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CONCEPTS OF ECONOMICS
1.1 ECONOMICS
Economics is a social science which studies how human beings make choices to use scarce resources to satisfy
their unlimited wants.
The term 'Economies' in English language has its origin in two Greek words: Olkos (household) and Ncmcln
(management). Thus, they "mean "management of household'. Wants of each household are unlimited but most
of the means to satisfy them, like food, cloth etc. are limited or scarce. Thus, faced with scarcity, people while
managing the household must make choice. People can not have everything that they want, so they have to
choose among the available alternatives. Because scarcity forces people to choose, economics is sometimes
called the science of choice - the science- that explains the choices that people make and predicts how changes
in elreumstances affect their choices.
Economics is the study of how human beings make choices to allocate scarce resources to tatlufy their
unlimited wants. In such a manner that consumers can maximise their satisfaction, producers can
maximise their profits and the society can maximise its social welfare.
Economists at different times have emphasised different aspects of economic activities, and have arrived at
different definitions of Economics. We shall now discuss some of these definitions in detail.
These definitions can be classified into four groups:
1. Wealth definitions,
2. Material welfare definitions,
3. Scarcity definitions, and
4. Growth-oentered definitions.
1.6 SCARCITY
Because resources are scarce and have alternative uses, we must confront the problem of choice. The scope of
economics entails the identification of basic economic problems before any society and find out different
possible ways to solve those problems.
The very important question that any economic system must answer is: What goods and services are to be
produced in a society and in what quantities?
This question arises from the fact that human wants are unlimited, while resources are limited. The satisfaction
of human wants requires the consumption of goods and services. Human beings, therefore, wish to consume
goods and services. But, since resources are limited, the economic system cannot produce all types of goods and
services. Even any particular good or service cannot be produced in an infinitely large quantity. Only finite
amounts of a limited number of goods and services can be produced. Therefore, there arises this decision
problem. The economy must decide which goods and services to produce and which goods and services to
exclude from production.
The economy must choose its production plan carefully. Everything cannot be produced and even
those things which are produced cannot be produced in unlimited quantities.
The second basic problem that every economy must solve is that of deciding how to produce the goods and
services (that the economy has decided to produce). A particular quantity of a particular good or service can be
produced in many different ways. The economy must choose a particular way of producing the specified
amount of the good. Moreover, this must be done for each of the different goods and services that the economy
wants to produce.
1.9.1 Choice of Techniques
In the language of the economists, a particular way of producing a particular good or service (or a set of goods
and services) is called a technique of production. For instance , in some cases, a particular amount of a
6 PAPER 1: PRINCIPLES OF ECONOMICS AND BANGLADESH ECONOMY
particular good can be produced by different combinations of inputs. Thus, it may be that 10 tons of wheat can
be produced either on 2 hectares of land by 5 agricultural workeTk. or on 4 hectares of land by 2 workeTk.
Here, there are two techniques for producing 10 tons of wheat: (2 hectares of land, 5 workeTk.) and (4 hectares
of land, 2 workeTk.). An economy which has decided to produce 10 tons of wheat must choose between these
two techniques. There is a similar problem for every good (or every set of goods). Therefore, the question how
to produce is also known as the problem of choice of techniques.
Opportunity Cost is the cost of choosing one opportunity in terms of the loss of next-best opportunity.
Opportunity Cost is the highest valued alternative foregone in the pursuit of an activity Opportunity cost is a
one of the most fundamental concepts used in the study of economics. An opoortunity cost can be either
explicit, usually involving a monetary payment, or implicit, which does not involve a transaction. Opportunity
cost is also commonly terned economic cost.
Illustration: Using a given piece of land (and other inputs), you may have the following opportunities (or
possibilities) of production:
Opportunity 1: 10 ton of rice (worth Tk. 10.000)
Opportunity 2: 12 ton of wheat (worth Tk. 12.000)
Opportunity 3: 25 ton of sugarcane (worth Tk. 15.000)
Opportunity 4: 05 ton of peanuts (worth Tk. 20.000)
Being a rational producer (aiming at maximisation of returns), you will choose opportunity 4, using land (and
other inputs) for the production of peanuts worth Tk. 20,000. Choice of opportunity 4 causes loss of
opportunities 1,2, and 3. So obvious, because with the given resources only one opportunity can be availed, not
more. Opportunity 3 (offering 25 ton of sugarcane worth Tk. 15,000) is the 2nd best, also called next best
opportunity. Comparing opportunity 4 with opportunity 3 we find that loss of 25 ton sugarcane (worth Tk.
