Journal of Marine Engineering & Technology

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Matching propulsion engine with propulsor

D Stapersma & Hk Woud

To cite this article: D Stapersma & Hk Woud (2005) Matching propulsion engine with propulsor,
Journal of Marine Engineering & Technology, 4:2, 25-32

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/20464177.2005.11020189

Published online: 01 Dec 2014.

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Kleinwoud.qxd 4/11/05 3:48 pm Page 25

Matching propulsion engine with propulsor

Matching propulsion engine

with propulsor
D Stapersma, Professor of Platform Systems, MSc, CEng, FIMarEST and HK Woud, Professor
of Marine Engineering, MSc, FIMarEST, Delft University of Technology

The basic matching problem of a propulsion engine to the propulsor is discussed and
the influences which should be taken into account. The concepts of sea margin, engine
margin and light running margin are handled and an indication of their values is given.
The methods of calculation to evaluate design and off design conditions are discussed.
Key words: matching, propulsion, engine, propulsor, sea margin, engine margin, light run-
ning margin, off-design conditions.

INTRODUCTION

W
ith the design of a ships propulsion system
the correct matching of the prime mover(s) to
the propulsor(s) and the ship is of great impor-
tance. In case the matching problem is not
solved adequately the ship may have problems with regard to
overloading prime movers, attainable speeds in off design
conditions and an excessive fuel consumption.
The propulsion system should not only operate satisfacto-
rily in the design condition of the ship, but also in off-design
situations, which the ship might encounter. Relevant off-
design situations may involve: variation of ship displace-
ment, increased resistance due to seaway, the influence of the
number of driving engines and active propulsors and of a
shaft generator. The methods described in this paper are
extensively discussed.1

AUTHORS BIOGRAPHIES BASICS

J Klein Woud graduated in 1966 as a mechanical engineer at Delft
University of Technology, with specialisation in internal combus-
tion (diesel) engines.After military service in 1968 he joined Stork
Werkspoor Diesel where he worked as application engineer for
marine diesel engines. During 1970-1986 he worked for the naval
design office, Nevesbu, The Hague, where he was involved with
the design and engineering of frigates, submarines and patrol craft
and their machinery systems. In October 1986 he was appointed
professor of marine engineering at Delft University of Technology.
He lectures on marine engineering systems and conducts
research with regard to condition monitoring, maintenance and
design techniques. During January 1995-June 1998 he was dean
of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Marine Technology.
Since 2000 he is the Director of Education for Mechanical
Engineering and Marine Technology.
Douwe Stapersma graduated at Delft Technical University in the
field of gas turbines, joined Nevesbu in 1973 and was involved in
the design and engineering of the machinery installation of the
Standard frigate. After that he coordinated the integration of the
automatic propulsion control system for a class of export
corvettes. From 1980 onward he was responsible for the design
and engineering of the machinery installation of the Walrus class
submarines and in particular the machinery automation. Then he
was in charge of the design of the Moray class submarines in a joint
project organisation with RDM. Nowadays the author is professor
of Naval Engineering at the Royal Netherlands Naval College and
Marine Diesel Engines at Delft Technical University. He is the co-
author of the book Design of propulsion and electric power gen-
eration systems which is a standard text in marine engineering.
Resistance and propulsion
Often for a ship hull a square resistance curve is assumed
(R=c1.vs2, which implies a cubic power/ship speed relation
PE=R.vs=c1.vs3. R is the towing resistance of the hull, vs is the
ship speed). In reality the factor c1 is not constant.
The effective towing power can also be written as:
1 2
PE = CE 3 3 vS 3 , (1)
which shows the primary dependency on displacement .
The specific resistance CE is depending on speed, hull form,
fouling, sea state and water depth. Fig 1 shows some typical
examples of resistance curves. A square curve (1) may be
valid for Froude numbers of 0.1 0.2. For higher Froude
numbers the resistance may change with speed more rapidly
as indicated by curve (2). High speed craft like planing ships
may have curves like (3).
The ship is propelled by a machinery plant which deliv-
ers a total power PD to the propulsors.
The total propulsive efficiency is now defined as:
def PE
D = where PD=kp.Pp. where kp is the number of
PD
,
propellers and Pp the delivered power to one propeller.
The propulsive efficiency can be expressed in hull effi-
ciency H, propeller open water efficiency O and relative
rotative efficiency R:
D = H O R

