MATB253 LINEAR ALGEBRA

TOPIC 1
SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS AND MATRICES

Contents

1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations ........................................................................................ 2

1.2 Gaussian Elimination ............................................................................................................................ 5

1.3 Matrices and Matrix Operations ......................................................................................................... 13

1.4 Inverses; Algebraic Properties of Matrices ......................................................................................... 16

1.5 Elementary Matrices and a Method for Finding A 1 ......................................................................... 21

1.6 More on Linear Systems and Invertible matrices ............................................................................... 27

1.7 Diagonal, Triangular, and Symmetric Matrices .............................................................................. 31

1.8 Application to Graph Theory .............................................................................................................. 33

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1.1 Introduction to Systems of Linear Equations

Linear algebra is the branch of mathematics concerned with the study of vectors, vector spaces
(or linear spaces), linear transformations, and systems of linear equations in finite dimensions.
Vector spaces are a central theme in modern mathematics; thus, linear algebra is widely used in
both abstract algebra and functional analysis. Linear algebra also has a concrete representation
in analytic geometry and it is generalized in operator theory. It has extensive applications in the
natural sciences and social sciences, since nonlinear models can often be approximated by a
linear model.

In mathematics and linear algebra, a system of linear equations is a set of linear equations such
as

x1 4 x2 x3 6
3 x1 x2 2 x3 7
2 x1 2 x2 3 x3 3

A standard problem is to decide if any assignment of values for the unknowns can satisfy all
three equations simultaneously, and to find such an assignment if it exists. The existence of a
solution depends on the equations, and also on the available values (whether integers, real
numbers, and so on).

There are many different ways to solve systems of linear equations, such as substitution,
elimination, matrix inversion and determinants. However, one of the most efficient ways is
given by Gaussian elimination (matrix).

In general, a system with m linear equations and n unknowns can be written as

a11 x1 a12 x2 ... a1n xn b1

a21 x1 a22 x2 ... a2 n xn b2

am1 x1 am 2 x2 ... amn xn bm

where x1 , x2 ,..., xn are the unknowns and the numbers a11 , a12 ,..., amn are the
coefficients of the system.
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We can collect the coefficients in a matrix as follows:

If we represent each matrix by a single letter, this becomes

Ax b
where A is an m x n matrix, x is a column vector with n entries, and b is a column vector with m
entries. Gauss-Jordan elimination applies to all these systems, even if the coefficients come from
an arbitrary field.

a11 a12 a1n x1 b1

a a22 a2 n x b
A 21 , x 2, b 2


am1 am1 amn xn bm

If the field is infinite (as in the case of the real or complex numbers), then only the following
three cases are possible (exactly one will be true).

For any given system of linear equations:

the system has no solution (the system is over determined)

the system has a single solution (the system is exactly determined)

the system has infinitely many solutions (the system is underdetermined).

A system of equations that has at least one solution is called consistent; if there is no solution it
is said to be inconsistent.

A system of the form Ax 0 is called a homogeneous system of linear equations. The set of all
solutions of such a homogeneous system is called the nullspace of the matrix A.
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Example 1

a11 x1 a12 x2 ... a1n xn 0

a21 x1 a22 x2 ... a2 n xn 0

am1 x1 am 2 x2 ... amn xn 0

If the system is homogeneous and x1 x2 ... xn 0 then we have a trivial solution.

If the system is homogeneous and at least one xi 0 then we have a nontrivial solution.

Because of a homogeneous linear system always has the trivial solution; there are only 2
possibilities for its solution.
(a) The system has only the trivial solution
(b) The system has infinitely many solutions in addition to the trivial solution.
(Howard, 2005)

Theorem
A homogeneous system of linear equations with more unknowns than equations has
infinitely many solutions.

Augmented Matrices

Linear Equations matrix form AX=b

Augmented Matrix

a11 a12 a1n b1

a21 a22 a2 n b2



am1 am1 amn bm

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Elementary Row Operation

An elementary row operation (ERO) on a matrix A is one of the following:

1. Multiply a row by a nonzero constant, c cRi Ri

2. Switching two rows Ri Rj

3. Add c times of one row to another row cRi + Rj Rj

Elementary row operations are used to reduce an augmented matrix or matrix to row echelon
form (REF) or reduced row-echelon form (RREF). Reducing the matrix:

1. to a row echelon form is called Gaussian elimination ;

2. to a reduced row-echelon form is called GaussJordan elimination.

In mathematics, GaussJordan elimination is a version of Gaussian elimination that puts

zeros both above and below each pivot element as it goes from the top row of the given matrix to
the bottom (http://en.wikipedia.org).

1.2 Gaussian Elimination

Be able to solve systems of linear equations using either Gaussian or Gauss-Jordan
elimination method.

