Proceedlngs 01 ASME Turbo Expo 2009: Power lor Land, Sea and Alr

GT2009
June 8-12, 2009, Orlando, Florida, USA

GT2009-59239
THE FOULlNG OFAXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS - CAUSES, EFFECTS,
SUSCEPTIBILlTY ANO SENSITIVITY

Cyrus B. Meher-Homji Mustapha Chaker And~w F. Bromley

Bechtel Corporation, USA Beehtel Corporation, USA Thrbotect (USA) lne.

ABSTRACT ,. INTRODUCTION

Incrca<;ed fu~1 COSIS have crealcd a slrong incentive for ga,
turbine operaton t[) understand, minimize !!Jld oor.trol performance
delerioranoD. l1le mosl prevaknt d~leri or"tion problcm faccd by ga,
turbine operato .. io compressor fouling. Fouling ~auses a drop in
airflow, P",,"urc: ratio and compre,"or efticic""y, ","ulong in ~ ~rc
malclliog of the ga~ turbine and ::ompress[)r and a drop in powcr
M
oulput and Ihermal effic ieney. Th is papcr addre,ses Ihe causes and
effects of fouling and proviru,s a eon::prehen.i\"e. tre.alment of the
impaot of "alicn t ga.~ rurbine dc"ign pararnetc.. on the msccptibility
and IiCnsitivity lO oomprc.<.sor fonling. Simnlation analysis of ninety
IWO (92) g; Imbine, of ranging from a few kW t(J large engine, espccially in the dere~a1ed and highly competilive power m",ket
rated at grcaler than 300 MW has bccn condu~tcd. It is hoped that
lhis paper wil l provide pramical information 10 gas turoine opemtorR.
NOMENCLATURE
B = blooe chord
Bit = bladc solidiry
B I = Tnlet fl [)w angle
COP - Compre,"or Dis~hlll"8e Presmre
COT = Compre,,,,, Di .. ~h"'ge Tcmperalure
c;, = spccific heat OlkgK)
Dc = Tip Diameler ofAx ial Comprc.~s[)r firsl stage, m.
He = Coeftieiem of Cascade.Entrai nrn~nt
GT _ Gu. Turbine
TSF = Index of Sensitiyity lO Foulin ~
ISO = Int"mational Standani, Organi2aoon
LHV = Lowcr lleaong Valuc
The use of ga, rurbir.es in power generaion and mechan ical drive
applications has ;rowD signihcantly in !he past IWO decad~s
Compressor f(Juhng and its control is. hy faro me most importanl
"'pie in t he ",ea of gas rurbine performance deteriorat i"n. An overall
trealmcnt of gas tnrbine perf(Jffi,an= dct::rioflltion i. prc,.ented in
Mchet"-Hornj i el al [1]. Kurz and Bnm [2], Kurz el al [3] and
Oihmchal: [4]. An oyerview of fouJi ng detcriormion may be fuund
i~ Meher_Homj i [5] and M ~her_ Homji and Bromley [6]
Thc fon lins ofaxial flow comp~~",o," i. a "~rion" operating
problem and its control is of grcal importanee lO gas rurbine opemlors
11 i, also signiiicam in he mechanical drive mar~et wherc a l(Jss in
gas tnrbi n~ OUlput can direcl ly affeet plant throllghput. Fou lants in
Ihe l'pu, m"g~ GilL ~ali'>~ uq!USJt" UIl blauin;, rt:,ul lill; in se v~J"
performance detcrioralion. TIte effecl of compressor fooling is a drop
iJ airtlow and compressor i;entropic efficiency. which mm lts in a
"re_matehing" of the sas lU1bin., and compre.oor eau.ing a drop in
powcr oUlput and mcrn::al cffic icncy. In c~{[{:mc ca",,". f(Jul",; can
also lesult in .u rge problems, as il tends lO move Ihe compressor
surge line lo the right; i.t. toward the qx:raling line.
Estimatcs have placed fOllllng a~ being rcsponsibk for 70 to 85
pc",ent of aH ga. lurbine. perforrnnncc lo",es llCCumulotcd d\lring
Ilpnliliuu. Outl'ut I",,,,s l!t: IW<:t:lI 2 l'eru;lIt (\luJer rliVlll"lib l ~
oonditioos) and 15 to 2U pen:em (under advcrse condition s) han
been expcrienced
Thi, paper addres<;c, 1"""0 key issucs:
Th~. """""pf;hility "f tiiff~re.nl e'~ ",rhinr. .i..,~i ens to ("ulin!,::

N\VR = ~et work rmio = rutputl W, i.e. th, axio l compre",or's plOpen. ity to foul.
PR = Prc.~sure Ratio The sensithitJ of different gas rurbine designs lo lhe irnpact
t"), - hub/tip rui" forthe fi"t ,tase of fonlin:: : i.c. Ihe effecl offoulin:: on Iheir performance.
Slk = Stokc" Numbe,
T= blade pitch In the pn'l, lhe,e two i,"He, llave ofien b::en wmngly analyzed or
TIT = Turbine Inlet Ttmperalure confmcd. Fouling susceptibility and lite cffe;:t of fouling are quite
\\', , W, - compressor ar,d lurb in" work, kW differenl and are namined in Ihis papero Wh!le sev~ral previous
liD _ Flow Tuming angle studie. haye bcen made of a few relce! S'" turoi ~e thi, is, 10 the
liT"", = Average Total TeJl1lCfatme Ri.,e'stage, oC autliOl'" knowledge, the ti ..t time that 92 difieren! en;incs 01 varyiug
'1. = Corapre,,,,,r EfTieaey sizc and configuration haye becn evalualcd - covering heavy-duty
"frarne'" Iype modcls, aerod~rivatives and hybrids - and includin::
m = mas~ flow rate (kgfste) botli older lechnology unilll as wd l a. ,,,:h-anced m<><lel. with a wide
V = Ax ial Comp"'''Of Volumcl,ic I'low Rate span (Jf characlcri.tic,," Thc ran;e of .alienl parameters u,ed rOllhe
Zc = Fonling Influence Coefficlent analysio is shown in Figure J
 The salient relationsh ips of this Figure may be convenicntly
summarizcd as follows:

"" O

O O
~"" l. For a givcn TIT, gas rurb inc spccific work increascs with
pressure ratio, rcaching a maximum and then decreasiog with
fmthcr pressure ratio in crease.
"Il>
.
.' '
2. The spccific work increascs with increas ing rurb ioe iolct
tcmpcrature.

J
~

-. .'# ~ ~

'"
3. The maximum spccific work as the TIT is increased occurs at
incrcasing pressure ratios.

Qldcr heavy duty gas turhine designs tcn ded to have low turbine
"
100 I~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ io let tcmpcratures and low cycle pressurc ratios (around 6- 10:1).
SMc/fk: I'obrk, kW'kO'."" Modcm F-class turh ines havc modcst pressure ratios of
approximately 14 to 16:1 but opcratc at high turbinc inlct
tcmpcratures. Thc newcr cngincs have hi gh spccific outputs
compare<! to most commOn acrodcrivative eng in es, but opcrate at
lower thermal efficiencies. Aeroderivative engines tend to operatc at
ROO 45
higher pressure ratios but lower spccific wo rk and at higher thermal
700
1'hIIrm llll l!l
10 cfficicncics.
O
O ".0;>

-
35 ._ The ga~ turhine Net Work Ratio (NWR) is define<! a~ the useful
It!i' ,., O ~. O
omput of the engine d ivided by the lotal turh in e work l . As the
" treatment in scetion 5 will show, the high pressure ratio un its tend to
~
'" W
O

M __ Row 25 be more sensitive to compresoor efficiency deteriorat ion as they

,Ji.'
'" ~ opcrate at lower net work ratios. with the compressor con suming a
greate r pemem (approximateJy 60-65% of the turbine work co mpared
"
W
to approximateJy 50% for a modero heavy duty gas turbine).
A plot of Specific Work vs. Effici enc.v for a number of F-as
100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000
turbine.~ is shown in Fi gure 3. Different models are shown with their
_ . r,kW
pressure ratios an d llTs. Modem acroderivat ive engine.~ (yeJlow
triangles) are c lustered in the spccific work region of 260-350
Fig. 1: Range of saJiellt parameten for 92 gas turbinl'S; kWlkgfsec. Modem F c lass machines exhibit higher spccific work.
Evaluated - Power, Mass F1ow, TIT, PR, Therm.a1 efliciency aud but lower thermal efficiencies Ihan aeroderivat i ve.~. TIlc intem ofthis
Specilk work. figure is to indicate the general reJationship betwcen spccific work.
efficiency and O!her cycl e pararneters. This graph is nO! intended as a
screcning tool for differem engines as il contains engines of differem
1.1 Gas Turbine Specific Work, Efficiency, aud Net Work Ratio. villlages. Its iment is to provide a quantitative feel for the cyde
parameters that were quaJitatively depicled in Figure 2.

To undcntand he trcatrncnt made of fouJing susccptibility and
sensitivity in this papero il is instruct ivc lo vicw differclII cJasr.es of
gas turbines in terms of th eir spcc ific work and cfficicncy and
examine basic design parametcrs that can be chosen by a designer lo
mece operational objcctiycs. A schematic of specific work: vs.
hermal efficiency is givcn in Figure 2. on which lines of in creasing
TIT are shown
Speclllc Wcrk, kW ' Kglsec
Fig. 2: Effect of pressure ratio aud turbine inJet temperatnn on
specific work and thernm] efficiency.
1.2 Gas Turbine AirOow Ingestion aud Fouling
Gas turbines ingest extremeJy large quamities of air, with larger
machines having airflow rates as hlgh a~ 700 kglsec (l,544 1bs/sec).
The linkage between a irtlow rate and compressor fouJing is
ind icated in Table 1. The data was derived by GTPRO' simulation s
running al an ambielll tempcrarure of 15C (59F) and with typical
inlet and out let losses. This table ind icates the ingested amount of
fou lant assuming an ambient loadiog of 10 ppm for a variety of gas
turbines. To help v isual iz.e the huge airtlow, the volume of air
consumed per year is presented in terms of miles aboye a traditio nal
360 x 160 ft (110 x 49 m) football field. As an example, he Frame
935 1FA gas rurbine . (ISO airflow of 14291bs/sec), would i"gest, in a
ycar of opcration, a column of ai r over a footbalJ fi eld 1,950 miles
high (3 120 kM). At a 10 ppm foulalll loading rate, 4.'50,650 lbs or 204
tonnes of foulam wou ld be ingestcd. Axial compres sor work [W, ]
and total rurb in e work [WJ is also shown io Table 1, and it can be
secn that he compres sor scetion COnSumes a large port ion of the total
turbine work .. To quantify this important fact, the la~t COIUDUl of
Tab le I prov ides the WJW, ratio and it can be seen that
approximltely 50 to 60 pcrcelll of the total work produced in the
turbine is consumed by its axial compressor. Comequently,
maintaining high compressor efficiency is importalll for ihe plant's
revenue strCam.
 1::;!:a ~~~~.

