Nickel - Wikipedia hOps://en.wikipedia.

org/wiki/Nickel

Nickel
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Nickel is a chemical element with symbol Ni and atomic

number 28. It is a silvery-white lustrous metal with a Nickel, 28Ni

slight golden nge. Nickel belongs to the transi on

metals and is hard and duc le. Pure nickel, powdered to
maximize the reac ve surface area, shows a signicant
chemical ac vity, but larger pieces are slow to react with
air under standard condi ons because an oxide layer
forms on the surface and prevents further corrosion
(passiva on). Even so, pure na ve nickel is found in
Earth's crust only in ny amounts, usually in ultramac
rocks,[4][5] and in the interiors of larger nickeliron
meteorites that were not exposed to oxygen when
outside Earth's atmosphere.

Meteoric nickel is found in combina on with iron, a

reec on of the origin of those elements as major end General proper es
products of supernova nucleosynthesis. An ironnickel Pronuncia on /nkl/
mixture is thought to compose Earth's inner core.[6] NIK-l

Use of nickel (as a natural meteoric nickeliron alloy) has Appearance lustrous, metallic, and silver
been traced as far back as 3500 BCE. Nickel was rst with a gold nge
isolated and classied as a chemical element in 1751 by Nickel in the periodic table
Axel Fredrik Cronstedt, who ini ally mistook the ore for a
copper mineral. The element's name comes from a

mischievous sprite of German miner mythology, Nickel Ni
(similar to Old Nick), that personied the fact that
Pd
copper-nickel ores resisted renement into copper. An
cobalt nickel copper
economically important source of nickel is the iron ore
limonite, which oJen contains 12% nickel. Nickel's Atomic number (Z) 28
other important ore minerals include garnierite, and Group, period group 10, period 4
pentlandite. Major produc on sites include the Sudbury
region in Canada (which is thought to be of meteoric Block d-block
origin), New Caledonia in the Pacic, and Norilsk in Element category transi on metal
Russia.
Standard atomic 58.6934(4)[1]
Nickel is slowly oxidized by air at room temperature and weight (Ar)
is considered corrosion-resistant. Historically, it has been Electron [Ar] 3d8 4s2 or
used for pla ng iron and brass, coa ng chemistry congura on [Ar] 3d9 4s1
equipment, and manufacturing certain alloys that retain
Electrons per shell 2, 8, 16, 2 or 2, 8, 17, 1
a high silvery polish, such as German silver. About 6% of
world nickel produc on is s ll used for corrosion- Physical proper es
resistant pure-nickel pla ng. Nickel-plated objects Phase solid
some mes provoke nickel allergy. Nickel has been widely
Mel ng point 1728 K (1455 C, 2651 F)
used in coins, though its rising price has led to some
replacement with cheaper metals in recent years. Boiling point 3003 K (2730 C, 4946 F)
Density near r.t. 8.908 g/cm3
Nickel is one of four elements (iron, cobalt, nickel, and
gadolinium)[7] that are ferromagne c at approximately when liquid, at m.p. 7.81 g/cm3

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room temperature. Alnico permanent magnets based Heat of fusion 17.48 kJ/mol
partly on nickel are of intermediate strength between
iron-based permanent magnets and rare-earth magnets. Heat of vaporiza on 379 kJ/mol
The metal is valuable in modern mes chiey in alloys; Molar heat capacity 26.07 J/(molK)
about 60% of world produc on is used in nickel-steels
Vapor pressure
(par cularly stainless steel). Other common alloys and
some new superalloys comprise most of the remainder P (Pa) 1 10 100 1k 10 k 100 k
of world nickel use, with chemical uses for nickel at T (K) 1783 1950 2154 2410 2741 3184
compounds consuming less than 3% of produc on.[8] As
a compound, nickel has a number of niche chemical Atomic proper es
manufacturing uses, such as a catalyst for hydrogena on. Oxida on states 4,[2] 3, 2, 1,[3] 1, 2 (a
Nickel is an essen al nutrient for some microorganisms mildly basic oxide)
and plants that have enzymes with nickel as an ac ve
Electronega vity Pauling scale: 1.91
site.
Ioniza on energies 1st: 737.1 kJ/mol
2nd: 1753.0 kJ/mol
3rd: 3395 kJ/mol
Contents (more)