A matrix is said to be in row-echelon form if it satisfies the following three conditions:

1. All zero rows (consisting entirely of zeros) are at the bottom of the matrix.
2. The first nonzero number in each nonzero row is a 1, called the leading 1 for that row.
3. Each leading 1 is to the right of all leading 1s in the rows above it.

A row-echelon matrix is said to be in reduced row-echelon form if, in addition, it satisfies the
following condition:

4. Each leading 1 is the only nonzero number in its column.

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Example 2

In each part, determine whether the matrix is in row echelon form, reduced row echelon form or
neither.

1 0 0 3
1 2 1 3 0 1 0 3
(a) 0 1 1 2 (b) 0 0 0 0 (c) 0 0 1 1

0 0 1 1 0 0 1 4 0 0 0 1

1 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 2 0 1 2 3 2
0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 3 0 0 1 1 7
(d) 0 0 0 1 2 (e) (f) 0 2
0 0 2 0 2 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0

1 1 0 0 1 0 0 3 1 0 0 3
0 0 1 0
(g) (h) 0 1 0 2 (i) 0 1 0 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1

Example 3

Suppose that the augmented matrix for a system of linear equations has been reduced by row
operations to the given reduced row-echelon form. Then solve the system.

1 0 0 5

(a) 0 1 0 2 x1 5 , x2 2 , x3 4
0 0 1 4

1 0 0 4 1

(b) 0 1 0 2 6 x3 3x4 2 , x2 2 x4 6 , x1 4 x4 1 .
0 0 1 3 2

Since the 4th column has no leading 1, x 4 is called a free variable which can be assigned as a
parameter. Parameters take any arbitrary values. The remaining variables ( x1 , x 2 , x 3 ) are
called leading variables.
Thus, x4 t . x3 2 3t , x2 6 2t , x1 1 4t .
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1 6 0 0 4 2

0 0 1 0 3 1
(c) 0 0 0 1 5 2 use first 3 rows to solve the system of linear equation

0 0 0 0 0 0

The leading 1s occur in positions (row 1, column 1), (row 2, column 3) and (row 3, column 4)
are the pivot positions. A column that contains a pivot position is called a pivot column. Thus
the pivot columns are columns 1, 3 and 4.

1 0 0 3
(d) 0 1 0 2 means no solution

0 0 0 1

Solutions of Linear Systems

Elimination Methods : Gaussian Elimination and Back Substitution

Example 4
Solve the system by Gaussian Elimination
x1 2 x2 3x3 5
1. 2 x1 5 x2 3x3 3
x1 8 x3 17

Solution
Gaussian Elimination

1 2 3 5 R2 R2 2 R1 1 2 3 5 1 2 3 5

2 5 3 3 0 1 3 7 0 1 3 7
1 0 8 17 R3 R3 R1 0 2 5 12 R3 R3 2 R2 0 0 1 2

1 2 3 5

R3 0 1 3 7
R3
1 0 0 1 2

x1 2 x2 3x3 5 , x2 3x3 7 , x3 2
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Back Substitution:
x2 7 3(2) 1
x1 5 2(1) 3(2) 1
x1 1 , x2 1 , x3 2

2 x1 2 x2 2 x3 4
2. 3x1 2 x2 x3 3
4 x1 3x2 2 x3 3

Solution
2 2 2 4 R 1 1 1 2
R 12
3 2 1 3 1 3 2 1 3
2 3 2 3
4 3 4 3

R2
R2 1 1 1 2
R2 R2 3R1 1 1 1 2 5

0 1
4 3
0 5 4 3
5 5
R3 R3 4 R1 6 5 R3
0 6 5
7 R3
7
0 1
7 7

1 1 1 2 1 1 1 2

0
4 3 0 4 3
1 1
5 5 5 5
R3 R3 R2
0 2 4 35
R3 2 R3
0
0 1 2
0

35 35

1 1 1 2

4 3 4 3
0 1 x1 1x2 x3 2, x2 x3 , x3 2
5 5 5 5
35 0 0 2
R3 R3 1
2

Back-Substitution:
4 3
x2 2 x2 1 x1 1 2 2 x1 1
5 5 ;
x1 1 , x2 1 , x3 2
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Gauss - Jordan Elimination

Example 5

Solve the following linear system using Gauss-Jordan elimination method.

