doi: 10.1111/j.1478-4408.2010.00273.

Colour and fastness of natural dyes:

revival of traditional dyeing techniques
Coloration
Technology
Maria Zarkogianni,a Eleni Mikropoulou,b Evangelia Varellab
and Eforia Tsatsaronia*
a
Laboratory of Organic Chemical Technology, Department of Chemical Technology and
Industrial Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Aristotle University, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
Email: tsatsaro@chem.auth.gr
b
Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, Department of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry,
School of Chemistry, Aristotle University, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece Society of Dyers and Colourists

Received: 16 June 2010; Accepted: 27 August 2010

Cotton and wool fabrics were dyed with nine natural dyes obtained by aqueous extraction of the original
plants insect in an attempt to reconstruct traditional textile dyeing recipes, to optimise the methodology
at all stages, i.e. extraction, mordanting and dyeing, and to standardise it. Cochineal, madder, alkanna,
henna, brazilwood, red sandalwood, safflower, indigo and logwood were used for the dyeings, which
were carried out directly and after mordanting of the textile material. A variety of mordants, namely,
aluminium potassium sulphate, potassium dichromate, copper sulphate, zinc chloride, iron(III) chloride,
iron(II) sulphate and tin chloride, is anticipated to meet both early and recent requirements and options.
The dyeings were evaluated through colour measurements and standard wash, light and rub fastness
tests. Generally, the mordanting process known for many centuries and connected with the textile dyeing
resulted in an improvement in dye absorption and fastness properties mainly for the cotton samples, as
is concluded from the tests and measurement assessments.

for many centuries and it is used to improve dye

Introduction
The use of natural dyes has been flourishing in Europe
for thousands of years and has been part of the cultural
identity of the continent. In ancient times, dyed textiles
were symbols of status and, because of their expense,
were reserved only for the wealthiest. Early dye sources
included plant, animal and mineral extracts. Madder,
indigo and saffron were the three ancient dyes used in
India since ca. 2500 years BC [13].
With the appearance of synthetic dyes, the use of natural
dyes for textile dyeing almost disappeared. The wide range
of colours available, with good fastness properties, at low
to moderate costs, was the main reason for the replacement
of natural dyes with their synthetic counterparts.
However, in recent years, an upsurge in interest in
natural dyes has been manifest by:
reconstruction of ancient and traditional dyeing
technology [46];
conservation and restoration of old textiles and
museum textiles [718];
replacement of synthetic dyes by natural dyes for food,
textiles, etc.
The latter point is mainly because of environmental
reasons. Nowadays, the dyestuff industry is suffering from
the increase in costs of feedstock and energy for dye
synthesis and is also under increasing pressure to minimise
the damage to the environment caused by the production
and application processes used and the effluent produced.
Natural dyes exhibit better biodegradability and
generally have higher compatibility with the environment
compared with their synthetic counterparts [1930].
Traditionally, the use of natural dyes for textile dyeing
is connected with the mordanting process, pre- or post-
mordanting. The process of mordanting has been known
adsorption on the fibre and its wash fastness because the
mordant has a substantivity for both the colorant and the
fibre and, in bonding with the dye on the fibre, forms an
insoluble precipitate.
The same dyestuff gives different hues or even different
colour by using different mordants. Mordants are often
polyvalent metallic ions which form a complex with the
fibre and the pigment. The most generally used mordant
was alum (aluminum potassium sulphate). Other fairly
common mordants were potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7),
tin chloride (SnCl2H2O), copper sulphate (CuSO45H2O),
iron(II) sulphate or iron(III) chloride [5,6,18,31,32].
Nowadays, most of these mordants are unacceptable in
accordance with environmental legislation, with
potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) being a priority
pollutant. Attempts were made to replace chromium (Cr)
with iron (Fe) in the metal-complexed dyes [3335]. Alum
and iron salts are today commonly used as mordants in
textile dyeing with natural dyes.
The general aim of this work was to combine both early
and recent requirements and options of the textile dyeing
with natural dyes, bearing in mind that, in recent years,
there has been a growing interest in the revival of natural
dyes in textile dyeing for environmental reasons and in
the preservation of cultural heritage.
In particular, this work focuses on the reconstruction of
the old dyeing techniques, the formulation of regular
protocols for dyeing with natural colorants, the
optimisation of the application techniques according to
new environmental requirements and new technological
possibilities, and the standardisation of the whole
procedure. The natural dyes used in this work are given
in Figure 1.
Having a number of traditional and contemporary
recipes for dyeing on wool and cotton [31,32,36], and

18 2010 The Authors. Coloration Technology 2010 Society of Dyers and Colourists, Color. Technol., 127, 1827
 Zarkogianni et al. Colour and fastness of natural dyes

Madder
O OH
O OH O OH
OH H H

OH OH

O O OH O

Alizarin Purpurin Xanthopurpurin

O
O OH O OH

COOH COOH CH3

OH
OH OH

O O O
OH
Pseudopurpurin Munjistin Rubiantin

Cochineal
OH O CH3 OH O CH3
CH2 O OH CH2OH
COOH COOH
COOH O
OH
HO OH HO OH
HO OH OH
HO OH O O
O OH
Carminic acid Kermesic acid Flavokermesic acid

