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6, OCTOBER 1998
(Invited Paper)
AbstractWe survey the field of quantum information theory. receiver in the senders forward light cone. Entanglement, by
In particular, we discuss the fundamentals of the field, source contrast, cannot be copied, but can connect any two points in
coding, quantum error-correcting codes, capacities of quantum spacetime. Conventional data-processing operations destroy
channels, measures of entanglement, and quantum cryptography.
entanglement, but quantum operations can create it, preserve
Index Terms Entanglement, quantum cryptography, quan- it, and use it for various purposes, notably speeding up certain
tum error-correcting codes, quantum information, quantum computations and assisting in the transmission of classical
source coding.
data (quantum superdense coding) or intact quantum states
(quantum teleportation) from a sender to a receiver.
I. INTRODUCTION Any means, such as an optical fiber, for delivering quantum
systems more or less intact from one place to another, may
R ECENTLY, the historic connection between information
and physics has been revitalized, as the methods of
information and computation theory have been extended to
be viewed as a quantum channel. Unlike classical channels,
such channels have three distinct capacities: a capacity
treat the transmission and processing of intact quantum states, for transmitting classical data, a typically lower capacity
and the interaction of such quantum information with tradi- for transmitting intact quantum states, and a third capacity
tional classical information. Although many of the quantum , often between and , for transmitting intact quantum
results are similar to their classical analogs, there are notable states with the assistance of a two-way classical side-channel
differences. This new research has the potential to shed light between sender and receiver.
both on quantum physics and on classical information theory. How, then, does quantum information, and the operations
In retrospect, this development seems somewhat belated, that can be performed on it, differ from conventional digital
since quantum mechanics has long been thought to underlie data and data-processing operations? A classical bit (e.g., a
all classical processes. But until recently, information itself memory element or wire carrying a binary signal) is generally
had largely been thought of in classical terms, with quantum a system containing many atoms, and is described by one
mechanics playing a supporting role of helping design the or more continuous parameters such as voltages. Within this
equipment used to process it, setting limits on the rate at parameter space two well-separated regions are chosen by the
which it could be sent through certain quantum channels. designer to represent and , and signals are periodically
Now we know that a fully quantum theory of information and restored toward these standard regions to prevent them from
information processing offers, among other benefits, a brand drifting away due to environmental perturbations, manufac-
of cryptography whose security rests on fundamental physics, turing defects, etc. An -bit memory can exist in any of
and a reasonable hope of constructing quantum computers that logical states, labeled to . Besides storing binary
could dramatically speed up the solution of certain mathemat- data, classical computers manipulate it, a sequence of Boolean
ical problems. These feats depend on distinctively quantum operations (for example, NOT and AND) acting on the bits one
properties such as uncertainty, interference, and entanglement. or two at a time being sufficient to realize any deterministic
At a more fundamental level, it has become clear that an transformation.
information theory based on quantum principles extends and A quantum bit, or qubit, by contrast is typically a micro-
completes classical information theory, somewhat as complex scopic system, such as an atom or nuclear spin or polarized
numbers extend and complete the reals. The new theory photon. The Boolean states and are represented by a fixed
includes quantum generalizations of classical notions such as pair of reliably distinguishable states of the qubit (for exam-
sources, channels, and codes, as well as two complementary, ple, horizontal and vertical polarizations: , ).
quantifiable kinds of informationclassical information and A qubit can also exist in a continuum of intermediate states, or
quantum entanglement. Classical information can be copied superpositions, represented mathematically as unit vectors in
freely, but can only be transmitted forward in time, to a a two-dimensional complex vector space (the Hilbert space
) spanned by the basis vectors and . For photons,
Manuscript received January 4, 1998; revised June 2, 1998. these intermediate states correspond to other polarizations, for
C. H. Bennett is with the IBM Research Division, T. J. Watson example,
Research Center, Yorktown Heights, NY 10598 USA (e-mail: ben-
netc@watson.ibm.com).
P. W. Shor is with the AT&T LabsResearch, Florham Park, NJ 07932
USA (e-mail: shor@research.att.com).
Publisher Item Identifier S 0018-9448(98)06316-0.
In open systems, a pure state may naturally evolve into a mixed occurred, Bob will know that Alice holds pure state . Bobs
state (which can also be described as a pure state of a larger ability to decide Alices ensemble in this unilateral, post facto
system comprising the original system and its environment). fashion, has an important bearing on quantum cryptography
Mathematically, a mixed state is represented by a positive- as will be discussed later.
semidefinite, self-adjoint density matrix , having unit trace, Since a mixed state represents incomplete information, it is
and being defined in the first situation by natural to associate with any mixed state an entropy, given by
the von Neumann formula
(2)
(4)
and in the second situation by If the pure states comprising an ensemble are orthogonal,
(3) then they are mutually distinguishable, and can thus be treated
as classical states. In this situation, the von Neumann entropy
Here denotes a partial trace over the indices of the is equal to the Shannon entropy of the probabilities
subsystem. A pure state is represented in the density-matrix
formalism by the rank-one projection matrix .
It is evident, in the first situation, that infinitely many
different ensembles can give rise to the same density matrix. When the pure states are nonorthogonal, and thus not
For example, the density matrix wholly distinguishable as physical states, the ensembles von
Neumann entropy is less than the Shannon entropy.
