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MODULE 7
Sub Module 7.14
MATERIAL HANDLING
Contents
SHEET METAL WORK ............................................................................. 1
MARKING OUT ...................................................................................... 2
BENDING AND CALCULATION OF BEND ALLOWANCE .......................... 3
FORMING OF SHEET METAL PARTS....................................................... 8
INSPECTION OF SHEET METAL WORK ................................................... 9
BONDING PRACTICES .......................................................................... 11
INSPECTION METHODS ....................................................................... 14
MODULE 7
Sub Module 7.14.1
SHEET METAL
While the majority of metals can be rolled into sheet form, Some sheets are covered, on one or both surfaces, with a thin
consideration is confined here solely to the working with sheets protective plastic membrane and, if possible, it may be
of the light alloys, which are encountered on aircraft and, in beneficial to leave at least the underneath protection in place
particular, those formed from aluminium alloy ingots. while the marking out is done, to minimise the possibility of the
surface sustaining undesirable scratch marks. If no protective
Safe working procedures were covered adequately, in the membrane is applied to the sheet, then care must be taken over
Workshop and Hangar Safety Section of the SAFETY the condition of the surface of the table, or workbench, upon
PRECAUTIONS topic, but there are several additional points, which the sheet is to be laid for the marking out procedures.
which need highlighting, with regard to working with sheets of
aluminium alloy. Other factors, which should be considered (as with all work)
concern the requirements to ensure that:
By definition, sheets of aluminium alloy are comparatively thin in
cross-section and, as such, they not only pose a health hazard, Material wastage is kept to a minimum
through cuts, when being handled but they are, also, prone to The task is done correctly, first time, so that valuable time,
buckling and creasing if handled carelessly. also, is not wasted.
Large sheets of aluminium alloys are, usually stored upright, on The first point is usually obvious, due to the cost of the materials
their longest edge and supported, clear of the floor, in a wooden involved, but the second point quite often gets forgotten, when
framework so they are protected from damage and corrosion. work is being done, but the actual labour costs far outweigh the
Care must be taken when removing a large sheet from its material costs on a high percentage of tasks.
storage rack a task which normally involves at least two
persons and good communication between the carriers is Repair or modification drawings must be studied very carefully,
important so that the task is completed in a safe manner and no to ensure there is no doubt about the data and dimensions
damage is done to the sheet metal. provided, so that the marking out is correctly done and the
approved metal is shaped in exactly the manner that the
designer of the drawing intended.
MARKING OUT
Having carefully studied all the data and dimensions on the In some instances it may be advantageous to rub chalk on the
relevant drawing, the technician, after confirming that the surface or to apply a thin coat of zinc chromate, to make it
correct metal (to the appropriate heat-treatment standard) is easier to distinguish the marking out lines, which (if they are not
being used, can proceed with marking out the pattern for the going to be removed) should be made with a soft pencil.
part which is being formed.
Once the outline is completed, the sheet may be (carefully)
Firstly the overall dimensions of the part must be computed and, moved to the squaring shears, or guillotine and the outline cut
where necessary, a bare outline drawn on the large sheet, so from the main sheet. The square edge, created by the squaring
that the metal can be cut and, thus, allow an easier, smaller shears, will make the use of such tools as engineers squares,
piece upon which to work. combination sets and Vernier protractors etc. easier, to achieve
parallel and appropriately angled lines during completion of the
It must be remembered that, the metal should be cut so that any marking out.
identification markings remain on the larger piece, for future
users of the sheet and that scribers must only be used to mark Note: Before any centre punch marks are made (for the location
lines which are going to be removed from the surface. of the centres of radii or holes) it must be confirmed that they
are in the required location.
Scribed lines penetrate the aluminium cladding of Alclad alloys,
which can lead not only to subsequent corrosion, but also can The punch should be only lightly tapped with a hammer (or a
create stress raisers and the initiation of cracks in the material. suitably adjusted automatic centre punch used), so that the
punch marks do not distort the thin metal sheet.
The drawing of the outline is achieved by establishing a datum
line or point on the surface of the metal and taking all
dimensions from the datum so that errors, due to chaining of
dimensions, are eliminated.
As previously stated, the sheet metal used for aircraft Some alloys must be subjected to either an annealing, or to a
construction and repair, is generally formed from an ingot of solution treatment procedure before (and, again, after) bending
aluminium alloy that has been processed through a series of but, as this is, usually, beyond the scope of maintenance
rollers. technicians, mention of it is merely made here to draw attention
to its requirement and for the need for vigilance when bending
This process reduces the thickness of the material to a sheets of aluminium alloy.
dimension that meets the requirements of the design drawing.