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45

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e
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w
11 .7/1104

25 O~ L1I 2500.

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Tur~'::aCII ,.',~'"',~ GT8C H25

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'000 ..., uu. 12.7/1038 "',., 15.1/1172 14.2I1 1n 11.811149 ".... lt11327

'5
'00 '50 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Speciflc Work (kWlkg/sec)

Flg. 3: Specific work l'S. elf"tciency for seJttted engines with a.-.sociated PRfflTeql

Paras itic losses and mcchan ical efficic ncy have also beco co ns idcrcd
in lhe model. which accou lltS rOl' Ihe o utput being somewhal le.~s tha n change in the acrodynamie profil e, reduc ing Ihe compressor ma~~
lhe diffcrence bclwecn Ihe turbinc and compressor wo rk. 1\ is useful flow-rate and affccling lhe fl ow coeffi cie nt and efficiency; thus
10 pre.~ent Ihis type of data 10 operators 10 highlight Ihe importance of redu cing the uni t's ovcrall performance. Further. contaminated air can
maintaining clcan axial compressors. cause a hOSI of olher problems Ihal inc ludc crosion, fouling, COlTOllio n
and, in sorne cases. plugging of hOI seclion cooling passages. There is
Table 1: Example uf airflow ingestion uf diffe rent gas turbines also a close co-relalion between mechan ical reliabililY and foul ing
and r'oltio of Cllmpressor work 10 lowl lurbine work.

. -
dClcrioralion, sueh as lhe damaging cffccLS of fouling on bladi ng

-
- -- - -
..::.. ...,-
- -- ~ ~
~

~- ~-
,:::,.
.., ...,
inlcgrity as discussed in Ihe fo llowing sections. This is an()(her
importa nl reason 10 keep lhe compressor clean .
Typieal pholos of fou Jed compressorn are sl'lown in Figure 4.

- ":"'"..= ~
~
M

,,- .,. ,,-

l1,m
.,.
~
'UM

-......
n"PA -_.
,,,.Jo

..
10.0"
N ,",'
'>.O,,
M,_

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~.,

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m ~m

" ,.1.\,
m_
,.=
".'"
M'.
M,m
~

,~.
~

--
..... A
.,-....,..
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n~

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n,."'A
onorA
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'''.1<1'! ~.
u,
u,

Solids or condensing particlcs in lhe air and in the combuslion

gases can preeipilale on lhe rolllli ng and slationary blades eausing a Fig. 4: Examples of fouJed cmnpressor blad es: (a ) Heavily-fouled
air nlel bell-moulh a nd blading o n a 35 MW gas turbin c;
(b) O ily d eposits on blading; (c) Compressor blades fouled with a
' 00
mixture of salts and oil.
--D- Comp ... .r _dl_bo Ue efftcle ncy
Power los ses attributable to compressor fouling can be restorcd ___ Pen:entofcleanh... l ..18 '1 r\ '"
through regular compressor elcaning and judicious plant
maintenance programs. Overall plant profitability can be
sign ificantly improved for a rclative ly small cost. Thc amount of
~
. /
/
' 00

".
!

improvement at a given site depends on the type of clcaning 'M

program adopted and the thoroughness of its implcmentation. AII \i o
'M ,
elcment~ of the program are important, inelud in g the design of
compressor cleaning systems sueh a~ injcction nozzles and wash / ",
,
l
skids, the choice an d use of detergents. the frequency of clcaning,
and the actual wash in g procedure uscd.
AJ'1
""- b..""
'"
' 00
1.2 Fouling Mechanisms, Blade llliSSes and Location of FOllling 024681012141618~~N~~~~ ~~~

M~
An axial comp res sor is a machine wherc the aerodynamic
perfonnancc of cach stage depcnds on that of the previous stages. Fig.5: Cbange in eompressor efficieney and beat rate due to
Thus, when foul in g occurs at the inlet gu ide vanes and the first few compressor fouJing.
stages, there may be a dramat ie drop in compressor performance.
This can often occur when oil and industrial smog or pollen are
present and fonn adherent depos it~. The forward compressor stages
are usually foulcd the worst. If the rear stages foul. thi s scems to 2. UNDERL VING CAUSES OF FOULlNG
have less of an impact on perfonnancc; but due to higher
temperatures. deposits can become bakcd and difficult to remove.
2.1 F ouJants and Contaminants
This h~king "ff~c.r i. mn,..., "".v"re nn rh" high f'I"'""_~sl1re r~tin
compressors of aeroderivative machines ranging from 18:1 to 35: 1
Experience ha~ shown {hat axial compressors will fou l in most
pressure ratio. a~ opposed to the typical \0:1 or 14:1 prcssun:: ratios
operating environments - be they industrial, rural or marine. Thcre is
found on the heavy duty industrial ga~ turbines.
a wide variety of industrial po lJutants and a range of environmental
An axial fl ow compressor is aerodynamicaJl y very sensit ive to a
oonditions (fog. rain , humidity) that playa pan in the fou ling process.
chan;e in airfoil shape and bladc roughr.ess, with surface quality
Compressor fonling is typicaJly ealL~cd by:
affecting the efficiency of energy conversion as discusscd by
Bammert and Woelk [7]. Fouling causes an increa~e in blade surface
Airborne salt
roughness which increases the boun dry layer thickness and increases
Industrial poJlmion - hydrocarbons. fly ash, smog, traffic
thc ri,k of flow separat ion. Blade roughness also cffect~ the profile
exlJaust emissions cte.
losse8.
Ingestion of ga< rurbine exhaust gases.
Zaba's cla~sic work publishcd in 1980 [8] pointed out that the
Minerals such as sand, lime,tone, cement and coal dusts
rcduction in tlow and efficicncy due i() compressor fouling is
Cbemieal fertilizcrs, insecticides, and plan! matter.
dcpendant on the locat ion of fouling. He exam in cd scenarios of
Intemal gas rurb ine oil leaks - leakage from the front
fouling location and dcrived a fouling influenee coeffieient z.c
bcaring of the axial compres sor is a common cause. (see
defined as:
Figure 6) Oilleaks eombined with din in gestion causes
hcavy fouling problcms.
Mi Impure water from evaporalive ooo lers (carryover).

Z, V Vapor plumes from adjacent cooling towers.

(1)
Alle
'1,
According to Zaba, value$ of ~ provide an indlcat ion of the
localiu" ur ruu lill/:. Valut:s ur z.: :>
1 illll icalt: lllal lllt: rrulIl slagt:s art:
more heav il y fou led with stage loading peakin g in the first few
stages, due to the redueed flow eoeffic ients. Consequently,
remaining stages are forecd to operate at rcduccd flow cocfficients,
resu lting in a marked drop in ma~s flow. Boundary layer growth
resu lts in a reduct ion of flow area, furthcr rcducing the mass flow.
Values of Z, < 1 ind icate fouliog of the re;r stages wh ich results in a
" backing up" effect and heavier aerodynamic loadin g of the midd!e
stages; thus causing a smaller cumulative effect through the
eomf""essor than with the ear ly-stage foul in g . iruat ion. M ez.heritsky
and Sudarev [9] have also investigatcd fouling mcchanisms and
providcd a treatmcnt of deposlt formation mechanisms that was later
extended in Tarabrin et al [10, 11 ].
Changes in compressor effieieney and heat rate over time due lo
fouling on a 40 MW gas turbine are shown in Figure 5.
Amb ient air can be cornaminatcd by solids, liquids and gases. Air
loadings can be defincd iJ mglm1, grainsJl000 ftl or ppm (mass of
eontaminant per uni{ mass of air). In general. panieles up to 10
microns caus~ fouling, hut not eros iono Particle~ ahove 10 to 20
mierons eau"" blading erosiono Som;; typical a ir loadings are a.
fo ll ows:
Country 0.01 - 0.1 ppm by we ight
Coastal 0.01 - 0.1 ppm by weight
l ndustrial 0.1 - \O ppm by weight
Desen 0.1 - JOO ppm by we ight
Fclix an d Strittmatter [12] have detailed the type of analysi. that
.hould be done al a gas turbine plant site. In mos! iadustrial arell~, the
air quality can create quite acidic conditions in the axial eompressor.
The importance of cJimatic con dition s, rain showers. relat ive
hllmidity etc cannot be overemphasized. Several opcrators have
reponed dramatic drops in ga~ turbinc omput coineident with rain
showers. Often air filters wilJ exh ibit a sudden growth in d ifferential
prcssure a~ the filiers become saturatcd with water due to high
hllmidity. Uader cenain condit ion s, me filier may suddenly unload
into the airflow causing rapid comprcssor fouling.
 The s.ensitivity of different types of gas rurb in es to compressor
fou lin g (as a function of their design paramcters) has becn studied by
Seddigh and Saravanumuttoo [13]. Akcr and Saravanumuttoo [14]
have also provided rcsults pertainin g to fouling bascd on stage
stacking techniqucs. More recent findings by Tarabrin [lO, 11] are
presentcd Mcad.

Fig.7: Salt deposit... o n compressor hlades.

Fig. 6: Oily depusits on axial compressor blades Crom No. 1

bearing oilleakage on a lart:e heavy duty gas turbine.
(photo courtesy or S. Ingistov)

2.2 Irnportance or Site Specifics Cor Fouling Control

It is important {O emphas ize that site spccifies wiJl significantl y

in fluence the severity of fuu lin g, as well as the effectiveness of
compressor washing programs. While this may secm axiomatic, there
have becn several dogmatic positions taken in the ga~ turbine
community regarding compressor washing, ba~ pure ly on findings
at one site (or with one type of equipment) that are then generalized
to global appl ications. This causes a lot of controversy with respect to
topics such as the cho ice of c\eaning flu ids, frequency of wa~hes or
the efficacy of on-line water wa~hing etc. AIso. several OEM water
wa~h systems were inadequately des igned in the pa~t, and resu lted in
poor peormance. These type situat ions often lead to polarized
pos itions and opin ions - even within the same operating companies.
Part of the objective ofthi s paper is to provide a comprehensive body
of information , pointing out that each application is unique, and an
optimal compressor wash strntegy has lo be determincd.
The type of foulants entering the comp res sor vary widely from
site to site, and influence the se!cction of wash detergents as
discussed in a later section ()f this papero Deposits of o il and grea~e
are commonly found in industrial locat ions a~ a result of local
em issions from refineries and petroc hemical plants, or from intemal
lube oil leaks. These type depos its oct as "glue" and entrap other
materials entering the compressor. Coa~tal location s usually involve
the ingestion of sea salt, desert regions attract dry sand and dust
panic\cs. and a variety of fertili zcr chemicals may be ingestcd in
agricultural areas. Figures 7 and 8 show foulcd compres sor blades.
Fig.8: Low solubility deposits on compressor blades.
Compressor foulants are oflen c\assified as be in g "oil so luble".
"water so lub le" or "water wettabl e", bul experience has shown th at
they are typically a combination of these types. For example,
a lthough sea salt is essentiall y water soluble, its retention wilhin Ihe
compressor will be significantly influenced by trace quantities of oil
and grease. In this case, the use of water alone for washing may not
be suffic ient, and a chemical detergent would be requ ired for
effective compressor deaning.
As discussed by Stalder [15], Ihe impact offouling on ga~ turbine
ax ial compressors is conlro llcd by the following major factors:
Plant locat ion and the local environment
Atmosp heric parameters
Plant design and layout
Plant maintenance practices
Ga~ turbine design parameters
3. COMPRESSOR FOULlNG SIMULATION
RESULTS ON A40 MW GAS TURBINE

