Welding Encyclopedia PDF

~~
STD=AWS
JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 051h165 T77 I
I
Jeffersons
WELDING ENCYCLOPEDIA
Eighteenth Edition
Edited by
ROBERT L. OBRIEN
American Welding Society

550 N.W. LeJeune Road, Miami, FL 33126 USA
COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

Licensed by Information Handling Services
O 1997 by the American Welding Society
All rights reserved. Published 1997
No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission in
writing from the publishel:
Reasonable care was applied in the compilation and publication of Jejersonh Welding
Encyclopedia to ensure authenticity of the contents. The American Welding Society assumes no
responsibility for use of the information contained in this publication. An independent, substan-
tiating investigation should be madeprior tothe reliance on or use of such information.
Printed in the UnitedStates of America.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 97-070432

International Standard Book Number: 0-87 171-506-6
O 1997 by American Welding Society

Originally published as The Welding Encyclopedia
O 1921, 1922, 1923, 1924 by L. B. MacKenzie
O 1926, 1928, 1930, 1932,1938,1941,1943 by G. H. MacKenzie
O 1947 by The Welding Engineer Publishing Co., Division
of McGraw-Hill Publishing Co. Inc.
O 1951 by McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., Inc.
O 1961 by Welding Engineer Publications, Inc.
O 1964, 1968, 1974by Monticello Books, Inc.
Second printing 1976
Photocopy Rights
Authorization to photocopy items for internal, personal, or educational classroom use only, or
the internal, personal, or educational classroom use only of specific clients, is granted by the
AmericanWeldingSociety(AWS)providedthattheappropriate fee ispaidtotheCopyright
Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, Tel: 508-750-8400; online: http//
www.copyright.com

Dedicated to the Weldersof America
A tribute to welders was expressed by Jeff Weber, Publisher of the Welding Journal, Miami,
Florida, in the May, 1993 issue:
WHAT MAKES A WELDER?
A recent phone conversation with an old friend got me thinking about what it takes to be a
welder. The person I was talking to has been weldingfor 25 years, but he said he is betweenjobs
again, waiting for startup of a new project. The fact that he is not currently working troubled me,
considering that this guy is truly an artist with a GTAW torch, a magician with a stick electrode.
He can lay down a bead that looks like a machine made it, time after time. And when joint fitup
isnt all it should be, he can improvise in ways a computer would never even think of.
As editor of this magazine,I run intolots of capable peoplein the welding industry, but the ones
who impress me most are the ones who can express themselves through a welding gun. These
highly skilled men and women are independent, savvy and capable, yet they have to face chal-
lenges and conditions that would prove daunting to most people. Here are a few ways one might
describe a welder:
A welder is the guy youll find working on a high plains pipeline in January at twenty below, or
inside a boiler in the California desert at105 degrees. He might be asked to backweld a joint in a
section of pipe hot enough to melt a hard hat, or to do repairs at the top of a box section where
elbow room and visibility are near zero. At a construction site, the welderis sometimes expected
to weld joints that were easy to design on paper, but are nearly impossible to reach in a real life
situation. On especially trickyjobs, he may have to weld in a tiny pocket, watching his progress
with a hand mirror and trying to read his reflected movements backwards. Sometimes, high on a
structure, the welder has to put up with gusting winds that threaten to blow away his gas shield
while he attempts to block thedrafts with his body. Despite all this, he has to weld thejoint right
the first time. There are no second chances and no opportunity to fix mistakes. Every job a welder
does, every second of arc-on time, is permanently etched in steel and visible to everyone who
passes by.
Unlike most workers, many welders must continually prove their ability, recertifying on every
new job and every welding procedure they will use on that job. Since there is no guarantee that he
will pass a certification test, the welder must keep practicing everything he knows, while learning
new techniques every chance he gets. Welders on big projects must often wait by the phone for
jobs, and when the call finally comes, they frequently have to travel long distances and live away
from home for extended periods.If hired in the middle ofa project, they must meet existing dead-
lines without complaint. And, while wagesare sometimes good, pay increasesare often out of the
question becauseof the short-term natureof the work.
Yes, its oftena tough job, but weve gota devoted groupof people who are willing and eager to
do it. Thats why I take my hat off to the weldersof America. They possess levels ofskill, resolve
and professionalism thatare rare today in any work force, anywhere. And that is what makes them
absolutely essential to the well-beingof our country.
...
111

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 M 07842b5 05LbLb8 78b I
Photos by Renate Gaddis
iv

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 H 0784265 05LbLb9 b L 2 m
Contents
...
Dedication ........................................................................................................................................ 111
Foreword .......................................................................................................................................... vi
Acknowledgments ...........................................................................................................................vi
Preface ............................................................................................................................................ v11
..
Guide to Using the Encyclopedia .................................................................................................. v111
...
Alphabetical Entries.......................................................................................................................... 1
Appendixes ................................................................................................................................... 615
1. History of Welding and Cutting......................................................................................... 615
2. Major Associations of the Welding Industry ..................................................................... 631
3. Master Chartof Welding and Allied Processes................................................................. 634
4. Welding Test Positions ....................................................................................................... 635
5 . Types of WeldJoints .......................................................................................................... 638
6. Weld Joint Preparation....................................................................................................... 639
7. Welding Symbols............................................................................................................... 642
8. Weld Discontinuities.......................................................................................................... 644
9. Types of Weld Cracks........................................................................................................ 645
10. Torch Nomenclature.......................................................................................................... 646
11. Weld Sizes.......................................................................................................................... 648
12. Joint Penetration ................................................................................................................ 650
13. Safety ................................................................................................................................. 651
14. Metric Conversions............................................................................................................ 662
15. Elements-Chemical Symbols and Atomic Numbers ....................................................... 666
16. Standards for Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes ...................................................... 667
17. Filler Metal Specifications ................................................................................................. 683
18. Recommended Eye Protection........................................................................................... 685
19. Automatic Welding Programs ............................................................................................ 687
Buyers Guide............................................................................................................................... 689

STDOAWS JWE-ENGL L997 078V2b5 05LbL70 334 m
Foreword
Jeffersons
WELDING ENCYCLOPEDIA
The first four editions of TheWeldingEncyclopediawerepublishedannuallyfrom1921
through 1924by L. B. MacKenzie. Mr. MacKenzie was given editorial assistance in this endeavor
by H. S. Card. Both were on the staff of The Welding Engineer, a monthly publication of the
Welding Engineer Publishing Company in Chicago, Illinois.
In his preface to the Fifth Edition in 1926,Mr. Card advised of the death of L. B. MacKenzie.
The four editionsfrom 1926 to 1932 were edited by Mr. Card, with Stuart Plumley succeeding him
as editorfor the Sth, 9th and 10th editions.
Ted Jefferson, by then a principal of the Welding Engineer Publishing Company, revised the
Encyclopedia in 1943. He edited and published the 11th through 17th editions over a period of
33 years. Ted Jefferson died on July6, 1988, at the ageof eighty.
The American Welding Society has obtained publication rights for the Welding Encyclopedia.
Because of Jeffersons long association with this book and his dedication to continuing its publi-
cation, we are changing the nameof this book toJefferson S Welding Encyclopedia.
The following is an excerpt from Ted Jeffersons Preface to the 17th Edition of the Welding
Encyclopedia in 1976:
In 1921 the coverage of welding involved a discussion of only three very basic processes
used principally for maintenance or repair applications. Down through the years, the ever-
changing and expanding field of welding has grown to include more than fi& welding
processes, capable of joining a wide variety of materials.
In 1997, more than ninety welding and allied processes are listed in the literature, and the num-
ber continues to grow.
Acknowledgments
The Editoris indebted to the following for their contributions to this book:
B. J. BASTIAN, P.E., Consultant, Benmar Associates; RoyalOak, MI
H. H. CAMPBELLIII, Senior Staff Engineer, American Welding Society; Miami, FL
L. P. CONNOR, Directorof Standards Activities, American Welding Society; Miami, FL
M. V. DAVIS, Ph.D., Consultant, Miami,FL
R. J. DYBAS, Consultant; Schenectady,NY
J. M. GERKEN, Ph.D., Consultant; Chagrin Falls, OH
R. A. HUBER, Consultant;Oak Ridge, TN
L. G. KVIDAHL, Ingalls Shipbuilding; Pascagoula, MS
A. LESNEWICH, Ph.D., Welding and Metallurgical Consulting Services, Severna Park, MD
A. F. MANZ, Consultant, A.F. Manz Associates; Union,NJ
R. W. MESSLER, Jr., Ph.D., Associate Professor, Materials Science and Engineering,
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy,NY
E. P. NIPPES, Ph.D., Consultant; Vineyard Haven, MA
An associate in the productionof this book was ANNETTE OBRIEN, who prepared the text
to L. G. KVIDAHL forhis final review of the text.
and served as copy editor. The Editor is grateful
ROBERT L. OBRIEN
Editor
vi

~
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05LbL7L 270 W
Preface
Eighteenth Edition
This edition represents a major revision of this encyclopedia, changing its orientation to the
authoritativeinformationbase of theAmericanWeldingSociety,andprovidingaccessto its
resources.
Welding technology becomes more complex with every passing year, and has expanded to an
extent that defies containment between the covers of a book. This encyclopedia presentsas much
information as is practical, but it is impossible to provide an exhaustive report on every welding
process, variation, application, technique or material involved in the welding industry.
The Editor hopes Jeffersons Welding Encyclopedia will be a helpful resource to those who
need authoritative welding information at their fingertips, and that it will be an effective starting
point for those pursuing further scientific or engineering information. Following are some signifi-
cant additions to the Eighteenth Edition:
Welding terms and definitions standardized by the American Welding Society are presented
dictionary-stylethroughouttheencyclopedia.They are identified by referencetoStandard
Welding Terms. Standard definitions are printed in italics.
Consensus standards, codes, specifications, recommended practices, classifications, methods,
and guides for welding processes and applications documented by AWS are appropriately refer-
enced. Standardsof related organizationsare referenced when applicable.
U.S. customary unitsare converted to the International Systemof Units (SI); conversion figures
are appropriate to the application.
Nineteen appendixes have been included; most of thesesupplytechnicalinformationfrom
major American Welding Society documents. Appendix 1 contains historical notes of interest to
the welding community.
A buyers guide is provided; companies or organizations listed were exhibitors at the 1996
AWS International Welding and Fabricating Exposition in Chicago.
The primary editorial effort is directed to presenting new and updated material, although some
of the basics of early welding processes are retained from previous editions, and much of the
instructional material remains.An effort is made to meet the needsof persons associated with var-
ious areas of welding, and persons at many levels of expertise who are working with available
equipment, old ornew.
Most of the information available to the welding industry, and in this book, is the result of a
continuous sharingof information involving every sector of the industry and spanning several gen-
erations. Contributors include research and development groups from manufacturers of welding
equipment and consumables, universities, fabricators and job shops, as well as individual welders.
All who are involved in the welding industry are grateful to those who have contributed and those
who are continuing to develop and share technology. In that same spirit, we welcome comments,
as wellas contributions of further information.
ROBERT L. OBRIEN
Editor
vii

Guide to Using the Encyclopedia
The definition of an entry is presented in dictionary style. Terms and definitions standardized by
the American Welding Society (AWS) are presented throughout the encyclopedia. AWS Each stan-
dard term is identified by reference to STANDARD WELDING TERMS. AWS standard definitions are
printed in italics.
To findaspecificconsensusstandard,code,specification,recommendedpractice,classifi-
cation, method, or guide documented by AWS, refer to Appendix 16, Standards for Welding, Cut-
ting, and Allied Processes. Refer also to the process, application, material or product involved. For
example, to findstandardsorcodescoveringboilers,see BOILER CONSTRUCTION7 aswellas
Appendix 16. To find AWS filler metal specifications, consult Appendix17.
U.S. customary units are converted to the International System of Units (SI); conversion figures
areappropriatetotheapplication.Forexample,apostweldheattreattemperatureof1200F
convertsexactlyto648.88"C,butthedecimalfiguresarenotmeaningful.Therefore,the SI
temperature is rounded off to 650C. In critical cases, however, such as the melting point of an
element or compound, the exact temperature in both scales is presented.
Appendixes 4 through 9, and Appendixes 11 and 12 have been designed to provide specific
technical information about welds thatis easy to find by consulting the appropriate appendix.
Welding and related processes are described in separate entries, for example, gas metal arc
welding,laserbeamwelding,thermalspraying, or oxyfuelcutting.Referalso to themetal
involved in a given project. Additional process information specific to the metal involved has been
added to discussions under entries such as aluminum, cast iron, nickel, magnesium, and steel.
To use the Buyer's Guide, consult the product category, then refer to the alphabetical list of
manufacturers and suppliers for a specific address, telephone or fax number. The Buyer's Guide is
not all-inclusive; companiesor organizations listed were exhibitors at the1996 AWS International
Welding and Fabricating Exposition in Chicago.
...
v111

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L977 m 07842b5 05LbL73 043
Structural Steel Welding Application

BP America Building, Cleveland
ix
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 W 0784265 0516174 TBT 9
Vertical welding on Node 1, the first United States element of the International Space
Station, at NASAs Marshall Space Center, Huntsville, Alabama

ABNORMAL GRAIN GROWTH ABSORPTIVE LENS
The formation ofunusuallylargepolycrystalline A filter lensdesigned to attenuate theeffects of
grains in a metal.Thisconditionfrequentlyoccurs glare andreflectedand stray light. See STANDARD
of 2%) is
when a critical amountof strain (in the range WELDING TERMS. See also FILTER PLATE.
present during heating to elevated temperatures.
AC or A-C
ABRASION Abbreviation for alternating current. Itis written ac
A grinding action causedby abrasive solidssliding, when used as a noun and written as a-c when used as
rolling or rubbing againsta surface; a scraped, ground, an adjective.
or worn area. Base plates are sometimes hardfaced to
provide abrasion,or wear, resistance. A-C ARC WELDING
An arc welding process using a power source that
ABRASION SOLDERING supplies an alternating current to the welding arc.
A soldering process variation during which thefay-
ACCELERATING POTENTIAL, Electron Beam Welding
ing suqace of the base metalis mechanically abraded. and Cutting
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
The potential that imparts velocity to electrons. See
STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
ABRASIVE
See GRINDING MATERIALS. ACCEPTABLE WELD
A weld that meets the applicable requirements.See
ABRASIVE BELT STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
A cloth or paper belt coated with abrasives used to
rub,grind, or wearawaybyfriction. The abrasive ACETONE
coating material may be sand or Carborundum, avail- (C3H60) A compound of carbon,hydrogenand
able in various grades and hardness factors. oxygen; it is a volatile, flammable, liquid ketone used
mainly as a solvent for such materials as resins, gums,
ABRASIVE BELT GRINDER oils, and cellulose.
A grinderwhichusesanabrasivebeltforthe Acetone is odorlessandcolorless;itevaporates
removal of surplus material. rapidly. Acetone boils at 56C (133F). One liter of
acetone weighs about1 kg.
ABRASIVE BLASTING An important use for acetone is to stabilize acety-
A method of cleaning or surface roughening by a lene gas. The safe, practical use of acetylene gas for
forcibly projected stream of abrasive particles. See welding and other applications would not be possible
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. without acetone. Compressed acetylene itself is highly
explosive; however, it can be safely compressed and
ABSORPTIONMETER stored in high-pressure cylinders if the cylinders are
An instrument for measuring absorption of gases by lined with absorbent material soaked with acetone. As
liquids. a solventagent for acetylenegas,acetonehas an
absorptivecapacity of 25 volumes of acetyleneper
ABSORPTION BANDS volume of acetone peratmosphere of pressure,
Dark bands ina spectrum producedby the selective or
about 420 volumes of acetyleneat 1724 kPa
absorption of light. The absorbing media are generally (250 psi) pressure.
solids or liquids through which the light of the spec- Another important feature of the acetone-acetylene
trum has been transmitted. solution is that the exothermicproperties of the
1
acetone counteract the endothermic properties of the Metalworking with Acetylene
acetylene;consequently,theacetone-acetylenesolu- Acetyleneisusuallycombinedwithoxygen to
tion is, to a certain extent, immune from a complete intensify the heat of the acetylene flame for welding. It
dissociation in case an ignition or explosion is intro- can also be combined with air,but with a much lower
duced into it.See ACETYLENE CYLINDERS. flame temperature. The principal application for the
air-acetylene mixtureis in soldering operations.
ACETYLENE
Mixed in equal amounts and burned at the tip of
Acetylene,ahydrocarbon(C2H2),isacolorless, a welding torch, oxygen and acetylene create the so-
flammable gas shipped dissolved in a solvent. It has a called neutral flame. This flame can be identified by
garlic-like odor, Acetylene is rated as a simple asphyx- the luminous, well-defined whitecone at the torch tip,
iant(ACGHI1994-95).Users are cautionednotto and by a fairly long, almost colorless outer envelope
dischargeacetyleneatpressuresexceeding103 Wa that is blue or orange at its leading edge. See Figure
(15 psig), as noted by the red line on acetylene pres- A-l. The neutral flame is the correct flame with
sure gauges. Other specificationsof acetylene are: whichtoweldmanymetals. See OXYACETYLENE
Molecular weight: 26.038 FLAME.
Specific Gravity (Air= 1): 0.91 at 0C (32F) If excess oxygen is fed into the torch, an oxidizing
Specific Volume: 0.09 m3 /kg at 156C (14.5 ft3/lb at flame results. This flame is characterized by a short
60F) inner cone and a short outer envelope. The flame is
Critical Temperature: 352C (953F) hotter than a neutral flame, burning acetylene at the
Critical Pressure: 6139.3 kPa (890.4 psia) same rate.
Acetylene is said to have an endothermic quality Whenthissituationisreversedandanexcessof
because it absorbs heat in formation and liberates it acetylene is used, the resulting flame is termed curbur-
during combustion. In this respect, acetylene differs izing. This flame appears as a greenish feather-shaped
from most hydrocarbons: they are exothermic and give formbetween the inner cone andouterenvelope.
off heat during formation. There are white-hotcarbonparticles inthis feather
As afuelgas,acetylenegenerates1433 Btuper which are dissolved to some extent in molten metal
CU ft; 277 are derived from hydrogencombustion, during welding.
928 Btu result from the combustion of carbon into car-
bon dioxide, and 228 Btu result from its endothermic Applications
quality. Because of its intense heat, and because it can be
Chemical Characteristics accurately controlled, the oxyacetylene flame can be
applied to literally hundreds of welding and cutting
The chemical structure of acetylene is given in the
operations,includinghardfacing,brazing,beveling,
formula C2H2, showingthattwoatoms of carbon
gouging, and scarfing.The heating capability of acety-
(atomic weight 12) are combined with two atoms of lene is utilized extensively in bending, straightening,
hydrogen (atomic
weight 1.008), which canbe forming, hardening,
softening,
andstrengthening
expressed as 92.3% carbon and 7.7% hydrogen. The many types of metals.
nearestgaseoushydrocarbon is ethylene (C2H4),
which consistsof 85% carbon and 15% hydrogen. Historical Background
Acetylene contains the highest percentage of carbon Acetylene gas was discovered by Edmund Davy
of all the gaseous hydrocarbons andis the only one of in 1836, but it wasnot until 1862 when Woehler's
the unsaturated hydrocarbons with endothermic prop- discovery that acetylene gas could be produced from
erties (viz: absorbs heat duringits production, and lib- calcium carbide that the gas becamewellknown.
erates heat when it is decomposed). Because of these These developments were of little consequence, how-
characteristics, the oxyacetylene flame creates intense ever, until 1892, when Thomas L. Wilson, of Spray,
heat. The theoretical maximum for the oxyacetylene N. C., invented a process for producing calcium
flame is 4359C (7878"F), although the working tem- carbide and established facilities to produce it. He
perature is about 3316C(6000F). The temperature of and James Morehead devised an economical com-
the oxyacetylene flame cannot be approached by any mercial production method, and by 1895 acetylene
other gas, and is only exceeded by the heat produced gas was becoming recognized as a valuable gas for
in the electric arcor electron beam and laser processes. lighting.

~ ~~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL B997 W 0 7 8 4 2 b S 05LbL77 799
Welding Encyclopedia ACETYLENE 3
became apparent in World War I, when welding was

adopted aithe most effective and expedient method
of
constructingandrepairing war shipsandmerchant
vessels.
Producing Acetylene
Acetylene is produced either in generators, by the
reaction of calcium carbide and water, or by the crack-
ing of hydrocarbons ina chemical plant.
In the generator method, water is allowed to react
withcalciumcarbide(CaC,), a chemical compound
produced by fusing lime and coke in an electric fur-
nace.Thereactionbetweenwaterandcarbide is
instantaneous, and asa result, the carbon in the carbide
(A) Carburlzing combineswiththehydrogeninthewater,forming
acetvlene., while
. ..
... the
-.- calcium
- - combines with the oxv-
genandwater,formingslakedlime,orcalcium
hydrate.
There are two methods of generating acetylene: (1)
carbide-to-water,and (2) water-to-carbide.Thecar-
bide-to-water method is generally used in the United
States, while the water-to-carbide method is favored to
a large extent in Europe.
A carbide-to-water generator operateson a batch
basis, witha ratio of one gallon(8.3 lb) of water to one
pound of carbide. This mixture is designed, in some
generator models, to produce one cubic foot of acety-
lene Der hour per pound of carbide hopper capacity.

(B) Neutral Some stationarygenerators are doubie-rated for

capacities of 2 ft3/hr perpoundof carbidehopper
capacity.
There are two further classifications for acetylene
generators: low pressure and medium pressure. The
low-pressure generator carries out the calcium
carbide-to-water reaction
process at pressures
below 7 kPa (1 psi). A medium-pressure generator
produces acetylene at between 7 and 103 kPa (1 and
15 psi).
Calcium carbide used for acetylene generation
in the U. S. normally produces gas containing less
than 0.4% impurities other than water vapor. Because
of this favorable factor. there is no need for further
(C) OxldWng purification of acetylene
used for welding
and
cutting.
Figure
A-l-Types of Oxyacetylene Flames Thewelding supply
distributorreceives
and
resells
acetylene in its most common form: dissolved in ace-
However,acetyleneproducershopes for wide-toneandcompressedincylinders.Theseruggedacety-
spread use of acetylene for illumination of streets and lene cylinders have nominal capacities of 0.28, 1.1,
buildings were dashed by the growing use of incandes- 2.8,6.4, or 8.5 m3 (10, 40, 100, 225 or 300 CU ft) and
centlamps.Acetylenespotentialinmetalworkingholdthegasat a pressure of 1724 kPa (250 psi).See

STD-AUS JWE-ENGL Lqq7 m 07642b5 05LbL78 b Z 5 m
4 ACETYLENE CUlTlNG Encyclopedia Welding
ACETYLENE
CYLINDERS,ACETYLENE
CYLINDERS, liquid, when added to the porous material, is capable
Safe Handling,and ACETYLENE GENERATORS. of absorbing 25 times its own volume of acetylene for
eachatmosphere 101 Wa (14.7 psi) of pressure
ACETYLENE CUTTING applied. Thus, at full cylinder pressure of 1724 kPa
See OXYFUEL GASCUlTING. (250 psi at70F), it can absorb over400 times its own
volume of acetylene.
ACETYLENE CYLINDERS In 1958, cylinder manufacturers announceda light-
Because of thecharacteristics of acetylenegas, weight calcium-silicate filler with 92% porosity. This
acetylene cylinders are constructed in an entirely dif- new filler lessened cylinder weightby 30%, increased
ferent manner from those madeto contain other gases. cylindercapacity,andimprovedchargingand dis-
Historical Background charging characteristics. Although only 8% solid, this
Until1904,nosuitableacetylenecontainerhad filler had extraordinary strength, longerlife, no deteri-
been developed. The gas was used mainly for illumi- oration, and could be charged and discharged much
nation and was generally piped directly from genera- faster.
tors to the area to be served. In that year in Indiana, The calcium silicate filler, composed of sand, lime
P. C. Avery displayed to two of his home states most and asbestos, lined the cylinder and conformed to its
famous promoters, James Allison and Carl Fisher, a shape. Its crushing strength, an indication of cylinder
portable cylinder containing acetylene gas designed to life, is 6205 kPa (900 psi).
power auto headlights.Thenengaged in autosales, Whenmedicalresearchindicatedthatasbestos
Allison and Fisher were immediately interested, and fibers are carcinogenic due to the size of the fibers
with Avery, set up a small factory in Indianapolis to (less than 3.5 microns in diameter and 10 microns in
fabricate this tank. length, which is small enough to allow the fibers to
The shopwasknownasConcentratedAcetylene penetrate the respiratory tract of the lungs), cylinder
Company,untilAverywithdrewin1906.Thecom- manufacturers set about to producean asbestos-free
pany then became the Prest-O-Lite Company, the fore- filler. A non-asbestosalkaline-resistantglassfiber
runner of theLindeDivision ofUnionCarbide filler was developed by the Linde Division of Union
Corporation. Carbide Corporation and patented in 1982.
Allison and Fisher devoted muchof their time relo- A cut-away view of a modern acetylene cylinderis
catingtheirplantintoprogressivelylargerquarters. shown in Figure A-2.
Not until 1910 did they build oneof sufficient size in How Acetylene Cylinders are Manufactured
what was then suburban Indianapolis, across the street Cylinderproductionandtesting is a step-by-step
from the site of the famed motor speedway they later procedure which insures ultimate quality and safety.
constructed. Seamless shells are cold drawn in hydraulic presses
Carbideproductioncontinuedtoincrease,andin with capacities up to 454 O00 kg (500 tons). Center
1913, a much improved acetylene cylinder similar to seams and footring attachments are welded using the
that used today was introduced. With these two major submerged arc process. Cylindersare then normalized
achievements, gas weldingbeganreplacingother (stress relieved) to increase cylinder life and corrosion
metal joining methods. resistance.
Cylinder Stabilizing Fillers Measure and Weight
The need fora porous substancein a cylinder to sta- Inthefillingarea,cylinders are measuredand
bilizecompressedacetylenewasrealized by the weighed to determine exact volume. At another loca-
French scientist Fouche, one of the men responsible tion, filler is mixed to correct proportions in hoppers,
for the oxyacetylene mixture. The size of the filler, weighed,andmixedwithwaterinagitators.Before
however, left very little room for gas in the cylinder. each new batch of filler is used, a sample containing
One filler was a magnesium oxychloride cement type; onecubicfootisweighedandexaminedtoensure
anotherwasmadeofasbestosdiscs.Thecharcoal- correct mixture.
cement filler wasnot developed until 19 19, and in Cylinders are thenfilled automatically and weighed
1950 a sand-lime material became popular. again. Factoring in the weight and volume of the cylin-
In 1897 a French team, Claude and Hess, demon- der confirms that it is accurately filledto specification.
strated the valueof acetone. This colorless, flammable The cylinders are then oven-baked at 315C (600F) to