1 Proper es Atomic radius empirical: 124 pm

1.1 Atomic and physical proper es Covalent radius 1244 pm
1.1.1 Electron congura on dispute
Van der Waals radius 163 pm
1.2 Isotopes
1.3 Occurrence Miscellanea
2 Compounds Crystal structure face-centered cubic (fcc)
2.1 Nickel(0)
2.2 Nickel(I)
2.3 Nickel(II)
2.4 Nickel(III) and (IV)
Speed of sound 4900 m/s (at r.t.)
3 History
thin rod
4 World produc on
5 Extrac on and purica on Thermal expansion 13.4 m/(mK) (at 25 C)
5.1 Electrorening Thermal conduc vity 90.9 W/(mK)
5.2 Mond process
5.3 Metal value Electrical resis vity 69.3 nm (at 20 C)
6 Applica ons Magne c ordering ferromagne c
7 Biological role Young's modulus 200 GPa
8 Toxicity
9 See also Shear modulus 76 GPa
10 References Bulk modulus 180 GPa
11 External links
Poisson ra o 0.31
Mohs hardness 4.0
Vickers hardness 638 MPa
Proper es
Brinell hardness 6671600 MPa
Atomic and physical proper es CAS Number 7440-02-0
History
Nickel is a silvery-white metal with a slight golden nge
Discovery and rst Axel Fredrik Cronstedt
that takes a high polish. It is one of only four elements
that are magne c at or near room temperature, the isola on (1751)
others being iron, cobalt and gadolinium. Its Curie Main isotopes of nickel
temperature is 355 C (671 F), meaning that bulk nickel

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is non-magne c
Iso- Abun- Half-life Decay Pro-
above this
tope dance mode duct
temperature.[10]
The unit cell of 58Ni 68.077% is stable with 30 neutrons
nickel is a 59Ni trace 7.6104 y 59Co
face-centered
60Ni
cube with the 26.223% is stable with 32 neutrons
la\ce parameter 61Ni 1.140% is stable with 33 neutrons
of 0.352 nm,
62Ni 3.635% is stable with 34 neutrons
giving an atomic
radius of 63Ni syn 100 y 63Cu
0.124 nm. This
64Ni 0.926% is stable with 36 neutrons
TEM image of a Ni nanocrystal inside crystal structure is
a single wall carbon nanotube stable to
segment; scale bar 5 nm.[9] pressures of at least 70 GPa. Nickel belongs to the transi on metals
and is hard and duc le.

Electron congura on dispute

Molar volume vs. pressure at room
temperature
The nickel atom has two electron congura ons, [Ar] 3d8 4s2 and
[Ar] 3d9 4s1, which are very close in energy the symbol [Ar] refers
to the argon-like core structure. There is some disagreement on
which congura on has the lowest energy.[11] Chemistry textbooks
quote the electron congura on of nickel as [Ar] 4s2 3d8,[12] which
can also be wriOen [Ar] 3d8 4s2.[13] This congura on agrees with
the Madelung energy ordering rule, which predicts that 4s is lled
before 3d. It is supported by the experimental fact that the lowest
energy state of the nickel atom is a 3d8 4s2 energy level, specically
the 3d8(3F) 4s2 3F, J = 4 level.[14]

However, each of these two congura ons gives rise to several energy levels,[14] and the two sets of energy
levels overlap. The average energy of states with congura on [Ar] 3d9 4s1 is actually lower than the
average energy of states with congura on [Ar] 3d8 4s2. For this reason, the research literature on atomic
calcula ons quotes the ground state congura on of nickel as [Ar] 3d9 4s1.[11]

Isotopes

The isotopes of nickel range in atomic weight from 48 u (48Ni) to 78 u (78Ni).

Naturally occurring nickel is composed of ve stable isotopes; 58Ni, 60Ni, 61Ni, 62Ni and 64Ni, with 58Ni
being the most abundant (68.077% natural abundance). Isotopes heavier than 62Ni cannot be formed by
nuclear fusion without losing energy.