15,000) is the maximum loss that you are suffering when you are choosing opportunity 4 (which happens to be
the best opportunity). This maximum loss of 25 ton sugarcane (worth Tk. 15,000) is the opportunity cost of
using land (and other given inputs) for the production of peanuts.
PPC (Production possibility curve) is a curve showing different possibilities (or different combinations) of
production of a set of two goods with the given resources and given technology. Resources have alternative
uses, we know that. Accordingly, a piece of land (alongwiih other inputs) may be used for the production of
wheat and/or rice. If the farmer decides to produce both wheat and rice, he may think of various possible
Module A: Concepts of Economics and Demand Supply Analysis 7
combinations of wheat and rice. More of wheat would obviously imply less of rice (and vice versa) because
resources are given and technology is constant. Production possibility curve in such a case is graphic
description of all the possible combinations of wheat and rice which are technically possible with the given
resources and technology.
Illustration
Suppose an economy decides to produce only two goods, namely wheat and cloth, with its available
resources. If all the resources arc used for the production of wheat alone then 100 lakh ton of wheat can be
produced. On the contrary, if all the factors of production are used for the production of cloth alone then 4,000
bales of cloth can be produced. If the economy produces both the goods, then within these limits, various
combinations of two goods can be produced. Table 1 shows different possibilities of production of wheat and
cloth. It is called production possibility schedule.
Table I. Production Possibility Schedule
Goods Production Possibilites
Wheat (Lakh ion) A B C D E
100 90 70 40 0
Cloih ('000 bales) 0 1 2 3 4
The above schedule shows that if production is carried out under 'A' combination, then 100 lakh ton of wheat
alone will be produced without any production of cloth. On the contrary, if production is obtained under 'E'
combination then 4,000 bales of cloth alone will be produced without any production of wheat. Besides these
extreme limits, there are many alternative possibilities of production of wheat and cloth. For instance, under 'B'
combination it is 90 lakh Ion of wheat and 1,000 bales of cloth; under 'C combination it is 70 lakh ton of wheat
and 2,000 bales of cloth and under 'D' combination it is 40 lakh ton of wheat and 3,000 bales of cloth.
Representing these various production possibilities on a graph, we get production possibilities curve as in fig. I.
Fig. 1
In fig. 1 the quantity of cloth is represented on OX-axis (Horizontal Axis) and wheat on (Vertical Axis). The
first production possibility is 100 lakh ton of wheat and no cloth. This is marked as A in Fig. 1. Similarly points
B, C and D represent different combinations of wheat and cloth. Point E represents production possibility of
4000 bales of cloth and no wheat. By combining all these points we get the curve in a row AE. II Is the
production possibility or transformation curve.
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Points b and c on the Production Possibility Boundary show a situation of efficient utilisation of resources. If an
economy wants to move from point b to point c, it could increase its production of good-X by ac, only by
sacrificing the output of good-Y by ab. Likewise; movement from c to 6 would mean increase in output of
good-Y by ab but not without a simultaneous decrease in output of good-X by ac.
Point a in the figure shows a situation of inefficient utilisation of resources. How? Because moving from point
a to point c, you ate able to increase the output of good-X by ac without decreasing the output of good-Y.
Likewise moving from point a to point 6, you arc able to increase the output of good-Y by ab without
decreasing the output of good-X. In other words, resources must be inefficiently utilised if output of one good
can be increased without decreasing output of the other good.
Fig. 4
Shaded area in Fig. 4 shows additional attainable combination after the growth of resources, or after production-
capacity enhancement.
Fig. 5
Increased productivity of agriculture makes it possible to increase the output of wheat, releasing some resources
from farming which can be employed to raise the output of cloth.
Fig. 6
cd Y
Slope of PPC at point c in Fig. 6 is the ratio when some resources are shifted from the de AX
de X
production of good-Y to good-X. This is exactly what marginal opportunity cost means. It is the loss of output
of good-Y when resources arc shifted from good-Y to the production of one additional unit of good-X.