~~
STD=AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05LbL79 5 b L m

Encyclopedia
Welding Handling SafeCYLINDERS,
ACETYLENE 5
Cylinders are checked after each procedure during

themanufacturingprocess.Thosenotmeetingthe
rigid requirements of federal law and company rules
are rejected regardless of the stage of manufacture. For
example, a number of cylinders are selected from each
completed lot, charged with acetylene, and tested to
ensure proper discharge. If the cylinders do not meet
specifications, the entirelot is rejected.
Basic Tests
A bonfire test is designed to check cylinder per-
formance under conditions similar to fire a in a build-
ing. A fully charged cylinder is placed horizontally
on racks, and specified sizes and amounts of wood
strips are ignited around it. The cylinder passes the
test if there is no appreciable shell bulge, no penetra-
tion of filler by decomposition, and no breakup of the
filler.
The jlushbuck rest simulates torch flashback enter-
ing the cylinder, assumed to be at full pressure when
the operator closes the valve immediately afterward. If
the flash is immediately quenched in the cylinder with
only a minimum of decomposition and without release
of fusible plugs, the cylinder passes the test.
A hot spot rest simulates negligent impinging of a
torch flame against the cylinder. Flame is directed at
the cylinder sidewall until a3 to 20 mm (1/8 to 3/4 in.)
bulge develops. If filler decomposition is limited to the
Figure A-2-Cross Section of an Acetylene Cylinder areacloselyadjacenttotheresultingcavity,perfor-
Showing the Filler Material mance is satisfactory.
Photo courtesy of Norris Cylinder Company The bump rest determines the fillers resistance to
mechanical shock received during normal service. The
eliminatethewater.Bakingtimerangesfrom 40 to cylinder is mounted on a foundry mold-bumper and
120 hours, depending on cylinder size. After baking, subjected to minimum200 O00 bumping cycles. At the
anotherweightcheck is madetodetermineifany conclusion of the test, satisfactory performance is indi-
waterremains.Since 1% moistureinthefillerwill cated when there is no attrition, sagging, or cracking
affect ultimate performance, cylinders are baked again of the filler.
if only a slight moisture contentis detected.
Fuse plugs and valves are installed, and cylinders ACETYLENE CYLINDERS, Safe Handling
areshot-blastedandpainted.(Fuseplugsaresmall Atambientconditions,increased pressure
and
steelmachineboltswithholes filled withalow- decreasedtemperature can
liquefy
acetylene.At
melting alloy designed to release gas in case of fire, extremelylowtemperatures,acetylenecansolidify.
andtolessentheacetylenepressuretoreducethe The danger at the point of liquefaction or solidification
possibility of an explosion). (and the major reason why acetylene cannot be distrib-
Finally, strength proof tests at 4140 kPa (600 psi) uted in this form)is that the necessarily high pressures
are
run.
Pressure is thenreducedto 2070 kPa create a very unstable product. At the slightest provo-
(300 psi), and the cylinders are immersed in water to cation,compressedacetylenewilldissociateintoits
check for leaks. Drawn to a vacuum, they are charged chemical components, carbon and hydrogen. This dis-
with acetone and weighed again to determine if they sociation is accompanied by drastic increases in both
are fully charged. temperature and pressure, and results in an explosion.
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL I997 07842b5 0536380 283
6 ACETYLENEFEATHER Encyclopedia Welding
The acetylene distributor, as well as the user, must lished sets of rules governing the design, construction,
observe important precautions: andinstallation of acetylenegenerators,including
(1) Slings,hooksormagnetscannot beusedto acetylene pipe lines.
move cylinders. Cylinders of acetylene mustbe kept in Another insurance authority which publishes rules
an upright position. Cylinders cannot be dragged, and for acetylene generators is the Factory Mutual Engi-
can neverbe used or stored in a horizontal position. neering Organization, Norwood, Mass. Regulationsof
(2) A hand truck should be used when an acetylene theAmericanInsuranceServiceGroup,NewYork,
cylindermustbemoved,orthecylindershouldbe N.Y. and the National Fire ProtectionAssociation,
tilted slightly and rolled onit its bottom edge. Quincy, Mass. are also followed.See GAS SYSTEMS.
(3) A cylinder storage area should be chosen thatis
wellremovedfromanyheatsources,andthearea ACETYLENE WELDING
should be posted with conspicuous signs forbidding See OXYACETYLENEWELDING and OXYFUEL GAS
smoking or the use of open flames or lights. WELDING.
(4) If cylinders are stored outdoors, dirt, snow or
ice should not be allowed to accumulate on valves or ACID BRllTLENESS
safety devices. Brittlenessinducedinsteel,especiallywireor
( 5 ) The cylinders should be secured withchains or sheet, bypickling in dilute acid for the purpose of
heavy rope so that they cannot be accidentally tipped removing scale. This brittleness is commonly attrib-
over. uted to the absorption of hydrogen.
(6) Aleakingcylindermust behandledwith
extreme care; it should be removed immediately from ACID CORE SOLDER
the storageareaaftercheckingto be surethatno A solder wire or bar containing acidflux asa core.
sources of ignition are brought near it. The supplier See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS.
should be notified immediately.
ACID STEEL
(7) Onecylindershouldnot be rechargedfrom
another, or other gases mixed in an acetylene cylinder. See STEEL, ACID.
(8) Copper tubing should never be used to convey ACTIVATED ROSIN FLUX
acetylene. Acetylene will react with the copper to form
A rosinbase flux containing an additive that
copperacetylide, an unstablecompoundwhichcan
increases wetting by the solder: See STANDARD WELD-
explode spontaneously.
ING TERMS.
ACETYLENE FEATHER
ACTIVE FLUX, Submerged Arc Welding
The intense white, feathery-edged portion adjacent
A flux from which the amount of elements deposited
to the cone of a carburizing oxyacetylene flame. See
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also Figure A-1.
in the weld metal is dependent on the welding condi-
tions, primarily on the arc voltage. See STANDARD
ACETYLENE GENERATOR WELDING TERMS. See also NEUTRAL FLUX.
In the United States, common practice has estab-
ACTUAL THROAT
lished a preference for the carbide-to-water machines,
and they are almost universally used. Thereis another The shortest distance between the weld root and the
type of generator using calcium carbide molded into face of afillet weld. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
cakes, in which the water drops into the calcium car- See Appendix 11, Figure A, B. See also THROAT OF A
bide. This type of generator, while common in Europe,FILLETWELD,EFFECTIVETHROAT, and THEORETICAL
THROAT.
is almost unknown in the United States.
Insurance Regulations ADAMS, COMFORT A.
The Underwriters Laboratories is an organization Founder and first president of the American Weld-
maintained by the insurance companies of the United ing Society.
States which providesfor the inspection and testingof
all types of equipment which may be considered fire
a ADAPTER
oraccidenthazard,includingweldingandcutting A device for connecting two parts (i.e.,of different
equipment and acetylene generators. There are estab- diameters) ofan apparatus, or for adapting apparatus

~~~~ ~~ ~
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 D 07842b5 051b181 LLT m

Welding BONDING ADHESIVE 7
for uses not originally intended. An adapter is some- ADDED METAL

times used to connecta regulator toa tank which hasa A term sometimes used to describe the metal added
valve threaded differently from the inlet connection
of to the base metal duringarc, gas, or thermite welding.
the regulator. This practice is not recommended.
ADHESIVE BONDING
ADAPTIVE CONTROL Adhesive bonding is a materials joining process in
Pertainingto process controlthat automatically which a nonmetallicadhesivematerialisplaced
determines changes in process conditions and directs betweenthefayingsurfacesof the partsorbodies,
the equipment to take appropriate action. See STAN- called adherends. The adhesive then solidifies or hard-
DARDWELDINGTERMS. See also AUTOMATICWELD- ens by physical or chemical property changes to pro-
ING,
MANUAL WELDING,MECHANIZED WELDING, duce a bonded joint with useful strength between the
ROBOTIC WELDING, and SEMIAUTOMATIC WELDING. adherends.
Adhesive is a general term that includes such mate-
ADAPTIVE CONTROL BRAZING. rialsascement,glue,mucilage,andpaste.(Terms
See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See also ADAP- relatingtoadhesivesaredefined in ANSVASTM
TIVE CONTROL WELDING. D907.) Although natural organic and inorganic adhe-
sivesareavailable,syntheticorganicpolymersare
ADAPTIVE CONTROL SOLDERING usually used tojoin metal assemblies. Various descrip-
See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See also ADAP- tive adjectivesare applied to the term adhesive to indi-
TIVE CONTROL WELDING. cate certain characteristics,as follows:
(1) Physical form: liquid adhesive, tape adhesive
ADAPTIVE CONTROL THERMALCUlTlNG (2) Chemicaltype:silicateadhesive,epoxyadhe-
See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See also ADAP- sive, phenolic adhesive
TIVE CONTROL WELDING. (3) Materials bonded: paper adhesive, metal-plastic
adhesive, can labeling adhesive
ADAPTIVE CONTROL THERMAL SPRAYING (4) Application method: hot-setting
adhesive,
See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See also ADAP- sprayable adhesive.
TIVE CONTROL WELDING. Althoughadhesivebondingisusedto join many
nonmetallic materials, the following paragraphs refer
ADAPTIVE CONTROL WELDING only to the bondingof metals to themselves or to non-
Welding with a processcontrol system that automat- metallic structural materials.
ically determines changes in welding conditions and Adhesive bonding is similar to soldering and braz-
directs the equipment to take appropriate action. Vari- ing of metals insomerespects,but a metallurgical
ations of this term are adaptive control brazing, adap- bond does not take place. The surfaces being joined
tive control soldering, adaptive control t h e m 1 are not melted, although theymay be heated. An adhe-
cutting, and adaptive controlthermal spraying. See sive in the form of a liquid, paste, or tacky solid is
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. placed between the faying surfaces of the joint. After
Adaptive (feedback) control systems are automatic thefayingsurfaces are matedwiththeadhesivein
welding systems which make corrections to welding between,heat or pressure,orboth, are appliedto
variables based on information gathered during weld- accomplish the bond.
ing. The objective is to maintain weld quality ata con- An adhesivesystemmusthavethefollowing
stantlevel in thepresence of changingwelding characteristics:
conditions. Automatic adjustment of individual weld (1) At the time the bond is formed, the adhesive
variables, such as arc currentor arc length, is madeby must become fluidso that it wets and comes into close
monitoring a weld characteristic, such as pool width. contact with the surfaceof the metal adherends.
Other feedback control systems are available to pro- (2) In general, the adhesive cures, cools, dries, or
videelectrodeguidanceandconstant joint fill. See otherwise hardens during the time the bondis formed
also AUTOMATIC WELDING,
MANUAL
WELDING, or soon thereafter.
MECHANIZED WELDING,ROBOTIC
WELDING, and (3) The adhesive must have good mutual attraction
SEMIAUTOMATIC WELDING. withthemetalsurfaces,andhaveadequatestrength
Licensed by Information Handling Services ~~
STD=AWS JWE-ENGL la777 M 07842b5 05Jb182 056
8 ADHESIVE Encyclopedia Welding
and toughness to resist failure along the adhesive-to- brazing,soldering,ormechanicalfastenerssuchas

metal interface under service conditions. rivets or screws. Adhesive bonding is also capable of
(4) As the adhesive cures, cools, or dries, it must joiningdissimilarmaterials, for example,metals to
not shrink excessively. Otherwise, undesirable internal plastics; bonding very thin sections without distortion
stresses may develop in thejoint. and very thin sections to thick sections; joining heat-
( 5 ) To developastrongbond,themetalsurfaces sensitive alloys; and producing bonds with unbroken
mustbecleanandfreeofdust,looseoxides, oil, surface contours.
grease, or other foreign materials. The adhesive that bonds the component may serve
(6) Air, moisture, solvents, and other gases which as a sealant or protective coating. Adhesives can pro-
may tend to be trapped at the interface between the vide thermalor electrical insulating layers between the
adhesive and metal must have a way of escaping from two surfaces being joined, and different formulations
the joint. of the adhesive can make the bonding agent electri-
callyconductive.Thesepropertiesarehighlyadapt-
(7) The joint design and cured adhesive must be
able to mass-produced printed circuit boards, and to
suitable to withstand the intended service.
the electrical and electronic components industry.
A variety of adhesives can be used. Thermoplastic Smooth,unbrokensurfaceswithoutprotrusions,
adhesives develop a bond through the evaporation of a gaps, or holes can be achieved with adhesive bonding.
solvent or the application of heat. The pressure-sensi- Typicalexamplesofapplicationsarethevinyl-to-
tiveadhesivesproduceabondwhenpressure is metallaminateusedintheproductionoftelevision
applied to the joint. Other adhesives, usually used for cabinets and housings for electronic equipment. Other
metals, react chemically with curing agents or cata- examples are automotive trim, hood and door panels,
lysts. Some epoxy-based adhesives can produce joint and roof stiffeners.
strengths up to 70 MPa (10 O00 psi) when cured at Theabilityofflexibleadhesivestoabsorbshock
175C (350F) forafewhoursunderpressuresof andvibrationgivesthe joint goodfatigue life and
about 1030 P a (150 psi).Thetypesofpolymeric sound-dampeningproperties.Aspecificexample is
adhesives used to bond metal are listed in Table A- 1. the improved fatigue life of adhesive-bonded helicop-
ter rotor blades.
Table A- A combination of adhesives and rivets for joints in
Types of Polymeric Adhesives Usedto Bond Metals very large aircraft structures has increased the fatigue
life of joints from 2 x io5 cycles for rivets alone to
Solvent 1.5 x lo6 cycles for bonded and riveted joints. The
Nitrile
Urethane (thermoplastic) large bonded area also dampens vibration and sound.
Block copolymer Adhesive bonding may be combined with resistance
Styrene-butadiene welding or mechanical fasteners to improve the load-
Ethylene
MeltHot vinyl acetate
carrying capacity of the joint. The adhesive is applied
Block copolymer to the adherents first. Then the components are joined
Polyester together with spot welds or mechanical fasteners to
Polyamide hold the joints rigid while the adhesive cures. Figure
Pressure Sensitive Block copolymer A-3 illustratestypicaldesign combinations. These
Acrylic techniques significantly reduce or eliminate fixturing
requirements and decrease assembly time when com-
Chemically Reactive Epoxy pared to conventional adhesive bonding methods.
Phenolic Adhesivebondingmaypermitsignificantweight
Structural acrylic
Anaerobic savings in the finished productby utilizing lightweight
Cyanoacrylate fabrications.Honeycomb panel
assemblies,used
Urethane extensively in the aircraft industry and the construc-
tion field are excellent examples of lightweight fabri-
cations. Although weight reduction can be important
Advantages and Applications in the function of the product, adhesive bonding of
Adhesive bonding has several advantages for join- products may also provide considerable labor and cost
ing metals when comparedto resistance spot welding, savings in packing, shipping, and installation.

~~~~~ ~ ~
~~
Welding AGING 9
methods are not generally applicable to evaluation of

ADHESIVE adhesive bonds. Both destructive and nondestructive
testing must be used with process controls to establish
the qualityand reliability of bondedjoints.
Service
conditionsmay
be
restrictive.
Many
SPOT OR SEAM WELD
adhesivesystemsdegraderapidlywhenthe joint is
WELDBONDING bothhighlystressedandexposed to ahot,humid
environment.
Safe Practices
Corrosivematerials,flammableliquids,andtoxic
substances are commonly used in adhesive bonding.
Manufacturing operations should be carefully super-
vised to ensure that proper safety procedures, protec-
tive devices, and protective clothing are being used.
All federal, state and local regulations should be com-
plied
with,
including
OSHA Regulation29CRF
RlVBONDlNG 1900.1000,AirContaminants. The materialsafety
data sheet of the adhesive should be carefully exam-
ined before the adhesive is handled to ensure that the
appropriate safety precautions are being followed.
NUT
References:AmericanWelding
Society. Welding
I I I I ADHESIVE Handbook, 8th Edition, Vol. 1. Miami, Florida: Ameri-
canWeldingSociety,1987;andAmericanWelding
1
I
Society. Welding Handbook, 8th
Edition, Vol. 2.
Miami, Florida: American Welding Society, 199 l.
STUD WELD
ADMIRALTY BRASS
Figure A-3-Adhesive Bonding in
Combination with An alloywhich is 70% copper, 29% zinc and 1%
Resistance Welds and Mechanical Fasteners tin, commonly used for condenser and heat exchanger
tubing. See COPPER ALLOY WELDING.
Limitations
AGE HARDENING
Adhesivebondinghascertainlimitationswhich A term applied to a property exhibited by some of
should be considered in its application. Joints made by the light alloys, such as aluminum or magnesium, of
adhesivebondingmaynotsupportshear or impact hardening at ordinary temperatures after solution treat-
1oads.These joints must have an adhesive layer less ment or cold work.The controlling factors inage hard-
than 0.13 mm (0.005 in.) thick, and must be designed ening are the composition of the material, degree of
to develop a uniform load distribution in pure shearor dispersion of the soluble phase, solution time and tem-
tension. The joints cannot sustain operational tempera- perature, and aging time and temperature.
tures exceeding 260C(500F).
Capitalinvestment for autoclaves,presses,and AGGLOMERATED FLUX, Submerged Arc Welding
othertooling is essentialtoachieveadequatebond A type of Jux produced with a ceramicbinding
strengths.Processcontrol costs maybehigherthan agent requiring a higher drying temperature that lim-
those for other joining processes. In critical structural its the addition of deoxidizers and alloying elements.
bondingapplications,surfacepreparationcanrange This is followed by processing to produce the desired
fromasimplesolventwipetomulti-stepcleaning, partick size. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
etching, anodizing, rinsing and drying procedures; and
joints must be fixtured and cured at temperature for AGING
some time to achieve full bond strength. Some adhe- Atermapplied to metalsandparticularalloys
sives must be used quickly after mixing. Nondestruc- which show changes in physical properties on expo-
tive testing methods normally used for other joining sure to ordinaryor elevated temperatures.

STD*AWS JWE-ENGL L997 M 07842b5 05LbL84 929
ELDING 10 AGRICULTURAL
AGRICULTURAL WELDING ing electrode holders, and supply both compressedair

See FARM IMPLEMENT REPAIR. and current.
In gouging operations,the depth and contourof the
AIR-ACETYLENE TORCH groove are controlled by theelectrodeangle,travel
A torch which produces a flame by burning a mix- speed, andcurrent.Groovesupto16 mm (5/8in.)
ture of acetylene and air. The flame is as easily con- deep can be made in a single pass. In severing opera-
trolled and manipulatedas the oxyacetylene flame, but tions, the electrode is held at a steeper angle, and is
has a lower temperature. directed at a point that will permit thetip of the elec-
The air-acetylene torch operates on the same princi-trode to pierce the metal being severed.
ple as the Bunsen burner, that is, the acetylene flowing In manual work, the geometryof grooves is depen-
underpressurethrough a Bunsen jet draws in the dent on the cutting operators skill. To provide uni-
appropriate amountof air from the atmosphere to pro- form groove
geometry, semiautomaticfully
or
vide combustion. The flame is adjustedby controlling automatic torches are used to cut U grooves injoints
theamountofairadmittedtotheBunsen jet. The for welding. When removing weld defectsor severing
mixer on the torch must be carefully adjusted to draw excessmetalfromcastings,manualtechniquesare
the correct volumeof air to produce an efficient, clean most suitable.
flame.The
air-acetyleneflame ignites at 480C Voltagecontrolledautomatictorchesandcontrol
(896F) andproduces a maximumtemperature of units are usedforveryprecisegouging,withtoler-
1875C (3407F). ances of less than 0.8 mm (1/32 in.), and are generally
The air-acetylene torch is used for brazing, solder- mounted on standard travel carriages.
ing, and heating applications, but the flame tempera- Reference:AmericanWeldingSociety. Welding
ture is not sufficient for welding, except for joining Handbook, Vol. 2, 8thEdition. Miami, Florida: Ameri-
materialswith a lowmeltingpoint, like lead.Itis can Welding Society, 1991.
widely used for soldering copper plumbing fittingsup
to 25 mm (10 in.) in diameter. AIR CARBON ARC CUlTING TORCH
A device used to transfer current to afixed cutting
AIR ACETYLENE WELDING (AAW) electrode, position the electrode, and direct theflow of
An oxyfiel gas welding process that uses an air- ail: SeeSTANDARD WELDING TERMS.
acetyleneflame. The process is used without the appli-
cation of pressure. This is an obsolete or seldom used AIRCRAFT WELDING
process. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. The character of welding changes in aircraft con-
structionwitheachtechnologicaladvancementthat
AIR CAP affects any aircraft component. Because the materials
A nonstandard term for the nozzle of a flame spray- and joining techniques and processes utilized in the
ing gun for wireor ceramic rod. aircraft industry are constantly changing and improv-
ing, it is vital that the most recent standards and cur-
AIR CARBON ARC CUlTING (CAC-A) rent literature on the subject be used for reference.
A carbon arc cuttingprocess variation that removes Whileairplaneswerelargelyhand-mademetallic
molten metal witha jet of ail: SeeSTANDARD WELDING structures in the past, only the lighter planes have the
TERMS. weldedsteelfuselagethatwasoncepopular.High-
The air carbon arc cutting process uses an arc to speed transports and militaryjets have a metallic skin
melt metal whichis blown away by a high-velocity jet toprovide a monococquefuselage.Althoughrivets
of compressed air. The electrodes are rods made from have been usedto fasten the skin to the cell rings, spot
a mixture of graphite and carbon, and mostare coated welding also has an important role in the construction
with a layer of copper to increase their current-cany- of this type of aircraft.
ing capacity. Standard welding power sources are used Weldingisthemethodthathastheversatilityto
to provide the current. Airis supplied by conventional meet the varyingconditions of joining membersof
shop compressors, and most applications require aboutvaryingsizesandweightswhichmake up aircraft
550 kPa (80 psi) at between 560 to 840 literdmin (20 structures. The aircraft structure, with its multiplicity
to 30 cubic feet per minute). Manual rod holders are of joints, mustbelightinweightandsufficiently
very similar in appearance to shielded metal arc weld- strong to withstand severe conditions of service.

Encyclopedia
Welding (ac CURRENT
ALTERNATING or a-c) 11
The welded joint offersrigidity,simplicity,low ALLOY

weight, approximately full-strength joints, low corro- A substance with metallic properties and composed
sion possibilities, and relatively low-cost production of two or more chemical elementsof which at least one
equipment. Because of these advantages, welding is is a metal. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
used for building all classes of airplanes, from light The added element may be metallic or nonmetallic.
two-place pleasure planes to giant supersonic jets. See als0 STEEL,ALLOY;ALUMINUMALLOYS;MONEL;
Welded tubular structures form the framework for COPPER ALLOY WELDING.
the landing gear and the engine mounts. Requirements
of the jet engine have introduced many areas in which ALLOY POWDER
welding plays an important role. Powder prepared from ahomogeneous moltenalloy
or from the solidification product of such an alloy. See
Modem jet transports contain extremely high qual-
STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See also POWDER
ity welds in the miles of duct work found in everyjet BLEND.
plane. The welds are madeby highly skilled gas tung-
sten arc welders in 5052 and 6061 aluminum, Inconel@ ALLOY STEEL
625 and 718 nickel-base alloys, and6A1-4V titanium. See STEEL, ALLOY.
AIR CUSHION ALLOYING ELEMENTS
A pneumatic pressure device, sometimes adjustable, The chemical elements comprising an alloy. In steel
incorporated in the air-operating mechanismof a resis- it is usually limited to the metallic elements added to
tance welding machine to provide a deceleration of a steel to modify its properties. For example, the addi-
mechanical motion. tion of copper, nickel, or chromium individually or in
combination produces alloys or special steels.
AIR FEED
ALL-WELD-METAL TEST SPECIMEN
A thermal spraying process variation in which an
air stream carries the powdered surfacing material A test specimen in which the portion being tested is
through the gun and into the heat source. See STAN- composed whollyof weld metal.
DARD WELDING TERMS.
ALNICO ALLOYS
A series of alloys developed for use as permanent
ALIGNED DISCONTINUITIES
magnets. With the exceptionof Alnico III, all of these
Three or more discontinuities aligned approxi- iron-base alloys contain aluminum, nickel, and cobalt
mately parallel to the weld axis, spaced suficiently as the principle alloying elements(as the name Alnico
close together to be considered a single intermittent indicates).Mostalsocontain 3% or 6% copper.
discontinuity. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. Because these alloys are available only in the cast or
sinteredcondition,theyaredifficulttofabricate by
ALIGNED POROSITY welding.
A localized array of porosity oriented in a line. See
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. ALPHABRASS
A copper-zinc alloy with a copper content greater
ALIGNMENT than approximately 64%. Yellow brass is the name
used in metallurgical literature.
Arrangementorpositionin line. To producean
accurate and serviceable weld when several parts are ALPHA IRON
involved, an alignment jig is a necessity. See JIG, FIX- Thebody-centeredcubicform of pureiron. See
TURE, and POSITIONER. METALLURGY.
ALLOTROPY ALTERNATING CURRENT (ac or a-c)

The reversible phenomenon by which certain met- (Abbreviation: ac, when used as a noun; a-c when
als may exist with more than one crystal structure. For used as an adjective). A current which reverses direc-
example, alpha, gamma and delta iron are three allot- tions at regularly recurring intervals. Unless otherwise
ropic forms of iron with different crystal structures. distinctly specified, the term alternating current refers
STD*AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 W 07811265 05LbL8b 7TL
DING ARC
12 CURRENT
ALTERNATING Encyclopedia
Welding
to a periodically varying current with successive half Wrought Alloys

waves of the same shape and area. Wrought alloys are those alloys which are designed
for mill products for which final physical forms are
ALTERNATING CURRENT ARC WELDING obtained by mechanical working, such as rolling, forg-
An arc welding process in which the power supply ing, extruding and drawing. Wrought aluminum mill
provides alternating current to the arc. products include sheet, plate, wire, rod, bar, tube, pipe,
forgings, angles, structural items, channels, and rolled
ALUMINOTHERMIC PROCESS and extruded shapes.
A method of welding which makes use of the exo- Cast Alloys
thermic reaction which occurs when a mixtureof alu-
minumandironoxidepowdersisignited.When Cast alloys are those alloys which are shaped into
ignited, this mixture produces superheated liquid steel final form by filling a mold with molten metal and
andaluminumoxideslag at approximately2760C allowing it to solidify in the mold.
(5000F). The liquid steel is sufficiently hot to melt Sand Casting. Sand casting utilizes a mold in sand
and dissolve any metal with which it comes in contact made around a previously formed patternto the exact
and fuses with it to form a solid homogeneous mass shape desired in the final casting, but slightly larger in
when cooled. For this reason, this process is especiallysize to allow for shrinkage of the cast metalas it cools.
adapted to welding heavy steel and cast iron sections,
Permanent Mold Castings. Permanent mold castings
such as those used in locomotive, marine, crankshaft
are made by pouring molten metal into steel or iron
and steel mill repairs, and is also used in pipe welding
molds.
and rail welding.See THERMITE WELDING.
DieCastings. Die castings are also made in steel
ALUMINUM molds, but the molten metal is forced under pressure
(Chemicalsymbol:AI).Aluminumisasilver- intothedieormoldcavities.Diecastingyieldsa
white, malleable, ductile, light, metallic element with densercastingwithabettersurfacefinish,closer
good electrical and thermal conductivity, high reflec- dimensionaltolerances,andthinnersectionswhen
tivity,andresistancetooxidation.Atomicweight, desired.
26.97; melting point, 660C (1220F); specific gravity, Clad Alloys
2.70 at 20C (68F).
Clad alloys, which may be up to 5% of the total
Aluminum is oneof the most abundant constituents thicknessoneachside,yieldacompositeproduct
of the earths crust. It is found in most clays, soils and which provides the high strength of the core alloy pro-
rocks, but the principal commercial source is the ore, tected by the cladding.
bauxite, an impure hydrated oxide. The impurities are
Copper and zinc, when used as major alloying ele-
removed from bauxite by a chemical process leaving
ments,reducetheoverallresistancetocorrosion of
pure aluminum oxide, alumina. Pure metallic alumi-
num is obtainedby electrolysis of the oxide. aluminum alloys. To gain the desired corrosion resis-
tance in these alloys in sheet and plate form, they are
Aluminum is third on the scale of malleability and cladwithhighpurityaluminum,alowmagnesium-
fifthinductility.It is onlyslightlymagneticandis silicon alloy,or an alloy of 1% zinc.
strongly electro-positive, so that when in contact with
most metals it corrodes rapidly. Aluminum will take a Wrought Alloy Designations
highpolish,butit is likelytobecomefrostedin The Aluminum Association, an organization com-
appearance due to the formation of an oxide coating. posed of manufacturers of aluminum and aluminum
Its electrical conductivity is about 60% that of copper. alloys, has devised a four-digit index system for desig-
Aluminumisusedextensivelyasadeoxidizerin natingwroughtaluminumandwroughtaluminum
steel production, and as such it is an effective purifier. alloys. The first digit indicates the alloy group, i.e., the
Aluminum lessens grain growth by forming dispersed major alloying element, as shown in Table A-2. The
oxides or nitrides. second digit indicates a modification of the original
alloy, or the impurity limit of unalloyed aluminum.
ALUMINUM ALLOYS The third and fourth digits identify the alloy or indi-
Commercial aluminum alloys are grouped into two catethealuminumpurity. See UNIFIED NUMBERING
classifications: wrought alloys and cast alloys. SYSTEM.

