Chapter 8

Electric Dipoles

It requires a lot of energy to produce a net charge, so most objects do not have a net charge. All objects however
contain charge and often the centers of positive and negative charge in an object are at different locations. The
behavior and shape of the electric field of these systems is determined by their electric dipole moment.

8.1 Behavior of Electric Dipoles

This section covers skills and problems involved in drawing dipole fields, deducing the direction of dipole moments from
fields, and predicting the behavior of dipoles in the field of other charge. When drawing field maps for systems with
non-zero total charge, we use the fact that, far from a distribution of charges with non-zero net charge, the electric
field is radial. What happens when the total charge of the distribution is zero? Let’s draw it. Using eight stubs per
charge, the field for equal and opposite point charges is drawn below. The dashed circle is the circle at infinity, which
we have been using for fields with net charge. Note that no lines escape to infinity, which is correct because the system
has zero net charge. The shape of the field outside the dashed line is the characteristic shape a dipole field. The
strength of a dipole is given by a vector p~, the dipole moment.

1
 p

Moments of the Electric Field: Any electric field can be expressed as a series of charac-
teristic fields whose strength is determined by their “moment”. The net charge of a system
is the system’s monopole moment. The next moment is the dipole moment, defined below.
Higher order moments exit: quadrapole, octopole, etc. The long range shape of the field is
determined by the lowest order non-zero moment. The long range shape of a system with
net charge is radial, determined by its monopole moment. If monopole moment is zero and
the dipole moment non-zero, the long range shape is dipole.
Definition Dipole Moment Vector: The dipole moment vector for a system with zero net
charge, p~, can be calculated for a collection of charges qi located at the points ~ri using
X
p~ = qi~ri
i

Example 8.1 Dipole Moment of Three Charges

Problem: A 2nC charge is at the origin. Two −1nC charges are at (1cm, 0, 0) and (1cm, 1cm, 0). Calculate the
dipole moment vector.

Solution
The dipole moment vector is by definition
X
p~ = qi~ri = (2nC)(0, 0, 0) + (−1nC)(1cm, 0, 0) + (−1nC)(1cm, 1cm, 0)
i
 p~ = (−2 × 10−11 Cm, −1 × 10−11 Cm, 0)

Dipole Moment for Equal and Opposite Charges: For a dipole formed of two equal and
opposite point charges, the dipole moment points from the negative charge to the positive
charge and has magnitude p = qd where d is the separation between the charges and q is
the charge of the positive charge.
Direction of the Dipole Moment Vector: The dipole moment vector points from the
center of the negative charge to the center of the positive charge of the charge distribution.
The strength of the dipole, the size of |p|, increases with the amount of charge separated, q, and the amount of
separation, d, as illustrated below.

p p
p

Small Amount of
Charge Separation - More Charge Separated, Less Separation,
Dipole Moment Larger Dipole Moment Smaller
Small Dipole Moment

Far from the charges, all charge distributions with zero total charge but non-zero dipole moment have the charac-
teristic dipole electric field. If you see a dipole field, you should be able to draw the dipole moment and tell me that
the total charge is zero.

p
p

The mathematical form of the electric field for a dipole, far from the dipole, is somewhat complicated. We state it
for your reference,
 Electric Dipole Field: The electric field of a point dipole at the origin with dipole moment
p~ is
~ r) = k 3r̂(~
E(~
p · r̂) − p~
.
r3
This is the field of a point dipole or the field far from a system with zero charge but non-zero
dipole moment.
Simplified Electric Dipole Field: The expression above for the dipole field can be simplified
if a direction for the dipole moment is chosen and only the strength of the field along the
axes is computed. If p~ = pŷ, then along the ŷ axis,

~ y, 0) = 2kpŷ .
E(0,
|y|3

and along the x-axis

~ kpŷ
E(x, 0, 0) = − 3
|x|

Notice that the strength of the dipole field falls off as 1/r3 whereas the field of a distribution with net charge falls off
as 1/r2 . This is why, far from a distribution with net charge, we see only the radial field of a point charge with the
total charge of the distribution.

Example 8.2 Calculating the Dipole Field

Problem: An electric dipole is formed by equal and opposite point charges with charge ±1nC at ±0.2cmŷ. The
dipole moment points in the +ŷ direction. Calculate the field at 5m along the x axis and the y axis.

Solution
(a) Calculate the dipole moment: The dipole moment of a simple two charge dipole is p = qd where d = 0.4cm
is the separation of the charges p = qd = (1 × 10−9 C)(4 × 10−3 m) = 4 × 10−12 Cm.
(b) Calculate the field along the x-axis: The field point at 5m along the x-axis is far from the charges, so the
formula for the long range dipole field can be used
9 Nm2
~ = − kpŷ = − (8.99 × 10
E C2 )(4 × 10−12 Cm)ŷ
= −2.88 × 10−4
N
ŷ
|x|3 |5m|3 C

(c) Calculate the field in the y direction: The field point at 5m along the y-axis is far from the charges, so the
formula for the long range dipole field can be used
2
9 Nm
~ = 2kpŷ = 2(8.99 × 10 C2 )(4 × 10 Cm)ŷ = 5.75 × 10−4 N
−12
E
|y|3 |5m|3 C

8.2 Drawing Dipole Fields

When drawing a dipole electric field map, we need to use a field at infinity that has a dipole shape. The dipole field
will arise naturally from our normal process of drawing electric field maps but for some reason everyone scrunches all
the field down very close to the charges. Therefore, to get the correct long range field it helps to draw the dipole field
at infinity first. So to draw a dipole field, we use the same process as for a field with net charge (monopole), except
replace the long range part with the following two steps:
Determine Direction of Dipole Moment: The dipole moment is directed from the center
of negative charge to the center of positive charge. Draw it on your figure.
Draw a Dipole Long Range Field: Draw the circle at infinity and draw a dipole field
matching your dipole moment.
Example 8.3 Field of Point Dipole
Problem: Draw the electric field of an electric dipole formed of two point charges with dipole moment in the +ŷ
direction.

Solution

(a) Draw the Charges: Draw the electric charges at the given locations to scale.
Since we are given an electric dipole along the y-axis, draw equal and opposite
charges along the y-axis.

y
x

(b) Draw the Dipole Moment: The dipole moment vector is drawn from the
center of negative charge to the center of positive charge. For two point charges,
the electric dipole is drawn from the negative to the positive charge.

y
x

(c) Draw the Long Range Dipole Field: For a charge distribution that has zero net charge and a non-zero dipole
moment, the electric field far from the charge has the characteristic shape of an electric dipole.
 p

(d) Draw Stubs of Field Lines: I chose eight lines per charge. The field lines exit at the positive charge and enter
at the negative.

p
(e) Connect the Lines: Connect and smooth the inner
and outer lines. Jiggle until you get something appropri-
ately symmetric.

8.3 Qualitative Dipole Behavior

Systems of charge whose lowest order non-zero moment is the dipole moment behave differently than systems of charge
with net charge. Our model for an electric dipole will be two equal and opposite charges at each end of a stick.
Barbell Model of Dipole: When considering the motion of
dipoles, we will model them using equal and opposite point charges
on a stick, as shown to the right. +

_ p

Our barbell dipole is placed in a number of electric fields below. The force on each charge, F~+ and F~− , and the net
force, F~net = F~+ + F~− , on the dipole is drawn in each case.

Figure (a) Equilibrium Figure (b) Away from Equilibrium Figure (c) Non-Uniform Field

F+
+ F+
F+
+ +
p p p
Fnet
_ _ _

F− F− F−

Zero Net Force Zero Net Force Non-Zero Net Force

In figure (a) the field is uniform and the dipole moment p~ aligns with the field. The net force is zero and the forces
on the dipole do not tend to rotate the dipole. This is the equilibrium position of the dipole. In figure (b), the dipole
is rotated away from equilibrium. The net force is still zero, but the force on each charge tends to rotate the dipole
toward equilibrium.
Dipoles Rotate to Align with Field: A dipole placed in an electric field is at equilibrium
when the dipole moment points in the same direction as the field line. A dipole that is not
at equilibrium will tend to rotate toward alignment with the field line.
Dipoles In a Uniform Field Feel Zero Net Force: If a dipole is placed in a uniform electric
field, constant through space, then the total force (but not the torque) is zero since the forces
on the plus and minus charge are equal and opposite. So the dipole rotates but its center of
mass stays in the same place.
In figure (c), the field is not uniform. The positive and negative charges forming the dipole experience forces of different
magnitudes and directions and therefore there is a net force on dipole.
Net Force on Dipoles In a Non-Uniform Field: If a dipole is placed in a non-uniform
field, the two charges experience difference forces, and the direction of the net force must be
determined by adding these forces.

Example 8.4 Electric Dipole in Uniform Field

Problem: A uniform electric field is directed in the +x̂ direction. A barbell dipole with dipole moment direction in
the +ŷ direction is placed in the field.
(a)Draw the field and the barbell dipole.
(b)Draw the electric force vectors on the charges at the ends of the dipole.
(c)Indicate the direction of rotation of the dipole.

Solution to Part (a)

The field lines are evenly spaced since we are told the field is uniform. The dipole moment, in the +ŷ direction here,
always points from the negative to the positive charge. See figure.

Solution to Part (b)

The force on the positive charge will point the same direction as the field; the force on the negative charge will point
in the opposite direction. The forces have the same magnitude since the field is uniform. See figure.

Solution to Part (c)

The dipole will rotate in the clockwise direction based on the forces
drawn. The dipole moment will tend to align itself with the field lines. y

F+
+

p Rotation

F−
−

x
8.4 Dipole Mechanics
We argued in previous section that a dipole will rotate to align with an uniform electric field, but feel no net force.
Since the dipole tends to rotate, it must experience a net torque. If the field is not uniform, the dipole will experience
a net force. This means the force depends on how the field changes. If the dipole is allowed to rotate it will come to
equilibrium (if there are losses in the system) with its dipole moment aligned with the field. This behavior implies the
dipole is seeking the minimum in some potential energy function. So to quantitatively describe the mechanics of an
electric dipole, we need to evaluate the torque, net force, and potential energy.

8.4.1 Potential Energy of a Dipole in an Electric Field

To calculate the potential energy of an electric dipole with orientation θ with respect to a uniform field, we have to
calculate the work required to rotate the dipole from the location of zero potential energy to the orientation θ. In
figure (a) below, the dipole is drawn in its minimum energy orientation, aligned with the field. In figure (b), the dipole
has been rotated an angle θ away from equilibrium. In both figures, the dipole moment vector, p~, is drawn.

Figure (a) Minimum Energy Figure (b)

+ θ ∆h
+
p
d p
_
_ ∆h

The difference in potential energy, ∆U , from figure (a) to figure (b) is the work, W , an external agent would have
to do to rotate the dipole. Work is force times the distance in the direction of the force. Both the positive and negative
charge moved a distance ∆h against the force of field. The work done is W = F+ ∆h + F− ∆h = 2qE∆h, where F+ is
the force on the positive charge, q is the magnitude of the positive charge, and E is the electric field. If θ is the angle
between the dipole moment vector, p~, and the field E, ~ and d is the length of the dipole, then ∆h = d/2 − d/2 cos θ.
Substituting gives the change in potential energy to rotate from figure (a) to figure (b).
µ ¶
d d
∆U = 2qE − cos θ = −pE cos θ − pE
2 2

where I have used |~

p| = qd. It is customary to choose the zero of potential energy so the pE goes away.

Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole: The potential energy U of an electric dipole with
~ is
dipole moment p~ in a uniform electric field E

U = −pE cos θ = −~ ~
p·E

where θ is the angle between the dipole moment and the field. The second expression uses
the vector dot product, which we will review in Chapter 11.

8.4.2 Torque on an Electric Dipole

An electric field tends to make an electric dipole rotate, and therefore exerts a torque on the dipole. An electric dipole
~ is drawn below. The forces on each charge are also drawn.
in a uniform electric field E
 F+
θ +
p
Moment Arm
_

F−

From UPI, the torque τ exerted on the object is the force multiplied by the moment arm, the perpendicular distance
to the line of action of the force. The moment arm and lines of action are drawn above. The torque will be calculated
about the center of the dipole. The torque on the dipole in the figure causes it to rotate in the counterclockwise
direction. Both forces, F~+ and F~− , exert a torque on the object. The total torque is the sum of the torques of the
two forces, τ = τ+ + τ− . The length of the moment arm is (d/2) sin θ for both forces if the separation of the charges
is d and the angle θ is measured from the dipole moment to the field. The angle θ is positive above. The force on
each charge is qE. The total torque is then τ = qEd sin θ or τ = pE sin θ where I have used |~ p| = qd.

Torque on an Electric Dipole: The torque, τ , on an electric dipole with dipole moment
~ is
vector p~ in an electric field E
τ = pE sin θ
~ A positive torque causes a counterclockwise angular
where θ is measured from p~ to E.
acceleration.
When we reach magnetic dipoles and have some experience with the vector cross product, the above expression will
~
be re-written as ~τ = p~ × E.

8.4.3 Force on an Electric Dipole in a Non-Uniform Field

We have already argued that a uniform electric field exerts zero net
force on an electric dipole. An electric dipole is drawn below in a non-
uniform electric field that points generally in the y direction at the
dipole. The force on the charges forming the dipole are drawn as well
as the net force, F~net . The x-component is an artifact of how large I θ F+
+
have drawn the dipole. As d, the length of the dipole, gets smaller the p
x component vanishes.
Fnet
y _

x F−

We would like to estimate the force on the dipole in the limit the length of the dipole, d, is small. If the field points
~ = E(y)ŷ. The net
generally in the y direction at the location of the dipole then at the dipole we can write the field E
force will point generally in the y direction and have magnitude, Fnet = qE(y+ ) − qE(y− ) where y+ is the location of
the + charge and y− is the location of the − charge. If the separation of charges d is small, then this is approximately

dE dE dE
Fnet = q (y+ − y− ) = q (d cos θ) = p (cos θ)
dy dy dy

where θ is the angle between the dipole moment and the field and once again I have use |~
p| = dq.
 Force on an Electric Dipole in a Non-Uniform Field: The net force on an electric dipole
~ = E(y)ŷ, is
with dipole moment p~ in an electric field the points in the ŷ direction, E

dE
Fnet = p (cos θ)
dy
where θ is the angle between the dipole moment vector and the y axis.
Note, if the dipole moment aligns with the field (θ = 0), the dipole feels a force toward stronger field. If the dipole
anti-aligns with the field (θ = 180◦ ), the dipole feels a force toward weaker field.

Example 8.5 Rotation of a Water Molecule

Problem: The NIST database gives the dipole moment of water as p = 1.85debye = 6.18 × 10−30 Cm. As you work
through these databases the profusion of different systems of units is really annoying. A water molecule is placed in
the electric field of the golf tube modelled as an infinite line of charge along the z axis. The golf tube has linear charge
density λ = −0.10µC/m. The molecule is 4cm from the axis of the tube along the x axis. The angle between the
dipole moment of the molecule and the electric field is θ = 45◦ .
(a)Calculate the potential energy of the molecule.
(b)Calculate the torque exerted on the molecule by the field.
(c)Calculate the net force on the molecule.

Solution to Part (a)

The electric field of the golf tube at the water molecule is

λ −0.1 × 10−6 C/m N

E= = C2
= −45000
2πε0 d 2π(8.85 × 10−12 Nm 2 )(0.04m) C

The potential energy of an electric dipole in an electric field is

_
U = −pE cos θ = −(6.18×10−30 Cm)(−45000) cos 135◦ = 2.0×10−25 J

where θ = 135◦ is the angle between the dipole and the field. This α
θ
drawing is way out of scale, a molecule is tiny, so we can pretend E is +
p
in the same direction at either end of the dipole.

Solution to Part (b)

The magnitude of the torque on the water molecule is

N
|τ | = pE sin α = |(6.18 × 10−30 Cm)(−45000 ) sin 45◦ | = 2.0 × 10−25 Nm
C
where α is the angle between the dipole moment and the x axis. Notice that torque and energy have the same units
1 Joule = 1Nm.

Solution to Part (c)

The force on the dipole is

dE
F =p cos θ
dr
The derivative of the electric field is
dE d λ λ
= =−
dr dr 2πε0 r 2πε0 r2
The force is then
dE pλ (6.18 × 10−30 Cm)(−0.1 × 10−6 C/m)
F =p cos θ = − 2
cos θ = − C2
cos 45◦ = 4.9 × 10−24 N
dr 2πε0 r 2π(8.85 × 10−12 Nm 2 )(0.04m)2

The positive sign indicates the force is outward from the golf tube.