JOURNAL IN THE CHEMISTRY

11

Submitted by: Cristy Alfonso

Submitted to: Art V. Domingo

 1) Enumerate the new phases of matter, including the new/unstable phases.

Matter can exist in four phases (or states), solid, liquid, gas, and plasma, plus a few
other extreme phases like critical fluids and degenerate gases.

Solid:
A solid is matter in which the molecules are very close together and cannot move
around. Examples of solids include rocks, wood, and ice (frozen water).

Liquid:
A liquid is matter in which the molecules are close together and move around slowly.
Examples of liquids include drinking water, mercury at room temperature, and lava
(molten rock).

Gas:
A gas is matter in which the molecules are widely separated, move around freely, and
move at high speeds. Examples of gases include the gases we breathe (nitrogen,
oxygen, and others), the helium in balloons, and steam (water vapor).

Plasma:
A plasma is a gas that is composed of free-floating ions (atoms stripped of some
electrons - positively charged) and free electrons (negatively charged). A plasma
conducts electrical currents. Plasma was discovered by William Crookes in 1879. There
are many different types of plasmas. There is plasma in stars (including our Sun); the
solar wind in our Solar System is made of plasma. .
2). Important ions in the body and their function.

1. Role of Ions in Living Organism.

2. Ions Electrically charged atom or atom group. Ions existing in a liquid state
are electrolytes. An electrolyte is any compound that, in solution, conducts
electricity and is decomposed or electrolyzed by the electricity. This form of
compound is ionizable in solution.

3. Importance of Electrolytes Whether you are speaking about plants, animals, or

humans, electrolytes are essential for the existence of life. They provide the
means, when combined with proper circulation and balanced body chemistry, to
maintain proper blood pressure, circulate nutrients, and rebuild damaged tissues
and expedite waste from the body, including our lymphatic circulatory system.

4. Electrolytes in The Nervous and The Muscular System In our bodies, the nervous
and muscular systems use the electrolyte properties of ionic sodium and
potassium, assisted by lesser trace elements ( e.g. copper) to generate currents
across the membranes of their cells. Our muscles and neurons are thought of as
electric tissues of the body. They are activated by electrolyte activity between
extracellular fluid or interstitial fluid, and intracellular fluid (fluid inside and outside
or between cells). A muscle contraction needs calcium (Ca2+), sodium (Na+) and
potassium (K+) to be present. If levels of vital electrolytes are wrong, the muscles
either become too weak, or their contractions are too severe. Our heart, muscle
and nerve cells use electrolytes to maintain voltages across their cell membranes
to carry electrical impulses across themselves and to other cells. The result of
this current is the transmission of nerve impulses and the contraction of muscle
tissue.
 5. Electrolytes for Wellness Electrolytes are the basis of good health because
they are used in the maintenance and repair of all tissue, the utilization of amino
acids (cells and tissue "building blocks"), and as the basis of every physical and
neurological function. They maintain osmotic equilibrium of our cell walls and the
internal water balance that enables muscles and nerves to contract and expand,
and wounds to heal. They are also essential for growth and development of the
bones as well as the organs.

6. Electrolytes and the Immune System Electrolytes are the primary factors for
cell and immune system health. They keep cell membranes strong, raise their
osmotic pressure, so that no virus or bacteria can enter, and maintain correct pH
in intracellular fluid so that invading organisms cannot survive.

7. Ions in the Body Ions, as we can see, play an important role in the body.
Calcium, potassium, sodium, chloride, and copper ions are some key ions that
participate in the body's electrical events. Potassium is the major positive ion
inside the cell. Sodium is the major positive ion found in the fluid outside the cell.
Ionic chlorine is the most abundant negative ion. Imbalances of any of these
ions or certain trace ions in the body or inhibition of sodium ion transport across
the cell membranes can lead to dysfunction in the conduction of electrical
messages. This dysfunction quickly leads to a general body disturbance and loss
of ability to maintain somewhat stable internal conditions.

3). Air pollution in the philippines and in the world. Smog in the philippines. Identify
important control measure of air pollution.