It is not hard to show that for any bipartite pure state , the
density matrices and of its parts have equal rank and
may be viewed as an equal mixture of the pure states equal spectra of nonzero eigenvalues. Moreover, the original
and , or as an equal mixture of and state has an especially simple expression in terms of these
, or indeed as any other equal mixture of two eigenvalues and eigenvectors
orthogonal single-qubit pure states. Similarly, in the second
(5)
situation, it is evident that infinitely many different pure states
of the system can give rise to the same density matrix
for the subsystem. One may therefore wonder in what where and are eigenvectors of and , respec-
sense a density matrix is an adequate description of a statistical tively, corresponding to the positive eigenvalues . This
ensemble of pure states, or of part of a larger system in a expression, known as the Schmidt decomposition, unfortu-
pure entangled state. The answer is that the density matrix nately has no simple counterpart for tripartite and higher
captures all and only that information that can be obtained by systems.
an observer allowed to examine infinitely many states sampled The recent rapid progress in the theory of quantum informa-
from the ensemble , or given infinitely many opportunities to tion processing can be divided into two related parts: quantum
examine part of an system prepared in entangled pure computation and quantum information theory. Although major
state . This follows from the elementary fact that for any test practical questions remain concerning the physical realiza-
vector , if a specimen drawn from ensemble is tion of quantum computers, many of the most important
tested for whether it is in state , the probability of a positive theoretical questions in quantum computation have already
outcome is been answered: quantum algorithms are known to provide an
exponential speedup, compared to known classical algorithms,
for integer factoring and a few other problems, a quadratic
speedup for a broad range of search and optimization prob-
Similarly, for any test state of the subsystem, the lems, and no significant speedup for such problems as iterated
probability that an entangled state of the system having function evaluation. The discovery of quantum error-correcting
as its partial trace will give a positive outcome is simply codes and fault-tolerant gate arrays (reviewed in [59]) means
. that, in principle, finitely reliable components are sufficient
Perhaps more remarkable than the indistinguishability of to perform arbitrarily large reliable quantum computations,
the different ensembles compatible with is the fact that any just as in the theory of classical computation. But there is a
of them can be produced at will starting from any entangled quantitative difference. Todays classical devices (e.g., CMOS
state of the system having as its partial trace. More transistors) are so intrinsically reliable that fault-tolerant cir-
specifically, if two parties (call them Alice and Bob) are in cuits are rarely needed. By contrast, todays primitive quantum
possession of the and parts, respectively, of a system hardware is several orders too unreliable to be corrected by
in state , then for each compatible ensemble known fault-tolerant circuit designs. Fortunately, there appears
that Bob might wish to create in Alices hands, there is a to be no fundamental reason why this gap cannot be closed
measurement he can perform on the subsystem alone, by future improvements in hardware and software.
without Alices knowledge or cooperation, that will realize that Here we concentrate on the second area: quantum infor-
ensemble in the sense that the measurement yields outcome mation theory, where the classical notions of source, channel,
with probability , and conditionally on that outcome having code, and capacity have been generalized to encompass the
2728 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INFORMATION THEORY, VOL. 44, NO. 6, OCTOBER 1998
TABLE I
CLASSICAL-QUANTUM COMPARISON
Reliable computations from unreliable gates Yes, by classical fault-tolerant gate arrays Yes, by quantum fault-tolerant gate
arrays
Source entropy
Noisy channel capacities Classical capacity equals maximum mutual Classical capacity
information through a single channel use Unassisted quantum capacity
Agreement on a secret cryptographic key Insecure against unlimited Secure against general quantum
computing power, or if attack and unlimited computing
optimal use of various channels, noiseless and noisy, for respects to the role of classical information. One of the
communicating not only classical information but also in- important tasks of quantum information theory is therefore to
tact quantum states, and for sharing entanglement between devise quantitative measures of entanglement for bipartite and
separated observers. Although the fundamental physics and multipartite systems, pure and mixed. More generally, the the-
mathematics on which it is based is over fifty years old, the ory should characterize the efficiency with which multipartite
new theory has taken shape mostly over the last five years. states can be transformed into one another by local operations
Quantum data compression [3], [45], superdense coding [16], and classical communication alone, without the exchange of
quantum teleportation [10], and entanglement concentration quantum information among the parties. A complementary
[8], [53] exemplify nontrivial ways in which quantum channels question is the extent to which prior entanglement among
can be used, alone or in combination with classical channels, separated parties can reduce communication complexity, i.e.,
to transmit quantum and classical information. More recently, the amount of classical communication needed to evaluate
quantum error-correcting codes [14], [19][23], [25], [28], functions of several inputs, one held by each party.
[33], [46], [48], [58], [66], [68], [69] and entanglement distilla-
tion protocols [12], [14], [24], [40], [41] have been discovered II. SOURCE AND CHANNEL CODING
which allow noisy quantum channels, if not too noisy, to be A natural quantum analog of a (discrete, memoryless)
substituted for noiseless ones in these applications. Important information source is an ensemble of pure or mixed states [2]
problems still open include finding exact expressions, rather , emitted with known probabilities .
than upper and lower bounds, for the classical and quantum The quantum analog of a (discrete noiseless) channel is any
capacities of noisy quantum channels. Some of the main quantum system capable of existing in an arbitrary state in
similarities and differences between classical and quantum some finite-dimensional Hilbert space, of being entangled with
information processing are summarized in Table I. other similar quantum systems, and of remaining stably in this
As noted earlier, entanglement plays a central role in entangled or superposed state while enroute from sender to
this enlarged information theory, complementary in several receiver. Just as a sequence of bits, sent through a classical
BENNETT AND SHOR: QUANTUM INFORMATION THEORY 2729
channel, can be used to transmit any of up to distinct defined [44] by a more complicated formula
classical messages, so a sequence of elementary -state
quantum systems or qubits can be used to transmit an arbitrary (7)
quantum state in a Hilbert space of up to dimensions.