Marginal Opportunity Cost refers to the loss of output of good-Y when some resources are withdrawn from the
Y
production of good-Y to produce one more unit of good-X. Marginal Opportunity Cost =Slope of PPC.
X
1.12.6 Marginal Opportunity Cost tends to Rise
When resources are continuously withdrawn from (he production of good-Y to produce more and more of good-
X, loss of output of good-Y, for every additional unit of good-X tends to increase. Implying
Y
that the ratio tends to rise as resources are shifted AX from Y to X. Rising marginal opportunity cost
X
Y
implies AX increasing slope of PPC. Accordingly, PPC is always concave to the origin.
X
It simply means pursuit of self-interest If there is no interference or no command by the government, every
individual in the economy would be guided by self-interest. For the producers it means maximisation of
revenue, minimisation of cost and therefore, maximisation of profits. For the consumer it means maximisation
of satisfaction from the basket of goods and services that he chooses to buy with his given income.
Pursuit of Self-interest (or Hidden Hand) Automatically Solves the Problems of What, How and For
Whom to Produce
In pursuit of self-interest price mechanism would work as the guiding principle.What to produce? Obviously,
the producers would allocate their resources to the production of those goods in case of which prices have the
tendency to rise (following the pressure of demand). This would mean maximisation of profits.
1.14.1 Microeconomics
Microeconomics is that branch of economics which is concerned with the decision-making of a single unit of an
economic system. How does an individual (or a family) decide on how much of various commodities and
services to consume? How does a business firm decide how much of its product (or products) to produce? These
are the typical questions discussed in microeconomics. Determination of income, employment, etc.
1.14.4 Macroeconomics
Macroeconomics is that branch of economics which is concerned with the economic magnitudes relating to the
economic system as a whole, rather than to the microeconomic units like individuals or firms. It has, therefore,
been called aggregative economics. In the picturesque language of Kenneth Boulding, Macroeconomics deals
... not with individual income but with national income, not with individual prices but with the price level, not
with individual outputs but with national output.
3. It deals with the process of price-determination in case 3. It deals with general price-level in any economy.
of individual products and factoTk. of production.
4. It is known as price theory (since it explains the 4. It is also known as the income theory (since it
process of allocation of economic resources along explains the changing levels of national income in any
alternative lines of production on the basis of relative economy during any particular time period.)
prices of various goods and services.)
5. It is concerned with the optimisation goals of 5. It is concerned with the optimisation of the growth
individual consumeTk. and produceTk. (e.g., individual process of the entire economy.
consumeTk. are uulity-maximiseTk. while individual
produceTk. are profit-maximiseTk.)
6. It studies the flow of economic resources or factoTk. 6. It studies the circular flow of income and expenditure
of production from any individual owner of such between different sectoTk. of the economy (say,
resources to any individual user of these resources, etc. between the firm sector and the household sector.)
8. It takes into account the aggregates over homogeneous 8. It takes into account the aggregates over
or similar products (e.g., the supply of steel in an heterogeneous or dissimilar products (say, the Gross
economy.) Domestic Product of any country during any year.)
Economic good
A good is said to be an economic good (also known as a scrace good) if the quantity of the good demanded
exceeds the quantity supplied at a zero price. In other words, a good is an economic good if people want of it
that would be available if the good were available for free.
Free good
Module A: Concepts of Economics and Demand Supply Analysis 15
Agoodissaidtobeafreegoodifthequantityofthegoodsuppliedexceedsthequantitydemandedatazero
price.Inotherwords,agoodisafreegoodifthereismorethanenoughavailableforeveryoneevenwhenthe
goodsisfree.Economicstsarguethattherearerelativelyfew,ifany,freegoods.
Economic bad
Anitemissaidtobeaneconomicbadifpeoplearewillingtopaytoavoidtheitem.Examplesofeconomic
badsincludethingslikegarbage,pollutionandilleness.
1.16 FACTORS OF PRODUCTION
Goodsthatareusedtoproduceothergoodsorservicesarecalledeconomicresources(andarealso
knownasinputsorfactorsofproduction).Theseresourcesareoftencategolizedintothefollowing
groups.