Alkanna Brazilwood
HO O HO O
OH O
OH OH

OH O OH

HO O HO OH
Alkannin Brazilein Brazilin

Figure 1 Structures of the main constituents of the dyes used

experimenting with the processes proposed, resulted in the Apparatus

adoption of most the appropriate methodologies. The large
variety of mordants was used in order to meet both early
and recent options. Optimisation attempts were made in all
stages of the process, i.e. extraction, mordanting, dyeing.
Quality control of the dyeings was made by standard
fastness tests and colour measurements.
Experimental
Materials
Commercially available cotton and wool fabrics
(10 12 cm2, ca. 2 g) were used for the dyeings. Aqueous
solutions (25 g l) of alum, potassium dichromate, hydrated
copper sulphate, zinc chloride, iron(III) chloride, tin
chloride (15 g l) and hydrated iron(II) sulphate (8 g l) were
used as mordants.
The mordants were purchased from Fluka GmbH
(Switzerland) and were of commercial grade.Table 1
shows the natural pigments used with their origin and
the main colorant constituents. The colouring agents used
were purchased from Kremer Pigmente (Germany).
A Zeltex Vistacolor dyeing machine (Zeltex Inc., USA)
was used for the dyeing, the mordanting and the wash
fastness tests of the cotton and wool samples. A Macbeth
CE3000 Spectrophotometer [ultraviolet (UV) and specular
component included, large area view, 25.4-mm diameter
(Kollmorgen Instruments, USA)] was used for colour
measurements. A Shimadzu UV-2101 Spectrophotometer
(Shimadzu Europa GmbH, Germany) was used for
obtaining the absorption spectra. A Q-Sun (Xe-1-B) Xenon
test chamber (Q-LAB, USA) was used for the light
fastness tests. An ASDL International Ltd (Shirley
Developments Ltd, UK) apparatus was used for the rub
fastness tests (wet and dry). A VeriVide D65 (Leslie
Hubble Ltd, UK) colour assessment cabinet combined
with an artificial daylight (D65) lamp was used for the
evaluation of colour change during the fastness tests.
Extract preparation
After repeated trials, the recommended extraction
procedure was one which yielded high dye concentrations
under realistic conditions of time and temperature.

2010 The Authors. Coloration Technology 2010 Society of Dyers and Colourists, Color. Technol., 127, 1827 19
Zarkogianni et al. Colour and fastness of natural dyes

Safflower Red Sandalwood

R
OH OH OH OH
HO HO
HO
O O OH
HO HO
HO O HO O O O
HO HO OH OH
O OH
HO OH

CH3 O O
O O O O
OH CH3
Carthamin R=OH, Santalin A
R=OCH3, Santalin B

Henna OH
O OH
OH
OH HO O O
HO O OH O
OH O
O
O OH O HO
OH O
OH
Lawsone Luteolin Apigenin Ellagic acid

Indigo Logwood
OH OH
O H
HO HO O CH
O CH
N 2 2 OH
O OH
N C C CH2 C CH2
N H CH
H O N
O
H

HO O HO OH

Indigo Indirubin Heamatin Heamatoxylin

Figure 1 (Continued)

Aqueous extracts were prepared by adding a certain
amount (gram) of the original powdered plant insect
material in 1 l distilled water. The mixture was kept at
room temperature for a certain time (hour, Phase I),
heated gradually under stirring at a certain temperature
and then heated at the boil for a certain time (Phase II,
Table 2). The mixture was allowed to stand in the dark
for 24 h. Unfiltered aliquots of the clear supernatant
liquor were used for the dyeings.
Mordanting
Mordanting was carried out using the pre-mordanting
method. This was performed at 50 C for 45 min in a
liquor ratio of 40:1. Samples were then squeezed and
transferred into the dyebath (aqueous extract).
Dyeing
The mordanted samples were heated in a liquor ratio of
40:1 (80 ml of extract) at 100 C for 1 h. No adjustment of
pH was made. The samples were then rinsed, squeezed
and allowed to dry in open air [31].
The dyeing with indigo (15 g), a carbonyl vat dye, was
completed in three steps:
reduction of the water insoluble material (deep blue),
with excess of sodium hydrosulphite 4 g g of textile
material in the presence of sodium carbonate 2 g g of
textile material; the mixture was added to 1 l water and
the liquid was heated at 55 C. Reduction was carried
out and the blue liquid turned to yellow
(leucompound);
immersion of the samples (pre-mordanted or not) in the
yellow dyebath (80 ml per sample) for 5 min at 55 C;
the samples (pale yellow) were removed from the
dyebath and remained in the open air (gradual
reoxidation and appearance of the blue hue depending
on the mordant) (Tables 4 and 5) [36]; the pH of the
indigo bath was adjusted by this sodium carbonate
quantity.