The quantum analog of a noisy channel is a quantum system
which represents the maximum of (6) over purifications [44]
that interacts unitarily with an outside environment while
of , i.e., pure states in a larger Hilbert space having
enroute from sender to receiver. Noisy channels (including
as their partial trace.
noiseless ones as a special case) may thus be described as
The two most important techniques of classical informa-
superoperators.
tion theory are data compression and error correction. When
If the states of a quantum source are all orthogonal, the
the encoder and decoder are allowed to perform quantum
source can be considered purely classical, because complete
operations, these techniques can be extended to quantum
information about the source state can be extracted by a
sources and channels, enabling data from a quantum source
measurement at the sending end, transmitted classically to the
to be recovered with arbitrarily high fidelity after transmission
receiving end, and used there to make arbitrarily many faithful
through a noiseless or noisy quantum channel, provided the
replicas of the source state. On the other hand, if the source
entropy of the source is less than the quantum capacity of the
states are pure and nonorthogonal, then no classical mea-
channel.
surement can extract complete information about the source
Classical data compression allows information from a re-
state, and, whenever a source state is sent through a quantum
dundant source, e.g., a binary source emitting and with
channel, at most one faithful copy of the source state can be
unequal probability, to be compressed without distortion into
produced at the receiving end, and then only if no faithful copy
a bulk asymptotically approaching the sources Shannon en-
remains behind at the sending end. An interesting intermediate
tropy. Similarly, quantum data compression (cf. Fig. 2(a))
situation occurs when the source states are nonorthogonal but
allows signals from a redundant quantum source, e.g., one
commuting mixed states (i.e., the density matrices of the states
emitting horizontal and diagonal ( ) photons with equal
commute). Such a source can be broadcast, i.e., given an
probability, to be compressed into a bulk approaching the
unknown one of the source states , two systems and
sources von Neumann entropy, , where
can be prepared in a joint state , which is not a clone
, with fidelity approaching in the limit
of the source state (i.e., ), but whose
of large . Quantum data compression [45] is performed
partial trace over either subsystem agrees with the source state
essentially by projecting the state of a sequence of source
signals onto the subspace spanned by the most
important eigenvectors of their joint density matrix (the th
tensor power of ). This typical subspace is the subspace
This broadcasting is essentially the same as classically spanned by typical sequences of eigenvectors, where the
copying a random variablethe resulting copies each have probability associated with each eigenvector is its eigenvalue.
the right distribution, but the joint distribution of the copies For every positive and there exists an such that for
is not equal to the product distribution of several copies of block size or greater, the resulting projection has probability
the original source. If the density matrices of the source states less that of failing (i.e., having the state not fall into the
do not commute (this includes the case of pure nonorthogonal designated subspace when measured), and fidelity greater than
states), then the source can neither be cloned nor broadcast [2]. if it does succeed. Thus the overall fidelity exceeds
Because quantum information cannot be read or copied .
without disturbing it, whatever encoding apparatus is used at Slightly generalizing this example, suppose the source emits
the sending end of a quantum channel must function rather two equiprobable states and , i.e.,
blindly. If the channel is to transmit nonorthogonal pure states two polarizations differing by an angle . The corresponding
faithfully, it must operate on the states that pass through density matrix is
without knowing or learning anything about them. For the
same reasons, assessment of the quality of quantum data (8)
transmission is a somewhat delicate matter. If the source states
are pure, and a quantum channel produces output (in This matrix has eigenvalues , so its von Neumann
general a mixed state) on input , then the transmissions entropy, and the resulting compression factor, is
fidelity [45] is defined as , where is the dyadic entropy function
(6)
Though formally a close parallel to the classical noiseless
coding theorem, quantum data compression is remarkable
This is the expectation, averaged over channel inputs, that in that it can compress and re-expand each of distinct
the output would pass a test for being the same as the input, sequences of and photons, with fidelity approaching
conducted by someone who knew what the input was. When for the entire sequence, even though the sequences cannot be
even the source states are mixed states, fidelity must be reliably distinguished from one another by any measurement.
2730 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INFORMATION THEORY, VOL. 44, NO. 6, OCTOBER 1998
Hilbert space in such a way that the error processes the code
is designed to correcthere interaction of any one of the
qubits with the environmentdo not allow any information
about the encoded state to leak out. This enables the quantum
decoder to restore the data qubit to its exact original state
without duplicating any quantum information, while funneling
the effects of the error into ancillary qubits, which are then
discarded.
