Alternating Current (AC)

Description:

Alternating Current (AC) :

Alternating current is current that reverses its direction of flow at regular intervals. Such current is
frequently referred to as AC.

Full-Wave Rectified Single-Phase AC:

This rectified alternating current for which the rectifier is so connected that the reverse half of the
cycle is turned around, and fed into the circuit flowing in the same direction as the first half of the
cycle. This produces pulsating DC, but with no interval between the pulses. Such current is also
referred to as single-phase full-wave DC.

Full-Wave Rectified Three-Phase AC:

When three-phase alternating current is rectified the full-wave rectification system is used. The result
is DC with very little pulsation - in fact only a ripple of varying voltage distinguishes it from straight
DC.

Half-Wave Rectified AC:

When a single-phase alternating current is rectified in the simplest manner, the reverse half of the
cycle is blocked out entirely. The result is a pulsating unidirectional current with intervals when no
current at all is flowing. This is often referred to as half-wave or as pulsating direct current.

Single-Phase Alternating Current:

This term refers to a simple current, alternating in direction. Commercial single-phase current follows
a sine wave. Such a current requires only two conductors for its circuit. Most common commercial
frequencies are 25, 50 and 60 cycles per second.

Three-Phase Alternating Current:

Commercial electricity is commonly transmitted as three single-phase currents, that is, three separate
currents following separate sine curves, each at 60 cycles (or other frequency) per second, but with
the peaks of their individual curves one-third of a cycle apart. At least three (sometimes four)
conductors are required for three-phase alternating current.

Pulsed and Impulse Current - Magnetization:

A magnetization technique utilizing short circuited AC or condenser discharged DC. Very high
magnetizing currents are possible for short durations. ( 1/100 to 1/1000 sec.) without the use of
transformers. A Pulsed magnetization applies high fields for brief periods. A slight variation of pulsed
magnetization is impulse magnetization. Betz called this flash magnetization. Associated with
electrical methods of magnetization is the heating involved when current passes through a metal.
Heating may limit the field intensity achievable. To overcome this difficulty a method of short duration
high intensity fields was developed. Thin walled materials can be tested without the risk of heating at
contact points. This is normally used for the residual method and allows for even higher field
applications as they are applied once and briefly.

In the early days of MPI it was thought that DC from storage batteries provided best test results.
Since then it has been shown that variations of the AC supplies are as effective and in some cases
even more desirable. An important feature of alternating current is the skin effect.
The options of current available from AC and DC generators are all that is now required. In addition to
the commutator that provides us with full wave rectified AC, there is electronic circuitry, called
rectifiers, that provide us with the other modifications to the types of currents used. Only storage
batteries (and Faradays Dynamo) provide true DC, all other sources we use are AC derived.
Commutators and rectifiers limit or reverse negative flow so current, although its amplitude may
fluctuate, flows only in one direction. For this reason rectified alternating current is considered direct
and may sometimes be termed half wave DC and full wave DC.

ampere
This is the unit of electrical current. One ampere is the current which flows through a conductor
having a resistance of one ohm, at a potential of one volt.
Ampere turn

This term refers to the product of the number of turns in a coil and the number of amperes of current
flowing through it. This is a measure of the magnetizing or demagnetizing strength of the coil. For
example: 800 amperes in a 6 turn coil = 800 x 6 = 4800 ampere turns.

Black light

Light energy just below the visible range of violet light, predominately of about 3650 Angstrom units.
This wavelength reacts strongly on certain dyes to make them fluoresce in a range visible to the eye

Black Light Intensity

Foot-candles of Black Light at any given point in a inspection area. Intensity of light is now more often
given in units of Lux or micro-Watts per square cm.

Central Conductor

a conductor that is passed through the opening in a ring or tube, or any hole in part, for the purpose
of creating a circular or circumferential field in the tube or ring, or around the hole.

Circular Magnetism

When a electric current is passed through a solid magnetic conductor, a circular magnetic field is
developed not only around the conductor, but also with the conductor

coercive Force

The reverse magnetizing force necessary to remove remnant or residual magnetism and demagnetize
the part.

Coil Shot

A shot of magnetizing current passed through a solenoid or coil surrounding a part, for the purpose
of longitudinal magnetization is called a coil shot. Duration of the passage of the current is usually
very short - often only a fraction of a second.