x1 2 x2 3x3 5
(a) 2 x1 5 x2 3x3 3
x1 8 x3 17

Solution

1 2 3 5 R2 R2 2 R1 1 2 3 5 1 2 3 5

2 5 3 3 0 1 3 7 0 1 3 7
1 0 8 17 R3 R3 R1 0 2 5 12 R3 R3 2 R2 0 0 1 2

1 2 3 5 R1 R1 3R3 1 2 0 1 R1 R1 2 R2 1 0 0 1

R3 0 1 3 7 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
R3
1 0 0 1 2 R2 R2 3R3 0 0 1 2 0 0 1 2

x1 1 , x2 1 , x3 2

2 x1 2 x2 2 x3 4
(b) 3x1 2 x2 x3 3
4 x1 3x2 2 x3 3
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Solution

2 2 2 4 1 1 1 2 R2 R2 3 R1
R1 R1

3 2 1 3 2 3
2 1 3
2 3 4 2 3
4 3 3 R3 R3 4 R1

R2 1 1
R 1 1 1 2 1 2
1 1 1 2 2 5
4 3
0 1
4 3
0 5 4 3 0 1
5 5 5 5
6 5
R R3 R3 R3 R2
0 4
7
6 5 2
7 0 0
3
0 1

7 7
35 35

1 1 1 2
R1 R1 R3 1 1 0 0 R1 R1 R2 1 0 0 1
4 3
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
5 5
35 0 0 4 0 0 1 2 0 0 1 2
R3 R3 1 2 R2 R2 R3
2 5

x1 1 , x2 1 , x3 2

Homogeneous Linear Systems

Example 6
x yz0
(a) Solve x 2 y z 0
3x 4 y z 0

Solution

1 1 1 0 R2 R2 R1 1 1 1 0 R3 R3 R2 1 1 1 0

1 2 1 0 0 1 2 0 0 1 2 0
3 4 1 0 R3 R3 3R1 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 many solutions

Since last row is entirely zero entries, the homogeneous system has nontrivial solution (many
solutions)
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x1 x2 x3 0 and x2 2 x3 0
Let x3 t
x2 2t 0 x2 2t
x1 2t t 0 x1 3t

x1 3t , x2 2t , x3 t

x 2 y 5z 0
(b) Solve 3x 2 y 2 z 0
4 x 4 y 5z 0
Solution

1 2 5 0 R2 R2 3R1 1 2 5 0 R3 R3 R2 1 2 5 0

3 2 2 0 0 4 13 0 0 4 13 0
4 4 5 0 R3 R3 4 R1 0 4 15 0 0 0 2 0

13
R2 R2 1 2 5 R2 R2 R3
4 0 4 1 2 0 0 R1 R1 2 R2 1 0 0 0
13
0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
4
R3 0 R1 R1 5R3 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
R3
2 0 0 1

Therefore the system has exactly one solution. x1 0 , x2 0 , x3 0

(Trivial solution)
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Summary

2x2 systems of linear Equations (A2x2X= b)

Type Intersecting Parallel Coincident
Example 2x 3y 1 2x 3 y 1 2x 3y 1
x 2y 8 2x 3 y 7 4x 6 y 2
Number of One point of no points of Infinitely many points of
solutions intersection intersection intersection
Type of A unique solution No solution Infinitely many solutions
solutions (Consistent System) (Inconsistent System) (Consistent System)

2x2 homogeneous systems of linear Equations (A2x2X=0)

Type Intersecting Coincident
Example 2x 3 y 0 2x 3 y 0
x 2y 0 4x 6 y 0
Number of solutions One point of intersection Infinitely many points of intersection
Type of solutions A trivial solution Non-trivial solution
(Consistent System) (Consistent System)

a1 b1 c1 d1

Consider a general 3x3 system has the augmented matrix form a 2 b2 c2 d 2 for variables x, y
a d 3
3 b3 c3
and z. Reduce the form using the elementary row operations to the form

a b c d

0 e f g . In this form, the system can be easily solved as follows:
0 0 i
h

i
If h 0 we can determine z uniquely, and likewise y and x from the other two rows.
h
Thus, we arrive at a unique solution.

If h 0 and i 0 . The last row reads 0z i which is absurd. Thus, there is no solution.

If h 0 and i 0 . The last row is all zeros. Consequently, there are infinitely many solutions
which can be written in terms of a free variable called parameter. For example, let z t we can
write y and x in terms of t, and t .
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1.3 Matrices and Matrix Operations

Be able to do operations of addition, subtraction and multiplication on matrices.

Matrix

Definition
A Matrix is a rectangular array of numbers. The numbers in the array are called the entries
in the matrix.

Definitions and notations

The horizontal lines in a matrix are called rows and the vertical lines are called columns.
A matrix with m rows and n columns is called an m-by-n matrix (written mn) and m
and n are called its dimensions.
The entry of a matrix A that lies in the i -th row and the j-th column is called the i, j entry
or (i , j)-th entry of A. This is written as aij or (A)ij. The row is always noted first, then the
column.
We often write to define an mn matrix A with each entry in the matrix [aij]mxn called
aij for all 1 i m and 1 j n

(Adapted from http://en.wikipedia.org)

A 1 n matrix (one row and n columns) is called a row vector, and an m 1 matrix
(one column and m rows) is called a column vector. . Row and column vectors are of
special importance and they are denoted using small and bolded letters.