It is instruct ive to invest igate the sensitivity of compres sor

fou lin g deterioration on simple cyde ga~ turbine peormance. To thi s
end, s imulation mns using GTPRO software have becn madI' for a 40
MW Class heavy duty gas turbine in simple cyde configurat ion.
Ru ns were madI' with natural ga~ fue! with an LHV of 50046 KJlkg
(21,518 Btullb) and with typical inlet and oullet pressure drops 100 &
125 mm WG (4 and 5 inch WG) respectively. The machine ha~ an
ISO pressure ratio of 11 .8: 1 and a mass flow rate of 138 kglsee
(3041bs/see) and a fi ring temperature of II 04"C (2020F).
The simulation was run at an ambiem temperature of lSOC
(59F), and imposing deterioration steps in the following sequence:
Step 1: New and C lcan.
Ma~s flow drop = 0%, Comp. efficiency drop = 0%
Step 2: Mass flow drop = 1%, Comp. efficiency drop =0.833 %
Step 3: Mass flow drop = 2%, Comp. efficiency drop = 1.67 %
Step 4: Mass flow drop = 3%, Comp. efficiency drop = 2.5 %
Step 5: Mass flow drop = 4 %, Comp. efficiency drop =3.33 %
Step 6: Mass flow drop = 5 %, Comp. efficiency drop = 4.167%
Whereas the axial oompressor work is secn lo drop slightJy due 10
the reduction in mass f10w (middle line oflhe figure), Ihere is a steep
drop in the lurbine work (npper line in Ihe fi gure) resulting in a drop
in overall ga~ turbine Olllpul of 5.5 MW. The steep drop in Inrbine
seclion work is due to Ihe reduced mass flow and the smaller
expansion ratio availab le as a resul! of the loss in compressor
discharge pressure.
,-
--
! Total Turbl ..... Work
~ ~

--
~

Step 7: Mass flow drop = 6 %, Comp. efficiency drop =5% ~ -<>---.o. D G

~~
~.
Output and heat rate variation with the deterioration steps is

i -
shown in Figure 9. The output at the end of the 7'" deterioration step H
r"6
-
has dropped 5.5 MW whiJe the heat rate has increascd by 850 Compre$sor Work
Bru/kW hr. The change in ma~s flow rate, compressor discharge

! -
pressure and compressor discharge temperature corresponding to the

-
s imulatcd deterioration steps is shown in Figure lO.
Output Work
, , , ,
" ,000
,",000 ""'"
,,.00 ~
Oele rl oratlon Ste p'"

31,000 ~ Fig. 11: Chan ge in compressor work, turbine work and overaJl

~
" ,000 ""'" 3 ~
output witb compressor d egradatio n stl'pS imposed on a 40 J\.f\V
~

,
" ,000
" ,000
""" m
''''00 i
~ gas turbine.

Even wilh good air filtration, sal! can colleet in Ihe compres sor

~

O " ,000
32,000
""'"
10 ,600
~
~
scelion, and will continue 10 aecumulate (together with other
foulants) umi l an equilibrium condition is reached. Al this point,
~
large particles will start to break away and are ingestcd into the
31,000
""'" combustion scetion in re lativeJy high concemrations. This in gestion
,",000
2 3 4 5 , 7 """ has to be prcvented by the removal of salt from the compressor prior
to saturation. The rate al which saturation occurs is highly dependem
Oegradalicn Steps ( 1:: tew a rd Clean) on filter performance.
The effcet of hot scetion fou lin g is thal Ihe nozzle Ihroal arca is
F ig. 9: Qutput and heat rate change~ witb compressor reduced. As this comrols the compressor-turbine match, it causes a
d egra dati on steps im posed on a 40 J\.fW gas turbine. movemem away from the design match poim and results in a
corrcsponding loss of performance. Deposits will aJso form on the

;; = =
---
~ rotating blades causing a further loss in pe rformance.

~
~
Also, as the turbine section of a ga~ turbine fouls, there will be a

, drop in Ihe turbine flow coefficiem and the compression ralio of the
&

-
compressor will increase a~ the turbine "swallowin g capacity is
o = ~ reduccd. Note Ihat in sorne OEM control systems, the compression
o = <o
ratio and exhaust gas temperature are uscd to determine the turbioe
! c"' ~ c inlet temperature; Zaba [8]. This a lgo rithm is based on an

---
~
~ assumption of constam turbine effic iency, and if this efficiency
"
!
,~

,~

CDP
,i. dcereases due to turbine fouling, then the comro l system will indicate
a higher turbine inlel temperature than is really present. Therefore the

,.
-8 output of Ihe turbine is funher reduced.
! ,ro

4. FOULlNG DETERIORATION IN AXIAL FLOW

Fig. IO: Ch a n ge in mass flow rate, compresso r d ischarge
tem perature and pressure witb compressor degradation steps
imposed on a 40 J\.fW gas turbine.
The drop in efficiency causes Ihe discharge lemperature 10
Q
increase by apprm :imalely 10.6C (19 F) and Ihe compressor
discharge pressure to drop by aOOm 0.7 bar (lO psia). The varialion
in axial compressor work, turbine seclion work. an d Ihe Olllpul after
los ses is shown in Figure 11.
BTUIkWhr x 1.055 = !Uf kg
COMPRESSORS
Fou lin g delerioration depends on two factors:
The susceptibility ofthe axial compressor to fouJ, and
The sensitivity of the gas turbine 10 the impact of fouJing on
its performance.
These are two distinct faclors and should not be confused. There are
design paramelers thal iodepen demJy affcet OOlh these factors.
The suseeptibility of a gas turbioe {O fouling, i.e., the
comprcssor's propensity to foul given a certain environment and
foulants, has been studied by Tarabrin et al [11] and Song et al [16, tenn appearing in the numerator of the ISF equation. ISF valuc.~
17]. Tarabrin et al. [11] developed an analytie eonccpt of the fouling as caleulated by Tarabrin for selected engines are provided in
mcchanism oonsidering the motion of foulant partides by modclin g Table 2.
of a compresoor blade as a cylinder. Song et al [16, 17] developcd
more advanced modcJs by modifying the Tarabrin concept an d
studied the parametric impact of blade profile, flow oonditions, an d Table 2: Index of sensitivity to fouling (Tarabrin et al, 1996)
the effccts of particle size an d partide distribution on foulin g. The
key results of thi s important study are provided in the section ahead. Comp .... ors Cen ... ur ~'oo GTE_t SO GTE _tSO V94 .2
~ ~
The sensitivity or impoct of fouling on gas turbine performance Parameters
mooel O fuJ..ca1e
has been srud ied by Saravanarnuitoo and Lakshminarasimha [18].
Engine outpu!, kW 2 .8S0 20.134 tSO.ooo tSO,OOO
Aker and Saravanamuitoo[14], Scddigh and Saravanarnuttoo [13],
Ai< ma. , fIow. k;:/. t7 .2 6S .8 3S .S ,," '00
Ma~sardo [19], and by Tarabrin et al [lO]. It is important to note that
the power loss due to compresoor fouling depends on the control
pararneters employed. In the case of sp li t-shaft gas rurbines, if the
primary control parameter is ga~ generator speed, a lower degradation
P .... u .. rallo
Numbe<of . ...
Hu ~ratioort"
,es
. ... ,e
'H

"
ca 0 .6
t7.2:1

0.480
.. Il.S:t

"
0.422
t2.9 ,t

"
0 .422
.
tO.6:1

0520
in power will be noted (as the ga~ generator can spccd up) than if the l!.T por . ... 30, K 28 .20 2S.90 24.60 23.34 19.2S
eng ino:: is on tempcrarure control. ~d" . oft " ' '''ie , rn 0.4400 0.73S6 0.S7t2 2.36S0 2 .t730
Nomina l mul<>n 'p"0d of tS,OtS 9,160 t2,420 '.~ '.~
,a<
4.1 Gas Turbioe Desigo Paramete rs
,se
,~n a nUof, rpm
8." ..., $ .72 1.36 U,
Computational results prov ided by Tarabrin for a gas turbine
Tarabrin et al [10,11] and Song et al [16, 17] concluded tha! the operating under ISO conditions and having a mass flow rate of 35.47
rate of partide deposition on blades increases with grow in g angle of kglsee at a speed of 12420 rpm, a pressure ratio of 12.5:1, a O, of
attack, and that smaller eng ines exhibit a higher susceptibility to 0.57 12, a hubltip ratio of 0.422 and an ISF of 5.72 are presented in
foul in g than larger engines. Funhermore, the susccptibility to fouling Figure 12. This figure indicates the ehange in adiabatie effieieney
increases with increasing compressor stage head (CpI'l.T). Dcsign and pressure ratio as sueccssive stages foul for the first 6 stages. As
pararneters that will determine the inherent susceptibility to fouling can be seen, after the siuh progressive stage of foul in g, there is a
for a specific compressor des ign indude air inlet ve loc ity at the inlet 4.5% reduction in mass flow. a 4% reduction in pressure ratio and a
guide vanes. compressor pressure ratio, aerodynamic and geometri cal 2% drop in compressor efficiency.
characteristics.

'.
4.2 Gas Turbioe Fouling Susceptibility

~m
Tarabin et al [11] have proposed that an "Index of Sensitivity to
Fouling" (lSF) can be calculated for axial compressors as follows: /

mCp~T,,,,g~ ><10-6 n ~ p:
""
p.
ISF = (2)
(1
2
rh )Dc
3
,
In examining this cquation, high loadin gs and small channel I'~'~',
""
dimensions increase fouling susceptibility, Accordin g to Tarabrin, , .... . Of"

and a~sum in g operation under s imilar env ironmental conditions and ~ " t~'
with the same level and quality of air filtration, engines with higher "",
ISF values would exhibit a greater reduction in airl10w compared to ,
...... t!tl. '.--"""

eng ines with lower ISF. Note that although this is really an index of " ,
"susceptibility" to fouling, it a loo influences engine performance.
,
Thus, rcduction in discharge pressure and efficiency will aloo be
~" ..I I I - 'f1!~
greater for engines with higher ISF values. Tarabrin' s ISF factor is
ba~ed on the fo ll ow in g underlying principIes:
,
0.1 0.15 O. ' D.I, 1.0 1.15 G
The dcposition of partides on the surface of bladcs takes place
under the action of inertia forces acting on the partide an d F ig. 12: M odificaon of Co mpresso r Adia bac E ffi cieney a nd
forcing thcm to move al on g the curved strearnlines. Parti dc.~ of PTessure Ratio with Simula ted Foulin g Stages (Tarabrio et al,
din that oollidc with the blade can stick to the blade surfacc. [996)
Sticking tendency is increased by thc prescncc of o ily
hydrocarbons tha! may have deposited on the blades. The The relationship betwcen the ISF factor and key parameters such
coefficient of cascade entrainment as dcfincd by Tarabrin is: as temperarure rise per stage. hubftip ratio and tip diameter are shown
in Figure 13. Newer gas turbines tend to operate with high work
E<= (0.08855 Stk - 0.0055). (bit) . Sin(ABI2)f Sin B I (3) stages and inerea~ed Mach numbers, and several of the modern high
performance machines have tran sonic early stages. It is important to
Where ll.B =fl ow turning angle note, therefore, that the Delta T pcr stage is not uniform in modem
As the design compressor head (worklstage) increases, the flow axial flow eompressors as the blade loading may vary throu gh the
tuming angle AB and the ool idity of the cascadc typicall y compressor.
increa~e. By using corrclations for the sol idity and axial flow
vclocity, and as the head per stage is Cp(AT), thi s resu lts in this
 "~-------------------------------,
o 400 800
'.-
1200 1100 2000 2400
'" 1 1 1
-0.005
la 6 ..0.0\ 1\ ......., I

, :.0.015 \\ IG-k"-:.
, g -0.02 \'
,, +-------~------~----------------'

"
,,, ,,,
!.(J.025
.0.01
-"-" r----
CcmpresSOl' Delta T/Slage -0.035
-0.04

Fig. 14: Influence of Fouling on Efficiency, Mass flow and

,,, ,-----------------------------,
Diatnelrr ___
......... T1(l Hubtr", RalO
Pressure Ratio as a function oltime. (Tarabrin et, al., [10])

4.4 Location of Fouling in an Axial C ompressor

Experimental sludics eonducled by Tarabrin [1 0] have indicaled
Ihat mosl fouling occurs in the first 5-6 stagcs, and the degrec of
fou li ng tend. to durea"" from the from lo the baek end of Ihe
,,, eompressor. Dcposits measurro on a 16-slage Frame 5322 gas
turbine are quanlifi ed in Figure 15 for the rotor blades and in Figure
16 for Ihe stator blades. These figures provide the we ighl distribulion
on the eonvex and eoneave sirles of the blades up to stage 6. An
ins ignifieam amoun l of depos it~ was noted o n Ihe sevenlh slage
,, ",
~----------------------~
UA 0 .5 ", 0.7 o.s onwards.
Tlp dlameter, m & I-lb'Tlp Ratio

Fig. 13: Relatiollllbip between Tarabrin' s ISF and key gas

Di
~
."
m
:;
0 .7

0.6
r- -+- Concave side
-o- Convexside
r
turbioe parameters. 0 .5

"
~
e
o
~ 0.4
4.3 FouJing Degradatio n Rate
ExpcricnCl': has shown tha! fou ling tends lo occur during nitia]
~
c.
0 0.3 \\
0
\.\
..
opcration and roughly fo llows an exponcmial Jaw, stabiJizing aflcr m
abom 10CJ0-2000 hours. An emp iricaJ formula proposed by Tarabrin E 0.2
el al [11] is
~Power = a [ l -e--l<] (4)
0
o 0. 1
'\
c.
Whcre,

a= 0.07, b=O.OO5.