1.Land.
2.Labor.
3.Capitaland
4.Enterpreneurialability.
Thecategoryof"land"includesallnaturalresources.Thesenaturalresourcesincludethelanditself,
as well as any minerals, oil deposits, timber, or water that exists on or below the ground. This
categoryissometimesdescribedasincludingonlythe"freegiftsofnature,"thoseresourcesthatexist
independentofhumanaction.
Thelaborinputconsistsofthephysicalandintellectualservicesprovidedbyhumanbeings.The
resourcecalled"capital"consistsofthemachineryandequipmentusedtoproduceoutput.Notethat
theuseoftheterm"capital"differsfromtheeverydayuseofthisterm.Stocks,bonds,andother
financialassetsarenotcapitalunderthisdefinitionoftheterm.
Entrepreneurialabilityreferstotheabilitytoorganizeproductionandbearrisks.Yourtextdoes
nomnst this as a sparate resource, but insted considers it as a type of labor input. Most other
introductorytexts,though,listthisasaseparateresource.(No,yourtextisnotwrong,itjustusesa
differentwayofclassifyingresources.Ithinkit'sbetter,though,tostickwiththesomewhatmore
standardclassificationinthiscourse.)
Theresourcepaymentassociatedwitheachresourceislistedinthetablebelow.
EconomicResource ResourcePayment
land rent
labor wages
capital interest
1.17.1 Similarities
Some points of similarities are described as under:
16 PAPER 1: PRINCIPLES OF ECONOMICS AND BANGLADESH ECONOMY
1. Main Focus on Man: Marshall and Robbins both have given main focus on the study of mankind.
2. Rational Behaviour of Man: Both definitions are based on the assumption that man is rational. He tries to
miximise his satisfaction or welfare.
3. Wealth and Scarce Means: According to the Marshall's and Robbins' definitions wealth and scare means have
the same meaning though terminology is different. So both definitions are similar from this point of view.
4. Economics Is a Science: Both Marshal) and Robbins consider economics as a science. Marshal) gives its
name as normative science whereas Robbins considers economics as positive science.
1.17.2 Dissimilarities
Major difference between the definitions given by Marshall and Robbins are
as under
Marshall's Definition (Material Welfare) Robbins Definition (Scarce Means)
(1) Marshall has divided human activities in two parts: (1) Robbins has not made such a division between the
material and non-material. Economics studies only human activities. According to him. all activities
those material activities which enhance human dealing with the scarce means are the economic
welfare. activities.
(2) Economics is a social science. (2) Economics is a human science.
(3) Economics alms at increasing human welfare. (3) Economics does not deal with human welfare.
(4) Besides positive and normative science, economics (4) Economics is only a real science.
is also an art.
(5) The definition given by Marshall is simple and (5) The definition given by Robbins is difficult and
practical. Impractical.
(6) Marshall's definition is classificatory. (6) Robbins' definition is analytical.
(7) Marshall's definition is a narrow definition. Only (7) Robbins' definition is exhaustive. All sorts of
material goods have been studied in it meansmaterial and non-materialhave been studied
in it.
(8) It is not of universal character. (8) It is universal in nature as it is applicable to all
societies having limited means and unlimited wants.
Scarcity occurs where it's impossible to meet all unlimited the desires and needsof the peoples with limited
resources i.e; goods and services. Society must needto find a balance between sacrificing one resource and that
will result in gettingother.
Efficiency denotes the most effective use of a society's resources in satisfyingpeoples wants and needs. It means
that the economy's resources are being usedas effectively as possible to satisfy people's needs and desires.
Thus, the essence of economics is to acknowledge the reality of scarcity and thenfigure out how to organize
society in a way which produces the most efficient useof resources.
1.20 GOODS
1.20.1 Goods
Any thing that can satisfy a human want is called a "good" in economics, Goods may be commodity or services;
they satisfy human wants which are starting point of all economic activity. A physical, tangible item or product
used to satisfy wants and needs. A good is produced using society's resources and represents a fundamental
aspect of the economy. Limited resources are used to produce the goods that satisfy unlimited wants and needs
in an ongoing effort to address the the problem of scarcity.