Example 7
1
a 2 4 1 0
a) or b= 4 x 1 column vector b
2
1 x 3 row vector a
4
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7 6
2 0 1
b) Matrices: A or B 0 1
5 1 3 2 3

A square matrix is a matrix which has the same number of rows and columns.
It is called as a square matrix A of order n and the entries a11, a22. . . ann are the main
diagonal of A.

a11 a12 a13

Example 8: if n = 3 A a 21 a 22 a 23
a31 a32 a33

Operations on Matrices

Definition
Two matrices are defined to be equal if they have the same size and their corresponding
entries are equal.

In matrix notation, if A= [aij] and B = [bij] have the same size, then A = B if and only if
(A)ij= (B)ij

Example 9
a 0 2 1 c 2
3 1 b d 1 8

2 1 5 e f 5
a 1, b 8, c 0, d 3, e 2 and f 1

Addition and Subtraction

Definition
If A and B are matrices of equal sizes, then the sum A+ B is the matrix obtained by adding
their corresponding entries, and the difference A B is the matrix obtained by subtracting
their corresponding entries. Matrices of different sizes cannot be added or subtracted.
(A + B)ij = (A)ij + (B) ij (A - B)ij = (A)ij - (B)ij
= a ij + b ij = a ij + b ij
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Example 10

(a) Addition
1 0 2 1 2 3 2 2 1
3 1 3 4 5 6 7 6 3

2 1 5 7 8 9 5 7 14
(b) Subtraction
1 0 2 1 2 3 0 2 5
3 1 3 4 5 6 1 4 9

2 1 5 7 8 9 9 9 4

Scalar Multiples

Definition
If A is any matrix and c is any scalar, then the product cA is the matrix obtained by
multiplying each entry of the matrix A by c. The matrix cA is said to be a scalar multiple of
A.
(cA)ij = c(A)ij = caij

Example 11 Linear combination c1A1 + c2A2 + . . . + cnAn

1 0 1 2 4 3 1 0 0 6 8 9
3 2 3 0 2 1 3 0 5 3 2 1 7 5 5
0 4 1 0 2 6 5 4 0 25 28 15

Multiplying Matrices

Definition
If A is an m-by-n matrix and B is an n-by-p matrix, then their matrix product AB is the m-
by-p matrix (m rows, p columns) given by
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Example 12

1.4 Inverses; Algebraic Properties of Matrices

Be able to do matrix operations based on some of their algebraic properties

Properties of Matrix Arithmetic

Assuming that the sizes of the matrices are such that the indicated operations can be performed,
the following rules of matrix arithmetic are valid. A, B, C are matrices and a, b, c are any
constant

(a) A+B=B+A (Commutative law for addition)

(b) A + (B + C) = (A + B) +C (Associative law for addition)
(c) A(BC) = (AB)C (Associative law for multiplication)
(d) A (B + C) = AB + AC (Left distributive law)
(e) (B + C) A = BA + CA (Right distributive law)
(f) A (B C) = AB AC
(g) (B C) A = BA CA
(h) a (B + C) = aB + aC
(i) a (B C) = aB aC
(j) (a + b)C = aC + bC
(k) (a b)C = aC bC
(l) a(bC) = (ab) C
(m) (BC) = (aB)C = B(aC)
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Example 13: Properties of Matrix Multiplication

Consider the matrices

3 1 1 2
A and B .
1 1 4 3

Compute AB and BA. Hence comment on the order of the matrix multiplication.

Solution:

3 1 1 2 7 9 1 2 3 1 1 3
AB 4 3 3 1 whilst BA 1 1 9 7
1 1 4 3

Thus AB BA i.e. the order matters in matrix multiplication.

0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Zero Matrices 0 , , , 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0

Properties of Zero Matrices

(a) A+0=0+A=A
(b) A-A=0
(c) 0A=A
(d) A0 = 0 ; 0A =0

1 0 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 0 0
I3 = 0 1 0
1 0
Identity Matrices 2
I = , , I4 =
0 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1
0 0 0 1

Theorem
If R is the reduced row-echelon form of an n x n matrix A, then either R has a row of zeros
or R is the identity matrix In.
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Inverse of A

Definition
If A is a square matrix, and if a matrix B of the same size can be found such that
AB = BA= I, then A is said to be invertible and B is called an inverse of A.