Air Pollution - causes, effects and control measures

Air pollution - Air pollution may be defined as the presence of one or more contaminants
like dust, mist, smoke and colour in the atmosphere that are injurious human beings,
plants and animals.

Rapid industrialization

Fast urbanization

Rapid growth in population

Growth of vehicles on the roads and

Activities of human beings have disturbed the natural balance of the atmosphere.

The composition of Air is given below:

Nitrogen 78%
Oxygen 21%
Argon less than 1%
Carbondioxide 0.037%
Water vapour Remaining
Ozone, Helium and ammonia Trace amount

Sources of Air pollution

Sources of air pollution are of two types.
Natural sources and Artificial sources

Natural sources of pollution are those that are caused due to natural phenomena. Ex:
Volcanic eruptions, Forest fires, Biological decay, Pollen grains, Marshes, Radioactive
materials.
Artificial sources are those which are created by man. Ex: Thermal power plants,
Vehicular emissions, Fossil fuel burning, agricultural activities etc.

Classification of Air Pollutants

Depending on the form of pollutants present in the environment, they are classified as:

1. Primary pollutants and

2. Secondary pollutants

Primary pollutants are those that are directly emitted in the atmosphere in the harmful
form
Ex: CO, NO, CO2, SO2 etc.

Secondary pollutants are those that are formed by reacting with other components or
some basic component of the atmosphere to form new pollutants.
Ex: Oxides of Nitrogen (NO2 or NO3) react with moisture in the atmosphere to give
Nitric acid

Indoor air pollutants are primary air pollutants. The most important indoor air
pollutant is Radon gas.

Sources of indoor air pollutants are:

1. Radon gas is emitted from building materials like bricks, concrete, tiles, etc that
are derived from soil containing radium

2. Radon is also found in natural gas and ground water and is emitted while being
used.
 3. Burning fuel in the kitchen and cigarette smoke release pollutants like CO, SO2,
HCHO (Formaldehyde) and BAP (Benzo-(A) pyrene).

SOURCES AND COMMON EFFECTS OF COMMON AIR POLLUTANTS

Carbonmonoxide: It is a colourless, odourless gas that is poisonous animals. It is

formed by incomplete combustion of carbon containing fuels.
Source of carbonmonoxide is cigarette smoking and incomplete combustion of fossil
fuels (more than 77% comes from motor vehicle exhaust)
Health effects include reduced ability of red blood cells to carry oxygen to body cells
and tissues. This leads to headache and anemia. At high levels it causes coma,
irreversible brain damage and death.

Nitrogen Dioxide: It is a reddish-brown irritating gas that causes photochemical smog.

In the atmosphere, it gets converted into nitric acid (HNO3). It is caused by burning
fossil fuels in industries and power plants.
Health effects include lung irritation and damage. Environmental effects involve acid
deposition leading to damage of trees, lakes, soil and ancient monuments. NO2 can
damage fabrics.

Sulphur Dioxide: It is a colourless and irritating gas that is formed by combustion of

sulphur containing fossil fuels such as coal and oil. In the atmosphere it is converted
into Sulphuric acid which is a major component of acid deposition.
Health effects involve breathing problems for healthy people.
Environmental effects involve reduced visibility and acid deposition on trees, lakes,
soils and monuments leading to their deterioration and adverse effect on aquatic life.

Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM): Includes a variety of particles and droplets

(aerosols) that can be suspended in atmosphere for short to long periods.
Human sources for SPM include burning coal in power and industrial units, burning
diesel and other fuels in vehicles, agriculture, unpaved roads, construction, etc.
Health effects include nose and throat irritation, ling damage, bronchitis, asthama,
reproductive problems and cancer.
Environmental Effects include reduced visibility and acid deposition. Acid deposition
may lead to damaged trees, soils and aquatic life in lakes.

Ozone is a highly reactive gas with an unpleasant odour occurring in the stratosphere
where it protects mankind fro the harmful ultra-violet rays from the Sun. However on
earth, it is a pollutant.
It occurs on earth due to reaction between Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) and
Nitrogen Oxides. It moderates the climate.