~~ ~~
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 0784265 051b187 638 m
Welding BRAZING 13
Table A-2 Brazed joints should be carefully designed to pro-

Aluminum Alloy Designations vide for fullpenetration of fillermetal,because its
flow depends largely on capillary action and gravity.
Aluminum
Alloy Group Designation Joints should be self-jigging for easy assembly prior to
Aluminum-99% 1xxx
brazing. Lock seams, lap fillet, and T-joints are pre-
ferred because they have greater strength than butt or
Copper 2xxx scarf joints.
Manganese 3xxx
Silicon 4xxx Three commonly used aluminum brazing methods
Magnesium SXXX
are furnace, moltenflux dip, and torch.
Magnesium & Silicon 6xxx Furnace Brazing
Zinc 7xxx Furnace brazing consistsof applying a flux and fil-
Other 8xxx ter material to the workpieces, arranging them, then
heating in a furnace to a temperature that causes the
Wrought Alloy Temper Designations
filler material to melt and flow into the joint without
meltingtheparentmetal.Fillermaterial in various
In this index system, the letter following the alloy forms is added to thejoint. In many cases, filler mate-
designation and separated from it by a hyphen indi- rial in the formof a flat shim or wire ring can be fitted
cates the basic temper designation. The addition of a into the joint. Filler material is also suppliedby using
subsequent digit, when applicable, refers to the spe- clad brazing sheet, shaped tofit the joint.
cific treatment used to attainthis temper condition.
Standard types of furnace heating systems include
Alloys which are hardenable onlyby cold working forcedaircirculation,directcombustion, electrical
are assigned H designations; alloys hardenable by resistance,controlledatmosphere,andradianttube.
heat treatment or by a combination of heat treatment Theselection of furnacetypeisdetermined by the
and cold work are assigned T designations. Table applicationrequirements, as furnaceoperationand
A-3 showsthe basic temper designations and resulting results vary. For example, temperature is most easily
condition of the alloy. controlled in electrical resistance furnaces. Although
Casting Alloy Designations combustion furnaces are
least
expensive,some
A system of four-digitnumericaldesignationsis assemblies cannot be exposed to the gases which are
used to identify aluminum casting alloys, as shown in always present in this type. Radiant heat furnaces are
Table A-4.The first digit indicates the alloy group, the sometimes difficult to regulate, but the type of heat
second two digits identify the aluminum alloy within produced is excellent for most brazing requirements.
the group, and the last digit (which is separated from Aluminum-coatedsteelorfirebricklinings are pre-
the first three by a period) indicates the product form. ferred for all types
of heating units.
A modification of the original alloyor impurity limits Rate of production is another consideration when
is indicated by a letter before the numerical designa- selecting a heating unit. In batch furnaces, brazing is
tion. The temper designation system for castings is the accomplished by placing a tray of assemblies inside,
same as that for wrought product shown in Table A-3. heating for the required time, then removing the batch.
Though simpler,this furnace is slower thanthe furnace
ALUMINUM BRAZING with a continuousconveyingsystem in whichthe
In brazing, specific fluxes and filler materials with work moves through on
a belt. The continuous furnace
melting points lower than that of the parent metal are is more conservative of heat, and the gradual heating
used for making a joint without melting the pieces to reduces dangerof warping.
be joined. Brazing can be used to advantage when sec- Temperature for individual batches will necessarily
tions are too thin for welding, andfor those assemblies depend on such factors as the design of the parts, size
having many parts which must be joined in an intricate of fillets, and alloy to be brazed. However, furnaces
manner, Brazing is generally lower in cost thangas or should have operating temperature ranges from 540 to
arcweldingandisadaptabletomassproduction. 650C (1000 to 1200F), withcontrolcapability
Brazed joints have a smoother appearance, with well- within k3C (5F). Since regulation of temperature is
rounded fillets which often require no finishing. critical, automaticcontrolis the rule inproduction
Licensed by Information Handling Services ~
14 ALUMINUM Welding Encyclopedia
Table A-3
Basic Temper Designations Applicable to the Heat-Treatable Aluminum Alloys
Designation*
Applies to wrought products which are annealed to obtain the lowest strengthtemper, and
-0 Annealed to
cast
productswhichare
annealedto
improve ductility
and
dimensional
stability.
The
O may be followed by a digit otherthan zero.
Applies to productsof shaping processes in whichno special control over thermal condi-
-F Asfabricatedtions or strainhardeningisemployed.Forwroughtproducts,therearenomechanical
property limits.
An unstable temper applicable only to alloys which spontaneously age at room temper-
heat ature after solution heat treatment. This designation is specific only when the period of
treated
natural aging is indicated; for example: W 1/2 hr.
Cooled froman elevated-temperature shaping process and naturally aged to a substantially
stable condition. Appliesto products which arenot cold worked after cooling froman ele-
-T 1
vated-temperature shaping process, or in which the effect of cold work in flattening or
straightening may not be recognized in mechanical property limits.
Cooled froman elevated-temperature shaping process, cold worked, and naturally aged to
a substantially stable condition. Applies to products which are cold worked to improve
-T2
strength after cooling from an elevated-temperature shaping process, or in which the effect
of cold work in flattening or straightening is recognized in mechanical property limits.
Solution heat treated, cold worked, and naturally aged to a substantially stable condition.
Applies to products which are cold worked to improve strength after solutionheat treat-
-T3
ment, or in which the effect of cold work in flattening or straightening is recognized in
mechanical property limits.
Solution heat treated and naturally aged to a substantially stable condition. Applies to
products which arenot cold worked after solutionheat treatment, or in which the effect of
-T4
cold work in flattening or straightening may not be recognized in mechanical property
limits.
Cooled from an elevated-temperature shaping process andthen artificially aged. Applies
to products which arenot cold worked after cooling from an elevated-temperature shaping
-T5 process, or in which the effect of cold work in flattening or straightening may not be
recognized in mechanical property limits.
Solution heat treated and stabilized. Applies to products which are not cold worked after
-T6 solution heat treatment, or in which the effect of cold work in flattening or straightening
may not be recognized in mechanical property limits.
Solution heat treated and stabilized. Appliesto products which are stabilized after solution
-T7 heat treatment to carry them beyondthe point of maximum strength toprovide control of
some special characteristic.
Solution heat treated, cold worked, and then artificially aged. Applies to products which
-T8 are cold worked to improve strength, or in which the effect of cold work in flattening or
straightening is recognized in mechanical property limits.
Solution heat treated, artificially aged, andthen cold worked. Applies to products which
-T9
are cold workedto improve strength.
Cooled from an elevated-temperature shaping process, coldworked, and then artificially
aged. Applies to products which are cold worked to improve strength, or in which the
-TIO
effect of cold work in flattening or straightening is recognized in mechanical property
limits.
*Additional digits, the first of which shall not be zero, may be addedto designation Tl through T10 to indicate a variationin treatment
which significantly alters the characteristicof the product.

Welding BRAZING ALUMINUM 15
Table A 4 Size of the dip pot will depend on the size of the
Designations for Cast Aluminum assemblies to be brazed, but should be large enough to
Alloy Groups prevent the parts from cooling the flux more than5C
(10F)belowoperatingtemperaturewhentheyare
Alloy Group Designation added.
Aluminum-99.00% minimum purity 1xx.x Dehydrationofthefluxbathisaccomplishedby
Copper dipping 1100
2xx.xor 3003 alloy sheet into it. As the sheet is
Aluminum-silicon-copper or attacked, the hydrogen evolved is ignited on the sur-
aluminum-silicon magnesium 3xx.x face. Residue that forms on the bottom of the pot must
Aluminum-silicon be removed on a regular basis.
Aluminum-magnesium A modification of dip brazing is the applicationof a
Aluminum-zinc flux mixture to the assembly prior to immersion in a
Aluminum-tin 8xx.x
salt bath furnace. A typical example consists of mak-
alloy Other ing a paste of a mixture ofdry, a powdered aluminum-
silicon (548C [ 1018"FI flow point) brazing alloyand
flux, and water, and applying as much as required to
jobs. If uniform rise of temperature does not occur nat- fill the joints and make fillets. Next, the assembly is
urally, forced circulation is essential. placed in an oven and heated to about 540C (1000F)
Assembliesaregenerallyplacedinthefurnace toremovethewater.Thisleavesthebrazingalloy
immediately after fluxing. When large areas have been powder firmly cementedto the aluminum surfaces, the
fluxed, most of the moisture must be removed becauseflux serving as the cement.
thebrazingprocessmaybehinderedifit is not When the assembly is placed in the molten brazing
removed. Preheating the parts for about 20 minutes at salt, the alloyis held firmly in place by the flux cement
approximately 200C (400F) is usually sufficient. while it is being heated and melted. The flux cement
Brazing time depends on the thickness of the parts. has a higher melting point than either the brazing alloy
Forinstance,material 0.15 mm (0.006 in.)thick or the brazing salt, but it is soluble in the salt bath,so
reaches temperature in a few minutes, while 13 mm the brazing alloy is held in place, even while melting,
(0.5 in.)thickmaterial may takeup to 45 minutes. until the cement has been dissolved by the molten salt.
After the filler material begins to melt, it takes approx- As the flux cement is dissolved away from the molten
imately five minutes for the material to fill the joints. fillermetal,thealloyrunsintothe joint capillary
spaces and also forms smooth fillets.
Dip Brazing
Torch Brazing
Parts are assembled and dipped into a molten flux in Thismethodofbrazing can be accomplished by
dip brazing. This method has been very successful for using a standard torch as a heat source. Correct torch
the manufacture of elaborate assemblies, such as heat tipcanbest be determinedthroughtrial,andoften
exchanger units. The flux application does not require depends on the thickness of the piece to be brazed.
a separate operation and the bath transmits heat to the Filler alloys with suitable melting ranges and efficient
interiorofthinwalledpartswithoutoverheating fluxes are available forall brazeable aluminum alloys.
outsidesurfaces.Contamination is alsoheld to a Most work can be torch brazed with 3 mm (1/8 in.)
minimum. diameter wire.
Dip brazing is versatile. It is used in the manufac- A reducing flame with an inner cone about 25 mm
ture of delicate specialty parts where tolerances up to (1 in.) in length and a larger exterior blue
flame is pre-
k0.05 mm (0.002 in.) are maintained in production,or ferred. Oxyhydrogen, oxyacetylene, oxynatural gas, or
in making large parts approaching450 kg (1000 lb). gasoline blow torches can be used. Ample clearance
A separatefurnace is necessary to preheat the space must be allowed where the filler will flow, and a
assembly to prevent undue cooling of the flux bath. A path for fluxto escape must be allowed.
furnace used for furnace brazing operated at 280 to After painting with flux paste, the entire areaof the
300C (540to 565F) is satisfactory for preheating. It joint is heated until the filler melts when it is touched
should be located near the dip pot so heat loss will be against the heated parent metal. Too hot a flame, or
held to a minimum. allowingthe joint to coolrepeatedly,willcause
~~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 0784265 05LbL90 L22
16 BRONZE
ALUMINUM Bronze)
(9% Aluminum Encyclopedia
Welding
uneven results. Capillary flow tends to be toward the When maximum corrosion resistance is important,
hottest spot,so it is important that the flowof the filler or when parts are thin, parts can be dipped in a solu-
wire be controlled throughout. Heat should be applied tion of 2 L (2.25 qts.) of nitric acid (technical concen-
just ahead of where flow is desired. Joints canbe pro- trated grade), 1.8 kg (4 lb.) of sodium dichromate,and
duced that have a final fillet that needsa minimum of 17 L (4.5 gal) of water. The usualprocedureisto
finishing, if any. immerse the partsin hot water, then in thedip solution
All flux should be removed after brazing. If joints at 65C (150F) for 7 to10minutes,followedwith
are accessible, a fiber brush with boiling water bath rinsing in hot water.
can be used. Scrubbing with hot water and rinsing with ALUMINUM BRONZE(9% Aluminum Bronze)
cold, then drying is often effective,as is blasting with
A copper-aluminum alloy commonly used for the
a steam jet. Whenpossible, a chemicaltreatment
fabrication of corrosionresistantpartsandmarine
should be used to clean the joint.
hardware.
Cleaning
ALUMINUM CASTINGS, Welding
Clean surfaces are essential if strong brazed joints
are to result. All grease should be removed. Solvent or Both the gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) and gas
vapor cleaning will probably be sufficient for the nonmetal arc welding (GMAW) processes areused for
heat-treatablealloys,butthefortheheat-treatable welding aluminum castings. In general, welding alu-
alloys, the oxide film must be removed witha chemi- minum alloy castings requires a technique similar to
cal or by abrasion with steel wool, or stainless steel that used on aluminum sheet and other wrought prod-
brushes. All burrs should be removed, as flux will not ucts. However, many castings are susceptible to ther-
flow around them. mal strains and cracks becauseof intricate design and
varying section thicknesses. In highly stressed struc-
In post-brazing cleaning, is it essential to remove all tures, castings depend on heat treatment for strength.
the flux. A solution of nitric acid (concentrated techni-
Welding tends to destroy the effect of the initial heat
calgrade) in equalamounts of water is effective. treatment. In these cases, welding is not recommended
When a large area is to be cleaned of residual flux, unless it is possible for the casting or assembly to be
however,thismethod is notrecommendedbecause heat-treatedagainafterwelding,when the loss in
noxiousfumesaregenerated. An exhaustsystem is
strength can largelybe restored.
advisable evenfor small production situations.
To achieve a uniform etch and remove flux in one Preparation for Welding
operation,theworkcan beimmersedin a nitric- Before welding, castings should be cleaned carefully
hydrofluoric acid solution, using 2 L (0.5 gal) nitric with a wire brush and an appropriate to remove
solvent
acid,1/8 L (U4 pint)hydrofluoricacid,and17 L every trace of oil, grease and dirt. When welds are to
(4.5 gal) of water. The major portionof flux should be be made in sections heavier than approximately 5 mm
removedfirstbyimmersinginboilingwater,then (3116 in.), the edges should be beveled at an angle of
immersing in the acid solution for 10 to 15 minutes, about 45". When preparing defective areas
for welding,
depending on the desired extent of etching. Parts are any unsoundness or dross must be completely melted
then drained and rinsed in cold running water, then in or cut away before proceeding with the weld. When
hot water. To avoid staining, the hot water bath should two or more piecesare to be assembled, or ifa broken
be limited to about3 minutes. piece is to be welded, the parts should be heldaby fix-
Because of the reactionof a hydrofluoric acid solu- ture and clamped in the correct position for preheating
tion with aluminum, in which hydrogen gas is gener- and welding. The clamps should be attached in a way
ated, flux removal is efficiently accomplished by this that will permit free expansion of the casting during
method. The solutionis compounded of 600 mL (1.25 heating, otherwisestresses may developwhichwill
pints) of acid, (technical concentrated grade) and 19 L result in excessive distortion or cracks.
(5 gal) of water. Though this solution is less contami- Preheating
natedby flux thanthosecontainingnitric acid, the Prior to weldinga casting thatis large or intricate in
hydrofluoricacidsolutiondoesdissolvealuminum. design, it should be preheated slowly and uniformly in
Therefore,immersion time
should be
limitedto a furnace to avoid thermal stresses and facilitate devel-
10 minutes or less. Discoloration can be removed by a opment of therequiredtemperature for welding. A
quick dip in nitric acid. temperature of 370 to 425C (700 to 800F) is gener-

~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 07842b5 05LbL91 Ob9 m

clopedia Welding 17
ally sufficient for preheating.If the casting is small, or overlap. When possible, the joint should be designed
if the weld is near the edge and in a thin walled sec- as a butt weld. If an overlap joint is made, it should be
tion, an experienced welder can often the do necessary completely welded around the edges to seal the over-
preheating with an oxyfuel gas torch applied inthe lapped area.
region of the weld. After welding, the casting should Preheatingisessential in gas weldingtoallow
be cooled slowly and uniformly to room temperature properfusion.Sectionsthickerthan 6 mm (U4 in.)
to reducethe danger of excessive stresses and possible should be preheated to 310 to 370C (600 to 700F).
cracks. Preheating above 425C (800F) is not recommended
Welding Precautions becausethere is danger of meltingsome of the
Surface defects and small holes in aluminum cast- alloyingconstituents.Heatshouldbeapplieduni-
ings can be repaired by welding after the part is cor- formly to both parts being joined. See OXYFUEL GAS
WELDING.
rectly
prepared
and
preheated.
However, when
working with assemblies or broken castings, there are ALUMINUM, Gas-Shielded Arc Welding
several points to consider during welding. The individ-
ual parts should first be tack-welded into place, and One of several advantagesof gas shielded arc weld-
ing of aluminum alloys over other methods of fusion
actual welding should begin at the center and proceed
welding is that the need for flux is eliminated, thus
towardtheend.Whenanydifferenceexists in the
removing a potential sourceof corrosion. Other advan-
thickness of thesectionsbeing joined, the GTAW
tages are that welding can be accomplished in all posi-
weldermustcarefullydistributetheheatfromthe
torchinorder to avoidmeltingthelightersection tions;thereis
better
visibility
andgreaterspeed.
while bringing the heavier sectionup to welding tem- Sound, pressure-tightjoints with high strength and low
distortion can be produced. Because of these advan-
perature. A similarprecautionmustbetakenwith
tages, the inert-gas-shielded processes are the predom-
sheet and casting assemblies, and welders may require
inant methodsof fusion welding aluminum alloys.
a little experience to develop the proper technique.
Relatively easy to perform, gas tungsten arc weld-
Choice of Welding Rod ing(GTAW)usesnon-consumabletungstenelec-
Whenweldingcastingsofthenon-heat-treatable trodes,alternating
current,
andargon
or
helium
aluminumalloysorassembliesinvolvingsuch cast- shielding gas. Whenfiller material is needed, it can be
ings, consisting of welding rod Al-S%Si or Al-4%Cu, fed automatically or manually. Aluminum as thinas
3%Si is generally used. However, in the case of cast- 0.6 mm (0.025in.)canbewelded,butproduction
ingsrequiringsubsequentheattreatment, a welding welding is more easily controlled when thickness is
rod of the same alloy as the casting should be used. 1.O mm (0.040 in.) or greater.
The size of therodbestsuited for the job will, of Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), employs alumi-
course, depend to some extenton the thickness of the num wire as both electrode and filler metal, usesdirect
metal being welded, but in general, a rod 1.6 to 2.4 current, and a shielding gas of argon or helium, or a
mm (1/16 in. to 3/32 in.) diameter will be satisfactory. mixture of these. The filler wire is fed automatically
into the welding zone at a speed compatible with the
ALUMINUM, Oxyfuel Gas Welding arclengthandweldingcurrent,resulting in higher
Satisfactory butt, lap, and fillet welds can be made welding speeds than possible with the gas tungsten arc
withanoxyfuelgastorchonsectionsofaluminum method. Because the heat zone on each side of the
ranging up to 25 mm (1 in.) in thickness. The oxyfuel weld is narrower, GMAW produces welds of superior
gas weldingprocesswouldonlybeusedwhere a strength. A further advantage is that metal of consider-
source of electric power is not available for arc weldable thickness can oftenbe welded without preheating
ing. Oxyhydrogenor oxyacetylene flames produce the because of high current densities and the concentrated
heat necessary to offset the high thermal conductivity heat of the arc.
of the aluminum.Generally,theotheroxygen-gas
combinations do not provide sufficient heat for weld- ALUMINUM, Pressure Welding
ing, but may be used for preheating, which is often Pressure welding or solid phase bonding of alumi-
needed whenjoining thick sections. num is accomplished by applying high pressure on the
Overlap joints are not recommended for gas weld- surfaces to be joined, either with or without heat, in
ing because there is danger of flux entrapment in the the complete absenceof melting.

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 07842b5 0536392 T T 5 m
Resistance
18 ALUMINUM,
Pressure can be appliedby aligning two punches or tance of the parts to the flow of an electric current.
tapered rolls. Another method uses a shoulder punch Spotwelding,seamweldingandflashweldingare
on one side of the material anda flat plate or anvil on forms of resistance welding.
the other.A third method usesa single tapered roll and All the aluminum alloys can be resistance welded.
a flat surfaced roll. In some instances, punches with Because the physical characteristics of aluminum are
shoulders are employedtocontroltheamount of differentfromthose of steel,somewhatdifferent
punch penetration and flatten the deformation at the equipment may be required, although modified equip-
point of entry simultaneously. ment is oftenadaptedwithexcellentresults.More
Wire brushing is the most satisfactory method of electricalcapacityisusuallyrequired for aluminum
surface preparation. than for steel.
Pressure Gas Welding
Advantages of resistance weldingare low cost, high
production speed, and automatic operation. The major
Metal flow between clean interfaces is essential to a disadvantage is the high initial cost of the equipment.
cold pressure weld. Simple pressure is not enough. OnceConsequently,resistancewelding is generally con-
started,metalflowmust bevigorousandcontinuous, fined to mass production items where the low cost per
although speed seems to have little bearing on quality of weld will offset the high cost of the equipment.
weld.Pressuremustbeappliedover a comparatively
Spot and Seam Welding
narrow strip, so that the metal can flow away from the
weld at both sides. When continuous welds are to be Three types of resistanceweldingequipment are
used, the indentor should be ofwaved design, rather used for spot andseam weldingaluminumalloys.
than straight, for maximum strength. Strip and sheet can These are classified on the basis of the electrical sys-
also be butt welded, but as the width increases, the grip- tem supplying welding currentasfollows:standard
ping problem for the dies also increases. alternating current (ac),energystorage,electromag-
There are two basic methods of pressure gas weld- netic, and energy storage, electrostatic.Electrostatic
ing: closed joint and open joint. Coalescence is pro- welding may be either magnetic or condenser energy
duced simultaneously over the entire area of abutting storage. The comparative current and pressure cycles
surfaces by heating with oxyacetyleneflames and then for these systemsare shown in Figure A-4.
applying pressure. No filler metal is used. Alternating-Current Welding
In closedjoint welding (also called solid phase and Since aluminum and its alloys have comparatively
closed butt welding), weldfaces are in contact during high thermal and electrical conductivities, high weld-
thecompleteweldingcycle.
Endsare
carefully ingcurrentsandrelativelyshortweldingtimes are
cleaned, butted, and heated toa high temperature, but required in spot welding.
not to the melting stage. Pressure is applied, thereby In the widely used alternating-current method for
upsetting the weld zone ina plastic deformation.Vari- spotwelding, the highweldingcurrentrequired is
ous refinements are used this in method, particularly in obtained from the secondary coil of a welding trans-
pressure. Often a low initial pressure is applied, and former having a turns ratio from 20: 1 to 100:1. The
the pressure is increased as the metal attains its plastic primary coil is usually connected toeither 230 or 460-
state. Maximum pressure can be applied throughout volt, 60 Hzpowersupply.An electroniccontrol is
theweldingprocess,ordifferentpressuresmaybe used to time the application
of welding current ranging
applied at regular or varying intervals. from 1 to 30 cycles.
In open joint welding, parts are spaced a short dis- Current Regulation. The secondary current required
tanceapart,andheatedtothemeltingtemperature. varies with the thicknessof the material tobe welded,
Whenmeltingtemperature is reached,theparts are as shown in Table A-5. To obtain the correct current,
brought together rapidly, causing an upset, or partial anelectroniccontroladjuststhecurrent in steps of
fusion, weld. Most of the melted material is squeezed approximately 1000 amperes.Taps either on the
from the interface by theimpact,andtheresulting primary of the welding transformer, or on a separate
weld resemblesa resistance flash weld. auto-transformer maybe used.Wherenecessary, a
series-parallel switchis provided onthe welding trans-
ALUMINUM, Resistance Welding formerprimarytopermitadjustment of the current
Resistance welding is a process in which the weld- down to 25% of the maximum, which is usually suffi-
ing heat is generated in the parts to bejoined by resis- cient to cover the normal range of material thickness.

yclopedia Welding Welding Resistance
ALUMINUM, 19
Table A-5
PRESSURE
Machine Settings forA-C Spot Welding
Aluminum Alloys
Thickness, Time, Current, Tip pressure,lb.

in. cycles amperesMax.Min.
0.0 16 14 4 O00 200 400
0.020 O0016 6 300 500
STANDARD AC
0.025 17 6 O00 300 500
0.032 8 18 O00 400 600
0.040 8 20 o00 400 600
PRESSURE 0.05 1 22 10 O00 500 700
0.064 24 10 O00 500 700
0.08 1 28 12 o00 600 800
o. 102 32 12 O00 800 1000
O. 128 15 35 o00 800 1200
switches. Such devicesshouldcontrolthewelding

ENERGY STORAGE-ELECTROMAGNETIC time to the values listed in Table A-5, with an accu-
racy of plusorminusonecycle.Improvedwelds
result when the controls are adjusted to close the cir-
\
cuit at a uniform point in the voltage wave, and to
PRESSURE open the circuitwhentheweldingcurrentpasses
\
through zero. However, some variation from this ideal
condition is permissible for welding most of the alu-
- CURRENT minum alloys.