As used in economics, the word "good" undobutedly can be traced to the more common usage--something that
is positive or beneficial. In that a "good" provides satisfaction and in so doing makes the consumer better off, it
is a "good" thing to have. In fact, an item that has a negative impact on satisfaction, such all pollution or crime,
is often referred to as a "bad". Goods include all those material as well as nonmaterial things which have utility.
Consumable item that is useful to people but scrace in relation to its demand, so that human effort is required to
obtaint it. So anything having the capacity to stisfy human wants may be termed as goods. Water, food, clothing,
shelter, chairs, surface of the earth are the example of material goods.
Competition in economics is rivalry in supplying or acquiring economic service or good. Sellers compete with
other sellers, and buyers with other buyers. In its perfect form, there is competition among many small buyers
and sellers, none of whom is to large to affect the market as a whole; in practice, competition is often reduced
by a great variety of limitations, including copyrighting, patents, and governmental regulation, such as fair trade
laws, minimum wage laws, and wage and price controls.
In general, the actions of two or more rivals are in pursuit of the smae obejective. In the context of markets, the
specific objective is either selling goods to buyers or alternatively buying goods from sellers. Competition tends
to come to come in two varieties--- competition among the few,which is market with a small number of sellers
(or buyers), such each seller (or buyer) has some degree of market control, and competition among the many,
which is a market with so many buyers and sellers that none is able to influecne the market price or quantity
exchanged.
Module A: Concepts of Economics and Demand Supply Analysis 19
1.22 UTILITY
Utility is usefulness, the ability of something to satisfy needs or wants. Utility is an important concept
in economics and game theory, because it represents satisfaction experienced by the consumer of a good. Not
coincidentally, a good is something that satisfies human wants and provides utility, for example, to
a consumer making a purchase. It was recognized that one can not directly measure benefit, satisfaction
or happiness from a good or service, so instead economists have devised ways of representing and measuring
utility in terms of economic choices that can be counted. Economists have attempted to perfect highly abstract
methods of comparing utilities by observing and calculating economic choices. In the simplest sense,
economists consider utility to be revealed in people's willingness to pay different amounts for different goods.
1.22 VALUE
Quite simply, this is the amount of consumer stisfaction directly or indirectly obtained form a good, service, or
resource.The more a good satisfies a person's want or need, then the more valuable it is to that person.
Furthermore, different people are likely to place different values on a good. Resources are valuable to the
degree taht they are used to produce stuff that consumers want. The botton line is that value, like beauty, is truly
in the eye of the beholder.
1.23 WEALTH
1.23.1 Wealth
Wealth is the net ownership of material possessions and productive resources. In other words, it is the difference
between pysical and financial assets that you own and the liabilities that you owe. Wealth includes all of the
tangible consummer stuff that you possess, like cars, houses, clothes, jewlry, etc, : any financil assets, like
stocks, bonds, bank accunts, that you lay claim to; and your ownership of resources, including labor, capital,
and natural resources. Of course, you must deduct any debts you owe.
All materal things are produced by labor for the satisfaction of human desies and having exchange value.
This means that wealth must have all of these characteristics :
Wealth is material. Human qualities such as skill and mental acumen are not material, hence cannot be
classffied as wealth.
Wealth is capable of satisfying human desire. Money is not wealth; it is a medium of exchange whereby wealth
can be acquired. Nor are shares of stock, bonds or other securities classifiable as wealth. They are but the
evidences of ownership. None of these satisfy desire directly; if they are destroyed, the sum total of wealth is
not decreased.
Wealth has exhange value.
20 PAPER 1: PRINCIPLES OF ECONOMICS AND BANGLADESH ECONOMY
1.24 WANTS
1.24.1 Wants
Man is a bundle of desires. His wants are infinite in variety and number. Some waants are natural, for example
foods, air, clothing and shelter with whcih existence of man's life is not possible, Simialarly wants vary from
individual to individual and they multiply with civilization.
National income (NI) is the total income eraned by the citizens of the national economy resulting fromn their
ownership of resources used in the production during a given period of time, usually one year.
Personal income (PI) is the total income received by the members of the domestic household sector, which or
may not be earned from productive activities during a given period of time.
1.27 SAVING
Saving is the after-tax disposable income of the household sector that is not used for consumption expenditures.