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Matching propulsion engine with propulsor

R 3
def PO Q
R = = (4)
Pp M p

0.8
Square curve 0.7
1 0.6 10 KQ
resistance curve
O
with higher powers 0.5 O
10 KQ KT
2 0.4
KT
0.3
0.2
0.1
V 0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Fig 1: Different types of hull resistance characteristics Advance ratio J

Propulsor/hull interaction Fig 2: Example of screw propeller open water diagram

The propulsor delivers a thrust power PT =T.vA, where T is
delivered thrust (of one propeller) at a velocity of advance vA.
The relation between effective towing power and thrust
power is given by the hull efficiency
H = PE/(kp.PT) = R.vs/(kp.T.vA)
1 t
which proves to be equivalent with H = 1 w .
This follows from the definitions of thrust deduction t and
wake fraction w:
In case screw type propellers are used, the non-dimension-
al open water diagram (Fig 2) will be used. It gives the relation
between torque, thrust, ship speed and propeller speed.
Thrust and torque are made non-dimensional with pro-
peller speed np, diameter D and sea water density .
T
Thrust coefficient: K T = n 2 D 4 (5)
p

def kp T R Q
t=
kp T leading to R=(1-t) . kp . T (2) torque coefficient: K Q = n 2 D 5 (6)
p

def vS vA
w= leading to vA=(1-w) . vs (3)
vS vA
as function of advance ratio: J = n D (7)
p
The thrust deduction allows for the fact that while a part
of the produced thrust is used to overcome the pure towing
resistance, the remaining part is to overcome the added resist- The open water efficiency can be now expressed in these
ance due to the propeller influence on the hull. The wake frac- three terms:
tion allows for the difference between ship speed vs and
advance velocity vA experienced by the propeller, as a result
1 T vA K T n p 2 D 4 vA 1 KT J
of the boundary layer in the wake of the hull. O = = =
2 Q n p 2 K Q n p D n p 2 K Q
2 5

Propulsor
The open water propeller efficiency relates the thrust power PT In case water jets are used it is not customary to receive
to the propeller power PO in open water condition, ie, without open water diagrams from the manufacturer. One gets a dia-
the influence of the hull: gram as shown in Fig 3. This diagram gives the same infor-
def P 1 T vA mation as an open water diagram: thrust and torque as func-
O = T =
PO 2 Q n p , tion of impeller speed and ship speed but now for the installed
condition in the hull.
where Q is the torque in open water condition and np the rota-
tional speed of the propeller. Propulsion plant
In reality with the propeller behind the hull, the actual The propulsion system consists of a number of propulsors, a
propeller torque Mp and power Pp are slightly different. transmission installation and driving engines. An example is
The ratio between actual and open water values is called shown in Fig 4. This plant has two identical propellers (kp=2)
the relative rotative efficiency: and per shaft line two identical engines (ke=2), combined

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Matching propulsion engine with propulsor

thrust ship resistance

breakdown
T design point P1 100% m1

cavitation limit
n=100 75% m1
turbocharger limit
continuous 90
50% m1
operation
80
70 25% m1
60
V1
n??? n??? n???

M1 design point

M1 100% m1

n=100
75% m1
90
80
70 50% m1
60

V1 25% m1
Fig 3: Example of a performance diagram of a water jet/hull
combination n??? n??? n???