Electronic equipment for controlling the duration of
TIME weldingcurrentiswidelyusedwithalternating-cur-
rent welding machines. When these machines are pro-
ENERGY STORAGE-ELECTROSTATIC videdwithmeanstostarttheflow of currentin
synchronism with the supply voltage, the consistency
Figure A H o m p a r a t i v e Pressure and Current of weld strength and the appearance of the welds are
Cycle for A-C and Energy-Storage Resistance improved over that obtained when less precise timing
Welding Systems
equipment is used.Electronictimingequipment for
controlling the magnitude as well as the duration of
Pressure
Regulation. The welding pressure is welding current provides a smooth adjustment of the
applied either by a cam and spring mechanism, a pneu- welding heat.
matic cylinder or a hydrauliccylinder.Pneumatic
operation is preferred, since
most
manufacturing CurrentDemand. One of thechiefobjectionsto
plants have compressed-air systems and the welding alternating-current spot-welding machines is that the
pressure maybeadjustedto the desiredvalue. The high currents required for aluminum welding place a
pressure
required
on
alternating-current
welding very high electrical demand on the system supplying
machines is given in TableA-5. the machines. This current demand is of intermittent
nature, single-phase, andof very low power factor, and
Timing. The welding time is controlled by means of maycausedisturbances in electriclightsandother
a switch in the supply line tothe welding transformer electric equipment.This condition canbe alleviated to
primary.Bothmechanicallyoperatedandmagneti- a large extent by installing static condensers in series
cally operated welding contactors have been used for with the primary of the welding transformer. The man-
this purpose,butmodernmachinesusesolid state ufacturer of theweldingequipmentshouldbe con-

STD.AWS
JWE-ENGL L997 W 07842b5 05LbL94 878 m
Welding Resistance
20 ALUMINUM, Encyclopedia Welding
sulted to determine the size and number

of condensers They exert sufficient pressure on the material to hold it
required. in place. (3) They conduct the heat out of the parts
Magnetic-Energy Storage Welding welded to prevent the weld zone from reaching the
The electrical current demand for spot welding alu- outside surfacesof the material.
minumcanbereducedevenfurtherbyusingmag- At least oneof the electrodes must be shaped so that
netic-energystorageequipment,whichstoresthe current will be highly concentrated in the weld. This
welding energy in an inductor transformer by estab- electrode may be dome-shaped with a 25 to 50 mm (1
lishing a direct current of 100 to 400 amperes in the to 2 in.) radius, or it may be conical with a 158" to
primary winding of this transformer. On interruption 166"includedconeangle.Anothertipshapeoften
of the currentby a contactor, a high value of current is used with the energy-storage welding processes con-
established in the secondary circuit and through the sists of a truncatedconewith a 160"to 130" cone
work being welded. This current decays to a low value angle anda flat spot with a diameter equal to twice the
in 0.01 to 0.05 second. thickness of the weld material, plus 3 mm (U8 in.).
Equipmentforthisprocessalsohas an electrode The same shape electrode can be used on the other
pressure system which permits the welding pressure to side of the work, or a flat electrode can be used on one
be varied during the welding operation.The combina- side of the work to obtain a surface with the minimum
tion of a short duration welding current impulse anda of electrodemarking.Theseflatelectrodes maybe
varying pressure results in weldsof very sound struc- from 16 to 30 mm (Y8 in. to 1-1/4 in.) in diameter. A
ture and good appearance. further increase indiameter does not improve the
The maximum power demand for magnetic energy appearance of the weld.
storage equipment is about one-tenth that required for The electrodesmustbe of sufficientdiameterto
alternating-current equipment, but this system can weld carrytherequiredweldingcurrentswithoutundue
the same thickness of material because the energy is heating. A 16 mm (Y8 in.) diameter electrode is suit-
obtained by drawing a lower power fora longer time. able for currents up to 35 O00 amp. anda welding time
Condenser-Energy Storage Welding of 15 cycles, when the rate of welding is not more than
Thecondenser-energystorageequipmentutilizes 40 welds per minute. When higher welding currents or
greater welding speeds are used, electrodes of 22 to
static condensers to storethe energy used for welding.
30 mm (7/8 to 1-1/4 in.) diameter should be used. For
Three-phase primary power is stepped up in voltage
andrectifiedtochargethecondensersto a voltage welding currents less than 20 O00 amps and welding
from 1000 to 3000 volts. When this bank of charged times less than 8 cycles, 12 mm (U2 in.)diameter
condensers is connected to the primary of the welding electrodes are satisfactory.
transformer, an impulse of welding current rises rap- A coating of aluminum alloy gradually forms over
idlyto its maximumvalueanddecaystozeroat a the face of the electrode. This alloy "pickup"is of low
somewhat slower rate. When welding with this equip- electrical conductivity, and eventually causes the elec-
ment, a constant high valueof welding pressureis gen- trodes to stick to the work and to melt the surface of
erally used. In some casesa higher pressure is used at the base material. The pickup can
be removed from the
the end of the weld to provide a forging action on the electrodes with No. 160 or No. 240 abrasive cloth, but
solidified weld metal. in removing pickup from dome-shaped electrodes, it is
Welds produced on this type equipment are excel- important to maintain the original electrode shape.
lentinappearanceandthestructureisverysound. On alternating-current welding machines using
Another advantage is that the maximum demand on domeorconeshapedelectrodes,pickupmustbe
the power system is about one-tenth of that required removed from the tips after 15 to80 welds, depending
for a-c welding equipment to join the same thickness on the material welded. On energy-storage equipment
of material. using thetruncatedconeelectrodes,lesspickupis
Electrodes
formed, and from60 to 300 welds may be made before
the electrodes require cleaning.The tip cleaning oper-
Thecorrectselection of electrodeshapeandthe ation requires from2 to 3 seconds.
maintenance of this shape in productionis essential to
achieving consistent spot welds on aluminum. Weld- Seam Welding
ing electrodes serve three functions:(1) They conduct Equipment for seam welding aluminum is similar to
the welding current into the parts being welded. (2) a-c spot-welding equipment except that the electrodes

STD=AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 051b195 704 W
clopedia Welding Welding Resistance
ALUMINUM, 21
are replaced by roller electrodes from 10 to 16 mm (3/8 length of the dies is usually from 25 to 50 mm (1 to
to 5/8 in.) thick and from15 to 22 cm (6 to 9 in.) diam- 2 in.) and is limited only by the possibilityof crushing
eter. One or both of these wheels are trimmed to an the material if too small a die length is used. In addi-
included "V" angle of 158" to 166", or a 25 to 50 mm tiontoholdingtheparts,thedieblocksserve as a
( 1 to2in.)radiustoconcentratethecurrentinthe meansofconductingelectriccurrentintotheparts
weld. The wheels and the work are cooled by a water being welded and of conducting heat out of the parts
flow of 8 to 12 L/min (2 to 3 gal/min), directed against during the welding process. A secure electrical con-
the periphery of the wheel near the weld. Usually one nectionbetweenoneofthediescontacting at least
of the wheels is driven at an adjustable constant speed 40% of the circumference of the part must be made.
from 30 to 150 cm/min (12 to 60 in./min). It is essen-
Flashing. The duration of the flashing motion must
tial in seam welding that the electronic timing control
initiate and close off the weld current in synchronism be sufficient to permit adequate coverage by the arc of
with the supply voltage. the entire section welded. Considerable variation can
be tolerated in both the amountof material flashed off
Flash Welding and the time of flashing, providing a uniform, steady
Aluminumalloysintheformofsheet,tubing, flash is maintained.Totalmaterialflashedoffboth
extrusions, and rolled bar can be butt- or miter-flash pieces varies from 6 mm (U4 in.) for small diameter
welded to form joints of equalor greater strength than wires to 18 mm(3/4 in.) for large diameter rod. Flash-
those produced by fusion welding. In flash welding, ingtimesfromone-halftoonesecondareused,
the parts to be joined are securely clamped in dies on although the flashing time can be reduced to as low as
the welding machine, andan electric arc is established 1/20 second, if sufficient current is available to main-
between the ends of the parts to be welded. This arc istain flashing.
maintained by placing the parts together as the alumi-
num material is consumed in the arc. When the ends of WeldingCurrent. Weldingcurrent is adjusted by
the parts are sufficiently heated by this arcing process, varying the secondary voltage applied to the dies. It is
the weld is made by rapidly driving the heated ends usually done with taps on the primary of the welding
together with sufficient pressure to hold the material intransformer. An adjustment which provides an upset
intimate contact until the weld metal has cooled. current of about 15 500 amp/cm2 (100 O00 amp. per
in.2) is used. The current obtained during flashing is
Equipment. So that no arcing occurs when welding from 1/5 to 1/3 ofthecurrentwhichflowsafterthe
aluminum,theflash-weldingmachinemusthave parts have come into good contact during the upset.
sufficienttransformercapacity to supplyacurrent
density of 15 500 amp/cm2 (100 O00 amp/in2.) within Welding Time. The transformer is energized before
the section welded, when the parts are in firm contact. the parts to be welded have come into contact and is
The secondaryvoltageoftheflash-weldingtrans- de-energized byopeningacontactor(or by other
former can be from 2 to 20 volts. The machine must means) inthe primary supply tothewelding trans-
be equipped with appropriate dies and die-clamping former. The time relation between the beginning of the
devicestosecurelyholdthepartsbeingweldedto upset motion and the cutoff of power from the welding
preventslippingduringtheupsettingactionwhich transformer is the most critical adjustment in the flash
takesplacewhentheweldisformed.Oneofthe welding of aluminum. The current is removed after 1
clamping dies must be driven toward the other an with to 5 cycles following the initiation of the upset cycle.
acceleratedmotiontoestablishandmaintainthe The time delay of mechanical current interruptions is
flashing, and to obtain a very rapid upset motion at critical. If the current is shut off too early, oxide inclu-
the end of the flashing period. The mechanismfor sions occur in the welds; if itis shut off too late, over-
driving the movable die must be sufficiently rigid and heatingoftheweldandlowweldstrengtharethe
strongtoupsetthelargestareaofsectionto be result.
welded. Costs. The economics of constructing special dies
ClampingDies. Diesaremadefromhard-drawn to hold the parts, and the time and material necessary
copper or copper alloys. Water coolingis not required to adjust the machine for production are such that from
except on very high production machines.The clamp- 500 to 1000 joints are usually required to justify the
ing dies should securely contact at least 80% of the cost of setting up the flash-welding process. F'roduc-
outsidecircumferenceoftheparttobejoined.The tionratesfrom 60 to200weldsperhourcanbe

STD=AWS JWE-ENGL 2777 0784265 0526276 b40 m
RING 22 ALUMINUM Encyclopedia Welding
obtained, dependingon methods used in clamping the and the close-packed strands remove the oxide without
parts.Theactualweldingoperationlastsonlyone damage to the parent metal.
second. Some solder rods, called abrasion solders, have
Finishing the Welds. Chipping or grinding methods melting characteristics which permit them to perform
are used to remove the excess upset material to finish the dual roleof solder source and abrasion tool. How-
the weld. Welds finished and treated by the anodizing ever, onlya precoated or tinned surfaceis produced,
process exhibit only a narrow line of slight discolora- and a second operation is generally required to com-
tion at the weld. plete thejoining.
ALUMINUM SOLDERING Ultrasonic Cleaning and Soldering
Soldering is an economical and practical means of Cleaning. Ultrasonic energy can be used to remove
joining aluminum on a production basis. With careful oxide film on aluminum. An electronic power oscilla-
attention to such details as surface preparation, solder tor is used to generate electrical impulses (currents) at
composition, temperature, and application of heat, a frequenciesfrom 15 to 50 kHz;theseelectrical
variety of joints can be soldered. impulsesareconvertedtomechanicalmotion by a
Although less heatis required to raise the tempera- device known as a magnetostrictive transducer. Com-
ture of a piece of aluminum sheet ofa given thickness mercial transducers usedin soldering tools consistof a
than is required for a sheet of copper or steel of the nickel core and a coil around the core thatis connected
same thickness, aluminum must be heated from55 to to the oscillator. When the nickel core (a laminated
110C (100 to 200F) higher than either of these met- nickel core is generally used to reduce eddy currents)
als when itis to be soldered. The higher temperatureis is subjected to an electromagnetic impulse resulting
specified to produce joints with good resistance to cor- from electric current flowing through the coil, it con-
rosion, and is one of the key factors in producingsuc- stricts a maximum of 30/1 O00 O00 (30 x of its
cessful solderedjoints in aluminum. length. If the end of the vibrating core is brought into
Preparing the Surface contact with molten solder, the vibrating core will pro-
As a first step, it is necessary to remove the oxide ducenumerousholes, or voids,withintheliquid.
film on aluminum so that the filler metal can contact When aluminum is immersed in the liquid solder, the
and bond with the parent metal. This is accomplished collapse of the voids creates an abrasive effect known
by one of the following methods: as cavitation erosion on the surface of the metal. This
(1) Mechanical abrasion erosive action removesthe oxide film.
(2) Application of ultrasonic energy
Soldering. Inultrasonicaluminumsoldering,the
(3) Electroplating
(4) Use of either chemical or reaction-type fluxes area to be precoated, or tinned, is cleaned, heated to
soldering temperature, about 190C (375F), and the
Mechanical Abrasion solder,
usually a 90-10 tin-zinc combination, is
Scraping is the simplest way to remove oxide. Due applied. A quantity of solder is melted on the surface
to the rapid rate at which the film re-forms on alumi- to forma molten puddle, and the end of the transducer
num, scraping is impractical unless it is accomplished is sweptoverthissurface. The ultrasonicenergy
in the presenceof molten solder. The solder then wets removes the oxide from the aluminum, allowing a firm
and bonds with the parent metal and results in a pre- solder bond.
coated or tinned surface.
Although there are many variations of the process, The ultrasonic method can also be applied in dip
one example is as follows: Two sheets of aluminum soldering,or,withmodifications,inbrazingand
are heated to the melting temperature of the solder. A welding.
small amount of solder is then melted on the sheets The primary advantages of the ultrasonic process
and rubbed with an abrasion tool until the solder wets are that no flux is required, and joint quality is equal to
the surface. The two precoated sheets are then placed that of joints soldered by any other process using the
together and held in contact until the solder solidifies. same solder and parent metal. The disadvantages are
A strong joint results. high cost of equipment, small capacity of the units,
A fibrous glass brushis one of the most satisfactory and the limitation that direct soldering of lap or crimp
abrasiontools,sincenocorrosionhazard is created joints is not practical.

Welding SOLDERING ALUMINUM 23
Plated Surfaces for Soldering mediate corrosion resistance. They require soldering
It is possible to prepare the aluminum surface tobe temperatures of 290C (550F) or higher.
soldered by electrolyticallyplating it with a metal, The tin-lead solders containingcadmiumorzinc
such as copper. Before deposition of the copper, the produce joints with shear strength in excess of 34 MPa
aluminum surface is treated by immersing the alumi- (5000 psi), with corrosion resistance adequate for inte-
num in a solution of alkaline sodium zincate.The zin- rior applications only. Thesesolders are applied at sol-
cated surface isthenelectrolyticallyplatedwith dering temperatures of 230C (450F) or higher.
copper to producea surface that canbe easily soldered Solders high in zinc content are applied to alumi-
with the conventional solders and fluxes used to solder num for a soldered systemthat is very resistant to cor-
copper. rosiveattack.Hot dip tinnedsurfacesareused in
Fluxes for Soldering Aluminum special applications to produce readily solderable sur-
faces, since tinquicklywetsanaluminum surface
Chemical and reaction fluxes are the types gener- from which the oxide has been removed. Thus, pre-
ally used for soldering aluminum. Chemical fluxesare tinnedaluminumsolderingmaterialsandtechniques
usually recommended when the joint temperature is cannot be used. However, molten tin penetrates alumi-
less than 275OC (525F). However, in some applica- num-magnesiumalloysalong the grainboundaries,
tions, the maximum temperaturelimit can be success- and alloys containing more than0.5% magnesium can
fullyraisedto
325C
(620F).
At
temperatures be seriously damagedby this penetration. Cadmiumis
exceeding 275C (525"F), the chemical fluxes decom- only slightly soluble in solid aluminum and forms a
pose;attemperaturesabove325C(620"F),this verylimiteddiffusionzoneinaluminumsoldered
decomposition becomes so rapid that it is impractical joints. Cadmium is notusuallyused as a solder by
to use this typeof flux. itself, but is used effectively to improve the properties
In general, chemical fluxes are used with the tin- of zinc- and tin-base solders. Lead is practically insol-
lead-cadmium-zinc solders. For best results, the mag- uble in solid aluminum and is not normally used as a
nesium content of the alurhinum alloy being soldered solder by itself. In combination with tin, zinc and cad-
should not exceed 1%, and the silicon content should mium,leadformsanimportant class of soldersfor
not exceed5%. aluminum.
Allofthecommoncommercialreactionfluxes Joint Design
deposit zinc or tin, or both,on the aluminum surfaces.
The joint designs used for soldering aluminum are
These metals alloy with the aluminum, and a thin alloy
similar to those used with other metals. The most com-
layer is formed in the area near the original surfaceof
mon designs are lap, crimped, and T joints. Capillary
the material.
spacingvarieswithmethod,alloy,solder, joint, and
Solders for Aluminum flux. Generally, joint spacings from 0.25 to 0.60 mm
There are fourgroups of commercialsolders for (0.010 to 0.025 in.) are maintained when a chemical
aluminum:zincbase,zinc-cadmiumbase,tin-zinc flux is used,andfrom 0.05 to 0.25 mm (0.002 to
base,andthetin-leadbase.Allthese may contain 0.010 in.) with reactionfluxes.
appreciablequantities of othermetals.TableA-6 Torch Soldering
shows the
composition of typicalsolders for Air-fuel gas or oxyfuel gas torches are used effec-
aluminum. tively to solder aluminum assemblies.The flame tem-
The zinc-basesoldersproduce joints withshear perature (gas mixtures) and heat output (torch size)
strengths of 103 MPa (15 O00 psi) and higher, with can be independentlyadjusted to provideoptimum
good corrosion resistance. These solders require sol- conditions for specific applications.The flux is usually
dering temperatures ranging from 370 to 435C (700 painted on the joint, and the solderis either pre-placed
to 820F). or manually fed into the joint using solder wire. The
The zinc-cadmium base solders developjoints with besttorchsolderingtechniqueinvolvesheatingthe
shear strengthsin excess of 70 MPa (10 O00 psi), with assembly initially on both sidesof the joint area until
intermediate corrosion resistance. They require solder- solder flow can be initiated inthe joint area. The flame
ing temperaturesof 265 to 400C(5 10 to 750F). can then be moved toa position directly over thejoint
The tin-zinc base solders develop joints with shear and slightly behind the frontof the solder flow. In this
strengths in excess of 48 MPa (7000 psi), with inter- way the flame does not come into direct contact with

STD.AWS
JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 05LhL98 413 m
24 ALUMINUM SOLDERING Encyclopedia Welding
Table A-6
Composition of Typical
Solders for Use
Aluminum
with i
Approximate Melting
Range*
Type Solder Sn Zn Al Cd "C
Pb Cu "F
Zn Base 4 - 94 - 720-740
382-393
- 2
Zn Base - 95 5 - - 710
- 380
Zn Base - 79.6 10 0.4 3 5 420-750216-400
Zn-Cd Base - 90 - 10 - - 265 -404 509-760
Zn-Cd Base - 17.5 - 82.5 - - 265 509
Sn-Zn 20 15 0.8 64.2 - - 230-250110-120
30 Sn-Zn - - - -390-710200-380
60 Sn-Zn 39.4 - - o. 1 0.5390-645200-340
Sn-Zn28 69.3 0.7 - 2.0 - 385-635195-335
80 Sn-Zn - - - - 390-530 200-275
36.9 Sn-Pb - - 3.8 58.3 - 290-450 145-230
Sn-Pb
9 31.6 51- 8 282-485140-250 0.4
40 Sn-Pb 15 0.8 - 44.2 - 335-675170-360
Sn-Pb 20 15
64.2 0.8 - - 230-530110-275
*Solid-Liquid Range
the flux before it has performed its function, and the listed in Table A-6 can be used for dip soldering. Sol-
speed andease of soldering is at a maximum. der selection should be based on service and operating
Furnace Soldering
characteristics required, and cost of the solder.
In dip soldering, the flux tends to insulate thetopart
Furnace soldering is a highly productive, efficient be soldered from the solder, thus a heavy coat of flux
method for fabricating aluminum assemblies. In this will reduce the rateat which the part is broughtto sol-
process, the entire assembly is raised to temperature, dering temperature. Since the rate of heating will be
thus minimizing distortion. The solder is usually pre- greatest if a small amount of fluxis used, and because
placed in the joint, using wires, shims, or washers of solder will prevent the surface from being reoxidized,
filler material. Fluxis applied by spraying, painting,or a dilute liquid flux is recommended for dip soldering.
immersing the part in the flux by flowing a liquid flux Also, the flux should be selected to operate at the opti-
over the assembly. The assembly is then placed in a mum temperature of the solder to minimize drossing,
furnace and brought to temperature.The flux must be dissolution, and liquid metal penetration, and to pro-
carefullyprotectedagainstcharring or volatilization vide the best operating characteristics possible.
before it has performed its function. Joint design and
Soldering Aluminum Alloys
furnace characteristics should be such that all sections
of thejoint are brought to temperature at the same time While aluminum and allthe aluminum alloys canbe
in order to prevent excessive alloying and penetration satisfactorily joined bysoldering,thealloyingele-
by liquid solder. ments influence the
ease with which they are soldered.
Alloys commonly used in commercial applications are
Dip Soldering 1100, 1145,3003,5005, and6061.
Dip soldering is anefficientprocessforjoining Commercially pure aluminum (1 loo), aluminum of
assemblies at a high production rate. It is a versatile higher punty (1 145), and aluminum-manganese
processbecausethesametechniquesusedforother (3003) alloys can be readily joined using all soldering
metals can oftenbe utilized for soldering aluminumby techniques.Aside from ensuringthat the surface is
merely changing solder and flux. Any of the solders reasonably free of extraneous dirt or corrosive prod-

STD-AWS
JWE-ENGL L997 W 07842b5 05LbL99 35T
Welding Encyclopedia Welding
ALLOYS,
WROUGHT
ALUMINUM 25
ucts, no special surface preparation is needed for sol- ALUMINUM, Ultrasonic Welding
deringthesealloys.
They are also
resistant
to Ultrasonicwelding is a metal joining process in
intergranular penetrationby liquid solder. which high-intensity vibratory energy, usually aatfre-
Useofmoltentinsoldersresultsinintergranular quencyaboveaudibility,orinexcess of 15 kHz,is
penetration in alloys containing 0.5% or more magne- introducedintotheareato beweldedasthework-
sium. Zinc solders will also cause intergranular pene- pieces are held together under pressure. This process
tration of aluminum-magnesium alloys, but the extent depends on the conversionof high-frequency alternat-
of penetration is usually not significant until the mag- ing current to mechanical vibration. Ultrasonic weld-
nesium contentof the parent alloy exceeds 0.7%. ing involves complex relationships between the static
Aluminum alloys containing more than 5% silicon clamping force, theoscillatingshearforces,and a
are not usually soldered by procedures requiring the moderate temperature rise in the weld zone, creating
use of a flux. conditions which result in atomic diffusion across the
interface. The metalrecrystallizesto a very fine
The addition of zinc or copper to aluminum does grained structure having the properties of moderately
not materially reduce the solderability. However, these cold-workedmetal. The magnitude of thefactors
metals are used in combination with other elements to required to produce a weld are functions of the thick-
form
high-strength, heat-treatable
alloys.
Films ness, surface condition, and the mechanical properties
formed onthe surface during heat treatment reduce the of the workpieces.See ULTRASONIC WELDING.
solderability, so a chemicalsurfacepre-treatment is Pieces to be joined are clamped at low pressure (4
usually recommended. In some instances, alloys such to 160 kg [lo to 350 lb.]) between two welding mem-
as 2024and7075havebeensatisfactorilysoldered bers or sonotrodes, and the vibratory energy is intro-
usingreactionfluxeswithoutusingchemicalpre- duced for a brief interval. The heart of the equipment
treatment. If chemicalfluxes are used, a chemical is a magnetostrictive transducer, a rectangular stack
pretreatment is usually required. built up of A nickel laminations wrapped with insu-
Additions of small amountsof magnesium and sili- lated wire. Nickel laminations are used for the trans-
con to aluminum produce an alloy system commonly ducer becauseof the transducers substantialchange in
referred
the
as
to aluminum-magnesium-silicate lengthwhenmagnetized. The equipmentdevelops
alloys.Thesealloys,6061and6063,areeasilysol- power at supersonic frequency to drive the transducer
deredandarenotassusceptibletointergranular stackwhich,in turn, convertselectricalcurrentto
penetration by liquid solder as the binary aluminum- mechanicalvibrations,thentransmitsthemtothe
magnesium alloys of a similar magnesium content. upper sonotrode. The high frequency vibratory energy
Excellent Solderability. Binaryaluminum-magne- produced by the transducer passes from the welding
sium alloys, in sheet and other forms, provide excel- head through the two pieces to be welded, where it dis-
lent solderability, and include 1030, 1050, 1060, 1070, rupts the oxide film at the interface and eliminates the
1075,1080,1085,1090,1095,1099,1100,1130, need for any further preparation.
1145,1160,1171,1180,1187,1197,and 3003. Chemi- All combinations of aluminum alloys form a weld-
cal or reaction fluxes may be used. able pair. They may be joined in any available form:
cast, extruded, rolled, forged, or heat-treated. Soft alu-
Good Solderability. Alloysconsideredgoodfor minum cladding on the surface of these alloys facilitates
solderingare3004, 5005, 5357,6053,6061,6062, welding. Aluminum can be welded to most other met-
6063,6151,6253, 6951, 7072,and8112.Withthe als, including germanium and silicon, the primary semi-
exception of the first two, reaction type flux is recom- conductor materials.
mended. Applications include electronic components, elec-
Fair
Solderability. Fairsolderability is accorded trical connections, foil and sheet splicing, encapsula-
alloys2011,2014,2017,2018,2024,2025,2117, tion and packaging, and structural welding.
2214,2218,2225, and 5050.
ALUMINUM WROUGHT ALLOYS, Welding
Poor Solderability. The alloys rated as poor for sol- Wrought aluminum alloys can be joined by most
dering are 5052,5652,7075,7178,7277,4032,4043, fusion and solid state processes,as well as by brazing
4045,4343,5055,5056,5083,5086, 5154,5254, and and soldering (See ALUMINUMBRAZING and ALUMI-
5356. NUM SOLDERING).

WIRE 26 AMERICAN Encyclopedia Welding
The relative weldability of the wrought non-heat- service requirements of the product. Some additional
treatable alloys is shown in Table A-7. Similar infor- considerations are joint design, dilution, cracking ten-
mation for the wrought heat-treatable alloys is shown dencies, strength and ductility requirements, corrosive
in Table A-8. In addition to the processes listed in the environment, and appearance. Table A-9 shows a filler
tables, wrought aluminum alloys are welded by elec- metal selectionchart for welding aluminum alloys.
tron beam and plasma arc welding, and such solid state
processesas
friction
welding,
diffusion
welding, AMERICAN WIRE GAUGE
explosion welding, high frequency welding and cold The gauge used to designatethe sizes of solid cop-
welding. Submerged arc welding one is of the few proper wires used in the United States. Formerly called
cesses not commercially used on wrought aluminum Brown and Sharpe gauge.
alloys.
The selectionof a process for welding wrought alu- AMMETER
minum alloys depends on many factors, such as the An instrumentthatmeasuresandindicates in
applicationandserviceenvironment,thephysical amperesthe rate of flow of electricitythrough a
dimensions of the parts being welded, the number of circuit.
parts involved, thejoint design required for the appli-
cation, and the welding equipment available to do the AMMETER SHUNT
job. A special low resistance conductor connected to the
The selection of filler metals for welding wrought terminals of an ammeter to carry nearly all the
current,
aluminum alloys depends on the particular alloy, but allowing only a very small current to flow through the
also may be influenced bythe process selected and the ammeter.
Table A-7
Weldability1,2of Nonheat-Treatable Wrought Aluminum Alloys
Aluminum
Alloy Gas InertFlux Gas Resistance
with
Brazing
Pressure Flux
1060 A A A B A A A
1100 A A A A A A A
1350 A A A B A A A
3003 A A A A A A A
3004 B A A A B B B
5005 A A A A A B B
5050 A A A A A B B
5052,5652 A A A A B C C
5083 C C A A C X X
5086 C C A A B X X
5154,5254 B B A A B X X
5454 B B A A B X X
5456 C C A A C X X
l. Weldability ratings are based on the most weldable temper:
A. Readily weldable.
B. Weldable in most applications; may require special techniqueor preliminary trials to establish welding procedures, performance, or
both.
C. Limited weldability.
X. Particular joining methodis not recommended.
2. All alloys can be adhesive bonded, ultrasonically welded,or mechanically fastened.

Welding Encyclopedia AMMETER SHUNT 27
Table A-8
Weldability~*of Heat-Treatable Wrought Aluminum Alloys
Aluminum
Alloy Gas Flux Inert Gas FluxResistance
with
Brazing
Pressure
2014 X C C B C X C
2017 X C C B C X C
2024 X C C B C X C
2036 X C B B C X C
2090 X X B B C X C
2218 X C C B C X C
2219 X C A B C X C
2519 X C B B C X C
2618 X C C B C X C
6005 A A A A B A B
6009 C C B B B X C
6010 C C B B B X C
~~
6013 C C B A B X C
606 1 A A A A B A B
6063 A A A A B A B
6070 C C B B B X C
6101 A A A A A A A
6262 C C B A B B B
635 1 A A A A B A B
695 1 A A A A A A A
7004 X X A A B B B
7005 X X A A B B B
7039 X X A A B C B
7075 X X C B C X C
7079 X X C B C X C
7178 X X C B C X C
l . Weldability ratings are based on the most weldable temper:

A. Readily weldable.
B. Weldable in most applications; may require special technique
or preliminary trials to establish welding procedures, performance,
or
both.
C. Limited weldability.
X. Particular joining methodis not recommended.
2. All alloys can be adhesive bonded, ultrasonically welded, or mechanically fastened.

STD=AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 0536202 774 m
28 AMMETER SHUNT Welding Encyclopedia
Table A-9
Guide to the Selection
of Filler Metal for AluminumWeldinga~b~c
356.0,
A356.0,
7004, 511.0, 357.0, 319.0,
6005,6061, 7005, 512.0, A357.0, 333.0,
513.0,413.0,354.0,201.0 . 6009 7039,
6063,6101,
1,6201,
6010 701.0, 514.0, 443.0, 355.0, 206.0
1,6951
6070 Base
712.0 535.0 A444.0C355.0 224.0
Metal
1016, 1070,
1080, 1350 ER4145 ER4145 ER4043d3e
ER5356'3"g
ER5356e1f3g ER4045d.e ER4043e ER53569
ER4043e.g
1100,3003, Alc. 3003 ER4145 ER4145 ER4043d,e ER53!%je."9

ER535fje*'.8 ER4043d.e ER4043e ER5356g ER4043e*9
2014,2036 ER4145h ER4145h ER4145 - - ER4145 ER4145 - -

19 22 ER2319d ER4145h ER4145e.f ER4043e ER4043e ER4043d.e ER4043d3e - ER4043
3004, Alc. 3004 - ER4043e ER4043e ER5356' ER53561 ER4043e ER4043e,i ER53568 ER5356'
5005,5050 - ER4043e ER4043e ER.5356' ER5356' ER4043e ER4043e.' ER53569 ER5356'
5083 - - ER5356e.f38
ER53568 ER51838 - ER5356g ER51838 ER53568
5086 - - ER5356e*f*g ER5356g

ER53569 - ER53569
ER53569
ER5356g
5154,5254' - - ER4043e3' ER5356' ER5356' - ER5356' ER5356' ER5356'

5454 - ER4043' ER4043'3' ER5356' ER5356' ER5356"'
ER4043' ER5356' ER5554h*'
5456 - - ER5356e*f,g ER53568 ER53569 - ER5556g

ER53569 -
6005,6061,6063,6101, ER4145
ER4145e,f ER4043e,',j ER5356' ER5356e.f,' ER4043d,e-J ER4043e*ixJ -
6151,6201,6351,6951
6009,6010,6070 ER4145e1f
ER4145 ER4043d.e,J ER4043e ER4043e ER4043'J-J - - -
7004,7005,7039 - ER4043e ER4043'7' ER5356' ER53569 - - - -
710.0,712.0
511.0,512.0, 513.0, - ER4043er' ER5356' - -
514.0, 535.0
~~ ~~~~
356.0, A356.0, 357.0,

A357.0,413.0 ER4145 ER4145e,f ER4043e.k - - - - - -
443.0, A444.0
206.0, 201.0, 224.0 ER2319d,k - - - - - - - -
a. Service conditions such as immersion in fresh or salt water, exposureto specific chemicals, or a sustained high temperature [over 66C (150"F)I may limit the choice
of filler
metals. Filler metals ER5 183, ER5356, ER5556, and ER5654 are not recommended for sustained elevated-temperature service.
b. Recommendations in this table apply togas shielded arc welding processes. For oxyfuel gas welding, only ER1188, ER1100, ER4043, ER4047, and ER4145 filler metals are
ordinarily used.
c. Where no filler metal is listed, the base metal combinationis not recommended for welding.
d. ER4145 may be used for some applications.
e. ER4047 may be used for some applications.
f. ER4043 may be used for some applications.
g. ER5183, ER5356, or ER5556 may be used.
h.-m. See table footnotes on next page.

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 051b203 h00 m
Welding AMMETER SHUNT 29
Table A-9 (Continued)

of Filler Metal for Aluminum Welding
Guide to the Selection
1100 1060,1070
5154 5052 5005 3004 2014 3003 1080
Base Metal 5254' 5086 5652'
5083 5050 Alc. 3004 2219 2036 Alc. 3003 1350
2014,2036 - - - - ER4145 ER4145 ER4145h ER4145h - -

2219 ER4043e - - ER4043'~g ER4043d.C ER4043d*e ER2319d - - -
3004, Alc.
3004
ER5356' ER53568 ER53568 ER5356e8f31 ER5356"' ER5356"' - - - -
5005,5050 ER5356' ER5356g ER53568 ER5356'JJ ER5356'3' - - - - -
5052,5652' ER5356' ER53568 ER53568 ER5654'*'s1 - - - - - -

5083 ER5356g ER53568 ER51838 - - - - - - -
5086 ER5356g ER53568 - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - -
a-g. See table footnotes on preceding page.

h. ER2319 may be used for some applications.It can supply high strength when the weldment is postweld solution heat-treated and aged.
i. ER5 183, ER5356, ER5554, andER5556, ER5654 may be used. In some cases,they provide: ( I ) improved color match after anodizing treatment, (2) highest weld ductility,
and (3) higher weld strength. ER5554 is suitablefor sustained elevated-temperatureservice.
j. ER4643 will provide high strength in 12.7 mm (IL? in.) and thicker groove welds in 6XXX alloys when postweld solution heat treated and aged.
(ER4009or R4009, ER4010
k. Filler metal with the same analysis as the base metal is sometimes used. Filler alloys or R4010.and R4011 meet the chemical composition limits
of RC355.0, and R-A357.0alloys, respectively.
R-A356.0
1. Base metal alloys 5254 and 5652 are useful for hydrogenperoxide service. ER5654 filler metal is used for welding both alloys for low-temperature service [66"C(15O'F) and
below].
m. ER1 1 0 0 may be used for some applications.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb204 5 4 7 m
RUCTURE30 AMORPHOUS Encyclopedia Welding
AMORPHOUS STRUCTURE ProcessAnnealing. Heatingiron-basealloysto a

A non-crystalline structure. temperature below or close to the lower limit of the
critical
temperature,
followed
with
cooling as
AMPERE specified.
A unit of electrical current used to state the rate of
Spheroidizing. Any process of heating and cooling
flow of electricity through a circuit. One ampere is
steel that induces a rounded or globular form of car-
equivalent to the steady current produced by one volt
bide. The spheroidizing methods generally used are:
applied across a resistance of one ohm. See ELECTRI-
CAL UNITS.
(1) Prolonged heating at a temperature just below
the lower critical temperature, usually followed rel- by
ANGLE atively slow cooling.
The figure formed between two intersecting lines or (2) For small parts made of high carbon steels, the
projecting surfaces. Angles are measured in degrees; spheroidizing result is achieved more rapidly by pro-
one degree (1") is U360 of a complete circle. For spe- longed heating to temperatures alternately within and
cific angles used in beveling workpiecesto be welded slightly below the critical temperature range.
and methodsof forming angles,see BEVELING. (3) Tool steel is generally spheroidized by heating
to a temperature in the range of 750 to 800C (1380 to
ANGLE OF BEVEL 1480F) for carbon steels (higher for many alloy tool
See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See also BEVEL steels), holding at heat from 1 to 4 hours, and cooling
ANGLE. slowly in the furnace.
Malleablizing. An annealing operation performed on
ANNEALING
whitecastironpartiallyorwhollytotransform the
A treatment processin which a material in the solid combined carbon to temper carbon, and in some cases
state is heated, then cooled at a slow rate. See HEAT wholly to remove the carbon from the iron by decar-
TREATMENT. bonization. Temper carbon is free graphite carbon in
The annealing temperature and the rate of cooling the form of rounded nodules composed ofan aggre-
depend on the material and the purpose of the treat- gate of minute crystals.
ment. Annealingis used to effect any of the following
changes in metal: Graphitizing. Graphitizing is a type of annealing for
(a) Relieve stresses gray cast iron in which some or all of the combined
(b) Induce softness carbon is transferredto free graphitic carbon.
(c) Alter ductility, toughness, electrical, magnetic,
ANNEALING, ELECTRIC
or other physical properties
(d) Refine the crystalline structure Annealing of small parts can be accomplished by
placingthembetween the terminals of anelectric
(e) Remove gases
resistance welding machine, and turning on the current
(0Produce a definite microstructure in the usual manner. Sufficient heat will quickly be
Annealing is a comprehensiveterm.Somespecific
generated to soften the metal.
annealing heat treatments are:
Annealing withelectric heating apparatus, correctly
Full Annealing. Heating iron-base alloys above the termed stress relieving, has been applied very success-
critical temperature range, holding above that range fully to welded carbon-molybdenum steel piping sys-
for a specifiedperiod of time,followedwithslow tems. These steels harden during the welding process
cooling to below that range. and residualstresses are likely to be set up in the joint.
The annealing temperature is generally about 55C Stress
relieving
after
welding
will
adjust
these
(100F) above the upper limit of the critical tempera- Stresses. See ANNEALING,FURNACES,HEATTREAT-
ture range, and the holding time is usually not less than MENT, METALLURGY, and INDUCTION HEATING.
one hour for each inch of section of the workpiece
being treated. The workpiece is then allowed to cool ANODE
slowly in the furnace. In some applications,the work- An electrode with a positive charge; the electron-
pieceisremovedfromthefurnaceandplaced in a collecting electrode of an electron tube in an electric
medium which will cool the material at a slower rate circuit. The anode is the terminal on which oxygen gas
than unrestricted cooling at room temperature. collects in an electrolytic oxygen-hydrogen generator.

STDOAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 0784265 0516205 483
Welding CHAMBER ARC 31
It is the terminal of a primary cell, or of a storage bat- times, but usually thearc is deflected either forward or
tery when it is delivering current. backward alongthe joint.
Back blow is encountered when welding toward the
ANODE DROP workpiece connection near the endof the joint or into
See VOLTAGE DROP. a corner. Forward blow is encountered when welding
away from the lead at the start of the joint. In general,
ANODIZING arc blowis the resultof two basic conditions:
Coating a metal with a protective film by electro- (1) The change of direction of the current flowas it
lytic action. enters the workandisconductedtoward the work
Anodizing refers to the surface treatment of alumi- lead.
num to prevent oxidation. It is a deplating process, (2) The asymmetric arrangementof magnetic mate-
since.the work itself becomes the anode in the plating rial around the arc, a condition that normally exists
bathandmetal is thrown off ratherthanputon. when welding is done near the end of ferromagnetic
Nascent oxygen is released at the anode. This immedi- materials.
ately attacks the metal surface and forms an extremely Although arc blow cannot always be eliminated, it
hardoxidefilm. The anodizingtreatment is widely can be controlled or reducedtoanacceptablelevel
usedintheaircraftindustry,andtotreataluminum through a knowledge of the above two conditions.
automobile pistons. Except in cases where arc blowis unusually severe,
certain corrective stepsmay be taken to eliminate itor
APPARENT EFFICIENCY at least to reduce its severity. Some or all of the fol-
In alternating current apparatus, apparent efficiency lowing stepsmay be necessary:
isthe ratio ofnetpoweroutputtothevolt-ampere (1) Place the workpiece lead connections as far as
input. possible from thejoints to be welded.
(2) If back blow is the problem, place the work-
ARC piececonnectionatthestart of welding,andweld
See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See also WELDING toward a heavy tack weld.
ARC. (3) If forward blow causes the trouble, place the
An electric arc is formed when two conductors of workpiececonnectionattheend of the joint to be
an electric circuit are brought together forming electri- welded.
calcontact,thenseparated,withsufficientvoltage (4) Positiontheelectrode so thatthearc force
available to maintainthe current of electricity through counteracts the arc blow.
the intervening gaseous medium. (5) Use the shortestpossiblearcconsistentwith
In a continuouscurrentarc, the conductorfrom goodweldingpractice.Thishelpsthearcforceto
which the current flows is called the positive electrode, counteract the arc blow.
or anode. The conductor to which the current flowsis (6) Reduce the welding current.
called the negative electrode, or cathode. The heated (7) Weld toward a heavy tack or runoff tab.
gases are sometimes called the arc flame, or the arc (8) Use the backstep sequenceof welding.
plasma. (9) Change to ac, which may require a change in
the electrode classification.
ARC BLOW
(10) Wrap the workpiece lead around the workpiece
The deflection of anarc from its normal path in the direction that sets aupmagnetic field which will
because of magnetic forces. See STANDARD WELDING counteract the magnetic field causing the arc blow.
TERMS.
Arc blow, whenit occurs, is encountered principally ARC BRAZING
withdirect-currentwelding of magneticmaterials An electric brazing process inwhichtheheatis
(iron and nickel). It can be encountered with alternat- obtained from an electric arc formed between the base
ing current under some conditions, but these cases are metal and anelectrode, or between two electrodes. See
rare, and the intensity of the arc blow is always much STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
less severe. Direct current flowing through the elec-
trode and base metal sets up magnetic fields around ARC CHAMBER
the electrode which tend to deflect the arcthe toside at A nonstandard termfor PLENUM CHAMBER.
32 ARC Encyclopedia Welding
ARC CONTROL ferrous metals, since it does not depend on the heat
Arccontrolind-cweldingmachines is accom- generated bythe oxidation of the iron to propagate the
plished primarily by a rheostat in the welding circuit. process.
On a-c machines, controlling the output current is of Application technique is a factor to be considered
prime importance and can be accomplished by using when specifying electric arc cutting. Welding person-
one of the following: movable shunt control, movable nel proficientin the use of conventional electrodes are
coil control, tapped reactorcoil control and electronic also able to use the specially designed oxygenless arc
control.Themethod is usuallydictated by process cutting electrodes.
requirements,economics of manufacturing,and the
necessity for remote control capabilities. ARC CUTTING TORCH
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See ah0 AIR CAR-
ARC CUTTER
BONARCCUTTINGTORCH, GAS TUNGSTEN ARC CUT-
See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See also THER-
TING TORCH, and PLASMA ARC CUTTING TORCH.
MAL CUTER.
ARC CUTTING (AC) ARC FORCE

A group of thermal cutting processes that severs The axial force developed by an arc plasma. See
or removes metal by melting with the heat of an arc STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
between the electrode and workpiece. See STANDARD
WELDING TERMS. ARC FURNACE
This definition covers a number of processes that An electric furnace in whichthe heat is produced by
are or have been used for cutting or gouging metals, an arc between two electrodes.See FURNACE.
including the following:
(1) Plasma Arc Cutting (PAC) ARC GAP
(2) Air Carbon Arc Cutting (CAC-A) A nonstandard term when used
for ARC LENGTH.
(3) Shielded Metal Arc Cutting (SMAC)
(4)Gas Metal Arc Cutting (GMAC) ARC GAS
(5) Oxygen Arc Cutting (AOC) A nonstandard term when used
for ORIFICE GAS.
(6) Gas Tungsten Arc Cutting (GTAC)
(7) Carbon Arc Cutting (CAC) ARC GOUGING
Thermal gougingis a thermal cutting process varia- Thermal gouging that uses an arc cutting process
tionthatremovesmetal by melting or burningthe variation to form a bevel or groove. See STANDARD
entire removed portion, to forma bevel or groove. WELDING TERMS. See also ARC CUTTING.
When the compressed-aircarbonarcprocess is
ARC CUTTING GUN
used, the metal to be gouged or cut is melted with an
A device used to transfer current to a continuously
electric arc and blown away witha high-velocity jet of
fed cutting electrode, guide the electrode, and direct
compressed air paralleltotheelectrode. A special
the shielding gas. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
torch directs a stream of air along the electrode and
ARC CUTTING OPERATOR external toit. The torch is connected toan arc welding
See THERMAL CU'ITING OPERATOR. machine and any compressed-air line which delivers
approximately 690 kPa (100 psi) of compressed air.
ARC CUlTlNG ELECTRODE, OXYGENLESS Since this pressure is not critical, a regulator may not
All metals can be cut using the shielded metal arc be necessary.
welding (SMAW) process and oxygenless arc cutting The electrode is a special composition of carbon
electrodes. The electrode coating is formulatedto and graphite and is usually copper clad to increase its
react exothermically,concentrating the heat and force operating life.
of the arc at the point of cut. They are designed to
have a slow bum-off rate, so that maximum length of ARC LENGTH
cutcanbeachievedwith each electrode.They are The distancefrom the tip of the welding electrodeto
capable of withstanding a higherrange of cutting the adjacent sulface of the weld pool. See STANDARD
amperages. Oxygenless arc cutting is not limited to WELDING TERMS.

STD-AWS
JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 053b207 2 5 b W
pedia Welding (ASP) SPRAYING ARC 33
Arc length is the distance through the centerof the

arc from theend of the electrodeto the point where the
arc makes contact with the surface of the work.
Thelength of thearcfor a coatedelectrode
(SMAW) is usually greater than that of the bare elec-
trode (GMAW) because withthe latter, the greater heat
intensity of the arc assurespenetrationandfusion,
while the gas shield protects the molten metal from
atmospheric contamination.
The arc length of the coated electrode is usually
longer than the portion that may be apparent to the
eye, because the end of the electrode core wire burns
awaymorerapidlythanthecoatingandallowsthe
coating to come closer to the molten pool than the
actual endof the coreof the electrode.
ARC OXYGEN CUlTlNG
A nonstandard term forOXYGEN ARC CUTTING.
ARC PLASMA
A gas that has been heated by an arc to at least a
partly ionized condition, enablingittoconductan
electric current. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
ARC SEAM WELD Figure A-5-Arc Seam Welds
A seam weld made by an arc welding process. See
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure A-5. See also
ARC WELDING.
ARC SEAM WELD SIZE

See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See also SEAM
WELD SIZE.
ARC SPOT WELD

A spot weld made by an arc welding process. See
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure A-6. See also
ARC WELDING.
Figure A-&Arc Spot Welds
ARC SPOT WELD SIZE
See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See also SPOT The arc spray process is used to apply coatings of
WELD SIZE. various materials which enhance, protect, or seal the
workpiece. The process usesan arc between two wires
ARC SPRAYER (feedstock), and is sometimes referred to as wire arc
See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See also THER- spraying. The wires are kept insulated from each other
MAL SPRAYER. and automatically advance to meet at a point within an
atomizing gas stream. A potential difference of 18 to
ARC SPRAYING (ASP) 40 volts applied across the wires initiates an arc as
A thermal spraying process using an arc between theyconverge,meltingthetipsofbothwires. An
two consumable electrodes of sugacing materials as a atomizinggas,usuallycompressedair,isdirected
heat source anda compressed gas to atomize and pro- acrossthearczone,shearing offmoltendroplets
pel the sulfacing material to the substrate. See STAN- whichformtheatomizedspray,andejectingthem
DARD WELDING TERMS.See also THERMAL SPRAYING. from the arc at the rate of several thousand particles

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 051b208 192
NG 34 ARC
per second. The velocity of the gas through the atom- A technique called bond coat mode can be used in
izing nozzle can be regulated to control deposit char- thisprocesstoachievehigherstrengthbondswith
acteristics. some materials; whenthe conditions of this mode are
In comparison with wire flame spraying, the quan- carried out, the following are ensured: (1) fine spray
tity of metal oxidesis better controlled and spray rates particle size, (2) minimum loss of alloy constituents,
are higher in wirearc spraying, so this processis often (3) concentrated spray pattern, and (4) high melting
more economical. rate.
Equipment. The wire arc spray system can be oper- Arc Spraying Applications
ated from a control consoleor from the gun. The con- Arc spray deposits can provide protection against
trolconsolewillhavetheswitchesandregulators many typesof corrosive attack on iron and steel. Zinc,
necessary for controlling and monitoring the operating aluminum, and stainless steels can be used as surfac-
circuits that power the gun and control the spray pro- ing materials. A thick layer of zinc or aluminum can
cedure, as follows: protectsteelagainstoxidationandprovideastrong
(1) A solid-state direct current power source, usu- bond for an organic coating.
ally the constant voltage type Safety
(2) A dual wire feeding system
Local, state, and federal safety regulations should
(3) A compressed gas supply with regulators and beinvestigated,andproceduresmustcomplywith
flowmeter built into the control assembly them. The potential hazards involved in arc spraying
(4) Arc spray gun and appropriate console switching operations are electricalshock,fire, gases, dust and
The wire control unit consists of two reel (or coil) fumes, arc radiation and noise. These potentials are
holders,which are insulatedfromeachother,and not unique to thermal spraying; the general require-
connected to thespraygunwithflexibleinsulated ments for the protectionof thermal spray operatorsare
wire guide tubes. Wiresizes range from 1.6 to 3.2mm the same as forwelders,setforth inANSI 249.1,
(U16 to1/8in.). The wirearcsprayprocesscan Safety in Welding, Cutting andAllied Processes; ANSI
deposit as littleas 0.45 kghr (1 lbhr). Factors control- 287.1, Practices for Occupational and Educational
ling the rateof application are the current ratingof the Eye and Face Protection; ANSI 288.2, Practices for
powersourceandthepermissiblewirefeedrateto Respiratory Protection; ANSI 289.1, Safety Require-
carry the available power. ments for Industrial Head Protection. Also, CGAP-1,
Direct current constant potential power sources pro-Safe Handlingof Compressed Gases.
viding a voltageof 18 to40 volts are normally used in
this process. This permits operation over a wide range ARC SPRAYING OPERATOR
of metals and alloys. The arc gap and spray particle See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See also THER-
size increase with a rise in voltage. The voltage should MAL SPRAYING OPERATOR.
be kept at the lowest possible level, consistent with
good arc stability, to provide the smoothest coatings ARC STRIKE
and maximum coating density,
A discontinuity resulting from an arc, consisting of
AdvantagesandLimitations. Comparedtoflame any localized remelted metal, heat-affected metal, or
spraying,energyandlabor costs arelowerfor arc change in the surface profile of any metal object. See
spraying because of its higher deposition rate, lower STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
maintenance, low gas costs,andhigherdeposition
efficiencies. ARC STUD WELDING(SW)
One adverse effect of the high energy state of the An arc welding process that uses an arc between a
atomized particles is their tendency to change compo- metal stud, or similar part, and the other workpiece.
sitionthroughoxidationorvaporization,orboth. The process is used without filler metal, with or with-
Theseeffectscanbeminimized by judicious wire out shielding gas or Jux, with or without partial
selection. shielding from a ceramic or graphiteferrule surround-
The arc spray methodis less versatile than flame or ing the stud, and with the application of pressure after
plasma methods, because powders and nonconductive the faying surfaces are suffciently heated. See STAN-
materials cannotbe used. DARD WELDING TERMS.

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 W 07842b505Lb209 O29 m
cyclopedia Welding (SW) 35
Inarcstudwelding, the baseend of the stud is Capabillties. Because arc stud welding time cycles
joined to the other work part by heating the stud and are veryshort,heatinputtothebasemetal is very
the work with an arc drawn between the two. When small compared to conventional arc welding. Conse-
the surfaces to bejoined are properly heated, they are quently,theweldmetalandheat-affectedzonesare
broughttogetherunderlowpressure.Studwelding very narrow. Distortion ofthe base metal at stud loca-
guns are usedtohold the studsandmovethemin tions is minimal.
proper sequence during welding. There are two basic Studs can be welded atthe appropriate time during
powersuppliesusedto create the arc for welding construction or fabrication without access to the back
studs.Onetypeusesd-cpowersourcessimilarto side of the base member. Drilling, tapping, or riveting
those used for shielded metal arc welding (SMAW). for installation is not required.
The other type uses a capacitor storage bank to supply Small studs can be welded to thin sections by the
the arc power. The stud arc welding processes using capacitor discharge method. Studs have been welded
these two types of power sources are known as arc to sheet as thin as 0.75 mm (0.03 in.) without melt-
stud welding and capacitor discharge stud welding, through. They have been joined to certain materials
respectively. (stainless steel, for example) in thicknesses down to
0.25 mm (0.01 in.). Because the depth of melting is
Arc stud welding, the more widely used of the two very shallow, capacitor discharge welds can be made
majorstudweldingprocesses, is similarinmany without damage to a refinished opposite side.No sub-
respects to manual SMAW. The heatnecessaryfor sequent cleaningor finishing is required.
welding of studs is developed by a d-c arc between the
stud (electrode) and the plate (work) to which the stud Limitations. Only one end of a stud can be welded
is to be welded. Welding time and the plunging ofthe to the workpiece.If a stud is required on both sidesof
stud into the molten weld pool to complete the weld a member, a second stud must be welded to the other
are controlled automatically.The stud, which is held in side.Studshapeandsize are limitedbecausethe
a stud welding gun,is positioned by the operator, who stud design must permit chucking
of the studfor weld-
ing. The stud base size is limited for thin base metal
then actuatesthe unit by pressing a switch. The weld is
thicknesses.
completed quickly, usuallyin less than a second. This
Studs applied by arc stud welding usually require a
process generally uses a ceramic arc shield, called a
disposable ceramic ferrule around the base. It is also
ferrule. Itsurroundsthestud to contain the molten necessary to provide flux in the stud base or a protec-
metal and shield the arc. tive gas shield to obtain a sound weld.
Capacitor discharge stud welding derives its heat The arcstudweldingprocessinvolvesthe same
from an arc produced by the rapid discharge of electri-basic principles as any of the other arc welding pro-
cal energy stored in a bank of capacitors. During or cesses.Application of the processconsists of two
immediately following the electrical discharge, pres- steps:
sure is applied to the stud, plunging its base into the (1) Welding heat is developed with an arc between
molten pool of the workpiece. The arc may be estab- the stud andthe plate (work).
lished either by rapid resistance heating, and vaporiza- (2) The two pieces are brought into intimate con-
tion of a projectionon the stud weld base(arc time: 3- tact whenthe proper temperatureis reached.
6 milliseconds), or by drawing an arc as the stud is Applications
lifted away from the workpiece (arc time: 6-15 milli- Arc stud welding has been widely accepted by all
seconds). The capacitordischargeprocess does not the metalworking industries. Specifically, stud weld-
require a shielding ceramic ferrule because of the short ing is used extensively in the following fields: auto-
arcdurationandsmallamount ofmoltenmetal motive, boiler and building and bridge construction,
expelled from the joint. It is suited for applications farm and industrial equipment manufacture,railroads,
requiring smallto medium studs. and
shipbuilding.Defenseindustry
applications
For either process, a wide range of stud styles is includemissile containers, armoredvehicles,and
available. They include such types as threaded fasten- tanks.
ers, plain or slotted pins, and internally threaded fas- Some typical applicationsare attaching wood floors
teners. Most stud styles can be rapidly applied with to steel decks or framework; fastening linings or insu-
portable equipment. lation in tanks, boxcars, and other containers, securing
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 M 07842b5051b210 840 M
36 ARC STUD WELDING (SW) Encyclopedia Welding
inspectioncovers,mountingmachineaccessories; cycle is much lower for stud welding than for other
securing tubing and wire harnesses; and welding shear types of arc welding.
connectors and concrete anchors to structures. Duty Cycle. The basis for rating special stud welding
Equipment power sources is different from that of conventional
The most basic equipment arrangement consists of arc welding machines. Because stud welding requires
the stud gun, a control unit (timing device), studs and a high current for a relatively short time, the current
ferrules, and an available source of d-c welding cur- output requirements of a stud welding power source
rent. In terms of portability and ease of operation, the are higher, but the duty cycle is much lower than those
equipmentinvolvedinstudweldingcompareswith for other typesof arc welding.
that of manual SMAW. Theduty cycle for stud arc welding machines is
based on the formula:
Guns. There are two types of stud welding guns,
portable hand-held and fixed production types. Auto- Percent duty cycle= 1.7 x number of one-secondloads
matic stud feeding systemsare available for both. perminute,where the one-secondload is therated
output.
PowerSources. A direct-currentpowersource is
used for arc stud welding. Alternating current is not Thus, if a machinecanbeoperatedsixtimesper
suitable. The three basic types of d-c power sources minute at rated load without causing its components to
that can be used are: transformer-rectifier; motor-gen- exceed their maximum allowable temperatures, then
erator, (motor or engine driven), and battery. The fol- the machine would havea 10% duty cycle ratipg.
lowing are generalcharacteristicsdesiredin a stud Power Control Units. The control unit consists fun-
welding power source: damentally of a contactor suitable for conducting and
(1) High open-circuit voltage,in the range of 70 to interruptingtheweldingcurrent,and a weldtiming
100 v. devicewithassociatedelectricalcontrols.Onceset,
(2) A drooping output volt-ampere characteristic the control unit maintains the proper time intervalfor
(3) A rapid output current riseto the set value the size of stud being welded.
(4) High current output for a relatively short time. Procedure. The mechanics of the process are illus-
Thecurrentrequirements are higher,and the duty trated in FigureA-7. The stud is loaded into the chuck,
CHUCK
STUD
FERRULE
BASE
METAL
(A) Gun is Properly Positioned, (B) Trigger is Depressed and Stud is Lifted, Creating an Arc, (C) Arcing Period is Completed and Stud is Plunged
Into Molten Pool of Metal on Base Metal, (D) Gun is Withdrawn From the Welded Stud and Ferrule is Removed.
Figure A-7-Steps in Arc Stud Welding

~~
S T D - A W S JWE-ENGL 1997 M 07811265 051b21L 787 W

ncyclopedia Welding (SW) WELDING STUD ARC 37
the ferrule (arc shield) is placed in position over the the pieces to be joined are being brought together by
end of the stud, and the gun is properly positioned for action of a spring, weight, or an air cylinder. When the
welding. The trigger is thendepressed,startingthe two surfaces come in contact, fusion takes place, and
automatic welding cycle. A solenoid coil within the the weld is completed.
body of the gun is energized.This lifts the stud off the
Initial Gap Method. To begin, the stud is positioned
work, and at the same time,creates an arc. The end of
off the work, leaving a gap between it and the work.
the studandtheworkpiece are melted by thearc.
The stud is released and continuously moves toward
When the preset arc period is completed, the welding
the work under gravity or spring loading. At thesame
current is automatically shutoff and the solenoidis de-
time, open-circuit voltage is applied between the stud
energized by the control unit. The mainspring of the
and the work. When the stud contacts the work, high
gun plunges the stud into the molten pool on the work current flashes off the tip and initiates an arc. The arc
to complete the weld. The gun is then lifted from the melts the surfaces of the stud and work as the stud
stud, and the ferrule is broken off. The time required to continues to move forward. Finally, the stud plunges
complete a weld varies with the cross-sectional areaof
into the work, and the weld is completed.
the stud. An average rate is approximately 6 studs per
minute, although a rate of 15 studs per minute can be Drawn Arc Method.Arc initiation is accomplished in
achieved for some applications. a manner similar to thatof arc stud welding. The stud
Inspection. The latest edition of ANSYAWS Dl .l,
does not require a tip on the weld face. An electronic
Structural Welding Code-Steel,contains provisions for control is used to sequence the operation. Weld time is
the installation and inspectionof steel studs welded to controlled by an electronic circuitintheunit. The
steelcomponents. Qualitycontrol
and
inspection weldinggunissimilartothatused for arcstud
requirementsforstudweldingarealsoincluded. welding.
ANSYAWS C5.4,Recommended Practices for Stud The stud is positioned against the work;the trigger
Welding, latest edition, briefly covers inspection and switch on the stud welding gun is actuated, energizing
testing of both steel and aluminum stud welds. the welding circuit and a solenoid coil inthe gun body.
The coil motion lifts the stud from the work, drawing a
Capacitor Discharge Stud Welding
low amperage pilot arc between them. When the lift-
Capacitor discharge stud welding is a stud arc welding coil is de-energized, the studstarts to return to the
ing process in which d-c arc power is produced by a work.Theweldingcapacitorsarethendischarged
rapid discharge of stored electrical energy with pres- across the arc. The high amperage from the capacitors
sure applied duringor immediately following the elec- melts the end of the stud and the adjacent work sur-
tricaldischarge. The processusesanelectrostatic face. The spring actionof the welding gun plunges the
storage system as a power source in which the weld stud into the molten metal to complete the weld.
energy is stored in capacitors of high capacitance. No
ferrule or fluxing is required. Applications
Therearethreedifferenttypes of capacitor dis- Some industrial applicationsof capacitor discharge
chargestudwelding:initial contact, initialgap,and studweldingareaircraftandaerospace,appliances,
drawn arc. They differ primarily in the manner of arc buildingconstruction,maritime construction, metal
initiation. Initial contact and initial gap capacitor dis- furniture, stainless steel equipment, and transportation.
chargestudweldingstudshave a small,specially It is possible to weld studs to dissimilar metals with
designed projection (tip) on the weld end of the stud. capacitor discharge stud welding becausethe penetra-
Drawn arc stud welding creates a pilot arc as the stud tion into the work from the arcis so shallow that there
is lifted off the workpiece by the stud gun. That ver- is very little mixing of the stud metal and work metal.
sion is similar toarc stud welding. A few of the combinations that may be welded are
Initial Contact Method. In initial contact stud weld- steel to stainless steel, brass to steel, copper to steel,
ing, the stud is placed against the work. The stored brass to copper, and aluminum die to cast zinc.
energy is then discharged through the projection on the The process can be used on parts that have hadthe
base of the stud. The small projection presents a high face surface painted, plated, polished, or coated with
resistance to the stored energy, and it rapidly disinte- ceramic or plastic, because postweld cleaning or fin-
grates from the high current density. This creates an ishing operations on the side of the base metal oppo-
arc that meltsthe surfaces to bejoined. During arcing, site to the stud attachment are eliminated.

Safety Precautions processes are used with or without the application of
Personnel operating stud welding equipment should pressure and with or without filler metal. See STAN-
beprovidedwith face andskinprotection to guard DARD WELDING TERMS. See also Appendix 12.
against burns from spatter produced during welds. Eye Arc welding is a nonpressure (fusion) welding pro-
protection in the formof goggles or a face shield with cess in which the welding heat is obtained from an arc
a No. 3 filter lens shouldbe worn to protect against arc either between the base metal or weld metal and an
radiation. Before repairs to equipment are attempted, electrode, or between two electrodes.
electricalpowershould beturnedoffandelectric Historical Background
switch boxes locked out. Capacitors used in capacitor 1881-1887. Arc welding had its practical beginning
discharge equipment should be completely drainedof shortlyafter the introduction of arclights in 1881.
electrical charge before attempting repairs. Early experiments in arc welding provided the basic
Reference:AmericanWeldingSociety, Welding theories for the development of two systems ofarc
Handbook, 8th Edition,Vol. 2. Miami, Florida: Ameri- welding five or six years later.
can Welding Society, 199l. In some respects, arc welding might be considered
ARC TIME
an outgrowthof the electric furnace. In the electric fur-
naces of Henry Moissan, a Frenchchemist, and others,
The time during which an arcis maintained in mak-
the metal to be melted was placed between two carbon
ing an arc weld. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
electrodes in the path of electric current. While this
ARC VOLTAGE was considered at thattime to be an internal resistance
The voltage across the welding arc. See STANDARD process to melt metal by an electric current, it is now
WELDING TERMS.
realized that thesefurnacesrepresentedtheearliest
examples of metal melting withthe electric arc.
Arc voltage is the total voltage between the elec-
trode holder and the base metal immediately adjacent Arc welding experiments were first undertaken by
to the arc terminals. Itis the summationof the cathode DeMeritensin1881.Inhisexperiments the various
voltagedrop,the anode voltage drop and the arc parts of a battery plate were joined by lead welding
stream voltage drop. using a carbon arcas the heat source. Guided by these
early experiments, N. Von Benardos, a Russian, per-
Arc voltage may vary with a number of conditions,
fected and patented a carbon arc welding process. The
such as length of the arc, temperature, and gaseous
patentswerefiled on thisprocessinPetrograd on
content of the arc. Usually, as long asthe welding cur-
December 3, 1885 and issued May 17, 1887.
rent remains constant, arc voltage increases as the arc
is lengthenedanddecreasesasthe arc is shortened. In the light of presentdayweldingpractice,the
This change in voltage, however, is not in direct pro- Benardos system of arc welding seems difficult and
portion to the length of the arc. The voltage across a hazardous. It wasadirect-currentweldingprocess
given arc length may also vary with current changes, operating on voltages ranging from 100 to 300 volts
because of the peculiar characteristics of the arc in with a welding current of600 to 1000 amp. The equip-
which resistance decreases as current passing through ment was operated on straight polarity, which is still
it is increased. the preferred method in carbon arc welding, using car-
bon electrodes varying in size from 6 to 38 mm (0.25
When the arc torch uses two electrodes, the welding
to 1.5 in.)in diameter. It was common practice to weld
arc voltage is the total voltage between the two elec-
trode holders. with an arc from 50 to 100 mm (2 to 4 in.) long. The
equipment was cumbersome and awkward to handle;
ARC WELDER the electrode holder alone was nearly 50 cm (20 in.)
Arc welder is another term for arc welding machine long and very heavy.
applied to a source of electric energy which produces 1889-1908. A short time later the Slavinoff system
welding currents within reasonable limits for use in of arc welding, in which the carbon electrode of the
arc welding. See ARC WELDING. Benardos system was replaced by a bare metal elec-
trode, came into use. American patents on the metal
ARC WELDING (AW) arcprocesswereissuedtoCoffinin1889.In1908
A group of welding processes that produces coales- Kjellberg applied a coating to the bare electrode and
cence of workpieces by heating them with an arc. The began the development of coated metalarc welding. It

~ ~ ~~~~~~ ~~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 03842h5 05Lh2L3 55T W
Welding Encyclopedia Automatic WELDING, ARC 39
is estimated that more than 90% of present day manual welding. The first of these is the atomic hydrogen pro-
arcwelding is accomplishedusingtheprinciples cess on which basic patents were obtained in 1924 by
developed by Kjellberg. Dr. Irving Langmuir. This process employs a pair of
Ashasbeenthe case withmanyinventions, the tungstenelectrodestomaintainanarcwhichis
industrialworldwasslowtorecognizetheinherent shielded by a stream of hydrogen. It may be used for
possibilities of the process. Many years elapsed before either manual or automatic welding.
electrical equipment, welding wire, and process con- Duringthisperiodvariouscarbonsteelwelding
trol had been sufficiently well developed so that the electrodesweremanufacturedwhichhaveproduced
processescouldbeeconomicallyandsafelyapplied improved welds in terms of reduced slag inclusions
for generalmanufacturingpurposes.Then,too,the and greater resistance to corrosion. Welds were made
engineering community had to be sold on the merits of with ultimate tensile strengths in the range480 of MPa
the welding processes. (70 O00 psi), and ductility such as 28% elongation in
1916-1926. Welding was used in a very limited way 50 mm (2 in.) and 60% reduction of area. Similarly,
for manufacturing purposes prior to the World War I electrodes were developed for welding various alloy
period (1914-1918). The war emergency resulted in steels suchas 12% manganese steel, and stainless steel
the use of welding for many applications previously of the lowcarbon 18% chromium,8%nickelclass.
considered inadvisable. During this period, the need Also, electrodes for welding nonferrous metals,
for betterandlessexpensive ships allowedpersons i.e., copper and aluminum, were developed, making it
familiar with ship design and those familiar with the possible to weld practically all commercial metals and
merits of welding to carry out a great deal of design alloys in all positions.
work involving all-welded steel construction. A few Duringthisperiod,thesubmergedarcwelding
small all-welded vessels were produced. If the war had (SAW)processwasdeveloped for weldingcarbon
not been terminatedby the Armistice (Nov. 11, 1918), steel.
all-welded ships would have been produced in quanti- World War II put additional demands on the metal
ties within the following few years. fabricating industry. The search for a method to weld
During the war the U. S. Government authorized magnesium resulted in the gas tungsten arc welding
formation of the U. S. ShippingBoard-Emergency (GTAW) process.Itwasoriginallycalled HeliarcTM
FleetCorporation,which inturn(March 13, 1918) welding because it used helium to shield thearc.
established a sub-committee on welding. At the close 1951-Present. Thisperiodsawcommercialization
of the war this committee had accomplished so much of a number of welding processes:gas metal arc, elec-
in laying the foundation for welded ship construction tronbeam,laserbeam, friction, inertia, electroslag,
that it was considered an economic necessity to con- electrogas, explosion, plasma arc, and hot wire.
tinue the work, and to extend the applications in all
metal working industries. As a result, the membership ARC WELDING, Automatic
of the subcommittee on welding was reorganized in Automaticwelding
arc equipmentinvolves
the spring of 19 19under the name American Welding mechanical or electronic meansof controlling welding
Society. The reorganizationexpandedthescope of conditions such as welding current, arc length, filler
activitiesandofferedmembershiptoallinterested wire or electrode feed, and travel speeds. Movement
individuals and industries. and guidance of the electrode, torch or welding head
From 1919 to 1925, muchfundamentalresearch along the line of weld can be similarly controlled.
work was canied out by various manufacturers, but The advantages of such equipment are numerous. A
the general application of welding in the construction lessexperiencedoperatorcanhandle the welding
of buildings and bridges did not occur until the latter machineandproducesatisfactoryresults.Asmaller
part of 1925 and early in1926. This was the beginning percentage of welding electrodeis lost in stub ends.A
of the implementationof welding on alarge scale, not much shorter arc is uniformly maintainedby the auto-
only of plain steel butalso alloy steels and nonferrous matic machine than is possible by a manual operator.
alloys. A much higher current can be used with a given size of
1926-1950. A desireto improve the quality of welds welding wire to produce better fusion.A much higher
produced by arc welding led to the development of welding speed can be obtained. Welding is continuous
several welding processes which combine gas and arc from the beginning to the end of the seam, thereby

G, 40 ARC Encyclopedia Welding
eliminating intermediate craters unavoidable in man- ARM, Resistance Welding

ual work. The eliminationof craters makesfor a stron- A projecting beam extending from the frame of a
ger,morehomogenous,betterweldforretaining resistanceweldingmachine that transmits the elec-
liquids under pressure. Welding wire in coils for the trode force and may conduct the welding current. See
automatic machine, though more expensive, provides STANDARD WELDING TERMS.See als0 HORN.
for nearly continuous welding with either a-c or d-c
automatic equipment. ARMATURE
The partof a dynamothatrotates,consisting of
ARC WELDING, Carbon coils woundaroundanironcore.Also,themoving
See CARBON ARC WELDING. part ofan electromagnetic device thatsupplies a motor r
or generator with direct current. Asa part of a genera-

ARC WELDING DEPOSITION EFFICIENCY tor, an armature delivers or receives electrical energy.
Also, a piece of iron or steel that connects the poles
of
The ratio of the weight offiller metal deposited in
the weld metal to the weight of filler metal melted, an electromagnet.
expressed in percent. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
ARMOR WELDING
ARC WELDING ELECTRODE The technique of welding armor varies only slightly
from the techniques usedin welding other alloy steels.
A component of the welding circuit through which Armor plate is essentially a high carbon-chrome-
current is conducted and that terminates at the arc. nickel-molybdenumalloy.Specifications for elec-
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. trodes which produce successful welds on this high-
carbon alloy include ballistic requirements, high weld
ARC WELDING GUN
strength, and good toughness, yet with sufficient duc-
A device used to transfer current to a continuously tility so that there is some flexibility under impact. The
fed consumable electrode, guide the electrode, and weldsmustalsoberelatively free of porosityand
direct the shielding gas. See STANDARDWELDING should have all these physical characteristics without
TERMS. See also Appendix 10, Figure D. preweld or postweld heat treatment.
Historical Background
ARC WELDING TORCH
During World War II, welding armor plate for the
A device used to transfer current to afixed welding
armed services became a critical issue for the United
electrode, position the electrode, and direct theflow of
States, and the welding industry responded with the
shieldinggas.See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See development of electrodes that would perform job. this
also Appendix 10, Figures A and B.
The carboncontent of earlyarmorplateranged
ARGON between 0.45 and 0.50%. Because of this high carbon
content and the combinationof alloys, a very difficult
(Chemical symbol: Ar) A colorless, tasteless, odor- welding problem was presented. The solution seemed
less, nonflammable gaseous element; atomic number: to be to weld witha 25% chrome, 20% nickel stainless
18; atomicweight:39.94;specificgravity(air = 1) steel electrode. This typeof welding material wassat-
1.378; critical temperature: -122.5"C (-188.5"F); crit- isfactory;however,itbecamenecessarytochange
ical pressure: 4865 kPa (705.6 psia). because of a critical shortageof nickel and chrome.
Argonwasdiscoveredin1895byLordRayleigh The nextelectrodedeveloped for weldingarmor
and Sir William Ramsey. About 0.8% of the earth's plate was an 18/8 stainless steel, modified with 1.5%
atmosphere is made up of argon, and itis also found in molybdenum,whichwasuseduntil a shortage of
volcanic gases. Argon is an inert gas; inert gases do molybdenumdeveloped. A thirdelectrodeusedto
not react with other elements. It is used as a shielding weld armor plate was a 3.5% manganese-modified
gas in certain formsof arc welding. 1818 stainless.Somedifficultieswereexperienced
Argon is commercially available in purity exceed- with the manganese-modified electrode, because root
ing 99.996% in the gaseous and liquid form. One gal- cracks would frequently develop when weld metal was
lon of liquid argon will produce 113.2 CU ft at 70F. deposited without preheating. This condition was not
The boiling pointof argon is -185.9"C (-302.6"F). wholly caused by the electrode, since the high carbon

STD.AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 0 ~ ~ 2 b051b215
5 322 m
TOMIC
Encyclopedia
Welding 41
content of the armor plate as wellas poor fit-up in the ATOM

root of the weld were contributing factors. Thesmallestunit of matterthat can exist either
When the supply situation improved, the arsenals alone or in combination. An atom has a dense central
returned to a molybdenum modified 18/8 stainless and nucleus of protons, positively charged, around whicha
used that for most of the armor plate welding. system of electrons revolve, characteristically remain-
A ferritic type of electrode was developed for the ing undivided in chemical reactions exceptfor limited
welding of cast armor. This electrode was essentiallya removal,transfer, or exchange of certain electrons.
manganese-molybdenum-silicon alloy used primarily Knowledge of the atomic structure of metals is useful
for the repair of cast armor while the castings were in the study of welding processes and the fabrication
still hot in the mold.Since welding had to be done on and utilizationof metals.
castings other than in the mold, it was necessary to
preheat them toa temperature of 200 to 315C(400 to ATOMIC HYDROGEN WELDING (AHW)
600F)prior to welding. An arc welding process that uses an arc between
twometal electrodes in a shieldingatmosphere of
ASBESTOS hydrogen and without theapplication of pressure. This
A mineral found in serpentine and occurring in vein-is an obsolete or seldom used process. See STANDARD
lets 12 to 150 mm (1/2 to 6 in.) wide. It readily sepa- WELDING TERMS.
rates into long flexible fibers which were used to make Historical Background
non-combustible, nonconductive, and chemically resis- Atomic hydrogen welding was the forerunner of the
tant materials until it was found toa possible
be carcin- gasshielded arc weldingprocesses.Inthe1930s,it
ogen. was the best process for welding metals other than car-
Asbestos has the property of withstanding high tem- bon and low-alloy steels. With the development and
peratures, hasa low thermal conductivity andis highly ready availability of inert gases, the gas shielded arc
resistant to the action of acids. It was formerly used welding processes have largely replaced atomic hydro-
as a heat insulator, and to some extent, as an electric gen welding.
insulator.
The Atomic Hydrogen Process
AS-BRAZED (adj.) Intheatomichydrogenprocess,anarc is main-
Pertaining to the condition of brazements after tained between two tungsten electrodes in a shielding
brazing, prior to any subsequent thermul, mechanical, atmosphere of hydrogen. Filler metal may or may not
or chemical treatments. See STANDARD WELDING be added. The work is part of the electrical circuity
TERMS. only to the extent that a portion of the arc comes in
contact with the work, at which time a voltage exists
ASSIST GAS between the work and each electrode.
A gas used to blow molten metal away to form the Both manual and automatic atomic hydrogen weld-
kerf in laser beam inert gas cutting, or to blow vapor- ing methods can be used. The simplest equipment is
ized metal away from the beam path in laser beam that used for manual welding. It consists of a power
evaporative cutting. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. controlunit,electrodeholder,start-stop controls, a
source of hydrogen, and the necessary cable and hose
AS-WELDED (adj.) for conducting current and hydrogen.
Pertaining to the condition of weld metal, welded The power control unit is a high reactance, move-
joints, and weldments after welding, but prior to any able-coil transformer with an open-circuit voltage that
subsequent thermal, mechanical, or chemical treat- permitseasystartingandarcmaintenance.Thearc
ments. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. voltageinthisprocessishigherthaninmetalarc
welding, running as high as 90 or 100 volts. Unlike
ASME BOILER CONSTRUCTION CODE other methods of arc welding, in atomic hydrogen arc
See BOILER WELDING. welding the arc does not generate heat in the work.
Heat generated in the arc is transferred tothe work by
ATMOSPHERE thehydrogen. As hydrogenpassesthrough the arc
Unit used in measuring the pressure of gases. One fromthe jets or orifices aroundthetungsten elec-
atmosphere isa pressure of 103 kPa(14.7 psi). trodes, the molecules of hydrogen separate into their
componentparts(atoms). As the gas in the atomic strength,lowelasticstrength,and are veryductile.
state is beingdisplacedwithmolecularhydrogen Theyworkhardenveryrapidlyanddevelopgreat
under a slight pressure, it is urged out of the intense resistance to wear and abrasion. Outstanding examples
heat of the arc and recombines with atomic gases in arethemanganese steels. The stainlessaustenitic
the outer edge of the arc stream, giving up heat pro- steels are very resistant to corrosion.
duced by dissociation. This heat produces the welding
temperature. AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEEL
The Arc Fan Atermappliedtothe 300 series of stainless
The arc stream, or fan as it is commonly known, steels. A stainless steel of this grade may be formed
follows a horseshoe-shaped path from the electrodes, while cold; however, it is susceptible to work harden-
expanding and contracting as thearc is lengthened and ing effects. Most stainless steels in this classification
shortened. Ordinarily, a10 to 20 mm (3/8 in. to3/4 in.) are readily weldable.See STEEL, STAINLESS.
fan or a 50 to 90 volt arc, (which produces a singing
noise), is used. A short arc, ranging from 20 to 40 volts AUTO BODY REPAIR
(often termed a silent arc) is occasionally used to The GMAW and resistance spot welding processes
obtainapointsource ofheat.Along,narrowheat are the most widely used methods of joining automo-
source canbe produced by adjusting the arc length.To bilebodypanelsandstructuresinautobodyrepair
make a very narrow weld, the fan is carried vertically shops.
and approximately parallel to theline of weld; heat is Low-Current Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
applied over an elongated area, with length approxi- Low-current GMAW is alogicalchoice for auto
mately four times the width. body repair work. Using the short-circuiting arc, the
ATOMIC WEIGHT
whole range of metalgauges commonly worked on in
auto body repair can be handled by one small-diameter
The weight of one atom of an
element, as compared
wire size. Low heatinput results in minimal distortion,
to the weightof one atomof hydrogen.
and welding often can be performed in close proximity
AUSTEMPERING to glass, trim and upholstery. The equipment produces
A method of controlled quenching of steel which consistenthigh-qualityresults,andcanbeusedin
eliminates the formation of martensite, with its atten- many waysto reduce time for a job.
dant generation of high internal stresses. Austemper- Forexample,thetimesavingswhichresultfrom
ing also eliminates the necessity for subsequent heat eliminating the need to remove trim, upholstery, floor
treatmenttogivequenchedsteelgoodmechanical coverings and other itemsare enormous. The low heat
properties. The treatmentis based on the rateof trans- inputalsoenableslargeareas of thinmetalstobe
formation between austenite and pearlite at tempera- welded without distortion, thus eliminating the need
tures below 700C (1300F). for costly panel beating, bending and stretching. Parts
which would normally have to be removed for resis-
AUSTENITE tance spot welding can be welded in place because gas
Solid solutions in which gamma iron is the solvent. metal arc welding machinesare capable of welding in
Gamma iron dissolves carbon to a great extent. The any position, and from one side only for either spot or
maximum solubility is at 1130C (2066F), at which seamwelding.Anotheradvantage is thatGMAW
pointitwilldissolve1.7%carbon.Thisdecreases machines can be changed from seam welding to spot
withtemperatureto .80% at720C(1333F). See welding at the flick of a switch.
METALLURGY. Gas metal arc spot welding is particularly suited to
body shop work because access is needed only to one
AUSTENITIC ALLOY STEELS side of the work, and thereis no need to clean the back
Steels thatremainausteniticinstructure(gamma side of the metal. A further advantage over resistance
iron) on slow cooling from the temperature of solidifi- welding is that fit-up is not nearly as critical, because
cation. These steels exhibit no critical temperature on gas metalarcspotandseamweldingcanbeused
cooling. They cannot be hardened by heat treatment, to bridge fairlylarge gaps. These features offer consid-
although
they
maybe
cold
work-hardened and erable savings in many applications. See GAS METAL
annealed.
Austenitic
steels
exhibit
great
shock ARC WELDING und RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING.

~ ~ ~~
STD.AWS JWE-ENGL 3997 9 0784265 0536237 I T 5 m

Welding Encyclopedia AXIS OF WELD 43
AUTOGENOUS WELD AUTOMATIC THERMAL SPRAYING

Afusion weld made without filler metal. See STAN- See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See also THER-
DARD WELDING TERMS. MAL SPRAYING and AUTOMATIC WELDING.
AUTOMATIC, (adj,) AUTOMATIC WELDING

Pertaining to the control of a process with equip- Welding with equipment thatrequires only occa-
ment that requires only occasional or no observation sional or no observation of the welding, and no man-
of the welding, and no manual adjustment of the ual adjustment of the equipment controls. Variations of
equipment controls. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. this t e m are THERMALCUTTING, and AUTOMATIC
THERMAL SPRAYING. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
AUTOMATIC ARC WELDING CURRENT
See also ADAPTIVE CONTROL WELDING, MANUAL
The current in the welding circuit during the mak- WELDING,MECHANIZEDWELDING,ROBOTICWELD-
ing of a weld, but excluding upslope, downslope, and ING, and SEMIAUTOMATIC WELDING.
craterfill current. See STANDARDWELDING TERMS.
AUTO TRANSFORMER
AUTOMATIC ARC WELDING DOWNSLOPE TIME
The time during which the current is changed con- A single winding transformer in which the primary
tinuously from final taper current or welding current voltage is applied to the winding.The secondary volt-
tofinal current. See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. age is taken fromtaps on the winding.
AUTOMATIC ARC WELDING UPSLOPE TIME AUXILIARY CIRCUIT

The time during which the current changes continu- A supplementary circuitin addition to the maincir-
ously from the initial current to the welding current. cuit, often a control circuit.
AUXILIARY ENLARGER
AUTOMATIC ARC WELDING WELD TIME A nonstandard term forAUXILIARY MAGNIFIER.
The time interval from the end of start time or end
of upslope to beginning of craterfill time or beginning AUXILIARY LIFT
of downslope. See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. A device to permit manual or power operation of
the top electrode holder or arm beyond and indepen-
AUTOMATIC BRAZING dent of its normal welding stroke.
See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See also AUTO-
MATIC WELDING. AUXILIARY MAGNIFIER
An additional lens used to magnify the JieZdof
AUTOMATIC GAS CUlTlNG
vision. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
A nonstandard
term for AUTOMATIC
OXYGEN
CU'ITNG. AWS CERTIFICATION PROGRAM
AUTOMATIC SOLDERING A programdevelopedbytheAmericanWelding
See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See also AUTO- Society (AWS) to certify personnel involved in weld-
MATIC WELDING. ing. The AWS currently has programs to certify weld-
ers, welding
inspectors,
and
welding educators.
AUTOMATIC SPOT WELD Contact the AmericanWeldingSociety, 550 N.W.
See RESISTANCE WELDING. LeJeune Road, Miami, Florida 33126.
AUTOMATIC THERMAL CUlTlNG AXIS OF WELD

See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See aZso AUTO- See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also WELD
MATIC WELDING. AXIS.

44 Welding
of this Boeing777 jet aircraft

Several welding processes are used in the manufacture
Robotic cell in operation using the gas metal arc welding process

STDaAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 9 0784265 0516219 T78 m
B.H.N. BACKGOUGING
Abbreviation for Brinell hardness number. The removal of weld metal and basemetal from the
weld root side of a welded joint to facilitutecomplete
B.T.U. fusion and complete joint penetration on subsequent
See BRITISH THERMAL UNIT. welding from that side.See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS.
BABBllT
Babbittis a termapplied to a series of tin-base BACKHAND WELDING
alloysused for bearings.Theserelatively soft, low A welding technique in which the welding torch or
frictionalloysarecomposedessentially of tin,with gun is directedopposite to the progress of welding. See
additions of antimony and copper to increase hardness, STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also TRAVEL ANGLE,
strength and fatigue resistance.The amount of lead in WORK ANGLE, and DRAG ANGLE.
these alloys is usually limited to 0.35% to 0.50% to
prevent formation of a lead-tin eutectic which reduces Backhand welding is sometimes referred to as the
strength. pull gun technique ingasmetalarc(GMAW)and
The basic composition range of these tin-base bab- flux core arc welding (FCAW).
bitts is 75% to 95% tin, 2%to 10% copper, and 2%to
10% antimony.Lead-basebabbittscontainingupto BACKING
10% tinand 12% to 18% antimonyareusedfor A material or device placed against the back sideof
bearings, but do not have the strength of the tin-base the joint, or at both sides of a weld in electroslag and
babbitts. electrogas welding, to support and retain molten weld
Babbitt is frequently melted with an air-fuel gas or metal. The material may be partially fused or remain
oxyfuel gas flame prior to pouring.A similar flame is unfised during welding and may be either metal or
often used to melt babbitt from bearings and bearing nonmetal. See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See also
caps for re-babbitting. Figure B- l.
BACK BEAD
WELD FACE 7
A weld bead resulting from a back weld pass. See
BACK BEND
See GUIDED BEND TEST.
BACK CAP
A device used to exert pressure on the collet to hold
the electrode in a gas tungsten arc welding torch and
create a seal to prevent air from entering the back of
the torch. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. STRIP
BACKFIRE Figure B-1-Single-V-Groove Weld with Backing

The momentary recession of the flame into the
welding tip or cutting tip followed by immediate reap-
pearance or complete extinction of the flame, accom- BACKING BEAD
panied by a loudreport.See STANDARDWELDING A weldbeadresulting from a backing pass. See
TERMS. STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
45
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 05Lb220 79T
LLER 46 BACKING Encyclopedia Welding
BACKING FILLER METAL

A nonstandard termfor CONSUMABLE INSERT. GROOVE WELD MADE
AFTER WELDING OTHER SIDE
BACKING PASS
A weld pass made for a backing weld. See STAN-
DARD WELDING TERMS.
,q" WELD ROOT 7
BACKING RING
Backing in the form of a ring, generally used in the
welding of pipe. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
A backing ring helps maintain correct alignment of
the pipeor tube ends during welding, and assures com-
plete fusion to the rootof the joint without the forma-
tionof slag, icicles, or spatter within the bore. The
backing ring can be made froma strip of metal which WELD
is formed into a ring and fitted to theinside surface of
a pipe or tube prior to welding. The ring should be Figure B-2"Backing Weld
substantiallythesamechemicalcompositionasthe
pipe or tube tobe welded.
BACKING SHOE
6 5 4 3 2 1
A nonconsumable backing device used in electro- L
c
L
c
L
v
L
c
L
v b
slag and electrogas welding that remains unfused dur-
ing welding. See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS.
Appendix 10, Figure 3.
BACKING, Split-Pipe
See DIRECTION OF
WELDING
1
Backingintheform of a pipesegmentusedfor Figure B9"Backstep Sequence
welding round bars.
BACKING STRAP distributing deposited weld metal. This method con-
See BACKING STRIP. sists of dividing the weld into short increments, and
depends on depositing the weld metal in a direction
BACKING STRIP oppositetothedirection of progression.Thewelds
Backing in the form of a strip of metal, carbon, or may be made in the sequence shown in FigureB-3, or
ceramic to retain molten metal at the root of
a weld. this sequence may be changed. For example, the welds
may be made in the order of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc., or
BACKING WELD 1, 3, 5, 2, 4,6, etc. The latter is an illustration of the
Backingin the form of a weld. See STANDARD skip backstep method, whichis a combination of skip
WELDING TERMS. See also Figure B-2. and back-step welding. In skip backstep welding the
weldsmaybemadeinanyconvenientorder. See
BACKING PASS BLOCK SEQUENCE, CASCADE SEQUENCE, CONTINUOUS
A weld pass made for a backing weld. See STAN- SEQUENCE, CROSS SECTIONAL SEQUENCE, and LONGI-
DARD WELDING TERMS. TUDINAL SEQUENCE.
BACKSTEP SEQUENCE
BACKSTEP WELDING
A longitudinal sequence in which weld passes are
made in the direction opposite to the progress of weld- See BACKSTEP SEQUENCE.
ing. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also Figure
B-3. BACKUP, Flash and Upset Welding
The backstep sequenceis a welding technique used A locator used to transmit all or a portion of the
to prevent accumulation of stresses and distortion by upset force to the workpieces or to aid in preventing

Licensed by Information Handling Services ~~~~~~
Welding Encyclopedia REPAIRS BLADE SAW BAND 47
theworkpieces from slipping during upsetting. See

STANDARD WELDING TERMS. GROOVE WELD MADE
BEFORE WELDING OTHERSIDE
BACKUP BARS AND PLATES
Backing material used to retain molten metal or to
assure complete fusion. Successful weldingof various
FACE
r REINFORCEMENT 7
materials often depends on the type of backup bar or
plate that is used.The high heat conductivityof a cop-
per backup bar or plate, for example, will prevent it
from sticking to the weld metal, while its chill-mold
effect will assure a clean, smooth weld metal surface.
Electrolytic copper has proven to be the most satisfac-
tory material for backing up a weld.
Copperbackupbarsareusuallymadebycutting
REINFORCEMENT
pieces from copper plate or sheet. Electrolytic copper
in cold rolled bars and plates is available in a variety
Figure B-%Example of a Back Weld
of sizes for theseapplications.Whilethesecopper
pieces give more satisfactory results than other back-
ing materials, they must be made carefully to provide equal in area, and deliver equal volumes of gases at
accurate dimensions and good surfaces. equal pressures to the mixing chamber.
Figure B-4 illustrates the useof a copper backup bar
to obtain a full penetration weld in heavy plate. BALLING UP
The formation of globules of molten brazing filler
metal or flux due to lack of wetting of the base metal.
k
f PlECES 7, BAND SAW BLADE REPAIRS
Silver solder is used to braze band saw blades. The
ends to be brazed should be scarfed to a good, sharp
edge. The length of the scarf depends on the width of
the saw blade. Ribbon silver solder should be applied
between the surfaces to be brazed or soldered, using a
COPPER J
preparedflux, or damp, powdered borax. Apply the
heat of thetorchcarefully,andasthesoldermelts,
Figure B-4-Positioning of Copper Backup Bar clamp the beveled edges together. Let the joint cool
Used to Obtain Full Penetration Weld gradually and finishby grinding or filing as needed.
Anothermethodistoscarftheedgesofthesaw
BACK WELD blade, coat the edges with a thin paste of brazing flux
A weld made at the back of a single groove weld.
mixed with water, and insert a small piece of thin, rib-
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also Figure B-5. bon silver solder between the edges. The joint is held
securely in a jig. A heavy pair of tongs, with thick
BACKWARD WELDING jaws made for this purpose, is placed in the forge, or
A British term forBACKHAND WELDING. heatedwith a torchuntilredhot. The joint isthen
gripped with the hot tongs and held until the silver sol-
BALANCEDPRESSURETORCH der is melted and cooled. The surfaces and silver sol-
An oxyacetylene torch that operates under equal, or der are not oxidized in this method, and the joint is a
balanced, pressures for oxygen and acetylene, from 7 strong one if carefully made.
to 100 kPa (1 to 15 psig), with the capability of sup- Many band saw machines are fitted with resistance
plying oxygen in pressures up to 170 kPa (25 psig). butt welders for butt welding the saw blades. When
The ports at the entrance to the mixing chamber are used according to instructions, butt welding is simpler
STD*AWS JWE-ENGL L997 0784265 05Lb222 562 W
48 BARE Encyclopedia Weldinn
and faster thanthebrazingmethod,andproduces BASE PLATE

equally strongjoints. A nonstandard term when used
for base metal plate.
BARE ELECTRODE BAlTERY CAPACITY

A filler metal electrode that has been produced as a The maximumamount of energythatcanbe
wire, strip, or bar with no coating or covering other obtained from astoragebattery.Batterycapacity is
than that incidental to its manufacture orpreservation. usually expressed inampere-hours.
BEAD
Used in arc welding, bare electrodes have no coat-
ing of flux, slag or other material except chemically See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See ah0 WELD
formed rustor lime, or lubricant from drawing. BEAD.
BEAD FORMING
BARE METAL ARC WELDING (BMAW)
Depositing metal asthe result of a pass. Bead form-
An arc welding process which produces coales-
ing is basic to the metal arc process, and is usually the
cence of metals by heating them with an electric arc
first exercise for the beginning welder. The object of
between a bare or lightly coated metal electrode and
bead forming is to make all of the electrode material
the weld pool. The process is used without shielding,
flow into the crater or weld pool produced by the arc.
without the application of pressure, and filler metal is
To do this successfully, it is necessary to keep the arc
obtained from the electrode. This is an obsolete or sel-
just ahead of the metal which has been deposited, i.e,
dom used process. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
on the advancingedge of the crater. An examination of
BARIUM the beads will show whether the operator is using the
(Chemical symbol: Ba). A malleable, toxic, metal- correct current and arc length. An excess of heat will
cause the arc to producea larger crater than the deposit
licelement,softandsilvery-white.Barium is used
will fill, leaving a small crevice alongthe edge of the
invariousalloys.Itbelongsto the alkalineearth
group, chemically resembling calcium. It occurs only bead. Holding too long an arc will cause the deposit to
in combination with other elements. Atomic number, overlapexcessivelyontheparentmetalwithout
achieving proper penetration.
56; atomicweight,137.37;meltingpoint, 850C
(1562F); specific gravity, 3.80 at 0C (32F). Salts BEADING WELD
of barium produce a green color when put in a flame. Aweldmade so that the metal is deposited by
BAR MAGNET
advancing in a single direction. See STRINGER BEAD
WELDING.
A straight permanent magnet.
BEAD WELD
BAR STOCK
A nonstandard termfor SURFACING WELD.
Ferrousandnon-ferrousmaterialsinbarorrod
form. BEAM DIVERGENCE
The expansion of a beamscross section as the
BASE MATERIAL beam emanates from its source. See STANDARD WELD-
The material to be welded, brazed, soldered, or cut. ING TERMS.
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also BASE
METAL and SUBSTRATE. BEARING
The support or wear surface for a revolving shaft.
BASE METAL
The metal that is welded, brazed, soldered, or cut. BELLS, Repair Welding
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.See also BASE MATE- Bells are usually cast from bell metal, which ranges
RIAL, SUBSTRATE and PARENT METAL. in composition from three to four parts copper to one
part tin. Copper-tin alloys tend to be hot-short and to
BASE METAL TEST SPECIMEN crack during fusion welding. While being welded, tin
A test specimen composedwholly of base metal. See oxidizes preferentially before copper and can reduce
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. weld strength because of oxide entrapment. For these

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 07842b5 051b223 4 T 9
Welding Encyclopedia BERYLLIUM 49
reasons, it is important that heavy bells be preheated to Benardos' equipment might have been, it paved the
minimize stresses, and that the weld area be shielded way for future developmentsin arc welding.
to prevent oxidationof the tin. Benardosandhisassociate,StanislavOlszewski,
Cracked bells have been successfully repaired by were granted a British patent in 1885 for a welding
welding, without changing the tone of the bell. One process employing carbon electrodes. Benardos pat-
caseinvolvedrepair of afifty-year-old, 750 kg ented the process in Russia in 1887, and is credited
(1650 lb) bronze bell. The bell was 1.5 m (5 ft) from with the first patent on arc welding.
lip to lip, with the sides about four inches thick. It was In the Benardos process, the work was connected to
a copper-tin alloy, which chipped like hard brass and the positive poleof a d-c power source, and the carbon
welded like cast iron. rod was connected to the negative pole. The rod was
Since it was not economically feasible to remove fitted with an insulated handle so it could be manipu-
the bellfrom its mounting,acharcoal-fueledbrick lated by hand.
oven was built in the belfry to preheat the bell. The To start the weld, the carbon electrode was touched
crack was located on the side adjacent to the support- to the work to completethe electrical circuit, then the
ing frame, so it was necessary to loosen the bell, turn tip of the electrode was withdrawn a slight distance to
and tip it until the crack was horizontal. The entire establish the arc. The gap was usually between 3 and
crack was ground out to form a V-groove. A pieceof 12 mm (1/8 and 1/2 in.). Usually there was insufficient
steel plate was clamped inside the bell under crack the material in the workpiece to fill a joint, so a rod of
to prevent the molten metal from dropping through. similar composition was melted by the arc to supply
Charcoalwasplacedinandaroundthebell in the the material necessary to fill the joint.
oven. The charcoal was ignited with an oxyacetylene
torch and blown with a molder's hand bellows. The BEND TEST
bell was heated to the point at which solder would A test inwhich a specimen is bent to a specified
melt when appliedto the surface. bend radius. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
Three hours were required for welding. Two cylin- Various types of bend tests are used to evaluate the
ders of acetylene, three cylindersof oxygen and 17 kg ductility and soundnessof welded joints. Guided bend
(37 lb) of bronze filler rodwereconsumedinthis specimens maybelongitudinal or transverseto the
repair operation. After the weld was complete, it was weld axis, and may be bent in tensile test machines or
polished with a small portable grinder. inwrap-aroundbendtest jigs. Tyqicalguidedbend
Otherweldingrodswhich are used for welding testing fixtures are illustrated in Figure
B-6.
bells include bell metal, containing about80% copper Face bend tests are made with the weldface in ten-
and 20% tin; phosphor-bronze, phos-copper; and other sion; root bend tests are made with the weld root in
phosphor-bronzes whichare high in tin content. tension.Whenbendtestingthickplates,transverse
slices or side bend test specimens are usually cut from
BELT GRINDER the welded joint and bent with the weld cross section
A grinder fitted with a belt coated with abrasive in tension.The relative orientationsof these specimens
particlesusedextensivelyinweldingoperations for are illustrated in Figure B-7. The guided bend test is
grinding and polishing. The belt runs on two rollers, most commonly used in welding procedure and welder
one of which is driven. See also SWING GRINDER. performance qualification. See FACE BEND, FREE
BEND, GUIDED BEND, ROOT BEND und U-BEND.
BENARDOSPROCESS
A carbon-arc welding process namedfor one of its BERYLLIUM
inventors, Nikolasde Benardos, of Russia. (Chemical symbol, Be). Arare, lightweight, strong,
The process was based on the principle that if an brittle, toxic, bivalent metallic element which occurs
electric circuit in which the current is flowing is inter- in beryl and other silicates. Itis alloyed withcopper as
rupted, the current will continue to flow across gap the an age-hardening agent andis used in aerospace struc-
in the circuit until the distance across the gap exceeds turalmaterial.Berylliumresemblesmagnesiumin
the force (voltage) drivingthe current. The gases in the appearanceandchemicalproperties.It is separated
gap offer such great resistance to the flow of current from its chloride by displacement with
sodium.
that they are heated to incandescence. This heat melts Atomic number, 4;atomic weight, 9.02; melting point,
the base metal to make the weld. As cumbersome as 1280C (2336F); specific gravity, 1.85.
~ ~ ~
STDSAWS
JWE-ENGL L997 D 07842b5 051rb224 335
ER 50 BERYLLIUM Encyclopedia Welding
phase, which can exist at room temperature for com-

positions from 5 1% to 55% copper. Quenching from
PLUNGER higher temperatures considerably broadensthis range.
With additions of between 64% and 55% copper, the
copper-zinc alloysare two-phase alpha and beta. With
A
the addition of copper as high as 70%, mixed alpha
SHOULDERS OR and beta phases may occur when rapidly cooled from
temperatures near the melting point.
BEVEL
An angular edge shape. See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS. See also Appendix 6.
BEVEL ANGLE
The angle formed between the prepared edge of a
2A + 2(T+ 1/16 in.)
(1.5 mm) member and a phne perpendicular to the suface of
the membel: SeeSTANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also
T = SPECIMEN THICKNESS Appendix 6.
(A) GUIDED BEND TEST JIG
BEVEL CUlTlNG
See OXYGEN CUTTING and THERMAL CUTTING.
wT BEVEL EDGE SHAPE

A type of edge shape in which theprepared sur$ace
-3/4 in. MIN or surfaces lies at some angle other than perpendicu-
(19 mm) lar to the material s u ~ a c eSee
. STANDARD WELDING
T + 1/16 in.// \\f
(1.5 mm) TERMS. See Appendix 6.
BEVEL-GROOVE WELD
A type of groove weld. See STANDARD WELDING
ROLLER TERMS. See also Appendix 6.
BEVELING
The process of preparing an angular edge on mate-
of a single bevel or
rial prior to welding. It may consist
double bevel, generally with bevel angles up to 45".
T = SPECIMEN THICKNESS Two plates butted together,each with 45"bevels, form
a 90" groove. See JOINTGEOMETRY,JOINT DESIGN,
(B) WRAP-AROUND BEND TEST JIG and EDGE PREPARATION.
Figure B-&Guided Bend Test Jigs BEVEL RADIUS
The radius used to form a J-edge shape. See STAN-
BERYLLIUM COPPER DARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 6.
An age-hardenable copper-beryllium alloy contain-
ing 1.5%to 2.75%beryllium. Itis used for springs and BEVEL WELD
non-sparking tools. Inthe annealed condition, it has a See GROOVE WELD.
tensile strengthof 483 MPa (70 O00 psi).
BILLET NICKING
BETA BRASS Billet nicking is used to make a controlled breakof
A copper-zinc alloy with approximately 54% cop- abilletupto 14 cm (5-1/2 in.) thick. The billet is
per and about 40% zinc. Its microstructure is all beta nicked to a depth of 12 to 18 mm (U2 to 3/4 in.) by

pedia Welding (BB) BRAZING BLOCK 51
WELD JOINT m
Figure B-7"Orientation of Bend Test Specimens
means of flamecutting or carbonarccutting.Cold A cleaning or surface-roughening technique using a

water is then poured into the nick in the hot metal, forciblyprojectedstream of sharpangularabrasive
causing a crack, and the break is completed with forceparticles.
from adrop hammer, hydraulic press,or bulldozer.
BLIND JOINT
BIRMINGHAM WIRE GAUGE (B.W.G.) A joint, no portion of which is visible. See STAN-
DARD WELDING TERMS.
A standard system and gauge for measuring iron
and steel telephone and telegraph wires. Also known BLAU-GAS
as the Stubbs Gauge. Blau-Gas was the trade name for a combustible gas
producedbythedestructivedistillationofaliquid
BIT, Soldering hydrocarbon,suchasmineraloil.Blau-Gas is no
The point of the soldering iron, usually made of longerused,howeveritwasusedforbrazingand
copper, which actually transfers heat (and sometimes welding aluminum, and was also used with oxygen as
solder) to the joint. afuelgasforcuttingironandsteelwithacutting
torch.Blau-gasderiveditsnamefromtheGerman
BLACKSMITH WELDING chemist, Herman Blau, who invented this gas.
A nonstandard term forFORGE WELDING. BLOCK BRAZING (BB)
A brazing process that uses heat from heated blocks
BLASTING applied to the joint. This isan obsolete or seldom-used
See ABRASIVE BLASTING. process. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.