20 2010 The Authors. Coloration Technology 2010 Society of Dyers and Colourists, Color. Technol., 127, 1827
 Zarkogianni et al. Colour and fastness of natural dyes

Table 1 The natural dyes used with their origin and their main colorant constituents

Natural pigments CI generic number Main colorant constituents Botanical zoological name

Cochineal 75470 Carminic acid Porphyrophora polonica L.

CI Natural Red 4 Kermesic acid Porphyrophora hameli Brandt
Flavokermesic acid Dactylopius coccus Costa
Madder 75338 Alizarin Rubia tinctorum L.
CI Natural Red 8 75410 Puprurin Rubia peregrine L.
75420 Pseudopurpurin
75350 Rubiantin
75370 Munjistin
75340 Xanthopurpurin
Alkanna 75520, 75530 Alkanin Alkanna tinctoria Tausch.
CI Natural Red 20
Henna 75480 Lawsone Lawsonia inermis L.
CI Natural Orange 6 Luteolin
Apigenin
Ellagic acid
Brazilwood 75280 Brazilein Caesalpinia trees
CI Natural Red 24 Brazilin
Red Sandalwood 75540 Santalin A Pterocarpus santalinus L.
CI Natural Red 22 Santalin B
Safflower 75140 Carthamin Carthamus tincorius L.
CI Natural Red 26
Indigo 75780 Indigo Indigofera tinctoria
CI Natural Blue 1 75790 Indirubin
Logwood 75290 Hematin Hematoxylon compechianum L.
CI Natural Black 1&2 Hematoxylin

Colour measurement (reference samples) are given in Table 3; corresponding

This was carried out according to CIELAB 1976 and the values for dyeing in the presence of a mordant are shown
modified CIELCH system (D65 10). Reproducibility was in Tables 4 and 5 (cotton and wool samples,
checked by taking four measurements and recording the respectively).
variation in percentage reflectance values over the range The h* values for the wool and cotton reference
400800 nm [37]. samples (Table 3) are in good agreement with the visual
colour description for the dyes used. The variations in
Fastness determination Dh* (Tables 4 and 5) indicate in almost all cases (wool
Wash, light and rub fastness tests were carried out and cotton samples) that the absolute h value of the
according to BS 1006:1990 CO2 (test 2), BO2 and X12, sample [derived from the combination of the h value of
respectively [38]. the non-mordanted sample (Table 3) and the Dh value of
the mordanted sample (Tables 4 and 5)] lies in the same
Results and Discussion h (hue) range in the colour circle with the non-mordanted
sample (reference) (70110 yellow, 130200 green, 210
Colour
290 blue, 32040 red). Even in the case of brazilwood
Colour and colour yield values, CIE L*a*b*C*h* and K S,
(mainly for the wool samples), with the highest Dh
for cotton and wool fabrics dyed without mordant
values, this is the rule, with minor exceptions.
Table 2 Dye extraction data The DE values (total colour difference) are high in
most cases, especially for the samples mordanted with
Extraction iron(III) chloride and iron(II) sulphate. The high DE
values were mainly attributable to high DC* and DL*
Phase I Phase II values. This in turn was caused by the mordant effect,
for example darkening in colour by iron sulphate or
Plant insect chloride results in high negative DL* values, but was
material Time Temperature Time also related to variations in dye uptake with different
Dye Amount (g) (h) (C) (h) mordants. Given that DL* < 0 means that the sample is
darker than the reference, Table 4 shows that
Madder 15 12 7080 0.25 mordanting results in darkening the colour for all the
Alkanna 30 24 90 1
Henna 30 24 80 1 dyes and mordants on the cotton fibre. In contrast, DL*
Brazilwood 30 16 90 1 has positive values on wool samples in many cases,
Sandalwood 30 72 90 2 meaning that mordanted wool samples are lighter than
Safflower 30 72 7080 0.75 the reference sample. Mordanting with iron II and III
Cochineal 7.5 12 7080 0.25
Indigoa salts again resulted in darkening in colour (DL* < 0) for
Logwood 15 95 0.5 all dyes (Table 5).
The values of C* for the reference wool fabrics (dyed
a The dyeing process of indigo: experimental, dyeing without mordant) were significantly higher (double or

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Zarkogianni et al. Colour and fastness of natural dyes

Table 3 Colorimetric data (L*, a*, b*, C*, h*, K Skmax values) of non-mordanted dyed wool and cotton samples