To see how quantum error-correcting codes are constructed,
(a) consider the following example. Suppose we take the simplest
classical error-correcting code, the threefold repetition code,
and try to turn it into a quantum error-correcting code in the
most obvious way. We obtain the following transformation:
(9)
This code does not represent a cloning of the original qubit,
but rather an embedding of its two-dimensional Hilbert space
into a particular two-dimensional subspace of the eight-
dimensional space of three qubits, namely that spanned by
(b) the vectors and
Fig. 2. (a) Quantum Data Compression: If classical data is redundant, due The problem with this encoding is that, while it protects
to unequal digit frequencies or correlations between the digits, it can be against any single bit flip (i.e., or , ), a
compressed to a smaller volume by techniques such as Huffman coding. phase flip (i.e., , or , ) in any one of
Quantum data can be redundant in these ways but also in a third way: if
the states in the data stream are nonorthogonal (e.g., a random stream of the qubits will produce a phase flip in the encoded state. Thus
horizontal and 45 diagonal photons) and thus not wholly distinct as physical protection against bit flips has been obtained at the expense
states. Such a data stream cannot be compressed by classical means, because of increasing the vulnerability to phase flips. Equivalently, we
the sending station would disturb the data by trying to read it. However, by
performing unitary transformations on blocks of incoming states, a quantum have protected the states and (encoded as and
encoder can, without learning anything about the states, squeeze almost all ) but we have made the states encoded
their information into a smaller number of qubits, from which the original
states can be reconstructed almost perfectly by an inverse transformation at as more vulnerable, as a phase error in
the receiving station. The retained qubits leaving the encoder are heavily any one of the three encoding qubits will induce a phase error
entangled (shading); the discarded qubits contain little information and are in the encoded qubit. The difficulty arises because a successful
almost unentangled. The reconstruction approaches perfect fidelity, and the
residual entanglement (pale shading) vanishes, in the limit of large . (b) quantum error-correcting code must protect the entire subspace
In a quantum error-correcting code, the encoder entangles the input state generated by superpositions of encoded states and . In
with four standard qubits. The resulting entangled state can then withstand general, quantum error-correcting codes cannot merely protect
the corruption of any one of its qubits, and still allow recovery of the exact
initial state by a decoder at the receiving end of the channel. specific quantum states, but must protect an entire subspace.
There is a duality between the role of bits and phases, as can
It is also quite interesting that the compression factor does be seen by considering the so-called Hadamard transformation
not depend on the ensemble of states output by the source,
but merely on the density matrix of these states. Although
many different sources will give rise to the same density
matrix, both the amount of compression achievable and the (10)
SchumacherJozsa algorithm for performing this compression
Under this transformation, bit flips become phase flips and
depend only on the density matrix.
vice versa. Applying the Hadamard transformation to the
Quantum error-correcting codes [14], [19], [22], [23], [28],
codewords of the triple-repetition code yields a code that
[33], [46], [48], [58], [66], [68], [69] have been the subject of
protects against phase flips but not bit flips. This encoding
intensive research since their discovery about three years ago.
is the following:
The idea that quantum error correction is possible is somewhat
counterintuitive, because one familiar kind of classical error
correctionin which the encoder makes several copies of (11)
the input and the decoder performs a majority vote over the
channel outputscannot be used with quantum data because Here phase flips can easily be seen to take an encoded (or
of the impossibility of accurately measuring or cloning an un- ) to orthogonal states; for instance, a phase flip in the third
known quantum state. Nevertheless, quantum error-correcting qubit produces , orthogonal
codes (QECC) exist and are indeed a natural generalization to both states in (11). Since the states resulting from a phase
of classical error-correcting codes ([cf. Fig. 2(b)). Rather than flip in any one of the three positions are all orthogonal to
copying the input, the quantum encoder embeds it in a larger each other and to the original uncorrupted states, there is a
BENNETT AND SHOR: QUANTUM INFORMATION THEORY 2731
von Neumann measurement to determine which phase flip has matrix and the three Pauli matrices
occurred, allowing it to be corrected. On the other hand, this
(14)
encoding results in increased vulnerability to bit flips, as such
an error in any qubit interchanges an encoded and an form a basis for the space of all matrices. The Pauli
encoded . matrix corresponds to a bit flip, corresponds to a phase
One objection that might be raised to the above analysis flip, and corresponds to a qubit where both the value and
of the phase error-correcting code is phase flips are actually a the phase have been flipped. In general, if any tensor product
very specific discrete form of error, while quantum-mechanical of up to of the Pauli matrices in different qubits can be
systems can undergo a continuous spectrum of errors. A corrected, a general error in up to qubits can be corrected.
general phase error is of the form , whereas a phase One way of understanding quantum codes is viewing
flip corresponds to . The answer to this objection is the encoding process as a way of separating the space of
to show that the above code will correct any phase error. In encoded states and the space of possible few-bit errors
fact, any quantum code-correcting phase flips will also correct into orthogonal dimensions of Hilbert space. This makes
general phase errors. it possible to perform a measurement of the error without
To see that it is enough to consider phase flips, we first disturbing the encoded state, allowing a subsequent unitary
use the fact that a quantum state can be multiplied by an transformation to correct the error. In actuality, it is not
arbitrary phase factor, so we can rewrite the phase error above necessary to measure the error; one can accomplish error
as with . Consider what happens when this correction by unitary transformations which separate the
error is applied the first bit of the encoded state above. We Hilbert space into a tensor product of a space containing
obtain the mapping the encoded state and a space containing the error.