Nickel-62 has the highest nuclear binding energy of any nuclide, at 8.7946 MeV/nucleon.[15] Its binding
energy is greater than both 56Fe, oJen incorrectly cited as the most ghtly-bound nuclide, and it is also
more ghtly bound than 58Fe.[16]

Stable isotope nickel-60 is the daughter product of the ex nct radionuclide 60Fe, which decays with a
half-life of 2.6 million years. Because 60Fe has such a long half-life, its persistence in materials in the solar
system may generate observable varia ons in the isotopic composi on of 60Ni. Therefore, the abundance
of 60Ni present in extraterrestrial material may provide insight into the origin of the solar system and its

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early history.

Some 18 nickel radioisotopes have been characterised, the most stable being 59Ni with a half-life of 76,000
years, 63Ni with 100.1 years, and 56Ni with 6.077 days. All of the remaining radioac ve isotopes have
half-lives that are less than 60 hours and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 30 seconds.
This element also has one meta state.[17]

Radioac ve nickel-56 is produced by the silicon burning process and later set free in large quan es during
type Ia supernovae. The shape of the light curve of these supernovae at intermediate to late- mes
corresponds to the decay via electron capture of nickel-56 to cobalt-56 and ul mately to iron-56.[18]
Nickel-59 is a long-lived cosmogenic radionuclide with a half-life of 76,000 years. 59Ni has found many
applica ons in isotope geology. 59Ni has been used to date the terrestrial age of meteorites and to
determine abundances of extraterrestrial dust in ice and sediment. Nickel-78's half-life was recently
measured at 110 milliseconds, and is believed an important isotope in supernova nucleosynthesis of
elements heavier than iron.[19] The nuclide 48Ni, discovered in 1999, is the most proton-rich heavy
element isotope known. With 28 protons and 20 neutrons 48Ni is "double magic" (like 208Pb) and therefore
unusually stable.[17][20]

Occurrence

On Earth, nickel occurs most oJen in combina on with sulfur and

iron in pentlandite, with sulfur in millerite, with arsenic in the
mineral nickeline, and with arsenic and sulfur in nickel galena.[21]
Nickel is commonly found in iron meteorites as the alloys kamacite
and taenite.

WidmanstOen paOern showing the
two forms of nickel-iron, kamacite
and taenite, in an octahedrite
meteorite
The bulk of the nickel is mined from two types of ore deposits. The
rst is laterite, where the principal ore minerals are nickeliferous
limonite: (Fe, Ni)O(OH) and garnierite (a hydrous nickel silicate):
(Ni, Mg)3Si2O5(OH)4. The second is magma c sulde deposits,
where the principal ore mineral is pentlandite: (Ni, Fe)9S8.
Australia and New Caledonia have the biggest es mate reserves
(45% all together).[22]

Iden ed land-based resources throughout the world averaging 1% nickel or greater comprise at least 130
million tons of nickel (about the double of known reserves). About 60% is in laterites and 40% in sulde
deposits.[22]

On geophysical evidence, most of the nickel on Earth is believed to be in the Earth's outer and inner cores.
Kamacite and taenite are naturally occurring alloys of iron and nickel. For kamacite, the alloy is usually in
the propor on of 90:10 to 95:5, although impuri es (such as cobalt or carbon) may be present, while for
taenite the nickel content is between 20% and 65%. Kamacite and taenite are also found in nickel iron
meteorites.[23]

Compounds
The most common oxida on state of nickel is +2, but compounds of Ni0, Ni+, and Ni3+ are well known, and
the exo c oxida on states Ni2, Ni1, and Ni4+ have been produced and studied.[24]

Nickel(0)

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Nickel tetracarbonyl (Ni(CO)4), discovered by Ludwig Mond,[25] is a vola le,

highly toxic liquid at room temperature. On hea ng, the complex
decomposes back to nickel and carbon monoxide:

Ni(CO)4 Ni + 4 CO

This behavior is exploited in the Mond process for purifying nickel, as

described above. The related nickel(0) complex bis(cyclooctadiene)nickel(0)
is a useful catalyst in organonickel chemistry because the cyclooctadiene
(or cod) ligands are easily displaced.
Tetracarbonyl nickel
Nickel(I)

Nickel(I) complexes are uncommon, but one example is the tetrahedral complex NiBr(PPh3)3. Many
nickel(I) complexes feature Ni-Ni bonding, such as the dark red diamagne c K4[Ni2(CN)6] prepared by
reduc on of K2[Ni2(CN)6] with sodium amalgam. This compound is oxidised in water, libera ng H2.[26]