Conductivity

This is the inverse of resistance, and refers to the ability of a conductor to carry current.

Continuous Method (Magnetic Particle)

Current and bath are applied together; that is, the indicating particles are on the part while the
magnetizing current is being applied.

Coulomb

A unit of electrical charge in the practical system of units. It contains 3 x 109 electrostatic units of
charge (see esu). A coulomb is the charge transferred by a current flow of one ampere in one second

Decay (Magnetic)

As used in connection with electricity, decay is the falling off to zero of the current in an electrical
circuit. Magnetic fields and electrical potentials can also decay in similar sense.

Defect
A discontinuity the size, shape, orientation or location of which makes it detrimental to the useful
service of the part in which it occurs.

Demagnetization

The process of removing existing magnetism from a part

Diamagnetic.

All materials are affected by magnetic fields. Those which are attracted are called Paramagnetic.
Those which are repelled are called Diamagnetic. The reaction to a magnetic field of these two
classes of substances is very slight indeed. The few materials that are strongly attracted by magnetic
fields are called ferromagnetic.

Direct Current (DC)

As the name implies, this term defers to an electrical current flowing continually in one direction
through a conductor. Such current is frequently referred to as DC.

Discontinuity

Any interruption in the normal physical structure or configuration of a part, such as cracks, laps,
seams, inclusions or porosity. A discontinuity may or may not affect the usefulness of a part.

Distorted Field

The direction of a magnetic field in a symmetrical object will be substantially uniform if produced by a
uniformly applied magnetizing force, as in the case of a bar magnetized in a solenoid. But if the piece
being magnetized is irregular in shape, the field is distorted and does not follow a straight path or
have a uniform distribution.

Domain

A substructure in a ferromagnetic material within which all the elementary magnets (electron) are
held aligned in one direction by interatomic forces; if isolated, a domain would be a saturated
permanent magnet.

Electro-Magnet

When a ferromagnetic material is surrounded by a coil carrying current it becomes magnetized and is
called an electro-magnet.

Electromotive Force

The work or energy which causes the flow of an electric current. Expressed as volts. It should be
noted that the term force is a misnomer. However, the term is so well established that its use
continues in spite of its being incorrect

Evaluation

The process of deciding as to the severity of the condition after the Indication has been Interpreted.
Evaluation leads to the decision as to whether the part must be rejected, salvaged or may be accepted
for use.

False Indication

In nondestructive inspection, an indication that may be interpreted erroneously as a Discontinuity

flash magnetization see Alternating Current (AC)

Flaw An imperfection in an item or material which may or may not be harmful.

Fluorescence

The emission of electromagnetic radiation by a substance as the result of the absorption of

electromagnetic or corpuscular radiation having greater unit energy than that of the fluorescent
radiation. Fluorescence is characterized by the fact that it occurs only so long as the stimulus
responsible for it is maintained. The characteristic X-radiation emitted as a result of absorption of X-
rays of higher frequency is a typical example of fluorescence.

Magnetic Flux

The total number of magnetic lines existing in a magnetic circuit is called magnetic flux.

Flux Density

This term means the number of flux lines per unit of area, taken at right angles to the direction of the
flux. It is the measure of magnetic field strength

Full-Wave Rectified Single-Phase AC

This rectified alternating current for which the rectifier is so connected that the reverse half of the
cycle is turned around, and fed into the circuit flowing in the same direction as the first half of the
cycle. This produces pulsating DC, but with no interval between the pulses. Such current is also
referred to as single-phase full-wave DC

Full-Wave Rectified Three-Phase AC

When three-phase alternating current is rectified the full-wave rectification system is used. The result
is DC with very little pulsation

Gauss

This is the unit of flux density or induction. The strength of field induced in a ferromagnetic body is
described as being so many Gausses. It is usually designated by the letter B. Numerically, one
Gauss is one line of flux per square centimeter of area

Half-Wave Rectified AC

When a single-phase alternating current is rectified in the simplest manner, the reverse half of the
cycle is blocked out entirely. The result is a pulsating unidirectional current with intervals when no
current at all is flowing. This is often referred to as half-wave or as pulsating direct current

Hall Effect

Hall effect is the production of an e.m.f. in a conductor or semi-conductor through which a current is
flowing when there is a strong transverse magnetic field.