Shortly after the nine-bit code was discovered, a code
protecting one bit by mapping it into seven bits was discovered
independently by Andrew Steane [69] (who had not seen the
(12) nine-bit construction) and by Calderbank and Shor [22]. This
was just the first representative of an infinite class of codes
Observe that this is a superposition of an encoded with no also presented in these papers. Subsequently, a five-bit was
error, with amplitude , and an encoded with a phase discovered [14], [49] by searching the space of possible codes.
flip in the first bit, with amplitude . When we measure Several other codes followed [59], [70], as well as several
which bit is wrong, a phase flip in bit will be observed papers on the general theory of quantum error-correcting
with probability , and no error observed with probability codes [28], [47]. By analyzing these examples, a more general
. In either case, the act of measurement has reduced the class of quantum codes was discovered [20], [33]. This led
state vector, so the measured error corresponds to the actual to the discovery of a method of turning certain additive
error in the state. This error can subsequently be corrected. GF codes into quantum codes [21]. Using this connection
The trick to obtaining a code that protects against both bit between classical and quantum codes made it possible to find
flips and phase flips in any one qubit is apply the two preceding MacWilliams identities [68] and linear programming bounds
codes in a nested fashion to obtain a nine-qubit concatenated [61], [62] that apply to quantum codes. Although we will not
code: discuss this subject further, the area is still quite active.
Despite the rapid progress in quantum error-correcting
codes, the notion of quantum channel capacity is more
complicated and less well understood than its classical
counterpart. As noted above, a quantum channel generally
has three distinct capacities: an unassisted capacity for
transmitting intact quantum states, a typically larger capacity
for transmitting classical information, and a classically
(13) assisted quantum capacity , for transmitting intact quantum
states with the help of a two-way classical side-channel.
Bit flips are corrected by the inner code and phase flips are Paralleling the definition of capacity for classical channels,
corrected by the outer code. It is easy to check that these the unassisted quantum capacity of a noisy channel
correction processes do not interfere with each othereven if may defined as the greatest rate (transmitted qubits per
one of the qubits suffers both a bit flip and a phase flip, the channel use) at which, for arbitrarily large and arbitrarily
error will be corrected properly. small , every state of qubits can be recovered with
We now have a code which protects against bit and/or phase fidelity greater than after block-encoding, transmission
flips in any single qubit. As noted before, quantum mechanics through the channel, and block-decoding. More precisely,
has a continuous space of errors and bit and phase flips are is defined as
only two specific possibilities. However, just as the ability to
correct phase flips sufficed to correct any phase error, so the
ability to correct both phase and bit flips suffices to correct any
single-qubit error. This follows from the fact that the identity (15)
2732 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INFORMATION THEORY, VOL. 44, NO. 6, OCTOBER 1998
(16)
(a)
This is the same as the definition of except that here the uni-
versal quantification is over all Boolean states ,
rather than all possible states of the qubits, because
classical communication does not require superpositions of the
Boolean states to be transmitted faithfully. Clearly,
for all .
Equation (15) is the so-called protected subspace definition
of quantum capacity. Other definitions of quantum capacity,
based on the channels ability to faithfully convey entangle-
ment, or coherent information (a quantum analog of mutual
information to be discussed later) in the limit of large block
sizes, have been proposed [4], but there is reason [5], [50] to
believe they are equivalent to the protected-subspace capacity.
Both and can be understood in terms of the block
diagrams like Fig. 3(a), in which qubits are encoded, sent
through instances of the channel, and then decoded to yield (b)
a more-or-less faithful approximation of the input state, either
Fig. 3. (a) Unassisted quantum capacity of a noisy quantum channel is
for all input states in the case of , or for all Boolean input defined by the asymptotic performance of quantum error-correcting codes.
states in the case of . The classically assisted capacity (b) Classically assisted quantum capacity is defined by the asymptotic
is defined in terms of a more complicated protocol (Fig. 3(b)) performance of protocols involving forward uses of the noisy channel and
unlimited classical communication between sender and receiver.
in which the sender Alice initially receives qubits, after
which she and the receiver Bob can perform local quantum
operations and exchange classical messages freely in both with high fidelity. Teleportation and entanglement distillation
directions, interspersed with forward uses of the noisy are discussed at length in subsequent sections.
quantum channel , with the goal of ultimately enabling Bob For most noisy quantum channels , none of the three
to output a faithful approximation of the -qubit input state. capacities is known exactly, though upper and lower bounds
The capacity is then defined by a limiting expression like have been obtained. This is true, for example, of the depolariz-
(15), but with the encoder/decoder combination , replaced ing channel, a rough analog of the classical binary-symmetric
by an interactive protocol of the form of Fig. 3(b). Clearly, channel. The depolarizing channel transmits the input qubit
for any quantum channel , and channels intact with probability and replaces it by a random
are known for which this inequality is strict; an open question qubit with probability . (Alternatively, the channel applies the
is whether there are channels for which . identity operator to the input qubit with probability
The assisted quantum capacity will be discussed later and each of the three Pauli operators with probability .
in detail; here it suffices to indicate why it can exceed the The difference between and comes from the fact
unassisted capacity . In a typical protocol, Alice does that applying at random one of the three Pauli operators or
not use the noisy channel to transmit the input state to the identity operator effectively gives a random qubit.) A still
Bob directly; instead, she prepares a number of EPR pairs simpler channel, whose capacities are known, is the quantum
in her laboratory and sends one member of each pair to Bob erasure channel [34], which transmits the input qubit intact
through the noisy channel. The result is a set of impure EPR with probability and with probability replaces it by a
pairs (i.e., entangled mixed states) shared between Alice and recognizable erasure symbol orthogonal to both and .