As a result of this process, the metal assumes a grain structure, Bending of aluminium alloys is achieved either by the use of:
which can easily be detected in a sample of sheet aluminium
alloy. Specially-shaped bending bars: used for small pieces and
larger angles and between which, the sheet is clamped, in a
When planning any sheet metal work process, the orientation of vice, while the metal is bent, by hitting with a hide-faced or
the metal is to be taken into account so that any bends formed similarly soft-headed hammer
will, where practical and achievable, be made across the grain. A large, free standing, bending machine (or bending brake):
Where, however, strength is required along the length of a long, in which the metal sheet is clamped and the bend made, in
channel section, then, regardless of any bends, the grain should one movement, by means of a hinged bending leaf.
flow along the length of the channel.
Caution must also be exercised when forming a bend, using the
Great care must be taken, before bending aluminium alloy, to bending bars and soft-headed hammer method, because too
ensure that it is of the correct designation and heat-treatment many blows with the hammer will cause work-hardening of the
standard. The subject of the heat-treatments of aluminium metal, or the metal, in the bend, will become too thin and
alloys was discussed fully in Module 6 Materials and stretched. Subsequent cracking of the metal will result from
Hardware in the topic on AIRCRAFT MATERIALS NON- these faults
FERROUS.
For this reason the bending brake is preferred but, in a similar
manner to the squaring shears, only the approved thicknesses
of metals should be bent in these machines, as any distortion
will destroy the accuracy of the bends.
A t = 1.2 mm
As an example, if it were required to form a right angled curve
(10 mm radius) in an 18 SWG aluminium alloy sheet, to provide
L1
two legs, effectively 76.2 mm (3 in) in length (refer to Fig. 1), it
can be seen that the actual length of metal involved is obviously
Y = 76.2 mm
less than 2 x 76.2 mm (6 in). The total length of the metal,
required for the curve, is deduced by using the formula:
B r = 10.0 mm
LT = L1 + BA + L2
Where LT = Total Length of Metal Required
L1 = X (r + t) L2
L2 = Y (r + t)
BA = Bend Allowance
X and Y = Effective Lengths of Unbent Sections
r = Radius of Bend
t = Thickness (SWG) of Metal Total Length of Metal in a Curve
Fig. 1
ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only
PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M7/03 Rev. 00
7.14 - 4 Mar 2014
PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 7 - MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
Category A/B1 Sub Module 7.14 Material Handling
The lengths of both L1 and L2 can be found by subtracting the However, as curves are normally shown as radii, in engineering
sum of the radius and the metal thickness from the effective drawings, the previously given formula is preferred here.
lengths of the unbent sections. In this instance, therefore, the
lengths are both 76.2 11.2 = 65 mm. Substituting figures, in the preferred formula, it will be seen that
the bend allowance equates to 16.65 mm (0.66 in). When this
To calculate the length of metal in the bend (Bend Allowance) it figure is added to lengths L1 and L2, it can be seen that the total
is necessary to consider the fact that, when metal is bent, the length of metal, required to form the curve, is only 146.65 mm
metal on the inside of the bend will be compressed while that on (5.77 in) and not 152.4 mm (6 in).
the outside of the bend will be subjected to tension or stretching
so that the length of metal on the inside and outside of the bend In a simple, single curve, this represents a saving in metal of
will be different. only 5.75 mm (0.23 in) but, in a multiple bend component, and
with larger radii involved, considerable savings of metal can be
It may, however, be considered that there is a neutral line (at made by using these formulas to calculate the correct amount of
approximately half thickness) where the compression and metal required to forms bends in sheet metal.
tensile forces cancel out. It is this line which is taken, to
calculate the length of the arc of the circumference of the circle, Table 1 shows data relating to bend allowances for forming 90
which would be described by the radius of the curve. The Bend curves of various radii in both 20 SWG and 18 SWG metals.
Allowance is, thus calculated, using the formula: Using the preferred formula, the student should be able to
calculate the bend allowances and enter them in the empty
BA = 2 (r + t) spaces in the table.
360
Where r = Radius of Bend
t = Thickness of Metal
= Angle of Bend
BA = (D + t)
360
Table 1
BEND ALLOWANCES (BA) FOR A 90 BEND
Bend Lines
Development of Shape
Fig. 2
ISO 9001:2008 Certified For Training Purpose Only
PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M7/03 Rev. 00
7.14 - 6 Mar 2014
PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC) Module 7 - MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
Category A/B1 Sub Module 7.14 Material Handling
The sighting line, as the name implies, is then used, to align Brake Bed
with the front of the clamping nib and, in this way, allowance is
made for the thickness of the metal in the formation of the
curve.