Head Shot

The clamping contacts on a stationary magnetizing unit.

Heads

A shot of magnetizing current passed through a part or a central conductor while clamped between
the head contacts of a stationary magnetizing unit, for the purpose of circular magnetization of the
part is called a head shot. Duration of the passage of the current is usually less than one second.

Henry
A unit of electric inductance. It is the inductance of a closed circuit in which an electromotive force of
one volt is produced when the electric current in the circuit varies uniformly at a rate of one ampere
per second.

Horse-Shoe Magnet

A bar magnet, bent into the shape of a horse-shoe so that the two poles are adjacent. Usually the
term applies to a permanent magnet.

Hysteresis Loop

When a material is magnetized by an outside supplied field which is alternating in direction, the graph
of the induced field when taken to saturation in both directions forms a symmetric loop. The loop is
called a hysteresis loop.

Impedance

This term is used to refer to the total opposition to the flow of current represented by the combined
effect of resistance, inductance and capacitance of a circuit.

Indication (Magnetic)

This term refers to any magnetically held magnet particle pattern on the surface of a part being tested.

Induced Current Magnetization

Passing an alternating current through a conductor will set up a fluctuating magnetic field. If a second
conductor in the form of a closed loop is placed in this field, the action of the fluctuating field moving
across the conductor will set up a second alternating current of the same frequency. This is an
induced current.

Inductance

When the current in a circuit is varied, the change in the magnetic field surrounding the conductor
generates an electromotive force (voltage) in the circuit itself. If another circuit is adjacent to the first
the change in the magnetic field of the first will generate an electromotive force in the second. The
phenomenon is known as inductance - either self-inductance or mutual inductance.

Induction

Magnetic induction is the magnetism induced in a ferromagnetic body by some outside magnetizing
force.

Inductive Reactance

This is the opposition, independent of resistance, of a coil to the flow of an alternating current.

Interpretation

The process of judging from an indication of a discontinuity what the cause of the Indication and the
nature of the discontinuity actually are.

Leakage Field

This is the field forced out into the air by the distortion of the field within a part caused by the
presence of a discontinuity.

Lines of Force = lines of flux

The lines that can be produced by a permanent magnet or a conductor carrying electric current by the
use of a sheet of paper and iron filings are called magnetic lines of force. These lines are imaginary
lines, but the concept is convenient for describing a magnetic field. A magnetic field has an intensity
of so many lines per square inch. These lines have a definite direction and always form closed loops
and return back onto themselves.

Longitudinal Magnetization

Magnetization of a material in such a way that the magnetic flux runs substantially parallel to the long
axis of the part, the flux path completing itself through the air outside the material, is called
longitudinal magnetization. It is sometimes called bi-polar magnetization, because at least two
external poles exist in longitudinal magnetization.

The longitudinal magnetization afforded by yokes and coils, although it may not be adequate to
provide 100% coverage, has the advantage over circular magnetization by contacts in that risk of
damage due to arcing is eliminated. It has been noted that some sensitivity to defects that are not
quite perpendicular to the applied field is possible; however, as the angle increases sensitivity
decreases and even using two magnetizations at right angles to each other may not provide adequate
sensitivity to some defects. To overcome this shortcoming a magnetizing method was developed to
permit field orientations in all directions and thereby ensure equal sensitivity to discontinuities of any
orientation. The method is known as multidirectional magnetization or the swinging field method.

Loop

This term refers to a single turn of wire or cable used to carry electric current. It is used for
magnetizing and demagnetizing purposes.

Magnet

Materials that show the power to attract iron and other substances to themselves, and that exhibit
polarity, are called magnets.

Magnetic Dipoles

A bar divided to the limiting case of finite magnetic moment is a magnetic dipole. Any magnet can
then, as far as its external field is concerned, be considered as being made up of a number of dipoles.

Magnetic Discontinuity

This refers to a break in the magnetic uniformity of the part - a sudden change in permeability. A
magnetic discontinuity may not be related to any actual physical break in the metal, but it may
produce a magnetic particle indication.

Magnetic Field

The space around a magnet within which ferromagnetic materials are attracted is called a magnetic
field.

Magnetic Flux

The total number of magnetic lines existing in a magnetic circuit is called magnetic flux.