Bob. By performing local operations and measurements on For this channel, the classical capacity and the assisted
these impure EPR pairs, and engaging in classical discussion quantum capacity are both known to be (the same as
of the measurement results, Alice and Bob can distill from the for a classical erasure channel) while the unassisted quantum
impure EPR pairs a smaller number of nearly pure pairs, capacity is known [13], [5] to be .
even when the channel through which the pairs were shared The 50% erasure channel, for which but
is so noisy as to have zero unassisted quantum capacity. The nicely illustrates the difference between assisted and
purified EPR pairs are then used, in conjunction with further unassisted quantum capacities. The unassisted capacity of
classical communication, to teleport the input state to Bob this channel must vanish by the following no-cloning argu-
BENNETT AND SHOR: QUANTUM INFORMATION THEORY 2733
ment, due to Smolin. Consider a (physically implementable) the environment interacts strongly, as in Fig. 1(c), the channel
splitting device with one input port and two output ports which loses its capacity to carry quantum information, though its
half the time sends the input qubit to the first output port and an classical capacity may be unimpaired. Considerations of this
erasure symbol to the second, the rest of the time sending the sort motivated the definition of the coherent information as
input qubit to the second and an erasure to the first. A recipient the difference between the von Neumann
at either output port sees the source through a 50% erasure entropy of the information carriers mixed state after
channel. Suppose there were a quantum error-correcting code it has passed through the channel (the prime denotes an
by which an arbitrary unknown qubit could be encoded in after-interaction state), and the von Neumann entropy of the
such a way as to be reliably recoverable after transmission channel environments after-interaction mixed state .
through a 50% erasure channel. Then each of the two recipients The coherent information is thus a function both of the
(call them Bob and Charlie) could recover a faithful copy channel interaction and the density matrix characterizing
of the unknown qubit, in effect cloning it. Since cloning is the channel input before interaction. One would like to say
known to be impossible, a 50% erasure channel must have zero that a channels asymptotic unassisted quantum capacity
unassisted capacity. By the same token, a 50% depolarizing is simply the maximum of its one-shot coherent information
channel has zero unassisted quantum capacity. Nevertheless, over input distributions , and in simple cases this is
either of these channels can still be used to transmit quantum indeed correct. For example, for a noiseless qubit channel
information faithfully, when assisted by two-way classical or quantum wire, the environment does not entangle at all;
communication in the manner of Fig. 3(b). In the case of hence and , so that the coherent
the erasure channel, the sender shares EPR pairs through information attains its maximum value of one qubit when
the channel, finds out by classical communication from the the channel is connected to a maximal-entropy input (which
receiver which ones got through safely, and then uses the can be thought of as a random, unknown qubit state, or
surviving EPR pairs to teleport the unknown qubits. Similar, as half an EPR pair). On the other hand, whatever input
but more complicated, arguments (cf. section on entanglement) state is supplied to the classical wire of Fig. 3(b),
show that the assisted quantum capacity of the depolarizing the environment gains so much entropy that the coherent
channel remains positive over the entire range , information is zero. Similarly, for the
while a stronger version of the no-cloning argument shows erasure channel, the maximal one-shot coherent information
that its unassisted capacity vanishes for all . The no- accurately predicts the asymptotic capacity . However, in
cloning argument does not apply to capacity because the more complicated cases, for example the depolarizing channel,
classical communication breaks the symmetry between the two the coherent information underestimates due to a failure of
receivers, for example telling the sender, Alice, to perform additivity [25]: because of the possibility of entangling inputs
different actions depending on whether she wants to send the across multiple channel uses, more coherent information can
input qubit to Bob or Charlie. be sent through channel uses than times the maximum
Mutual information between input and output plays an that can be sent through through one use.
important role in classical theory, providing a nonasymptotic The oldest branch of quantum information theory [35],
expression for the capacity, as the maximum (over input [37], [38] concerns the use of quantum channels to transmit
distributions) of the input:output mutual information for a classical information. The classical capacity is defined
single use of the channel, but this simplicity breaks down as the maximum asymptotic rate at which classical bits can
in the context of quantum channels. For none of the three be sent through the quantum channel with arbitrarily high
capacities is there known a simple nonasymptotic quantity reliability.2 Even this seemingly pedestrian capacity is not easy
whose maximum for a single channel use equals the desired to calculate for quantum channels, because it may depend on
asymptotic capacity. Nevertheless, for both and , mutual- using a quantum encoder to prepare inputs entangled over
information-like quantities have been devised that provide multiple uses of the channel, and/or a quantum decoder to
useful insight, and in some cases upper or lower bounds, on perform coherent measurements on multiple channel outputs
the asymptotic capacities. Here we discuss coherent informa- (cf. Fig. 4). Recent results [39], [65] have made it possible
tion [4], a nonasymptotic quantity related to the unassisted to calculate the capacity with classical encoding and
quantum capacity . Later we will discuss the Holevo bound, quantum decoding for many channels, and to show that in
a nonasymptotic quantity related to the classical capacity some cases this exceeds the maximum mutual information
of quantum channels. The scenario, with its two-way that can be sent through a single use of the channel
communication, is obviously more complicated, and will not [30], [63]. The effect of a quantum encoding is less well
be discussed further in this context. understood. In particular it is not known whether there are
As noted earlier, a quantum channel, without loss of gener- channels for which entangled inputs are needed to achieve
ality, may be viewed as a unitary interaction of the quantum full capacity [15].
information carrier , enroute from sender to receiver, with 2 The term classical capacity is often used for the maximum rate at which
an environment initially in a standard state . In order for classical information can be sent through a quantum channel using a fixed
the channel to carry intact quantum information, for example alphabet of input states. In this case, the capacity is a function both of the
nonorthogonal states, or halves of EPR pairs, it is important input alphabet and the channel. Here we define the capacity without such
a constraint, optimizing over all input alphabets including states entangled
that the environment not become too entangled with the among multiple uses of the channel. The capacity thus defined is a function
quantum system passing through. At the other extreme, when only of the channel.