Example 14

2 3 8 3
Consider A and B . Find AB and BA
5 8 5 2

Solution

2 3 8 3 1 0
AB
5 8 5 2 0 1

8 3 2 3 1 0
BA .
5 2 5 8 0 1

Thus, A and B are invertible matrices and A 1 = B and B 1 = A

Method of finding inverse of 2 x 2 invertible matrixes

Theorem
a b
The matrix A is invertible if ad bc 0 , in which case the inverse is given
c d
1 1 d b
by the formula A
ad bc c a
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Properties of Inverses

1) If B and C are both inverses of the matrix A, then B = C

2) A A1 = A1A = I
3) If A and B are invertible matrices of the same size , then AB is invertible and
(A B)1 = B1A1

Example 15
1 2
Find the inverse of A .
4 3
1 3 2 1 3 2
A1
5 4 1 5 4 1
Solution:

Power of a Matrix

Definition
If A is a square matrix, then we define the nonnegative integer powers of A to be
a. A0 = I

b. An = A . A . A . . . .A (n> 0)

n factors

c. An = (A1)n = A1 . A1 . . . A1

n factors

Laws of Exponents
a. If A is a square matrix and r and s are integers, then Ar As = Ar+s
b. ( Ar ) s = A r s
c. If A is an invertible matrix, then : A1 is invertible and ( A1 ) 1 = A
d. If A is an invertible matrix, then : An is invertible and ( An ) 1 = (A1 )n for n = 1, 2,
e. For any nonzero scalar k, the matrix kA is invertible and (kA)1 = (1/k) A1
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Example 16

Let A be the matrix in Example 15. Find A-2.

1 3 2 1 3 2 1 17 8
A2 ( A1 )2
5 4 1 5 4 1 25 16 9
Solution:

Transpose of a Matrix (AT)i j = (A)j i

Definition
If A is any n x m matrix, then the transpose of A, denoted by AT, is defined to be the m x n
matrix that results from interchanging the rows and columns of A; that is, the first column of
AT is the first row of A, the second column of AT is the second row of A, and so forth.

Example 17

T T
1 0 1 1 2 0 1 4
1 2 3
1. 2 3 0 0 3 4
2. 2 5
0 4 1 1 0 1 3 6 4 5 6

Observe that AT for a square matrix A can also be obtained by reflecting A about its main
diagonal.

Properties of the Transpose

If the sizes of the matrices are such that the stated operations can be performed, then

(a) ((A)T)T = A

(b) (A+B)T=AT + BT and (A B)T=AT BT

(c) (k A)T= kAT , where k is any scalar

(d) (AB)T= BT AT

Invertibility of a Transpose

Theorem
If A is an invertible matrix, then AT is also invertible and (AT)1 =( A1)T
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Example 18

3 4 2 3
Let A and B . Find
2 3 1 1
(a) A1

(b) (AT)-1

(c) (2B)1

(d) (3B)T

3 4
Solution: (a) A1
2 3

3 2
(b) (AT )1 (A-1 )T
4 3

1 1 1/ 2 3/ 2
(c ) (2 B) 1 B
2 1/ 2 1

2 1 6 3
(d ) (3B)T 3
3 1 9 3

1.5 Elementary Matrices and a Method for Finding A 1

Be able to find the inverse of a matrix using row operations

Elementary Matrices

Definition
An n x n matrix is called an elementary matrix if it can be obtained from the n x n identity
matrix In by performing a single elementary row operation

Example 19 I E
1 0 0 1 0 0
I 0 1 0 E 0 1 0 .

0 0 1 1 0 1
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Row Operations and Inverse Row Operations

Row operation on I that Example Row operation on E that Example

produces E reproduces I

Multiply row i by c 0 [I] R1 = 3R1 [E] Multiply row i by 1/c [I] R1 = 1/3 R1 [E-1]

Interchange rows i and j [I] R3 R2 [E] Interchange rows i and j [I] R2 R3 [E-1]

Add c times row i to row j [I] R1 = R1 +2R3 [E] Add c times row i to row j [I] R1 = R12R3 [E-1]

Theorem ROW OPERATIONS BY MATRIX MULTIPLICATION

If the elementary matrix E results from performing a certain row operation on Im and if A
is an m x n matrix, then the product EA is the matrix that results when this same row
operation is performed on A.

Example 20
1 4 6 1 4 6
(a)

Consider the matrices A 0 0 1 and B 0 0 1 .


2 10 9 0 2 3

Find an elementary matrix E satisfying EA=B.

1 3 0 1 3 0

(b) Consider the matrices A 0 1 3 and B 0 1 3 .
2 10 2 0 0 14

Find elementary matrices E1 and E2 such that E2 E1 A B .

