on to form the

projectingweathering beads, which are
rounded as shown. Then the stiles are
applied to the frame, and the necessary

easing is done, so as to produce a good fit.
Between the meeting stiles,the hanging
stiles,and the frame a sufficient
jointmust
be providedto allow for painting or polish-
ing,
and for easy opening and closing,with-
out
any binding. The outside of the bottom

rails are ploughed (the plough groove tending
ex-
to the edge of the stiles)

to receive
a moulded weatherboard, as shown a tA
(Fig.1471). This should be secured with

screws, parts being first painted.
the joining
Each casement is hung with three 4-in.
wrought-iron or brass butt hinges. The
most suitable forms of fasteningare espagno -
lette bolts.
Boxing Shutters. " The arrangement of
Fig. 1485."
Top Cross Bar

Set Out for
Mortising and
Pig. 1482. " Lower Portion of One Tenoning.

Stile completed to Receive
Bottom Rail and Bar.
Fig. 1488
Fig. 1487." Part of Top Rail Mortised. Figs. 1488 and 1489. "
Ends of Bars for Marginal
Square.
I the shutters when in their boxings is shown
by Fig.1467. At b in Fig.1466, the right- shutters to be formed of four leaves. In the
hand half is indicated by dotted lines as case of thinner walls,six or even eightleaves
closed. The wall being hollow, and thus might be used. The shutters may be made
thick, allows a sufficient recess for the to open and close in one which
length, would
include the panelsh, k, and l, or may open panels k and l, the bottom edges of the
and close in two sections. The lower part, leaves being rebated at o on the back so as
the
containingthe panel H, is closed first, the lower
to fit against part. Generallythe
upper edge having a rebate and bead as fanlightis left free,and thus the framing
shown at o. The upper part contains the at m is dummy. The bottom ends of the
the bottom. The sashes are-
shown withmarginal bars,,

which, though they are now not
Fig. 1495."
Enlarged Detail of
usuallyadopted for windows of
Horizontal Section.
shutters are kept off the floor as shown at

n (Figs.1466 and 1471),to allow for clear-
ing
the carpet or rugs, etc. The stiles and
rails of the shutters are mortised and tenoned
togetherto receive bead-and-butt or bead-

and-flush panels,facingthe outside when
they are closed,and moulded on the inside as
shown. The settingout and general pre-

paration
of these panels is almost exactly
the same as in door-making. After being
wedged up and cleaned off,they are rebated
and fitted together. The main leaf is hung
to the posts of the door frame as indicated
atFigs.1467 and 1470. The two leaves are
hung togetherby back flap hinges. The
particular casings partlyforming the box-
ings
are shown at Figs.1467, 1470,and 1472.
The curved stiles for the frame soffit may be
worked in the solid out of one piece. The
panelsbeing very curved,
slightly it would
certainlybe the more simpleway to work
these out of the solid. Fig. 1496."
Enlarged Detail
Elliptical headed = Window with of Vertical
Framed and Splayed Linings. Section.
Figs. 1492 to 1494 represent the inside

elevation, plan, and vertical section of an
window
elliptical-headed with double-hung this class,may be convenientlyintroduced
sashes, cased frame, framed panels,splayed here with the object of illustratingand ex-
plaining
linings, and window

soffit, back with elbows. the method of bending curved sash
The inside of the opening is finished with bars. The preparingof the stuff,settingout.
architrave mouldings,with plinth blocks at mortising,tenoning,,a nd other processes in.
the making of the frame and sashes, being side,and planed true with a compass plane.
generallyidentical with cases previously The piecesto form the parting bead should
treated, it is here only necessary to describe be similarlytreated. The head just above
the new features. the springingis secured to the pulleystiles
Construction of EllipticalHead of Sash with screws as indicated at e (Fig. 1498).
Frame. This may
" be made in two or three It will be seen that the head does not finish
pieces,cut out of the solid,jointed a little at the
springing,but at a sufficient distance
above the springing, and fastened,as shown above to allow of \ in. projection,as at f
at Fig. 1498, with screws. The crown joints (Figs.1497 and 1498). This is to allow the
or radial joints(as the case may be) are fas-
tened stiles of the sashes to butt against and pre-
vent
by dowelling or handrail screws. In the bottom sash becoming jammed.
Fig. 1497." Portion of Soffit of Head Fig. 1498." Method of

of Frame, and its Junction with Connecting Head and
Face of Pulley Stile. Pulley Stiles, etc.
this method a plough groove is worked out Elliptical-headed Linings. These are "
of the solid to receive the parting bead, got out of the solid in two or three
which also is worked out of the solid. Another pieces, which are jointed together and
method, equally good, is to form
which is connected to each other, and
to the straight
the head in three laminations, as represented linings,by cross tongues (see Fig. 1498).
in section at a (Fig.1496), and also by a, b, The joints are, of course, glued, and the
and c in the conventional views (Figs.1497 liningsare nailed on in the usual manner.
and 1498), where it will be seen that the The headlinings glued
are blocked as and
thickness on the inside of the parting bead representedat Fig. 1498. The inside head
may be made of three pieces round the linings may be ploughed to receive the
curve, and the portion of the parting bead tongue of the soffit,
so as to correspond with
also of three pieces,while the outer tion
por- the straightinside linings.
is made of four pieces. These pieces EllipticalHead of Sash. " This is made
should be accuratelysawn out on the soffit of three pieces,the jointsoccurring as at
Fig. 1499. " Conventional View of Part
of Stile and Head of Top Sash.
Fig. 1500. "

General View of Cylinder.
-Method of Connecting Architrave and

Plinth by Dovetail Lapping.
d, e, I (Fig. 1492). The and

joints, tions
por-
of the head and the stile showing
the joint at the crown separately,are
shown (Fig.1499). The pro-
at a, b, and c
jecting
shoulder d (Fig.1499) is for butting
against the stop of the head, shown at
Fig. 1498.
The Arch or Cot Bar. " This may be
formed of two
piecesand worked out of the
solid,jointsoccurring at the crown and a
little below the springing; but a more

Fig. 1501. "
Connecting Architrave and Plinth

Tenon. job results
satisfactory when the bar is made
with Slip Dovetail
in onecontinuous piece to meet with the long screw inserted through the cot bar.
two marginalbars a and c (Fig.1492). A It is more satisfactoryif these bent bars
rib or cylinder round which to bend the bar are of straight-grained
oak, ash, or other
must be specially made. A suitable form hardwood that is pliable.Two methods of
for this purpose is illustrated at Fig. 1500, connecting the architraves with the plinths
where it is shown constructed of two thick-
nesses. by dovetailingare illustrated at Figs. 1501
The stripof wood for the bar should and After
1502. the jointsare made satis-
factory,
be obtained as straight-grained
as possible, the parts will be gluedand screwed
and should either be steamed or be soaked together.
in boilingwater, steaming yielding the better
of hand Circular BulPs=Eye Frame with
results. Then, by means screws,
the stripof wood should be graduallybent Square Centre Sash Hung on
round and fastened to the cylinderas illus- Centres.
Figs. 1503 and 1504 show, respectively,

the elevation and the vertical section of
,' -OB
Fig. 1503." Elevation of Circular Bull's-eye

Frame with Central Sash. Vertical 1505. Enlarged
Fig. 1504." "
Section through A B Detail at B

trated. A piece of hoop-ironbent round (Fig.1503). (Fig.1503).
with it on the outside will be found useful
in preventingfibres of the wood from ing
burst- a circular bull's-eye
frame which is moulded
out. When the bars are thick, it is a inside and out. The elevation is divided by
good plan to form them of two thicknesses, four stout bars, the bars forming the centre
gluingthem togetheras they are bent round square being in two parts,rebated together
the cylinder. It is best to let the stripsre-
main so as to form a square sash, which is hung on
on the cylindera few days, so that they centres as illustrated in the section (Fig.
may become thoroughly set to shape ; and, 1504), the construction being shown more
on taking off,they should be kept to their clearlyin the conventional sectional view at
shape by means of a couple of stretchers. Fig. 1506. The frame is constructed of
They can then be rebated and moulded. four pieces,as indicated at Fig. 1503. The
It is not necessary to weaken the cot bar jointsmay be held togetherwith handrail
by mortising for tenons of radial bars, as screws and dowels, or with hammer-headed
these latter need only be scribed to fit the keys and tongues. The bars are moulded
cot bar, and then each one secured by a fine and scribed to intersect with the mouldings
of the frame, and connected by mortice-and- section at Fig. 1508. The point call-
ing
tenon
and
slightly
sash
D
joints.The
are
splayed,so
and closing of
Fig.1504, and
is made
not
inside of the bars a, b, c,
moulded, but are rebated and
of four
as
the
see
to facilitatethe open-
sash
also
pieces,which
ing
(see a b in sec-
tion,
Fig.1505). The
are
tical
bated
re-
of the
these
for
cuts
specialattention is
cuttingof
properlyclearing
the beads so
the
as
as
settingout
to allow
the sash is
of
and splayed,and fit the bars just

mentioned, which?are moulded so that when
Fig. 1506. "

Dovetail Jointing
at Angle of Sash
the sash is closed it completesthe ance

appear-
of four bars as shown. The four pieces
forming the sash, being of slightthickness,
must be dovetailed and mitered as shown
(Fig.1506). If additional strengthening is
considered desirable at the angles,four thin
brass brackets may be let in flush,screwed
on as shown. The rebates of the vertical
bars to meet those on the stiles of the sash
opened or closed. When settingout the rod,
are on the inside of the upper portion as at
have at least portionof the sash opened
A, and on the outside of the lower half as at a
to the full extent required,the beads being

b (Fig.1507). The hanging of the sashes on
pivotsis similar to that explained and trated

illus- included, as indicated at a b (Fig. 1508).
Where the outer edges of the beads on the.
in the next example.
sash when opened intersect with the lines
Sash Hung on Pivots. of the beads fixed to the frame as at c and d,
A solid frame with weathered, throated, between these two pointsdraw the line c d ;
and sunk and

sill, sash hung on pivots,is draw c f, and c e at rightanglesto c d, and
shown then and the lines of the cuts for
as closed,and also as opened, by ver- c d d f are
the beads fixed to the frame. With centre lower half of each outside liningmust be
G and radii G and d, determine the points movable, so that the sashes may be placed
h and k. Again with G as centre, and e and in positionfrom the outside. The sashes
f as radii, determine the points l and m. are therefore troublesome to hang, and
Then clearlyh l and k m are the splays for
the beads fixed to the sash ; and when the
sash is closed this would meet c e and f d
When
respectively. the pivotis fixed on the
frame, and the slotted plate on the stile of
the sash, a small chase has to be made in
each stile,
as indicated by the dotted lines
from G to m. When the pivots are screwed
on to the stiles,then the chases have to be
made in the frame. In order that the head
of the sash shall not bind as it is opened, the
head should be prepareda little out of the
square, as illustrated.
Circle = on = Circle Sashes and Frames.
Fig. 1510
representsa horizontal section
(lookingup) showing the soffit of arch,sash,
Fig. 1508. "

Vertical
Section of a Solid
Frame with Sash
etc., and Fig. 1511
frame, linings, represents or Casement hung
a part outside and part inside elevation of an on Pivots.
upper portionof an opening,with a cased

frame and double-hung sashes, for a window
which is semicircular in elevation and lar
circu-
This is commonly known the renewal of sash lines is difficult. The
on plan.
as circle-on-circlework. Sometimes frames most common method of constructingthese
of this descriptionare made with the faces sashes is illustrated at Figs.1510 and 1511,
of pulley stiles radiatingas shown
their which show the settingout for
geometrical
obtainingmoulds, bevels, etc., for the head
by the lines a and b (Fig.1509). When
this method is adopted,the sashes cannot of the frame and the head of the sash. The
be inserted into their positionsfrom the outer arris of the soffit of the arch is a
semicircle (a Fig. 1511), and therefore

inside. The projecting portion of the b,
the inner arris becomes elliptical,

as shown between the headpulley stile.
and the
by c b (Fig.1511). On x y (Fig.1513) Mark off any points on c', b',
convenient
set up the elevation of the curve c' b',the as m', n', o', p' (Fig.1513). Projectthese
same as c b (Fig.1511). This is the line down to the plan (Fig. 1514), giving the

Horizontal Section
through Sash Stile
and Frame.
Fig. 1510. " Horizontal Section of
Fig. 1511.
Fig. 1509. " Plan of Circle-on-Circle
Sash Frame, with Radiating Pulley

Stiles.
elevation of the frame, and also the top plans of the generators of the soffit c, m,
edge of the sash. Projectingdown, draw n, o, p, b. The soffit mould can now be
the half plan of soffit shown by Fig. 1514. obtained. rightangles to the projector
At
The thickness of the head may be drawn Q cr,draw line q
s (Fig.
a 1515),and along
in as shown by the lines d', e', f',g', h'. it mark off q, 5, 6, 7, 8 respectivelyc',m',
"
The breadth of the sash may also be drawn n', o',p', b' (Fig.1513). Then, projecting
in,as indicated by k' i/ ; also the connection at right angles from the points on the
wood is planed oil the head, a long to the lines. Then the pieces should be
straightedge should fit on the sill,
stretcher, accuratelyjointed,tongued, glued, and
and head, in all positionssuch that it is blocked in position, and the surface of
parallel to the pulleystiles. the inside liningsmoothed off so as to fit
Inside and Outside Linings. In paring a straightedge
pre- "
applied to the sill and the

these, it will involve a little more lining,as explained in connection with
Fig. 1517. For the outside lining, only a
little more than the seen margin need be
cleaned off,
if it is to fit against brickwork ;
but in the case of fitting
against masonry,
a fair amount of accuracy would be necessary
in cleaningoff. The edge of the outside
liningmust be worked so as to project
the proper distance from the soffit,
and
then moulded, if
moulding is shown and
specified
; the edge of the inside lining,
of course, finishingflush. The parting
Fig. 1516." Application of Bevel and

Face Mould for Head of Frame.
labour, but will make a much more factory

satis- bead will have to be in three or four pieces,
job, if the joint,instead of being and is cut off a thin board to the proper
at the springing, is made some little dis-
tance curve, and may be bent sideways into the
above it,as illustrated at Fig. 1518. plough groove, being then glued in position.
This will
keep the frame more rigid,and Preparing the Head of Sash. "
By refer-
ence
the pulley stiles parallelto each other. to the plan Fig. 1509 and the enlarged
So as not to have the grain of the other detail Fig. 1512, it will be seen that the
parts of the head liningstoo short,it will stiles are not square in section, but these
be necessary for them to be in two pieces. of course would be worked to a bevel set
It will be found the simplestplan to have to the angle u, c, n (Fig.1514). By ence
refer-
the stuff thick enough to work the inside to Fig. 1513, it will be that part
seen
surface to fit the head, and from this to of the bead and a stile
straight are formed
gauge full for the outside, and rough off in one ; and the face mould for the curved
is shown at (Fig. 1514). The face to Fig. 1512. The guard bead to
part a
mould
in
the
a
similar
head
that
is applied
of the
manner
frame
portion
to each
to
(Fig.
of the
side
that
1516).
head
of
explained
the
It
w
will
ence
plank
to
for
be
T
the
of
method
bent
the
soffit
in
solid,
a
but,
may
which
be
alternatively,
state,
in
will
sections
be
and
found
this
moulded
worked
the
could
easier
wards
out
after-
be
seen a square
(Fig. 1513) is shown in the plan (Fig. 1514) but this method of would
; course
enclosed by parallelogram, which be more expensive, and would involve the

as a
shows the thickness of the stuff required. construction of a special cylinder on

which
The face mould is applied to each side of to bend it. Fig. 1518 is conventional
a
the stuff by using bevel set to the angle view of a portion of the head of the frame
a
shown at (Fig. 1514). The next from the outside. It will be that
b process seen
is to true the top edges, apply the falling the back of the splay lining is represented
up
mould plane nearly to the lines, and then as

formed of with staves jointed
a veneer
fit each piece to the frame in its and glued at the back. The development
proper
position, when the joints should be made and construction of this will be treated
and bolted together. The meeting rail is of in a subsequent section. Of course
of of the shown in plan, but there are

other of constructing the
course curve ways
in other respects it is dovetailed to the frame, such building it in three

as up
stiles as explained for previous examples. thicknesses, the middle thickness forming
If all fits in the next thing will be the parting bead but the head would
square, ; as
to mould and rebate the head and stiles. practically be formed of two separate
As the section of the moulding varies parts extra, twice the amount of setting
round the head, it should be formed by out would be and therefore,
necessary,
small rebate planes and hollows of though little stuff might be saved,
compass a a
pattern. greater expenditure of time would be volved.

in-
Guard Beads. Up the sides, these are

In superior polished work, the
"
of the ordinary pattern, the edge of the head would be constructed of and
a veneer
sash being planed off so

that the joint staves at the back. In this of
case, course
between it and the guard bead is special cylinder would have to be made
square a
to the pulley stile, will be seen by refer- on

which to bend and block the
as veneer.
MOULDINGS: WORKING AND SETTING THEM OUT.
Introduction. "
A moulding is a curved face
sur- suitabilityof design, are, that its surfaces
whose section is continuous. The shall be perfectly regular and smooth, its
essentials of a good moulding, apart from edges sharp, and its curves flowing and
Fig. 1542.
Fig. 1539.
Fig. 1519. "

Parting Bead. Fig. 1520. "
Quirked Angle or Returned

Bead. Fig. Bead
1521. " (when
of Large Section, generally known as Staff
Fig. 1522.
a Section
Bead). of Bead or Round
"
frequently Fixed as a Staff Bead. Fig. 1523." Staff or Angle Bead. Fig. 1524." Cavetto
Quirked Ogee and Bead Architrave. Fig. 1525. Astragal and Fillets."
Fig. 1526. Cyma "
Recta, or Reverse Ogee, with Fillet and Ogee Cornice Moulding. Fig. 1527. Quirked Grecian "
Ogee Panel Moulding. Fig. 1528. Quirked Ogee and

" Bead Moulding. Fig. 1529. Quirked "
Ovolo and Fillet. Fig. 1530. Quirked Ovolo "

and Bead. Fig. 1531. Ordinary or Grecian "
Ovolo. Fig. 1532." Roman Ovolo. Fig. 1533." Lamb's Tongue. Fig. 1534." Torus. Fig.
1535. "Double Torus. Fig. 1536. Grecian Ogee Base"
or Architrave Moulding. Fig. 1537. "
Nosing. Fig. 1538. Scotia. "
Fig. 1539. Double Face Architrave,

"
Fig. 1540. Bolection. "
Figs. 1541 and 1542." Thumb." "
468
MOULDINGS : WORKING AND SETTING THEM OUT. 469
without perceptiblebreak. In the hand in Figs.1543 to 1545. Bead planesare made

manufacture mouldings, the above re-
of quirementsin sets of nine, from J in. to 1 in.,increasing
are obtained by the employ-
ment in size by TV in. up to \ in.,and thereafter
of planes and routers of suitable con-
tour, by J-in. The better makes of these tools
and by the careful cleaningoff of the have the working faces in boxwood, the
surfaces with glasspaper,wound round body of the plane being in beech, and the
" "
rubbers of wood or cork. Hand manufacture smaller sizes are slipped that is, one "
has now given placelargely to machine work, side of the planeis rebated, and a loose slip
the vertical spindlemoulding machine ducing fitted in and secured with screws, the object
pro-
mouldings cheaply and well. being to enable the tool to be worked down
into a rebate or over a projecting surface,
Varieties of Common Mouldings. such as the bead on the edge of the bottom
Common mouldings used in joinery include moulding shown in Fig. 1546. Figs.69 and
those shown on p. 468. It may be 70 on p. 15 are end views of the stocks of
said that bead is a general term appliedto a pair of hollows and rounds, with sections
small mouldings of circular section. Quirked of the mouldingsproduced by them. These
bead is a small moulding semicircular in are made in sets of nine pairs,their curves
Fig. 1550
Fig. 1548. Fig. 1549.
Fig. 1545. Fig. 1546. Fig. 1547. Fig. 1551.
Figs. 1543 to 1546." Beads. Fig. 1547." Reeding Plane Figs. 1548 and 1549." Thumb Hollow.
Figs. 1550 and 1551." Curved Thumb Rebate Plane.
section, stuck level with a surface, and being portionsof circles whose radii increase
separated from it by a groove known as a by \ in. Figs.71 and 72 on p. 15 are sash
quirk (see Fig. 1520). Return bead and moulding planes,named respectivelyovolo
staff bead have quirkson adjacentsurfaces, and lamb's-tongue; such planes are made
generally
meeting at right angles(seeFigs. in pairs,
one to follow
the other, and in three
1521 and
1523),but occasionallyat obtuse sizes,namely, Jin.,fin.,and fin.,these being
and acuteangles. The terms return bead the distances the moulding works on the
and staff bead generallyinclude all beads edge of the stuff,the respectivedepthsbeing
that are at an angle ; but beads of small m. im. and yV in. Fig.73, p. 15, is a
section are often distinguishedas return cabinet-maker's ogee moulding plane,which

beads, and those of largersection as staff may be had in four sizes,from | in. to 1 J in.
beads. In the North of England the inside These, in common with most moulding
f-in. bead to sash frames is called
frequently planes,requireholding at an angleof about
a staff bead, whereas in London and the 20" with the side of the stuff being worked,
South of England it is generallyknown as the line shown on the fore end of the plane
an inside bead or guard bead. being kept vertical, or in line with the sur-
face,
against which the fence of the plane

Planes for Straight Moulding. works. Beads, on the contrary, are always
Figs.66 to 68 on plane and
p. 14 show a bead held upright when beingworked. Fig. 1547
its cutter or
"
iron,"a typicalexample of a is a reeding plane,which be made for
may
tool for producing such beads as are shown two, three,and five reeds,the one illustrated
being a three-reed plane. They are usually given at Figs.1283 and 1286, pp. 394 and
slippedsimilarly to the beads, and for the 395.
same reasons, and in some the fence is able
mov- Scratch Tools." Scratch tools (Fig.1552)
so that the margin may be varied. are much used by wood-workers and joiners
Flutingplanes,the converse of these, are for working small mouldingson sweep work,
also made, but are not much used, as the and occasionallyon straightwork also. They
work can be done equallywell with rounds. consist of small piecesof hardwood sunk at
The foregoingare the principalplanes for one end, to form a fence,and with a slot or
working straightmouldings,but there are saw-kerf to receive the cutter or scratch,

which is in
grippedtightly the slot by means
of a wood screw turned into the end of the
stock. The scratch is a pieceof thin hard
steel fiêdup to an exact reverse of the
moulding it is desired to produce. It is
then rubbed square across with an oilstone
slipto remove the file marks, and finally
the edge is turned with a bradawl or
scraper " that is, the bradawl is rubbed

Fig. 1552. Fig. 1553. Fig. 1554.
very firmlyalong the edge until a sharp
Figs. 1552 to 1554. " Scratch Tool and Scratches. burr is produced on each side ; this burr
forms the cuttingedge, and is, of course,
in addition specialmoulding planes
a few soon worn away, especiallyon hard wood.
used by joiners, such as shop-frontlamb's- The proper formation of this burr is the
tongue, stair-nosing,and scotia planes; secret of producing good work with the
these, however, are not likelyto be of scratch. Figs.1553 and 1554 are views of
general service. two steel scratches, the one shown in the
stock in Fig. 1552 being a sash ovolo. In
Tools for Shaped Mouldings.
using the scratch, the cutter should not be
Thumb Hollows and Rounds. "
Figs.1548 projectedthe full depth at first, but after

and 1549 show
respectively an end and a side some of the surpluswood has been removed
view of a hollow for working rounds
thumb it is pushed out to its proper projection, the
on curved work, and a complete set can be
had matching the set of ordinary hollows,
and also rounds ; however, with a little
ingenuity in their use, three or four can be
made to work almost every imaginable curve.
They are made

generally of some very hard
Fig. 1555.
wood, such as box, ebony, and lignum vitse,
and are from 2 in. to 4 in. long,2 in. deep,
and from | in. to f in. thick. The irons
purchased as blanks
be from the tool-
may
dealers,or may be easily made from a piece Fig. 1556.
of sheet steel.
Figs. 1555 and 1556." Scratch Tools.
Curved Thumb Rebate Plane." Figs.1550
and 1551 are side and plan views of a curved
thumb rebate plane; these planesare made correct amount being shown by a file mark
to various sweeps and thicknesses, and are on the face. As much as possibleof the
surplus wood should be removed with
very useful in working rebates and squares
work. These rebates also chisel,or plane,as may be most
on curved are gouge,
1549. convenient, and the scratch is then rubbed
made with circular soles, as in Fig.
backwards and forwards few inches at a
The planes above mentioned would
thumb a
be indispensablefor making work of double time until it is down, a final rub ously
continu-
curvature, a good example of which is through the lengthbeing given with a

sharp scratch. Figs.1555 and 1556 show spectivelythis

re- part forms a cutter for removing the
a side and under-edge view of
an core. The circular hole inside the cutting
a scratch tool as supplied by tool-dealers. edges is to receive the dust or shaving
This is about 8 in. long,and is made of beech, removed in the stroke, and the tool requires
with turned handles andrepeated lifting
a boxwood from the cut to clear this
able
mov-
fence, one face throat.