The intluCllcc of fou ling 011 changcs in compres sor cfficicncy

(1i1]), ma~s fl o,", rate liG and p ressure ratio (I'!.II:) as a function of time
.!l 0.0
2 3 " 4
Stage number
5

Fig. 15: Measuroo distribution or deposits on axial eompressor

6

is showII in Figure 14; (Tarabrin el al., [1 0]). Rotor Blades in a two-shaft Fmm e 5 gas turbine. (Tarabrin et aJ,
[10])
 0.4
-,- --- _._-- -
1.4
1 _ Concave side ~
-8 1.2 " ,

"
1 -:- Convex s ide
~ 0.3
/ . /
41 1.0
e ,"
:.
8. 08 "- ,,,
o 1\
o 0.2
w
g 0.6
1\\ , - - - cylin der model
m
E 0.4 \ 0. 1
,I
I
._.- by Tara brin et a1.(1998a) _

,,
model1
~ --- model2

IGV 2 '"
3
Stage number
4 5 6
O 10 20 30
Particle d iam eter, d p (p.m)
40 50

Fig.18 : Distributio o of cascade collection efficieocie:s wilh

various particle s ize:s (Soog el al, [16])

Fig. 16: M easured di~tribuon of d eposits on axial compn ss or

Stator 8lade:s in a two-sbaft Frame 5 gas turbine. (Tarabrin el al,
[10]) 4.5.2 81a d e m ord leogth aod solidity. Thc distribution of
cascade oollection efficiency with VariOUI chord lengths and particle
siz.cs when solid iry is fixed is shown in Figure 19, aDd il can be sccn
lhat oo11ection efficiency dcereases Wilh an incrca<;e in chord lenglh.
4.5 Exl:ension ofTarabr in's Work This may be calL\.ed by a reduced probabilily of panicle impaction on
Tarabrin's worl: was extended by Song el al in a reries of papcrs, lhe blade, due 10 the increased time that panicles move wilhin the
and importam results are d iscusscd in lhis seclion. Song el a l [1 6] flow ficld belwccn blades.
mooificd Ihe exprcssion of ca'iCade coJlcclion efficiency as used by
Tarabrin el al [11], and devclopcd a new mooel by a!suming a blade
as a plate instead of a cy lindcr. The cascade mode l used by Song is
presenled in Figure 17. Song studied the effcel of compres sor design
pararneters such as chord length and oolidity on the f(l'lling
mcehanism. The impacl of part icle s iz.c on cascade oolle;:tion
effic iency was also in vesl igalcd

Slreom line Fig. 19: Dislributions of cascad e collection efficiencie:s with

Fig. 13: Simplified cascad e model with ass umptioo of flat-plale:s
as comp ressor blade:s (Soo g el al [16])_
4.5. 1 Particle size. Cascale co llcetion effic iency for various
pan iclc s iz.cs i~ shown in Figure 18 (Song el a l. [16]) and, as
expcctcd, the collection efficiency increases with increa~in g particle
Slze.
various chord leogths a nd particle size:s (a = 1.5); Soog el a l, [16]
The linear incrca<;e in cascad~ collection efficiency with an
increase of so lidily when the chord lcnglh is fixed is shown in Figure
20. Note. [ha! thi s i. not call.~ed by :m increa.e o f p3fticle impaclioll<
on the blades, bU! is due to a rcduced number of inlet particle~
reslll!ing from Ihe ~malJer distance betwccn blades when the so lidity
is hi gh. These results of Song el al corrcspond wilh hose of Tarab ri n
el al. [1 1].
 4.7 Relatiooship hetween Airllow Loss due to Fouling, PTessure
Ratio and Compressor Efficiency

For single shaft machines. the pcrccm change in mass fl ow rate

due to comp ressor fouJing and pressure ratio are approximately cqual.
According to Zaba [8], the relation sh ip betwccn comprcssor
effic iency and ma~s flow rate chan ge is as fo [[ ows:

0.5 Pcrcent change in mass flow is approx imateJy cqual to the pcrccm
change in compressor efficicncy if aH the stages are equa[[y
o. fouled.

Ec 0.3 Percent change in mass fl ow is greater than the pcrcent chan ge in

compressor efficiency if the early stages are more heaviJy fou led,
20
02 and wh ich is most commonly found in practiee. Typically, the
pcrcent change in mass flow rate is 1.25 times the pcrcent change
o., in compressor effic iency. For example if the ma~s flow reduces
by 2%, the compres sor efficiency is reduced by approximately
0.8%.

cr 4.8 Engine Configuration and Number of Shafts

Add itiona l studies by Tambrin ct a l [ lO] examined the influence

of foulin g_on three different en g!ne configurations a~ follows:
Fig. 20: DistrilJUtions of cascade colleclion efficiencies with
various solidities and particle sizes (e = 7cm); Song el aJ, [16] Sin gl c-shaft gas turbines

Two-shaft gas turbine i.e., a ga~ generator and a free power

Sorne importan! conclusions ba~ed on Song CI al's important
work ndude:
Fouling is closely rclatcd to the geometric and flow
characterist ics of the ax ial compressor stagc. Adhcs ion of
particlcs lo bladcs (defined as the cascade co lJ ect ion effic icncy)
is incrcascd with a dccreasc of chord [englh and an increa~e of
so lidity. Funhcrmorc, foulin g is increascd with rcduccd flow
rales, which are closcly related lo the incorning air vclocities.
Largo:: partides increa~e the cascade collcction cfficicncy.
Deposition of largo:: particlcs in f ronl stages makes foul jng
dominant in fronl stagcs. Small particlcs, howcvcr, pass through
turbine
Threc-shaft confi guration with a two shaft compressor (LP an d
HP) dri ven by their rc.~pcct i ve HP and LP turbinc.~ and a free
power turbine
For the comparative study Tarabrin used the same cycle
thermodynam ie parameters of pressure ratio, a irflow and ISF, and
examined the cffcct of a 1% drop in compressor effie ieney. Results
are shown in Table 3 and Figure 2 1, an d are expressed as changes in
power (oNe), thermaJ effieieney (01)('), airflow rate (OG), pressure
ratio (oTI), and compressor spccd (oN, oNLPC oNIlpe).

.
T ABLE 3: Coefficient of lnfluence ofGas Turhine Parameter:s
the fronl stages and influence downstream compres sor stagcs.

.. '" '" ""'"

with a 1% Drop in Compressor Efficieney, Tarahrin et a1 [10]
Partidc size distribution is an
influenees the extem offouJing.
importam parameter that
...
G' Nornn.1

......
ConcIiIiono

... ~ n

4.6 Fouling Index (Seddi~h and Saravanamuttoo)

...."""
."
..."
P"-~ ~

T 1223"K n. conll
~_'2.5 T _coros, 2.12 '4' _1.25 1.25

U'G

,~ T, _ 122301{ T, . toril!
" !.SS
207 2.07 . 1.'

It is interesting to note that Seddigh and Saravanamuttoo [13]

proposed a fouJing factor defined as:
""" ~ !2.5
".-
T, ~ const
1iF" vwoa
2.12 '42 _1.25 ' .25

",N T, "'22301( T. "ODnIl .~,
~" 2 18 2. \8 1.18 .y
FouJ ing Index (') "'"
NOII
~.

~nll
12.5

of .. -.... ... ;"n .. % Ior! % offll _ .......... _oIkilncycllof\9l

6"'. """'111 ... \lO" kI_ ",,1 OIIIpuI. 6",. ""WIgO In .....""'" _ncy;
Note that Seddigh and Saravanamunoo's index addresses impact
of foul in g deterioration on the eng ine, not its suseepti bility or T,. kI_ ....lit......." ... f . _ _ _ _ ._1IOuIe ....
6G . """"VI ....- . 6~ c/Iar9I" prao<I" ...00: 6n cI">anVo In """""",_-"

propcnsity to foul. It is a non-dimensiona l cocffic ient of the ratio of

the spcc ifi c power output and the entha lpy ri se for a stage, and is
based on me results of just three engines thm were simulated for
fouJing detcrioration. Our studies have shown that thi s factor is nO[ as
good a prcdictor as is the gas turbine net work ratio. A more deta iJ ed
anaJys is of this factor ba~ed on 92 ga~ turbines is presemed ahead.
W ith constant turbine in let tcmperaturc T], il can be secn that Ihe
s in gle-shaft gas turb inc exhibit~ an output drop of 2.82% eompared to
a power drop of 4. 32% fo r Ihe three-shaft machinc. The physieaJ
explanation of this behavior is that Ihe power match point of a multi-
spoo l gas generator eompressor and turbine is aehieved by a greater
ehange in a ir flow compared to a fixed-speed single-shaft g as turbine.
The power drop for Ihe two-shaft turbine is 3.5%, and li es betwccn
the three-shaft and singlc-s haft results.
 '.-
output and efficiency at Slep 1; i.e., in new and clean cond ilion wieh
no delerioralion imposed. The results are shown in Figures 22 and 23
and seem lo corroborale Tarabrin's findin gs in Ihat ehe multi -spool
machines lend lo be more sensilive 10 Ihe effect of fou li ng s .
40(1 fI 1200 ll11H1 2000 :!400

\.. 1 le is importanl lo noee Ihat Ihis analys is addresses ehe impacI on

performance when simulated fouling is imposed unifonnly on all six
' .M
~"'" A "Comp efficiency, 1-shafl
gas turbines (i.e. Ihe sensilivily). 1I does nol address the suscepeibiliey
lo fou ling of these eng ines.
\~ B :: Comp efflClency, 2-shaft
l\. , , e = Comp effiCIellC)'. 3-shaft 1.02
D = Comp output. 1-maft
~
, O 1.00

.,, 1
E "Comp output, 2-shafl .2
...;; 0.98
"
..
~~
F :: Comp oulpul, 3shaft 0.96
~
0.94
2l
" 0.92