2734 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INFORMATION THEORY, VOL. 44, NO. 6, OCTOBER 1998
Fig. 4. The unrestricted classical capacity, or , of a quantum channel is defined using a quantum encoder and a quantum decoder. The one-shot
capacity uses a classical encoder to direct the preparation of inputs to independent instances of the quantum channel, whose outputs
are independently measured and then decoded by a classical decoder. It is equal to the classical maximal mutual information transmissible through
a single instance of the channel. and are intermediate cases.
Even without considering channels and codes, a nontrivial Before we can discuss accessible information in detail,
problem arises because of the incomplete distinguishability we must treat quantum measurement more fully, as acces-
among the states comprising a quantum source (classical sible information requires us to find the measurement of a
source states are, of course, always distinguishable by def- source producing the most classical information. So far, we
inition). Suppose that a quantum source is known to emit have only dealt with von Neumann measurements, which
states with probabilities . How much classical information are measurements distinguishing among orthogonal vectors
about can be obtained by an optimal measurement? One of in (or possibly among subsets of them). More general
the first results in quantum information theory, stated (with quantum-mechanical measurements are possible; these can be
no published proof) by Levitin [49] and independently (with made by introducing an ancilla quantum system, making a
proof) by Holevo [37], gives an upper bound on this so-called unitary transformation on the combined systems, and then
accessible information performing a von Neumann measurement on the resulting
state of the ancilla. This is the most general type of mea-
(17) surement possible, and there is a more convenient way of
describing these measurements. Any such measurement in
a -dimensional Hilbert space corresponds to a collection
which holds with equality only when the states commute. of positive-semidefinite Hermitian operators ,
In general, no nice formulas are known for computing the with , and may be greater than the dimension
accessible information, although there are a variety of formulas of the original Hilbert space. If a system in state is measured,
giving upper and lower bounds [29]. the probability of obtaining the th outcome is . Since
BENNETT AND SHOR: QUANTUM INFORMATION THEORY 2735
the are positive operators, these are called positive operator After seeing this example, one might speculate that sources
valued measurements (abbreviated POVM or POM). emitting more complicated codewords of length greater than
There are several subtleties associated with accessible infor- two, and that joint measurements on these codewords could
mation. Some of these are illustrated by a beautiful example increase the accessible information still higher. This is indeed
investigated by Peres and Wootters [58], which will also prove correct, and recently it was shown [39], [65] that Holevos
relevant to the classical capacity . They consider a source bound (17) is the correct formula for the limit of the maximum
emitting with equal probabilities the three signal states which accessible information obtainable from tensor product sources
correspond to polarizations of a photon at 0 , 60 , 120 . These having a marginal distribution equal to a given ensemble.
are Unlike the accessible information, the Holevo bound depends
only on the density matrix of an ensemble and not the
component states that make up this ensemble.
What does this example show? Suppose you are trying to
communicate over a quantum channel, and are restricted to
sending signals chosen from the three nonorthogonal states
(18)
above. Achieving the largest capacity requires using code-
The optimum measurement for these states is the POVM words of length more than one and making joint (entangled)
corresponding to , where the states measurements on the signal. Now consider the problem of
, are orthogonal to the original states , communicating classically over a general noisy quantum chan-
respectively; namely, nel , where there is no restriction on the input alphabet,
except that inputs are not allowed to be entangled across
multiple channel uses. This is the situation of in Fig. 4.
If the marginal (one-shot) input ensemble consists of states
emitted with probabilities , the corresponding output
(19) states (after passing through the channel) will be ,
and they will again occur with the probabilities . Then the
If the state , for example, is measured with respect to this maximum capacity achievable with this input ensemble
POVM, the outcome will never be observed, and there is is given by the Holevo bound
probability of observing each of the outcomes and . This
gives accessible information of bits. (21)
If you consider two independent states output from the
source above, and consider a joint measurement on them, and the unrestricted is given by maximizing the above
this is equivalent to considering a source emitting the nine expression over the choice of input ensembles . The
states , , with equal probability. As might ability to calculate the asymptotic capacity by optimizing
be expected, there is no way of gaining more than twice over the inputs to a single use of the channel have made it
the information above, or 1.170 bits. However, the situation possible to show for a number of channels that is greater
changes if you have a source emitting the three states , than the one-shot capacity which is simply the
, , with equal probability. We now describe a measure- maximum accessible information between input and output
ment that gives an accessible information of approximately for a single channel use. Thus access to a quantum decoder
1.369 bits. The three states , , and span a three- spanning multiple channel outputs definitely increases the
dimensional vector space and are nearly orthogonal. Consider classical capacity of some quantum channels. It is not known
a von Neumann measurement which has axes close to these whether access to a quantum encoder (allowing inputs to be
three states, namely, , , , where entangled over multiple channel uses) increases the capacity.
