Salahaddin University

Engineering College
Electrical Department
First Year

Principles of Electronics
Chapter One
By: Hemin Ali Qadir
2015
OUTLINES
Part I:
Atomic Structure of Elements
The Atom
Atomic Number
The periodic Table
Elections and Shells
Valence shell and electron shell
Ions and Ionization
Free Electrons
THE ATOM
All matter is made of atoms
All atoms consist of electrons, protons, and
neutrons.
An atom is the smallest particle of an
element that retains the characteristics of
that element.
Each element has atoms that are different
from the atoms of all others.
Structure of an atom consists of a central
nucleus surrounded by orbiting electrons.
The nucleus consists of positively charged
particles called protons and uncharged
particles called neutrons.
The basic particles of negative charge are
called electrons.
ATOMIC NUMBER
Each type of atom has a certain
number of electrons and protons
that distinguishes it from the atoms
of all other elements.
The atomic number equals the
number of protons in the nucleus. (a) Hydrogen atom

In normal (or neutral) state, the

number of electrons equal the
number of protons of an atom.
The atom has a net charge of
zero.
For example, hydrogen has an
atomic number of 1 and helium
has an atomic number of 2.
(b) Helium atom
THE PERIODIC TABLE
 M
ELECTRONS AND SHELLS L

Electrons orbit the nucleus of an K

atom at certain distances from
the nucleus. nucleus
Each of these distances is
called a shell or an orbit.
Electrons have different
energies at each shell.
For Example, Electrons near the
Capacity of
nucleus have less energy than Shell name (shell
electrons in the
those in more distant shells. number)
shell
The shells are designated K, L, K(n=1) 2
M, and so on.
L(n=2) 8
Shell K is the closest to the
M(n=3) 18
nucleus.
N(n=4) 32
ELECTRONS AND SHELLS (CONT.)
Each shell has a fixed maximum number of electrons.
The maximum number of electrons (Ne) that can exist in each shell
can be calculated by this formula

2
= 2
where n is the number of the shell.
The maximum number of electrons that can exist in the innermost
shell (shell 1) is
1 = 22 = 2 12 = 2 electrons
and
2 = 22 = 2 22 = 8 electrons
3 = 22 = 2 32 = 18 electrons
4 = 22 = 2 42 = 32 electrons
VALENCE SHELL AND VALENCE ELECTRONS
Electrons that are in orbits farther from
the nucleus
have higher energy
are less tightly bound
Why?
This is because the force of attraction
between the positively charged nucleus
and the negatively charged electron
decreases with increasing distance from
the nucleus.
VALENCE SHELL AND VALENCE ELECTRONS
Electrons with the highest energy exist in the outermost shell.
This outermost shell is known as the valence shell.
And electrons in this shell are called valence electrons.
These valence electrons contribute to
chemical reactions
bonding within the structure of a material.
determine its electrical properties.

For example, carbon has an atomic

number of 6 which means it has 6
electrons, 2 in shell 1 and 4 in shell 2.
Thus it has 4 valence elections.
VALENCE SHELL AND VALENCE ELECTRONS
Homework:
What is the valence shell number of Iron (Fe) and Silver (Ag)? And
how many valence electrons do Iron and Silver have?
Note: Look at the periodic table to determine the atomic number
of both Iron and Silver?
Answer:
IONS AND IONIZATION
If the number of protons equals the number of electron in an atom, the
atom is neutral, and it has zero net charge.
If the atom loses electrons, the atom becomes positively charged
(because the number of positively charged protons will be more the
number of electrons)
And If the atom gains electrons, the atom becomes negatively charged
(because there are more negative charges than positive)
The losing of a valence electron leaves a positive ion.
The gaining of an electron makes a negative ion.
The process of losing or gaining an electron in the valence shell is known
as ionization.
FREE ELECTRONS
When an atom absorbs energy from a heat source or from light
the energies of the electrons are raised.
The valence electrons possess more energy than inner electrons,
so they can easily jump to higher energy levels.
If a valence electron acquires a sufficient amount of energy, it
can actually escape from the valence shell, and become a free
electron.
This is the basis for conduction in materials.
OUTLINES
Part II:
MATERIALS USED IN ELECTRONICS
Materials used in Electronics.
Conductors
Insulators
Semiconductors
Band Gap
Semiconductors vs Conductors
Silicon and Germanium
MATERIALS USED IN ELECTRONICS
In terms of their electrical properties, materials can be classified
into three groups:
Conductors
Semiconductors
insulators.
This classification is based on the ability to conduct electrical
current.
an atom can be represented by
the valence shell and a core that
consists of all the inner shells and
the nucleus.
CONDUCTORS
A conductor is a material that easily conducts electrical current,
and they have a very low resistivity.
Examples of conductor materials are copper, silver, gold, and
aluminum.
Conductors are materials whose atoms have very few electrons in
their valence shells.
these valence electrons are very loosely bound to their atoms.
These loosely bound valence electrons can easily break away
from their atoms and become free electrons.
CONDUCTORS (CONT.)
For example, an atom of copper has one electron in valence
shell.
This valence electron can easily
break away from its atom and
becomes free electron.
CONDUCTORS (CONT.)
When an electrical potential (voltage) is applied across both ends
of a conductor, free electrons readily move from one end to the
other, creating a transfer of charge through the conductor, i.e.,
an electrical current.

potential difference a conductor material

(Voltage)
INSULATORS
Insulators are materials that do not conduct electrical current, and
they have high resistivity.
Examples of insulators are rubber, plastics, glass, and quartz.
Valence electrons are tightly bound to the atoms.
These valence electrons require a very large amount of energy to
become free for conduction.
Therefore, there are very few free electrons in an insulator.

potential difference an isolator material

(Voltage)
SEMICONDUCTORS
Almost all modern electronic devices are constructed from
semiconductor materials.
A semiconductor in its pure state is neither a good conductor nor
a good insulator.
The most common examples of
semiconductors are Silicon
and Germanium.
Silicon is the most commonly
used semiconductor.
BAND GAP
When an electron acquires enough additional energy, it can leave
the valence shell, and become a free electron.
This free election exists in what is known as the conduction band.
The difference in energy between the valence band and the
conduction band is called an energy gap or band gap.
The energy gap is the amount of energy that a valence electron
must acquire in order to jump from the valence band to the
conduction band.
Once in the conduction band, the electron is free to move
throughout the material and is not tied to any given atom.
 BAND GAP (CONT.)
The figure below shows energy diagrams for insulators, semiconductors,
and conductors.
Comparison of a Semiconductor Atom to a
Conductor Atom
Lets look at the atomic structures of both Silicon and Copper.
Comparison of a Semiconductor Atom to a
Conductor Atom
Then Lets compare these two atomic structures
The valence electron in the copper atom feels an attractive
force of +1.
The valence electron in the silicon atom feels an attractive force
of +4.
Therefore, there is more force trying to hold a valence electron to
the atom in silicon than in copper.
The valence electron in copper has more energy than the
valence electron in silicon.
This means that it is easier for valence electrons in copper to
acquire enough additional energy to escape from their atoms
and become free electrons than it is in silicon.
SILICON AND GERMANIUM
Both silicon and germanium have four valence electrons.
The valence electrons in germanium are in the fourth shell while
those in silicon are in the third shell.
the germanium valence electrons require a smaller amount of
additional energy to escape from the atom.
SILICON AND GERMANIUM
This property makes germanium more unstable at high
temperatures and results in excessive reverse current.
This is why silicon is a more widely used semiconductive material.