being square, Figs. 1561 and 1562 illustrate a
the other
round ; into the fence a slotted brass plate home-made quirk router that will in many
is let, through which a screw slides,giving cases prove quiteas serviceable as the more
about 1 in. adjustment,and more can be elaborate shop-made article. A block of
obtained by re-entering the screw. The fence hardwood, about 2 in. long by f in. square,
is also slotted slightlyto pass over the cutter, is grooved across one face (see Figs. 1561
which prevents side movement when ing,
work- and 1562) to receive the cutter, which should
the cutter being secured by a set screw fit tightly.This is a piece of saw blade,y1^
in. thick,If in. long,and f in. wide, with a
}-in.slot in it ; a stout J-in.wood screw
passing through this slot secures the cutter

at any height desired. A movable fence,
made of a slipof hardwood f in. by " in.
Fig. 1557. "
Quirk Routers.
B A
Fig.
1558.
Fig. 1559. Fig. 1561. Fig. 1562. Fig, 1563.
Figs. 1558 to 1560." Cutter. Figs. 1561 and 1562." Quirk Router. Fig. 1563." Cutting Gauge.
at the side. This tool is useful on larger

mouldings,and is shown with a two -reed
scratch in it.
Quirk Routers. "
Quirk routers (Fig.1557) Fig. 1564. Fig. 1565.
are made of malleable iron, and have adjust-
able and Thumb Mould.
Figs. 1564 1565."
fences of various shapes,with a pair of
clipsand thumbscrew
for holding the cutter. by 2 J in., is secured to the stock with a
Three views latter,to a largerscale, couple of round-headed
of the screws, which pass
are given in Figs. 1558 to 1560. This tool through two small slots in the fence. This
is used primarilyfor cuttingquirksfor beads proves a very efficient tool for inlaying
and other mouldings, but is also very handy stringsin marqueteriework.
for sinking grooves in any curved work Cutting Gauge. "
This tool is illustrated
where plough would not be available ; it at Fig. 1563, and is used for cutting
a
is used similarlyto the scratch tool. The the edges of the various members of a
cutter (Fig.1559)is made of sheet steel,from moulding, more especially when working
TV in. to T\ in. thick, the ends forming them across the grain, the objectbeing to
parts of two concentric circles,one slightly obtain a clean-cut edge. The small movable
largerthan the other. The larger one a, cutter can be adjusted to various
filed to a V section,as shown in Fig. 1560, depths and taken out for sharpening on
forms the gauge or side cutter of the pro- posed the oilstone. When using it, the flat
groove, and must always be on the face of the cutter must always be turned
front or forward side of the tool, but the towards the side on which the clean edge
side b is filed square to a chisel edge, and is desired.
with the smaller one. The side moulds

Working- Thumb Mould.
should be worked first,
and a mitre line
To work a thumb mould (Figs.1564 and drawn on each end with a mitre template,
1565) on the edge of a table or sideboard top, the end moulds being then worked down to
first square up the edges to the required this line,as the shape of the mould cannot
size, then with the cuttinggauge set to well be marked on the moulded edges.
the breadth of the moulding, gauge a
line the all round. Next set

Working Ogee Panel Moulding.
on top a
plough to a shaving less than the gauge In Fig.1566 the dotted outline represents
mark and to the exact depth of the sinking the end of the board on the edge of which
required,as shown by the dotted lines in the moulding is to be stuck, and the full
line is the shape of the moulding which
should be marked on each end by means of
a pattern template. For this the ends of
the board should be planed and rubbed
over with chalk, so that the pencil line
shall show clearer. Having shot the edge
of the board straight and square, gauge the
edge to the required thickness from the face,
and try up the back. Set the plough with
No. 1 iron and plough the grooves as
indicated at 1, 2, 3, and 4 (Fig.1566) to
the distance on of the sticking as shown
at 1. The core between grooves 2 and
3 can be removed with a chisel and
levelled with a rebate plane, when the
board will have the appearance shown in
Fig.1567. Next work off the salient angles
of the core in a series of chamfers with the
rebate plane as indicated by the dotted
lines,and with a suitable round work out
the hollow part of the moulding. A verse
re-
template,cut out of card or

of the
thin wood, is useful for testingthe depth.
Fig. 1570. Begin the round with a suitable hollow.
If the hollow will not work on the off side
Fig. 1566." Ogee Panel Mould.
of the quirk,
quite down to the bottom
Fig. 1567. "
Working Ogee Panel Mould.

a snipe-billplane must be employed to
Fig. 1568. "
Working Bolection Mould.

for working in the
finish. This is specially
Fig. 1569. "
Cornice Mould.
Fig. 1570. "

Working Cornice Mould. quirksof mouldings.
Working Bolection Moulding.
and work this the two side
Fig. 1565, on
edges of the top. Then fix a straightedge To work a moulding (Fig.1546,

bolection
to the gauge line across the end by means p. 469), a piece out of which the mould
of two handscrews clips,
or and run in a is to be produced should be planed up
depth. Again run accurately to size all round first and
tenon saw to the requisite
the plough may be worked in as indicated by the dotted
; then
run
in the saw grooves
the ends to remove the core to the lines till it assumes the shape of Fig.
across
Chamfer off with the jack 1568. Work the return bead on the front
proper depth.
plane as indicated by a b, Fig. 1565, and, edge, removing the side slipfor that pose.
pur-
work
selectingtwo hollows of suitable size, Then the
upper round or astragal
the larger one down first. Then turn 'the should be worked, and two thin marking
finish off the slipspreparedexactlythe width of the two
top up on edge and curve
;:4 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY.
corresponding. The block is now fixed

on face,and also the thickness of the tongue b,
the bench, and saw-cuts are run in
tangent which is gauged from the back. The lines
to the various curves, and are met responding c c (Fig.1574) are
by cor- then gauged in with the
cuts from the face of the block, cutting gauge, working from the edges of
as indicated by the double lines. These the panel. A plough groove is run along
are the commencements of a series of rebates the sides, close to the gauge lines,to the
to be finished with
chisels and rebate planes, required depth of the sinking,and similar
and they carefully
must workedbe one after grooves are cut across the grain with the
the other, commencing with the member tenon saw, as indicated by the dotted
marked 6 and keeping the margins equal fines in Fig. 1574, the core being removed
all round. After the rebates are finished, with a small chisel and the plough run across
the moulds are worked with thumb hollows to regulate the depth. The panel is now
and rounds. To prevent the edges at the turned edge in the bench-screw, back
up on
jointsbreakingout, the outlines should be outwards, and a plough groove b (Fig.1573)

run around the edges to a depth slightly
under the amount by which the tongue will
enter the groove in the framing. Next
work out the rebate a all round, and with
a shoulder plane or a rebate plane set very
fine and laid flat,go carefullyaround the
sides of the sinking,working off clean and
square to the gauge lines. Then chip away

the core between the top and bottom of the
chamfer, and true up with the shoulder
plane. The cross or end grain should be
worked and
first, a mitre line drawn at each
angle,when the sides can be worked off to

these which
lines, will producecorrect mitres.
Cleaning Up Mouldings.
Mouldingsare cleaned up by rubbing the
surface with glasspaper of different degrees
of fineness,appliedto the various members
Fjcr. 1576.
of the moulding by means of suitablyshaped
Fig. 1575. "
Rubbers for Beads.
rubbers of soft wood or cork ; the latter is
Fig. 1576. "
Holding Glasspaper on Rubber.

Fig. 1577." Cork-faced Rubber. the better material, as it does not get
heated so readily with the friction. This
carefully
cut in for about J in. with able
suit- heating melts the gluewith which the glass
gouges or chisels, from the outside to-
wards is attached to the paper, and causes it to
the middle, and in working the planes come to the surface,where it adheres to
take care not to go below this cut portion, the dust produced in rubbing, quickly
the cleaningoff being left until the piece is cloggingthe paper and renderingit useless.
glue-jointedand dowelled to the straight The rubber must be made to fit the curves
portionsof the moulding. of the moulding exactly,and in the case of
a largemoulding the rubbers may fit different
Working- Raised Panel.
parts of the surface ; generally, how-
ever,
Figs. 1573 and 1574 are the section and quirksand flats are best rubbed with
plan of a sunk, raised,and fielded panel. separate rubbers, as in Fig. 1575, although,
It is prepared by trying if care is taken, the flats on a small moulding
up the back and
gauging to thickness,and then cutting and may be cleaned up with the rubber used for
squaringoff to the finished size,as indicated the curved parts, as shown in F.'g.1576.
by the outline in Fig.1573. Next the sinking The flat parts of the rubber should, however,
a is gauged all round the edges from the well beyond the arrises of the
pass
to avoid
(fillets, the danger of the glasspaper ing raises the grain and results in a much
irising
on edge of the rubber and taking smoother
the finish.
(off the sharp edge of the moulding. The
should not be folded double the Fixing and Fitting Mouldings.
ipaper on
Irubber, and must be pressed very tightly Fig. 1578 is a sketch of a small door ing
show-
[round the latter ; it should also not be the method of inserting
a planted mould-
ing
:allowed overhang the ends of the rubber,
to ; the shorter piecesare mitered and shot
'but should be kept short. Wood rubbers to the exact lengthbetween the stiles,and
iare shaped with hollows and rounds, and the longer pieces are shot rather full in
Iare usuallyabout 4 in. long by 2 J in. wide. length,so that they can be forced in with-
out
|Cork rubbers, being generally made from bruisingthe ends when the other pieces
i
odd pieces of cork (bottlecorks), are of are removed. Having fitted each piece
various lengths; they are sometimes glued separately,try each mitre to see that the
in J-in.slabs to wood blocks and shaped mouldingsmeet correctly,
which they should
Fig. 1578." Fitting Mouldings.
as requiredafter drying as shown in Fig. do, in all but the last mitre, if the lengths
1577. A sharp gouge and a rat-tail file have been
consecutively. The last
cut off
are useful tools for roughly shaping cork ; mitre, joiningup the opposite ends of the
then bed a piece of fine glasspaperround the length, will probably vary slightly in sec-
tion,
moulding, and rub the rubber over this, and should be trimmed before being
which will fin'sh it accurately to shape. plantedin. All being ready, cut four little
Oakey's cabinet glasspapershould be used, blocks and place one at each corner, as
and is made in several degrees, the most shown ; then insert the end piecesof moulding,
useful being : M2, for the first cut in large resting them on the blocks. Next
soft wood mouldings ; F2, for a similar spring in the side pieces by pressing the
purpose in hard wood ; 1 j, a good general end down with the left elbow, pullingthe
paper and suitable as a first cut for small middle of the length up into an arch with
mouldings, and a second cut for large deal the left hand, and pressing the other end
mouldings; I, a fine paper to finish hardwood down into place with the righthand. When
mouldings ; and 0, or flour paper, the end is entered, let go the middle, and the
an extremely fine cut, only used when a piece will spring in straight,bringing the
very high finish is desired. In cleaningup mitre up tight.
hardwood mouldings, after the first paper-
ing
Setting Out Mouldings.
up is finished,slightly damp the mould-
ing
with hot water, and when this has dried, Diminishing Moulding. The following "
rub down with the finer paper ; this damp- geometrical method will be found both
simple and effective,

both for diminishing h f in /,draw the horizontal /,a, which cuts
and enlarging mouldings. To find the the radiatinglines in b, e, h;
g, and then
section of a moulding smaller than that from /' mark off correspondingdistances
represented at a, e, d, c (Fig. 1570), as shown by a', b',e',g',h\ and raise pro-
jectors
draw from a a horizontal line a g, at any as shown from the point
; then
convenient distance, produce the line e a where the radiating
lines from g cut d, f ',in
to any convenient point h ; from c draw 5', ("',7', 8',projecthorizontally,
and thus
the perpendicularc f, and then take any show points in the profileof the moulding
suitable pointsin the profile of the mould-
ing as 1', 2', :Y, 4'.
as 1, 2, 3, and 4 ; from these project Enlarging Mouldings." To enlarge the1
horizontals to meet c f in 5, 6, 7, and 8. moulding to a breadth equal to G m and
Then projectingdown from points 2, 3, to a thickness of h n, on the vertical line
Figs. 1579 and 1580.--
Diminishing and En-
K
larging Mouldings.
Fig. 1579.
G M mark off the breadth, projecta zontal

hori-
to cut the radiator in e' ; draw
G o
the vertical line e' p, then producethe other

i '// / radiators to meet the line as shown. Then
'IIII projecthorizontallyfrom H, and on h n
mark off the given thickness, cuttingthe

radiatingline H R in s ; draw the hori-
zontal
ill s t ; produce the other radiators to
"",/
wl meet this line as shown. From p (Fig.
I
1580) mark off distances b, 9, 10, 11, and
L-
correspondwith those
-
f, to at s t (Fig.
1579) ; projectors raised from these
pointswill determine points 1" to c" in the
and 4, we obtain 9, 10, and 11. Now from curve, which can then be drawn as shown.
h draw lines passingthroughpoints
radiating By p, e', f' is shown the of
profile a ing
mould-
B, (", 10, 11, and f, also from G draw radiating which is much broader than but of the
lines passingthrough points5, 6, 7, 8, and same thickness as the original
mouldinga, e,
d. At G set up a perpendicular,and then d, the settingout of which will be clearly
make G k equal to the breadth of the understood without need of further tion.
explana-
moulding required. From k draw a zontal
hori-
line cutting g d in d, then from d Raking Mouldings Round External Angle.
draw the perpendiculard /'. Next from "
Fig. 1581 illustrates the process of obtain-

ing
h draw a horizontal line making h l equal the sections of raking mouldings round
to the thickness required, then from L the external angleof a wall which is square.
draw a line parallel
to h a, so that it cuts In this case the returned pieces are hori-
zontal. The
raking moulding abc being required sections. To avoid confusion of
| given,it is
required to find the profiles of lines the points taken should be numbered,
' the mouldings mitering into it. Take the lines drawn
any through them, and the points
i number of points in the section given, and projection
in thelines numbered in the same
projecttwo lines from each, one to the back The above example also representsthe
way.
; of the section a c, and another parallel moulding which occurs in the pediment.
I to a c to a line p l drawn from a at right Raking Mouldings on Internal Angle. "
j anglesto a c ; a' c' and a" c" are the eleva- Fig. 1582 illustrates the various sections of a
\ tions of the faces of the returning walls. moulding running round the interior angles
|Take any point p in c' a' and c" a" proof a wall. It also shows the different forms
| duced, and draw p l at right anglesto it, of sash-bar moulding required for a certain
and on that side on which is the moulding. kind of lantern light,and the shape of the
Fig. 1581." Raking Mouldings

on External Angle.
Fig. 1582. Raking Mouldings on
Internal Angle.
p l might be called the projectionline. anglebar in a shop front, a b is the section

It is requiredto transfer the points on it to given or known. Points 1, 2, 3, etc., are
the other lines p l.strip taken in the profile,
To do this take the pointsin the curved
a
of paper, and, placingthe

edge against the portions being taken sufficiently close to
projectionline,make marks on it over the admit of a freehand curve being drawn

points. The stripcan now be placedagainst through the resulting points. The process is
the new lines and the several points marked the same as for the previousexample, a" b'
off from it,takingcare that p is over a and and a" b" are the sections of the mouldings
L above b. Project lines from the points in miteringinto the raking one, which are horizontal.
the projectionlines,parallel to the backs When the mouldings on both faces
of the mouldings a7 c' and a" o". Draw of the wall are on the rake or at an angle,
also lines,to meet these, through the points one of the methods illustrated at the right
taken on the given profile,and parallel of the figureis adopted. In one case the
to the lines a' c" and a' c". The inter-
sections points on the profile are projectedto the
of these lines are points on the back line of the section, and lines are drawn
from these at the angleto which the mould-ing respondinglines drawn through the projec-
tion
is to be fixed. A new back line is then line.
drawn across these lines and at rightangles Raking Moulding intersectingan Obtuse
to them. A line is now drawn from one of Angle with a Horizontal." a b, c (Fig.
the front points,say a" at the new rake of 1583) is the plan of the faces of two walls
the moulding. By drawing the projection intersecting
at b at an obtuse angle,a b
Figs. 1583 and 1584." Raking

Moulds intersectingat an
Obtuse Angle with a zontal.

Hori-
Fig. 1583.
line p l, and through the points in it, being a level moulding and B c a raking
lines
the point a'" is found.Join this to the end moulding. Parallel to b c draw x y,
of the new back line,and draw lines parallel projecting up from b the back of the mitre,
to it from the other pointsin the line. The the point d (Fig.1583) is obtained ; draw
intersections of these lines, with those the inclination of the moulding as shown
drawn through the line p l, are points on by d e. Draw x' y' at right angles to
the new section. The other method, which is a b (Fig.1584), and draw the section of
shorter when the elevation of the mitre the level moulding as shown by k, f, g, h, 9,
tnf,
(a" b") has been drawn, is by drawing lines and from convenient points as shown by
from the points on the profile, and at the 1, 2, 3, and 4 projectdown and draw the
rake of the moulding to intersect the cor- plan of the moulding and also the mitre
l shown ; repeat the section of the Mitering Mouldings. When two pieces of
jb as "
horizontal moulding on x y as shown by moulding are joined together by mitering,

k', f', g', h'. Now consider the points the mitre is straight when the piecesare
1 to 9 and V to 9' as the elevations of straight,or of the same curvature. To
horizontal lines on the moulded surfaces, facilitate operation of mitering, the
the
which have been projectedfrom the sections mitre is often made and the contour
straight,
and are repeated on plan. These lines in of one of the piecesof moulding is varied to
plan intersect at the mitre line in both suit it. Fig. 1585 illustrates the method.
the horizontal and raking moulds. Now The profile of the straightpieceis given ; it
projectingup from the intersections in is necessary to find that of the curved one.
the plan horizontally

of the mitre and Take pointson the given section,and project
from corresponding pointsg', Y, 2', 3', 4', them to a projectionline p l and to the
in the elevation, points l', a', e', dr are mitre line. Draw a line across the curved
obtained. Then from these points draw moulding, radiatingto the centre from
lines as shown at the proper rake to cut which the curve is struck (or normal to the
Fig. 1585. "

Section of Ramp Moulding to have
Straight Mitre,
the line which Fig. 1586. Ramping Moulding to Given Point.

m right angles to
n, is at "
p/ c' ; make the ordinates from "" ', 1",

2" ',3", 4" the same lengths from m n as curve if it is not circular).Continue the
the from lines drawn to the mitre line to this line,
corresponding ordinates f' k/,
thus obtaining the section of the upper and projectlines thence at right angles.
portion of the raking moulding so that it Draw the projectionline p l as shown, and
shall intersect with the horizontal ing
mould- obtain the intersections on the points on
in a vertical mitre. Points in the the required profile.

profileof the lower part of the section Ramping Moulding to Given Point. "
Fig.
of the raking mould shown 1586 illustrates the problem of ramping a
are at h", 6"-,
1" ',
8", 9" ; these are obtained in an exactly moulding to a given point,such as occurs
rail is continued from the level

similar manner to the upper portion, when a dado
and will be found in staircase, from staircase to a ing,
land-
no difficulty ing
follow- up a or a
the representsthe line of the mould-

ing.
working illustrated. Each ary
imagin- cbd
line in the moulded surfaces It is requiredto ramp it to the point

upper
is Draw line vertical. The centre
representedby straightline in plan
one a. a f a o
in every case but ; in plan one

one line of the curve of the ramped portionwill be in
is made this line. It will also be in line drawn
to represent an imaginary line a
from pointin at right anglesto it ;

directly under it on the lower moulded a c b d
surface. the point in c b d being the placeat which

the straight portion meets the curved.

Appliance for Marking Mouldings for
Through a draw a line de at right angles
Mitering and Scribing.
to c d. Take points f and e in a f and a e
equidistant from a. With the compasses At Fig. 1588 is illustrated an appliance

set to a distance about equal to the line designed to do with the difficulties
away
joining f e, describe arcs with f and e as commonly met with
in marking mouldings
centres. Join a to the intersection of these for the of
returning the ends in the
purpose
arcs, and produce it to meet c d in b. From solid, or for scribing. Properly manipulated,
Fig. 1587. " Easement of Angle.
Fig. 1588. "

Application
of Apparatus for ing
Mark-
Mouldings for Miter-
ing and Scribing to Wood
Moulding.
b draw Boat right angles to CD. Then o it will give any kind of scribe or mitre that
is the centre of the joining b to and required. The pencil has a flat side
be
curve a, may
to which the line c b is tangential. [Any planed throughout its length, so as to bed
difficulties met with in solving similar prac-
tical fairlyon the plane, and is used as indicated in
problems should be submitted to the Fig. 1588, which shows the application of the
Editor of "Building World" for solution in apparatus : the moulding is held in position
that journal.] by the left hand, marks that have been
any
Easement of Angle. "
In Fig. 1587 the made on it being adjusted to the point of
method of easing an angle is shown. Take the pencil, which is then worked all round
points d and e in a b and a c equidistant the surface of the moulding, care being taken
from a, and draw lines from these points that it always lies flat upon the plane. The
at right angles to the lines in which they are. curved line shows the path traced round the
These intersect at which is the centre, surface of the moulding by the point of
o,
while o d or o e is the radius of the curve. the pencil.
SKIRTINGS, DADOS, PANELWORK, LININGS, ETC.
Material.
liningis an important feature which should
Lining
always be considered, but which cannot be
All pine woods, besides many hardwoods, obtained if the stuff is cut athwart the grain.
are used in
the production of lining. The The best figureis always obtained from the
hardwoods generallyemployed are mahogany, outside of sawn or hewn logs,the nearer the
walnut, maple, oak, etc. Linings may be alburnum of the wood the better. Fig. 1589
plain V-jointed, double V-jointed,beaded, shows graphicallyhow this occurs. Let it be
or reeded. The V bead or reed should always assumed that the dotted outer ring was the
originalsize of the tree in the round. The
square represents the size to which it was
reduced for exportation. Between the two

outer circular lines the wood is sappy ;
between the second outer line and the heart
it is resinous. parallel The
lines represent
saw-cuts. All the
planks up to No. 8 are
3J in. thick ; No. 9, 4| in. ; Nos. 10 and 11,
5 in. As pitchpineliningis generally 3J in.
broad in the rough, it may be assumed that
this log was planked out by the log-frame
for lining purposes. Plank No. 1 would
yield about forty f-in.boards, but not one

would show a good figure. The result of No.
2 would be almost similar. With No. 3 a
good figurewould appear, especially on the

outer edges. Nos. 4 and 5 would produce
a finer figurestill. Nos. 6, 7, and 8 would
be beautiful across their entire breadths.
No. 9 should be cut the
opposite way from
Fig. 1589." Method in which Log is Cut into the planks that precede it ; if cut the
Boards. considerable loss would
same way, result,
and no figurecould be obtained. Nos. 10
be formed on the face, or best-dressed side. and 11 should also be cut No. 9. In the
as
Linings vary in thickness from f in. to butt of a good tree there should be no knots
| in.,f in. beingthe size mostly used. First outside of 4-in. radius from the heart, but
qualityBjorneborgpine (red and white) fur-
nishes- the heart of any tree (whether butt or top)
good material for lining. Small, firm cannot be had free of knots. Yellow lining
knots are not objectedto. Pitchpineshould is commonly f in. by 3 in. ; four boards, at
be free from knots and sap ; likewise first f in. full,are got from 3-in. deals. All yellow
qualityyellow pine. The latter is most pensive,
ex- wood should be dried in a kiln before being
of its nature,
on account wrought by the machine. Thin only
appearance, saws
and adaptability.Half an inch is allowed should be used for it out
breaking ; saws
for the tongue on all pine woods ; | in. on thicker than No. 15
gauge are not suitable.
hardwood. A beautiful grain in pitchpine With No. 16 gauge, four pieces at y^ can
21 481
be got from 3-in. deal ; y,1,

in. is sufficient plugs are marked this
a at point, and the
for machine dressingand working. Narrow superfluouswood is cut off. When the wall
liningis preferable to that which is broad or has been plastered,the end of the plug
double V-jointed; however well seasoned should be not quite level with the surface of
the broad stuff may be, shrinkageis more or the plaster.Fig. 1592 shows the common
less perceptible in a few months after it is of fixingthe skirting.
way
placed in position. Hardwood liningcan-
not
be manufactured with the same ease as
pine-wood lining; with hardwoods more
caution must be observed, and more time

taken in the sawing and machine working.
Fixing Wooden Plugs for Grounds.
Plugs are piecesof wood or metal, or of

wood encased in metal, that are inserted in
the jointsof brickwork or stonework, or are
driven into holes bored into brickwork or
stonework, for the purpose of affordinga

Fig. 1591." Plug Fitted to Joint.
Securing Skirting in First = class

Work.
buildingsof a more
In pretentiouscharac-
ter,
and
superintendedby a clerk of works, a
higher class of work is expected. Suppose
an order has been given to fix two sets of
grounds for a 9-in. skirting,the wal!s of the
room to be perfectly
square and plumb when
plastered.When the room is on the ground
floor, the floor-level,if it has not been
Fig. 1590." Twisted Plug. marked, must be obtained. It may times
some-
be got from an adjoiningroom, where

holding-placefor those fixtures that are the floor-level has been determined by the
erected by carpenters and joiners. The floor joistrunning over one of the cellars.
twisted plug shown by Fig. 1590 is made The room must now be squaredby the out-
side
from deal,the opposite
dry straight-grained wall, working through the window
corners of which are cut off illustrated ;
as
the thin or enteringedge of the plug is left

ofequal thickness along its width, with its
edges parallel.
Securing Skirting in Cottage Work.
For securing skirtingin ordinary cottage

work, jointsabout 3 ft. apart are made in
the brickwork with a pluggingchisel. The Fig. 1592. "
Fixing Skirting in Common Work.
plugs should be of the shape shown in Fig.