Dye Fibre L* a* b* C* h* KS

Madder Wool 37.4 25.4 20.9 32.9 39.5 11.2

Cotton 64.0 16.0 14.2 21.4 41.6 1.4
Alkanna Wool 38.7 6.2 6.0 8.7 44.1 7.0
Cotton 57.4 0.6 1.6 1.7 111.1 1.5
Safflower Wool 58.4 8.9 48.6 49.4 79.7 17.3
Cotton 73.8 0.7 24.0 24.0 88.3 1.9
Henna Wool 37.2 14.8 24.3 28.4 58.6 16.1
Cotton 61.4 4.8 13.4 14.3 70.2 2.1
Sandalwood Wool 52.7 19.2 25.3 31.8 52.8 5.5
Cotton 62.2 14.7 6.4 16.0 23.5 1.1
Cochineal Wool 19.3 16.1 2.3 16.3 8.1 24.4
Cotton 65.5 11.8 )2.0 11.9 350.3 0.8
Brazilwood Wool 41.9 22.2 29.7 37.0 53.2 7.7
Cotton 53.8 16.5 22.0 27.5 53.2 2.2
Logwood Wool 29.6 14.1 12.6 18.9 41.8 9.0
Cotton 47.9 7.3 3.6 8.1 26.3 2.2
Indigo Wool 34.8 )4.7 )17.1 17.7 254.7 10.1
Cotton 45.6 )5.8 )13.3 14.6 246.4 4.3

more) than that observed for the corresponding reference
cotton fabrics (Table 3). This difference could be
correlated with different dye uptake, which was also
observed visually and confirmed with the significantly
different K S values.
The K S value is proportional to the dye concentration
on the fibre according to the KubelkaMunk equation.
This proportionality is the rule for concentrations C
similar to those used (Eqn 1):
K =S A  C 1  R2 =2R f R 1
where K is the absorbance coefficient, S is the scattering
coefficient, R is the reflectance ratio, A is a constant and
C is the dye concentration.
Higher dye adsorption on the wool fibre could be
attributed to structural features of the fibre. Electrostatic
forces between the positively charged side chains of the
protein fibre and the dye molecule would be expected to
play a dominant role in dye adsorption. In contrast, it is
the weaker van der Waals and hydrogen bonding forces
that are responsible for dye adsorption in cotton dyeing
[39,40]. Mordanting results in a significant increase of
K S for all cotton samples, whereas K S values of the
mordanted wool samples are higher, equal or even lower
than the reference sample. Cochineal, a dye with animal
(insect) origin does not dye cotton fibres satisfactorily.
Thus, pre-mordanting is necessary before cotton dyeing
with cochineal. On the mordanted cotton fibre, cochineal
molecules act as ligands on the metal ion, which is also
connected with the hydroxy groups of cellulose; thus, the
dye adsorption on the mordanted cellulose increased
dramatically (an increase of K S value from 0.8 to 1.7
20.5, depending on the mordant metal). In contrast, the
side chains of the wool fibre, hydroxy, carboxy, amine
and thiol groups compete with the carboxy, carbonyl and
hydroxy groups of the cochineal dye in its chelation with
the mordant; thus, adsorption of cochineal on the
mordanted wool is in most cases lower than that of the
reference (K Sref = 24.4, K Smor = 2.527.7, depending on
the mordantmetal).
Fastness properties
The fastness values to washing, artificial light and
rubbing of the cotton samples dyed with natural dyes 19
with or without mordanting are given in Table 6. In
Table 7, the same values for the wool samples are given.
A mordantmetal salt has a substantivity for both the
colorant and the fibre and, in bonding with the dye on
the fibre, forms an insoluble precipitate. Dyes that would
not normally be fast to the fibre can attach themselves to
the mordant. Thus, mordanting improved wash fastness
for those samples with low to medium wash fastness; for
example: cochineal, reference sample: Colour Change 1;
logwood (heamatoxylon compechianum), reference
sample: Colour Change 1; safflower, reference sample:
Colour Change 3 (Table 6, cotton samples).
In these cases, pre-mordanting results in a significant
improvement in wash fastness by 14 points of the
greyscale (Table 6, cochineal, logwood). In contrast,
samples dyed with madder, alkanna, sandalwood or
indigo without mordant (reference samples) have very
good to excellent wash fastness (45 to 5, Table 6). This
could be correlated to the low K S values, which were
significantly improved by pre-mordanting the samples.
Pre-mordanting results in an increase in dye adsorption
on cotton, but this excess of dye adsorbed superficially
could be removed by washing. Thus, wash fastness
values were decreased.
Fastness to washing of the wool samples was very good
to excellent in all cases (Table 7).
Fastness to artificial light was low to medium in all
cases, with the exception of wool samples dyed with
cochineal, where pre-mordanting mainly with iron
chloride and sulphate and copper sulphate resulted in
excellent light fastness values (light fastness > 7)
(Table 7). Iron (II) and iron(III) salts had the most marked
effect on the light fastness of cotton samples, followed by
copper sulphate (Table 6).
Pre-mordanted wool samples presented as the same or
0.51.5 points of the greyscale higher light fastness values
or even lower light fastness values (logwood) than the

22 2010 The Authors. Coloration Technology 2010 Society of Dyers and Colourists, Color. Technol., 127, 1827
 Zarkogianni et al. Colour and fastness of natural dyes

Table 4 Colorimetric data (DL*, Da*, Db*, DC*, Dh*, DE, K Skmax values) of dyed cotton samples after mordanting