Fig 5: Operational envelope of modern turbocharged diesel

P1 engine
main engine
P1 P1
P1 G8
P1
M1 1-propeller curve
main engine [%] 2
100 Torque limits of engines
P1 that are:
P1 2-naturally aspirated
80 6
P1 main engine 3-single stage constant
P1 pressure turbocharged
P1 G8 60 p=20bar
P1
4-single stage pulse system
main engine 4
40 turbochargd
3
p=20bar
5 5-highly turbocharged
20 p=30bar
Fig 4: Propulsion plant with definition of powers 6-sequentially turbocharged
1
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 P
1
through a gearbox (GB). [%]
The relations between delivered propulsor power Pp, shaft
power PS and engine brake power PB are given by the shaft, Fig 6:Torque capabilities of different diesel engine types
gearbox and transmission efficiencies:
of power/speed (PB/ne) and torque/speed (MB/ne).
s=Pp/PS, GB=PS/(ke.PB) and TR=s.GB=Pp/(ke.PB) (8) The fouling limit normally lies around 25% torque. It is
allowed to operate the engine continuously within the area
These efficiencies can also be expressed in torque: enclosed by these five limits. Operation below the fouling
limit is allowed for manoeuvring during limited time periods.
s=Mp/MS, GB=MS/(i.ke.MB) and TR= Mp/i.ke.MB For a highly turbocharged engine the maximum torque
can be delivered only over a limited speed range, as limited
where i is the gearbox transmission ratio (ne/np). by mechanical and thermal stresses. At lower speeds the tur-
bocharger is not capable to supply sufficient air and therefore
Diesel engines maximum torque is limited by thermal load. The operational
The operating envelope of a modern turbocharged diesel engine envelope is rather narrow at high speed and load. This makes
has five limits: minimum engine speed, maximum engine operation of these engines especially during increased loads,
speed, maximum torque, turbocharger limit and a fouling (min- eg, due to a heavy seaway, difficult.
imum torque) limit. Fig 5 shows a typical diagram both in terms For that reason a number of diesel engine manufacturers

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Matching propulsion engine with propulsor

P 2 1
MCR 3

operating
envelope

propeller
load

ne
Fig 8: Operational envelope of diesel engine with three
propeller load curves
Fig 7: Operational envelope of a gas turbine with free power
turbine propeller load at
P 1 [ %] design conditions
operating envelope
have come with solutions to improve the operational enve-
MCR propeller load at
lope. They apply eg, sequential turbocharging, which results 100 trial conditions
in a much broader envelope. 90 EM
CSR
Fig 6 gives an indicative overview of diesel engine torque 80
capabilities for different types of turbocharging. Please note SM
70 power during
that the figure is given on a non dimensional basis.
60 sea trial

Gas turbines
A gas turbine, with a free power turbine, has a much wider
operational envelope than a diesel engine. The reason is due
to the fact that a gas turbine behaves almost as a constant
power machine, whereas a diesel engine behaves in principle
as a constant torque machine but with a significant reduction
due to turbocharging. Fig 7 shows the operational envelope in
terms of power/speed.
Such a gas turbine only has three limits of the envelope:
maximum power turbine speed, maximum and idling fuel flow.
In reality the engine is also limited on power by ambient
air temperature.
BASIC MATCHING PROBLEM
When an engine is to be matched with a propulsor the follow-
ing two criteria should be met:

The engine is able to develop full power, or nearly full
power, at the design condition

The propulsion plant functions satisfactorily in all design
and off design conditions, ie, delivers the required speed
or thrust without exceeding any limits imposed by the
operational envelope.
A third criterion might be:

The operation of the plant is optimised with regard to fuel
consumption.
Diesel engine matching with fixed pitch propeller
Matching of a diesel engine with a fixed pitch propeller may con-
sider three propeller load curves: the design condition, a heavy
condition (eg, due to a heavy sea way) and a light condition (eg,
due to sailing in ballast). Fig 8 shows these three load curves in a
50
40
30
20
10 ne
ne
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 ne [%]
Fig 9: Fixed pitch propeller matched with turbocharged diesel
engine
typical operational envelope of a turbocharged diesel engine.
This picture clearly shows the problem of a turbocharged
diesel engine in combination with a fixed pitch propeller:

When the propeller pitch is not properly chosen the max-
imum engine output will not be available in the design
condition: either the pitch is low and the maximum avail-
able power is limited by the maximum speed limit or the
pitch is high and the maximum available power is limited
by the turbocharger limit.

In off design conditions the full engine power will never be
available because of the maximum speed limit in light con-
dition and the turbocharger limit in heavy condition.
A good match for such a case is shown in Fig 9. It is
assumed that the resistance/ship speed relations for trial and
service condition are known. Trial condition refers to the sit-
uation of a clean hull, calm sea, deep water and unloaded. The
service condition refers to the mean service conditions that
the ship will encounter in its operational life. Good practice
involves some hull fouling (eg, two years), sea state 2 or 3,
deep water and design displacement.

