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Research Profiles

ent kinds of research work. More critically, the Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), as well as
organic model does not include either the concept large scale inter-organizational research programs
of complexity (Brown & Eisenhardt, 1995; Hage, such as the Human Genome Project. For the same
1999) or external networks of expertise, which are reason, the new and growing literature on projects
precisely the ones that are increasingly important (Brown and Eisenstadt, 1995) overlooks what
in the growth of knowledge network communities might be called Big Science as represented in
(Mohrman, Galbraith, & Monge, 2004; Shinn, the research conducted at the large national and
2002), and the spread of inter-organizational re- international laboratories such as Argonne in the
lationships (Alter & Hage, 1993; Hagedoorn & US and CERN in Switzerland.
Duysters, 2002; Powell, 1998; Powell, Koput, & Further, as Clarke (2002) has discussed in
Smith-Doerr, 1996; Van De Ven & Polley, 1992). comprehensive detail, the management of a large
Indeed, in the organizational innovation literature number of researchers is very different from the
there is only one study that examines the structure typical management issues involved in contem-
and performance of research laboratories and it porary firms or public bureaucracies. Among
does not include external relationships of any other differences are the oft-cited assertions that
kind (Hull, 1988). researchers are more motivated by intellectual
Although we are beginning to see an increasing curiosity than monetary compensation, the longer
number of studies of research labs (Brown, 1997; and more uncertain time horizons for success-
Joly & Mangematin, 1996; Jordan, Streit, & Matia- ful objectives, and, perhaps most importantly,
sek, 2003; Menke, 1997), inter-organizational al- work that is seldom standardized and difficult
liances (Gomes-Casseres, 1996) and a few studies to evaluate.
of research consortia (Browing, Beyer, and Shelter, While a theory about the diversity of research
1995), the fact remains that none of these studies management styles would necessarily differ from
have connected the measurement of scientific and more general theories of organizations, the logic
technological research objectives, to the nature of in the construction of our perspective is basically
the research tasks and their appropriate manage- the same. First, one must specify particular kinds
rial styles. The research literatures cited above of research objectives and identify the potential
stand largely in isolation, often ignoring other trade-offs. Then one must also distinguish differ-
kinds of research work. Specifically, the level of ent kinds of research work and tasks. Finally, the
the project is overlooked, which is a smaller unit management styles appropriate for the linking of
than the organization, the whole organization, the typology of research tasks with a typology
and inter-organizational networks of various of research objectives at the levels of project,
kinds. Indeed, what makes a proposed theory of program and inter-organization networks have
management styles necessary is the considerable to be determined. In this chapter, we present our
range in the ways scientific and technology re- argument for a diversity of research management
search is organized. While many small research styles in three sections. First, we provide a more
projects funded by the National Science Founda- detailed justification of the need for our perspec-
tion (NSF) and the National Institutes of Health tive on of management styles. Second, we specify
(NIH), such as those found in academia, tend to a typology of research work and a typology of
be the standard structure, a considerable amount research objectives and provide a theoretical
of research is conducted in large-scale organiza- linkage between the two. Finally, we offer our
tions and programs, such as mission agencies proposed view of Research Profiles and discuss
like the National Aeronautics and Space Admin- the managerial styles necessitated by the kinds
istration (NASA) and the National Oceanic and of management challenges that are presented in

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