Magnetic Force

In magnetic particle inspection the magnetizing force is considered to be the total force tending to set
up a flux in a magnetic circuit. It is usually designated by letter H.

Magnetic Intensity

The magnetic moment per unit volume; also referred to as simply the magnetism. Also, the pole
strength per area of cross-section. Units are ergs/oersted cm.
Magnetic Loop

If a conductor carrying an electric current is bent in a loop, the magnetic lines of force enter on one
side of the loop and leave at the other, and the space within the loop is found to contain a magnetic
field which has very definite directional properties. Polarity is created within the coil with one end
being a north pole and the opposite end a south pole. The space enclosed by the loop is longitudinally
magnetized.

Magnetic Materials

Materials are affected by magnets in two general ways. Some of them are attracted by a magnetic,
while others exert a repellent force. The first is called paramagnetic and the latter diamagnetic. In
magnetic particle inspection we are not ordinarily concerned with either of the two classes, but with
what may be termed a subdivision of the first class called ferromagnetic materials.

Magnetic Moment

If a magnet with poles of strength p located near each end and separated by distance is put into a
uniform field H at an angle of 90 degrees, the magnet will tend to turn parallel to the field. When H =
1 oersted and the angle is 90 degrees, the magnetic moment is given by m = p.

Magnetic Poles

The ability of a magnet to attract or repel is not uniform over its surface, but is concentrated at local
areas called poles. Each magnet has at least two poles, one the north pole of the magnet, and the
other which is attracted by the earths South Pole and is called the south pole of the magnet.

Magnetic Writing

False indication formed by magnetic particles where local poles have been formed as a result of two
pieces of steel coming into contact with each other when either are in a permanently magnetized
condition but not to the same degree.

Magnetically Hard Alloy

A ferromagnetic alloy capable of being magnetized permanently because of its ability to retain induced
magnetization and magnetic poles after removal of externally applied fields; an alloy with high
coercive force. The name is based on the fact that the quality of the early permanent magnets was
related to their hardness.

Magnetically Soft Alloy

A ferromagnetic alloy that becomes magnetized readily upon application of a field and that returns to
practically a nonmagnetic condition when the field is removed; an alloy with the properties of high
magnetic permeability, low coercive force and low magnetic hysteresis loss.

Magnetism

Magnetism is a property of matter. The ability of matter to attract other matter to itself is called
magnetism.

Magnetizing Force

For the purpose of this discussion, magnetizing force is considered to be the total force tending to set
up a magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit. It is usually designated by the letter H and the unit is the
Oersted.

Illustrations:
Magnetograph

A magnetograph is a picture of a magnetic field made by the use of iron powder under conditions that
allow it to arrange itself into the pattern of the field.

Illustrations:

Multi-directional Magnetization

Multi-Directional Magnetization
Two separate fields, having different directions, cannot exist in a part at the same time. But two or
more fields in different directions can be imposed upon a part sequentially in rapid succession. When
this is done magnetic particle indications are formed when discontinuities are located favourably with
respect to the directions of each of the fields, and will persist as long as the rapid alternations of field
direction continue. This, in effect, does constitute two or more fields in different directions at the same
time, and enables the detection of defects oriented in any direction in one operation.

Multidirectional methods can provide reduced inspection times, improved sensitivity and simple quick
demagnetiztions. However, since the field is constantly changing the field direction that is optimum for
a particular orientation of defect is there only momentarily. This requires the inspection medium
(particles) to be applied constantly during magnetization. This means observation must be continuous
as well since the indication formed will not have the magnetizing force fixed to hold the particles in
place. The fluid bath used to apply the particles could wash the indication away.

Nonrelevant Indications

These are true indications produced by leakage fields. However, the conditions causing them are
present by design or accident, or other features of the part having no relation to the damaging flaws
being sought. The term signifies that such an indication has no relation to discontinuities that might
constitute defects.

Oersted

A unit of field strength which produces magnetic induction, designated by the letter "H". The Oersted
and the Gauss are numerically equal in air or in a vacuum. Oersted (H) refers to the magnetizing force
tending to magnetize an unmangetized body, and Gauss refers to the field (B) so induced in the body.

Ohm

The ohm is the unit of electrical resistance. It is the value of a resistance that will pass one ampere of
current at a potential of one volt.

Overall Magnetization

A method of magnetizing very large castings using elaborate electrical equipment. Equipment uses
very high amperage (20,000 amps. typically), high duty cycle, three phase full wave rectified AC.
Fields applied are multidirectional, and expendable fluorescent particles are used.

Paramagnetic

All materials are affected by magnetic fields. Those which are attracted are called Paramagnetic.
Those which are repelled are called Diamagnetic. The reaction to a magnetic field of these two
classes of substances is very slight indeed. The few materials that are strongly attracted by magnetic
fields are called ferromagnetic.

Permanent Magnets

A body which possesses the ability to retain or hold a large amount of the applied magnet field after
the active power of the field is removed.

Permeability (Magnetic)

The ease with which a magnetic field or flux can be set up in a magnetic circuit. It is not a constant
value for a given material, but is a ratio. At any given value of magnetizing force, permeability is B/H
the ratio of flux density. B, to magnetizing force H.

Illustrations:
 Prods

Prods

Two hand-held electrodes which are pressed against the surface of a part to make contact for passing
magnetizing current through the metal. The current passing between the two contacts creates a field
suitable for finding defects with magnetic particles.

If a part is too large to put onto a bench testing unit, then local magnetization can be done. One
method of such local magnetization is by use of prods. These are usually copper posts on the ends of
the conductors from the magnetic particle machine. The hand held prods are held against the test
piece as shown in Figure 4-4 and a circular field results with the current applied.

Discontinuities parallel to the line between the prods are made visible by the magnetic particles. This
has long been a useful technique in MPI. It is readily portable and therefore convenient for field use.
The sensitivity to subsurface defects is greater with this method than any other especially when using
half wave rectified current.

There are, of course, disadvantages to the prod technique as well. First, only small sections can be
tested at a time, typically only 30cm or smaller spacing can be used. This small spacing is needed
since the useful field is restricted to the area nearest the prod contact points. Another limitation is the
magnetic field associated with the prods themselves. This can interfere with the magnetic field formed
in the part. Thirdly, as with the direct method in the bench type apparatus, there is always a problem
with arcing due to the high resistance at the contact points. Burning is an especially high concern in
high carbon content parts.

All such contact methods, because they do risk arcing, have switches built into them to turn the
magnetizing current on and off. This allows the operator to ensure good contact is made prior to
applying the current.

Quantum

If the magnitude of a quantity is always an integral multiple of a definite unit, then that unit is called
the quantum of the quantity. The photon is a quantum of the electromagnetic field and the meson is
considered to be the quantum of the nuclear field.

Rectifier

A tube or circuit capable of converting the high voltage alternating wave form into a usable
unidirectional voltage wave form.

Reluctance

Reluctance refers to the degree of difficulty or resistance of a material to magnetize.

Residual Field

This is the field left in a piece of ferromagnetic material when the magnetizing force is reduced to zero.

Residual Method
Bath is applied after current has been shut off; that is, the indicating particles are on the part when
residual (remaining) magnetic field is present.

Resistance

Resistance is the opposition to the flow of an electrical current through a conductor. Its unit is the
ohm.

Resultant Field

When two or more magnetizing forces operating in different directions are simultaneously applied to a
ferromagnetic material, a resultant field is produced, having a direction which is determined by the
relative strengths and directions of the applied magnetizing forces. Such a field is also referred to as a
vector field. If either or both of the applied magnetizing forces are themselves varying in direction or
amount, the resultant field is moving or swinging in direction and strength. Such a moving resultant
field is sometimes referred to as a "swinging field".

Retentivity

Retentivity is the property of a given material of retaining, to a greater or lesser degree, some amount
of residual magnetism.

RMS Value of Current

Root mean square or square root of the mean square value. For alternating current single phase, this
works out to be 0.707 of the peak value. It can also apply to voltage.

Saturation

This term refers to that degree of magnetization where a further increase in H produces no further
increase in the field in a given material other than is produced in air. This is point "a" on the
hysteresis curve.

Seeability

The characteristic of an indication that enables an observer to see it against the adverse conditions of
background, outside light, etc.

Sensitivity

The smallest quantitative increment detectable in using a measuring instrument.

Skin Effect

An important feature of alternating current is the skin effect. This is explained by Lenzs Law which
states when an EMF is induced in a conductor by any change in the relation between the conductor
and the magnetic field, the direction of the EMF is such as to produce a current whose magnetic field
will oppose the change. This principle is commonly applied to eddy current testing but it has direct
implications to MPI using AC. The alternating current generates a magnetic field inducing a field within
a test piece. The current produced an opposition to its flow because the EMF associated with the
induced current opposes the applied field.

Standard depth of penetration is the depth at which the eddy current density is 37% of the surface
density. This is also called the skin depth.

The result of the skin effect is to concentrate magnetizing flux at the surface of the test piece. From
the equation it can be seen that skin depth increases as frequency decreases. In fact, when f=0, as in
true DC, the skin depth is infinite. More appropriately it indicates a fairly even distribution through the
part thickness when using DC. Even at 60Hz, penetration is not great due to the permeability of the
materials tested. Steel has typically r = 100 resulting in a skin depth of only 2 to 3mm.

Solenoid
A solenoid is a coil consisting of a number of loops of wire or cable to carry electric current. It may be
used for both magnetizing and demagnetizing purposes.

Surge Magnetism

During a continuously applied current flow of lower current, a very brief surge of much higher current
is allowed to flow. The current is then reduced to the lower steady value. This establishes a higher flux
at the "steady level" than possible without the surge.

Susceptibility

The ratio of the intensity of magnetism, M to the applied field, H. Symbol K (Greek Kappa). K = M/H.

Suspensoid

A liquid in which particles are suspended.

Swinging Field Magnetization

Special equipment allows two or more currents in different directions to be applied simultaneously.
This permits locating discontinuities in more than one direction and shortens inspection time.

Temporary Magnets

A body of normally a soft steel or piece of iron which is readily magnetized but retains only a very
small field after the active power of the external magnetic field is removed.

Tesla

MKSA form of magnetic flux density. 1 Tesla = 1 Weber per square metre = 10 Gauss (see table on
units and conversions, chapter 2 Figure 2-6).

Timed Shot Technique

Some rectifying systems tend to overheat with continued use. A unit equipped with timed shot
capabilities stops the magnetizing current after a predetermined duration while the start button is
depressed. This regulates the duty cycle and prevents overheating.

Transient Currents

These currents are of short duration, generated by sudden changes in the electrical or magnetic
conditions existing in an electrical or magnetic circuit.

Resultant Field

When two or more magnetizing forces operating in different directions are simultaneously applied to a
ferromagnetic material, a resultant field is produced, having a direction which is determined by the
relative strengths and directions of the applied magnetizing forces. Such a field is also referred to as a
vector field. If either or both of the applied magnetizing forces are themselves varying in direction or
amount, the resultant field is moving or swinging in direction and strength. Such a moving resultant
field is sometimes referred to as a "swinging field".

Volt

The volt is the unit of electromotive force which tends to cause an electric current to flow through a
conductor.

Weber
MKSA unit for magnetic flux.

Illustrations:

Permanent Magnets

Yokes and Coils for Longitudinal Magnetization

Yoke

Optical Holography for Surface Deformations

A magnet that induces a magnetic field in the area of a part that lies between the poles. Yokes may be
permanent magnets or electromagnets.

Permanent Magnet Yoke - A body which possesses the ability to retain or hold a large
amount of the applied magnet field after the active power of the field is removed.

The great advantage of magnetization using permanent magnets for MPI is the portability they allow.
No source of electricity is needed and they are relatively light and compact. Apart from this
permanent magnets have little to offer as an MPI magnetizing method. Permanent magnets can be
used as single poles or as pairs (a north and south pole) in the form of a horseshoe magnet or two bar
magnets arranged with a fixed spacing. In this form they are the permanent magnet yoke. Fields used
when employing permanent magnet yokes are essentially only longitudinal in nature. The piece
magnetized is given north and south poles at the points of contact on the test piece. Inspection at the
points of contact is not possible due to the confusing mass of particles that gather at the poles.

Figure 1 shows permanent magnets and their associated fields contacting only one pole to the test
piece. It is also shown the more common use of the yoke arrangement in that both a north and a
south pole are made to contact the piece. Its somewhat easier in this method to arrange the field such
that suspected defects are orientated at right angles to the field.
Other limitations to permanent magnets include; the inability to vary the field strength at will, large
areas cannot be magnetized with sufficient field strength to locate indications and removal of the
magnet from the part is difficult if the magnet is very strong.