/t.
Fig. 21: Influl'nce ofaxial now compressor fouliog on efficiency
0.90
and power for different shafl configurations (Tarabrin [10]).
",-,-:: ~ A
"llN 0.88
"".
~ f::!c
Note Iha! in Ihe case of a two-sh aft turbinc wilh variable powcr
rurbinc nozzle.~ (as may be foulld on mechanical drive sp li t-shaft
.. 0.86

"
machines), Ihe compressor spccd can be kept dose 10 constan! by D
E 0.84
varying Ihe powcr tllrbine area - hus rcducing Ihe powcr drop lO O ~E
2.82%, as calculated for Ihe single-shaft eng inc. Kurz el al [3] have Z 0.82
dcveloped sim ilar concJusions bascd 00 simulation studics. F
0.80

4.9 S imulatio n Runs \Vith Compressor Degradation o n Six Gas

2 3 4 5
7

Degradallon Steps (1 = New & Clean)

Turbines
Fig. 22: No rnlll1izoo powl'r output changes with fouling
GTPRO simll latioll mns were conductcd on six availab le ga~ degradation stl'ps for diffl'rl'nt gas turbioe models.
rurb incs ranging in power from 38 to 174 MVI. The machines are
des ignaled A lo F as follows:
O
A. Advaoced lechnology, "F-Class" high oulpul, s in gle-s haft GT 1.01
.2
B. Conventional "E-Class" high oulpul, sin gle-shaft GT
~ 1.00

~
C. Conventional "E-Class" medium oulpUl, sin gle-shaft GT
D. Conventional "E-Class" small Olllpul, sing le-shaft GT ~ 0.99
E. Aeroderivali ve wilh 2 compres sor spools and a power turbine ie 0.98

~~ -...;
F. Aeroderivali ve wilh Ihree compressor spools

..
0.97
~ ~
(Nole Ihal B is a sca led-up vers ion of C. and D is approx. half Ihe o 0.96
power of C) i;::...
As before, lhe imposed degradalion sleps were: E
W
0.95
0.94
,"'; '0 A
Slep 1: New an d Clean,
~ ""
1"-' -
"- 0 Eg
0.93
Mass flow drop = 0%, Compres sor effic iency drop = 0%
Slep 2: Mass tlow drop = 1%, Comp. effic iency drop = 0.833 %
~
1-
0.92
0.91
Slep 3: Mass tlow drop = 2%, Comp. effic iency drop = 1.67 %
Slep 4: Mass tlow drop = 3%, Comp. effic iency drop = 2.5 % g 0.90
'F
Slep 5: Mass tlow drop = 4 %, Comp. efficiency drop = 3.33 %
~ 0.89
Slep 6: Mass tlow drop = 5 %, Comp. efficiency drop = 4.167 %
234567
Slep 7: Mass tlow drop = 6 %, Comp. efficiency drop = 5%
Degradatlon Steps (1 = New & Clean)
The fo ll owing assumplions were also made for all simulalions:

Fuel CH4 LHV = 50046 KIlkg supplied al 25C (2 1518 BTUflb,

Fig. 23: No nnalizoo I'fficiency changes witb fouLing dl'gradation
al 77F)
steps for different gas turbine models
Ga." turbines run al 100% raeing. inferred TIT control mode,
conerol curve limited.
Sile ambient condition s 1.013 bara (14.7 psia), 15C (59 F) and Q
Research conducled by Arnu lfi and Massardo [20] Slales Ihae Ihe
60% RH. distri bution of pressure rise in Ihe compressor is also an important
Tn lel and oUllet losses of lOOmm &125mm WG (4 and 5 inch de tenninant in fouling deeeri oralion behavior.
WG) respecti vely.

Tn order 10 compare ehe ga.~ turbines an d Iheir response 10 fouling,

' Se"~ral rnulti -.pool engin~s lend lo be high pressure ratio, lower NWR
the s imul alion result~ were normalized where " 1" rcpresents Ihe
en gin~s. hu", rnaking hern more seT1sitive to compres""r efficiency.
 net work ratio acroderivat ives that have hi gh effic iencies. so the
results of Figure 25 shou ld not be v iewcd a~ a "Irend".

5. COMPREHENSIVE EVALUTION OF 92 GAS

TURBINE ENGINES WITH FOULlNG
~
DETERIORATION 600

5.1 De\'elopment ofData and Simulations

"
~
~
SOo
'00 ~
i ~., ;JI ."
..
300
In order to examine the fouling sensitiv ity of a variety of gas ~ 200
... -\. f!J. . ' .
rurb ines, a number of simulation s were run using GTPRO software. .0
~
The analysis includcd ninety-two ga~ rurbines , including heavy dmy "O
~
~ O
and aeroderivative eng in es eoverin g a wide raJlge of opemting 00
pararneters of pressure mtio, turbine inlet temperarures and specifie 0.25 0.30 0.35 O." 0.45 O.SO 0.55
work. The range of sal ient parameters of the 92 g& turbines is GT Nel Work RIoli(l
shown in the seaner plots of Figure l.
AH mns were done at 15 and 40C at sea levcJ, an d at a re lative
humidity of 60%. Fuel uscd wa~ CH 4 w ith a LHV of 50,046 kJlKg. Fig. 24: Gas turbine net work ratio vs. specifie work.
AIl mns were made at base load using an inferred TIT CIlmrol model.
The inlet and exit losses were 10 and 12.45 millibars respcctivcJy.
The approach followed is described below:
~ ,-------------------------,
F irstly, mns were made on all gas turbines at 15C under new
and clean cond itions. Runs were then made with an imposcd
level of compressor deterioration. The deteriorat ion was
'"35
modcJed by imposing a reduction in mass tlow of 5% coup lcd
with a compressor scct ion effic iency reduction of 2.5% poims. '"
These values are considered normal and can be expected to
"
provide a re lative comparison of the ninety-two gas rurb ines
considered. '" -

2 Runs as defincd in point (1) aboye were then made at an ambient "0.25
+-----------------------------"
o.", 0.35 o.", o." 0.55 o .~
tempemture of 40C to examine the impact of amb ient
tempcrature. GT Nel Work Rallo
3 AH gas turbine salient operating parameters were loggcd into a
spreadshcct for analysis.
4 Using the spreadshcct, computations were then made of Fig,25: Gas turbine Det work ratio vs. GT thermal efficiency.
deterioration levcls in terms of power and heat mte, and other
parameters such a~ the temperature differemial per stage and
fouling factors as defined by Aker and Saravanamuttoo and
Tarabrin. 5.3 Power, Real Rate and Fuel Consumption Cbanges

We now examine fouling behavior (Le. sens itivily to a certain

imposcd fouling) for Ihe 92 gas turbines . The reduction in power vs.
5.2 Key Gas Turbine Design Paramelers the ba~e output of the ga~ turbine (a rough analog of its size) is shown
in Figure 26. The tmditional anccdot al observation Ihat smaller
Key design opcrating paramcters used to examine what machines are more sensit ive to fouling is supportcd by thes.:: results.
corrclat ions ex istcd between the loss of power due to fouling
included pressure ratio, speeifie work, and GT net work ratio (N\VR).
Ofthes.::, it appcars that the best correlat ion obtained was with the GT
net work ratio. The NV/R is defined a~ the useful output of the gas ,1.
turbine d ivided by the total turbine work.