It is thought that the nickel(I) oxida on state is important to nickel-containing enzymes, such as [NiFe]-
hydrogenase, which catalyzes the reversible reduc on of protons to H2.[27]

Nickel(II)

Nickel(II) forms compounds with all common anions, including sulde, sulfate,
carbonate, hydroxide, carboxylates, and halides. Nickel(II) sulfate is produced
in large quan es by dissolving nickel metal or oxides in sulfuric acid, forming
Structure of [Ni2(CN)6]
4 both a hexa- and heptahydrates[28] useful for electropla ng nickel. Common
ion[26] salts of nickel, such as the chloride, nitrate, and sulfate, dissolve in water to
2+
give green solu ons of the metal aquo complex [Ni(H2O)6] .

The four halides form nickel

compounds, which are solids
with molecules that feature
octahedral Ni centres. Nickel(II)
chloride is most common, and
its behavior is illustra ve of the
other halides. Nickel(II) chloride
is produced by dissolving nickel
Color of various Ni(II) complexes in aqueous solu on. From leJ to right, or its oxide in hydrochloric acid.
2+ 2+ 2 2+
[Ni(NH3)6] , [Ni(C2H4(NH2)2)] , [NiCl4] , [Ni(H2O)6] It is usually encountered as the
green hexahydrate, the formula
of which is usually wriOen
NiCl26H2O. When dissolved in water, this salt forms the metal aquo
2+
complex [Ni(H2O)6] . Dehydra on of NiCl26H2O gives the yellow
anhydrous NiCl2.

Some tetracoordinate nickel(II) complexes, e.g.

Crystals of hydrated nickel
sulfate.
bis(triphenylphosphine)nickel chloride, exist both in tetrahedral and
square planar geometries. The tetrahedral complexes are paramagne c,
whereas the square planar complexes are diamagne c. In having proper es
of magne c equilibrium and forma on of octahedral complexes, they
contrast with the divalent complexes of the heavier group 10 metals,

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palladium(II) and pla num(II), which form only square-planar geometry.[24]

Nickelocene is known; it has an electron count of 20, making it rela vely unstable.

Nickel(III) and (IV)

Numerous Ni(III) compounds are known, with the rst such examples being
Nickel(III) trihalophosphines (NiIII (PPh3)X3).[29] Further, Ni(III) forms simple
salts with uoride[30] or oxide ions. Ni(III) can be stabilized by -donor
ligands such as thiols and phosphines.[26]
Nickel(III) an monide
Ni(IV) is present in the mixed oxide BaNiO3, while Ni(III) is present in
nickel(III) oxide, which is used as the cathode in many rechargeable
baOeries, including nickel-cadmium, nickel-iron, nickel hydrogen, and nickel-metal hydride, and used by
certain manufacturers in Li-ion baOeries.[31] Ni(IV) remains a rare oxida on state of nickel and very few
compounds are known to date.[32][33][34][35]

History
Because the ores of nickel are easily mistaken for ores of silver, understanding of this metal and its use
dates to rela vely recent mes. However, the uninten onal use of nickel is ancient, and can be traced back
as far as 3500 BCE. Bronzes from what is now Syria have been found to contain as much as 2% nickel.[36]
Some ancient Chinese manuscripts suggest that "white copper" (cupronickel, known as baitong) was used
there between 1700 and 1400 BCE. This Paktong white copper was exported to Britain as early as the 17th
century, but the nickel content of this alloy was not discovered un l 1822.[37] Coins of nickel-copper alloy
were minted by the Bactrian kings Agathocles, Euthydemus II and Pantaleon in the 2nd Century BCE,
possibly out of the Chinese cupronickel.[38]

In medieval Germany, a red mineral was found in the Erzgebirge

(Ore Mountains) that resembled copper ore. However, when miners
were unable to extract any copper from it, they blamed a
mischievous sprite of German mythology, Nickel (similar to Old
Nick), for bese\ng the copper. They called this ore Kupfernickel
from the German Kupfer for copper.[39][40][41][42] This ore is now
known to be nickeline (aka niccolite), a nickel arsenide. In 1751,
Baron Axel Fredrik Cronstedt tried to extract copper from
kupfernickel at a cobalt mine in the Swedish village of Los, and
instead produced a white metal that he named aJer the spirit that nickeline/niccolite
had given its name to the mineral, nickel.[43] In modern German,
Kupfernickel or Kupfer-Nickel designates the alloy cupronickel.