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Matching propulsion engine with propulsor

dition. This margin is required to achieve reasonable mainte-

propeller load at nance intervals of the engine, to enable a higher ship speed
MCR service conditions
than design speed in case the ship is behind schedule and to
PB cope with increased loads due to more fouling or a higher sea
EM state than in design condition. This is expressed in the Engine
propeller load at
Margin (EM):
trial conditions
CSR LRM
CSR PB,Service
EM = = <1
MCR PB, Max
nLRM
SM
nM The engine margin is based on ship owners requirements
and experience and will be in the order of 0.8 0.9. For naval
power during vessels it is common practice to have no engine margin (EM
sea trial = 1). This is done because the design top speed is not run con-
tinuously, but only during limited periods. The rating of naval
ncsr
engines is not a continuous rating but a peak rating.
ne Some engine manufacturers also define a Light Running
Margin (LRM), as shown in Fig 10.
Fig 10:The EM, SM and LRM The LRM relates the engine speed difference between the
service propeller curve and the propeller curve for trial or
light running condition at CSR power to the speed at MCR. It
Service margin, engine margin and light running is defined as:
margin
The ratio between effective power in service and trial condi- nLRM nCSR
LRM =
tion is called the service margin (SM): nM
P
SM = E ,Service > 1 The LRM should have a value of 0.05 to 0.06. It is sup-
PE ,Trial
posed to offer sufficient engine speed margin to maintain con-
stant engine power when the ship deteriorates from trial con-
Values for the service margin are 1.1 1.25, excluding dition to service condition. Either the SM or the LRM can be
the influence of the loading condition. For merchant vessels chosen. The other will be the result of the margin chosen.
this influence can be significant. It can be estimated with
equation (1). FROM RESISTANCE TO BRAKE POWER
The next step will be the design of a suitable propeller. To solve matching problems adequately it is essential to con-
This will result in a propeller power/speed (Pp/np) curve, both vert a resistance/ship speed (R/vs) relation to a brake
for trial and service condition. These load curves can be con- power/engine speed (PB/ne) relation. This will be shown for a
verted to brake power/engine speed (PB/ne) load curves, by fixed pitch propeller with use of the open water diagram.
use of the transmission efficiency and ratio (equation (8)). Consider a resistance/ship speed point: R, vs. This can be
Depending on the type of machinery plant: a direct drive converted to a factor c1=R/vs2. Note that this is possible irre-
system with a low speed diesel engine or a geared drive with spective whether this point is part of a square or non square
medium or high speed diesel engines, the design procedure of resistance curve. Using the wake fraction w this can also be
the propeller will be different. This is not discussed further in written as (equation (3)):
this paper. 2
v
The load curves as experienced by the engine are then R = c1 A ,
1 w
plotted in the operational envelope, resulting in Fig 9.
A proper matching means that the service condition curve
intersects with the operational envelope at maximum power with thrust deduction t and number of propellers kp follows
and maximum speed of the engine. The power at this point is (equation 2):
called the Maximum Continuous Rating (MCR). Also the
operational points regarding the design speed at trial and R c1 vA2
T= = = c8 vA2
service condition are shown. The power at design speed in k p (1 t ) k p (1 t ) (1 w )2 . (9)
service condition is called Continuous Service Rating (CSR).
As the propulsive efficiency will change only marginally The required thrust coefficient for this ship at speed vs is
between trial and service condition, the service margin is then (equations (5) and (7)):
almost equal to the brake power ratios:
P c8 vA 2 c8 vA 2 c
SM B,Service K T ,ship = = = 8 J2
PB,Trial n 2p D 4 D 2 n 2p D 2 D 2 or:

The MCR power for merchant vessels should be higher

than the required brake power at design speed in service con- K T ,ship = c7 J 2 (10)

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Matching propulsion engine with propulsor