Thus of the four classical capacities depicted in Fig. 4, it is
(20)
evident from the definitions that
and , are defined similarly. Here and are chosen Specific examples are known where all four capacities are
so that equal (e.g., the quantum erasure channel), and where
exceeds , but within these constraints the relation of
and to the other capacities is not known. Neither is the
so relation of these various classical capacities to the unassisted
and assisted quantum capacities well understood. From the
and definitions it is clear that for all channels, but is not
known whether there are channels for which .
the -bit string describing their Bell states, at the cost of operations and classical communication. Although this turns
measuring (and therefore sacrificing) one of the pairs. This out to be too much to ask, an asymptotic version of this
ability to manipulate and extract information from Bell states ideal situation holds when and are pure states. For
by local actions has important consequences for entanglement any two pure bipartite states and (since we will always
distillation, classically assisted quantum communication, be considering bipartite states we omit the superscript ),
and quantum cryptography. in the large limit, independent copies of (in other
words, the state ) can be transformed by local actions
IV. QUANTITATIVE THEORY OF ENTANGLEMENT and classical communication into a state arbitrarily close to
, with the fidelity of the approximation tending to
Since entanglement appears to be responsible for the re- and the yield tending to in the limit of
markable behavior of information in quantum mechanics, a large [8], [32], [53]. An important property of this definition
means of quantifying it would seem useful. We will discuss of entanglement is that it is additive. That is, if Alice and
several such measures in this section. There is one best Bob share two independent systems with entanglement and
measure for entanglement of pure states, which is defined using , respectively, the combined system will have entanglement
entropy. However, there does not appear to be a unique best .
measure of entanglement for mixed states; which measure is For mixed states, it appears that the amount of pure-
best depends on what the measure is being used for. We will state entanglement asymptotically required to prepare a mixed
discuss several measures, all of which agree for pure quantum state may, in general, be larger than the amount of pure-
states. state entanglement that asymptotically can be extracted from
Suppose Alice and Bob each hold one piece of a system in that mixed state. We call the first quantity entanglement of
some quantum state. It is easy to define when these two pieces formation and the second distillable entanglement. The formal
are entangled: this happens when the state of the entire system definitions of these involve, for entanglement of formation,
is not a mixture of tensor product states. More formally, the the number of EPR pairs required to create many copies of
system is entangled iff its density matrix cannot be written in the state with high fidelity; and for distillable entanglement,
the form the number of nearly perfect EPR pairs distillable with high
(25) fidelity from many copies of the state. It has been conjectured
that the entanglement of formation of a mixed state can be
strictly larger than the distillable entanglement. That we cannot
where and are states of Alices and Bobs subsys- prove or disprove this conjecture shows how much is still
tems and are probabilities. Any unentangled state can be unknown in quantum information theory.
prepared by Alice and Bob using only local quantum-state The entanglement of formation and distillable entanglement
preparation and classical communication: first they choose as defined above are asymptotic quantities. For the entangle-
the index with probability and then and can be ment of formation, there is also a related natural nonasymptotic
prepared locally without further communication. Preparation quantity. As we saw previously, mixed quantum states can, in
of an entangled state, on the other hand, requires that Alice and general, be represented as probabilistic mixtures of pure states,
Bob either share some pre-existing entanglement or acquire and can be so represented in many different ways. The one-
such entanglement by transmission of quantum states between shot entanglement of formation can thus be defined as the
them. Determining whether a given density matrix has nonzero average entanglement of the pure states in a mixture giving
entanglement is not easy, especially if Alice and Bob each have the desired mixed state most efficiently. That is,
higher than two-dimensional Hilbert spaces to work with. We
shall later discuss a test that addresses this question. However,
(27)
we will first discuss measures of entanglement.
If is a pure state (i.e., a rank- matrix ),
there is a unique entanglement measure which has the proper- This quantity is clearly at least as large as the entanglement of
ties one might hope for, namely, the entropy of entanglement formation, since the component pure states can asymptotically
be created efficiently and then mixed together. It is not known
(26) whether the one-shot entanglement of formation is additive,
that is, if
This is the von Neumann entropy of the mixed state obtained
when either Bobs or Alices subsystem is disregarded. Why (28)
is this the right definition? To answer that, we need first decide
what properties a good measure of entanglement must have. If it is additive, then it must agree with the asymptotic defi-
If entanglement is a resource, Alice and Bob ought not to be nition of entanglement of formation. Hill and Wootters have
able to increase their entanglement by operations that involve obtained an exact expression for the one-shot entanglement of
only classical communication between them and local quantum formation for arbitrary states of two qubits [36], [73].3
operations. The ideal situation would then be if, whenever we To illustrate how pure EPR pairs can be distilled from
are given two states and with entanglement and partly entangled mixed states, we first define a particularly
, respectively, with , we could always reach the 3 In[12], [14], [36], and [73] the term entanglement of formation is used
second state from the first state using only local quantum for what we call here the one-shot entanglement of formation .
2738 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INFORMATION THEORY, VOL. 44, NO. 6, OCTOBER 1998
(29)
Finally, they use hashing to verify that the state of the [2] H. Barnum, C. M. Caves, C. A. Fuchs, R. Jozsa, and B. Schumacher,
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