Originally, the only source for nickel was the rare Kupfernickel. Beginning in 1824, nickel was obtained as a
byproduct of cobalt blue produc on. The rst large-scale smel ng of nickel began in Norway in 1848 from
nickel-rich pyrrho te. The introduc on of nickel in steel produc on in 1889 increased the demand for
nickel, and the nickel deposits of New Caledonia, discovered in 1865, provided most of the world's supply
between 1875 and 1915. The discovery of the large deposits in the Sudbury Basin, Canada in 1883, in
Norilsk-Talnakh, Russia in 1920, and in the Merensky Reef, South Africa in 1924, made large-scale
produc on of nickel possible.[37]

Aside from the aforemen oned Bactrian coins, nickel has not been been a component of coins un l the
mid-19th century. Birmingham forged nickel coins in about 1833 for trading in Malaya.[44] In the United

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States, the term "nickel" or "nick" originally applied to the copper-

nickel Flying Eagle cent, which replaced copper with 12% nickel
185758, then the Indian Head cent of the same alloy from
18591864. S ll later, in 1865, the term designated the three-cent
nickel, with nickel increased to 25%. In 1866, the ve-cent shield
nickel (25% nickel, 75% copper) appropriated the designa on. Along
with the alloy propor on, this term has been used to the present in
the United States. Coins of nearly pure nickel were rst used in 1881
in Switzerland, and 99.9% nickel ve-cent coins were struck in
Canada (the world's largest nickel producer at the me) during
Dutch coins made of pure nickel
non-war years from 19221981; the metal content made these coins
magne c.[45] During the war me period 194245, most or all nickel
was removed from Canadian and U.S. coins to save it for manufacturing armor.[40][46] Canada used 99.9%
nickel from 1968 in its higher-value coins un l 2000. In the 21st century, the high price of nickel has led to
some replacement of the metal in coins around the world. Coins s ll made with nickel alloys include one-
and two-euro coins, 5, 10, 25 and 50 U.S. coins, and 20p, 50p, 1 and 2 UK coins. Nickel-alloy in 5p
and 10p UK coins was replaced with nickel-plated steel began in 2012, causing allergy problems for some
people and public controversy.[47]

World produc on
The Philippines, Indonesia, Russia, Canada and
Australia are the world's largest producers of nickel, as
reported by the US Geological Survey.[22] The largest
deposits of nickel in non-Russian Europe are located
in Finland and Greece. Iden ed land-based
resources averaging 1% nickel or greater contain at
least 130 million tons of nickel. About 60% is in
laterites and 40% is in sulde deposits. In addi on,
extensive deep-sea resources of nickel are in
manganese crusts and nodules covering large areas of
the ocean oor, par cularly in the Pacic Ocean.[49]

The one locality in the United States where nickel has

been protably mined is Riddle, Oregon, where Time trend of nickel produc on [48]
several square miles of nickel-bearing garnierite
surface deposits are located. The mine closed in
1987.[50][51] The Eagle mine project is a new nickel
mine in Michigan's upper peninsula. Construc on was
completed in 2013, and opera ons began in the third
quarter of 2014.[52] In the rst full year of opera on,
Eagle Mine produced 18,000 tonnes.[52]

Nickel ores grade evolu on in some leading nickel

producing countries.

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Mine produc on and 2012 (metric 2011 (metric Reserves (metric

reserves[49] tons) tons) tons)
Australia 230,000 215,000 20,000,000
Botswana 26,000 26,000 490,000
Brazil 140,000 209,000 7,500,000
Canada 220,000 220,000 3,300,000
China 91,000 89,800 3,000,000
Colombia 80,000 76,000 1,100,000
Cuba 72,000 71,000 5,500,000
Dominican Republic 24,000 21,700 970,000
Indonesia 320,000 290,000 3,900,000
Madagascar 22,000 5,900 1,600,000
New Caledonia 140,000 131,000 12,000,000
Philippines 330,000 270,000 1,100,000
Russia 270,000 267,000 6,100,000
South Africa 42,000 44,000 3,700,000
Other countries 120,000 103,000 4,600,000
World total (metric tons, rounded) 2,100,000 1,940,000 75,000,000

Extrac on and purica on

Nickel is obtained through extrac ve metallurgy: it is extracted from
the ore by conven onal roas ng and reduc on processes that yield
a metal of greater than 75% purity. In many stainless steel
applica ons, 75% pure nickel can be used without further
purica on, depending on the impuri es.