Outputi n kW : ~i '
~~~ . ... ~ ,
,
, , ,
NWR (Net Work Ratio) (6) I ,\
W, ,~ ,
'"
Another way of expressing th is rat io is:

NWR = W, - Wc = 1- Wc (7)
,
W, W,
50,000 100,000 150,000 200,000 2SO,000 3OOpoo 350,000
NV/R rcquires knowlcdge of the turbine scetion total work and tan [Oot. r lor _ d Brtp"', kW
the work consumed in the compresscr, an d these are factors that are
not eas il y available to most users. The qualitative rcJationship of
NV/R with the ga~ turbine specifie work is shown in Fi gure 24, and it Fig. 26: Per~nl Power Reduction (due to imposed fouling) vs.
can be seen that high specifie work turbines tend to have higher net gas turbine Non-Deteriorated Qutput in kW (- size).
work ratios. The rcJationship betwccn NV/R and thermal efficiency is
also depicted in Figure 25. As discusscd in scction 1.1, there are low The pereent powcr reduct ion can also be secn 10 be invcrsely
correlated 10 the nel work ral io as shown in Fi gure 27, with engines
having low net work ral ios lendin g lO be more sensitive to a given
amount of imposed fouli ng.

,I 0.8 , -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,

. ,. ... . w......\".. ..
~ 0.7
" 0.&
"w ,8. .....
"' ...."
0.5
:", "", i .. ""t"
,. '. ~ 0.3
0.4

0.2 ' -_ _ _ _ _- - - -_ _ _ _ _ _ _-~

,
~

100,000 200,000 300,000

......... ' . rlor d oU'PU' , kW
o
0.2~ 0 .30 0 . 3~ 0 .4~

GT M'!t w"rk Rttio

Fig.29: Perce nt heal ra te increase per 1% power output d ro p
with 5% reduetion in air ffi ass Dow (due to fouJing) lOS. gas
tur bine nondeteri orated o utpul in k'V (-size).
Fig. 27: Power reduction due to fouling vs. nel work ratio.
If a gas rurbine is operaling in a fou led condition at base load.
The behavior of heat rate with fou lin g deterioration is shown in Ihen the fue l consumplion under fou led conditions will actualJ y be
Figure 28. This ploc provides a rough est imate of the relat ionship of reduced as is shown in Figure 30. Wilh sorne ga~ rurbines (and
heat rate dete rioration with a certain amount of fou lin g for differem dependin g on Ihe control mode), it mi ghl be possible 10 increase the
net work ratio eng in es. Note thal E and F cla~s engines operale at a fueJ fl ow to miligate the effecl of foulin g.
NWR of between 0.4 and 0.5, and sh()w a ratio change in heat rme of
abom 0.4 to 0.5% per 1% deterioration in power output. The heal
rate increase due to foul in g dete rioral ion for a 1% power outpul
reduction is shown in Figure 29 as a function of Ihe gas turbine
outpm.
.A , -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ,
~ S0.7
4il :s 0.6
~'~ . .
. ,~ .....
~, ~o
,
0.5
0.8
~ i 0.4
"i. 0.7 ;: 8. 0.3

,
,;
o

~
0.6

O,
.' ~ :tf~~

,~ 0.2 '--_--_-_--_--_-_-~
50,000 100,000 150,000 200,000 250,000 300,000 350,000

~
"-o
O.,

. :~.\i.. Non..(Jelenorated Outpul, kW

0.3 Figure 30: Rednctio n in fuel Do w ra te (%) per 1% output

, 02
reduction wilh fonled opera tion (5% drop in mass Dow).
020 0.30 OAO 0.50 0.60
GT Ne t Work Ratio
5.4 Ambient Tem perature ElTecls
The general sensili vity of power drop with ambient lemperature 6
is dep icted in Figure 31 . in which the power drop per .oC (wilhin Ihe
Fig. 28: Pe rcent heat rale increase per 1% power o utput
range IS 10 40C) is plotted againsl the design ga~ turbine nel work
reduetion (d ue lo fouJing) vs. nel work ralio.
ratio. This curve is w ithom any imposed foulin g degradation. As
expeeled, as Ihe compres sor work increa~es as a fractio n of Ihe
turbine lotal work. the net work ratio decrea~es. Thus, low nel work
ratio machines tend 10 exhibit higher sensilivity 10 ambient
temperaturc sw ings. This is Iypical of aerode rivati ve engines, where
Ihe compres sor wo rk lends 10 be a higher pereentage of Ihe tOlal
turbine work.
 5.5 Sensiti vity lo fouling ; Seddigh & Saravanamuttoo's FouJing
" ,--------~--~-~--, ludex Factor and Tarabrin' s ISF

The Fouling lndex Factor (= kWf mC,AT) proposed by Seddigh &

1":
J"'
Saravanamuttoo [13] was suggestcd a~ an indieator of foulin g
scnsitivity; i.e. with higher indexes imply in g a greater scnsitivity to
foulin g. However, in examini ng Figure 34, thi s faetor does not sccm
to be strongly indieative of deterioration in terms of compressor
t 0.4 diseharge pressure. Aloo, when viewcd with respcct to power
rcduction (Figure 35) the eorrelation seems to be oppos ite to what
"' wa~ stated in the Scddigh and Saravanamuttoo paper (i.e. that a
higher fouling index implies a greater sensiti vity to fouling).
0.30 ()3~ 0 .40 0.45 O..'iO 0.55
In examining the Fo ulin g Index, it is esscntially the specific work
ar_WorkRotIo divided by the eompressor stage enthalpy risc, and in examin in g
Figure, 3S one ean "ee that the power roduction (sen" it ivity) BOOm" to
Fig.31: Power drop per oC for 92 gas turbioe, as a function uf be less fo r the high spccific work machines; i.e. those that com:spond
GT Del work ratio. to higher NWRs.

Tho:: powcr rcduction wilh fouling detcrioration vs. Itas rurb in e nel
16 ,
work ratio for two ambicnt tcmperaturcs of 15 and 40 is shown in e , ,
.-
Figure 32. TI can be secn Iha! me effcct of fouJing is a function oflhe
nc! work ratio and ha! jI is aloo more sevcrc al high temperarurcs . A
sim ilar plo! showing Ihe heat rate changc is providcd in Figure 33.
, ' .". -:,~~
~ . '~ '-'Y.'.
, .. .'

-
A
A
,

"
""
I "",
""
,."
"

. . -:1 " " "

.. 13
. IOC

~
e
2

O
O
4. A Ai t : t t

,
"
Fouling ndex Par.meter
A

"
..'"

20
"
4

I

Flg.34: CDP reduction % and power reduction % \"s.. Foulin g
lnd ex Parameter.
0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 DAD DAS 0.50 0.55

GT Ne! Worlt Ratio ,~

"
.~
~ ~

.; \ .... ..;.:.. . .
A
+ "" ,
....
Fig. 32: Powl'r reduction wilh compressor deterioration (ur 92
, -

.
.~
gas turbioe as a functioo uf GT oet work ratio fur two dilTerent
ambient temperatures (15 and 40C).
~
~

~ ~\ r..:~ ....( .
.. :G
,
i
1 ~~)\w:t'P:". "~"
~
I "
.~
l
" ,-- - - - - --cc-- - - - - - - - ,
.~

.~
,. ~ ~

-
, . . . _ Work, kW"'G'IO.
~ ~ "

Fig. 35: Power reduction % (triangles) and NWR (squares) lS.

GT specific work

An cvaluation of Tarabrin's ISF on sorne 12 selccted engines on

which goometric d imensions were available was perforrned. The
"" 0.25
liT"'IWark
0.40
Rol.,
"'O 0.55
percent power reduct ion due to fouling plottcd against Tarabrin's ISF
is shown in Figure 36. This sccms to indicate that turoines with low
ISF (i.e. less susceptible to fouling) are also less .eI1.~iljve to fouling.
Fig.33: H eal Rate Increase with compressor deterioration for In exam inin g the corresponding NWR for thesc engines (also plotted
92 gas turbine as a function of GT net work ratio for two in Figure 36), we scc the familiar pallern tha! the high NWR engines
different ambient temperatures (15 and 40C). (ye lJow squares) exhibit a lower percentage power reduetion for a
given imposed level of foulin g. A plot of the ratio of deteriorated
NWR to the design NWR vs. the desig n NWR is shown in Figure 37 6. EFFECTS OF FOULlNG ON GAS TURBINE
for the 92 engines. This a lso indieates thal Ihe lower de sign NWR OPERATION ANO MAINTENANCE
machines lend to deleriorate more Ihan Ihe hig her NWR machines.
The ehange in heat rate due to foulin g vs. Ihe ISF is shown in 6.1 Aerothermodynamic EtTecl.s
Figure 38. II is reeogniz.cd thal Ihe num])er of engines on wh ieh the
ISF has been ealculaloo are relatively small and further corroborative The observable effccI of compressor fouJing is a drop in Ihermal
wo rk necds to be done in this arca. efficiency (increase in heat rate) and a drop in output. The axial flow
compressor is a sensitive componen! thal requires smoolh
14 055 aerodynamic surfaces. FouJing causes an alteral ion in Ihe shape and
profi le of the blad in g (increa~ed surface rou ghness), and Ihis reduces
13 air flow rate. pressure ratio of Ihe overaJl compressor and compres sor
o 050
o efficiency. Modelin g details may be found in Lakshminarasimha et al
12
~ [21] and Tabakoff [22].
1\, o OA5 :.
11
~
10 OAO ~
Figure 39 shows Ihe changes in compressor discharge pressure
due 10 fouJing at differem ambiem temperatures for a nominal 40
o
9 ~ MW heavy-duty gas turbine.
, .l - o

7

r
'80
0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.5 6.5 7.5 8.5 9.5
I I
Tarabrin ISF Faclor
'70 - Clean c o m pr...
~ Fo uled compro
~
f--
~ ,.o '--,
F ig.36: Power R eductio n % due to fouling (green tria ngles) a nd
N\VR (yellow squa r e:s) vs. Tarabrin ISF fa ctor .
,
~
r----, r----, ~r----,
'50
~
..
' .00

~
0.99

0.98
......
.~ 7.,,1: ~
~~-
-..--
~
~
~
'40
~r----,

Q

~
0.97

0.96

'\
..at.' ..
. ..a........

-
-

'lO

'20

z .o
".
0.95 40 50 70 80 90
~
- 30
0.94 Comprellor Inlel lemperllure , F

0.93 Fig. 39: D rop in Comp resso r Discbarge Pressure befo re a nd
0.25 0.30 0.3 5 OAO OA5 0 .50 0 .55 aner fo uling.
Deslgn NW R

Surface roughne,~s caused by co mpressor foul ing increases Ihe

Fig. 37: Normaliud delerioralro NWR vs. Iksign NWR profile losses of Ihe blading. These los ses nppcar as !I boundary layer
momentum Ihi ckncss, whi ch iocreases with iocreas ing roughncs5 in
!he bladc profile. lo simple terms, !he drag increases and resull~ in an
9 increao;e o f Ihe specific work (kW/unil mass flow) of the eompre.ssor.
,
For exam pl e, for lhe simu laled va lu es of lhe 40 MW gas turb ine
modeled wilh degradalion sleps in Figures 9. 10 and 11, the spccifie

I 7 compressor work increases fmm 158.77 kWllblsec in !he un-

delerioraled condition to 163.82 kWll blsec with Ihe max imum

! ,
dCleriornlion.

A dctailcd Irc31mcnl of losses is prov ided in Koch and Smith (23] .
A trealmenl of roughncss cffects on !he acrodynam ics is provided in
i 'tt


3 - Barnmen an d Woelk [7]. An interesting lreatrncm of lhe effcct of
" Reyoold~ number and blade surfaec rollghness is provided in
I 2
Sehafflcr [24]. Ao interesting sel of papcrs ha~ becn provided by
Syvenud et al [25. 26J and Millsaps ct al [27].

0.5 1.5 2..5 3..5 4..5 5.5 6..5 7..5 8..5 9..5

Fig. 38: Heat Rale increase due lo fouJins lS. Tarabrin ISF
factor.
6.2 Fouling, AirOow Dislomon and Compressor Su rge
As fouling reduces the mass flow (flow coefficient) in the first
compressor stage, the performance of the laller stages is affeeted and
the opcrating point on thc first-stage characteristic moves towards the
left on the compressor map specd line, thus increasing the first-stage
pressure ratio. This causes a higher air density at the in let to the
sccond stage, with a eorrcsponding funher reduction in the second
stage flow coefficienl. This effect progresses through successive
stages until a rear stage stall occurs, and surge is triggercd. Dctails on
the effccts of stage characteristics on axial flow compressor
performance may be found in Stone [28].
Dundas [29] has eonductcd a detailed analytical investigation into
the deterioration of turbine operation inelud in g drop in eompressor
effic iency, fou ling, first stage nozzle d iston ion, intemal bleed seal
deterioration, tumine effieieney reduction, inlet filter foulin g and low
fuel heating value. These pararneters were examined to study the
effeet on the tumine opcrating lin e, and his invest igation eoncluded
that compressor fouling had a pronounccd effeet.
Whereas fouling causes the operatin g line to move towards the
surge line, there are other factors that can calL~e movement of the
surge line itself. Eros ion of compressor blading can affect boundary
layer development and increase the tendency toward separation. Stall
can therefore occur at a lower in cidence angle than with smooth
compressor blading. Heavy erosion can aloo reduce blade tip chords:
thereby reducing blade tip so lid ity, wh ich would adversely affect
stage stability.
The importance of considering foulin g effects on surge becomes
more important with the use of gas turbines in comb incd cycle
cogeneration app li cations, and also wilh IGV contro l and slcam
injeclion appl ication s. Closure of !he IGVs durin g part load
opcration restri cts airtlow and this, in conjunclion w ilh severe
fouling, can pro mote surge. Steam injection results in a higher back
pressure on Ihe compressor, thus movin g the opcrating point closer to
Ihe surge line.
There have becn several ca~es where excessive distort ion of the