In general terms, saving is the use of income to purchase legal claims through financial markests rather than the
direct purchase of physical goods and services. In the macroeconomic world modeled by the circular flow,
saving is the diversion of household income away from consumption and into the financial markets. In this
model, saving is a priamry source of funds used for business investment expenditures for capital goods. Saving
is also used to finance government expenditures.
1.28 INVESTMENT
22 PAPER 1: PRINCIPLES OF ECONOMICS AND BANGLADESH ECONOMY
Investment is the sacrifice of current benfits or rewards to pursue an activity with expectations of greater furter
benefits or rewards. Investment is typically used to mean the purchase of capital by business in anticipation of
the profit. By increasing the quantity or quality oif resources, investment is a source of economic growth. While
investment, in priinciple is diverse, in practice, the official government measure, as reported by the Department
of Commerce, includes business' purchases of capital and consumer's purchases of new houses.dsddsdad
1.29 CONSUMPTION
The use of resorces, goods, or servisers to sastisfy wants and needs. At the macroeconomic level, consumption
is reflected as expenditures by the household sector on gross domestic prodcut. At the microeconomic level,
consumption is important to utility, demand, and market exchanges. Consumption is the ultimate goal of
economic activity.
Comsumption is the process in which people use goods or services to satisfy their wants and needs. It is
motvated by the unlimited wants and needs aspect of scarcity. A hungry person eats a club sandwich for lunch.
A cold person turns up the thermostat on the furnace. A board person watches television. A tired person spends
the night at a motel. Each is an act of consumption. Each act of consumption satisfies wants or needs.
Such consumption acts are important to microeconomics and especially market demand. The consumption of a
club sandwich to imcroeconomics and the purchase of a club sandwich, or at least the meat, bread, cheese, and
other ingredients needed for preparation. How much club sandwich consumpton occurs denpends on the
satisfaction obtained and the price paid.
Such acts are also important to macroeconomics. He much income the household sector devotes, in total, to the
purchase of goods, such as club sandwiches, used for consumption affects short-run business-cycle instabiltiy
and long-run economic grwth.
1.30 LAND
One of four basic categories of resources, or factors of production (the other three are labor, capital, and
entrepreneurship). This category includes the natural resources used to produce goods and services, including
the land itself the minerals and nutrients in the ground; the water, wildlife, and vegetation on the surface; and
the air above.
The naturally occurring resouces used in the production of goods and services, including the land itself, the
minerals and nutrients in the ground; the water, wildlife, and vegetation on the surface; and the air above. Land
also includes the productive dimensions of space and accessibility. This is one of four basic categories of
resources, or factors of prodduction. The other three are labor, capital, and entrepreneurship.
Land is, first and foremost, the souce of all materials used to produce tangible goods. This resource category
includes everything that is transformed by labor, capital, and entrepreneurship into more valuable goods.
Without land, there are no goods.
1.31 PRODUCTIVITY
In enonomics, a measure of productive efficiency calculated as the ratio of waht is produced to what is required
to produce it. Any of the tradional factors of production- land, labour, or capital-can be used as the denominator
of the ratio, though productivity to calculations are actully seldom made for land or capital since their capacity
is difficult to measure. Labour is in most cases easily qqantied -for exapmple, by counting workers engaged on
a particular product. In industrialized nations, the effects of increasing productivity are most apparent in the use
of labour. Productivity can be seen not only as a measure of effciency but also as an indicator ofeconomic
development. Prodductivity increases as a primitive extrative economy developmemt into to thechonologically
sphisticated one. The pattern of increase typically exhibits long term stability interrupted by sudden leaps that
represent major technolical advances. Productivity in Europe and the U.S. made great strides following the
development of such thechnologies as steam power, the railroad, and the gasoline motor. Later in the 20th
Module A: Concepts of Economics and Demand Supply Analysis 23
century, advances in productivity staemmed from a number of innovations, including assembly lines and
automation, computer-integrated manufactring, database management systems, just-in-time manufacturing, and
just-in time inventory mangement. Increases in productivity have tended to led to long-term increases in real
wages.