Dye Mordant DL* Da* Db* DC* Dh* DE KS

Madder Alum )13.7 10.5 )1.1 8.2 6.7 17.4 2.8

SnCl2 )8.7 10.4 12.4 16.1 1.8 18.4 3.4
K2Cr2O7 )12.2 )0.2 )5.5 )3.3 4.4 13.4 2.7
CuSO4 )10.8 )6.4 )5.5 )8.4 0.2 13.7 2.2
ZnCl2 )18.4 6.8 )5.4 3.1 8.1 20.3 3.3
FeCl3 )25.6 )9.3 )2.3 )7.8 5.6 27.4 8.8
FeSO4 )24.6 )9.9 )9.8 )13.9 1.4 28.2 4.9
Alkanna Alum )8.7 1.1 9.2 9.1 1.8 12.7 5.2
SnCl2 )2.2 3.2 12.1 12.2 2.7 12.7 4.7
K2Cr2O7 )3.3 )2.5 4.7 5.3 0.3 6.2 2.5
CuSO4 )9.5 4.6 11.8 12.2 3.2 15.8 5.1
ZnCl2 )10.0 2.1 8.4 8.4 2.2 13.3 5.1
FeCl3 )20.7 2.5 10.7 10.7 2.4 23.4 12.5
FeSO4 )19.4 1.3 4.1 4.0 1.5 19.9 7.3
Safflower Alum )11.1 4.9 20.0 20.3 3.2 23.4 11.8
SnCl2 )5.2 3.6 18.5 18.7 2.3 19.5 6.7
K2Cr2O7 )8.3 )2.2 9.7 9.8 2.1 13.0 5.3
CuSO4 )21.3 4.5 5.3 5.8 3.9 22.3 9.7
ZnCl2 )13.9 3.8 12.4 12.7 2.8 19.0 10.2
FeCl3 )25.4 6.0 2.6 3.4 5.6 26.2 10.6
FeSO4 )23.7 2.1 )1.7 )1.5 2.3 23.8 7.9
Henna Alum )7.3 1.1 5.9 6.0 0.9 9.5 4.8
SnCl2 )4.6 1.3 9.6 9.5 1.6 10.7 5.5
K2Cr2O7 )2.4 )0.3 10.2 9.8 2.9 10.5 3.6
CuSO4 )17.6 0.02 1.8 1.7 0.6 17.7 6.6
ZnCl2 )13.9 1.9 1.7 2.4 1.2 14.1 5.4
FeCl3 )28.1 )3.1 )6.5 )7.2 0.9 29.0 9.7
FeSO4 )22.0 )2.8 )6.3 )6.8 0.6 23.0 6.2
Sandalwood Alum )3.4 3.0 12.9 10.2 8.5 13.7 2.3
SnCl2 )1.1 4.2 16.7 13.8 10.3 17.3 3.2
K2Cr2O7 )2.5 )5.2 6.1 )0.3 8.1 8.4 2.1
CuSO4 )13.7 )2.6 7.0 2.0 7.2 15.6 4.0
ZnCl2 )13.5 0.1 8.9 5.2 7.2 16.2 3.9
FeCl3 )20.3 )8.1 6.5 )1.6 10.2 22.8 7.9
FeSO4 )14.2 )10.2 2.1 )6.4 8.3 17.6 3.8
Cochineal Alum )43.9 6.7 )6.1 8.2 3.8 44.8 20.5
SnCl2 )25.2 30.9 13.5 32.3 9.8 42.1 9.2
K2Cr2O7 )12.6 )5.9 3.8 )5.8 3.9 14.4 1.7
CuSO4 )32.5 )0.7 )4.0 0.6 4.0 32.7 7.1
ZnCl2 )42.2 0.7 )7.0 3.5 6.2 42.8 15.5
FeCl3 )44.2 )10.4 2.3 )10.5 1.5 45.4 14.4
FeSO4 )47.3 )10.1 0.9 )10.0 2.0 48.3 19.1
Brazilwood Alum )18.6 15.2 )13.3 5.4 19.5 27.5 10.6
SnCl2 )24.3 21.8 )12.6 12.0 22.2 35.0 20.8
K2Cr2O7 )23.9 2.4 )24.2 )8.5 22.8 34.1 9.5
CuSO4 )26.1 0.2 )21.5 )10.8 18.6 33.8 11.9
ZnCl2 )14.4 5.5 )11.3 )3.1 12.2 19.2 6.1
FeCl3 )31.2 )10.7 )23.9 )21.4 15.2 40.8 14.2
FeSO4 )31.9 )9.6 )22.8 )20.5 13.9 40.3 15.5
Logwood FeCl3 )20.8 )5.2 )4.2 )5.9 3.1 21.8 8.8
SnCl2 )29.2 )6.3 1.1 3.2 0.3 29.4 20.2
K2Cr2O7 )11.2 )6.0 )9.1 )2.5 10.6 15.6 46.9
ZnCl2 )22.8 )1.9 )6.1 )2.2 6.0 23.6 11.1
CuSO4 )12.0 )8.3 )13.5 1.9 15.8 19.9 5.0
Alum )21.1 )1.9 )10.0 0.3 10.2 23.5 10.0
Indigo FeCl3 )2.9 )12.2 )33.3 6.4 1.8 7.3 7.2
SnCl2 )2.0 )12.9 )32.2 5.7 0.9 6.1 6.6
K2Cr2O7 )3.5 )9.4 )32.5 5.0 3.9 7.2 5.8
ZnCl2 )0.5 )10.9 )32.1 4.9 2.5 5.5 5.2
CuSO4 )10.5 )10.6 )32.2 5.0 2.7 12.0 10.1
Alum )7.0 )11.3 )33.5 6.3 2.6 9.8 9.1