in let airtlow ha~ triggered a surge event resulting in compressor
damage. Icing, for example, can cause un eve n inlet circumferential
distonio n. or uneven clogging of filters - poss ibly due to a bend in
the air inlct duct before the filter or impropcr inlct system des ign o
Studies and resu llS rclating to the flow in in lct ducts are given by
Manfrida, el. al. [30].
6.3 Effects of Fouling on Compressor 81ading Inlegrity
Wh ile fouling cannO! be said to be a major cause of blade failure, il
can contribute to various blading prob lems a~ indicatcd below:
By promoting surge o r rotating slall wh ich may have a
dangerous effect on blades.
In sorne cases. blading natural frequencies can be affectcd by
the increa.sc in mass due to din buildup. Excessive d in on the
blades can also cause imbalance, and a cons.equent increase in
nmning spccd vibrat ion.
Di n accu mu lalion belwecn bearing surfaces of the blade root
may cause blades lO operate in an abnormal pos ition - thus
adding to the Slresses. If the root conslraint is changcd due 10
build-up in the fir tree region, a change in natural frequency
eould also resu ll as Ihe boundary cond ilion changes.
Panial blockage of cooJing passages of hot scction stators and
blades can be caused by fine particle size foulants (typicall y
less than 5 microns). As Ihe cool in g air is bled from the
compressor, foulants can enter the coo lin g system. Cement
dust, coal dust and fly a~h can be responsible for this problem.
The effects can be improper cooling an d acceleratcd thermal
fatigue, though typ ically the effeets are gradual in nature.
Foulant buildup on compressor blad in g can lead to serious
corrosion problems, especially when humidity is high.
Airbome salt may be ingested as dry pan icles or as droplets
of brine, and moisture wiJl be absorbed during high humidity
operating conditions. Salts, mineral acids and aggressive
gases (e.g. SOx, NOx, Ch, etc.) alo ng with water can cause
pitting of compressor blades due to elcctrochemical cOTTosion
meehanisms. This may lead to local stress raisers Ihat can
dim inish blade fati gue Jife. Under Ihese typc condition s it is
important to perform frequent compressor wash in g (on-l ine
and off-li ne) 10 prevent Ihe accumulat ion of eorrosive
materials. Compressor blade coatings can also be of value
here. Note, however, Ihat on rclalive ly small ga~ turbines a
0.1 mm coatin g applicd 10 the blading can cause a flow
reduclion of 10 percent and a reduction of compressor
effic iency of 5 percent.
5-10 micron panicle siz.e rcpresents the tran sil ion zone
bctwecn fou lin g and erosion, and particles causin g eros ion are
normally 10 microns or greater. (Note that 10 microns = 1115
diameler of human hair). Erosion impairs aerodynamic
performance and can affeel the mechan ical strenglh of blades.
Eros ion fi rst incrca~es blade surface roughness, thus lowe rin g
effic iency slightly. As erosion progresses, airfoil contour
changes occur at the leading and trailing cdges, as well a~ at
blade tips. Severe erosion has alm bccn known to cause
changes in blade natural frequency.
A detailcd treatment of gas turbine blade failures includ in g
underlying causes and troubl eshooting is provided in Meher-Homji
and Gabriles [3 1].
6.4 Foreign Object Damage (FOD)
Although nOI d ireelly linked to fou ling, this subjeet is mentioncd
bccause it can be caused by a loss of fi ller integrity. Damage is
typ ically caused to Ihe forward compressor litages, although in sorne
cases Ihe foreign object can also work its way 10 rcar stages. Damage
is a function of foreign object size and composition, blade
construclion and impact localion. 1I can lead 10 dirccl or sccondary
failure. Foreign object damage can be caused by ice, failcd intake
scclion componcnts, or by materials and tools left in the inlel plcnum.
6.5 Corrusion Effects
In coastal and marine environments the ingestion of airbome sea
salt (primarily NaCl) is oflen a major cause of compressor blade
corrosion. Even wilh effective a ir fillration, Ihe conditions of fog,
humidity or rain can cause migration of salls through the in let filter
(lecching) an d into the compressor. A detai led study of salt
pcrcolation through gas turbine air filtralion syslems has becn
reponed by Stalder & Sire [32].
Water evaporates as it moves through the compressor (causing an
increase in chloride concentralion), an d in sorne cases crysta lline sa lt
deposit~ can be found on compressor blading, as shown in Figure 40.
NOle that dry salt is nol corrosive to the compressor, and Haskell [33]
states Ihat cOTTos ion is rarely observcd beyond the 81h compressor
stage, as no moisture wi ll survive at the operating temperatures
beyond Ihis point. However. rehydralion of sall deposit~ can occur
durin g shut-down o r standstill pc riods, a~ a result of water absorption
by ambient humidity. This causes the re-format ion of aqueous salt
solm ions. th us in itiating e lcctrochemieal eorros ion and resulting in Table 4: Effect of ambient gases on acidity at tbe com pressor
local izcd pittin g of oompressor blades as shown in Figure 41. Note inlet (Based on Haskell, [33]).
that in salty environ ments, the fati gue strength of steel can drop 50-
60 pereent, an d this situation is worsened when notches due to Sulfurou. acid
oorrosion pitting are present.
Am blent SO. IPpb) DIssolvll'C! SO,IPpm) p.
An additional and potentiall y se riou s oonsequence of salt
in gestion is its effcct on turbine hot section componenK As 1 02

memioned aboye, dry salt is not corros ive to the compressor, blll if
salt deposits break-away during opcration and pass imo the
oombust ion section, catastrophi c high-temperature corros ion fa ilures
10
100
1,000
O."

...
2.0 ...
' .0

'.0
of turbine b ladin g can occur. This type of hot corrosion is known as 10,000 19.8 3.'
"sulfi dation". and results from the combined effect of fuel sulfur and Hydrochlorlc acid
trace quantities of alkali metals such as sodium. Normally it is Amblent HCt IPpb) DIssolved HCI (ppm ) p.
oontrolled via the OEM fucl spec ification; Le. by limiti ng tota l alkali
1 1.... 1."
metals in the fuel to a maximum, wh ich is typicall y in the range O. 1
to 1.0 ppm depending on the particular ga~ turbine model. However, 10 5,500 O."
if a irborne sodium en ters from the compressor. even trace amounts 100 17,600 0.44
can cause the OEM contaminant limit to be excecded. For examp le,
at a typi cal air/fuel mass ratio of 4Ofl, an airborne sodium
ooncentration of 0.OO5ppm (5ppb) en teri ng from the compressor is 7. DETECTION OF FOULlNG
equ ivalem to 0.2ppm sod ium in the fuel; whi ch is a typical maximum
li mit for most aeroderivative and advancc-c lass gas turbines. Gas turbine manufacturers an d operators usually devclop
Additional in format ion on gas turbine hot section cofTosion is guidelines to define whcn fou lin g deterioration call s for corrective
prov ided by Bromlcy [34]. action. This is based on a combination of load and exhaust J!as
In polluted urban and industrial environments, the ingestion of temperaturcs (EGT). Users also monitor compres sor discharge
acidic gases suc h a~ SOx, NOx and HC l can a lso create very prcssure and compressor effic iency. Graphs can be plotted to show
aggressive condi tions on compressor blading - e ven if the airtome expccted (c lean) versus mea~ured parameters. However, it is the
ooncentration of these pollmants is in the "parts per bilJion" (Ppb) opinion of sorne operators that the on ly way to detect a fouled
range. Again. the effect of even modcrate relat ive humidity can comprc.~sor is by visual inspection. Unfortunatcly. though. with most
create extrcmcly low pH con dition s (Le. ac idic) resu lting in turb ine designs thi s means shutting down the unit. removing the in let
comprcssor blade corrosion; sce Tab le 4, which is based on wOJk by plenum hatch an d visually inspccting the compressor in let,
Haskell [33]. bellmouth, in let guide vanes (IGVs) and visible early stage b ladi ng.

7. 1 lndicators of Fouliog

The fo ll ow in g parameters can be uscd a~ indicators of fouling:

. Drop in compressor mass tlow rate on fixcd geometry eng in es .
Drop in compressor effi ciency and pressure ratio (or CDP).

The most sensiti ve parameter of the aboye factors is the mass flow
rateo The real prob lem is to detect fouling in time to prevent a
sign ificant power drop. Several phi losophies are in use. Sorne
operators believe in regular periodic wash in g of the machine,
whereas others base the washing requirement on a ccrtain set of
performance parameters. The phi losophy uti li zcd is a function of the
normally expccted fou lin g levcls and thcir severity. washin g
effcctiveness and plant operation criteria. Measurement of air-intake
dep ression is also a practical an d cconom ical mcthod for fixed
gcometry machines. The tcchnique involves measuring intake
Fig. 40: CrystaIline sea salt on com pres..'lOr blading.
dcp ression as an ana log of airtl ow rate. In thi s approach, the gas
turb ine in let bellmouth is uti lized as a flow meter. This approac h has
bcen suecessfu ll y uscd by Scott [35, 36].
By mcans of suitab le software, data availablc in the ga~ turbine
control system can often be used lo monitor compres sor deteriorat ion.
An application of such an analysis is p rovided in Dusatko [37]. where
the general re lat ion betwccn compressor discharge pressure CDP) vs.
compressor in let temperature (CIT) can be found. This data was
taken over several hundred hours of opcration at full load con dition s.
For a Frarne 7EA gas turbine Dusatko noted that a 2 psig loss of
compressor disch arge pressure is cquivalcm to one gross MW of
power. The effect of a crank wash on the CDP vs. CIT plot is also
shown in this papero
A common approach to trend ga~ turbine olllput is to use a power
capacity factor defined a~
Fig. 41 : Pitting coITus ion on compres.'iOr blading.
Power Capacity Factor'" MW Acw.VMW furtkd (8)
 1be MW expecled i5 liJe ~Ied "new and d ean" performance
les! OUlpUI. which is typically 3-5 percc nl higher man the "guarnntcc"
ompul. Corrcctions shotild be made for
Inl et tempcr~ture
Inlet pressure
Specific humidity
NO, watu injection rate.s
Inlet and outlet Pre.<;sure drops
Specd oorrcctions (thi s is nOl: a major iss ue for power
geoenllion applicalions wim single shaft ga.~ rurbines uole.~s
$ign ificaIII off. frcqueocy opemtion is experienced. This
happens in sorne couIllrie.s due 10 grid ''unde r.frequency''
prob lems).
A 1m.'iCJine developmenl proce.s.~ and the use of scatter pl<MS for
deterior,lIion analysi~ of advllIKnl F dass rurbines is providcd in
Meher-Homj i el al, (38 ] and a detailed analysis of actua! data on a
Frame 7EA instalJation is provided by Gulen et al [39].
7.2 Ma pping or Compressor Performance
It is eX lremely valuable to monilor compressor performance by
ereating a co mpn:s.'Ior map and comparing the performance behavior
to me pred icted charncteristics. Con-ected speed and flow are Ihe best
com:lali ng paramelCfll as thc:y a ll ow variat ioos in ambienl
lemperalure and pres.~ure drop through an inle l filter 10 be
incorporated on the map. The correcled spced represenl s the whee l
tangenti al Mach number whcrc.as the CO lJC(;led f10w rcprcsents Ih e
mrough f1ow Mach number. Practical delails of moni toring
oompressor performance fm m a s tandpoinl of delectiug problems are
prov idcd in Dundas [40, 4 1). Vc:er el al [42] have a lso addressed me
issue of correction of dala for tre ndin g and mon itoriog foulin g
deteriomlion in mechanical drive unit~
Once a judiciOll.~ schedule for onli ne and off line washing has
bcen e.~lablished, il is imponanl 10 mon itor the performance of Ihe
gas IlIrbine and traek for unexpected events. and a lso 10 monitor th e
effieacy of Ihe washing programo II is imponanllhal all paramClel'5
be monilored and appropriate eorrections made usin g correclcd
specd.~, Icmpc:ralllre., and floWl'l thal can men be lrended. For
aeroderi valive e ngines Ihe conuul approach mUSI be taken inlo
account (Le. specd or lemperalllre eonlrol). For aeroderivalive.s with
multiple compres sor spoo ls, the inlcrre lationsll ip betwecn Ih e