Hinge Point
Bend Leaf Bends
Counter-clockwise
Once the marking out has been verified as being correct, the Care must be taken when drilling aluminium sheet, due to the
forming of the final shape of the sheet metal component can be danger of cutting enlarged holes in the soft, thin metal and to
achieved by the use of appropriate cutting and, if necessary, the tendency to distortion, caused by the application of too great
bending tools. a weight on unsupported aluminium sections. Twist drills must
be of the correct type and size, with accurately-ground points,
Cutting and their passage, through the metal, must be carefully
controlled at all times. Off cuts of scrap wood should be placed
While metal-cutting tools were discussed in the earlier topic on behind (or underneath) sheet metal parts while drilling is in
TOOLS, mention is made here of the manner in which the progress and both the backing piece and the part must be firmly
relevant tools should be used when working with sheet held, to prevent movement during the drilling procedures.
aluminium alloys.
Similarly, scrap wood should be used, as backing, when hack-
The squaring shears has already been used to produce a sawing or filing sheet metal and protection must be given,
convenient size upon which to work and, of course, to provide against possible damage, when such components are held in
an accurate straight edge from which to make measurements. the jaws of vices, by the use of soft vice clamps.
Note: The squaring shears must only be used to cut metal of the Obviously fine-toothed hacksaws (32 tpi) and second cut and/or
approved thickness (recommended by its manufacturer) and smooth files (used with long, smooth strokes), are the cutting
must never be used on sheets (or strips) of metal thicker than tools, used in the shaping of sheet metal parts. Files, as
those specified. The alignment of the blade will be distorted and discussed in the TOOLS topic, must be regularly cleaned, to
the accuracy of its cut will be degraded if this caution is ignored. prevent the build up of pinnings, and the use of file cards and
chalk, for this task, has also been, earlier, mentioned.
When using shears (whether squaring or the hand type), then
the cut must be made slightly above the line. This allows for
filing down to the line, which will eliminate the possibility of
stress raisers being formed at the edges of the metal, due to the
shearing action of the various types of shears.
MODULE 7
Sub Module 7.14.2
BONDING PRACTICES
WARNING: CONTROLLED VENTILATION, PROTECTIVE
Bonding, by the use of adhesives, is the third method of CLOTHING, AND ANTI-FIRE/EXPLOSION PRACTICES, ARE
achieving permanent joints between surfaces, to be considered ABSOLUTELY ESSENTIAL, WHEN WORKING WITH
in this part of the course. ADHESIVES AND SEALANTS.
ALTHOUGH MANY OF THE ADHESIVES IN CURRENT USE
Comprehensive coverage of adhesives and sealants is provided ARE SUPPLIED IN FILM FORM, SOME ARE LIQUIDS OR
in Module 6 - (Materials and Hardware), along with details of PASTES, FROM WHICH, TOXIC AND FLAMMABLE
composite materials, the detection of typical defects and the VAPOURS ARE EMITTED, PRIOR TO CURING.
methods used in their repair, therefore consideration here will MANY OF THE NECESSARY, SURFACE PREPARATION
be limited merely to a summary of: SOLVENTS, ALSO GIVE OFF TOXIC/FLAMMABLE
VAPOURS.
Bonding terminologies
Methods of bonding The warning is reproduced from Module 6 (Materials and
The inspection and testing of bonded joints. Hardware), where it also states that the two major groups of
adhesives, are:
Bonding, in the aerospace industry, is employed to form
permanent joints between materials ranging from composites, Flexible adhesives: used where some flexing or slight
fabrics, metals and metal alloys, to plastics, - all of which are relative movement, of the joint is required, and where high
referred to as adherends. load-carrying properties are not paramount. These
adhesives are, generally, based on flexible plastics or
The surface texture of a particular adherend, the type of joint elastomers
required, and the manner in which loads are applied to the joint Structural adhesives: used in applications where high loads
will dictate the type of adhesive to be used, and the method to must be carried without excessive creep and which are
be employed, in effecting the joint. relatively rigid without being excessively hard or brittle.
These adhesives are based on resins (commonly of the
Synthetic resins (and some elastomers) are mainly used as epoxy or of the polyester types).
adhesives in the bonding of aircraft structures and associated
components and, while most of them are used at the Note: Another group of adhesives is the two-polymer type,
manufacturing stages, some may well be used, by aircraft which has a reasonably even balance of resin and elastomer.
servicing technicians, during routine maintenance tasks. This results in a flexible, yet fairly strong, adhesive.
BONDING METHODS
While the two major groups of adhesives are designated as Contact adhesives are also applied to both surfaces to be joined
flexible or structural, they are further classified as being of the but, with these adhesives, the solvent is allowed to evaporate
thermoplastic or of the thermosetting types. Each types until the adhesive feels tacky, when the surfaces are, then,
characteristics will influence the method employed in its use as brought into contact and a complete joint is achieved.
a bonding agent.
Thermoplastic materials are those which soften on heating and Thermosetting materials (thermosets), once set, cannot be
harden when cooled but will, again soften and harden as often reformed by the application of heat and they create permanent
as the heat/cool cycle is repeated. heat-resisting bonds.