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Solution
1 0 0
(a) A
2 R R
1
B
3
; I
2 R R
1 3
E 0 1 0

2 0 1

(b)
1 3 0 1 3 0 1 3 0

A 0 1 3 0 1 3 0 1 3 B
2 10 2 0 4 2 0 0 14

R3 = R3 -2R1 R3 = R3 + 4R2

Thus,

1 0 0 1 0 0
R R3 2 R1
I 0 1 0 3 0 1 0 E


1

0 0 1 2 0 1

1 0 0 1 0 0
R R3 4 R2
I 0 1 0 3 0 1 0 E


2

0 0 1 0 4 1

Theorem
Every elementary matrix is invertible, and the inverse is also an elementary matrix

Theorem EQUIVALENT STATEMENTS

If A is an n x n matrix, then the following statements are equivalent, that is, all true or all
false.
(a) A is invertible
(b) Ax = 0 has only the trivial solution
(c) The reduced row-echelon form of A is In
(d) A is expressible as a product of elementary matrices.
 24

Using Row Operations to find A 1: [ A | I ] [ I | A 1 ]

Inversion Algorithm:

If A is an invertible matrix, find a sequence of elementary row operations that reduces A to

the identity, In and then perform that same sequence of operations on In to obtain A1.

Example 21
1 2 3

Find the inverse of A 4 5 6
3 1 2

Solution

1 2 3 1 0 0 1 2 3 1 0 0 1 2 3 1 0 0

4 5 6 0 1 0 0 3 6 4 1 0 0 3 6 4 1 0
3 1 2 0 0 1 0 5 11 3 0 1 0 0 3 11 5 3

5 3
1 2 0 12 5 3 1 2 0 12

0 3 0 26 11 6 0 1 0 26 11 2
3 3
0 0 3 11 5 3 0 0 1 11

5 1
3 3
16 7 1
1 0 0 3 3

0 1 0 26 11 2
3 3
0 0 1 11 5 1
3 3

Thus,
16 7 1
3 3 16 7 3
26 2 26 11 6
11 1
A 1
3 3 3
11 11 5 3

5 1
3 3
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Showing That a Matrix Is Not Invertible

Example 22
1 6 4

Show that A is not invertible A 2 4 1
1 2 5

Solution
1 6 4 1 0 0 1 6 4 1 0 0 1 6 4 1 0 0

2 4 1 0 1 0 0 8 9 2 1 0 0 8 9 2 1 0
1 2 5 0 0 1 0 8 9 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1

There is a row of zeros. Therefore A is not invertible

A method for Inverting Matrices

E k . . . E 2 E 1 A = In A1 = Ek . . . E2 E1 In = Ek . . . E2 E1

A1 A = E1 1 E2 1 . . . Ek 1 In = E1 1 E2 1 . . . Ek 1

Example 23

Let A be a 3X 3 matrix such that E3 E2 E1 A I3 where

E1 is obtained from I 3 by performing the operation R1 R1 R3

E 2 is obtained from I 3 by performing the operation R2 R2 2R1

E3 is obtained from I 3 by performing the operation R3 R2

Find A 1 and A using elementary matrices.

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Solution
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
I 3 0 1 0 R1 R1 R3 0 1 0 E E 1 0 1 0
1 1
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1

1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
I 3 0 1 0 R2 R2 2 R1 2 1 0 E2
E2 1
2 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1

1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
I 3 0 1 0 R3 R2 0 0 1 E
3 E3 1
0 0 1
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0

Given E3 E2 E1 A I 3 :
E3 E2 E1 AA1 I 3 A1 yields to A1 E3 E2 E1

1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
A E3 E2 E1 0 0 1 2 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
1

0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 2 1 0 0 0 1 2 1 2

Inverting both sides yields A ( A1 )1 ( E3 E2 E1 )1 E11E21E31

1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 2 1 0 0 0 1 2 1 0 0 0 1 2 0 1
1 1 1
A E E2 E3
1

0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0

A Consequence of Invertibility (Optional)

1 2 5
Let A = 3 2 2 . If A is invertible, then
4 4 5
 27

1. the homogeneous system ( A x = 0 ) has only the trivial solution.

x 2 y 5z 0
3x 2 y 2 z 0
4 x 4 y 5z 0

2. the nonhomogeneous system ( A x = b ) has exactly one solution.

x 2 y 5z 1
3x 2 y 2 z 2
4 x 4 y 5z 1

3. the linear system ( A x = b ) is consistent (the linear system has a solution)

x 2 y 5 z b1
3x 2 y 2 z b2
4 x 4 y 5 z b3

1.6 More on Linear Systems and Invertible matrices

Be able to solve systems of linear equations using matrix inversion

Basic Theorem

Theorem
Every system of linear equations has no solutions, or has exactly one solution, or has
infinitely many solutions.