oorreclcd LP and HP eompressor spool spccds can prov ide a valu ab le
indicalor of compressor deterioration. Spccial performance
moniloring oonsiderations when o peraling al peak loads are provided
in Syverod el al [43}. Haq and Sarnvana mutloo [44] have addressed
the delecti on of foul in g in higll ambi ellllc mpc:raturc eonditions.
8. CONTROL OF FOULlNG BY COMPRESSOR
WASHING
The firsl line of defense in minim iri ng foul ng is 10 e mploy a hi gh
quality ai r fillration system. However, foulng will inevilably sliII
occur, so co mprc:ssor washin g shou ld be uscd to conlrol its impaet.
This is an arca in which slrong and divergc nt opinions ex isto
Washing efficaey is so site spccifie thal approaehes which work for
one site /1l3)' nol be appropriate for an<MiJer. Controversy is oflen
causcd by polarizcd opinions relaling lo wash pmcedures. wa.'ih
media, aud tcc hniques. Sorne of Ihe hi ghlights are prcscntcd below in
an atlempt 10 summari1.e the overa]) picture.
Oper~tors mUSI delermine the besl approach for Ihcir gas turbines
by lria! and error in Icrms of wash tcchnique. use o f on line washi ng,
the frcqueJlCy of wash ing, aud whieh cleaner:s shoold be uscd. The
I)' pe of servicc !hal liJe ga~ lurbi nes are in musl also be oonsidered.
For example. by nOI having lhe abil ity to shUl down for erank WIl5he....
IPP opc:ralors and merchant power plant~ may neal 10 be more
aggress ive in eontrolliog fou ling via on lin e wash progra ms. A
valu able and useful set of papc:rs rcl ating lO eom pre.~sor wa.~hing llave
bec n provided in Bagshaw (45]. SIa!der and van Ooslen (46]. and
Sla lder (1 5].
Severa! different methods of gas rurbine compre.~sor c leaning
ha ve been applicd ovcr (he ycars. bU I ''Wet cleaning" ha~ becn found
lO be by far the mosl appropriate and effective tcchn ique. Ho wever.
loday's sophisticatcd large industri al engines and bladc coolings
rcquire carefull y dcsignc:d washing syslems 10 ensure opet"lIlional
safely. rc:liabili ty and optimum efficielley. T wo differc:nt wet cleaning
tcehniques are ge neralJy appli ed. known a~ off- line (cran k) washing
a nd o n-Jine was hing. Under cxtreme fou li ng cond itions. hand
cleanin g o f !he IG Vs should also be peormed if time permil~.
During overbauls. hand cleaning of lhe fu lJ axial compressor is mOSI
effective
8.1 OffJi ne Washing
Off- line washing (crank washing) is almost always camed o ut wilh
Ihe aid of a detergent. and eXlreme ly effect ivc power rc:covery can
usualJy be achieved. The procedurc invo lves stopping Ih e rnachine
and allowin g il 10 0001 - lypicaJly lO a whccl spacc tcmperarure
bc low 200"F 10 avoid Ih ennal shoc k.. Tota! downtime depends mainly
on the lime rcquircd fo r eooling. which may lake 8 to 10 hours or
longe r fo r large hcavy-duty e ngi nes. Lighl aeroderivalive.~, however,
ma)' 0001 in only 1.5 10 3 hOUfS because of the lower metal mass.
1lw: machi ne is men brought up to erank spccd and cleani ng is
performed in several shon Slepll or cyclc:s. Th is involves me injection
of a deterge nt-waler sol ution (wash cycle) fo llowed by severa! ri nse
cyelcs using water a lone. OEM recommendalions should be foJlowcd
wilh respccl 10 watcr qualil)', delergCllt/waler ratio and olhc r
operatin g procedures.
It is interesti ng [O note, howevu, lhal fairl y significanl
difference.s do ex isl among Ihe e ngille manu facturers (OEMs)
rcgard in g the specified erank speed for off-line wa~h i ng aud rinsing.
For inslance, cmnk specds rcco mmcn dcd for !arge he!l \ly-duty
machines rnay ran ge frorn 200 up 10 800 rpm. Also, io sorne cases the
wash eycIes are perfonned al conslan! speed, whereas in Ofher cases
the OEM may recommend varying me speed to improve d islnbut ion
of Ihe wash fluid. As a gencr~1 observation, more effcelive off- line
washin g is usua ll y aehievcd if lowcr erank speeds are used. und also
iftiJe specd is varied throughool the cycIe.
A soaking period belWn each wash and rinse cycIe is a!so very
importanl, and all ows Ihe soapy cIeaning fluid lo pc:nelrate into the
foul ing deposils, thus dissolvill g sa lts and emulsifying oil and grea.<;c
eomponents. A u~eful melhod of detcrm in ing Ihe effcclive ncss of the
off line wa~h , and pc:maps the need for additional wash or rinse
eyelc:s. is 10 collocl sample.s of the effluenl wa ler from all available
dmin ports. 1be ~ample.s can be ehccked visuall y for color aud c larity
(whic h shou ld impmve a.~ din is removed ) aud by a si mple
condueti vilY meter 10 monilor the rc moval of sa lts.
Note Ihat rinsiog is an important step in me overall eraok wash
proccd ure, and if insufficienl ri nse cyd es are peonned lhere is a
rislc Ihat fOlllant$ (Ioosc:nc:d dunng me wa., h cycle) may not be
flushed out through the drains and can re-depos il in the lo wer pan of
the casing .. This muterial will the n be p ushcd Ihrou gh the compressor
after the neXI stan. and can be re-deposited further down stream or
!IUIy becomc: entr-., incd in eri tical air oooling c hannels. One or two
add ilional rinse eyelc:s can oflen make a sig nifican t improvemcnl lo
the off- linc wash result. An a ir blow dry er3 nk stan for B few
minutes al hi gher specd is a lso importanl.
8.2 On-line washing
Dn-line washing is now very popular, and Ihe primary objeetive
is lo exlend Ihe operalin g period belwecn off-li ne washes by
minim iz ing Ihe bu ild-up of depos ils - Ihereby reducing Ihe on-going
incremental power losses. The well ing and cleaning aClion is focused
on Ihe IGVs, where most of Ihe deposits accumulale. Sorne benefil
may also be secn on Ihe carly compressor stages, bul nO! beyond Ihe
point where liquid water rums 10 vapor. Dn-line wash in g is
perfonned wilh Ihe un il in full operalion, and techniques and nozz le
injeclion systems have now evolved 10 a po int where Ihis can be done
effectiveJy and safcly. Oulages or shutdown periods are nol required.
1l is important to nOle Ihal Ihe approaches for successful on line
washing of large-size, high-outpul advanced class gas turbin es, ca ll
for special wash nozzles as reported on by Chellini [47] and Jeffs [48,
49]. Delails on the on-line compressor wash ing of F-Cla~s machines
is reported by Oosling el al [50]. and Ihis pape r also describes a novel
on-line nozzle injeclion syslem deveJoped specifically for large-sized
hi gh-outpul gas lurbines.
Depending on Ihe nature oflhe foul in g malerial. on- line wa~hing
is oomeli mes performed with waler alone. In mOSI cases. however,
Ihe use of an approved cleaner (delergent) wiJl improve Ihe
effectiveness of the washing operalion. This is particularly tme if Ihe
foulin g malerial contains any quanl ity of o il or grease. Deminerahzed
waler qual ity is always specified by Ihe OEMs for on-hne washin g, 10
avoid Ihe poss ibilily of introducing harmful lrace melal contaminant~
(s uch as Na+K) into the combuslion turbine.
On-hne wa~hing is mOSI effecli ve when performed frequently
(such a~ every two o r three days), and optirnum wash frequency
depends on the eX lent of fouling and Ihe spec ific sile condilions. If
Ihe lime period belween on-line washes is 100 long (for inslance more
Ihan a week), lillle or no benefil may be secn.
Dplimal compressor cleaning can norma ll y be achieved by
adopling a combined program of regular and frequent on-li ne
wa~hing plus periodic off-hne washin g during planned outages.
Two main types of cleaning age nts (delergents) are available for
compressor washin g and are normally cla~sified a~ ''waler-based'' or
"solvenl-based" prodncts. Solvent- ba~ed cleallCrs have lradilionally
becn recognized as being more effective in remov in g oil and grea'ie
deposils, bUl certain "new-generalion" water-base<! cleaners have
becn speciaJly formn lated lo be equally effecli ve. Mosl waler-based
producls also have Ihe advanlage of be in g biodegradable, which is an
increasingly importanl requ iremenl w ilhin Ihis indl1~lry. 80th type
producls are no rmally supplied as concentrates. and are diluled o n-
sile wilh waler (typicall y 1 part cleaner wilh 4 parts water) lo produce
Ihe cleaning fluid.
9. GAS TURBINE DETERIORATION MARGINS
For power gcneralion and mechanical drive applications, il is nOI
uncommon for users 10 specify a delerioration margin lo account for
recoverable and non-recoverable delerioral ion. Marg ins of 7% have
ofien becn uS!. Manufacturers ofien publish conservalive
logarilhmic cnrves and il must be recognized Ihal Ihe specific
operating conditions, fueJ type and maintenance schedules need to be
considered whe n usin g Ihis margino Degradalion occurs due 10 Ihe
operating environment, Ihe fud used, Ihe duty cycle, and D&M
pracllccs. With efficient filtratio n systems lai lored lo Ihe
environmenl, and wilh an effeclive regime of on-hne and off-line
compressor washing, il should be possible 10 limit delerio ration
10'.<es lo 4 -5%
10. CLOSURE
Compressor fonling has becn identified by users and
manufacturers a~ the dominant factor contributing to performance
deterioralion. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of
compressor fou ling and washing for gas rurb ine engines, an d
addresses numerous practicaJ aspect~ of direcl applicability 10 l1~ers.
The causes, effects and control ofaxial compressor foul in g are
presented in a sin gle docu mento Two issues Ihat relale turbine
foulin g behavior have becn addressed in detail: The first is the
susceptibi/ity of the engine 10 compresoor fou ling ba~ed on its design
parameters, and Ihe second is Ihe engine's sensitivity to a certain
degrec of imposed fouling. Understanding lhese effect~ has a number
of benefits rclaling to selection of filtralion systems, engine
perfonnance monitorin g and operation and important maintenance
practices such as compresoor washing.
A wide range of 92 gas turbines ha~ becn studied 10 evaluate the ir
sensitivity to an imposed leve l of fouling. Key results ind icate that
the net tl'ork ratio is a good predictor of both the ga~ turbine 's
susceptib ility to foul an d its sensitivity to fouling. Low net work
ratio engines where a higher portion of the total turbine wort is
consumed in the compres sor tend 10 be bolh more slL~cepti ble and
sensitive to axial compresoor foul ing.
The application of high-qual ity air filtratilln will, to sorne extent,
mitigate foulin g bUl a combination of off-line and on-line cleaning
usuaJl y provides Ihe best results in heJping operators minim ize thi s
common and ins idious operatin g problem.
With increasing fuel cost~ and a highly competiti ve market, the
understanding, measurement and control of fo:Il ing deterioration is an
imperative. Fouling rates can vary from plant to plant and are high ly
env ironment- and machine-specific, and are also a function of the gas
turb ine control scheme. Furthermore, fou lin g behavior is influenccd
by in let air fi lter selection and maintenance, and aloo by weather
pallems at the specific site.
C lose monitori ng of compressor performance can help to oplimize
compressor-wash in g reg imes and improve pla.'i1 profitability.
REFERENCES
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l'urbine Performance Deterior.i1ion" , Proceeding. ofthe 3rt" Thrbomachwry
S)"mpo.ium, HOlI.<lon, Texa" Scptcm~r 17-20, 2001.
12J Kurz, R., and Brun, K., 2001 , "o"gmdation in Gas turbine Sy,tem," ,
ASME J of En/?;neerin/?for Ga.. Thrb;ne.' aruJ I'ower, Vol. 123, pp70-77.
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[41 Diakunchak, 1. S., 1992 "Performance deterioration in industrial gas
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[51 MeherH omji , C. B., 1990, "Ga, Turbine Axial Compres'IOr Foul ing -
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[6J Mehcr-H omji, C.B .. and Bmmley, A.F., 2004, '"Gas Turbine
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Septem~r 2004.
[7J Bararnert, K. a nd Woel k, G. U., 1980, "Thc bfluence of Bladin g
Surface Rou:hness on the Aerodynamic Bchavior and Charactcristic of an
Axial ComITCssor", Trans. ASME, JoumaJ. ofEngwu;n/?for Po..-er,
Vo1.l02, AFri 1 1980, pp . 283-287.
[SI Zaba, T., 1980,"Lo",,, in Gas Turbines Due lo Depo,ils on the
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