1.32 INPUT
The resources or factors of production used in the production of a firsm's output. This term is most firequently
associated with the analysis of short-run production, and is often modified by the terms fixed and variable, as in
fixed input and variable input. In the short run, th quantity of a fixed input can not be changed, meaning it can
not be used to expand output. In contrast, a variable input can be changed, making it THE means of expanding
output in the short run.
1.33 OUTPUT
Output is a generic term for a tangible good or an intangible service that is the end result of the
production/resource transformation process. This notion of output, which also goes by the alias product, usually
surfaces in the contex of analyzing the short-run production of a firm. The short-run relation between a variable
input and output is of particular interest because it revals the law of diminishing marginal returns. This law
indicates that additional quantities of a variable input, when added to a fixed input, have decresing marginal
products, or marginal returns.
Land actually has three productive dimensions. In addition to the naturally occuring materials, land also
provides spce and accessibility.
1. Materials: The obvious dimension of land is the provision of naturally occuriring materials, the materials
that provide the "substance" of tangible products. The materials needed to build a house, for example, include
lumber for the walls, asphalt shingles for the roof, plastic pipe for the plumbing, and copper wire for the
electrical system. All of these materials originate with the land--vegetation growing on the land, and minerals
found in the ground. No land, no raw materials, no goods.
2. Space: A second, not obvious, dimension of land in space. In other words, land provides a place to "put
things." Every THING needs to be some PLACE, with emphasis on the word PLACE. Land is the resource used
for this storage function. The spatial strage aspect of land is often augmented with capital (for exapmple, a
warehouse), but it begins with land. Land, for example, provides the space, the surface area, to construct a
house.
3. Accessiblility: The third, and also somewhat obscure, dimension of land is location or accesibility
Everythings is loacated relative to other things. Some are closer, some are father away. Closer locations require
fewer scace resouces (and thus incur less opportunity cost) for transportation. Because resources are used to
transport as well as to transform, accessibiliy and close location reduce the opportunity cost of transportation. A
house that is located closer to school, work, and shopping is usually preferred because transportation cost is
less.
24 PAPER 1: PRINCIPLES OF ECONOMICS AND BANGLADESH ECONOMY
EXERCISE-1
1. Define Economics.
2. What are the wealth definitions of Economics? What the main features of wealth definitions?
3. What is the material welfare definition of Economics? What the main features of material welfare
definitions?
4. What is the scarcity definition of Economics? What the main features of scarcity definitions?
5. What is the growth-oentered definition of Economics? What the main features of growth-oentered
definitions?
6. What is Scarcity?
7. Scarcity is a Relative Concept- Explain.
8. All Resources are not Equally Scarce all the Time- Explain.
9. Why Scarcity is a Problem?
10. Problem of Scarcity Causes the Problem of Choice- Explain.
11. What are the basic economic problem of a socity? What are the causes behind these economic problems?
12. What do you mean by opportunity cost?
13. What is production possibility curve(PPC)?
14. What do you mean by marginal opportunity cost?
15. What invisible hidden in economics?
16.BrieflyexplainthetwobranchesandmanyFieldsofEconomics.
17. Briefly mention the major features of these two branches to have an idea regarding the nature of economics.
18. Define Microeconomics.
19. What are the usefulness of Microeconomics?
20. What are the limitations of Microeconomics?
21. Define Macroeconomics
22. What are the usefulness of Macroeconomics?
23. What are the limitations of Macroeconomics?
24. Differenciate between Microeconomics and Macroeconomics?
25. What do you mean by economic good?
26. What do you mean by free good?
27. What do you mean by economic bad?
28. What are the factors of production?
29. Compare between Marshall's, and Robbins' definitions.
30. Define scarcity and efficiency.
31. Define Positive Economics and Normative Economics.
32. Define goods? How can we classify goods?
33. What do you mean by competition in economics?
34. What is Laissez Faire?
35. Define utility.
36. Definewealth. How can we classify wealth?
37. What is Wants? What are the characteristics of human wants? Classfyn of wants.
38. What is personal income (PI)?
Module A: Concepts of Economics and Demand Supply Analysis 25
39. What is disposable income (DI)?
40. What is national income (NI)?
41. what is personal income (PI) ?
42. Define Saving, Investment and Consumption.
43. What do you mean by Land? Brifly explain the productivity of land.
44. Define input and output?