Solving Linear Systems by Matrix Inversion (Using A1)

Theorem
If A is an invertible n x n matrix, then for each n x 1 matrix b , the system of equations Ax =b
has exactly one solution, namely , x = A1b

Ax = b equivalent to A1 (Ax) = A1b x = A1b

 28

Example 24

x y 1
Solve the given system of linear equations using matrix inversion: 2 x z 10
y 2

Solution:

Ax = b is written as

1 1 0 x 1 1 0 1
2 0 1 y 10 . From Example 21, A1 is found as
A1 = 0 0 1
0 1 0 z 2 2 1 2

1 0 1 1 3
x=A b 1
0 0 1 10 2 i.e. x = 3 , y=2 , z=4

2 1 2 2 4

Solving Two Linear Systems at Once (Optional)

Example 25
x 2 y z 2 x 2y z 1
Solve the systems 2x 5 y z 1 and 2 x 5 y z 1
3x 7 y 2 z 1 3x 7 y 2 z 0

Solution
Linear systems with a common coefficient matrix

1 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 1

2 5 1 1 1 0 9 1 5 3 0 9 1 5 3
3 7 2 1 0 0 1 1 5 3 0 0 10 50 30
 29

1 2 1 2 1 1 2 0 3 2 1 2 0 3 2

0 9 1 5 3 0 9 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 5 3 0 0 1 5 3 0 0 1 5 3

1 0 0 3 2

0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 5 3

First system x=3 , y=0 , z=5

Second system x = 2 , y=0 , z=3

Properties of Invertible Matrices

Theorem (Optional)
Let A be a square matrix,
(a) If B is a square matrix satisfying BA = I, then B = A1

(b) If B is a square matrix satisfying AB = I, then B = A1

i. e A A1 = A1A = I

Theorem
Let A and B be square matrices of the same size. If AB is invertible, then A and B must also
be invertible.

Theorem EQUIVALENT STATEMENTS

If A is an n x n matrix, then the following statements are equivalent, that is, all true or all
false.
a) A is invertible
b) Ax = 0 has only the trivial solution
c) The reduced row-echelon form of A is In
d) A is expressible as a product of elementary matrices.
e) Ax = b is consistent for every n x1 matrix b
f) Ax = b has exactly one solution for every n x 1 matrix b
 30

Determining Consistency by Elimination

A Fundamental Problem:
Let A be a fixed m x n matrix. Find all m x 1 matrices b such that the system of equations
Ax = b is consistent.

Example 26

Find conditions on the bs , if any, in order for the system to be consistent.

2 x1 2 x2 2 x3 b1 x1 x2 2 x3 b1
(a) 3x1 5 x2 x3 b2 and (b) x1 2 x2 3x3 b2
4 x1 7 x2 2 x3 b3 3x1 7 x2 4 x3 b3

Solution

(a)
1 b1
b1
2 2 2 b1 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
3 2b2 3b1
3 5 1 b2 0 2 4 b2 2 b1 0 1 2 4
4 7 2 b3 0 3 6 b 2b 0 1 2 b 2b
3 1
3 1


3
b1
2
1 1 1
2b2 3b1 Therefore b3 2b1 2b2 3b1
0 1 2 0
4 3 4
0 0 0 b 2b 2b 3b
3 1
2 1

3 4
i.e b1 6b2 4b3 0 b1 6b2 4b3 or
b1 4b3 b 6b2
b2 or b3 1
6 4
 31

b1

Thus, one of the conditions for b b2
b1 6b2

4

(b)

1 1 2 b1 1 1 2 b1 1 1 2 b1

1 2 3 b2 0 1 5 b1 b2 0 1 5 b1 b2
3 7 4 b3 0 10 2 b3 3b1 0 10 2 b3 3b1

1 1 2 b1 1 1 2 b1

0 1 5 b1 b2 0 1 5 b1 b2
0 0 52 10 b1 b2 b3 3b1 0 0 1 10 b1 b2 b3 3b1

52

Therefore there are no conditions on the bs for the linear system to be consistent.

1.7 Diagonal, Triangular, and Symmetric Matrices

I Diagonal Matrix is a square matrix in which all of the entries off the main diagonal are
zero.
d1 0 . . 0
0 d2 0 . 0

1. A general n x n diagonal matrix D can be written as . 0 d3 . . .

. . . . .
0 0 . . d n
2. A diagonal matrix is invertible iff all of its diagonal entries are nonzero.
1 0 . . 0
d1
0 1 0 . 0
d2
i.e the inverse of D is . 0 1 . . such that DD D D I .
1 1

d3
. . . . .