Thermoplastic adhesives consist of thermoplastic materials Thermosetting adhesives consist of epoxy- and phenolic-based
(which may be either acrylic-, cellulose-, epoxy-, rubber- or materials in addition to polyesters, polyurethanes, and silicones.
vinyl-based), in solution with a volatile solvent and which may Thermosets require a curing process (which is achieved by the
surface of adherends in the form of: application of heat), to cause them to harden.
Direct application adhesives The heat can be obtained by placing the components being
Contact (or impact) adhesives. joined into an oven or into an autoclave (a pressurised oven).
Alternatively, the adhesive in the joint can be heated by the
Direct application adhesives, are spread over the area of both chemical (exothermic) reaction of a hardening agent, which is
surfaces of the joint before the joint is closed and the solvent added to the adhesive, prior to the joint being made.
continues to evaporate. This method can create problems if the
joint area is large, as all of the solvent may not evaporate and a Thermosetting adhesives are the types most widely used in the
weak joint will result. aerospace industry.
Today's composite inspection techniques and non-destructive Visual inspection is the most frequently used inspection method
testing (NDT) methods typically involve the use of multiple in aviation. Ideally, pilots, ground crew and maintenance
methods to accurately determine the airworthiness of an aircraft technicians visually inspect the aircraft on a daily basis. Where
structure. Fortunately, many metal inspection and NDT methods composite materials are concerned visual inspection is
transfer to composite applications. Composite structures require generally used to detect resin-rich areas, resin starvation, edge
ongoing inspection intervals along with non-scheduled damage delamination, fiber breakage, cracks, blistering, and other types
inspection and testing. of surface irregularities. A strong light and magnifying glass are
useful tools for visual inspection. In extremely critical cases a
small microscope is helpful in determining whether the fibers in
When a composite structure is damaged, it must first be a cracked surface are broken, or if the crack affects the resin
thoroughly inspected to determine the extent of the damage, only. Shining a strong light through the structure, called
which often extends beyond the immediate apparent defect. backlighting, helps in the identification of cracked or broken
Proper inspection and testing methods help determine the fibers, and, in some cases, delamination. The delaminated area
classification of damage, which is, whether the damage is may appear as a bubble, an indentation in the surface, or a
repairable or whether the part must be replaced. In addition, change in color if viewed from the side opposite the light.
classifying the damage helps to determine the proper method of However, backlighting does not detect entrapped water. In
repair. The manufacturer's structural repair manual outlines addition, to properly inspect a composite using the backlight
inspection procedures, damage classification factors, and method, you must strip the surface of all paint.
recommended repair methods.
Many times, visual inspection alone is not adequate to
Some of the more common composite inspection and testing accurately determine the soundness of a composite structure. In
methods are visual inspection, tap testing, and ultrasonic testing the case of visually inspecting a sandwich structure, many times
along with several other more advanced NDT methods. core crush is not evident from the surface. The surface may not
show any residual damage and may have sprung back to its
original shape and location, which is one of the main problems
with inspecting composite materials. Internal damage is not
always evident from the surface, which further necessitates the
use of additional, more advanced methods of inspection when
damage is suspected.
Radiography or x-ray inspection is used to detect differences in Dye penetrant successfully detects cracks and other defects in
the thickness or physical density compared to the surrounding metallic surfaces, but should not be used on composite
material of a composite. It can be used to detect surface as well structure unless called for by the manufacturer of that particular
as internal cracks. Radiography also detects entrapped water part. If a dye penetrant is used on the composite structure and
inside honeycomb core cells. In addition to detecting the actual allowed to sit on the surface, the wicking action of the fibers
defect, it can also detect the extent and size of the damage, may absorb the penetrant. Absorbed penetrant does not allow
unlike ultrasonic or tap testing. X-ray inspection will also detect fibers to bond to new material. The entire area affected by the
foreign objects in the composite structure if the object's density dye penetrant would have to be removed before a patch could
is different from the composite structure. be applied, which could extend the damaged area of the part to
a size that would make the part unserviceable.
Thermography
Acoustic emission testing
Thermography locates flaws by temperature variations at the
surface of a damaged part. Heat is applied to the part and the Another nondestructive testing technique used to detect
temperature gradients are measured using an infrared camera. composite defects is acoustic emission testing. Presently, this
Thermography requires knowledge of the thermal conductivity type of test is more commonly found in production facilities
of the test specimen and a reference standard for comparison rather than in maintenance. Acoustic emission testing is a
purposes. comparison test. Thus to detect flaws a good test sample must
be available to compare the test results of the composite
structure. It measures the sounds of a structure and any
subsequent defects. Basically, acoustic emission testing picks
up the "noise" of the defect and displays it on an oscilloscope.
This type of testing detects entrapped water, cracks,
delamination, and other subsurface flaws.