Photochemical smog is a browinsh smoke that frequently forms on clear, sunny days
over large cities with significant amounts of automobile traffic.It is mainly due to
chemical reactions among nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons in the presence of
sunlight.
Health effects include breathing problems, cough, eye, nose and throat irritation, heart
diseases, reduced resistance to colds and pneumonia.
Environmental effects involve damage to plants and trees. Additionally, Smog reduces
visibility.4m

Lead is a solid and highly toxic metal. Its compounds are emitted into the atmosphere
as particulate matter.
Human Sources: Paint, Smelters (metal refineries), lead manufacture, storage
batteries, leaded petrol, etc
Health effects: Lead accumulates in the body and brain leading to nervous system
damage and mental retardation (especially in children), digestive and other health
problems. Lead containing chemicals are known to cause cancer in test animals.
Environmental Effects: It can harm wildlife.

Hydrocarbons Lower haydrocarbons accumulate due to decay of vegetable matter.

Human effects: They are carcinogenic

Chromium: It is a solid toxic metal emitted into the atmosphere as particulate matter.
Human sources: Paint, Smelters, Chromium manufacture, Chromium plating.
Health Effects: Perforation of nasal septum, chrome holes, etc.

CONTROL MEASURES
The atmosphere has several built-in self cleaning processes such as dispersion,
gravitational settling, flocculation, absorption, rain-washout, etc to cleanse the
atmosphere. However, control of contaminants at their source level is a desirable and
effective method through preventive or control technologies.
Source control: Some measures that can be adopted in this direction are:

1. Using unleaded petrol

2. Using fuels with low sulphur and ash content

3. Encouraging people to use public transport, walk or use a cycle as opposed to

private vehicles

4. Ensure that houses, schools, restaurants and playgrounds are not located on
busy streets

5. Plant trees along busy streets as they remove particulates, carbon dioxide and
absorb noise

6. Industries and waste disposal sites should be situated outsdide the city
preferably on the downwind of the city.

7. Catalytic converters should be used to help control emissions of carbon

monoxide and hydrocarbons
Control measures in industrial centers

1. Emission rates should be restricted to permissible levels by each and every

industry

2. Incorporation of air pollution control equipment in design of plant layout must be

made mandatory

3. Continuous monitoring of the atmosphere for pollutants should be carried out to

know the emission levels.

EQUIPMENT USED TO CONTROL AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution can be reduced by adopting the following approaches.

1. Ensuring sufficient supply of oxygen to the combustion chamber and adequate

temperature so that the combustion is complete thereby eliminating much of the
smoke consisting of partly burnt ashes and dust.

2. To use mechanical devices such as scrubbers, cyclones, bag houses and

electro-static precipitators in manufacturing processes. The equipment used to
remove particulates from the exhaust gases of electric power and industrial
plants are shown below. All methods retain hazardous materials that must be
disposed safely. Wet scrubber can additionally reduce sulphur dioxide emissions.

3. The air pollutants collected must be carefully disposed. The factory fumes are
dealt with chemical treatment.

4). Water pollution in the country. As a student, how can you improve water sanitation
(in general) in the philippines?

Agricultural production often comes at the expense of water quality. As my

colleague, Mindy Selman, noted in a recent blog post, Agriculture is the leading
source of nutrient pollution in waterwaysa situation thats expected to worsen
as the global population increases and the demand for food grows.
A variety of agricultural operations contribute to nutrient pollution and dead zones in
freshwater and coastal ecosystems. Fertilizers are oftentimes applied to crop fields at
the wrong time in the growing season or in amounts that exceed crop needs, resulting in
nutrient runoff to water bodies. Factory farms raising livestock frequently poorly manage
or improperly dispose of their manure, allowing it to leach into nearby waterways. And
aquaculture operations discharge large amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus from
uneaten food, excrements, and other organic waste into lakes and coastal areas.