1590, each fitted in its own and
joint, driven opening(Figs.1593 to 1595),the inside walls,
in up to the shoulder (Fig. 1591). A being plumbed from floor to ceiling, trying
chalk line is then stretched from the first the window side first to see if it inclines
plug to the last,the line being held ciently inwards
suffi- or outwards at the top or at the
far from the surface of the bricks to bottom. Then the jointsto receive the
allow for the thickness of the plaster.The plugs (beginningwith the window side)
SKIRTINGS, DADOS, PANELWORK, LININGS, ETC. 483
must be cleared, making the joints18 in. rule ; b, rule

parallel ; c, plugs; d, chalk line ;
apart alongthe wall, and placingthe bottom E, equalthicknesses. Plugs,to which blocks
"
ground or row of plugs about 1 in. or 1J in. of wood (sometimes called soldiers ") must
from the floor,and the top ground J in. or be nailed,should also be placed in the joints
| in. below the top edge of the skirting. between the top and bottom rows ; these
When all the plugs have been driven in on plugs must be about 2 ft. apart (f f, Fig.
the window side,fasten the chalk line across 1596). The grounds should be so fixed
the room to the bottom row of plugs. Then that the walls may. be perfectlystraight,
place a rule across the window opening on plumb and square when plastered; and the
Fig. 1593. Fig. 1594.
Figs. 1593 and 1594." Use of

Parallel Rule and Plumb Rule
in Squaring a Room from
the Outside.
Fig. 1595." Plan of Wall showing

Use of Parallel Rule and
Plumb Rule in Squaring a
Room from the Outside.

Fig. 1595.
the inside,keeping it parallel

with the out-
side least amount of plasteron any part of the
of the wall (Figs.1593 to 1595), and (say walls must be of the thickness
specified
drop a plumb line from the rule
guide J in.). Figs.1596 to 1599 show a method
as a
to set the chalk line, which should be parallel of preparing the grounds and fixingskirting
with the rule. The chalk line should be sometimes adopted in first-class work. If
kept back the thickness of the grounds, so the wall on the window side slopestowards
that the latter may finish flush with the the inside of the wall, say, J in. at the top,
face of the plaster.If the face of the wall the faces of the grounds must be fixed J in.
is not quite straightor flat (itis sometimes from the most protruding point at the bot-
tom,
rounded a little),
the face of the ground must and there will then be If in. of plaster
be J in. from that part of the surface that at the top. When the chalk line is parallel
protrudes most. The reference letters in with the outside face of the wall, the line
Figs.1593 to 1595 are as follows : a, plumb may be run alongthe top row of plugs,keep-
t84 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY.
ing it perfectly
plumb to the bottom line, squaringthe other sides,takingfirstthe side
using for this purpose a small plumb rule to the right and plumbing the wall from
about 18 in. longby 2J in. by.J in. All the floor to ceiling
as before,making due allow -
Fig. 1596.
Fig. 1599.
Figs. 1596 to 1599." Method of Fixing Skirting

Fig. 1597. in First-class Work.
plugsmay now be marked and cut off,and ance in settingthe ground for any round-
the window side will be ready to receive the ness or otherirregularity
on the face or at
grounds. Before, however, any grounds are the top or bottom of the wall. To square
Fig. 1600. "

Method of Preparing for and Fixing Double-faced Skirting
fixed,the other three sides of the room must this side from the plugson the window side,
be made perfectly
true. The plugsalready a square with arms aboutlong will be
8 ft.
fixed can be used as a base to work from in required,one edge being placedagainstthe
face of the sawn plugs, and the chalk line which are usually in two parts as shown.
set parallelto the other edge. This side The lower member is prepared with a tongue
be plugged,and the chalk line for into
fitting
may now groove made
a in the flooring
;
run along the plugs as before,after which the its upper edge is ploughed to receive a
other two sides of the room can be done. tongue of the member. The two
upper
When the plugs for the skirting ground parts are usually of nearly equal thickness,
have been cut off, the window and door and as the lower one projectsthis tates
necessi-
openings must be plugged to receive the preparingand fixingblocks as shown
grounds for the architraves. The joint at A ; these fit to the back of the skirting.
grounds must be plumb and and
parallel, The grounds
c are as previouslydescribed.
the heads square, level,and J in.
must be Where the
skirtingsmeet at the internal
or f in. from the outside edge of the trave.
archi- angles,they are usually grooved, tongued,
The jointsmust be lined out to the and scribed,as illustrated. The skirtingat
grounds behind the window liningsand the d is purposelydrawn off from e the better
to illustrate the construction. Usually the
external angles are simply mitered,and for
painted work are nailed together; where
5*"X^\
Fig. 1602." Fig. 1603. "

Cast-Iron
Lead Plug. Box for Gas Bracket.
nailingis not permissible,secret dovetailing

Fig. 1601. " Piece of Skirting for Internal gives the best result. This is illustrated at
Angle Mitered and Dovetailed. Fig. 1601, which shows the mitre and sockets
cut to receive the other pieces.
"doorcasings. All the internal angles of the
grounds must be grooved and tongued, and Lead Plug's and Iron = cased Plugs.
the external angles mitered. When the All plugs and woodwork should be kept
grounds have been fixed,the blocks (f f, at least 9 in. fromfireplacesor flues,and if
Fig. 1596) may be fixed between them, one a is within
plug required the prescribed area,
being placedon each side of the external and it must be made of lead (see Fig. 1602). If
internal anglesto form a solid angle. The a gas bracket is to be fixed on the chimney
blocks should be let into the grounds. breast or opposite a flue, the wood block
When the grounds are fixed,a nail must be must tightlyencased in a J-in.cast-iron
be
driven into the wall on each side of the box 4J-in.cube (outsidedimensions),the
or
corners of the room near the ceiling,

plumb grain of the wood being vertical (see Fig.
with the face of the grounds. The nails 1603). If these boxes are to be fixed after
must not be more than 9 ft. apart, and on the walls are up, they must be fastened with
each nail a pat of plastermust be laid,to iron wedges, then made tightall round with
which the plastererwill afterwards have to good mortar. All wood that is to be tered
plas-
work. At Fig. illustrated the
1600 is over, such as plugs,is kept back J in.
method of fixing double-faced skirtings, from the face of the plaster.
nor so durable as a framed dado would be,

Round Wooden Plugs. will serviceable
but, givengood fixing, prove
The round wooden plug,to contain which for many years. An of
inspection the detail
a hole is drilled in brick or stone, is often drawings (Figs.1608 to 1611) will make it
found to be useful,but the largerthe plug
the more in proportionwill be the shrinkage
in drying. The plug,therefore, should bear
some relation to the size of the screw. A
J-in. or f-in.plug is quitelargeenough for
Fig. 1604. " Correct Form

of Round Plug.
a No. 12 orFig.1604 shows

14 screw. the
best form of round
plug ; Fig. 1605 is a
bad form, being too tapering,but it is

often used.
lines of the respectivearchitraves and adopted. In fixingthe grounds,etc., take

muntins being squared across their edges the height at the centres of the grounds G G
with the marking knife. From these points as shown on the rod, and plug the walls to
the mitres may be cut with the aid of a mitre receive them. The best way to do this is to
template. A similar height rod, showing drive plugsat the requiredheightfrom the
the exact heights of the three horizontal floor at each end of a bay, and restinga
members of the framing, should be pared.
pre- plumb-rule in the rebate of the top ground
Before settingthis out, the state e (Fig.1608),plumb it upright,and with a
of the floor should be ascertained. If it is piece of the thin ground as a gauge drive in
much out of level, or sufficient
irregular, the plug until the former will justclear the
allowance must be made for scribingthe edge of the rule. Having done this at each
plinthlevel,and it would be preferable to end, drive a nail into each plug,and stretch
allow an extra \ in. on the width, of the a chalk-line between. The remainingplugs
plinthfor scribing,
so that its finished height are then driven or cut off flush with the
Fig. 1609." Detail at A A (Fig. 1606).
should remain as given namely, 9 in. " As

there is a skirtingfillet,
an extra fit for the Fig. 1610." Detail of Panel.
lower edge of the plinth is not necessary.
Fixing the Sham Dado. "
If this dado is to line. Next the floor fillets
are nailed in place
be prepared at a shop some distance from as shown in Fig. 1608, the exact position
the buildingwhere it is to be fixed,the beingascertained from the rod. The thick-
ness
pared
pre-
rods should be sent
there, and the on of the plinthsis carefully noted, and
joinerswould fit togetherthe parts as shown, these are fixed straightby the aid either of a
marking with a chisel all the mitres on the spring line or of a longstraightedge.After
back for identification,
and cutting off the these are fixed,the plinthbackings, piecesof
battens to size as shown for the panels. In 1 in. by 1 J in.,are fixed to plugsabout every
this case it would be safer not to cut the 3 ft.,and finished flush with the floor fillet.
mitres in the architraves until they had been Upright grounds are then fixed behind each
fitted round the linings
; and the horizontal muntin, as shown by the lengthrod. suming
As-
rails should be cut off ^V in. full at each end, that the work is to be fitted and fixed
so that they should fit close when sprung in on the
job, cut the plinthsin tightbetween
place. If, however, the entire work were the linings,fitting the piece between the
prepared on the job,then a slightly different window liningsfirst, and cutting in a tem-
porary
procedure in relation to the fitting
would be stretcher between the door linings.
Scribe the wall anglesof the plinth,

as shown ensure the dado being level all round the
in Fig. 1611. Having fitted the plinthall room. It should be noted that in fitting
round, next fit the architraves round the the dado rail the top member does not come
openings,cuttingthe uprightsfirst. Having into the mitre,but is stopped square against
fittedthese,mark them, and then take down. the architrave, a beaded backing piece
Fix the lower sets of panelsas shown in Fig. being fixed to the framed ground to take
1608 ; if the tonguesfittightly,they will only this,as shown in Fig.1609. All being fitted
need a brad here and there. They should together,the preliminary is
to fixing to run
have been previouslyall cut to size,as shown all round the room the groove for the skirt-
ing
on the rod, with plentyof clearance between shown in Fig. 1608. This would be
their edges. The upper panels may now done
groovingplaneworking against with a
be fixed. These will only requirebradding thin

stripequalin width to the thickness
a
on the lower edges,with an occasional brad of the plinth, and restingagainstthe floor
in the upper edge to keep them from falling fillet. This should just take the
groove
over. Remove the plinth first, however, pencil line previously m ade out, so that the
plinthis nippedtightly between the skirting
and fillet. Proceed to fix the plinth as
shown in Fig. 1608, bradding the top edge
Fig. 1612." Detail at B B (Fig.1606).
under the ogee, where the holes will be out

of sight. Do not nail the lower edge ; drive
Isometric Detail of Plinth.
Fig. 1611." the skirting in tightly, preferablygluing
into the groove, but not to the plinth. Next
pencilling line a along its face on the floor, fix the architraves to the ground and back-
ings,
and, takingit to the bench, set out the mitres and springthe railsbetween them, brad-
ding
for the muntins from the
rod, as described the surbase mould as shown inFig.1608.
previously.All the fittingup can now be Also insert the lower muntins, forcingthe
done on the bench, as the external sizes are surbase moulding tightlyon to them.
down
givenin each direction
by the architraves and Next fix the
top muntins, and finally the
plinthsrespectivelyoTo get the lengthsof dado rail. The latter,having to keep the
the muntins, after fitting accuratelyan whole in position,is better fixed with screws,
architrave with the first and second rails, which in paintedwork would be turned in
turn it upon edge,and square over the mitre flush and puttiedover, and in polishedwork
or sight line, on one top and one bottom should be sunk into holes (as shown in Fig.
muntin, and use these lengthrods for
as 1608), which are afterwards filled in with
setting out the remainder. A template turned pellets of similar wood. Figs. 1606
appliedto the sightlines will givethe length and 1607 are reproduced to a scale of \ in.
of shoulder where it cuts the edge of the to 1 ft.,and Figs. 1608 to 1610 half full
moulding (see h, Fig.1608). The firstfitted size. The followingis a list of letter refer-
ences
architrave will also be a guide by which to not explainedin the text: J, jamb-
Set out the remainder, care being taken to lining; k, ground ; l, panelling; M,
keep the bottom ends flush, which will backing; n, fillet; o, architrave ; p, dado
21*
rail ; Q, top panel; r, surbase mould ; t, it touches the grounds, and will wedge the
bottom panel; u, plinthmould ; v, skirt-
ing top and bottom here and there,in order to
; w, flooring
; x, wall line. straight bringthe
both ways. work true and
A common fault,causing a great deal of
Oak Panelwork.
trouble,is the neglectto thickness down the
In the framing up of oak panelwork, panels before final insertion in the framing.
the essential requirement for sound, true This prevents the framing from touching
work is a proper regardto the joints. The the grounds,and therefore the rough plaster
material is used so thin that the panelling filling or screeding must be hacked or
i^îlgâi-gailgs^^
Fig. 1613. Fig. 1614.
Fig. 1613." Part Elevation of Oak Wall Panelwork.
Fig. 1614. "

Vertical Section.
Figs. 1615 and 1616." Details of Ordinary Mitered Corner.
Figs. 1617 and 1618." Details of Mason-Mitered Corner. Fig. 1618.
should be stiffened with stout canvas glued scraped to allow of the panelsgoing
away
to the back, which is sometimes primed with back without out the grounds. Com-
plicated
firring
red-leadpaint to afford protection from methods of framing require the
damp when the work is placed in a new use of draw-bore pins and oak dowel pins
building. It is usual to frame up the work when finally gluingup the framing on the
with stuff varying in thickness from f in. benches. A point that must be emphasised
to 1J in.,finished sizes. In some shops it is that the tenon should be kept in the centre
is not considered to thickness the of the thickness of the because
necessary framing,
framing,which is only prepared on the face under the pullinginfluence of the cramp
and twoedges ; in which case a little more the stile or to the weaker rail always turns
trouble is given to the fixer on the building, shoulder and when such work has a
;
who, if his grounds are straightand true, will shoulder J in. deep at the front or moulded
traverse the back of the panelwork where side,and another shoulder -^ in. or J in.
deep at the back, extra labour is necessary and 1618, thus forming butt jointswith
in order to bring the face side to a true mason-mi tered edges.
corners to all moulded
Surface,while the extra planingmay injure These corners joineron
are worked by the
the moulding on the edges,whereas a slight the bench after the panellingis glued up
extra thickness" of material would obviate all and cleaned off. The bottom rail is tongued
the trouble and risk.
panelwork shown The into the skirting as shown in Figs.1619 and
in Fig.1613 is framed with lj-in.stuff,
got to 1620, and the top rail meets the festooned
thickness and widths as shown in Fig. 1614. frieze board under the small neckingmould
as shown, the frieze board being tongued
to the den tilled cornice also. This cornice
is double -dentilled,
one row of dentils being
cut farther back than the other, as shown
in Figs. 1619 and 1620. As usual with
built-upcornices,this section can be worked
on the four-cutter moulder or on a spindle
machine ; the however,
dentilling, is best
cut by hand. A cover-board lies at the back
of the cornice, which is back-rebated to ceive
re-
the front edge of the cover-board.

The three flutes over the top muntins have
rounded-out top ends, and finish at the
bottom splay; whilst the festoons are
on a
cut out of the solid,but are gener-

preferably ally
planted on unless otherwise specified.
In fixingthis class of work, which is, as a
rule,screwed up, all fixingscrews should be
hidden, or the holes should be bored to
" "
take corks a little largerthan the screw
" "
head, and the corks should be cut from
wood closelymatching that in which the hole
is bored. framingmust be fixed as true
The
and upright possible(especially
as at ex-
ternal
corners where mitered vertical joints

occur) and well scraped and cleaned down
after the fixingis done. The illustrations
are reproduced to the following scales : "
Figs.1613 and 1614, fin. to 1 ft. ; Figs.1615

to 1618, half full size ; Figs. 1619 and 1620,
Fig. 1619. Fig. 1620. 1 J in. to 1 ft.
Fig. 1619." Detail of Cornice Frieze, Main
Framing, and Skirting.
Fixing Hardwood Dado.
Fig. 1620." Vertical Section Fig. 1621 shows an elevation of a

through Fig. 1619.
panelled dado with moulded skirtingand
The centre framingis mitered togetherat the capping. The dotted lines at c and d show
corners, which are further strengthened by the fixingfillets. Fig. 1622 shows a section
the insertion of cross-tonguejoint,while of the dado.
a At a and b are grounds fixed
the side rails and top and bottom muntins to wood coke-breeze bricks built into
plugsor
are tenoned and pinned like all the other the wall. The ground is wide enough
upper
tenons in the framing. The moulding stuck to take 2 in. of the top rail of the dado and
on the edges (orin the
solid)is not mitered 2 in. of capping,making 4 in. in all. It is
in the ordinary for
work
same way as (see splayed on the top edge to receive and to
Figs. 1615 and 1616) ; but the mitered form a key for the plaster.On ground a at c
corners are worked as shown in Figs.1617 are dovetailed fillets(seeFigs.1623 and 1627),
fixed at convenient intervals of about 3 ft. In the dado, it should

fixing be placedagainst
apart. The mortices shown in Fig. 1624 the grounds in its exact position,with the
are cut into the top edge of the dado rail and dovetailed filletprojecting
above the upper
the under edge of the capping; these should edge. Two screws should then be driven
be set out on the bench and cut in before
sendingon to the job. The filletsc being
Fig. 1621. " Elevation of Panelled Dado. Fig. 1622. " Vertical Section.
prepared and fitted into the mortices and into each piece,which will securelyfix the
the cappingfitted on, the filletsd (Fig.1625) whole ; the capping can then be gently
are cut, tapered in shape,and dovetailed as dropped on in position.It will be advisable
before. Skirting is prepared with a mould-
ing
tongued into the upper edge. Before
Fixing Ground and Fillets.
gluing in the moulding permanently, the

skirting should be grooved on the rear side
as shown in Fig. 1626, and fitted on to the
fillets d. The skirtingis prepared in this Fig. 1624." Back View of Upper Part of Dado.
manner to enable the grooves to be cut
easilyand clean. As the pieceforming the to use a littleglue on the filletand in the
skirtingslides on to these fillets,
it tightens mortices in each case, also along the top
itself,
and so a good secure i
fixing s obtained. edge between the dado and capping. It will
be seen to Fig.
by referring 1625 that the
bottom rail of the dado is built up partlyof
Fig. 1625." Showing Fixing Fillets for Skirting.
Fig. 1626. " Back of Skirting with Grooves for
Fixing.
hardwood and deal,e beingdeal. Fig.1628

is an enlargeddetail of rail and skirting.
Fig. 1628. "

Detail Section of Lower Part of
Dado.
Fig. 1627. " Conventional View, showing Method
of Fixing Upper Part of Dado and Moulding.

X* *" been jointed is

Geometrical Head Linings to Door
nailed
^ f ^to j""8
nrmly the edges of the
,.,..,, ~
. ribs,
and W.ndow Open.ngs.
and then planed ofi true5to
the elliptical
In the case illustrated by Figs.1458 to curve. The board to form the veneer
1465 (pp. 447 and 448), an elliptical-headed

is from J in. to J in. thick,and wide enough
Fig. 1629. " General View of Cylinder showing Veneer

Bent and Partly Staved.
casement window was shown, finished with to obviate joining. It is graduallybent

square jamb linings,and the soffit pre- over the cylinderby first fixinga broad
pared by veneering and blocking. A stave just below the springing A (Fig.
Fig. 1630." Geometrical Splayed Linings Built Up

in Small Sections.
cylinder is made of the form shown by

Fig. 1629, which is of similar construction
to a centre. Two prepared, 1629). Then, with a piece of wood, it is
ribs must be
each rib consisting graduallypressed and worked forward a
of two thicknesses
nailed togetherand cut accurately to the distance of about 12 in. or 18 in. A stave
curve required, the thickness of the ging
lag- is then screwed down temporarilyas in-
dicated
being,of course, deducted. The ging,
lag- at b, and is followed by a second
which consist of stripsabout at c, and so on until the veneer is bent
may
which, of course,
necessitates the preparing a veneer wide enough to obviate jointing.
of a conical
shaped cylinder,and the
- In the case of some timbers- -oak, for
shaping of a veneer, also the staving, instance it is sometimes possibleto get "
bending, and gluing the back in a nearly a pieceof compass timber, the objectbeing
similar manner to that explainedfor the to show as far as possiblethe continuous
example illustrated by Fig. 1629 (p. 494). grain.
It is therefore only necessary to illustrate
and Panelled
explain the method for geometrically Splayed
and Soffit Lining
for Elliptical headed Opening.
settingout the veneer. Figs. 1631 and -
1632 show respectively the half elevation The preparationof the elliptical splayed
and half plan of the conical-shaped veneer. and panelled soffit liningfor the window
Continue the splay of the lining(shown by illustrated at Figs. 1492 to 1494 (p. 457)
Fig. 1634." General View of Conical Cylinder

with Veneer Bent Over and Partly Staved.
I c, Fig. 1632) till it cuts

the centre line may now be described. The liningbeing
in d. Then a i d is the
plan of quarter elliptical, the development requiresrather
of the imaginary conical surface. Adopting more elaboration than it would if it were
the well-known principleof the develop-
ment semicircular. The method of construction
of the cone, with centre d and radius consists in buildingup in three thicknesses
i describe the arc I 9, also the arc c 10 ; on a cylinder. One thickness is equal
divide the quadrant (Fig. 1631) into any to the amount to which the stiles and rails
number of convenient parts, as shown project beyond the faces of the panels
by i' to 9', then mark off distances equal as shown at Fig. 1639 ; the stripsforming,
to these along the arc I to 9 (Fig.1633). the stiles being of course cut out to shape.
Then c 1, 9 10 represent one half the The method of settingout for these shapes
development of the veneer. The other will be described in due course. The
half is, of course, exactly the same shape. piecesfor the sham stiles are bent over the
Where possible,it is advisable to obtain prepared cylinderas shown at Fig. 1639,
and are held in positionby staves, which and rails. Then, on the back of the veneer,
are placed at
as at
intervals indicated the staves are jointed to each other, and
abc (Fig. 1639). Pieces of similar thick-
ness glued and screwed down as indicated on
are then accurately fitted in between the right-handhalf of Fig. 1639. When
the stiles,so as to form sham rails as doing this kind of work, many joiners
shown at d and e (Fig. 1639). Then a consider it advantageous to glue a layer
thin veneer is bent over. This veneer of coarse canvas on the back of the staving,
need not be all in one piece, but can be in order to give additional strength.
Fig. 1635.
Figs. 1635 to 1638." Geometrical Setting Out for

Fig. 1636
Soffit
Development of Elliptical Conical
Lining.
Construction of the Cylinder. As " will
Fig. /.^ -
be seen by Fig. 1639, the cylinder is a
1637. /' frustum of an ellipticalcone. Two ribs
are made, one for the smaller curve shown
by f' n', while the largerrib is made to
the curve g' e' (Fig. 1635). The edges
of these ribs are bevelled to receive the
lagging,which must be nailed on as viously
pre-
explained, and as illustrated at
Fig. 1639, which shows the cylinder as

being somewhat wider than the lagging,
to allow the stavingto
projecting be secured
temporarily to the laggingwith screws.
Geometrical Construction for Soffit. " gin

Be-
by drawing the springingline a" c',
Fig. 1638.
and then draw the elliptical
curve a' d',
which is the line of intersection between
formed of three pieces, the joints being the soffit and the head of the sash frame.
made along the middle of the two sham Continue the springing line to the left,
rails, one of which is shown at d (Fig. then any at point a" erect a
convenient
1639). An advantage in having three perpendicular. Project horizontally from
separate piecesis that then the straightgrain d' to cut this line at d", and thus a" d"
may be arranged
so tangential as to run is the side elevation of the curve a" d'.
to the centre of the panel, giving a much Now project down and draw the plan
superior finish when the work is stained of this curve as shown by a d. Through
or polished. These veneers are glued and d draw the line b e parallelto a" c. Then
bent down to the backs of the sham stiles b f is the direction of the plan of the axis
of the cone. From a set off the plan of