Design ship speed vs 14.40m/s O 1,00

(28 knots)
10 KQ
Effective towing power PE 16 000kW 10 KQ
0,80
Factor c1 5.36x103 KT
Wake fraction w 0.04
Thrust deduction t 0.06 0,60
KT
Relative rotative efficiency R 0.99
Propeller diameter D 3.8m 0,40 O
Advance ratio J 0.992
Thrust coefficient KT 0.206 0,20
Torque coefficient KQ 0.0457
Ship
Propeller open water efficiency O 0.710
0,00
Propeller power Pp,load (one propeller) 11 624kW 0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2 1,4 1,6
Propeller speed 3.67rev/s Advance ratio
(220rpm)
Engine brake power PB,load (one engine) 6115kW Fig 11: Intersection of ship KT curve with propeller KT curve
Engine rpm 979rpm leading to operational point of the propeller
Engine MCR 6500kW
Engine MCR rpm 1000rpm
Gear ratio 4.45
OFF-DESIGN CONDITIONS
The propulsion plant will often operate under off-design con-
Transmission efficiency TR 0.95
ditions. It is necessary to determine these and check whether
Sea water density 1025kg/m3
the plant still functions satisfactorily. The main off-design
conditions are:
Table 1: Design data of example ship
The hull resistance has changed due to hull fouling,
change of displacement or sea state or sailing in restricted
water depth
This square KT,ship curve can be plotted in the open water
The resistance that needs to be overcome by a propeller
diagram, as shown in Fig 11. also changes when towing another ship or dragging
The point of intersection leads to the operational point of equipment
the propeller (J, KT) and also the torque coefficient and open
Change of number of driven shafts
water efficiency can be determined.
Change of pitch in case of a CP propeller
With the advance ratio J and wake fraction w the propeller
Change of number of driving engines
speed can be determined as a function of ship speed (equa-
Connection or disconnection of Power Take Offs (PTOs)
tions (7) and (3)):
Change of gear ratio of the gearbox.

When investigating off-design conditions, it is essential to

v distinguish between two categories:
J= A vA (1 w )
np D np = = vs (11) 1. Off-design conditions that influence the operational point
J D J D of the propeller. They should be studied by using the open
vA = vs (1 w )
water diagram. As a rule of thumb, all off-design conditions
that are a result of changes that take place outside the ships
With the torque coefficient KQ and relative rotative effi- hull belong to this category: for example change of resist-
ciency R the propeller load can be determined (equations (6) ance, change of driven shafts and change of propeller pitch.
and (4)): 2. Off-design conditions that do not change the operational
point of the propeller, so they can be solved without the
Q R M p D5 open water diagrams. As a rule of thumb, the off-design
KQ = = Mp = KQ n p 2
np D
2 5
np D
2 5
R conditions that are the result of a change inside the ships
hull belong to this category: for example change of num-
With the transmission efficiency and ratio the Pp,np point ber of connected engines, change of power to PTO and
can be converted to an engine brake power/speed PB,ne point change of gear ratio.
(equation (8)).
This procedure can be repeated for a number of points on Two examples of calculation of the off-design behaviour will
the ship resistance curve leading to a brake power load curve be given. The basis is a CODAD propulsion plant according Fig
which can be plotted in the operational envelope. 4. The plant consists of two identical shaft lines; each driven by
Note that in case of a square resistance curve and constant two identical turbo charged diesel engines. To simplify the
wake fraction and thrust deduction this calculation needs to be example a number of assumptions have been made:
done only once. In this case the propeller has a constant oper-
the ship has a square resistance curve
ational point (J, KT), which leads to the observation that ship
the propellers are of the fixed pitch type
speed and propeller rotational speed are then proportional
wake fraction, thrust deduction, relative rotative efficien-
(equation (11)). cy and transmission efficiency are constant.

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Matching propulsion engine with propulsor

7000
Single shaft operation
O 1.00
10 KQ Design condition
10 KQ 6000

Engine power Power in kW

0.80
KT 5000

0.60
4000
KT
O 24 knots
0.40 3000

2000 20 knots
0.20
Ship
1000 16 knots
0.00
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
0
Advance ratio J 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Engine speed in rpm
Fig 12: Open water diagram with KT,ship curves for design
condition and single shaft operation Single shaft operation
2 engines/shaft