Tradi onally, most sulde ores have been processed using

pyrometallurgical techniques to produce a maOe for further
rening. Recent advances in hydrometallurgical techniques resulted
in signicantly purer metallic nickel product. Most sulde deposits
have tradi onally been processed by concentra on through a froth
ota on process followed by pyrometallurgical extrac on. In
Evolu on of the annual nickel hydrometallurgical processes, nickel sulde ores are concentrated
extrac on, according to ores. with ota on (dieren al ota on if Ni/Fe ra o is too low) and
then smelted. The nickel maOe is further processed with the
SherriO-Gordon process. First, copper is removed by adding hydrogen sulde, leaving a concentrate of
cobalt and nickel. Then, solvent extrac on is used to separate the cobalt and nickel, with the nal nickel
content greater than 99%.

Electrorening

A second common rening process is leaching the metal maOe into a nickel salt solu on, followed by the
electro-winning of the nickel from solu on by pla ng it onto a cathode as electroly c nickel.

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Mond process

The purest metal is obtained

from nickel oxide by the
Mond process, which
achieves a purity of greater
than 99.99%.[53] The process
was patented by Ludwig
Mond and has been in Electroly cally rened nickel nodule,
industrial use since before with green, crystallized nickel-
the beginning of the 20th electrolyte salts visible in the pores.
Highly puried nickel spheres made
century. In this process,
by the Mond process.
nickel is reacted with carbon
monoxide in the presence of a sulfur catalyst at around 4080 C to
form nickel carbonyl. Iron gives iron pentacarbonyl, too, but this reac on is slow. If necessary, the nickel
may be separated by dis lla on. Dicobalt octacarbonyl is also formed in nickel dis lla on as a by-product,
but it decomposes to tetracobalt dodecacarbonyl at the reac on temperature to give a non-vola le
solid.[8]

Nickel is obtained from nickel carbonyl by one of two processes. It may be passed through a large chamber
at high temperatures in which tens of thousands of nickel spheres, called pellets, are constantly s rred.
The carbonyl decomposes and deposits pure nickel onto the nickel spheres. In the alternate process, nickel
carbonyl is decomposed in a smaller chamber at 230 C to create a ne nickel powder. The byproduct
carbon monoxide is recirculated and reused. The highly pure nickel product is known as "carbonyl
nickel".[54]

Metal value

The market price of nickel surged throughout 2006 and the early months of 2007; as of April 5, 2007, the
metal was trading at US$52,300/tonne or $1.47/oz.[55] The price subsequently fell drama cally, and as of
September 19, 2013, the metal was trading at $13,778/tonne, or $0.39/oz.[56][57]

The US nickel coin contains 0.04 ounces (1.1 g) of nickel, which at the April 2007 price was worth 6.5 cents,
along with 3.75 grams of copper worth about 3 cents, with a total metal value of more than 9 cents. Since
the face value of a nickel is 5 cents, this made it an aOrac ve target for mel ng by people wan ng to sell
the metals at a prot. However, the United States Mint, in an cipa on of this prac ce, implemented new
interim rules on December 14, 2006, subject to public comment for 30 days, which criminalized the mel ng
and export of cents and nickels.[58] Violators can be punished with a ne of up to $10,000 and/or
imprisoned for a maximum of ve years.