5", 6" 7", 8", e". From these points
the angle of the jamb liningas shown projecthorizontally
by to meet the elevation
a 5. Continue this line till it cuts b e. of the generators, obtainingpoints 5', 6',
Then b is the
plan of the vertex. Project 7',8',e', as shown. Through these points
up as indicated by b b". At d" set off the outer curve can be drawn. From the
the angle of the crown of the soffit (which points 4" in the springingline,draw the
is here shown as having the same angle elevation and side elevation of an additional
as in the plan). This will give the line generator. From 4' to e' straightpiece
e" b", and b" is the side elevation of the has been added, so as to work from the
vertex. Then through b" draw the zontal
hori- level of the vertex. This expedient will
line x y, and, continuingthe minor simplify the working for obtaining the
axis d' c to cut x y, obtain the elevation development.
Fig. 1639. " Conical Drum or Cylinder.
of the Dividing a7 d' into any

vertex b. Obtaining the Development of the Soffit. "
convenient of equal parts, as here

number In dealing with an ellipticalcone, the
shown, through the points a', V, 2', 3', generators gradually increase from the
draw lines radiatingfrom b. It will be minor to the major axes of the section.
an advantage to continue these lines in- Therefore, before
definitely. the development can
We now have the elevation be set out, it is necessary to obtain the
of the generators of the conical surface.
length of each generator. Stated in true
Project horizontallyfrom r, 2', 3", thus geometricalterms, the problem is, Given "
obtainingpoints1", 2", 3", 4" (Fig.1636). the plan and elevation of an oblique line, )
From b" draw radiating lines through determine its true length." At rightangles
these points, thus obtainingthe side eleva-
tion to the generator 5 b (Fig. 1637), draw i
of the generators. Complete the half- b 5',making it equal to g" 5" (Fig.1636). I
plan of the liningas shown by d a 5 e, Join 5' to 5. This gives the true length
projectup, and draw g" e" ; then the of the generator. The others, shown by
generators will cut this line in points 6', 7', 8' (Fig. 1637), are obtained in a .
similar manner. Now, with compasses set stiff paper to the laggings,to ascertain
to the length 5 4', using b as a centre, the slope of the development, in this way
describe an arc as shown by a, and with obtainingmoulds for marking and cutting
compasses set to g" 4" (Fig.1636), using out the stuff which was to be bent on the
5 as centre, draw the arc b. Where the cylinder.
arcs intersect at 4, join to b. With Preparing Soffit out of the Solid. " The
compass set to the true length 5 5', principalpoints involved in setting out
and making splayed and panelled soffit
lining by cutting and working up the
several pieces out of the solid without any
bending are as follows. At a (Fig.1640)
describe the arc c. With b as centre,

and with radius
(Fig. 1635), using 4' 5'
4 as centre (Fig.1638), describe the arc d,
which gives point 5. Draw 5 b. In
this manner points 6, 7, 8, and e can
be obtained, and generators drawn from
them to B as indicated ; while through the
points just mentioned the outer curve of
the development can be drawn as shown.
By marking off the breadth of the soffit
on each generator, obtain pointsa 1,2, 3, d, ^r
throughwhich the inner curve of thedevelop-
ment E F
can be drawn. This completes the Fig. 1640." Setting Out Edge Moulds.
outline of the development for one-half
the soffit. The stiles and muntins next shown in the of the stiles
can are plan ends
be set out as shown. From this develop- of the soffit at the springing.The parallel
ment
moulds can be made for the stiles, lines CD show the thickness of the
ab,
and the shape of the for the panels plank required. from
veneers
Projectingup c d
can be ascertained. and a b, draw the curves d', k, c', l, b', m,
Obtaining Development Direct from a', n, which represent the face moulds
Cylinder. For obtaining the development, c', d', l, k, for applicationto one
"
side of
a method which, while not quite scientific,plank, a', n, m, b', the face mould for the
is nevertheless practical,and has been other side of plank. Then, settinga bevel
largelyused by joiners in the past, is to the angle o, c, a, and applyingit to a
to make a cylinder as true as possible, plank which has been cut for the joints
and then to set out the soffit the lag-
gings as shown by
on a b, the rectangle1, 2, 3, 4
; then, by applying cardboard or indicates a piece of plank. By cutting
along the lines a', d', the

plank is made
to assume the form shownby Fig. KU1.
Now apply and mark the shape of the inner
face mould on the under side of the plank
as indicated by a b m n (Fig. 1641).
Then the outer face mould can be applied
to the plank and marked as indicated by
the curves c k and d l (Fig.1641). The
piece for the stile can now be sawn out as
represented Fig. 1642.. A band

at saw
with a tiltingtable is advantageous for

doing this kind of sawing. The inner edge
Fig. 1641." Conventional View of Plank Set Out is worked to the soffit of the stile
square
from Moulds ready for Sawing. as represented by ef (Fig. 1643). The
stiles for the part of soffit adjacentto the
frame are set out and prepared in a similar
Fig. 1645. Figs. 1644 to 1646 "
Geometrical Setting
Out for Head Panel.
manner. The curved stiles,having been

so far prepared,can be set out, and mortices
made for the rails,which are then ploughed
for the panels. The joints at the crown
are most connected

satisfactorily with
hand-rail screws.
Setting Out for Panels. " A half-elevation

of the soffit is indicated at Fig. 1644, the
framing being shown by dotted lines and
the panels by solid lines. Having set out
the half elevation of the panels as shown,
projectacross and make a sectional tion
eleva-
as shown at Fig. 1645. As each of
the moulds for the panels is obtained by -Conventional View of Piece Plank
an identical method, attention may be
with Edge Moulds Applied.
confined to the necessary working for the
top panel, and settingout for one half will
be sufficient. Points a, b, c, d (Fig.1644)
have been projected across, giving new
projectionsof these points at Fig. 1645,
and the thickness of the panel is represented
by a b, 1 5. a 3, c b, it should be noted,
represents the curved face of the panel.
Inclose this sectional elevation of the panel
by a rectangleas representedby 1, 2, 3, and
4. This shows the thickness and the breadth
of the plank requiredfor the panel. Fixing
on any convenient points in c b, as d, e, f
(Fig. 1644), project horizontallyto c b
(Fig. 1645). Then from the points just
obtained, project at right angles to 1 5
(Fig.1645). Make each of these projectors
the same length from 1 5 as they are
from a, b in Fig. 1645, and thus obtain
points d, e, /, and c" (Fig.1646),through
which the curve can be drawn as shown.
Similarlyprojectinghorizontallyfrom d a,
b c, a (Fig.1645), the curve
to ad passing
through points 5 c b, a d" (Fig. 1646)
is obtained. Joining c" to d" gives the
shape of the mould to apply to the face
of the plank. For the moulds to apply to
the edge of the plank,proceed as follows : "
The points c, d, e, /, b are projected to

b c (Fig. 1645). Projecting from these
points parallelto a b, and drawing a line
at any convenient distance at right angles
as h k, then measuring from this line
and making each projectorthe same length
as the corresponding one from a b, points
c', d'', e' f ', b' are ,
obtained, giving
points in the curve, which can be drawn
through them as shown. The second curve
m n can be drawn parallel,representing ally the same shape as at 4 d" g 1 (Fig.

the thickness of the finished panel. The 1046),and thus d g, h k (Fig.1647) repre-
sents
the piece of plank for the top panel
cut to its first shape 1, 5, beingthe centre
line. On the top edge is shown the applica-
mould for the inner edge is shown by

d (Fig. 1645), and has been obtained
from the curve D a (Fig.1644) in a similar
manner. At f (Fig. 1646) is shown the
edge of the plank developed, and the
outer edge mould applied. The applica-
tion
of the inner edge mould is shown on tion of the outer edge mould, while the
the developed edge of plank at e. At applicationof the inneredge mould is in-
dicated
r" g 1 5 (Fig.1647) is shown convention- by dotted lines. Fig. 1648 repre-
Fig. 1655. "

Conventional View of Drum with Veneer Shaped and Bent.
conical drum (Fig.1655) shows the veneer
cut to shape and bent ready for staving.

over
The method of doing this having been

previouslydealt with, it is not necessary
to recapitulate.
Fixing Hardwood Door = casings, etc.
A generalview of a door and casings,etc.,

Fig. 1656. Horizontal Section of Jamb.
in hardwood is representedat Fig. 1658,
"
and the details showing the method of

secret fixingare given by Figs. 1656 to
1659. In each figure,a represents the
framed ground which is fixed to masonry
in one of the usual ways. The side grounds
marked b are fixed to the edges of the framed
grounds as indicated. Fillets c, with each
end cut to the form of a dovetail tenon
are prepared and screwed to the back

d,
of the rail of the framed and panelled
jamb as shown at c (Figs.1656 and 1659).
The jambs are then fixed in positionby
screwing the dovetail ends to the grounds
as shown at d (Figs. 1657 and 1658)..
The portions of the stiles forming the
rebates, having been prepared with slots
as shown at E (Fig- 1657" to fit *he "nd.8
Fig. 1657.-Conventional Sectional View of
of the fillets as shown at D, can be glued
Portion of Face of Framed and Panelled
and fixed into their positions.The archi-
jamb.
Fig. 1658." General View of Door.

22
traves are fixed by preparing hardwood the architrave as shown at G and h (Fig.
strips with dovetail edges as represented 1660), so as accuratelyto fit the dovetail
slips.The inner member of the architrave
is fixed in position first,and the outer
member h afterwards. Thin glueshould be
Panelled Wainscoting : End Wall showing Fig. 1662. Enlarged Part Section
Fig. 1661."
"
Fireplace and Doorway. on Line C D (Fig.1661).
at f (Fig. 1659). Correspondingslots are brushed on the dovetailed slipsand groove,

made in the back of the two parts forming and,alongthe tongue edge the inner section.
of
SKIRTINGS, DADOS, PANELWOUK, LININGS, ETC. 507
Fig. 1661 shows the treatment of an end wall

in which a and
fireplace doorway occur.
Fig. 1666 shows a side wall with a three-light
recessed window in it. Fig. 1663 gives an
enlarged section on line a b (Fig. 1661),
showing details of the over-door a, archi-
Fig. 1663. "

Enlarged Section on
Line A B (Fig. 1661).
Fig.1664." Enlarged Elevation of Left- Fig. 1665. "

Enlarged Part Section on Line E F
hand Jamb of Wood Mantel. (Fig.1666).
Panelled Wainscoting;. trave b, the top portion of the

five-panel
The wainscoting here shown could be door c, and the framed jamb liningsd,
r'
executed either in hardwood polished,or lintel e, framing F, and grounds Q. The top
in yellow pine painted and finished white, member of the over-door intersects with
the top member of the wainscoting. Fig. and

linings, the
pulley frames. Fig. 1667
1664 representsa part enlargedelevation of represents the plan of the stone mullion,
the left-hand jamb of the wood mantel, also showing boxings for the sash weights. For
portionsof the wainscoting. The surbase greater convenience in making and fixing,
moulding h is stoppedby the wood mantel, it would be better to make the framing
intersects with the plinthof
but the skirting above the surbase moulding independentof
Fig. 1666. "

Side Wall, with Panelled Wainscoting, showing Three-light Recessed Window.
the jambs. Fig. 1662 shows an enlarged that below, the framing above and below
part section on line cd (Fig. 1661) of the being connected by a rebated joint,which
mantelpieceand the wainscotingover it. is covered by the surbase moulding. Figs.
A brass frame is screwed on to the mantel, 1661 and 1666 are reproducedto the scale
of J in. to 1 ft.,and Figs.1663 to 1665, and
Fig.1667, to the scale of f in. to 1 ft. For
Fig. 1665, which representsan enlargedpart
section on line e f (Fig.1666), see p. 507.
Wall Panelling and Enriched Cornice

for Billiard = room or Dining=room.
Figs.1668 to 1685 show the
preparation
and fittingof a dado and
wainscoting
Fig. 1667." Plan of Stone Mullion showing
suitable for a billiard-room,dining-room,
Boxings.
hall, or other similar apartment in a first-
breakingthe jointbetween the wood mantel class villa,or in a town mansion or country
and the firebrick liningto the dog grate. residence. Various hardwoods are used for
Fig. 1665 representsan enlargedpart sec-
tion such work, but probablyoak is most popular.
on line e f (Fig.1666),showing details Fig. 1668 shows the side of the room in
of the cornice, the pilasters, the panelled which the doorwav and its fitments are
situated; Fig. 1669 the side of the room up with pilasterjambs and soffit (see the
containing the fireplace.The dressing perspective
sketch, Fig 1671). The ings
mould-
round the lower portion of the fireplace are worked on the solid of all the stiles
usuallyconsists of marble or other masonry, and rails. The generalprinciplesof set-
Fig. 1668." Elevation of Door and Portion of Panelling.
while the frieze

directlyover the fireplace,ting out rods, preparingthe stuff,setting
the corniceshelf,and the overmantel with out for mortising and tenoning, mitering,
pediment, etc., are constructed of wood. and so forth, having been already dealt
The woodwork against the external wall, with in other sections of this book, it is
and the inside elevation of the opening unnecessary to repeat such details,and
(illustrated at Fig. 1670), are shown fitted therefore the accompanying illustrations
with casements and frame having an have been prepared with the object of
ellipticalfanlight, t he opening being fitted showing more particularlythe fittingand
o
o
o
"So
a
"
"
bQ
s f
n
connecting of one part to another, and A block b stub-tenoned
(seeFig.1671).. and
the generalfixingof the entire work. It notched for the ground and plinth,
rebated
is assumed that provisionfor fixinghas or for the moulding,is fixed to the
skirting
been made by building-inwood bricks, wall and floor. The skirtingis fixed by
or by some other method in generaluse. being tongued into the floor,and dovetail-
Fig. 1671." Pilaster, Linings, Soffit, Cove of Ceiling, etc.

mMm m ."ittt "i

"^^"^?J^(" ^
\sM
^
7K 7
liuuuuuuuuuu iiiuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuuinrr
OH
H
Fig. 1673. "

Vertical Section through Fig. 1672. "
Enlarged Detail of Pilaster, Cornice,

Pilaster,Mouldings, and Cornice. Frieze, etc.
22*
5 14 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY.
grooved so as to slide on to the hardwood to the ground G (Fig. 1676) ; the fixing
dovetail slip shown at d. The skirting being hidden by the astragalmould c,
moulding is ploughed on the under edge p which is fixed either with screws and slots,
to receive the top edge of the plinth,or or preferablyby dowellingto the top of
of the skirting.The rebated ground h the upper framing. The ground e having
is next screwed to the back of the plinth been screwed to the back of the curved
mould as indicated at k. Then, the mould facia, the upper part of the ground is
and the ground being placed in position, nailed into the ground G. The ground e,
the bottom edge of the latter is held by
the short stub -tenons in the tops of the
blocks,and is nailed
through the rebated
on
portioninto the wall ground, firmlyfixing

the plinth. The bottom edge of the dado
is rebated, leaving a barefaced tongue in
Fig. 1675." Method of Fixing Top Edge of

Lower Framing, Dado Moulding, and
Bottom Edge of Upper Framing.
Fig. 1674." Method of Fixing Plinth and Bottom
Edge of Framing.
the front,and can then be dropped into

positionas shown at l (Fig.1674). The
top edge of the dado frame is sufficiently
wide to allow of its being screwed to the
wall ground G as (Fig.1675),
indicated at n
these screws being afterwards hidden by the Fig. 1676." Method of Fixing Cornice to the Top
dado moulding. The ground M having been of the Framing.
screwed to the dado moulding at n, these

are placed in positionwith the tongue projectingabove the ground g, forms a
of the ground fitting into the top of the rebate at the back, allowingthe bottom
dado as shown. The ground m is then ends of the blocks f to fit into the rebate.
fixed to the wall ground G by nailing through These blocks are secured to the back of
the rebate as shown at R. The dado mould the mouldings forming the cornice, and
and the ground R have a groove formed tween then
be- the top ends of the blocks are notched
them, in which the barefaced tongue and nailed as indicated. Figs. 1677 and
the bottom edge of the framing 1678 show the method of fixingthe astragal
on upper
o fits as shown. The top end of the upper moulding, curved facia, and top cornice
receive the bottom moulding. A wall-ground f, which has
framing is rebated to
facia d, and is screwed been rebated the top edge and splayed
edge of the curved on
on the bottom, is fixed as shown. To Fig. 1673 a vertical section taken through
this the astragal moulding should be the centre, to indicate the method of
fixed with screws and slots or dowels buildingup and fixing. Fig. 1679 shows a
and screws, inserted from the upper part horizontal section throughthe bottom panel
of the round. These are out of sight. of the pilaster; Fig. 1680, a horizontal
The bottom edge of the curved facia section taken through the pilastersand
fits into a rebate made in the ground G, upper panelling.These views show in
section how the pilasters
are mitered,jointed,
and tongued at the angles,and rebated to
fit against and between the stiles of the
Fig. 1677
Figs. 1677 and 1678. "

Method of Fixing Main Cornice under Cove of Ceiling.
and is fixed to it
by screws. The cornice
is fixed by screwing the member b to
the ground G, and then vertical blocks c
are screwed to the member e. Bracketing

pieces d are screwed to the top moulding
Fig. 1681. "
Enlarged Section through

Fig. 1679. "
Enlarged Horizontal Section through Upper Curved Pilasters.

Lower Panel of Pilaster.
framing. b At
(Fig. 1680) is shown the
as indicated, and should also glued be method of
connecting the pilasters inter-
secting
and blocked ; then the bracketingpieces at an internal angle. Fig. 1681 is
are nailed to the vertical block c, and a section through the top of the pilasters
these in their turn can be nailed to the wall. that have carved panels. Fig. 1682 is a
The carved egg-and-tongue moulding is conventional detail view showing the plinth
fixed by means of gluing and dowelling as of the dado grooved, and the floor also
indicated at h (Fig. 1678). Figs. 1672 grooved, as represented at a, b, and c,
and 1673 show enlargeddetails of a pilaster
; to receivethe plinthforming the base of
Fig. 1672 representingan elevation,and the pilaster.Fig. 1683 is a conventional
view showing principally the back of one The method just described for the fixing
of these bases. In the same figure,
tongues of the lower pilaster is adoptedfor the
upper
are shown for fittinginto A, B, and c (Fig. pilasters, the bottom end of each being
1682), with the moulding scribed to fit connected as indicated at b, c, d, and e
the mouldings of the plinth. Various pedients
ex- (Fig. 1673). Fig. 1685 is a conventional
for fixingthese bases, by screwing sectional view of the bottom left-hand
fillets to the inside of the base and ing
screw- corner of the door, and of the base of the
these fillets to the floor,will suggest adjacentpilaster,
etc.
themselves. Then a rebated fillet is fixed
Framed and Panelled Linings with
to the inside of the moulding,a portion of
which is shown at a (Fig. 1683) and in Boxing Shutters to a Doorway.
section at a (Fig.1673). The bottom ends Fig. 1686 is the half outside and half
of the lower pilasters
are made to fit ac- inside elevation of a circular-headed door
Fig. 1683.
Fig. 1682
Figs. 1682 and 1683. " Methods of Fixing Base of Fig. 1684. "
Back of Pilaster with Fixing Buttons
Pilaster. Screwed On.
curately behind the base moulding, and

are prepared with a barefaced tongue so
as to fit into the rebate of the filleta. The

pilastersare also held to the edges of the
framing by buttons, two of these (a a,
Fig. 1684) being shown screwed on to the
back of the returned edges of the pilasters ;
and buttons are screwed on to the edges
of the framing as shown at b b (Fig.1682).
When the pilasteris placed against the
framing,and slid down into its base, the
Fig. 1685." Conventional Sectional View showing
buttons a and b cliptogether,and thus Bottom Left Corner of Door Base of Architraves,
firmly hold the pilasterto the framing. Pilaster, etc.
Fig. 1688.
Fig. 1686 Fig. 1686. " Half side

In-
and Half Outside
Elevation of a Door
with Marginal Lights,
Panelled and Splayed
Linings, and Boxing
Shutters.
Fig. 1687." Horizontal

Section.
Fig. 1688. " Vertical

Section.
opening. The inside of

the opening is of the head liningfollows the splayall round,
finished with framed panelledsplayed and hence its outer surface is conical,but
and
bottom lininga (Fig.1686); the interme-
diate very flat,and thus not necessitating any
portion b is framed and panelled complicated geometricalsetting out. It
should be cut to the circular form out of
a board about J in. thicker than the other
stiles of the framing, having a joint
Fig. 1689. "

Enlarged Detail of Horizontal
Section at A (Fig.1687).
with boxing shutters 1J in. thick. As will

be seen,these are provided for covering
the glassportion of the door, thus taking
the place of a lifting shutter,being more
ML
Fig. 1691. "

Enlarged Detail of Vertical Section.
at the crown as shown. Then the bevel
View Brickwork
should be marked on each end ; then by
Fig. 1690. " Conventional of at
Upper Part of Opening. runninga gauge on each edge from the lines,
on the ends, the conical surface can be
convenient. The head lininghas a rail c formed by planing down to these gauge
(Fig. 1686) followingthe curved head of lines. joint at the crown
The be
may
the door frame, but the outer edges of formed by grooving and tonguing, by
these liningsare square. The curved rail halvingtogether,
or by making the muntin
PARTITIONS AND SCREENS.
a rod 13 ft. long by 11 in. wide, and proceed

Setting- Out Panelled and Moulded
Framed Partition.
to set out the plansof Fig.1692, seen on rod
2 (Fig.1693),the stiles and muntins being
For the panelledand moulded framing of 4J in. wide. First square across the rod two
which an elevation is shown by Fig. 1692, lines 12 ft. apart. Draw four lines parallel
12"0-
Fig. 1692. " Elevation of Panelled and Moulded Framing.
" -2 8-
Fig. 1693. "

Sectional Plans on Width Rod of Panelled and Moulded Framing.
one pieceof deal framing is required,12 ft. with each other, l|in.apart,to representthe
by 10ft. by 2 in., three panels in height, thickness of the framing. From the right-
moulded both sides, with a door at one end, hand end mark off 4J in. for the outer stile
with rebated and beaded joints. First take b (Fig.1693). Form the rebate with mould
520
PARTITIONS AND SCREENS. 521
Fig. 1694." Enlarged Section on Line A A (Fig. 1692)
Fig. 1695.- Enlarged Section on Line B B (Fig. 1692).
Fig. 1696." Vertical Sections on Height Rod of Panelled and Moulded Framing.
(Fig.1694). When a mortice lock is to be

used, the rebate must be formed out of the
centre to enable a half-rebated lock to be
let into the door ; but sufficient strength
must be left for the bead to form the stop.
Set off from the rebate 2 ft. 8 in.,the width
of the door, and fillin 4J in. for the stiles
and 4J in. the centre for the muntin, leaving
9f in. sightfor the panel. Fill in the stile of
the framing next the door, and also the left-
hand outer stile,with moulds (Fig. 1694).
Now divide the space between into six
panels as shown. Set these spaces out
accurately,and fill in the muntin with
the mould (Fig. 1695). Fill in the lines
representingthe panels,also the moulding
on both sides. To show what is required,
it is sufficient to fillin one panel with the
section of the moulding, a (Fig. 1693)
may now be set out from b, as the plan for
each is the same, except for the two panels
over the door. The hanging and shutting
stiles carry the 4|-in.line to the top rail.
Turn the rod over to the other side,and set
out the sections as shown, and to figured
Sfijg/mxi/rfib.
dimensions, (Fig. 1696) is a section
c
J(u3 rcuf^Ctunv to -$itUd' iCo*
V4 AX.
through the framing ; d is a section where

the door occurs. Fig. 1697 represents tttWe^',XaA"n, To pitc"i cwkL/ fU4#to*
the quantity board. In a big shop, the J*'
foreman joineror setter out takes off the
material, books it, and hands it to the Fig. 1697." Quantity Board.
chalk-line foreman, who marks out from the

board all the material required. The board to the material clerk,to be entered in the
is then handed to the machinist, and finally prime cost account. First take ofE the
framing,stiles, rails,and muntins, then the purpose at the bottom of the board as shown
panels,the door stiles,etc.,in the same order. (Fig.1697).
The whole of the mouldingsmay be booked
item if taken from Setting- Out Glazed Partition.
as one a stock pattern,
For the glazedpartitionshown in half
elevation by Fig. 1698, one piece of deal
framing is required,
9 ft. by 10 ft. 8 in. by
2 in., three panels in height; the lower
panelsbeing square, the two upper panels
divided into six squares, each with moulded
bars, etc., for glass; a door to match to be
formed in the centre with rebated and beaded
and prepared for
joints, a 6-in. mortice lock
(halfrebated). Take a rod 12 ft. long by
11 in. wide, and set out the plan and sec-
tions
of Fig.1698, which shows the elevation

of the glazedpartition,e (Fig.1699) repre-
sents
the plan below the transom rail,and
shows the square framingand the positionof
the bars and diminish to stiles. The dotted
lines on the rails in the elevation show the
diminish, f (Fig.1699) is a plan above the
transom rail,and is set out from e, the lines
being perpendicularfrom the middle rail
upwards. The hanging and shuttingstiles
are carried up the diminished width above
the transom, forming a muntin, and the
transom rail is cut as shown in Fig. 1698.
Determine the positionof the door, and set
out before ; the diminish to stiles is set
as
off from the inside edge in each case. Note

that the openingsfor the glassare equalin
width, which should be obtained as follows :
First set out with moulds, illustrated by

Figs. 1694 and 1695 (p.521), the position
of the muntins and stiles. Place the bars
exactlyin the centre of the muntins. The
panel width works out at 7 in. sight; 2 in.
on each side to the centre of the muntins
makes 11 in. ; J in. deducted on each side
for the half thickness of the bar leaves 10 in.
sight. Now, 10 in. is wanted for the squares
on each side. The stiles must therefore be
diminished 1 in., and the required10 in.
is obtained. This will therefore be the
Fig. 1698." Half Elevation of Glazed Partition. width of all the openings above the transom
rail ; and the side framingsbelow the open-
ings
but if the moulding is to be preparedto a in the door work out at 11 in. g and h
specialsection it is best ordered in single (Fig. 1700) are sections through the side
lengths,sufficient to mould one panel. Odd framingsand where the door occurs. Fig.
lengths of stuff can be used up in this way 1694 is an enlargeddetail of the door on the
without waste. Any remarks necessary line a a (Fig.1692),and Fig.1695 is an en-larged
should be added in the space reserved for the detail on the line b b (Fig. 1692).-
Set these sections out in the same manner

Hall Screen with Door.
as before. Make a quantity board (Fig.
Fig. 1704 shows an elevation of a hall
screen, the approximate size of which may
be taken as 10 ft. high by 8 ft. wide. Fig.
m f 1705 shows vertical section,and
a it will be
!l i
Q
C.
LL C" LU
Fig. 1702. "

Enlarged Section on Line B B
(Fig. 1698).
observed that the thickness of the two outer

jambs above the transom c is reduced 1 in.
on the rear side d ; while the three muntins
epg (Fig. 1704) are worked to the same
"t thickness (theirfinished sizes being 3 in. by
3 in.),and are wrought quitesquare.*They
If "s I
"
4nii
M
1 TkU rasrtLtim U to -fa ftitv
co .
Off and /pruned,~tdJxnto "pil*jU
Fig. 1703. "

Quantity Board.
are simply rebated on the rear side to ceive

re-
the leaded lightsand bead, and are
1703), as described in the previouspara- tenoned into the transom c and curved rail
graph,
and book the material on it as h (Fig.1705),the top and rear sides of which
shown; are also rebated in the same way as for the
muntins. Fig.1706 givesa horizontal tion,

sec- and muntins. On both the front and the
showing the outer jamb A and door rear sides the top rail has sunk and moulded
jamb b, which are worked from 4-in. by 4-in. spandrils,
as shown at J (Fig.1704),and this
and 4-in. by 3-in. stuff The
respectively. rail,when fixed to its proper position,sets
1706.
Fig. 1704. -Elevation of Hall Screen. Fig. 1705." Vertical Section of Hall Screen.
Fig. 1706." Horizontal Section of Hall Screen.
top rails i (Fig. 1705) are tongued f in. into back from the face of the screen 1 in.,which
thejambs and muntins, and are cut, wrought, allows for the moulding k to be mitered and
shaped, grooved, and ovolo-moulded from returned to jambs and muntins as shown,
an 11 -in. by 2 -in. sound plank,and framed as is also the neck moulding l, which should
flush with the rear sides of the outer jambs be groovedJin.into the jambs and muntins,
the whole piece of framing being afterwards round-headed screws. The screen may be
strengthenedon the rear side by the top executed in good yellow deal or pine twice
moulding m, which is glued and planted sized and twice varnished with good copal.
on (Fig.1705). All the framing below the If it is made in either oak or mahogany it
transom c is rebated and beaded to receive may be oiled or French-polished.The door

the and under-side framing,
door, sidelights, should be hung with one and a half pairsof
all of which is 2 in. thick, and is finished 4-in. brass butts, with steel washers, and
flush to the rear side of the framing, the fitted with a good 6-in. mortice lock. Good
front side of which is ovolo- moulded. The bold brass handles and should
finger-plates
and
sidelights the top portion of the door be chosen, and the top portion of the screen
are also rebated for and ovolo-moulded,

glass, above the transom should be fitted with
and are constructed as shown in the tion.
eleva- leaded glazedwith
lights tinted glass; tinted
All the bars, except those framed and white Muranese glass,bedded between
into the upper edge of the middle rail of stripsof chamois leather,being used for the
the door, should be mortised and tenoned door and for the sidelights.Fig. 1709 is an
through both stiles and rails,and glued and enlarged section of the architrave.
Fig. 1707." Enlarged Horizontal Section of Framing of Hall Screen.
Fig. 1708." Enlarged Section Fig. 1709. "

Enlarged Section Fig. 1710." Enlarged Section through
of Bar of Hall Screen. of Architrave of Hall Screen. Top Portion of Middle Rail to Door.
wedged in the usual manner. The ends

Corridor Screen and Door.
should be simply stumped into the central
mitered bars, and screwed through the re-
bates. The screen and door shown in Figs. 1711
The lower panels are moulded and and 1712 is suitable for a publicoffice or
raised as shown, a indicatingthe outer jamb, building or for a privatedwelling. If it is

b the door jamb, o o the stiles of the framing, used for a stained
dwelling, and leaded glass
p the panel (Fig.1707). The bottom portion of good design should be inserted ; but for
of the door is in every particularidentical a publicbuilding,the top sashes should be
with the correspondingpart of the side- filled with polishedglass,
quarter-plate while
framing,and has diminished stiles (seeFig. the will be of em-
doorlightand sidelights bossed
1698). Fig.1710 shows an enlargedsection glass,with a suitable design or letter-

ing
of the upper portion of the middle rail of the advertising the business that is carried
door ; q indicating the rail ; R moulding on. Fig. 1711 shows the front view. The
with returned ends, sunk into and planted height is 9 ft. 8 in., the width 6 ft. The
on to rail,with dentils cut in the bead s, and door jambs and wall jambs are 3 J in. by
fixed through the rail with screws ; t ing
mould- 5 in., rebated for the door and sidelights,
with returned ends, glued and planted on grooved for the raised panels,and ovolo-
to screws
cover ; h the shaped apron (see moulded on the front edges,and beaded on
also elevation,Fig. 1704). Fig. 1708 is an the back edges. The transom is 7 in. by
enlarged section of the bar to the sidelights4 in.,sunk double moulded, and rebated for
and the top portion of the door. The the top and lower sashes and door. The
moulded filletsu should be fixed with brass jambs are stub-tenoned to the transom,
T
J
*0
E-
J-
-H
Fig. 1711. Fig. 1712.
Fig. 1711. "

Front Elevation of Corridor Screen and Door.
Fig. 1712." Vertical Section of Corridor Screen and Door.
and which are

also connected by short rails, the jambs,andis double moulded, rebated,
tenoned and scribed to them, forming divi- beaded, and tenoned to the transom (see
sions for the side panelsand lights.The Fig. 1713),and it is connected to the top
semicircular frame is of the same section as rail with a short mullion,which is mortised,
^\
"28 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY
side and three top frames are If in. by 2 in., apron is fixed to the door,and capped with
moulded and rebated,and fitted with loose a moulded rail with return ends, as shown.
beads. The door is 6 ft. 6 in. high by Fig. 1713 shows a section taken on a b,
3 ft. 3 in. wide. It has diminished stiles, while Fig.1714 representsa verticalsection
taken throughthe side paneland short rails,
which are 7 in. and 5 in. wide respectively
at top and bottom, by 2 in. thick. The showing the method of construction at the
upper rail is 5 in. wide. The top panel of lower end of the panel at d (Fig.1711).
the door is moulded, rebated,and fitted Figs.1715 and 1716 respectively
represent
with beads, fixed
shifting with brass cups horizontal sections on e f and g h, showing
and screws. The lock and bottom railsare in enlargeddetail the
sashes,panels,etc.
each 9 in. wide, groovedto receive the raised The door is hingedon three 4-in. brass butts,
and moulded panel,and mortised,tenoned, fitted with pullhandles, brass mortice lock,
and wedged to the stiles. The shoulders and finger-plates
This class of door is
Fig. 1717." Section of Vestibule Screen on Fig. 1719." Section of Vestibule Screen on
Line C C (Fig.1722). Line E E (Fig.1722).
between the middle rails and stiles are hung with a patent single
often or double
diminished as illustrated, and in the case springhinge, the former closingthe door by
of the lock edgeof the door the middle rail itsspring action afteropening,while the latter
and stile are connected by twin double allows of the door beingopened both inside
mortices and tenons with a solid haunching and outside,the action of the hinge closing
(as illustrated and explained i n connection it automatically. The material may be
with Fig. 1196, p. 360), so as to make pitchpineor red deal,sized and varnished,
provision for a mortice lock, which is or paintedand grainedoak ; or, if the
the kind that would be likely to be work is executed in hardwood, as teak,
provided and fixed. A suitable moulding mahogany, or oak, it may be finished in oil
is fixed round the panel,and a shaped or French-polished.
\
Method of
Obtaining True jfi.
Shape of Ribs.
Half Section Half Lonqitudi-

through Centre. nal Elevation.
12 CONSTRUCTION OF A BELL OR VENTILATING TURRET FRAMED TO ROOF.

Vestibule Screen. panelsand fanlight may be glazedwith leaded

The by Figs. 1717 to 1724
screen shown lights, or plainor bevelled plateglass, the
is easilyadaptableto any opening of reason- latter being the most suitable,
able owing to the
width and height. The panelsbeing rather severe character of the design. To
equallyspaced out, they can be reduced or
extended in width at the only dif-
pleasure, ference
beingthat the two doors will sarily
neces- Fig. 1721." Vertical
become one only in of any ex-
thecessive
case Section of Vestibule
reduction takingplacein the width. Screen.
The height and width shown in the details
are 10 ft. 4 in.
(or,adding a 7-in. joist and
1-in. board,
flooring 11 ft.) and 8 ft. respec-
tively.
The height,if so required, could be
reduced either by omittingthe rough beam
and cornice or by shortening the fanlight,
The tendency of vestibule and entrance-hall
screens being towards excessive height, a
subsill is introduced with the object of
rendering the height less conspicuous;
and if a dado is constructed, it should
line up as much as possiblewith this sub-
sill. The screen will look well if cuted
exe-
in oak mahogany
or ; but if deal is the
material it should
selected, be paintedrather
than stained and varnished. The work
frame-
is of 5-in. by 3J-in.section,with the
exceptionof the transom, which is 5 in. by
4 in.,and dentilled ; but as these dentils
are rather expensive to cut, the transom
may, if cost consideration, be run
is a
straightthrough. doors, fanlights,and The

sidelights
are of 2-in. stuff,rebated for glass,
and moulded. The circular sinkingsat the
heads of the fanlights
are | in.deep,cham-
fered
J in. down and on. The doorway is
3 ft. 9 in. wide, and fitted with a pair of
doors,which are less unwieldy than a single
door, although,for ordinary purposes, the Fig.1720." Section of

one door affords
sufficient passage room. Vestibule Screen on
The wall uprightmay be of a lightersection Line B B (Fig. 1722).

than the other timber (theillustrationshows
it 5 in. by 3 in.),but this is not absolutely
essential ; it can either be of the same size
as the other timbers, and fixed directly
againstthe wall to wood bricks, or be of
lighter
section,and fixed to grounds ; the
latter method obviates the necessity of form the cornice,rough brackets are fixed at
grooving for plaster.The wood panelsare intervals to receive the plaster, a suitable
raised,1J-in. thick at the centre, and re-duced key being formed on the head of the screen
to J in. at the edges,the stiles and by the bead, as shown in the detail. For
rails being rebated to receive them ; they sections on the lines indicated by lettering
are secured in the rebates by a moulding in the usual way on the elevation shown bv
mitered round on the inside. The upper Fig. 1722, see Figs. 1717 to 1721.
23
Jj5ft?"fe#^"i4^^
' -" ~ "
" ' "-
,y y/////////.
Fig. 1722." Elevation of Vestibule Screen.
Fig. 1723." Sectional Plan of Vestibule Screen.

with the clause

specification to the effectthat
Vestibule Framing and Swing Doors
"
The material and
workmanship must be the
for the Main Entrance of a Large
very best of their respectivekinds." It is
Building. almost superfluous to state that joinery
A more important case of vestibule of this character would be made of hard-
wood.
framing with swing doors than either of It is necessary, in jobs of this
those preceding is here illustrated by Figs. description, for the setter-out to give some
1725 to 1748. The framingis prepared and consideration to the arrangement of the
fitted to an opening with an elliptical stone fitting together of various parts where
arch springingfrom imposts as illustrated. carving is introduced. The carving is not
Fanlight
Fig. 1724." Enlarged Section

of Head of Vestibule
Screen.
LJ
The whole is designed for the treatment of course, introduced as specimens of joinery,
of a vestibule, the walls of which are of but at the same time it is part of the ment
treat-
there being a plinth or skirtingat of the whole design, forming the
masonry,
the bottom, and a surbase, or dado moulding; ornament of panels,friezes,
etc. It falls to
the next portion of the wall finishingwith the task of thejoinerto plough and tongue
an intermediate cornice and fascia, and and fit together the various parts, and,
above this being a frieze and a cornice when these operations are found factory,
satis-
connected with the ceiling(but not shown). to hand over to the carver the
It will be seen that the main horizontal pieces he has to deal with, which can be
members of the wood framingare of similar afterwards fixed in their
respectivepositions
section to those of the masonry, with which in the piece of framing. It must here be
some of them intersect. The methods of noted that pieces of wood carved and
"
construction which will be described and "
stuck on are not here illustrated,nor
illustrated are amongst the bestadopted would they be tolerated for a job of this
for first-class work, so as to comply fully description.Of course sometimes the carver
^ :
Framing from Outside,

Perspective View of a Portion of Vestibule seen
Fig. 1725."
From the specification

and thedrawings cornice of pediment, the tympanum, and the
the rods would be set out. Naturally it horizontal cornice,showing the relation of
would be well for the actual opening to be this with the pediment,etc. Whole eleva-
tions,
tested for measurement, in case of any or at least halves, drawn full size,
discrepancy having crept in. One rod and in connection with the vertical sections,
should be set out, givinga horizontal section should be set for the
out pediments at the
at a level through the bottom panelsof the tops of doors, dado moulds and apron panels,
doors and lower pilasters ; another section quadrant corners, etc. On these should be
should be given at a level of the upper indicated, by coloured pencils or other
Fig. 1728. "

Enlarged Horizontal Section through Lower Pilasters and Panels.
and
pilasters glasspanels of doors, similar means, the methods of connecting the
to section Fig. 1727. It would be very pediments, mouldings, carved panels,and
convenient to have a third horizontal such parts,to the stilesand rails ; also the
section takenthrough the frieze. Probably sizes and number of tenons connecting the
the best plan would be to have the rod stiles and rails.
wide,
sufficiently so that these horizontal The Frame. " As will be seen, this consists
sections could be side by side, and thus of a head and six jambs, each 2 J in. thick.
their relation to each other
be apparent at There being pilasterson each side, the
a glance. The followingvertical sections central jambs are distant from each other
would be necessary. The rod for the vertical to the extent of 4 in.,as representedat a
section should show a section taken through (Figs.1728 and 1729). Beyond the jamb
the centre of the pilaster
to the top of the at each end is a ground G ; these are fixed
cornice as Fig. 1730. Another section should to the masonry. The central jambs are
be taken through the centre of one of the connected and stiffened to each other by
swing doors head of frame
and as repre-
sented blocks screwed between, as represented
at Fig.1731. The construction of the at a, b, and c (Figs.1730 and 1735). The
Fig. 1729." Enlarged Horizontal Section through Upper Pilasters and Glass Panels.
fixed doors being similar in many respects jambs at each end are also similarlycon-
nected
to that of the swing doors, it would only be to the ground G. The central
to show the section taken through jambs are hollowed and moulded for the
necessary
the marginal bars. This of course might be hanging stiles of the swing doors. The
done adjacentto the section taken through other jambs are rebated for the fixed doors,
the swing doors. Another vertical verse
trans- and also ploughed to receive a tongued slip
section is taken through the crown a (Fig.1729),which forms a member of the
of the soffit of arch, giving sections
the moulding, and keeps the fixed doors in
of the head the
of the frame, the fanlight, position. The angles of the jambs are
Fig. 173C. Fig. 1731.
Fig. 1730. "
Enlarged Vertical Section through Centre of Pilasters (Fig.1725).

Fig. 1731. " Vertical Section through Centre of Swing Door (Fig.1725).
Fig. 1732. "
Enlarged Detail of a Portion of Swing Door, Pilaster, Cornice, and Fixed Door.
moulded and mitered so as to intersect with clearlyshown in the illustrations. A deal

similar mouldings stuck on the head, to fillet f is fixed to the head of the frame
which the jambs are connected by mortice (Fig.1733) ; then to this fillet,
and the head
and tenon jointsas illustrated at a (Fig. of the frame, the moulding e is fixed by the
1733). By reference to Fig.1726, and d, e, insertion of screws through the fillet to the

Conventional tional
Sec-
Detail ing
show-
Joints between
Jambs and Head
and Construction
of Cornice.
and f (Fig.1732),it will be noticed that the
angle mouldings of the

jambs are stopped
for the leavingsquare surfaces
purpose of
for the mouldings of the lower
base and
part of the pilasters to butt against. The Fig. 1734. " Conventional View of Portion of
jambs are ploughed to receive tongues, Cornice which Breaks Forward over Pilaster.
which are inserted in correspondingplough
grooves made in the back of the stiles of the back of the moulding. The members G, H, K,
pilasters,
as in
represented section at Figs. L, M, can be screwed together,and the cornice
1728 and 1729, and c, d (Fig.1733). The on each side and the fascia connected
bottoms of the jambs are fixed to the stone togetherby cuttingcradling piecesbetween,
step or floor by the insertion of two copper and fixingthese by a few screws, and gluing
dowels in each. blocks to the cradlingpiecesand backs of
Cornice. "
The different pieces of this, the members, as representedat n and o
and the methods of connecting them, are (Fig.1733). In this way the cornice could
be built up of three main sections,

and thus
be easilyplaced in position. Fig. 1734 re-
presents
principallya back view of one of

the portionsof the cornice which breaks
out over the The
pilaster. external anglesa
are shown as mitered, glued,and blocked on
the inside. The intersections of the mould-

ings
at the internal angles are shown as
scribed, not mitered, although of course
either method may be adopted.

Pilasters. " The lower have
pilasters stiles
and rails with mouldings stuck on the solid,
and are connected together by stubbed
mortices and tenons. The panels are sunk
and worked with a moulded splayas sented
repre-
in the sections. The stiles are
sufficiently down the floor M
long to run to
so as to allow of the moulded plinthwith its
mitered returns being glued to them. The
plinth is further secured to them by the
insertion of a few screws from the backs.
The mitres of the
plinths,if not dovetailed,
should grooved and tongued, and of
be
course glued. The lower pilasteris fixed
in positionby screwing on buttons at the
back which have rebated ends, the tongue
portions fittinginto rebates or grooved M
blocks fixed between the jambs, as repre-
sented
at l (Figs.1730 and 1735). The
heads of the lower pilasters
are fixed to a
block between jambs by a couple of

the F2?*^ i
screws being inserted obliquely,as indicated

at d (Fig.1730). The mouldings at the heads
of the lower pilastershave thicknessing
piecesfixed at the back as shown at Fig.
1730, and to these buttons e are screwed
the tongues which fit into grooves made
in the block b (Figs.1730 and 1735). It
will be noticed that these buttons are allowed
to projectabove the
thicknessingpieces so
as to receive the ends of the upper pilasters
as shown at e (Figs.1730 and 1735). The
top ends of the upper pilasters have blocks
screwed to the back of them as indicated,
and these blocks in their turn are screwed
to the block G, which is fixed between the
jambs. The carved capital, with its neck
moulding, is connected to the top of the
by a coupleof dowels ; then the top

pilaster
of the capitalis secured to the head of the
frame by screws as indicated at h (Fig.
1730). To prevent any vacancy occurring
between the pilasters and the edges of the
Fig. 1736." Joints between Stile, Top Fig. 1740." Joints between Top Rail
Rail, and Frieze Rail of Swing Door. and Frieze Rail of Fixed Door.
Fig. 1737. "

Tympanum Panel pared
Pre- Fig. 1741." Tympanum Panel
Ready for Carving. Prepared for Carving.
Fig. 1738." Joints between Stile and Fig. 1742." Joints at Middle
Middle Rails, with Apron Prepared of Door.
for Carving.
Fig. 1739. " Joint between Bottom Fig. 1743. " Joint at Bottom
Rail and Stile. of Door.
1736),whereas the groove at b is for receiving

a tongue that is fixed into the back of the
pediment moulding (see b, Fig. 1736). At
c the quadrant corner is shown formed on
1745 -Dado Mould with^Fillet Screwed On

at Back.
the solid stile,and not inserted as would

be the case in more ordinary work. The
rail D is shown having tenons passingright
through the stile ; this would undoubtedly
Fig. 1744. -Rails Ploughed Ready to Receive
Fillet of Dado Mould.
held securelyby means of

jambs, these are
buttons, as shown at K (Figs.1730 and 1735).

Doors. "
In the construction of these,
twin mortices and tenons have been adopted.
At Fig. 1736 is shown the upper part of the
stileof the swing door mortised and haunched ,
with the top rail and frieze rail tenoned,

haunched, and ploughed to receive the
tympanum panelthat is shown at Fig. 1737,
and is representedas rebated and tongued
ready for carving. The plough grooves
a in the frieze rail are for the purpose of
receivingthe tongue, which is inserted in a

similar plough groove made in the back of
the egg-and-tonguemoulding (see a, Fig.
Fig. 1746. " Conventional Sectional

Detail of Framed Mouldings and
Panel, showing Moulding Saddled
Over Stile and Rail.
form a better job than stubbingthem in. The

rail E, it will be seen, is of thicker material,
of Mouldings by so as to allow of the apron (which is to be
Fig. 1747. " Method Framing
Slot Mortice and Tenon Joint. carved) being worked on the solid as repre-
sented. Both these rails are ploughed on The mouldings round the glazed part of
their inner edgesfor
the purpose of receiving the doors may be framed separatelyand
rebated the tongues of which
fillets, are inserted similarlyto what has been scribed
de-
held in these grooves " the object being for the lower panels; or each piece
to fix the dado moulds. These fillets are may be fixed by gluing and dowelling,
screwed and glued to the back of the dado and then the mitres fitted togetherand
1731 and
moulds, as representedat a (Figs.
1744), and then the framing,having been
put together, is placed in position.
Panels. These are
"
raised,with a small
scotia worked on the edge of the raised
part, the margin of the panel being worked
to the form of a flat ogee. The inner side
of the panelshas a flat margin,with a bolder
moulding worked on the raised part, and the
Fig. 1748." Conventional Detail showing a Portion

of Saddle Moulding and Curved Bar for
Glazing.
face is sunk as shown in section at c (Fig.

1731). The bolection mouldings round the
lower panels are solid through, so as to
saddle over the edges of the stiles as sented
repre-
at Fig. 1746. The inner edges are
ploughed to receive panels as shown

the
(Figs.1746 and 1747). The angles of the Fig. 1749. " Vertical Section through Horizontal
mouldings are mitered and framed by slot Cornice, Centre of Pediment, and Fanlight.
mortices and tenons, as representedat Fig.
1747. These mouldings would have the treated almost in the same manner as a
panels inserted and the jointsglued fore

be- case of solid moulded work, but probably
being placed between the stiles and the former would be found in the end the
rails. The framed mouldings are firmly most satisfactory
manner. At Figs. 1740
secured to the stiles and rails by means to 1743 are shown the joints between the
of dowels, as indicated at Fig. 1746, and rails of the fixed doors ; the general
stiles and
the holes for these are represented in of construction
principles are the same as
the stiles and rails at Figs.1736 to 1743. has been set forth for the swing doors, but
and to these the brass plateis secured with In the instance of a wood floor,two or three
The box is sunk that the brass floor-boards taken and
screws. so are up, trimming
plateis flush with the surface of the floor. piecesare fixed between the joists,
and also
the firringpiecesthat may be necessary at the
side (as indicated at Fig. 1753),to support
the flanges or lugs of the box. The box is
next placed in the hole, and its exact
position found in the following manner.
The shoe when at rest (a, Fig. 1754) must
have its sides quite parallel
to the plane of
Fig. 1752. " Hole Cut in ^Masonry Floor to Receive
Box of Spring Hinge.
Fig. 1753. "

Trimming and Firring
Piece to Joists, etc., to Receive
Hinge.
When the floor is of stone or concrete, the the jambs, and its centre line opposite ^he
positionand size of the hole for the box are centre of the hollow of the jamb as indicated.
marked out by the and
joiner, then the hole The shoes should next be turned into the
is cut by a mason as representedat Fig.1752. positionsshown at b and c, so as to clear
the jambs when the door is opened at right Fig. 1756. The exact positionof the pivot
angles,as indicated at b and c (Fig. 1754). must be obtained from the centre of the
The flangesor lugs should next be screwed movement of the shoe. In the top of the
to the trimming pieces, then the flooring stud (on which the shoe is fixed)a punch
made good ; after which the brass plate mark can usually be seen, which indicates
can be applied, the flooringbeing marked the axial centre. The distance of this centre
round from it and then paved, while finally marked from the hollow of the frame gives
the exact distance of the
centre of the pivot from
the hollow of the jamb.
Care must also be taken
to keep the pivot in the
centre of the thickness
of the door and the
hollow in the post. The
forms of the posts vary
Fig. 1757.
Fig. 1755. " Elevation showing Heel of

Door and Side of Shoe. Fig. 1758." Head of Door
Recessed to Receive Pivot
Fig. 1756. " Pivot let into Head of Frame
Plate.
Fig. 1757. " Pivot Plate let into Door.
Fig. 1754." Plan of Spring Hinge, showing Shoe

in Three Positions to Clear Jamb.
the brass plate is dropped in position and

fastened to the iron flange with screws, as
shown at Fig. 1751. Where the floor is of

J;one or concrete, the iron box must be
temporarilyfixed with a few small hardwood
wedges, of course in the exact positionit will
have to occupy, as explainedabove. The
box is finallysecured in
by filling the spaces
between the stone with cement. The next
operation is to fit the shoe on the bottom

of the door
represented as Fig. 1750. at
This will requireto be very accuratelydone,
especiallyin fittingthe shaped sides of the
shoe. The shape may be obtained by apply-
ing
the side of the shoes to the side of the Fig. 1760.
door. The pivot and plate can next be

Figs. 1759 and 1760. " Mode of Action of a Pivot
let in to the head of the frame as shown at Plate.
oU CARPENTRY AND JOINERY.
according to the different makers, but a very useful arrangement for doors through
are mostly constructed on the principle which there is very much traffic.
that the head of a fixed screw, when turned
with screw-driver,
a acts on a plateto which Sliding- and Folding Partitions.
the pivot is fixed,which may be raised or Figs.1761 to 1772 illustrate a useful form
lowered according to the direction in which of
foldingand slidingpartition,which has
the screw-head is turned. Two views of a been largelyused for dividinglargerooms,
very good form of pivot are shown at Figs. and for separatingspaces under galleries
1759 and 1760, from which the action is from the main part of halls,and in other
easily inferred. A plate to receive the similar positions.The generalarrangement
pivothas to be let into the head of the stiles is not so up-to-date as a number of forms
and top rails as shown at Figs.1757 and 1758. that are the subjectsof current patents.
Fig. 1761. " Horizontal Section through Partition Partly Closed.
Fig. 1762." Enlarged Section through B B (Fig.1763).
The exact positionof the specialfeature in all these inventions

plate is mined
deter- The
by the centre of the hole to receive in the generalconstruction of the

lies not
joiners' work, but in the special mechanism
the pivot,as previouslyexplained. Some
introduced and
producelightness accuracy
improvedforms of pivotshave an adjustable to
be in movement, that largeopenings may
side screw, by which the doors may so
adjustedsideways, so as to correct any slight be provided with movable foldingpartitions,

fault in case of winding of the doors or which can be expeditiouslyfolded up.
frame. Another form of fittingprovides The partitionhere illustrated is intended
an arrangement for throwing the door for an openingof moderate dimensions, and
forward backward be for that service is found to work satisfactorily.
slightly or as may
required. To some forms of springs ad- The
justable generalarrangement is as follows : "
arrangements are provided by At least one pieceof framing is so constructed

the to form door as represented at Fig.1763,
which, on taking up the brass plate, as a
be at ; and, turning where it will be seen that a rebated frame is

mechanism can got on
studs, the shoe is made to receive the door, which is also

adjustable screws or
such that the doors rebated to fit the frame as shown in the
regulatedin a manner
in This is section (a and Fig. 1764). This frame is

may always be kept one plane. b,
24
held togetherat the head and transom in

the usual way, by mortice-and-tenon joints.
The other piecesof the framing are of the
ordinarydoor-like construction,with dimin-
ished
stiles having wood panels below and
mouldingsinserted ; the upper part of each
frame beingprepared for glass, having bars
with movable beads which are fastened by
screws. A wall post or stile is fixed to the
Fig. 1769.
Fig. 1767
Fig. 1767. " Transverse Section through Channel- Fig. 1768. "
Longitudinal Section through Channel-
iron let into Floor, and End View of Caster iron, and Side Elevation of Caster and
and Bracket Plate. Bracket Plate.
Fig. 1769. " Section through Channel-iron let into

Soffit of Beam, and End View of Bracket back flaphinges,but these hingeshave to
Plate and Roller. be fixed on as illustrated
each side alternately,
at Fig.1763, where the hingeson the opposite
wall at each end, and either the door end of side are indicated by dotted lines. Each
the partitioning, or the oppositeend, may be pieceof framinghas one stile with a tongue
attached to the wall stilewith largebrass back formed on the solid,and the other side with
flaphingesas shown. Each pieceof framing a groove as shown atFigs.1761 and 1762. j
is connected to that next to it also with To insure the tongues enteringthe grooves*
-i
-H
Fig. 1772." Elevation of Part of Sliding and Folding Partition.
Fig. 1773." Horizontal Section on Line G H (Fig.1772).
the former are made taperingin section,as At Fig. 1761, a plan is given showing the
shown by the enlarged detail,Fig. 1762. partitioningpartlyclosed. Figs. 1765 and
1766 are elevation

respectively and plan-
Let into the floor is an iron channel which
runs the whole lengthof
partition.A the
portionof this is shown
plan (a,Fig. in the
1761 ; and b, Fig. 1766). An enlarged
transverse section of the channel is given,
at Fig. 1767, and at Fig. 1769 a portion
of the longitudinalsection through the-
channel-iron is given. The views will
make clear the forms of bracket platesto
which the roller casters are attached. The
bracket plates are let into the stile and
bottom edges of each piece of framing as-
shown. The body of the caster can revolve
on pivotp (Fig.1768),which passes through
the bottom of the bracket plate. A ventional
con-
view of oneplates- of the bracket

and casters is
given at Fig. 1771. At Fig.
1769 is given a cross section through the
channel-iron let into a flitch beam to which
it is fixed by screws. Of course in the case
of an iron girderthe channel-iron would be

bolted to it. An end elevation of the
bracket iron and roller is also shown at
Fig.1769. Fig.1770 is a conventional view

of the top bracket plateand roller complete.
Sliding and Folding Partition.
A and
sliding foldingpartitionof modern
construction, more particularlyas regards-
the mechanism (at the head and feet of the
framing) to promote ease and speed of
movement, is illustrated by Figs. 1772 to
1777. This form of slidingpartitionhas
been largelyadopted in schools, where,
during the time of ordinary instruction,
it divides a largeroom or hall into class-
rooms,
and can be quicklyfolded up when
the larger space is requiredfor mass blage.
assem-
Fig. Elevation of Door and Pieces of

1774." The principal pointsto note in this
Back to Wall.
Framing when Folded
example are as follows : Where a doorway "
is provided as shown at a (Fig.1772), the

door, with a pieceof glazedframing immediately
above it, is often hung to a wall
stile as shown at b (Figs.1772 and 1773).
The usual arrangement admits of the door
and the glazedframe above it foldingback
againsta wall as shown in elevation and tion
sec-
at Figs.1774 and 1775, where it will be

noticed that the door and framing above
projectabout half their width beyond the
Horizontal Section through K L other piecesof framing. The other parts
Fig. 1776. "
of the partitionare formed of piecesof

(Fig.1774).
BEVELS: FINDING AND SETTING OUT.
Introduction. " Writers on this general*

subject the foundation of some of the more
usually assume
a considerable amount be here
of methods of setting out bevels,will
geometricalknowledge on the part of the explainedand illustrated. The direct appli-
cation
reader, and give short-cut methods "
of geometricalprinciples
"
to typical)
without explaining the geometrical principles
that are involved. The principlesand
methods employed in each particularcase
may possibly have been adopted after much
geometrical study and experimenting on 1778." of Fig. Angle
the part of the writer, who, however, is
Line, with Horizontal
apt to forgetthat nary the lack
prelimi- of such
Trace and tion
Inclina-
grounding may place his readers at
serious disadvantage. A student, follow-
ing of the Plane.
a
the methods thus superficially

described,
may obtain correct results for similar cases,
with littleor no geometrical
reasoning on his
part. Hence, when he is called upon to
deal with more complicatedcases, he finds
himself in difficulties,
as he is unable to
adapt and apply principles that he has never

really mastered ; because they have only
been described to him, not explained or
expounded. Everyone who desires to become
proficient in settingout for bevels,
so as to be able to deal promptly,decisively,
and effectively with the various cases that
arise in practice,must first possess a clear
idea of the involved,and of
principles their
applicationto varying circumstances. In
other words, it is necessary for him to
study a few of the fundamental principles

of solid and descriptivegeometry. This
Fig. 1779." Pictorial View of Geometrical ing
Work-
preparation is best obtained in a class of Fig. 1778.
under a competent teacher ; but where class-
work is out of the question,the necessary examples joinery will afford a useful
of
knowledge may be obtained from a good combination of
theoryand practice. Bevels,
text-book on geometry. Such study does and some of the geometricalprinciples volved
in-
not involve any very great expenditureof in settingout as appliedto roofing,
time ; and the
principles,once mastered, are illustrated and explainedin the section
are easilyforgotten. It is beyond the
not on Roofs, etc., beginning at p. 167, and
scope of the present work to deal fullywith it will be found an advantage to study, in
the subjectof solid and descriptivegeometry ; connection with the present section, the-
but several geometricalproblems, forming descriptionsand illustrations there given..
550
BEVELS: FINDING AND SETTING OUT. 551
Bevels for circle-on-circle work, etc., have the bevels for the face sides of splaylinings
also been shown, and the methods of setting and troughs, etc. A corner of such an
them out geometrically

explained,in con-
nection example is shown in plan at Fig. 1780.
with the specialsubjectto which Consider the inner surfaces as geometrical
they belong. inclined planes,and draw a portion of these
Geometrical Problems PracticallyApplied. surfaces in plan a b c d e and / (Fig.1781).
"
Fig. 1778 shows a very useful geometrical Produce / e to e'. Consider it the inner
"
problem "
namely, Given an inclined plane surface of the inclined planeabef. Through

and the plan of a line in that plane,find the e' draw x y at rightanglesto / e',and set
angle the line makes with the horizontal up the angle of the inclined plane and
trace." Briefly,the working is : At right
angles to the h.t. (horizontaltrace),draw
Fig. 1782." Corner of
Linings or Trough
with Sides equally
Un-
Inclined.
Fig. 1781
Fig. 1780.
Fig. 1780. " Plan of One Corner of Linings

or Trough.
Fig. 1781." Method of Obtaining Bevels for Case
shown at Fig. 1780.
Fig. 1783. " Geometrical Construction for
Obtaining Bevels for Fig. 1782.

x y it
intersecting in o. Draw the v.t.
(verticaltrace)at the given angleas shown height of the trough as shown by V c'.
by the bevel c. Let a b be the plan of the Then the bevel shown at G will be that re-
quired
line,then a' b' will be its elevation. With for the edge of the stuff that is to
o as centre and b' as radius,draw the arc b"''. fit the edge of the frame or bottom of the
Projectingfrom this,parallelto h.t.,and trough. Now consider b e and b' e' as the
projectingout from b parallelto xy, plan and elevation of the given line on the
point b" is obtained. Joining this to a inclined plane. Using e' as centre, b' as
gives the angle the line makes with h.t. as radius, point b'" is obtained as previously
shown by the bevel d. Evidently the explained. Joiningthis to e gives us the
oblique plane with the line has been bevel for application
to the side of the stuff
rotated into the horizontal plane. The for the oblique cut of the end as shown by
complete working is shown pictorially
at the bevel h. At Fig.1782 is shown planin
Fig. 1779. an objectin which the sides ire unequally
Bevels for Trough or Linings. Now " inclined ; and at Fig. 1783 is shown the
apply the foregoingproblem to obtaining geometricalworking. Two elevations are
given, namely, one at x y and the second proceeding as previouslydescribed,obtain

at a?'y\ each x y being at right anglesto the bevel h. If the sides are equallyin-
clined
a horizontal trace. The bevel at a is for as shown, the bevel at k will be the
to the
application edge of the pieceof stuff same as that at H. The
edge bevel for the
shown in plan at b, the bevel at c being for of the stuff is indicated edges by G. If the
that of the piece of stuff at d, and the bevel of the stuff are bevelled so as to be in parallel
e f for applicationto the surface of the planes,the bevel to be appliedto the edge
stuff. of the stuff for mitering will be as that
Bevels for Hexagonal Hopper. Fig.1784
"
shown at l (Fig.1784).
shows the part plan of a hexagonalhopper Bevels for Edges Square to Inclined faces.
Sur-
Taking examples similar to those
"
already dealt with, but assuming that it

Fig. 1784 is necessary to obtain the bevel for the
Fig. 1787.
k Fig. 1786.
Fig. 1786." Mitered Angles, and Top Edges

Fig. 1785
Square.
Fig. 1787." Obtaining Bevel for Square Edge of
Fig. 1784." Plan of Part of Hexagonal Object Fig. 1786.
with Inclined Sides and Mitered Angles.
Fig. 1785. " Geometrical Construction to Obtain mitre, which has to be appliedto an edge
Bevels for Fig. 1784. that is at right anglesto the surface,the
proceedingswill be as explained below.
or similar article,the sides of which are Figs. 1786 and 1787 show the part plan
inclined and mitered together as shown, and sectional elevation of one corner of
the edges being in parallelplanes. The an objectmitered at the anglesas shown.
method of obtainingthe bevels about to Through a' draw x y, produce e' ti (Fig.
be explainedis also applicableto special 1786), which gives e' h' (Fig.1787), the
mitered linings, inclined mitered fascia vertical trace. At rightangles to x y, of
boards, and similar work. Set out the course parallelto ac (Fig. 1786),[draw
plan of two adjacentsurfaces as shown at e h parallelto a e h (Fig.1786), project
Fig. 1785 ; then, proceeding as before, up to the vertical trace, giving point e'.
take the representationof the bottom With h' as centre, and e' as radius, draw the
arris of one shown by e /. Produce it to arc er e"'. Projecting down and horizontally
any point e', and make it the horizontal from e gives point e'". Joiningthis to h
trace of an inclined plane. Draw x y, and, gives the bevel requiredfor the application
to the edge for mitering the stuff. It is reference to Fig.1791, which shows pictori-
now obvious that the edge of the stuff forms allythe principleof working,the construction
an inclined plane,and the mitre e h the will be plainlyevident.
plan and elevation of a line in that plane. Bevels for Mitered Angles of Triangular
By rotatingthe inclined plane and Fig.1792 are shown the planand
line into Hopper. " At
the horizontal planeas explained, elevation of a triangular
previously hopper. Let it be
requiredto find the anglebetween the two
surfaces,and the bevel for mitering the
1789.
Fig. 1788. " Sides meeting at an Obtuse Angle and having Square Edges.
Figs. 1789 and 1790. " Alternative Methods for Obtaining Bevel for Mitre on Square Edge.
the bevel is ascertained. Fig. 1788 shows

the part plan and part sectional elevation
of a corner of an object of which the sides
form an obtuse angle and are mitered
together.The line of the bottom arris a c
being producedis considered as the horizontal

trace of a plane. Then, at any convenient
draw
position, a line I h' to c a',and
parallel
work the problem as shown at Fig. 1789 ;
the working being identical with that plained
ex-
in connection with Figs.1786 and

1787. Sometimes it is very convenient
to imagine the inclined plane as being
broughtinto a horizontal positionby ing
rotat- Pictorial View of Geometrical
Fig. 1791. "
it about a level line above the horizontal

Working shown at Fig. 1790.
plane. It should be carefullynoted that
this line should be taken parallelto the line edges of the stuff. Draw a b (Fig.1793)
fixed
originally on as the horizontal trace. parallelto the intersection a b (Fig.1792).
The method of working is shown at Fig.1790, Then at Fig.1793 complete the outline plan
where it will be seen that e' In!is the inclina-
tion of the corner by drawinga d, a e. Draw x y
of the stuff (and the vertical trace), parallelto a b. Projectup from a, and
Inh' the horizontal trace, g k the level line mark off a' from x y equal to d' from x y
of rotation. imagine the line and

Then (Fig.1792). Then draw the outline of the
plane to move into the positionshown by top edge as shown
by a' c' (Fig. 1793).
elevation e' h". Projecting down from h" From any point in a' br set out
convenient
and horizontallyfrom h gives point h"' a line at right anglesmeeting a' o' in c'.
and the bevel required as shown at p. By Now imagine this line c! f to represent a
24*
plane at right angles to a' b' ;

projecting Now draw b' b parallel to the lines in the
down from c',it will be clear that
this plane plan, as shown, and c b parallel to a' b' ;
will cut the top arrises of the surfaces as then join b to a. It should be noted that
shown in plan at d and e, and the portionof this work is identical with that explained
Fig. 1792. " Plan and Elevation

J^h
of Triangular Hopper.
Fig. 1793." Obtaining Angle
between Two Surfaces and
Bevel for Mitered Edges.
Fig. 1793.
Fig. 1792
the plane fitting between the two surfaces

from d and e will be triangular in shape.
An edge view of this triangularportion
of plane is represented by c' /. Now
imagine this triangular plane rotated about
the line d e until it is in a horizontal position.
The apex at / in elevation
shown would
move point g',and thus projecting
to the
down from g' to the intersection line a b
Fig. 1794
obtains point g ; then joiningg to d and to
e gives the angle between the surfaces as
shown by the bevel. Half the angle as
indicated by the bevel dotted at a will give

the bevel forapplicationto the mitered
edge. The geometricalproblem here intro-
duced
"
is thus stated : Given two inclined
planes and their determine
intersection, the
angle between them." This is known as
the dihedral angle.

Setting Out Mitre Lines on
Mouldings.
Assume that two piecesof cornice moulding
are to be joinedat rightangles; that is, an
angleof 90". Let the section of the mould-
ing
be as shown in Fig. 1794. Draw the plan
of the mouldings and mitre as at Fig. 1795.
Then set a bevel to the mitre line c d. This
will be the bevel to apply to the top edge,as 1795.
indicated by the line c d (Fig.1796). For
the bevel for the slopingback, through the Figs. 1794 and 1795. " Section and Plan of
angle at a' (Fig.1794) draw a' b'. With a' Portion of Mitered Cornice, and Geometrical
as centre and c' as radius,draw the arc c' b'. Construction for Mitre.
angle. If there are several mitres to be

made, and 'all meet at the same angle, a
simpler plan is to construct a mitre box
which will hold the moulding to the exact
angle,as shown at Fig. 1797, and the mitres
can be cut in the usual manner.
Setting Out Mitre Lines.
settingout a mitre block for mould-

When ings
meeting at rightanglesas shown at a
(Fig.1798),it is only necessary to draw a
square on the top block as shown at A b c d
(Fig.1799), and then the diagonala c is the
Fig. 1796." Mitered Lines Drawn on Moulding.
Fig. 1797." Moulding in Mitre Box Ready for

Cutting.
in connection with Fig. 1781. Set the

bevel as indicated,and apply it to the
slopingback of the moulding and mark
it. This will give a line as indicated by
Fig. 1799. -Setting Out for the Cuts on a
Square Mitre Block.
a c (Fig.1796). As a' e' is a vertical face,

sur-
the line a e indicated Fig. 1796 at

can be drawn square. This principlecan
Fig. 1798. "
Setting Out the Angles for Obtuse
be applied for mouldings meeting at any and Acute Angles of Panel Mouldings.
mitre line. When the mouldings meet at angle of the wall. Draw a line parallelto it,
an obtuse or acute angle,as b or c (Fig.1798), corresponding to b /, intersectingit at b.
the better plan is to set out the mitre on a Join a 6, which is the plan of the mitre line.
piece of board, as Fig. 1800.

at Smooth Fig. 1802 shows the elevation and plan. The
a board and shoot the edge, then gauge elevation of the point b' is,of course, found
up
a line about J in. (say) away from the edge by projectingup from b to the line bf c',
and set out the requiredangle,as indicated drawn through the
section of the moulding
at fhg ; now bisect this angle,and then parallelto a' d' From a' draw a' c' at right
.
H k is the mitre line. A bevel should now be anglesto V c' ; a' b' c' is the elevation of the
set to the mitre line (seeFig. 1800),and then right-angled triangle, b c, being parallel
applied to the mitre block, as illustrated at to the vertical plane, is seen in true length
Fig. 1801. in the elevation, a c is equal to the width

of the upper surface of the moulding, and
is seen in the section ; with these lines the
Fig. 1802.
Fig. 1800." Setting Out Angles for Mitres.
Fig. 1803
Fig. 1802. "

Elevation and Plan of Moulding to
an Oblique Angle.
Fig. 1803. " Elevation of Return Mould.
Fig. 1801." Setting Out Block for Obtuse Mitres.

triangle can be drawn. The other bevel
for the cut will obviously be the angle
Mitre of Moulding on Oblique Corner. d' a' To obtain the bevels for the
e.
To draw the elevation plan of a

and return piece,draw the elevation shown in
moulding mitre round an obliqueangle of a Fig.1803, where a' h is the corner of the wall,
wall, and, inclined on both walls (Fig.1802), a' r slope of the moulding,
the a' b' will be
draw a' e, the elevation of the corner of the equal to a' V (Fig.1802),and can be drawn
wall. From a' draw a' d' at the slant of the by projectinglines across. Draw br I parallel
moulding on one wall. Draw d' f at right to a' r. Draw the section of the moulding
angles to d' a''. On d' f draw the section of r ml, making equal
m I to the thickness of
the moulding. Draw a d the plan of the the front moulding, and
rightangles r m at
face of wall,and b f parallel
to it at a distance to a' r. From a' draw a' c at right angles
equal to the thickness of moulding.

the to b I. Produce c a' to a, make c a equal to
From a draw a line at an angle equal to the r I,join a b'. a b' c is the angle required.
558 INDEX.
Bits, Expanding Centre, *21 Casement Windows, Old-style, Cords, Attaching, to Sash Frame.
,
Forstner Auger, *22 *428-430 424
:::423,
,
Nose, 21 Casements, :404 for Sash
"
Frame, *423, 424
,
Pin, 21 and Fanlight in Solid , Removing, from Sash Frame,
,
Spoon. 21 Frame, -446-449 ;::423,424
,
Twist-nose, *21 ,
French (See French Case- Cornice, Enriched, and Wall
Bitumen for Laying Wood block ments) Panelling, *508-516
Floor, 94 Cavetto Quirked Ogee Moulding, for Vestibule Framing, *536
Blockings, Glued, *63 *468 Mouldings, Working, *473,
Boarded Roof, Circular, *159 Ceiling, Arched, Mansard Roof
Boarding for Framed and Braced for, *142, 143 Corridor Screen and Door. *525-
Door, *319 Joists, Binder Chased-mor- 528
Boards, Cutting, from Square tised for, *74 Cottage. Half-timbered, *202-204
Log, *481 Centering for Barrel Vaulting, Couple-close Roof, *117, 118
Floor
,
(See Floor Boards) *270-272 Cramping Floor Boards, *89, 90
Shooting,
,
*4 Circle-on-circle Arches, SashFrame, *421, 422
Bolection Moulding, *363, *468 :257-262 Cramps, "9-11
Working, ::472 with Parallel for
Circular Work, *11
,
Boring Jambs for Draw-pinning, Jambs and Reveals, *257-259 ,G, *9

*314 Radial ,
Iron G, *9
Tools, *20-22 Jambs, *259-262 for Sash Frames, *421
Boucbere's Process of Preserving Elliptical Arches, *257, i Wedge, *9
Timber, 34 *273, 277 for Wedging Up Door, *331
Bow Saw, *17 "
Window, *257 Crenellated Square, 3
Bowstring Roof Truss, *154, 158 Gothic Arch to Arcade Creosoting Timber, 42
Box Pin Joint, *62, 64 of Church, *266-268 Cross-halved Joints, :;54
Boxing Shutters to Doorway, Gothic-on-circle Arch, Cross-strain, Joints for, *57
Panelled Linings to, *516-519 *264 Cup Wood Screws, *25
French Casements with, Groin Vaulting, *284-286 Cupboard Front, Rods for, '303-
,
*449-458 Hemispherical Dome, 306

Brace and Bits, *21, 22 *286-288 .Portable, Rods for, *310, 311
Screwdrivers, 20 Opening with Reveals, Cup-shakes in Timber, *40
Brace and Post Joint, *61 :;262-264 Curves, Arch, Formula for, 250
Braced and Framed Door and Segmental Arches, *257 for Cambered Arches, Setting
Frame, *318-323 Bridge, *272-273 Out, *252
Doors, Hanging, Semicircular Arches, Elliptical Arches, ting
Set-
320 *255-257 Out, * 253-255
Sliding Door, *326 Stone Arch
- and Brick Large Arches of Mode-
rate
Trussed Partitions, :98- Back Arch, *266 Rise, Setting Out, *251,
"
110 Chalk Line," 3 252
Bradawls, *20 Charnley Forest Oilstones, 23 Setting ,
Out, with Radius
Brads, 24 Chase Mortice Joints, *55, 56 Rod, *251
.Floor, *90 Chequer Wood-block Floor, *96 Cutting Gauges, *3
Brands, Timber, 52 Chestnut, 48, 49 for Mouldings, *471
Brick-nogged Partitions, *98 Spanish,
,
48 Cyma Recta Moulding, *468
Bridge, Skew Arch, Centering for, Chisels, Firmer, *11
*280, 281 Mortice,,
*11
Bridging Joist, Determining Size Chimneys, Ridges and Purlins
of, 83, 84 Trimmed to, *165, *166
Bridle Joints, *55 Church Arcade, Shoring, *243-247
Builder's Staging, *219, 220 Roof. ::;144,*147, 148
Bull's-eye Frame, Circular, *461 Circle, Obtaining Radius of Seg-
ment
Burnett's Timber Preserving cesses,
Pro- of, *251
34, 35, 42 Circle-on-circle Arch, Centres for,
Butt End, Raking Scarf with, *57 *257-262
Joint, Edge, *62 with Parallel Jambs and
Fished, *59
,
Reveals, Centre for, *257-259
with Flush Beads, *63 Radial Jambs, Dado, Hardwood, Fixing, *491-493
"
Mitered, *56 Centre for, *259-262 " Sham Framing, *486-490
,
Plain. *62
"
Doors (see Doors) Dantzic Timber Quality Marks,
,
Rebated, *62 Sash Frames, *463-467 *44

-,
,
Tongued, *62 Circular Bull's-eye Sash Frame, Deals, 35, 43
and Tenoned Joint, Mitered, *461 Baltic White, 43, 44
*61 Doors
" (see Doors) Yellow or Red, 43
Roof Truss, *159 Norwegian, 45
Work, Cramps for, *11 Red or Yellow, 44
Cogging Joints, *55 Russian White, 46
Collar Beam, 117 Swedish, 45
Roof, :::143,144 " "
Quality
,
Marks on *44,
Joints for, *143, 146 45
,
Braces, Span Roof with, Derrick for Raising Roof cipal,

Prin-
'116 145
Span
Roof, (see Span) Gantry,
Tower *221, 222
Collars for Supporting Arches Diminishing Mouldings, *475, 476
during Shoring, *246 Divided Tenon Joints, *55
Compass Planes, 14 Dividers, *3, 4
Cabinet Screwdrivers, 20 Compasses, *3 Doatiness in Timber, 41
Callipers, *3, 4 Composite Doors, *375-377 Dock Gates, Timber for, 51
Cambered Arch, Out Panels for, *377 Dog for Builders' Gantry, *216
Setting ,
Curve for, =252 Truss for Flat Roof, *153, 154 Joiners', *9, 10
,
Cambering Tie-beam, 133 Trusses, *149-154 Dome, Centering for rical,

Hemisphe-
Canada Oilstones, 24 Compression and Cross Strain, *286-288
Donkey's-ear Shooting Block, "4
Carved Apron for Door, *397 Joints for, *57, 58
Casement Frame, Solid, Joiners' Cone, Elliptical, Frustum of, Door Architraves, *335, *386, 388
Rods for, *296, 297 *497 in Corridor Screen, *525
Windows, French, to Open Converting Oak, 35 Baize-covered,
,
*377-379
Inwards, *443-446 Pitchpine, *35 Battened .
Square framed, -
Small, *430, 431 ,

