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Module 7
(Lecture 26)
RETAINING WALLS

Topics
1.1 COMMENTS RELATING TO STABILITY
1.2 DRAINAGE FROM THE BACKFILL OF THE RETAINING WALL
1.3 PROVISION OF JOINTS IN RETAINING-WALL CONSTRUCTION
1.4 GRAVITY RETAINING-WALL DESIGN FOR EARTHQUAKE
CONDITIONS
1.5 MECHANICALLY STABILIZED RETAINING WALLS
1.6 GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

COMMENTS RELATING TO STABILITY

When a weak soil layer is located at a shallow depth-that is, within a depth of about 1.5 times the
width of the retaining wall-the bearing capacity of the weak layer should be carefully
investigated. The possibility of excessive settlement also should be considered. In some cases,
the use of lightweight backfill material behind the retaining wall may solve the problem.

In many instances, piles are used to transmit the foundation load to a firmer layer. However,
often the thrust of the sliding wedge of soil, in the case of deep shear failure, bends the piles and
eventually causes them to fail. Careful attention should be given to this possibility when
considering the option of pile foundations for retaining walls. (Pile foundations may be required
for bridge abutments to avoid the problem of scouring).

As illustrated in examples 1, 2, and 3 the active earth pressure coefficient is used to determine
the lateral force of the backfill. The active state of the backfill can be established only if the wall
yields sufficiently, which happen in all cases. The degree of wall yielding will depend on its
height and the section modulus. Furthermore, the lateral force of the backfill will depend on
several factors, as identified by Casagrande (1973):
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a. Effect of temperature
b. Groundwater fluctuation
c. Readjustment of the soil particles due to creep and prolonged rainfall
d. Tidal changes
e. Heavy wave action
f. Traffic vibration
g. Earthquakes

Insufficient wall yielding when combined with other unforeseen factors may generate a larger
force on the retaining structure compared to that obtained from the active earth pressure theory.
Casagrande (1973) investigated the distribution of lateral earth pressure behind a bridge
abutment (in Germany) with a slag backfill, as shown in figure 7. 17. Laboratory tests on the
slag backfill gave angles of friction between 37 and 45 , depending on the degree of
compaction. For purposes of comparison, the variation of the Rankine active earth pressure with
= 37 and = 45 is also shown in figure 7. 17. Comparing the actual and theoretical
pressure distribution diagrams indicates:

a. The actual lateral earth pressure distribution may not be triangular.

b. The lateral earth pressure distribution may change with time.
c. The actual active force is greater than the minimum theoretical active force.

The primary reason that many retaining walls designed with theoretical active earth pressure
perform satisfactorily is the use of a large factor of safety. Recently, Goh (1993) analyzed the
behavior of a retaining wall using the finite element method and proposed the simplified earth
pressure distribution shown in figure 7. 18.

Figure 7.17 Bridge abutment on piles backfilled with granulated slag )after Casagrande, 1973)
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Figure 7.18 Simplified lateral earth pressure ( ) profile: (a) retaining wall; (b) pressure
distribution behind wall stem; (c) pressure distribution behind virtual wall (after Goh, 1993)

Figure 7. 18 Continued
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DRAINAGE FROM THE BACKFILL OF THE RETAINING WALL

As the result of rainfall or other wet conditions, the backfill material for a retaining wall may
become saturated. Saturation will increase the pressure on the wall and may create an unstable
condition. For this reason, adequate drainage must be provided by means of weepholes and/or
perforated drainage pipes (see figure 7. 19).

The weepholes, if provided, should have a minimum diameter of about 4 in. (0.1 m) and be
adequately spaced. Note that there is always a possibility that the backfill material may be
washed into weepholes or drainage pipes and ultimately clog them. Thus a filter material needs
to be placed behind the weepholes or around the drainage piles, as the case may be; geotextiles
now were that purpose. Whenever granular soil is used as a filter, the principles. Should be
followed. Example 4 gives the procedure for designing a filter.

Figure 7.19 Drainage provisions for the backfill of a retaining wall

Example 4

Figure 7. 20 shows the grain-size distribution of a backfill material. Using the conditions
outlined in section 10, determine the range of the grain-size distribution for the filter material.
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Figure 7.20

Solution

From the grain-size distribution curve given in figure 7. 20, the following values can be
determined,

15() = 0.04 mm

85() = 0.25 mm

50() = 0.13 mm

Conditions of Filter

1. 15() should be less than 585() that is, 5 0.25 = 1.25 mm

2. 15() should be greater than 415() that is, 4 0.04 = 0.165 mm
3. 50() Should be less than 2550() that is, 25 0.13 = 3.25 mm.
4. 15() should be less than 2015() that is, 20 0.04 = 0.8 mm

These limiting points are plotted in figure 7. 20. Through these points two curves can be drawn
that are similar in nature to the gain-size distribution curve of the backfill material. These curves
define the range for the filter material to be used.
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PROVISION OF JOINTS IN RETAINING-WALL CONSTRUCTION

A retaining wall may be constructed with one or more the following joints:

1. Construction joints (figure 7. 21a) are vertical and horizontal joints that are placed
between two successive pours of concrete. To increase the shear at the joints, keys may
be used. If keys are not used, the surface of the first pour is cleaned and roughened before
the next pour of concrete.
2. Contraction joints (figure 7. 21b) are vertical joints (grooves) placed in the face of a wall
(from the top of the base slab to the top of the wall) allow the concrete to shrink without
noticeable harm. The grooves may be about 0.25 to 0.3 ( 6 to 8 mm) wide and 0.5 to
0.6 in. ( 12 to 16 mm) deep.
3. Expansion joints (figure 7. 21c) allow for the expansion of concrete caused by
temperature changes; vertical expansion joints from the base to the top of the wall may
also be used. These joints may be filled with flexible joint filers. In most cases, horizontal
reinforcing steel bars running across the stem are continuous through all joints. The steel
is greased to allow the concrete to expand.
4.

Figure 7.21 (a) Construction joints; (b) contraction joint; (c) expansion joint

GRAVITY RETAINING-WALL DESIGN FOR EARTHQUAKE CONDITIONS

Even in mild earthquakes, most retaining walls undergo limited lateral displacement. Richards
and Elms (1979) proposed a procedure for designing gravity retaining walls for earthquake
conditions that allows limited lateral displacement. This procedure takes into consideration the
wall inertia effect. Figure 7. 22 shows a retaining wall with various forces acting on it, which are
as follows (per unit length of the wall):
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Figure 7.22 Stability of a retaining wall under earthquake forces

a. = weight of the wall

b. = active force with earthquake condition taken into consideration

The backfill of the wall and the soil on which the wall is retaining are assumed cohesionless.
Considering the equilibrium of the wall, it can be shown that

= 121 2 (1 ) [7.27]

Where 1 = unit weight of the backfill

sin () cos ()tan 2
= (1 )(tan 2 tan )
[7.28]

And

= tan1 (1 )

For detailed derivation of equation (28), see Das (1983).

Based on equation (27 and 28), the following procedure may be used to determine the weight of
the retaining wall, , for tolerable displacement that may take place during an earthquake.

1. Determine the tolerable displacement of the wall, .

2. Obtain a design value of from
0.25
0.242
= [7.29]

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In equation (29), and are effective acceleration coefficients and is displacement in

inches. The magnitudes of and are given by the Applied Technology Council (1978) for
various regions of the United States.

3. Assume that = 0, and, with the value of obtained, calculate from equation
(32).
4. Use the value of determined in step 3 to obtain the weight of the wall ( ).
5. Apply a factor of safety to the value of obtained in step 4.

Example 5

Refer to figure 7. 23. For = 0 and = 0.3, determine:

Figure 7.23

a. Weight of the wall for static condition.

b. Weight of the wall for zero displacement during an earthquake
c. Earthquake of the wall for lateral displacement of 1.5 in. during an earthquake

For part c, assume that = 0.2 and = 0.2. for parts a, b, and c, use a factor of safety of 1.5.
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Solution

Part a

For static conditions, = 0 and equation (28) becomes

sin () cos ()tan 2
= tan 2

For = 90 , = 24 and = 36 ,
sin (9024)cos (9024) tan 36
= = 0.85
tan 36

For static conditions, = , so

= 12 2

For 0.2349 [table 5 from chapter 6],

= 12(16)(5)2 (0.2349)(0.85) = 39.9 kN/m

With a factor of safety of 1.5,

= (39.9)(1.5) = 59.9 kN/m

Part b

For zero displacement, = 0,

sin () cos ()tan 2
= tan 2 tan

0.3
tan = 1 = 10 = 0.3

sin (9024)cos (9024) tan 36

= = 1.45
tan 360.3

For = 0.3, 1 = 36 and = 2/3, the value of 0.48 (table 7 chapter 6).

= 121 2 (1 ) = 12(16)(5)2 (1 0)(0.48)(1.45) = 139 kN/m

With a factor of safety of 1.5, = 208.8 kN/m

Part c

For a lateral displacement of 1.5, in.,

0.25 (0.2)(0.2)2 0.25
0.22
= = (0.2) (0.2)(1.5) = 0.081

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0.081
tan = 1 = = 0.081
10

sin (9024)cos (9024) tan 36

= = 0.957
tan 360.081

= 122 2 0.29 [Table 7]

= 12(16)(5)2 (0.29)(0.957) = 55.5 kN/m

With a factor of safety of 1.5, = 83.3 kN/m

MECHANICALLY STABILIZED RETAINING WALLS

GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

The general design procedure of any mechanically stabilized retaining wall can be divided into
two parts:

1. Satisfying internal stability requirements

2. Checking the external stability of the wall

The internal stability checks involve determining tension and pullout resistance in the reinforcing
elements and the integrity of facing elements. The external stability checks include checks for
overturning, sliding and bearing capacity failure (figure 7. 24). The following sections will
discuss the retaining wall design procedures with metallic strips, geotextiles, and geogrids.

Figure 7.24 External stability checks (after Transportation Research Board 1995)
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