Efforts to control agricultural pollution must be part of a larger, holistic water quality
management strategy that provides the scientific basis for effective actions, regulatory
requirements, and voluntary components where regulatory requirements are not
possible or wise. Adequate data on the amounts and types of pollutants reaching
surface waters and their impacts on water quality must be collected, followed by the
application of reliable, predictive pollutant-loading and water-quality models. These
models can be used to support the development of realistic water quality goals, develop
and assess alternatives, and inform the selection of strategies to reduce pollutants. The
water quality management strategy facilitates the adoption of environmental
standardssuch as water quality standards and watershed pollutant

loading capsand the implementation of programs to achieve them.

Regulatory Requirements: With the exception of large factory farms for livestock,
there is little direct government regulation of agriculture around the world.

Agricultural Taxes and Fees: These are not widely used, but the most frequent use is
charges on agricultural inputs.

Environmental Cross-Compliance: This policy requires farmers to meet certain

environmental standards or performance levels if they want to enroll in agricultural
support programs like crop subsidies.

Water Quality Trading Programs: These programs are under development in America
and a few other countries. They are a market-based approach where pollution sources
facing regulatory requirements to reduce pollutant discharges (such as wastewater
treatment plants) can buy pollution reduction credits from other regulated or unregulated
sources, such as farms. In this example, the agricultural pollution reductions are
frequently less costly to achieve, allowing the wastewater treatment plant to meet its
regulatory requirements at lower cost than it would face through facility upgrades.

5). Chemical elements of life: nucleotides/nucleic acids, amino acids, and protein.

Nucleotides a nucleotide is the basic structural unit and building block for DNA. These
building blocks are hooked together to form a chain of DNA.
A nucleotide is composed of 3 parts:

* five-sided sugar
* phosphate group
* nitrogenous base (nitrogen containing)

Bases

There are four types of bases in DNA. They are called:

* Adenine (A)
* Cytosine (C)
* Guanine (G)
* Thymine (T)

Amino acids are biologically important organic compounds containing amine (-NH2)
and carboxyl (-COOH) functional groups, along with a side-chain (R group) specific to
each amino acid.[1][2][3] The key elements of an amino acid are carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, and nitrogen, though other elements are found in the side-chains of certain
amino acids.

They are known as 2-, alpha-, or -amino acids (generic formula H2NCHRCOOH in
most cases,[6] where R is an organic substituent known as a "side-chain");[7] often the
term "amino acid" is used to refer specifically to these. They include the 22
proteinogenic ("protein-building") amino acids,[8][9][10] which combine into peptide chains
("polypeptides") to form the building-blocks of a vast array of proteins.

Proteins are large biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long

chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within
organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, responding to
stimuli, and transporting molecules from one location to another. Proteins differ from
one another primarily in their sequence of amino acids, which is dictated by the
nucleotide sequence of their genes, and which usually results in protein folding into a
specific three-dimensional structure that determines its activity.
6). Identify at least 10 laboratory instruments and their uses.

1. A microscope allows users to view anything too small for the human eye to
discern.
2. Beakers are used to hold samples, contain limited chemical reactions or catch
liquids produced during experiments.
3. Bunsen burners provide an adjustable, direct source of heat for experiments.
4. Balances are used to determine the mass of various substances, such as dry
chemicals, for example.
5. Test tubes are generally used to hold samples or provide small vessels for
chemical reactions. Test tube holders allow test tubes to be held safely if heating
is required for an experiment.
6. Experiments involving electronics or electricity usually include a multimeter. A
multimeter is able to measure voltage, alternating (AC) or direct (DC) currents
and resistance.
7. Graduated cylinders are fairly slim plastic or glass cylinders, used to calibrate
beakers or measure liquids. Sizes range from 10, 25, 50 and 100 ml to 500 or
1000 ml.
8. Evaporating dishes, usually quite shallow and equipped with a lip to facilitate
pouring, are used to heat and evaporate liquids. This type of experiment can be
used to concentrate a liquid.
9. Pipettes are used to transfer small amounts of liquid. The amount which can be
drawn into a pipette is typically fixed, enabling accuracy of measurement.
10. A distillation apparatus is used to separate a particular portion of a fluid by
heating liquid to the point where a desired compound evaporates. The resulting
gas is fed through a downward-angled cooling tube, at the bottom of which the
re-condensed fluid compound is collected.
INSTRUMENT PICTURE: