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Biology for the IB Diploma, Second edition C. J. Clegg 2014 Published by Hodder Education
Data handling questions 2
Continuous variation
A study of fruit length in a commercial crop was undertaken on a sample size of 350 fruits.
Each fruit had a different length, so the classes of size were artificially defined. This type of
data is best plotted as a histogram.
Class sizes Frequency of fruits of each length/mm
4049 0
5059 2
6069 9
7079 21
8089 29
9099 43
100109 69
110119 66
120129 48
130139 32
140149 19
150159 11
160169 1
170179 0
Biology for the IB Diploma, Second edition C. J. Clegg 2014 Published by Hodder Education
Data handling questions 3
Data obtained from biological experiments like this frequently show a normal distribution
(i.e. a symmetrical bell-shaped curve is obtained when the frequency of particular classes of
measurements are plotted against the classes of measurements).
We can now examine the data.
1 Calculate how clustered (closely spaced) the readings are. This can be expressed as:
n the average or arithmetic mean (the sum of the individual values divided by the
number of values)
n the mode, the most frequent value in a set of values
n the median, the middle value in a set of values arranged in ascending order.
2 Deduce how widely distributed (spread out) the readings are. This can be expressed as
the standard deviation (s) of the mean (Appendix 2). This is a measure of the variation
from the mean of a set of values. A low s indicates that the values differ very little from
the mean.
Biology for the IB Diploma, Second edition C. J. Clegg 2014 Published by Hodder Education
Do and understand activities 4
Sex linkage
Any genes present on the sex chromosomes are likely to be inherited with the sex of the
individual. They are said to be sex-linked characteristics. However, the inheritance of these
sex-linked genes is different from the inheritance of genes on the other chromosomes
known as the 1 chromosomes. This is because the X chromosome
is much longer than the Y chromosome, so many of the genes on the X chromosome are
2 from the Y chromosome. In a male (XY), an allele present on the
Xchromosome is unlikely to have a pair on the Y, and will be apparent in the phenotype even
if it is 3 allele.
Meanwhile, in a female, a single recessive gene is often masked by a dominant allele of the
other X chromosome and, in these cases, the recessive allele is not 4 .
A human female can be homozygous or heterozygous with respect to sex-linked characteristics,
whereas males will have only one allele.
Carriers
An individual who has a recessive allele of a gene that does not have an effect on their phenotype
(so they are heterozygous for that allele) is known as a carrier. They carry the allele but it is not
expressed. It is 5 by the presence of the dominant allele.
Consequently, female carriers are 6 for sex-linked recessive
characteristics. In the case of a male (XY), the unpaired 7 of the
Ychromosome are all expressed in the male. The alleles on the short Y chromosome are
mostly concerned with male structures and male functions.
However, there are some recessive, genetically inherited conditions caused by recessive
alleles on X chromosomes. Examples of these are Duchenne muscular dystrophy, red
green colour blindness and hemophilia. These are examples of genetically inherited
8 .
The consequence of the presence of one of these alleles may be quite different for males and
females. This is because, if a single recessive allele is present in a male human, the allele will be
expressed. Meanwhile, a female must be 9 recessive for a sex-linked
characteristic for the allele to be expressed. A female who is heterozygous for one of these will be
a 10 .
E
Where:
O = observed result
E = expected result
= the sum of
Biology for the IB Diploma, Second edition C. J. Clegg 2014 Published by Hodder Education
Do and understand activities 5
n If the value of 2 is bigger than the critical value highlighted in red (a probability of
0.05) then we can be at least 95% confident that the difference between the observed
and expected results is significant.
n If the value of 2 is smaller than the critical value highlighted in red (a probability of
0.05) then we can be confident that the differences between the observed and expected
results are due to chance.
3 What is your conclusion?
Biology for the IB Diploma, Second edition C. J. Clegg 2014 Published by Hodder Education
Further study 6
Further study
Web resource
Mitosis and meiosis demystified:
www.etiis.org.uk/index.htm
Further reading
Articles in recent editions of Biological Sciences Review:
Biology for the IB Diploma, Second edition C. J. Clegg 2014 Published by Hodder Education