As of September 19, 2013, the melt value of a U.S. nickel (copper and nickel included) is $0.045, which is
90% of the face value.[59]

Applica ons
The global produc on of nickel is presently used as follows: 46% in nickel steel; 34% nonferrous alloys and
superalloys; 14% electropla ng, and 6% other uses.[22][60]

Nickel is used in many specic and recognizable industrial and consumer products, including stainless
steel, alnico magnets, coinage, rechargeable baOeries, electric guitar strings, microphone capsules, pla ng
on plumbing xtures,[61] and special alloys such as permalloy, elinvar, and invar. It is used for pla ng and as
a green nt in glass. Nickel is preeminently an alloy metal, and its chief use is in nickel steels and nickel cast

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irons, in which it typically increases the tensile strength, toughness,

and elas c limit. It is widely used in many other alloys, including
nickel brasses and bronzes and alloys with copper, chromium,
aluminium, lead, cobalt, silver, and gold (Inconel, Incoloy, Monel,
Nimonic).[62]

Because it is resistant to
corrosion, nickel was
occasionally used as a Nickel superalloy jet engine (RB199)
subs tute for decora ve turbine blade
silver. Nickel was also
occasionally used in some
countries aJer 1859 as a cheap coinage metal (see above), but in
the later years of the 20th century was replaced by cheaper
stainless steel (i.e., iron) alloys, except in the United States and
Canada.

Nickel is an excellent alloying agent for certain precious metals and

is used in the re assay as a collector of pla num group elements
A "horseshoe magnet" made of alnico (PGE). As such, nickel is capable of fully collec ng all 6 PGE elements
nickel alloy. from ores, and of par ally collec ng gold. High-throughput nickel
mines may also engage in PGE recovery (primarily pla num and
palladium); examples are Norilsk in Russia and the Sudbury Basin in Canada.

Nickel foam or nickel mesh is used in gas diusion electrodes for alkaline fuel cells.[63][64]

Nickel and its alloys are frequently used as catalysts for hydrogena on reac ons. Raney nickel, a nely
divided nickel-aluminium alloy, is one common form, though related catalysts are also used, including
Raney-type catalysts.

Nickel is a naturally magnetostric ve material, meaning that, in the presence of a magne c eld, the
material undergoes a small change in length.[65][66] The magnetostric on of nickel is on the order of
50 ppm and is nega ve, indica ng that it contracts.

Nickel is used as a binder in the cemented tungsten carbide or hardmetal industry and used in propor ons
of 6% to 12% by weight. Nickel makes the tungsten carbide magne c and adds corrosion-resistance to the
cemented parts, although the hardness is less than those with a cobalt binder.[67]

Biological role
Although not recognized un l the 1970s, nickel is known to play an important role in the biology of some
plants, eubacteria, archaebacteria, and fungi.[68][69][70] Nickel enzymes such as urease are considered
virulence factors in some organisms.[71][72]

Urease catalyzes the hydrolysis of urea to form ammonia and carbamate.[69][68] The [NiFe]-hydrogenases
can catalyze the oxida on of H2 to form protons and electrons, and can also catalyze the reverse reac on,
the reduc on of protons to form hydrogen gas.[69][68] A nickel-tetrapyrrole coenzyme, cofactor F430, is
present in methyl coenzyme M reductase, which can catalyze the forma on of methane, or the reverse
reac on, in methanogenic archaea.[73] One of the carbon monoxide dehydrogenase enzymes consists of
an Fe-Ni-S cluster.[74] Other nickel-bearing enzymes include a rare bacterial class of superoxide
dismutase[75] and glyoxalase I enzymes in bacteria and several parasi c eukaryo c trypanosomal
parasites[76] (in higher organisms, including yeast and mammals, this enzyme contains divalent Zn2+).

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[77][78][79][80][81]

Nickel is implicated in the cataly c forma on of the hard calcium carbonate plates of the spiny tests on
larval sea urchins.[82]

Nickel can aect human health through infec ons by nickel-dependent bacteria.[83] Nickel released from
Siberian Traps volcanic erup ons (site of the modern city of Norilsk) is suspected of assis ng the growth of
Methanosarcina, a genus of euryarchaeote archaea that produced methane during the biggest ex nc on
event on record.[84]

Toxicity
The major source of nickel exposure is oral consump on. Nickel is
found naturally in both food and water, and may be increased by
human pollu on. For example, nickel-plated faucets may
contaminate water and soil; mining and smel ng may dump nickel
into waste-water; nickelsteel alloy cookware and nickel-pigmented
dishes may release nickel into food. The atmosphere may be
polluted by nickel metal rening and fossil fuel combus on.
Humans may absorb nickel directly from tobacco smoke and skin
contact with jewelry, shampoos, detergents, and coins. A
less-common form of chronic exposure is through hemodialysis as
Oxidized nickel surface
traces of nickel ions may be absorbed into the plasma from the
chela ng ac on of albumin.