reference sample, with the exception of cochineal
(Table 7), while the improvement of the light fastness
values was higher for cotton samples (0.52.5 points of
the greyscale).
Fastness to rubbing, wet and dry, was in most cases
lower for the pre-mordanting samples of both cotton and
wool than the reference samples (Tables 6 and 7),
attributable again to the superficially adsorbed excess of
pigment which could be more easily removed in the test
conditions.
Conclusions
The aim of this work was the reconstruction of the old
dyeing techniques, the formulation of regular protocols

2010 The Authors. Coloration Technology 2010 Society of Dyers and Colourists, Color. Technol., 127, 1827 23
Zarkogianni et al. Colour and fastness of natural dyes

Table 5 Colorimetric data (DL*, Da*, Db*, DC*, Dh*, DE, K Skmax values) of dyed wool samples after mordanting

Dye Mordant DL* Da* Db* DC* Dh* DE KS

Madder Alum 1.1 7.2 3.7 7.9 1.6 8.2 12.4

SnCl2 5.9 12.4 13.8 18.4 2.2 19.5 12.1
K2Cr2O7 )5.9 )8.8 )8.8 )12.4 1.5 13.8 14.4
CuSO4 3.6 )10.9 )1.7 )8.8 6.6 11.6 9.0
ZnCl2 )4.2 3.9 )4.9 0.5 6.2 7.6 12.0
FeCl3 )9.3 )14.7 )9.7 )17.4 2.7 19.9 15.8
FeSO4 )11.0 )14.5 )14.1 )20.1 2.6 23.0 14.4
Alkanna Alum 4.5 0.6 5.8 5.0 3.0 7.4 7.5
SnCl2 2.3 0.3 12.8 11.3 6.1 13.0 16.0
K2Cr2O7 5.7 )9.2 2.7 0.5 9.6 11.1 6.5
CuSO4 1.1 )2.0 8.8 6.8 6.0 9.1 10.9
ZnCl2 2.0 )0.8 3.6 2.4 2.8 4.19 7.8
FeCl3 )7.4 )1.4 1.6 0.4 2.0 7.7 12.6
FeSO4 )5.1 )3.5 )1.7 )3.5 1.7 6.4 9.2
Safflower Alum )0.7 4.4 3.4 4.2 3.6 5.6 20.1
SnCl2 1.0 5.1 3.0 4.1 4.3 6.0 16.0
K2Cr2O7 )4.5 )7.0 )21.1 )21.8 4.2 22.7 8.5
CuSO4 )9.5 )1.7 )11.4 )11.5 0.5 14.9 19.6
ZnCl2 )0.8 2.9 )1.0 )0.4 3.0 3.2 20.1
FeCl3 )24.8 )3.6 )23.1 )23.3 0.9 34.1 26.4
FeSO4 )8.7 )4.7 )11.2 )11.8 3.0 14.9 18.3
Henna Alum )2.1 )0.6 0.2 )0.1 0.7 2.2 19.5
SnCl2 0.6 2.1 3.0 3.7 0.3 3.7 17.6
K2Cr2O7 3.0 )3.8 )0.2 )2.0 3.3 4.8 12.6
CuSO4 )8.1 )3.1 )6.5 )7.1 0.8 10.8 20.5
ZnCl2 )4.1 )0.4 )2.0 )1.9 0.8 4.6 18.3
FeCl3 )12.9 )7.5 )12.3 )14.4 0.03 19.4 22.4
FeSO4 )10.5 )7.5 )11.2 )13.4 0.8 17.1 20.5
Sandalwood Alum 8.5 )1.9 2.4 0.9 2.9 9.1 3.9
SnCl2 9.0 )1.5 9.0 6.8 6.0 12.7 6.7
K2Cr2O7 )9.6 )14.2 )6.3 )12.1 9.7 18.2 12.7
CuSO4 )10.2 )8.9 )5.9 )9.8 4.2 14.8 10.1
ZnCl2 )7.5 8.2 )3.0 3.6 8.0 11.5 5.7
FeCl3 )23.2 )1.5 )19.2 )13.0 14.2 30.2 9.1
FeSO4 )20.9 )1.3 )20.9 )13.3 16.1 29.6 7.2
Cochineal Alum 4.0 9.2 0.2 9.2 0.9 10.1 21.9
SnCl2 11.2 22.4 8.9 23.8 3.6 26.5 17.5
K2Cr2O7 26.1 )13.6 8.5 )5.2 15.2 30.6 2.5
CuSO4 )1.4 )4.8 )3.7 )4.9 3.6 6.2 23.7
ZnCl2 )2.8 )3.1 )3.3 )3.3 3.1 5.3 27.7
FeCl3 )2.2 )12.7 )2.3 )12.9 1.1 13.1 22.9
FeSO4 )4.3 )14.1 )5.3 )12.7 8.2 15.7 26.0
Brazilwood Alum )10.6 12.8 )13.5 1.5 18.5 21.4 16.3
SnCl2 )4.6 17.0 )17.6 4.0 24.1 24.9 11.9
K2Cr2O7 )18.0 )12.7 )26.8 )27.1 11.9 34.7 13.7
CuSO4 )21.1 )5.0 )22.9 )18.6 14.3 31.5 22.3
ZnCl2 )8.4 )0.3 )10.2 )7.8 6.7 13.3 9.7
FeCl3 )3.1 )6.0 1.3 )2.1 5.8 6.8 6.8
FeSO4 )23.8 )18.3 )29.8 )33.1 11.2 42.3 20.0
Logwood FeCl3 )10.4 )13.0 )10.9 )16.9 1.8 19.9 16.7
SnCl2 )14.8 )6.1 )16.4 )10.1 14.4 22.9 29.6
K2Cr2O7 )1.3 )14.0 )9.9 )16.2 5.6 17.2 8.3
ZnCl2 12.5 )8.2 )10.8 )12.7 4.6 18.4 22.1
CuSO4 13.6 )11.6 )8.4 )14.0 2.8 19.7 22.5
Alum )10.2 )11.7 )10.0 )15.4 0.8 18.4 16.7
Indigo FeCl3 )4.4 )8.4 )32.9 )1.5 0.6 4.7 12.5
SnCl2 6.9 )11.4 )27.2 )5.6 4.7 10.0 5.5
K2Cr2O7 6.8 )11.8 )18.5 )10.4 11.9 17.2 4.0
ZnCl2 5.8 )10.6 )31.6 )2.0 2.0 6.5 6.5
CuSO4 12.5 )11.8 )27.7 )5.0 4.8 14.3 4.0
Alum )8.0 )6.9 )33.1 )1.6 2.2 8.4 13.6

for dyeing with natural colorants, the optimisation of the
application techniques according to new environmental
requirements and new technological possibilities, and the
standardisation of the whole procedure.
Aqueous extracts of dyes 19 were used for dyeing
cotton and wool fibres, with and without pre-mordanting,
with the mordants of potassium dichromate, copper
sulphate, zinc chloride and tin chloride, as well as alum
and iron(II) and iron(III) salts. These mordants were used
as representatives commonly used in textile applications
in the past. Alum and iron salts are still used as mordants
necessary for dyeing with natural dyes.
Mordanting resulted in a significant improvement of
the dye adsorption on the cotton fabrics and an increase

24 2010 The Authors. Coloration Technology 2010 Society of Dyers and Colourists, Color. Technol., 127, 1827
 Zarkogianni et al. Colour and fastness of natural dyes

Table 6 Wash, light and rub fastness values of dyed cotton samples

Wash fastness Rubbing

Dye Mordant CCa CSb,c Light fastness Dry Wet

c
Madder 45 w: 4 5, n: 4 5, c: 4 5 23 45 4
Alum 45 w: 3 4, n: 4, c: 4 3 34 3
SnCl2 4 w: 3 4, n: 4, c: 4 2 3 3
K2Cr2O7 5 5 all 34 4 4
CuSO4 3 n: 4 5, c: 4 5 5 34 23
ZnCl2 3 w: 4, n: 4, 4 23 3
FeCl3 4 w: 4, n: 4 5, c: 4 5 5 3 3
FeSO4 5 w: 4 5, c: 4 5 4 4 34
Alkanna 45 n: 3 2 5 5
Alum 4 n: 3 23 34 34
SnCl2 45 n: 3 2 4 4
K2Cr2O7 5 n: 4 55 23 4 45
CuSO4 45 n: 4 5 4 4 34
ZnCl2 4 n: 3 34 3 4
FeCl3 45 n: 3 4 4 3 34
FeSO4 45 n: 4 4 34 34
Safflower 3 5 all 2 45 45
Alum 3 5 all 23 3 34
SnCl2 4 5 all 2 34 4
K2Cr2O7 5 5 all 3 45 45
CuSO4 2 5 all 3 3 3
ZnCl2 12 5 all 23 3 34
FeCl3 5 5 all 3 3 3
FeSO4 5 5 all 3 4 4
Henna 4 5 2 4 45
Alum 23 5 2 4 45
SnCl2 3 5 2 4 34
K2Cr2O7 5 5 23 45 4
d
CuSO4 2 3 (g) c: 3 4 3 34 34
ZnCl2 12 5 23 34 34
FeCl3 45 5 3 34 34
FeSO4 45 5 3 45 4
Sandalwood 5 5 all 12 45 45
Alum 4 5 all 2 34 34
SnCl2 4 5 all 2 23 3
K2Cr2O7 5 5 all 23 45 45
CuSO4 45 5 all 34 34 34
ZnCl2 4 n: 4 5, c: 4 5 23 34 3
FeCl3 5 5 all 4 23 34
FeSO4 5 5 all 34 4 34
Cochineal 1 5 all 3 45 45
Alum 3 c: 4 5 4 2 2
SnCl2 3 c: 4 5 2 3 3
K2Cr2O7 5 5 all 3 45 45
CuSO4 2 c: 4 5 45 34 12
ZnCl2 2 w: 4 5, c: 4 5 56 23 23
FeCl3 4 5 all 56 23 3
FeSO4 4 5 all 56 3 3
Brazilwood 3 w: 4 5, c: 4 5 2 45 3
Alum 3 w: 3 4, c: 4 5 2 3 23
SnCl2 45 w: 4 5, c: 3 2 2 2
K2Cr2O7 5 5 all 23 34 34
CuSO4 4 w: 4 5, c: 1 2 3 3 2
ZnCl2 3 w: 4 5, c: 4 5 2 4 23
FeCl3 45 w: 4 5, c: 4 5 34 3 2
FeSO4 45 w: 4 5, c: 4 5 34 3 2
Logwood 1 w: 3 4, c: 4 12
FeCl3 4d (b) w: 4 5, c: 4 4
SnCl2 4 w: 2, c: 2 2
K2Cr2O7 45 (b) w: 4, c: 4 23
ZnCl2 1 w: 2, c: 3 4 23
CuSO4 4 w: 4, c: 3 4 4
Alum 4 w: 3, c: 3 4 34
Indigo 45 w: 4 5, c: 4 5 5
FeCl3 45 w: 4 5, c: 4 5 5
SnCl2 45 w: 4 5, c: 4 5 5
K2Cr2O7 45 w: 4 5, c: 4 5 56
ZnCl2 45 w: 4 5, c: 4 5 5
CuSO4 45 w: 4, c: 4 5
Alum 45 w: 5, c: 4 5 4

a CC, colour change

b CS, colour staining
c w, wool; c, cotton; n, nylon
d (g), greener; (b), bluer

2010 The Authors. Coloration Technology 2010 Society of Dyers and Colourists, Color. Technol., 127, 1827 25
Zarkogianni et al. Colour and fastness of natural dyes

in K S values. The adsorption improvement for the wool Table 7 continued

samples was lower because dye adsorption on wool, even
without mordant, was significantly higher than that of the Wash fastnessa
cotton without mordant. Thus, the K S improvement of
the mordanted cotton samples was more impressive than b
CS
that of the mordanted wool samples.
The wash fastness of some dyed cotton fabrics without Dye Mordant CCb Cotton Wool Light fastness
mordant was low to medium and was improved in almost
all cases when the samples were dyed after mordanting. Logwood 45 3 23 12
Table 7 Light, rub and wash fastness values of dyed wool FeCl3 5 3 3 6
samples SnCl2 4 3 23 23
K2Cr2O7 45 4 3 3
ZnCl2 5c (b) 23 3 12
Rubbing CuSO4 5 12 3 6
Alum 5 2 23 3
Indigo 45 45 5 5
Dye Mordant Light fastness Dry Wet
FeCl3 4 3 34 6
SnCl2 4 4 4 6
Madder 3 45 45 K2Cr2O7 4 4 4 6
Alum 34 34 34 ZnCl2 4 4 4 6
SnCl2 45 3 34 CuSO4 45 4 4 5
K2Cr2O7 45 4 45 Alum 4 23 3 6
CuSO4 45 23 23
ZnCl2 34 34 4 a Wash fastness very good to excellent in all cases above
FeCl3 45 4 4 b CC, colour change, CS, colour staining
FeSO4 45 45 45 c (g), greener; (b), bluer
Alkanna 34 45 45
Alum 34 4 4
SnCl2 4 3 3
K2Cr2O7 45 45 45 Fastness to washing of the wool samples was very good
CuSO4 45 4 34 to excellent in all cases (Table 7).
ZnCl2 34 3 34
Light fastness was also improved, mainly for the cotton
FeCl3 4 34 3
FeSO4 34 4 4 samples, whereas a decrease or no improvement was
Safflower 34 45 4 observed for the wool samples.
Alum 34 4 34 Iron(II) and iron(III) salts as mordants proved to be the
SnCl2 34 3 34
most advantageous in K S increase and fastness
K2Cr2O7 45 45 45
CuSO4 45 4 4 improvement, albeit darkening the colour of the samples.
ZnCl2 3 45 34 In contrast, rub fastness values were in most cases
FeCl3 45 34 34 slightly decreased or remained the same compared with
FeSO4 4 45 4
the directly dyed cotton and wool samples.
Henna 34 45 5
Alum 34 45 45
SnCl2 34 4 4 Acknowledgement
K2Cr2O7 4 45 45
CuSO4 4 5 45 The work is part of a Specific Targeted Research Project
ZnCl2 34 5 45 FP6-2003 Group B 2.1 (MED-COLOUR-TECH).
FeCl3 4 5 45
FeSO4 4 5 45
Sandalwood 3 45 45 References
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