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NATURAL PROCESSES:
Examples
2. Diffusion: Motion with respect to the carrying fluid by random molecular collision
Examples:
spreading of a chemical in still water
spreading of a toxic gas in still air Ink diffusing in water
http://www.sciencephoto.com/
4. Gravitational settling: Vertical motion with respect to the fluid because of a density
difference; particles heavier than fluid sink to the bottom; those lighter than
the fluid rise to the top.
Examples:
soil particles settling at the bottom of a lake Oil slick on the sea
http://www.bubbleology.com/
oil drops floating on the sea seeps/SeepTarStudy.htm
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UNNATURAL PROCESSES
designed to enhance transport when natural processes are too weak
m
Definition: J m J A
A
The flux J of a substance is defined as the
amount m that is transported per unit area A
and per unit time.
Case of advection:
2
Ficks law for molecular diffusion
(Nazaroff & Alvarez-Cohen, Sections 4.A.3)
If
k = probability that a molecule crosses
the middle line in time period t ,
mL = mass of molecules Y on the left,
mR = mass of molecules Y on the right,
then
kmL molecules move from left to right, and
kmR molecules move from right to left in time t,
with net movement of (kmR-kmL) .
Thus,
mass transfer k (m L m R )
flux J
area time A t
mass m
In terms of concentrations: C m C A x
volume A x
k A x
J (C L C R )
A t
k x
J (C L C R )
t
What matters then is the rate over which the concentration varies in space, its gradient :
C C R C L k x 2 C
J
x x t x
D
3
Diffusion coefficients for selected substances:
An application:
Take benzene (C6H6), a volatile liquid,
at 25oC.
n Psat
[C6 H 6 ]vapor
V RT
(0.126 atm)
5.164 mol/m3
(82.05 10 6 )(273.15 25 K )
Cbenzene MW [C 6 H 6 ] (78 g/mol)(5.164 mol/m3 )
402.8 g/m 3
C 0C C
J D D D L 20 cm 0.20 m
x L L
3
(402.8 g/m )
(9.60 10 6 m 2 /s) 0.0193 g/m 2 s
(0.20 m)
4
Turbulent dispersion
(Nazaroff & Alvarez-Cohen, Section 4.A.4)
For turbulent dispersion, it is customary to use the same expression as for molecular
diffusion but with a much higher value for the diffusivity coefficient D. Then, the D
value no longer depends on the substance being dispersed but rather on the turbulence
level in the carrying fluid, which may vary from place to place and time to time
according to flow characteristics.
In Nazaroff & Alvarez-Cohen, the turbulent diffusivity is denoted (epsilon) and called
dispersion coefficient (page 168).
x x
2 Dt 2 D with t
u u
x Dx
plume width: 4 4 2 D 5.66
u u
1
Fd (drag coefficient )(frontal area ) f V p2
2
2 1
Cd d p f V p2
Vp 4 2
where
f = density of fluid
Cd f d p2 V p2
8 Vp = particle velocity
dp
particle diameter
5
The drag coefficient is not constant,
except for the very large particles that
move fast with respect to the fluid.
f d pV p
Re p
f
where f density of fluid
d p particle diameter
V p particle velocity
f fluid viscosity
Three regimes:
24
Stokes (slow): Cd Re p 0.3 Fd 3 f d pV p
Re p
Intermediate: 24
Cd (1 0.14 Re 0p.7 ) 0.3 Re p 1000
Re p
Newton (fast): Cd 0.445 1000 Re p Fd 0.175 f d p2V p2
Correction for the very small particles (diameter < 1 m = 10-6 m):
(Nazaroff & Alvarez-Cohen, page 174)
For very small particles, the fluid molecules may not be that much smaller than the
particles, and the fluid flow around the particles begins to appear as if it had a lot of holes
through which the particle may more easily pass. This leads to a reduced drag.
The drag force is then reduced (divided) by a factor, called the Cunningham slip factor,
and denoted Cc:
g 0.55d p
Cc 1 2.51 0.80 exp
d p g
where g 0.066 m
6
Gravitational settling
(Nazaroff & Alvarez-Cohen, Section 4.B.2)
When moving relatively to a fluid,
a particle is subject to 3 forces:
- its own weight
- a buoyancy force
- a drag force.
dp Fg Fb Fd
d p3
motion
Note the difference: p = density of material making up the particle, f = fluid density.
7
Two extreme (and most common) situations:
(Nazaroff & Alvarez-Cohen, page 176)
Cc gd p2 p f
Vp
18 f
p f
V p 3.0 g d p
f
Particle settling
in air
Source:
Nazaroff & Alvarez-Cohen,
page 177
8
Particle settling
in water
Source:
Nazaroff & Alvarez-Cohen,
page 178
EXAMPLE
(Nazaroff & Alvarez-Cohen, pages 179-180)
Studies have shown that a white surface becomes noticeably soiled when 0.2% of its area
is covered by black particles, such as soot.
Estimate the time required for an initially clean, horizontal surface to appear soiled if it is
exposed to an atmosphere containing 10 g/m3 of soot particles of diameter 5 m.
Assume that the particles are spherical and have a density of 2.5 g/cm3.
SOLUTION
Soot particles are small particles. So, assume Stokes drift, but there is no need to apply
the Cunningham slip correction factor (particle diameter > 1 m). The settling speed is:
Cc gd p2 p f
Vp
18 f
(1)(9.81 m/s 2 )(5 10 6 m) 2 2.5 1.2 10 3 g/cm 3
4
18 1.8 10 g/cm.s
0.189 cm/s
9
Determine the mass of each particle
3
mp p d p (2.5 g/cm 3 ) (5 10 4 cm) 3 1.636 10 10 g
6 6
particles
J C V p (0.0611 particles/cm3 )(0.189 cm/s) 0.0116
cm 2 s
2
Ap d p (5 10 4 cm) 2 1.963 10 7 cm 2
4 4
Take 1 cm2 of the surface. It has become soiled when 0.2% of its surface is covered
by particles, which is 0.002 cm2.
surface 0.002 cm 2
N 10,186 particles
surface per particle 1.963 10 7 cm 2 / particle
At the rate the particles are falling down, this will take a time equal to
10