The average daily exposure does not pose a threat to human health. Most of the nickel absorbed every day
by humans is removed by the kidneys and passed out of the body through urine or is eliminated through
the gastrointes nal tract without being absorbed. Nickel is not a cumula ve poison, but larger doses or
chronic exposure may be toxic, even carcinogenic, and cons tute an occupa onal hazard.[85]

In the US, the minimal risk level of nickel and its compounds is set to 0.2 g/m3 for inhala on during
15364 days.[86] Nickel sulde fume and dust are believed carcinogenic, and various other nickel
compounds may be as well.[87][88][89] Nickel carbonyl [Ni(CO)4] is an extremely toxic gas. The toxicity of
metal carbonyls is a func on of both the toxicity of the metal and the o-gassing of carbon monoxide from
the carbonyl func onal groups; nickel carbonyl is also explosive in air.[90][91]

People can be exposed to nickel in the workplace by inhala on, inges on, and contact with skin or eye.
The Occupa onal Safety and Health Administra on (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure
limit) for the workplace at 1 mg/m3 per 8-hour workday, excluding nickel carbonyl. The Na onal Ins tute
for Occupa onal Safety and Health (NIOSH) species the recommended exposure limit (REL) of
0.015 mg/m3 per 8-hour workday. At 10 mg/m3, nickel is immediately dangerous to life and health.[92]

In the US, the Tolerable Upper Limit of dietary nickel is 1000 g/day,[93] while es mated average inges on
is 69162 g/day.[94] Large amounts of nickel (and chromium) comparable to the es mated average
inges on above leach into food cooked in stainless steel. For example, the amount of nickel leached aJer
10 cooking cycles into one serving of tomato sauce averages 88 g.[95][96]

Sensi zed individuals may show a skin contact allergy to nickel known as a contact derma s. Highly
sensi zed individuals may also react to foods with high nickel content.[97] Sensi vity to nickel may also be
present in pa ents with pompholyx. Nickel is the top conrmed contact allergen worldwide, partly due to
its use in jewelry for pierced ears.[98] Nickel allergies aec ng pierced ears are oJen marked by itchy, red
skin. Many earrings are now made without nickel or low-release nickel[99] to address this problem. The

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amount allowed in products that contact human skin is now regulated by the European Union. In 2002,
researchers found that the nickel released by 1 and 2 Euro coins was far in excess of those standards. This is
believed to be the result of a galvanic reac on.[100] Nickel was voted Allergen of the Year in 2008 by the
American Contact Derma s Society.[101] In August 2015, the American Academy of Dermatology adopted
a posi on statement on the safety of nickel: "Es mates suggest that contact derma s, which includes
nickel sensi za on, accounts for approximately $1.918 billion and aects nearly 72.29 million people."[97]

Reports show that both the nickel-induced ac va on of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF-1) and the
up-regula on of hypoxia-inducible genes are caused by deple on of intracellular ascorbate. The addi on
of ascorbate to the culture medium increased the intracellular ascorbate level and reversed both the
metal-induced stabiliza on of HIF-1- and HIF-1-dependent gene expression.[102][103]

See also
Category:Nickel alloys
Nickel aluminide

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External links
Nickel (hOp://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/028.htm) at
Wikimedia Commons has
The Periodic Table of Videos (University of No\ngham) media related to Nickel.
CDC Nickel NIOSH Workplace Safety and Health Topic
(hOp://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/nickel/) Look up nickel in
An occupa onal hygiene assessment of dermal nickel Wik onary, the free

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exposures in primary produc on industries (hOp://www.iom- dic onary.

world.org/pubs/IOM_TM0405.pdf) by GW Hughson. Ins tute
of Occupa onal Medicine Research Report TM/04/05
An occupa onal hygiene assessment of dermal nickel exposures in primary produc on and primary
user industries. Phase 2 Report (hOp://www.iom-world.org/pubs/IOM_TM0506.pdf) by GW
Hughson. Ins tute of Occupa onal Medicine Research Report TM/05/06
"The metal that brought you cheap ights" (hOp://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-32749262), BBC

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