0 0 . . 1
d n
 32

3. If D is the diagonal matrix and k is a positive integer, then

d1k 0 . . 0
k
0 d2 0 . 0
D .
k
0 d3
k
. .

. . . . .
0 . d n
k
0 .

Example 27

Find a diagonal matrix A that satisfies

9 0 0
A 0 4 0
2

0 0 1

Solution
1 / 3 0 0
A (A )
2 1 / 2
0 1 / 2 0
0 0 1

II A square matrix in which all the entries above the main diagonal are zero is called lower
triangular matrix.

A square matrix in which all the entries below the main diagonal are zero is called upper
triangular matrix.

A square matrix that is either upper or lower triangular is called triangular matrix.

Example 28
1 2 3 1 0 0
A 0 5 6 B 4 5 0
0 0 2 3 1 2
Upper Triangular Lower Triangular
 33

1.8 Application to Graph Theory

Theory of directed graphs is to mathematically model relations among members of a set
using matrix representations.

Definition: DIRECTED GRAPHS

A directed graph is a finite set of elements { P1 , P2 , ,Pn } together with a finite

collection of ordered pairs (Pi , Pj ) of distinct elements of this set, with no ordered pair
being repeated.

Terms in directed graphs:

1. Vertices elements of the set : P1 , P2 , ,Pn

2. Directed edges ordered pairs (Pi , Pj )
3. Pi Pj Pi is connected to Pj

Directed graphs can be presented as a line connecting Pi to Pj.

- Pi Pj is denoted if Pi Pj and Pj Pi
- may have separate component of vertices that are connected only among themselves or may
not be connected to any other vertex.

Directed graph having n vertices can be represented by n x n matrix called vertex matrix

denoted by M=[mij]. M is defined for i, j = 1,2,,n as

1 if Pi Pj
mij
0 otherwise
 34

Example 1

Determine the vertex matrix M for the following directed graph.

P2
0 1 0
(a) M 0 0 1

0 1 0
P1 P3

(b)

P3 P4

P2 P1

P5

0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1

0 0 0 1 0

1 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0

Example 2: Draw the directed graph for the following vertex matrix.

0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
0 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 1
(a) (b) 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 0
 35

r - Step connections:

Theorem

Let M be the vertex of a directed graph and let mij(r) be the (i,j)-th element of M r . Then
mij(r) is equal to the number of r-step connections from Pi to Pj.

The number of 1step connections is mij (either 0 or 1). The number of 2step connections
is calculated from the square of the vertex matrix M 2.

By listing the r th- step connections:

1 step connection as Pi Pj

2 step connection as Pi Pj Pm

3 step connection as Pi Pj Pm Pn

2 ways of 2- step connections

1 way of 2- step connections

M2 = 3 ways of 2- step connections

Example 3

Consider M = .

Find 2-step connections from P3 to P2 and 3 step connections from P4 to P2.

 36

Solution

M2= =

M3= =

Thus, 2-step connections from P3 to P2: M 32 2 2 possible ways.

3 step connections from P4 to P2: M 423 3 possible ways.

CLIQUES

Definition

A subset S of a directed graph is called a clique if it satisfies the following three conditions:

(i) The subset S contains at least three vertices

(ii) For each pair of vertices Pi and Pj in S, both Pi Pj and Pj Pi
are true (Pi Pj )
(iii) There is no larger subset of the vertices that satisfies condition (ii) and contains S.
(The subset is a maximal set satisfying condition (ii))
 37

Example 4 Determine any cliques, if any for the given directed graph.

P1
Solution:

Cliques

P4 {P1, P3, P4}

P2 P3

DOMINANCE-DIRECTED GRAPHS (TOURNAMENTS)

Definition

A dominance-directed graph is a directed graph such that for any distinct pair of
vertices Pi and Pj , either Pi Pj or Pj Pi but not both. (One way directed)

Theorem

In any dominance-directed graph, there is at least one vertex from which there is a 1-step
or 2-step connection to any other vertex.

Definition

The power of a vertex Pi is the sum of the entries of the ith row of the matrix A = M + M2,

where M is the vertex matrix of the dominance directed graph.

 38

Example 5

0 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0 1

Consider M 0 0 0 1 0 . Find the power of all vertices Pi.

0 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 0

Solution

0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 2 3 0

M 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 = 0 1 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 2 0

0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1 1 0 2 3 0

A=M+M2 = 0 0 0 1 0 + 0 1 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 2 0

0 1 1 2 0
2 0 3 3 1

= 0 1 0 1 0 0+1+0+1+0 = 2

1 1 1 0 1
1 1 2 3 0

Thus,

Power of P1 is 4 Power of P4 is 4

Power of P2 is 9 Power of P5 is 7

Power of P3 is 2

*************************** END OF TOPIC 1 *********************************