Timber, *35, 36 *333, 335
INDEX. 559
Door, Bead Flush Panel to, *351, Door, Mitering Bead of, *317 Dovetail Notching, *55, *
113
356 Mouldings, :362 "
Saw, 17
Beaded Stops for, *318 Planting,
,
332, 333 Scarf
Joint, *58
,
Boarding for Framed and ,

Mortice and Tenon Joints " Secret
Joint, *62, 64
,
Braced, -319 for, * 328-330, 372 Slip-feather Joint, *62

Bolection Moulded Panels .Movable Shutter, *351-357 Splayed Joint, *58
,
for, *357, 358 -

Muntins, Setting Out, -352 Tenon Joints, -67
Casings, Hardwood, Fixing, ,
Shoulder Lines on, *327, Do welled Angle Joint, 65
*504-506 328 Floor Joint, -90
Oircle-on-eircle, *397-403 ,
Oak Sill for, 317 Joint, *62
,
Swing, with Fanlight, .Outer, *346-349 Post and Sill, Joint for, *55
*401-403 ,
with Movable ,
Shutter, Draw-boring Mortice and Tenon,
Circular, *379-381 *351-357 *318
,
.Panels of, *381 ,

Splayed
" "Linings,
to, *346 Dragon Tie at Foot of Hip Rafter,
,
with Circular Frame, traves

Archi- Panels, Bolection Moulded, *125, 128
for, *386, 388 -357, 358 Draw Knife, *13
Double -
mar- Composite, *377
,
Draw-boring, *314
,
gin, *381-390 Inserting Strip in Split,

,
Draw-pinning, Boring Jambs for,
Frame for, -341, 342 *314
,
*384-386 Mulleting, *331 Dry Rot in Timber, 41

,
Frame d -,
Repairing, *340-342 Drying Timber, Erith's Method
,
Grounds for, :386 Replacing,

"
*342 of, *32, 33
,
,
Rod for, *381- Split, Repairing,
,
*340, ,
"
Sturtevant "
Method
384 341 of, *32
Splayed ings
Lin- Rails, Scribing, *372 Duffy's Patent Wood-block Floor,
,
for, 386 Setting

,
Out, *328, *354 *96
Circular, on Plan Entrance, Shoulders on Stiles and Rails Dutch Wainscot, 48
, ,
*390-397 of, *352-355

,
Face and ,
Soffit Shutter, Making, *356, 357
Moulds for, *392, 393 Six-panelled, *346
,
, ,
Mouldings for, , ,
Jamb Linings for, *346
*393 395 Sliding Framed and Braced,
,
.Cleaning off, 331, 332 *326

Composite, *375-377 " with Solid Frame, in Parti-
tion
,
,
Panels ,
for, *377 Wall, *333, 335
,
Double-margin, *373-375 ,
Splayed Linings to, *346
with Fanlight, *346-349 .Stable, :::324,325 Earth Waggons, Timber for, 51
Four-panelled,
,
*333, 335 Stiles, Setting Out, *327, *352 Edge Joints, *61, 62
.Hanging, *337-340 Stops, *318 for Floors, *90, 91
,
Moulded, *335, *342-346 Swing and Vestibule ing,

Fram- Edge Moulds, Setting Out, *499
, ,
, -,
Jamb Linings of, *531 Ellipse, Definition of, 253
*335, 342 Hanging,
Swinging, *541-544 -, Setting Out, *253, 254
,
,
Outer, *346-349
,
for, *544 ,
Pivot Elliptical Arches, Centerings for,
Frame, Circle-on-circle, *398, ,
Hinge for, *541
,
Spring *257
399 Tenon ,
Joints for, *318. 319 , Setting Out Curves for,
, ,
Ascertaining Plan .Timber for, 51 *253, 255
Curves of, *398 Two-panelled,
,
*357-363 Cone, Frustum of, *497
Frame, Swing, *535 Frame for, -359 " Conical Soffit Lining, *497
, ,
Framed, *335 Panel of, *363 Niche. Arch Centering for,

, ,
and Braced, *318-323 .Setting

,
Out, *361 ::281-284
Hanging, ,
320 Splayed
,
Linings for,
,
Stone Arch, Centering for,
Making, ,
*319 *360, 361 *273 277
Jamb
,
Linings of, *342- .Wedging
,
Up, *331 Window, Centering for, *257
344 for Vestibule Framing, *539 Elliptical-headed Linings for Sash
-,
Frameless Stable, *324-325 Doors, Varieties of Common, *312 Frame, *459
-
Frames, *312 Doorway Linings, Framed and Opening, Soffit Lining for,
,
Fixing, 314 Panelled, *516-519 *496-502
in Half-timber Work, Doorways, Panelled Linings for, Sash"
Frame, *458-461
*202 *363-365 Window, *446-449
- in Hall Screen, *523
,
Skeleton Jambs for, 364 Elm, 47
Joinery of, 326-332 Two, and Trussed Braced American,
,
47
, ,
Ledged,
,
*312 Partitions for, *98 Emery Oilstones, 24
Rebating,
,
*318, 319 Dormer, Gabled, *182-184 Endogenous Timber, 28
- and Framing, Gluing and in Half Mansard with Flat English Oak, 48
Wedging-up, *331 Roof, *197, 198 Erith's Automatic Timber Drier,
Front-entrance, *365-373 Mansard Roof Truss, *32, 33
and,
Frame, *365-373 *134, 136 Evans and Swain's Wooden Floor,
Mortising
,
and Tenoning Windows, -180-198 92
Frame of, 369 Bay, *186,
Exeter Hammer, *18
Moulding
,
Frame of, *369 .Framework of, -181 Exogenous Timber, 28
.Panels of, *372, 373 Joints for, *183
,
Exogens, 26
Rebating
,
Frame of; 369 in Mansard Roof, *184, and Endogens, Difference
.Setting Out, :368, 369 186 between, 28
Haunching Rail of, :372 North ,
Country Style of, Expanding Centre Bits, *21
Hinges, Fixing, -339, 340 *187-196
Jamb Linings, *335, 336, *342, Stone ,
Gabled, *196, 197
'346 Double Floors, *74-78 {see also
Joiners' Rods for, ;::289-293 Floors, Double)
Joints for Boarding for, *319 Double-hung Sash Frame, *427
Large Framed and Braced Double-margin Doors, -373-375,
Sliding. :;326 *381-390
Ledged, :;312-318 Circular-framed, "381-
,
and Braced, *316-318 390

*Hanging, 316 Dovetail Halving Joints, dered,
Shoul- Face forMoulds
Sash Frame
,
Joints for, *316 *55 *465

Heads,
,
Preparing, *315, 316 Joints, -61, -62 Soffit Moulds

and for lar
Circu-
,
Main Entrance, *531 "

Lap Joints, *55 Door. -392, 393
Measuring for, 370 Ledged Joint, ::62, 64 Fanlight and Casements, -443, 449
560 INDEX.
*
Fanlight and Casements in Solid Floor, Pugging for, *91 Gabled Dormer, 182-184
Frame, M46-449 .Single, *69-72 Gallery, Portable, *230, 231
in Outer Door, *346-349 "
Sound-proof,
,
91 Galls, Rind, in Timber, 41
.Pediment and, '541 Strutting,
,
*8l, 82 Gantries, *215, 216
Fawcett's Wood-block Floor, *97 .Trimming Joist for, 71 Gantry, Bitch for, *216, 217
Feather, Slip, *61 Trimming
,
Round Openings, ,
Derrick Tower, *221, 222
Felt, Slag, 91 72 ,
Dogs for, *217, 218
Fibres, Twisted, in Timber, *41, 42 with Trussed Beams, *80, 81 ,
Erecting, *216, 217
Files, Saw, *17, 18 ,
Wood-block, *93-97 Joints, *218
Woodworkers',
,
*23 , ,
Bitumen for, 94 ,
Movable, to Support Travel-
ler,
Fillisters, Sash, *14 ,
.Chequer, *96 *223, 224
Fir, Riga, *44 , ,
Designs for, *96 over Pavement, *218
Scotch,,
44 , ,
Duffy's Patent, *96 Strut Joints, *56
Spruce,,
43, 44 ,
.Fawcett's, *97 ,
Tower, *221, 222
"
Timber, Converted, 43 , ,
Fixing, 96 for Traveller, =224
Prussian, 44, 45 , ," .Geary's Patent, *96 Gauges, Cutting, *3
Unconverted, 44
, ,
" "
,
Herringbone, *95 ,
Marking, *3
White, ,
44 , ,
Jointing, 96 ,
Panel, *3
Fireproof Partitions, 110 - "
, ,
Laying, 94, 95 Geary's Patent Wood-block Floor,
Wooden Floors, *91-93 , ,
Panel and Frame sign
De- *96, 97
Firmer Chisels, ::11 of, *96 Geometrical Head Linings to
Fished Butt Joint, *59 Parquet, 97 Door and Window Openings,
, ,
Joints, *57 , ,
Preparing Basement *494, 495
with Hardwood Keys, *58 for, 93, 94 Splayed Linings Veneered
Keyed " and Bolted,
,
*58 Solid, 93 ,
for Polished Work, *495
,
and Tabled Joints, *58 ,

Tile Design,
of, *96 Tools, *l-4
Flat-head Screws, *25 Turpin's Patent, *96 Gimlet-handle Screwdrivers, 20
, ,
Floor, *68-97 ,
Wood for, 93
,
Gimlets, *20
Basement,
,
*68, 69 with Wrought Binder, *74, Girder, Floor, Determining Size
Binder, Determining Size of, 75 of, 85, 86
84, 85 Flooring, Laying Baltic, 89 for Framed Floor, 78
Boards, 86-91 Shippers'
,
Marks on, 86 Glasspaper, 22, 23
Cramping, 89, 90
,
Stacking,
,
87 Glazed Partition, Setting Out,
Direction of Grain
,
in, Timber ,
for, 86 :::522,523
::88 Flying or Horizontal Shores, Glue, 25
Heading Jointswith *
235-238 Glue-brush, 25
Crossed, Laying, *89 " Shores for
Buildings of Un-
equal Glue-pot, *25
Joints
"
for, *90, 91
, Heights, *236 Glued Blockings, *63
Laying, *88-90 ,
Folded Floors, Laying, *88, 89 Gluing and Wedging-up Doors
"
,
Oak Border Fitted to, Folding and Sliding Partitions, and Framing, *331
*77 -544-549 Gothic Arch, Centre for, *266-268
Planing Machine
,
for, 87 Forstner Auger Bit, *22 Gothic-on-circle Arch, Centering
Sizes of, 86, 87
, Foundations, Pile, Timber for, 51 for, *264, 265
Stacking, 87, 88
, Four-panelled Moulded Door, Gouges, *13
Timber for, 51, 86
, *333, 335, *342-346 Grand Stand for Sports Ground,
Brads, *90 Hanging, *337-340 *228-230
,
Cramps, *89, 90 Outer Door, *346-349 Grecian Ogee Base Moulding, *468
,
Determining Size of Girder Foxiness in Timber, 41 Ovolo Moulding, *468
for, 85, 86 Foxtail Tenon Joints, *67 Grindstones, *23
.Double, *74-78 Frame, Sash (see Sash Frame) Groin Vaulting, Centering for,
,
Iron Binders for, *75, 77
,
Framed and Braced Door and *284-286
,
Steel Binders ,
for, *77, Frame, *318-323 Grooved and Tongued Joint, *62
78
,
Hanging, 320 Ground Floors, *68, 69
,
Wooden,
Binders for, .
Making, *319 Guard Beads for Sash Frames,
*74. 75 Sliding Door, *326 *467
,
Double-boarded,
91 Door, *335 Gutters behind Parapet, *164
,
Load
Estimating on, 83 Floors (see Floors, Framed)
.Fireproof, *9l-93 Panelled
and Linings to
,
Asbestos Slabs
,
under, Doorway, *516-519
"91, 92 Frameless Stable Doors, *324, 325
,
Evans and Swain's,
,
92 Frames, Door (see Door Frames)
,
Hinton and Day's,
,
92 Framework, Trying Up, *326, 327
,
.Solid, *92 Framing for Staging, Joints for,
.Framed, *78-80 *60
Girders for, 78
,
French Casements with Boxing
,
Stirrup Irons ,
for, *80 Shutters, *449-458
Girder
,
for, *85, 86 Fitting, *454
,
.Ground, *68, 69 Inwards, *443- Half-timber Framing, Timber for,

to Open
Herringbone Strutting for, 446 51
,
*72 Work, *199-214

Nails, 24
Joint, Dowelled, *90 Front-entrance Door (see Door, ,
Angle-posts in, 201
*90. 91 on Cottage, *202-204
.Edge, Front-entrance)
Headed, *90 Door and Window
of Elliptical Cone,
-
,
Frustum ,
Iron Tongue, *90 *497 frames in, *202

,
Pavodilos." *91 " Forms,

of, *201
,
Rebated, *90 on Gable, *206

,
and Filleted, *90 House, *205

,
.Grooved and Sham,

,
*206, 208
,
Tongued, *90 Timber

,
for, 199
*90 Hall Screen with Door, *523-525
Straight, ,
Joists, Bridging, ing

Determin- Halved Joints, *54, 55, *59
Bevelled, *55
Size of, 83, 84 .
,
Sizes of, Double, *59

Determining ,
52
,
Dovetail
,
Shouldered,
Supporting, 82 *55
,
83 Gable. Half-timbered, *206 Halving Joists on Partition Head,

.Weight on, 82,
.Laying Folded, *88, 89 .Panelling, *210 *72
Treatment, *210 Hammer, Adze-eye, *18
,
Load on, 83
INDEX. 561
Hammer, Exeter, *18 Jamb Linings of Door, Framed, Joints for Meeting Rail and Stile
Heads, 18, 19 *342, 344 of Top Sash, *418
.Warrington, *18 Four - panelled Mitre Tongued,
,
*62
Hammer-beam Roofs, '144 Moulded Door, *335 Mitered ,
Butt, *56
Raising, ,
*144, 145 Six-panelled Door, ,
and Tenoned, *61
Hammer-headed Key Joints, *67 *346 Grooved
,
and
, Tongued,
Hammer-setting Saw Teeth, *18 Joiners' Rods (see Rods) *63
Hand Saws (see Saw) Work Prepared by Hand, Mortice
,
and Tenon (see
Tools and Appliances, *l-25 "326-332 Joint, Tenon, below)
Hard Woods, 42, 43 Joinery, Joints in, 61-67 .Notched, *55
Hardwood Dado, Fixing, *491-493 Jointing Beams to Posts and Obtuse
,
Angle, *61
Door-casings, Fixing, *504-506 Struts, *61 ,
Grooved and
Hatchets, *19 Joints, *54-67 Tongued, *63
Haunched Tenon Joints, *67 Abutment,
,
*61 ,
Mitered, Grooved
Haunching Door Rail, *372 -, Angle Halved, *55 and Tongued, *63
and Scribing Rails, *415 of Beams to Posts and , Rebated, *63
Headed Floor Joints, *90 Struts, *60, 61 ,
Grooved,
and
Heading Joints, *90 for Beams and Posts, *59 Staff Beaded, *63
Heads, Hammer, 18, 19 in Beams, Strength of, 59, 60 Parallel
,
Scarf, with Joggled
Heart-shakes in Timber, *41 Bevelled
,
Halving, *55 Ends, *59
Heartwood, 28, 29 Bird's-mouthed,
,
*55, 56 for Pavement Gantry, *218
Heel-strap, *132 for Boarding of Doors, *319 Plain
,
Butt, *62
for Tie-beam and Rafter, Box
,
Pin, *62, 64 ,
Mitre, *62
*129 Brace
,
and Post, *61 .Ploughed and Cross
Hemispherical Dome, Centering .Bridle, *55 Tongued, *62
for, *286-288 ,
.Oblique, *55 between Post, Corbel and
Herringbone Strutting, *72, 81 Butt
,
(see Butt Joint) Beam, *60
Wood-block Floor. *95 in Carpentry, *54-61 Purlins and Hips, *166
Hexagonal Hopper, Bevels for, Chase
,
Mortice, *55, 56 for Quarter Partitions, *109
*552 for Church Roof, *144, 148 Queen-post Roof Truss,
Hinges, Door, Fixing, *339, 340 : Cogging, *55 *128, 129
Spring,
,
for Swinging Doors, for Collar Beam Roof, *143, between Rafter and Tie-
*541 146 beam, *129
Hinton and Day's Wooden Floor, to withstand Compression, for Rafters, *133
92 *57 ; Raking Scarf with Butt
Hip Rafters, Backing of, *166, 167 and Cross End, *57
Dragon ,
Tie at Foot of, Strain, *57, 58 ,
for ,Ridges, *58
*125, 128 Cross-halved,
,
*54 .Rebated, *62
Hipped End of King-post Roof, for Cross-strain, *57 -, Butt, *62
*124, 125 Divided
,
Tenon, *55 ,
and Filleted, *62
Mansard Roof, *196 Diminished
,
Dovetail Ledged, ,
Grooved, *63
of Queen-post Roof *62, 65 ,
Grooved,
,
and Staff
Truss, *129 for Dormer Windows, *183, Beaded, *63
Roof, Timbering for, *191, 194 , ,
Tongued, *62
*171 Double Abutment, *251 ,
and Mitre, *62
Roof, Irregular, *160-163 Halved, *59 ,
Mitered
,
and Double-
, ,
Setting Out, *160, Tenon, *67 tongued, *63
161 Dovetail, *61, 62 ,
and Staff Beaded, *63
Hips, Bevels for, *173, 175 Lap, *55 ,
Tongued
,
and Staff
for Roofs over Obtuse Ledged, *62, 64 Beaded, *63
Angles, Bevels for, *170, 171 Notching, *55 " between Roof Hips and
and Purlins, Joints between, Scarf, *58 Ridge, *131
*166 Slip-feather, *62 for Sash Frame, *416
Holding Work, Tools for, *5-ll Splayed, *58 ,
Scarf, Splayed with Folding
Holmsunds' Quality Marks on Dowelled, *62, 65 Wedges, *59
Timber, 52 Angle, *65 , Tredgold's Rule for Pro-
,
portioning,
Honduras Mahogany, 50 : Post and Sill, *55 *59
Hopper, Hexagonal, Bevels for, Edge, *61, 62, *90, 91 ,
Scarfed, with Folding
*552 Fished, *57 Wedges, *59
Triangular,
.
Mitered Angles Butt, Double, *59 .Screwed Straight, *62, 65
of, *553, 554 Single, *59
, ",
Secret Dovetail, *62, 64
Horizontal or Flying Shore, *235 .Keyed and Bolted, *58 ,
Mitered, *62, 64
House, Half-timbered, *205 with Hardwood
,
Keys, *58 for Semicircular Arch terings,
Cen-
Housing Joint, 66, *67 and "
Tabled, *57 *254, 256
Joists to Trimmers, *71, 73 Floor, *90, 91 (see also Floor Railway Arch Shoring,
Howe Roof Truss, *153 Joint) *248, 249
- Floor
for Boards, *90, 91 ,
Shouldered Dovetail ing,
Halv-
"
Framing of Staging, *60 *55
-, Gantry Strut, *56 "
,
Tenon, *55
-
: Glued Blockings, *63 ,
Single Tenon, *67
-,
Grooved and Tongued, *62 --, Splayed Scarf, : 59, 62
-, Halved, *54, 55, 59 ; with , Folding
-, .Double, *59 Wedges, *59
-, Haunched Tenon, *67 ,
with,
Iron Plates,
Impulsion Tools, *18-20 -, Hammer-headed Key, *67 *58
Irish Roof
Trust, *154, 158 - at Head of Queen-post Roof -, Splay-rebated,
*62
Iron Tongue Floor Joint, *90 Truss, *131, 132 " "
,
Stump or Stub Tenon, *55
Irons, Stirrup, *80 -.Heading, *90 ,
Straight, *62
-, Housing, *66, 67 in Struts and Beams,
- for King-post Roof Truss, Strength of, 59, 60
*118, 120 .Strut and Post, *61
-, Lapped, *62, 64 .Tabled, *57
-. with Keys
,
and Straps, ,
Scarf, *59
*57 ,
with Keys
,
and
- for Ledged Doors, *316 Plates, *58
"
Lengthening Beams and ,
and Splayed Scarf, *57
Jack Planes, *13 Posts. *57-59 .Tenon, *55, 56, *66, 67, '317-
Rafters, Bevels for, *168, 169 -,
Matched and Beaded, *62 319, *328-330
562 INDEX.
Joints, Tenon, Application of, 67 Ledged and Braced Door, *316- Mitered Butt Joints, *56
".Double, *67 318 Joint, Secret, *62, 64
".Dovetail, *67 Doors (see Doors, Ledged) Mortice Chisels, *11
".Foxtail, *67 and Frames, *312-318 Joints, Chase, *55. 56
"
Haunched,
,
*67 Levels, Spirit, *4 and Tenon, Draw-boring, *318
".Pinned, *67 Linen Press, Joiners' Rods for, Joints (see Joint,
"
Proportioning,
, 67 *307, 308 Tenon)
"
Single, *67
, Lining Log Timber, *38 Mortising and Tenoning Door,
"
Stump , or Stub, *67 Lining Material, 481, 482

"
*67 ,
Tusk, Pitchpine
,
for, 481 Door-frame,369
,
Tenoned and Bird's-mouth Linings, Bevels for, *551, 552 Mould, Thumb, Working, *472
Shouldered, :61 Framed and Panelled, for Moulded and
Panelled Framed
for Tension, *57 Doorway, *516-519 Partition, *520-522
and Compression, Geometrical Head, to Moulding Frame of trance
Front-en-
,
Door and Window Openings, Door, *369

Cross Strain, *494, 495 Mouldings, *468-480
*57 Splayed, built up in Angle or Returned Bead, *468
, ,
,
Toe, *56 Sections, *495 Architrave,
,
*468
,
Tredgold Notching, *55 , ,
Veneered for Astragal,
,
and Fillets, *468
for Trussed Partitions, *98, Polished Work, *495, 496 Bead Architrave, 468 ;
100 for Sash Frame, Elliptical- Bolection,

.
*363, *468
Trussed Framed tions,
Parti- headed, *459 ,
Working, ,
*472
*101, 102 ,
Soffit, Elliptical Conical, Cavetto
,
Quirked Ogee, *468
,
Tusk Tenon, *56 *497 Cleaning
,
Up, *474, 475
.
and Keyed, *71 , ,
for Elliptical-headed Common,
,
*469
.
between
, Tie-beams, Opening, *496-502 Cornice,
,
Working, *473
*125 ,
Veneered
Splayed, to ing
Open- ,
Circular, ,
*473, 474
,
Twin-tenon, *67 Circular
with Head, "bQ3 Curved
,
Thumb Rebate Plane
,
Vertical Scarf, *59 Log Timber, Lining, *38 for, *470
for Wood-block Floor, 96 London Screwdrivers, *20 Cutting
,
Gauge for, *471
Joist, Bridging, Determining Size Cyma
,
Recta, ;468
of, 83, 84 Diminishing,
,
*475, 476
Ceiling, Binder
, Chased-mor- Door,
,
*362
tised for, *74 ,
Planting,,
332, 333
Floor, Determining
, Sizes of, Double
,
Face Architrave, *468
82 ,
Torus, *468
, Supporting,
,
*82 Enlarging,
,
*476
,
Timber for, 51
,
Fixing
,
and Fitting, *475
, Trimming, 71 M Fitting, for Panelled
, ,
" Weight on,

, 82, 83 Linings, *363
.Halving, on Partition Head, Grecian
,
Ogee Base, *468
*72 ,
Ovolo, *468
, Housing, to Trimmers, *71. Mahogany, 50, 51 Lamb's
,
Tongue, *468
73 ; Baywood, 50, 51 Marking,
,
for Mitering and
, Supporting, by Walls, *82 Honduras,
,
50 Scribing, *480
Panama, 50 .Mitering, *479, 480, *554, 555
icâll
82
Plate for Supporting, ,
Spanish, 50
, ,
Template ,
for, *370
Mallets, *19 : Nosing, *468
Mansard Roof, *134-143 Ogee
,
Panel, Working, *472
Belidor's
,
System of Set-
ting Ovolo, *468
,
Out, *134 Parting

,
Bead, ::468
Dormer ,
for, *134, 136, Planes for Straight, *469, 470
,
*197, 198 Quirk

,
Routers for, *471
with Flat Top, Dormer Quirked Bead, *468
,
in, *197, 198 ,

Grecian Ogee Panel, '468
Hipped,
End, *196 Ogee and Bead, *468
,
Ordinary
,
Form of, *134 Raking,
,
round External
Key Joints, Hammer-headed, *67 Principles
,
in ing,
Design- Angle, *476, 477
King-bolt Roof Truss, *149, 150 *138, 140, 141 ,
on Internal
,
Angle, *477,
King-post and Queen-post over Room with Arched 478
Truss,
*131, 132 Ceiling, *142, 143 ,
Intersecting Obtuse
Truss, *118 " " without Trusses, *138 Angle with Horizontal, *478
Hipped ,
End of, *124, 125 Marking Gauges, *3 Ramping,
,
to Given Point,
,
Joints for, *118 Tools, *3 *479, 480
Securing,
Tie-beam and, *124 Work for Sawing, *3 Reverse
,
Ogee, *468
Kirkcaldy's Experiments on Beam Marks on Timber, 52, 53 .Roman Ovolo, *468
Strengths, 40 Matchboarding, *61 : Scotia, *468
Knife, Draw, *13 Match and Beaded Joint, *62 Scratch
,
Tools for, *470
"
Knock-up "
Bench Tops, *8 McNeile's Process of Seasoning "
Scribing,
,
*480
Knots in Timber, 41 Timber, 31 Setting
,
Out, *475, 476
Medullary Rays, 26 "
-.Shaped, Tools for, ;i470-472
Mitering, Appliances for, *4 "
-,
Staff Bead, *468
Door
" Bead, '317 .Straight, Planes for, *469,
Mouldings, *479 470
and Scribing, Marking Sunk,,
363
Mouldings for, *480 Thumb,"
,
"
*468
TemDlate, *370 Hollows and Rounds for
,
Mitre Block, *4 471

Box, *4 Mould
,
for, *472
Joint, Plain, *62 ,
for Shaped,
Tools ;:470-472
Lamb's Tongue Moulding, *468 Tongued,
,
*62 Torus, *468
,
Lancashire-pattern Pincers, *11 Lines on Mouldings, *554. 555 Varieties of, *468, 469
,
Lapped Joint, *62, 64 Setting Out, -554-556

,
Moulds, Edge, Setting Out, *499
with Keys and Straps, Shooting Block, *4 "
Mouse used "
in Replacing Sash-
*57 Square, *3 line, *422, 423
Laying Floor Boards, *88-90 Mitered Angles of Triangular Mulleting Door Panels, *331
Lead Plugs, *485 Hopper, *553, 554 Muntins. Door, Setting Out, *327,
Lean-to Roofs, *113-116 Butt and Tenoned Joint, *61 328, *352
INDEX. 563;
Panelled Linings, Constructing, Planes, Jack, 13

*3$5 Rebate,
,
*14
for Doorways, *363-365, Router,
,
15
Nails, *24 *516-519 Sash
,
Fillister, *14
: Brads, 24 ,
Fitting Moulding for, .Side Fillister, *14, 15
.French, 24 363 Smoothing,
,
*13, 14
Oval Clasp, 24 and Moulded Framed tion,
Parti- for Straight Mouldings, *469a.
,
Punches for, 24 *520-522 470

,
Rose-head,
,
24 Wainscoting, *507, 508 Trueing,
,
*13
Wrought
,
Clasp, 24 Panelling and Enriched Cornice, Planing Machine for Floor-
Niche, Centering for Elliptical, *508-516 Boards, 86, 87
*281-284 in Half-timber Work, *210 ,
"
Shimer," 87
Norwegian Balks, 45 Panels, Bead and Flush, *356 Plank Roof Truss, *156, 157, 159
- Deals, 45 Head,
,
Geometrical Setting Planking to Earth Waggons^
Nose Bits, 21 Out for, *500, 501 Timber for, 51
Nosing Moulding, *468 Bolection
,
Moulded, *357-358 Planks, 43
Notched Joints, *55 " of Circular Doors, *381 Converting
,
Timber into, *35-
Tredgold,
,
*55 for Composite Doors, *377 Defined, 35
Collar into Edge of Eafters, Vestibule Framing, *540 Planting Door Mouldings, 332,.
*118 Door, *330, 331 333
Notching, Dovetail, *118 ,Mulleting, *331 Plier Saw Set, *18
Joints, Dovetail, *55 Repairing ,
Split, 340-342 Ploughed and Cross Tongued;
Nova Scotia Oilstones, 23, 24 Raised, Working, *474 Joint, *62
"
Replacing, in Doors, *342 Plugs, Iron-cased, *485

Setting Out for, *501-503 .Lead, *485
Tympanum, *538 Round
,
Wooden, *486
Panelwork, Oak, *490, 491 Wooden,
,
for Grounds, *482
Parallel Scarf Joint with Joggle Plumb Rule, *4
Ends, *59 Pockets, Cutting, in Sash Frame,,
Parapet, Gutters behind, *164 M18-421
Paring' Tools. *11-15 Post and Brace Joint, *61
Parquet Floors, 97 Strut Joint, *61
Parting Bead Moulding, *468 Preserving Timber, 34, 35
Partition, *520 Bethell's
,
Process of, 34
Braced
,
and Trussed, *98-110 Bouchere's
,
Process of, 34"
,
for Two , Doorways, *109 Burnett's
,
Process of, 341
Oak, American, 48 Brick-nogged,
,
98 Prussian Fir Timber, 44, 45
"
.Baltic, 48 : Corridor Screen with Door, Pugging," *91
Converting,
,
*35 *525-528 Pulley Stiles, Setting Out, *409,.
English, 48
,
Cross, *103
,
410
Panels, Cutting Timber to .Fireproof, 110 of Solid Mullion Sash
Obtain, *36 "
-, Folding
and Sliding, *544 549 Frame, *436
Panelwork, *490, 491 Framed,
,
Panelled and Punches, Nail, *24
" Wainscot,
,
48 Moulded, *520-522 Purlins, Bevels for, *171, 173
Obtuse Angle Grooved and Glazed, Setting Out, *522, 523
,
Trimmed to Chimneys, *165,.
Tongued Joint, *63 : Hall Screen, *523-525 166
Rebated Joints, *63 Head, Halving Joists on, *72 and Hips, Joints between,.
,
Grooved and .Joints for, *101. 102 *166
Staff Beaded, *63 Panelled
,
and Moulded Pyramidal Octagonal Roof, *176-
" Mitered, Grooved Framed, *520-522 179
and Tongued Joint, *63 Quarter,
,
*109
Ochre Box, 39 ,
through ,
Two Storeys,
Octagonal Pyramidal Roof, *176- *109
179 ,
.Joints for, *109
:
Ogee Panel Mouldings, Working, Sliding
,
and Folding, 544-549
*472 Sound-proof,
,
111
Oilstones, 23, 24 Staircase, *103, 104
,
Arkansas,
,
23, 24 Stud,
,
*98
Canada,
,
24 Timber,
,
*98-lll
Charnley
,
Forest, 23 .Trussed, *98, 100, *109, 110
Emery,
,
24 ,
Framed, *101
Nova
,
Scotia, 23, 24 ,
.Joints for, *100-102
Oil for, 24
,
: Vestibule Screen, *529, 530 Quality Marks on Timber, *45^
Substitutes for, 24 Wall, Door in, *333, 335 53
,
.Turkey, 23 Partitions and Screens, *520-549 Quarter Partitions, *109

Washita, 23, 24 Pavement Gantry, *218 ,
Joints for, *109
,
Open Timber Roofs, *143, 144 "

Pavodilos Floor
"
Joint, *91 Through Two Storeys,.
Openings in Floors, Trimming Percussion Tools, *18-20 *109
Round, *72 Pilasters of Vestibule Framing, Quarterings, 35
Oval Arches, *253 *537, 539 Queen-bolt Roof Truss, *149, 151
Ovolo Moulding, *468 Pile Foundations, Timber for, 51 Queen-post Roof Truss, *128-132
Pin Bits, 21 with Hipped End,
Pincers, *11 *129, 131
Pine, American Red, 47 ,
Joints for, *128
,
Yellow, 47 ,
Joints at Head of,.
Pinned Tenon Joints, *67 *131, 132
Pit Sawing, Marking Timber for, ,
Three-way Strap
38, 39 for, *127, 128
Pitch of Roof, Determining, 112, Quirk Routers for Mouldings,
113 *471
Pitchpine, 47, 48 Quirked Bead Mouldings, *468
for Lining, 481 Grecian Ogee Panel ing,
Mould-
Log, Converting, *35 *468
Pivot for Swinging Door, *544 Ogee and Bead Moulding,.
Panama Mahogany, 50 Planes, *13-15 *468
Panel Gauge, *3 ,Bead, *14 Ovolo and Bead Moulding^..
and Frame Design of block
Wood- Compass, 14 *468
,
Floor, *96 .Fillister, 14 Fillet, *468

564 INDEX.
Roman Ovolo Moulding, *468 Russian Timber, 43-46

Roof, Belfast, "154, 158 , Quality Marks on, *45,
,
Bent Rib, *155, 159 46
Radius Rod, Setting Curves Out : Bevels and Lengths of Hips White Deals, 46
with, *251 and Rafters, *166, 167. 170. 171
Rafters, Bevels for, *166-169 Bowstring, *154, 158
Hip, Backing
,
of, *166, 167 Church, *144, 147, 148
Jack, Bevels
,
for, *168, 169 Circular, of Boards, *159
, , Fixing, *166 Collar Beam, *143, 144
,
Joints for, *133 with Apse End, *143 ,
-, Lengths for, *166, 167 Joints for, *143, 146

,
,
Securing Principal, to Tie- Composite, *149-154
beam, *132 for Flat ,
Roof, *153, 154
and
Tie-beam, Joints tween,
be- Couple-close, *117, 118
*129, 133 Dormer Windows in, *181-198
Valley, . Fixing, *166 Dragon Tie at Foot of Hip
Rails. Door, Setting Out, *328 Rafter, *125, 128 Sap in Timber, Function of, 28
Sash Frame,
,
Template for, Flat, Composite Truss for, Sapwood in Timber, 28, 29, 41
*416, 417 '153, 154 Sash Bars, Rebating and ing,
Mould-
Rakers for Shoring, *241, 242 : Gutter behind Parapet, *164 *453, 454
Raking Mouldings, *476-478 Hammer Beam, *144 Construction, Application of
Scarf with Butt End, *57 Raising, *144, 145
,
Templates in, *417
for Ridges, *58 Howe, *153 Cords, Removing and ing,
Attach-
Shores, *233-235 Irregular Hipped, *160-163 *423, 424
Erecting, *233, 234 Setting Out, *160, Cramps, *421
, ,
Ramping Mouldings to Given 161 Elliptical Head

.
of, *459, 460
Point, *479, 480 Irish, *154, 158 Fillisters, *14
Rasps, "Woodworker's, *23 King-bolt, *149, 150 Frame, *404
Rebate Planes, *14 King-post, *118 Beads, Removing, *423
Rebated Butt Joint, *62 Hipped
,
End of, *124, Boxed, Rods
,
for, *293-
and Filleted Joint', *62 125 296
Floor Joint, *90 Joints for, *118, 120 ,
Casement, *428-430
,
Grooved Joint, *63 King- and Queen-post, *131, ,

Circle-on-circle, *463-467
Grooved, ,
and Staff Beaded 132 ,
Circular Bull's-eye, *461
Joints, *63 Lean-to, *113-116 Cords, *423
Tongued
,
Joint, *62 Light. *155, 159 "
,
Cramping, 416, 421, 422
,
Floor Joint, Mansard, *134-143, 196 ,
Cutting Pockets in, *418-
*90 for Arched, Ceiling, *142, 421
*62 Joint, 143 -,
Double Weight Vene-
and Mitered Joint, *62 Belidor's
"
System
,
of Set-
ting tian ,
*437-439
Mitered and Out, *134 Double-hung, *427
, Double-tongued -,
Dormer for, *134, 136, Elliptical-headed, *458-

Joint, *63 "
, ,
and Staff Beaded Joint, *63 184, 186 461

Tongued and Staff Beaded Principles,
in Designing, Linings
,
of, *459 ,
,
Joint, *63 138, *140, 141 Fitting Together,

,
*411,
Rebating Door Frame, *318, 319 without Trusses,
,
*138 "413, 414
Frame of Octagonal Pyramidal, *176- with Framed and
Front-entrance
Door, *369 179 Splayed Linings, *458-461
and Moulding Sash Bars, ,
Open Timber, *143, 144 Guard Beads
,
for, *467
*453, 454 Pitch, Determining, *112, Head. *465
Recess Cupboard, Joiners' Rods 113 ,
Face Moulds for,
for, -303-306 "
-, Setting Off, *112, 113 *465
Red Deal, 43 Plank, *156, 157, 159 ,
Preparing, *466, 467
,
Pine, American, 47 ,
Queen-bolt, *149, 151 ,
Setting Out, *409
Ribs, Bent, Roof Trussed with, Queen-post, *128-132 Hung on Pivots, *462,
,
*155, 159 with Hipped End, *129, 463

, ,
"Riga Fir, 44 (see also Russian ber)

Tim- 131 ,
Joints for, *416
.Joints for, *128 Linings, *466
,
Rind Galls in Timber, 41 , ,

at Head of, *131, ,
Materials for, 404
Bod, Radius, Setting Out Curves 132 Meeting Rails, *416, 417
with, *251 ,
Three-way Strap for, -
,
Dovetailing,
,
Rods for Boxed Sash Frame, *293- *127, 128 *417. 418
296 (see Rafters)
Rafters ,
Template for,
Canted Bay Scantlings for, 121 *417
"Window, ,
"
*300, 302 : Securing Tie-beam to ,

*'
Mouse for, *422
Deal Door with Bead Rafter, *132 Pocket, *418
Butt, *292 .Self-supporting Shed,'*115 Pulley Stiles, *409, 410
Doors, *289-293 - Shed.
for *160 Rails, Template for, *417
Small House, *117 Setting Out, *407, 408,
" "
Double-margin Door, ,
*381-384 .Span, *116-118 414

Moulded with Collar Braces, *116 Sills for, *406, 407
Four-panelled , ,
Collar. *118, 119 Solid, with Movable

Square Door and Frame, ,
*290-292 Supported by Iron Columns, Sash, *427, 428

" Glazed Partitions, *522 *122, 124 "Mullion Venetian,
Ledged and Beaded Truss, Raising, *144 *431-437
Door and *289. 290 Timber for, 51 Square Centre, *461, 462
Frame, " " -
Timbering for Hipped End, Venetian, *431-441

Linen Press, *307, 308 ,
Panelled and Moulded *171 .Beads for, 436, 437

*521 Timbers, Arrangement of, Construction of,
Partition, ,
Portable Cupboard, *310, *163, 164 "435, 436

Double-weight, *437-
311 .Villa, *163, 164 -,
Recess Cupboard Front Rose-head Nails, 24 439

in Two Heights, *303-306 Rot, Dry, 41, 42 -, Fitting Up, *437
Wet, 42 -.Large, *439-441
Skylight, *302, 303 ,
Round-head Screws, *25 -, Pulley

Stiles of,
Solid Casement Frame,
Router Planes. *15 "436
*296, 297
Window, Rule, Plumb. *4 Quantities for, 435
Square Bay -,
*297-299 Boxwood, *1 -.Setting Out, *436

,
.566 INDEX.
Template, Mitering, *370 Timber. Holmsunds*, Quality Tongued Butt Joint, *62
for Sash Frame Rails, *417 Marks on, 52 Tools, *l-25
*319 for Internal Doors, 51 Abrading, *22-24
Tenon, Barefaced, ,
*330 Knots in, 41 Boring, *20-22

Cutting,
.
, ,
Joints, *55, 56, *66, 67, *317- Lining Log, *38

. ,
Classification of, 1
319, *328-330 Marking, for Pit Sawing, *38,
, , Geometrical, *l-4
"
39 for Holding Work, '5-11
Application of, 67
Divided, *55
,
Partitions, *98-lll (see also , Impulsion, *18-20
,
Double, *67 Partitions) , Marking, *3

,
*67 for Pile Foundations, 51 Paring, *11-15

Dovetail, ,
"
,
for Doors, 318, 319 Pit Sawing, Marking, of Percussion, *18-20

Foxtail, *67 ,
"38, 39 ,
Scraping, *22-24
Haunched, "
*67 Planking to EaTth gons,
Wag- , Scribing, *3
,
Pinned, *67 51 ,
Shaving, *11-15
,
Proportioning, 67 Preservation, 34, 35 Supporting

for Work, '5-11
,
Single, *67 ,
Bethell's Process of, 34 Torus Moulding, *468
,
Stub, *55, 67 Bouchere's Process of, Tower Gantry, Derrick, *221, 222
Stump or ,
"
Tusk, 56, 67 34 Traveller, Gantry to Support,

,
*67 Burnett's Process of, 34, *223, 224

Twin, ,
,
Saw, *17 35, 42 Tredgold's Centering, *277

*415 Underground, 42 Notching Joints, *55
Sawn and Ploughed,
Tenoned and Bird's-mouthed ,
Prussian Fir, 44, 45 Rule for Proportioning Scarf
Shouldered Joint, *61 Quality Marks, *45, 46. 53 Joints, *59
ing
Connect- Dantzic, *45 Trestle Shores, *245
Tenoning and Cogging, ,
Holmsunds', 52 Trestles. *9
Post by, *61 ,
Tension, Joints for, *57 ,

Riga, *45 Triangular Hopper, Mitered
and Compression, Joints for, ,
Wifsta Warfs', 52, Angles of, *553, 554
53 Tried-up Edges of Timber, 327
*57
Cross Strain, Joints for, ,
Rind Galls in, 41 Trimmer, Housing Joists to, *71,
for Roof Trusses, 51 73
Thumb Hollows Rounds for and "
,
Russian, 43, *45, 46 Joists, Tusk
and Tenon and
::470,471 Quality Marks on, *45, Keyed Joint for, *71
Mouldings, , ,
*468 46 Supporting Arch, *72

Moulding, ,
Rebate Plane for Mouldings, ,

Sap in, Function of, 28 Trimming Joists, *72
*470 ,
Sapwood, 28, 29, 41 for Floor, *71
Thunder-shakes in Timber, 41 ,
Seasoned, Advantages of, 29 round Openings, *72-74
*125 Seasoning, *29-34 Trueing Planes, *13
Tie, Dragon,
Cambering, 133 Artificial, *30-34 Trussed Beams, Floors with, *80,
Tie-beam, ,
Securing, *124 Erith's Method of, *32, 81

and King-post, ,
"
Rafter, Joint between, 33

"
Framed Partitions, *101
McNeile's Process of, 31 Joints for, *101, 102
*129, *133, 134, *136, 137 , ,
Heel Strap for, *129 "
,
Natural Process of, 29, Partitions, *78, 100, *109, 110
,
Securing, to Rafter, *132 30 ,

Joints for, *100
,
Joint tween,
be- Shrinkage during, *34 Truss (see Roof)
Tie-beams, Tusk Tenon ,
"
*125 ,
"
Sturtevant Method Try Square, *3
of Wood-block Floor, of, *32 Use of, 327
Tile Design ,
*96 Selecting, 38 Trying-up Framing, *326, 327

,
Shipping Marks on, 52 Trying Plane, *13

Timber, *26-53 ,
American Methods of ing,

Season- for Shop Fronts, 51 Tunnel, Arch Centering for, '279,
,
*31, 32 Shrinking during Seasoning, 280

in, 42 *34 Turkey Oilstones, 23
Annual Rings
30-34 Smoke-dried, 31 Turpin's Patent Wood-block
Artificially Seasoning, ,
Balk, 29 ,
Soft Woods, 42, 43 Floor, *96
Defects in, *40 Stacked Horizontally, 30 Tusk Tenon Joints, *56, 67
,
Lining, *38 Stacking, *29, 30 between Tie-beams,

,
,
Strength for Stair Treads, 51 *125

Beams, Calculating
Star-shakes in, *41 and Keyed Joint, *71
of, *39, 40 ,
Kirkaldy's Experiments ,
Steam Chest for Seasoning, Twist-nose Bits, *21
of, 40
,
*33, 34 Twisted Fibres in Timber, *41, 42

on Strength
52 Stiffest Beam Cut from Tympanum Panels, *538
,
Brands on, ,
Converted, *35 Round Log, *38

,
Creosoting, 42 "
Strength
,
of, *39, 41
,
: Strongest Beam Cut from

,
Cup-shakes in, *40
cut into Planks, *35 Round Log, *37
Doatiness in, 41 ,
Structure of, *26
,
"
Sturtevant Method "
of
for Dock Gates, 51 .
- Doors, 51 Drying, *32

Dry Rot in, 41, 42 Swedish, 43 *42
,
, Upsets in Timber,
Endogenous, 28 ,
Thunder-shakes in, 41
,
Erith's Automatic Drier for, Trees, Growth of, *26

,
Tried-up Edges of, 327

*32, 33 ,
Exogenous, 28 ,
Trying Up, 326, 327
in, 41, 42
,
for Doo^
External 51 Twisted Fibres
,
Fir, Converted, 43 ,
Upsets in, *42
,
Unconverted, 44 ,
Varieties of, 43-51
, ,
for Floor Boards, 51, 86 for Various Purposes, 51, 52

Vaulting, Barrel, Centering for,
Blocks, 93 ,
Waney Edges in, *42
for Weather-boarding, 51, 52 *270-272
Joists, 51 for, *284-286
of, 39 Groin, Centering
Flooring, 86 Weight ,
Marks Wet Rot

,
in, 42 Veneer for Geometrical Splayed

,
Shippers' ,
*495, 496
Wifsta Warfs Quality Marks Linings,
on, 86 ,
Linings to
52, 53 Veneered Splayed
Formation of, *26, 27 on.
Circular Head,
,
in, *42 Opening with
Foxiness in, 41 Wind-cracks ,
,
Sills, 52 *503
Good, Qualities of, 38 for Window *431-441
,
Wood-block Floors, 93 Venetian Sash Frames,
for Half -timber Work, 51, 199 437-
for Hipped End Roof, Double-weight,
Hard Woods, 42, 43 Timbering ,
,
439
Heart-shakes in. *41 *171 .
,
Large, *439-441
Heartwood, 28, 29 Toe Joints, *56 ,
,
INDEX. 567
Solid Walls, Supporting Joists by, *82 Window, Dormer, in North

Venetian Sash Frames,
*431 Waney Edges in Timber, *42 Country Style, *187-196
Mullion,
*59 Warrington Hammer, *18 Stone Gabled, *196, 197
Vertical Scarf Joint, , ,
Washita Oilstones, 23, 24 Elliptical, Centering for, '257

Vestibule Doors, *539 ,
Cornice for, *536 Weather-boarding, Timber for, 51, Elliptical-headed, *446-449

Framing, ,
*540 52 French Casement, to Open

Panels of, ,
,
539 Wedge Cramps, *9 Inwards, *443-446

Pilasters of, *537,
,
Wedging-up Sash Frames, *421, 422 Projecting, "200

and Swing Doors, *531
,
Two-panel Door, *331 Sills, Timber for, 52

Screen, '-529, 530
*7 Wet Rot in Timber, 42 Square, Joiners' Rods for,

Vice, Instantaneous Grip, ,
White Deal, Baltic, 43, 44 -297-299

Saw, *17
,
164 Russian, 46 Stand for Spectators, *224

Villa Roof, *163, ,
"
Fir, 44 .Supporting Upper ing,

Project-
Spruce, American, 47 *209
"
Wifsta Warfs' Quality Marks on Wood (see Timber)

Timber, 52, 53 Wood-block Floors (see Floors)
Wind-cracks in Timber, *42 Wrought Clasp Nails, 24
Window (see also Sash)
W Bay Dormer, *186
Canted, Joiners' Rods for,
300, 302
Wainscot Oak, 48 Casement, *428-430, *443-446
Dutch, 48 to Open Inwards, *443-

"
, ,
Wainscoting, Panelled K507, 508 446
Wall Panelling and Enriched Small, *430, 431

,
Cornice, *508-516 Dormer *180-198
Plate for Supportin Joists, in Mansard Roof, *184, Yellow Deal, 43, 44
,
*82 186 Pine, American, 47

Printed by
Cassell and Company, Limited, La Belle Sauvage,
London, E.C.
V\

Cassells Carpentry and Joinery 1000007771

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CASSELL'S

Carpentry and Joinery

AND PRACTICE, INCLUDING ABOUT 1,800 ENGRAVINGS

AND TWELVE PLATES

DAVID McKAY, Publisher

610, SOUTH WASHINGTON SQUARE

Cassell's Carpentry and Joinery is a practical work on practicalhandicrafts,

essential in explaining the principlesunderlying a method, a or the

by eminent authorities such as Mr. C. W. D. Boxall, Prof. Henry Adams,

Mr. F. W. Loasby, and several other well-known practical contributors to

and its intenselypractical character "

illustratingcases that have occurred

of contents. Each of the various sections is dealt with in exhaustive detail,

of the sections nearly 100 and the studiously plain

the book is further assisted by the of skilfully

drawn diagrams, which are supplemented by twelve full-pagecoloured plates.

Hand Tools and Appliances 1

Timber Roofs 112

Framework of Dormer Windows 180

Half-timber Construction 199

Gantries, Staging, and Shoring 215

Arch Centerings 250

Joiners' Rods 289

Doors and Door Frames 312

Window Sashes and Casements .

Mouldings: Working and Setting-out 468

Skirtings, Dados, Panelwork, Linings, etc 481

Partitions and Screens 520

Bevels: Finding and Setting-out 550

I. Circular-Headed Casement Window

II. Interior Doorway with

III. Boxing Shutters Sash Window

IV. Lantern Light Gable Ends

V. Carriage Entrance Gates

VI. Wooden Framed Stable

VII. Newel Staircase with Winders Half-Space

VIII. Half-Timbered Porch and

XI. Cabinet- Work Fixtures for a

XII. Construction Bell or

Woodworking," produced by the Editor

of this present book, and sold by the same

the tools and appliances here briefly tioned,

most complete description of woodworking

Fig. 10. "Cutting Gauge

Marking and Scribing. The carpenter's Marking "

Fig. 11. "

grown tree. All straight-edgesshould be

The try square (Fig.4) has a rosewood or Dividers.

to reduce weight. Adjustable pencil point instead of the steel point

principalgraduation, and is used chiefly Compasses, Dividers, and Callipers. "

Fig. 16. "

this block (Fig.20) has a rest a for the

Callipers. Callipers. Its use will be explainedon a later page.

Fig. 17." Mitre Box with

Fig. 19." Donkey's-ear Shooting Block.

Fig. 20. "

1 Fig. 21. "

Tools for Supporting and Holding

Benches. " The ordinary joiner's bench

screws so as to accommodate one or two

Fig. 25." Ordinary Pattern Joiner's Bench.

Fig. 26." Ordinary Joiner's Bench fitted with Instantaneous Vice.

Fig. 28. " Wooden Bench Screw Vice.

to the vice cheeks. To fasten the vice