The open water diagram of the propellers is according to Design condition

Fig 11. The shown KT,ship-curve corresponds with the design
service condition of the ship. In that condition both shafts and Fig 13: Diesel engine operational envelope with design
all four engines are in operation. Some data for this design condition load curve and single shaft operation load curve
condition are shown in Table 1.
7000
Change of number of driving shafts
In this off-design condition only one shaft line is in operation 6000
and is driven by two engines. The other shaft is not driven but
free to rotate: a trailing propeller. This is an off-design condi- 5000
Engine power in kW

tion, that has influence on the operational point of the pro-

peller (in J,KT-terms). Consequently it can only be solved by 4000
24 knots
use of the propeller open water diagram.
3000
The trailing propeller means that an additional resistance
is created. This additional resistance is assumed to be 7.5% of 20 knots
2000
the normal ship resistance. The factor c1 has increases with a
factor 1.075 and changes from 5.36x103 to 5.76x103. The 1000
16 knots
resistance of the ship increased by the contribution of the
trailing propeller has now to be overcome by the thrust of 0
only one operating propeller. Originally that propeller over- 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
came half ship resistance (two propellers operating), now it Engine speed in rpm
has to overcome 1.075 times the original resistance. So the
thrust to be delivered by the operating propeller increases Single shaft operation
2 engines/shaft
with a factor 2.15. This means that also the factor c7 of the
KT,ship-curve will increase with a factor 2.15 (equation (10)). Design condition
The new KT,ship curve can be plotted in the open water dia-
gram and leads to a new operational point of the operating Fig 14: Gas turbine operational envelope with design
propeller (Fig12): J=0.808, KT=0.293, KQ=0.0624 and condition load curve and single shaft operation load curve
O=0.605.
With this new data the propeller power and speed as well The engine speed which can be achieved proves to be in
as engine brake power and speed can be determined, as the order of ne=875rpm and the developed power is then
described before. Assuming that the design speed of 28 knots PB=5980kW, on a limit line of the envelope. The correspon-
will be maintained, this leads to: ding ship speed is 20.4 knots. This seems quite acceptable
Pp,load=29 383kW, np=270 rpm, PB,load=15 465kW (for one but it is questionable whether the margin of the new load
engine) and ne=1201rpm. curve in the operational envelope leaves sufficient room for
The calculated operational point clearly lies outside of the acceleration of the ship or increased resistance due to a
operational envelope of the engine, as was to be expected, heavy sea way.
simply by lack of power. It is not possible in single shaft oper- Most probably it would be wise to adopt a controllable
ation to maintain the design speed. pitch propeller which allows pitch reduction in single shaft
Plotting the new engine load curve in the operational operation. This will shift the load curve in the operational
envelope shows the maximum power that may be achieved envelope to a more attractive location. For a detailed analysis
(Fig 13) see reference.1

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Matching propulsion engine with propulsor

The situation would have been quite different in case the
propulsion plant used gas turbines instead of diesel engines.
Fig 14 shows the operational envelope of a gas turbine again
with the design load curve and the single shaft operation load
curve. Now there is in single shaft operation sufficient room
for acceleration and increased resistance. A fixed pitch pro-
peller is then a good choice.
7000
6000
Engine power in kW
Change of number of driving engines
In this off-design condition both shafts are in operation but
each shaft is driven by only one engine. This is an off-
design condition that has no influence on the operational
point of the propeller (in J,KT-terms). Consequently it can
be solved without use of the propeller open water diagram.
The propeller load curve (in Pp,load,np-terms) has not
changed. But instead of two engines this load has to be car-
ried by one engine. This means that at the same engine
speed the required brake power for the operating engine has
doubled. Fig 15 shows what happens.
This situation proves to be fully unacceptable. The load
curve lies completely out of the envelope. A good solution

5000
might be to adopt a gearbox with two different gear ratios
4000
or again a controllable pitch propeller. For a gas turbine
with a much wider envelope, the load curve would still be
24 knots acceptable.
3000

2000 20 knots CONCLUSIONS

Proper matching of propulsion engine with propulsor is
1000 essential to obtain acceptable behavior of the ship and its
16 knots propulsion system. The selected types of machinery have a
0 dominating influence on the possibilities to get a good match.
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 To evaluate design and off-design conditions adequately, both
Engine speed in rpm the naval architectural as well as the marine engineering
Twin shaft operation Design condition aspects should be understood.
1 engine/shaft 2 engines/shaft
REFERENCES
Fig 15: Diesel engine operational envelope with design 1. KleinWoud J and Stapersma D. Design of Propulsion
condition load curve (two engines per shaft) and load curve and Electric Power Generation Systems, IMarEST, 2003.
with one engine operating per shaft ISBN 1-902536-47-9

32 Journal of Marine Engineering and Technology No. A7 2005