Electromagnetic (EM) yokes, the same shape as the permanent magnet yokes, can
also be used. These are U-shaped cores of soft iron, usually laminated, with a coil wound around the
base of the U. When we pass an electric current through the coil the result is a north and south pole
at the ends of the core. This makes it look like a horseshoe magnet. Direct current yokes have some
advantages over the permanent magnet yokes. It is possible to vary field strength using varying
current and the EM yoke is also easy to place onto and remove from the part as no field exists until
current is applied.

Operation of the EM yoke and of the coil method of longitudinal magnetization utilize the field that
results in a solenoid. In the EM yoke the field is concentrated and directed by the laminated steel core
which extends to form legs (often flexible). Coil magnetization is performed using fixed coils having
the conductors housed in a holder. Often coils are made without the convenience of a fixed support by
merely wrapping the cables around the test piece. This is usually done for larger or irregular shaped
parts.

Unlike permanent magnets, yoke and coil magnetizations can be varied in strength (as well as
switched off and on). Sensitivity of the test relies not only on the amount of current and number of
turns, but also on the ratio of the test part cross-sectional area to the coil area where the part is
placed into the coil. The ratio is called the fill factor and it is recommended that the fill factor not
exceed 10%.When using coils another consideration is length of coil with respect to the part length.

When testing a part, only a single orientation of defect may be expected, however other orientations
might occur. An effective MPI test usually involves tests in more than one direction. Weld inspections
using yokes are usually done using an "X" pattern thereby inducing longitudinal magnetizations in 2
directions at right angles to each other.

Illustrations:

________________________________________

Optical Holography for Surface Deformations

Further Information:

Introduction to Optical Holographic NDT

Optical Holographic techniques can be used for nondestructive testing of materials (HNDT). Non-
optical Holography techniques include Acoustical, Microwave, X-Ray and Electron beam Holography.
HNDT essentially measures deformations on the surface of the object. However, there is sufficient
sensitivity to detect sub- surface and internal defects in metallic and composite specimens.

In HNDT techniques, the test sample is interferometrically compared with the sample after it has been
stressed (loaded). A flaw can be detected if by stressing the object it creates an anomalous
deformation of the surface around the flaw.

Optical holography is an imaging method, which records the amplitude and phase of light reflected
from an object as an interferometric pattern on film. It thus allows reconstruction of the full 3-D
image of the object. In HNDT, the test sample is interferometrically compared in two different
stressed states. Stressing can be mechanical, thermal, vibration etc. The resulting interference
pattern contours the deformation undergone by the specimen in between the two recordings. Surface
as well as sub-surface defects show distortions in the otherwise uniform pattern. In addition, the
characteristics of the component, such as vibration modes, mechanical properties, residual stress etc.
can be identified through holographic inspection. Applications in fluid mechanics and gas dynamics
also abound.

The light used to illuminate the surface of the specimen must be coherent, which means that it must
also be monochromatic, and the only practical source is a laser. Each type of laser emits a
characteristic wavelength, e.g. a helium-neon laser emits 632.8nm; a ruby laser emits 694.3nm.
Laser diodes are nowadays an exciting and compact alternative. Indeed, holography using laser
pointers have also been demonstrated.

High-resolution films are another necessity for holography. With the advent of CCD and digital image
processing, digital holographic interferometry offers tremendous flexibility and real-time visualization.
Furthermore, image-processing schemes can provide computerised analysis of patterns for automated
defect detection and analysis.

Finally since intricate interferometric patterns have to be recorded, vibration isolation is also required.
Novel schemes have been proposed, including use of pulsed lasers to record holograms in factory
environments.

Advances and developments in lasers, computers, and recording materials introduce new techniques
such as electronic (or TV) holography, multi-wavelength recording, thermoplastic medium, time-
averaged holography, dynamic holographic interferometry, cineholography, and digital holography
with each new development. Methods that once held only academic interest often become practically
viable with these developments in hardware and software.

HNDT is widely applied in aerospace to find impact damage, corrosion, delamination, debonds, and
cracks in high performance composite aircraft parts as well as turbine blades, solid propellant rocket
motor casings, tyres and air foils. But Holography is also finding new applications in commercial and
defense related industries to investigate and test object ranging from microscopic computer chips and
circuits to cultural articles, paintings and restoration.