52 BLOCKSEQUENCE Welding Encyclopedia
In block brazing, coalescence is produced by the BLOCK SEQUENCE WELDING

heat obtained from heated blocks applied to the part to A welding sequence developed inthe shipyards for
be joined, and by using non-ferrousfiller metal with a welding ship hull plates which is adaptable to many
melting point above 425C (SOOOF) but below that of welding situations which involve the closing of butt
the base metal. The filler metal is distributed in the joints. This sequence was developed to establish the
joint by capillary attraction. order of deposition of weld metalin butt joints to min-
imizecrackingintherootpasscaused by thermal
BLOCK SEQUENCE stresses, slag inclusions and oxidized craters at points
A combined longitudinal and cross-sectional of withdrawal of the electrode fromthe molten puddle.
sequencefor a continuous multiple pass weld in which In theapplicationillustrated, a variation of the
separated increments are completely or partially blocksequencewasdeveloped for weldingvertical
welded before intervening increments are welded. See butt joints for whichE-6010 electrodes were specified.
STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See also PROGRESSIVE As shown in Figure B-8, the first increment of the
BLOCK SEQUENCE and SELECTIVE BLOCK SEQUENCE. root pass was started about25 cm (10 in.) from the top
Figure B-+Block Sequence Welding

~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 W 078112b5 0 5 l b 2 2 7 044 W

clopedia Welding
and welded up to the top. The second root increment sure Vessel Code and a Code for Pressure Piping.The
was started 50 cm (20 in.) from the top, weldedup to first ASME Boiler Code Committee was appointed on
the first increment, and up over it to the top without September 15, 1911.
breakingthe arc. The thirdincrementwasstarted
75 cm (30 in.) from the top, welded up to and over the BOILER CONSTRUCTION CODE
second increment, and up over the first increment. Construction and repairof boilers and pressure pip-
This technique of lappingpassesavoids defects ing systems is done under strict regulations set forth in
caused by stopping a weld pass and leavinga crater at the
American
Societyfor
Mechanical
Engineers
the point of poor fusion where another pass is started. (ASME) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code and ASME
Residual stresses in vertical butt welds were mini- B3 1 Code for Pressure Piping.
mized by block welding with skips between, by pre- ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
heating in coldweatherandbychippingouttack The ASME maintains a Boiler and Pressure Vessel
increments as the welding progressed. Peening each Code (B&PV Code) and a Code for Pressure Piping,
pass immediately after deposition was foundbetosuf- both of which are recognized by theAmerican
ficient to minimize residual stresses. National Standards Institute(ANSI). The ASME
BLOWHOLE codesgovern
design,construction,
maintenance,
A nonstandard term when used for POROSITY. inspection and care of power boilers, heating boilers,
A blowhole is a cavity formed ina weld deposit by nuclear power plant components, pressure piping sys-
trapped gas, dirt, grease or other foreign substances. tems, and pressure vessels operating at 103 kPa (15 lb/
See POROSITY. in.2) and higher. Specifications for these codes are pre-
pared and updated by volunteer committees rendering
BLOWOFF VALVE consensus of technical expertise. These codesare rec-
A safety valveon a boiler, pressure vessel, or acety- ognized and highly respected for the solid technical
lene generator, designed to prevent pressure build-up base they present.
or explosion by releasing the pressure when it exceeds The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code is ref-
a specific amount. Sometimes called a pop valve. erenced in the safety regulations of most states and
BLOWPIPE major cities.It is alsoincluded by variousfederal
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also BRAZING agencies as part of their regulations, and is often used
BLOWPIPE and SOLDERING BLOWPIPE. by authorities of other countries. An important aspect
of the ASMEcode is that it requires third party inspec-
BLUE ANNEALING tion independent of the fabricator and user; inspection
The formation of a bluish-black oxide on the sur- is commissioned by the National Board of Boiler and
face of a sheet of steel resulting from being annealed Pressure Vessel Inspectors (NBBPVI).
in an open furnace at a temperature within the trans-
The ASME code is published in 11 sections, as out-
formation range. lined in TableB-l. A new edition of the code is issued
BLUE BRITTLENESS by theASMEeverythreeyears.Usersmaysubmit
An embrittlement which occurs during tempering in inquiries to the ASME at any time for clarificationof
which a blue color appears on the surface of clean steel. requirements,ortoposeotherquestions.Inquiries
Blue brittleness is caused by precipitation hardening dealing with significant topics are given a case num-
that developsin iron and some steels over the tempera- ber, and both the question and ASMEs response are
ture range of about 200 to 450C (400 to 800OF). The regularly published in ASMEMechanicalEngineer-
severity of theembrittlementdepends on thestrain ing, and in separate booklet form as a supplement to
present in the metal prior to heating, and on the time the code. Subsequently, these case interpretations are
spent in the blue brittleness temperature range. carefully reviewed to determine revisions to the next
editions of the code. As a result, it is important to work
BOILER CODE COMMITTEE
with the current issue of the code and to review any
A committee of the American Society of Mechani- case interpretations thatmay have been published.
calEngineers(ASME)organizedtoformulaterules
for the construction of steam boilers and other pres- ASME 8-31 Code for Pressure Piping
sure vessels. This committeehasonesubcommittee The ASME Code for Pressure Piping, B 3 1, is pub-
for welding. The ASME maintains a Boiler and Pres- lished in six sections, as outlined in Table B-2. Each

STD=AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb228 TB0 m
54 BOILER CONSTRUCTION CODE Encyclopedia Welding
Table B-1
ASME Boiler and PressureVessel Code
Organization of Sections andTheir Contents
Section
No. Title Coverage
I Power
Boilers
Construction of power, electric and miniature
boilers, and high-temperature
boilers used in stationary service. Also, power boilers used in locomotive,
portable, and traction service.
Material
II Specifications
Code-adopted
standards
and
specifications
for
ferrous and non-materials,
welding rods, electrodes, and filler metals.
III Nuclear
Power
Plant
Seven
subsections
covering
(1)
general
requirements, (2) Class 1 com-
Components
ponents, (3) Class 2 components, (4) Class 3 components, ( 5 ) Class
MC
components, (6) component supports, and(7) core support structures.
IV Heating
Boilers A constructioncode
covering
design,
fabrication,
installation and inspec-
tion of steam heatingand hot water supply boilers directly fired
by oil, gas,
electricity, or coal.
Nondestructive
V NDT methods accepted for use under the Code.
Examination
VI Recommended
Rules
for Guide to owners of steel and cast iron heating boilers regarding mainte-
Care and Operation of nance and repair.
Heating Boilers
VI1 RecommendedRulesfor A guidesimilartothat in SectionVIcoveringstationary,portable, and

Care of Power
Boilers
traction-type
power
boilers.
VI11 Pressure Vessels, Division 1 Basicrulesforconstruction,design,fabrication,inspection, and certifica-

tion of pressure vessels. Rules formulated on basis of design principles and
construction practices applicable to vessels for pressures up to 20.7 MPa
(3000 psi).
VI11 Pressure Vessels, Division 2 Division 2 providesanalternativetotheminimumconstructionrequire-
ments of Division 1. Division 2 rules are more restrictive in the choiceof
materials, but they permit higher design stress intensity values in the range
of temperatures over which the design stress intensity value is controlled
by the ultimate or yield strength. Division2 rules cover vessels installed at
stationary locations.
IX Welding and Brazing
Relates
the
to
qualification of welders and welding
operators and the
Qualifications
procedures
followed
be
to comply
to with the
Code.
X Fiberglass-ReinforcedPlas- A recentconstructionCodeestablishedgeneralspecificationsfortheglass
tic
Pressure Vessels and
resin used in
fabrication,
andqualification
procedures.
Limits
are
given for permissible service conditions.
XI
Rules
for
Inservice
Inspec-
Requirements for maintaining a nuclear power plant in a safe and expedi-
tion of Nuclear Power Plant
to service followingan outage.
tious manner, and for returning a plant
Components

STD*AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb229 917 m
ncyclopedia
Welding 55
Table B-2
ASME B31 Code for Pressure Piping
Organization of Sections and Their Contents
Section Title Coverage
B3
l. 1 Power
Piping
Power and auxiliary
service
systems
for
electric
generation
stations;
indus-
trial and institutional plants: central and district heating plants;
and district
heating systems.
B3 1.2 Fuel Gas

Piping
Systems
for
fuel
gases
such as natural
gas,
manufactured
gas,
liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG)-air mixtures above the upper combustible limits.
B31.3
Chemical
Plant
and All pipingwithin
the
propertylimits of facilitiesengaged in processingor
Petroleum Refinery Piping handling of chemical, petroleum, or related products. Also applies to pip-
ing systems that handle all fluids, including fluidized solids,and all types
of serviceincluding raw, intermediate, and finishedchemicals:oil and
other petroleum products:gas: steam: air: water: and refrigerants, exceptas
specifically excluded.
~~
B3
1.4 Liquid
Petroleum Piping for transporting liquid petroleum between producers lease facili-
Transportation Piping ties, tank farms, natural gas processing plants, refineries, stations, terminals
Systems and other delivery and receiving points.
B3 1.5 RefrigerationPipingPipingsystemsforrefrigerantandbrineattemperaturesas low as -196C

(-320F), whether erected on the premises or factory assembled. Doesnot
include (1) self-contained or unit refrigeration systems subject to require-
ments of Underwriters Laboratories or any other nationally recognized
testing laboratory, (2) water piping, or (3) piping designed for external or
internal pressure not exceeding 103 kPa (15 psig) regardless of size.
B3 1.8GasTransmission and Gascompressorstations,gasmetering and regulationstations,gasmains,
Distribution Piping Systems and service lines upto the outlet of the customers meter set assembly. Gas
storage linesand gas storage equipmentof the close-pipe type that is either
fabricated or forged from pipe, or fabricated from pipe and fittings.
section prescribes requirements for design, materials, BOILER WELDING

of a desig-
fabrication, erection, testing, and inspection See BOILER CONSTRUCTION CODE.
natedpipingsystem.Third-partyinspection is not
required underthe Code for Pressure Piping. However, BOND
pressure piping external to a boiler is covered by the See COVALENTBOND,IONICBOND,MECHANICAL
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, and there- BOND, and METALLIC BOND.
fore, third-party inspection is required. Some sections BOND BAR
of the Code for Pressure Piping require qualifications A nonstandard termfor BOND SPECIMEN.
to be performed in accordance with other documents.
Examples of documents that add to the total require- BOND CAP
ment are SectionIX of the ASME Boiler and Pressure A nonstandard term for
BOND SPECIMEN.
Vessel Code, and American Petroleum Institute (API)
Standard 1104. BOND COAT, Thermal Spraying
Reference: Linnert, George E; Welding Metallurgy: A preliminary (or prime) coat of material which
Fundamentals Vol. 1, 4thEdition,Miami,Florida: improves adherence of the subsequent t h e m l spray
American Welding Society, 1995. deposit. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 07842b5 05Lb230 b39 W
Arc
Submerged
FLUX,
56 BONDED Encyclopedia
Welding
BONDED FLUX, Submerged Arc Welding BOOM

A type of granular flux produced by powdering and Amovable arm onwhichwirefeeders,welding
dry mixing the ingredients with bonding agents. This cable and other welding components are mounted to
wet mixture is then pelletized and baked at a tempera- provide flexibility of movement and increased operat-
ture below its melting point, followed by processing to ing range in gas metal arc welding operations. Since
produce the desired particle size.See STANDARD the wire feeder is mounted at the tip of the boom, the
WELDING TERMS. usual 3 to 5 m (10 to 15 ft) service range is consider-
ably extended.
BONDING
A nonstandard term when used for welding, braz- BOOTH, Protective
ing, or soldering.
See EYE
PROTECTION and PROTECTION
FOR
BONDING FORCE WELDERS.
The force that holds two atoms together; it results
from a decrease in energy as two atoms are brought BORAX
doser to one another. See STANDARD WELDING (Na2B4Ol0H2O) A hydrated sodium borate, crystal-
TERMS. line and slightly alkaline, used as a flux for brazing
and welding. Borax, or mixtures of borax and boric
BOND LINE, Thermal Spraying acid,aswellascalcineboraxandboraxglassare
The crosssection of the interface between a thermal among the most successful fluxes. They are used to
spray deposit and the substrate. See STANDARD WELD- restrict the formation of metallic oxides and exert a
ING TERMS. See also Figure B-9. solvent action on these oxides as they are formed.
Borax is fluidat760C(1400"F),butbeginsto
thicken below this point. The addition of boric acid
r SUBSTRATE
DEPOSIT- tends to produce a more viscous flux, but it is not as
active as borax in dissolving oxides of metal. When
heated, boric acid does not bubble like common borax,
1 but spreads over the surface of the joint, thus protect-

ing it from oxidation. The bubbling of heated borax
results from driving off the water of crystallization,
but this can be avoided by using fused borax. Alcohol
is added to fused borax; water must not be added, itas
Figure B-+-Thermal Spray Deposit will rapidly cake.
Dry borax flux can be sprinkled along thejoint, but
if a torch is used for heating, it is better to warm the
In a weldment, the junction between weld metal andjoint so that the flux will adhere and not blow away. A
basematerial,betweenthermalspraydepositsand thin paste is a satisfactory form of borax, because an
substrate, or between base metal (material) parts when even coating of the paste can be brushed over the sur-
filler metal is not used. face. Bare spots must be carefully avoided. See FLUX.
In an adhesive bondedjoint, the cross section of the
interface between adhesive and adherent. BORING, Oxyacetylene
BOND SPECIMEN, Thermal Spraying See OXYGEN LANCE,
The test specimen on which a thermal spray deposit
has been applied to determine bond strength and ther- BORON
mal spray deposit strength. See STANDARDWELDING (Chemicalsymbol:B).Asoftbrown,crystalline,
TERMS. trivalent non-metallic element used in hard alloys and
abrasives. It is found in nature only in combination
BOND STRENGTH, Thermal Spraying with other elements and is obtained by heating boron
The unit of force required to separate a thermal trioxidewithmagnesiumpowder.Atomicnumber,
spray deposit from the substrate. See STANDARD 5; atomic
weight:
10.82;
meltingpoint:
2300C
WELDING TERMS. (4172F); specific gravity of crystals, 2.45.

Welding METAL BRAZE 57
The addition of boron to

steel in the range portional to the increase of pressure on it; or plVl =
of.0025%to.0030%givessteelagreaterdepthof p2V2, where
hardenability. The addition of more than .003% adds
very little additional hardenability, and if over .006% pl = initial absolute pressure, Pa (lb/in.2)
boron is added,thesteelrapidlylosesductilityand V, = initial volume, m3 (ft3)
breaks up much like steel with high sulphur content. p2 = final absolute pressure, Pa (lb/in.2)
If .01% boron is added, the steel will break up during V2 = final volume, m3 (ft3).
rolling. For example, this law expresses the fact that if the
pressure of a certain volumeof gas is doubled, the vol-
BORON CARBIDE
ume will be reduced to one-half the original volume,
(Chemicalsymbol:B&). A veryhardcompound provided the temperature remains constant.
produced by heatingboricacid (B2O3) andcoke
together at about 2500C (5430"F), used on an abra- BRAKE HORSEPOWER
sive cutting tool when extreme hardness is required. The actual power of a machine or engine as mea-
At ordinarytemperatures,boroncarbide is highly sured by a dynamometer or brake.
resistant to chemical reagents
BRASS
BOTTLE
The generic name for alloys consisting essentially
A nonstandard term when used for
GAS CYLINDER. of copper and zinc.
BOURDON TUBE PRESSUREGauge
The solid solubilityof zinc in copperis over 38% at
450C (850F) anddropstoabout 30% atroom
See PRESSURE GAUGE. temperature; therefore most brasses are single-phase
BOXING
solid
solution
at
normal
processingandservice
temperatures.
The continuation of afillet weld around a corner of
a member as an extension of the principal weld. See BRAZE
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also Figure B-10.
A weldproduced by heatingan assembly to the
brazing temperature using a filler metal having a liq-
uidus above 450C (840F)and below the solidus of
the base metal. The filler metal is distributed between
the closely fitted faying surfaces of the joint by capil-
lary action. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
BRAZEABILITY
The capacity of a metal to bebrazed under the
imposed fabricating conditions into a specific, suitably
designed structure, and to pelformsatisfactorily in the
intended service. SeeSTANDARD WELDING TERMS.
BRAZE INTERFACE
The interface betweenfiller metal andbase metal in
BOXING WELD
a brazed joint. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
BRAZEMENT
An assembly whose component parts are joined by
Figure B-1 +An Example of Boxing
brazing. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
BOYLE'S LAW BRAZE METAL

The principle of Boyle's law is that the volume of That portion of a braze that has been melted during
gas confined at constant temperatureis inversely pro- brazing. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1777 078q265 053b232 401 m
58 BRAZER Welding Encyclopedia
BRAZER Applications
Onewho performs manual (or semi-automatic) The brazing processis used tojoin together various
brazing. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. materials for numerous reasons. By using the proper
joint design,theresultingbrazecanfunctionbetter
BRAZE WELDING (BW) than the base metals being joined. In many instancesit
A welding process that uses a fillermetal with a liq- is desirable to join different materials to obtain the
uidus above 450C (84OOF) and below the solidus of maximum benefit of both materials and have the most
the base metal. The base metal is not melted. Unlike cost- or weight-effectivejoint. Applications of brazing
brazing, in braze welding thefiller metal is not distrib- cover theentire manufacturing arena from inexpensive
uted in the joint by capillary action. See STANDARD toys to highest quality aircraft engines and aerospace
WELDING TERMS. See ah0 FLOW WELDING. vehicles.Brazing is usedbecause it canproduce
The term braze welding is sometimesusedto resultswhich are notalwaysavailablewith other
describe the joining ofbronzeswith a filler rod of joining processes.Brazingprovidesthefollowing
bronze. In this instance, there is complete fusion of advantages:
base metal with filler metal since both have approxi- (1) It is economical for complex assemblies.
mately the same melting point. This provides complete (2) It is a simple way to join large joint areas.
metallurgical bonding, as in fusion welding of steel. (3) It provides excellent stress and heat distribution.
(4) Coatings and claddings can be maintained dur-
BRAZING (B)
ing brazing.
A group of welding processes that produce coales-
( 5 ) Dissimilar materials can bejoined.
cence of materials by heating them to the brazing tem-
(6) Nonmetals can bejoined to metals.
perature in the presence of a filler metal having a
liquidus above 450C (840F) and below the solidus (7) Widely different thicknesses can be joined.
of the base metal. The filler metal is distributed (8) Complex arrangements of precision partscan
between the closely fitted faying su$aces of the joint be joined.
by capillary action. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. (9) Joints require little or no finishing.
Brazing must meet each of three criteria: (10) Many parts can be joined at one time (batch
(1) The parts must be joined without melting the processing).
base metals. Process Advantages and Disadvantages
(2) The filler metal must have a liquidus tempera- Among the advantages of brazing is that it is gen-
ture above450C (840F). erally very economical when done in large batches,
(3) The filler metal must wet the base metal sur- with costs varying with the heating method
faces and be drawn into or held in the joint by capil- employed. A major benefit of brazing is that brazed
lary action. joints can be taken apart at a later time. Dissimilar
To achieve a good joint using any of the various metals can be joined by brazing without melting the
brazing processes described in this chapter, the parts base metals as required by other joining methods. In
must be properly cleaned and must be protected by many instances, several hundred parts with multiple
either fluxor atmosphere during the heating process tojoints can bebrazedat one time.When protective
preventexcessiveoxidation. The parts mustbe atmosphere brazing is used, parts are kept clean and a
designed to afforda capillary for thefiller metal when heat treatment cycle may be employed as part of the
properlyaligned,and a heatingprocessmustbe brazing cycle.
selected that will providethe proper brazing tempera- There are some disadvantageous factors of brazing
ture and heat distribution. that should be considered. In the brazing process, a
Brazingdiffersfromsoldering,inthatsoldering molten metal flows between the materials tojoined; be
filler metalshave a liquidusbelow450C(840F). consequently there is the possibility of liquid metal
Braze welding is also different from brazing, since the interactions which are unfavorable. Depending on the
filler metalis not distributed by capillary action. material combinations involved and the thickness of
Brazing with silver alloy filler metals is sometimes thebasesheets,basemetalerosionmayoccur.In
calledsilversoldering, a nonpreferredterm. Silver many cases, the erosion may be of little consequence,
brazing filler metals are not solders; they have liquidus but when brazing heavily loadedor thin materials, the
temperatures above450C (840F). erosion can weaken the joint and make it unsatisfac-

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 07842b5 05Lb233 348
Welding (B) 59
tory for its intended application. Also, the formation

of filler metal since capillary action may be insufficient
brittleintermetallicsorotherphasescanmakethe to draw a viscous filler metal into closely fittedjoints.
resulting joint too brittleto be acceptable. Brazing is sometimesdoneunderan active gas,
A disadvantage of some of the manual brazing pro- such as hydrogen,or in an inert gas or vacuum. Atmo-
cesses is that highly skilled technicians are required to sphere brazing eliminates the necessity for postbraze
perform the operation. This is especially true for gas cleaning and ensuresthe absence of corrosive mineral
torch brazing when using a brazing filler metal witha flux residue. Carbonsteels, stainless steels, and super-
high melting point. Nevertheless, with the proper joint alloycomponentsarewidelyprocessed inatmo-
design, brazing filler metal, and process selection, a spheres of reactedgases, dry hydrogen,dissociated
satisfactorybrazingtechniquecanbedevelopedfor ammonia, argon, or vacuum. Large vacuum furnaces
most joining applications.Brazing is oftenselected are used to braze zirconium, titanium, stainless steels,
when it is not feasible, because of strength or eco- and the refractory metals. With good processing proce-
. nomic considerations,
to join the
materials
with a dures, aluminum alloys can also be vacuum-furnace
fusion welding process. brazed with excellent results.
Principles of Operation Brazing is economically attractive for the produc-
tion of high strength metallurgical bonds while pre-
Capillary flow is the dominant physical principle
serving desired base metal properties.
that assures good brazements when both faying sur-
faces to be joined are wet by the molten filler metal. Brazing Processes
The joint must be spaced to permit efficient capillary Brazingprocessesare
customarily designated
action that results in coalescence. Specifically, capil- according to the sourcesor methods of heating. Indus-
lary action is a result of surface tension between base trial methods currently significant are the following:
metal(s) and filler metal, protected by a flux or atmo- (1) Torch brazing
sphere, and promoted by the contact angle between (2) Furnace brazing
base metal and filler metal. In actual practice, brazing (3) Induction brazing
filler metal flow is influenced by dynamic consider- (4) Resistance brazing
ationsinvolvingfluidity,viscosity,vaporpressure, (5) Dip brazing
gravity,andespeciallytheeffects of metallurgical (6) Infrared brazing
reactions betweenfiller metal and base metal. Whatever the process used, the filler metal has a melt-
BrazingProcedure. The typical brazed joint has a ing point above 450C (840"F), but below that of the
relatively large area and very small gap. In the sim- base metal, and it spreads within the
joint by capillary
plest brazing application, the surfaces to be joined are action.
cleanedtoremovecontaminantsandoxides.Next, Torch Brazing
they are coated with flux.A flux is a material whichis Torch brazing is accomplished by heating with one
capable of dissolving solid metal oxides and also pre- ormoregastorches.Dependingon the temperature
venting new oxidation. The joint area is then heated and the amount of heat required, the fuel gas i.e., acet-
until the flux melts and cleans the base metals, which ylene, propane, or natural gas, may be burned with air,
are protected against further oxidation by the layer of compressed air, or oxygen. Flame
temperature
liquid flux. increases asthe oxygen contentof the gasis increased.
Brazing filler metal is then melted at some pointon For
manual torch
brazing,the
torch
maybe
thesurface of the joint area.Capillaryattraction equipped with a single tip, either single- or multiple-
between the base metal and the filler metal is much flame. Manual torch brazing is particularly useful on
higher than that between the base metal and the flux. assemblies involvingsections of unequal mass.
Accordingly, the flux is displaced by the filler metal. Machine operations can be set up, where the rate of
The joint, oncoolingtoroomtemperature,willbe production warrants,using one or more torches
filled with solidfiller metal, and the solid flux will be equippedwithsingle or multiple-flametips. The
found on the joint periphery. machine may be designed to move either the work or
Joints to be brazed are usually made with clearances the torches, or both.
of 0.025 to 0.25 mm (0.001 to 0.010 in.). The fluidity Torchheatingforbrazingcan be usedwithfiller
of the filler metal, therefore, is an important factor. metalssuppliedwithfluxorself-fluxing. The list
High fluidity is a desirable characteristic of brazing includes aluminum-silicon, silver, copper-phosphorus,

~ ~~
STDaAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 05Lb234 284 m
60 BRAZING (B) Encyclopedia Welding
copper-zinc, and nickel. With the exception of the cop- lowmeltingconstituentsofthe filler metalmay
per-phosphorus filler metals, they all require fluxes. evaporate.
For certain applications even the self-fluxing copper- Furnace Brazing
phosphorus filler metals require added flux.
The filler metalcanbeplacedon the joint and Furnace brazing, as illustrated in Figure B-1 1, is
fluxed before heating, or it may be face-fed. Heat is used extensively. This process is selected in applica-
applied to the joint, first melting the flux, then con- tions where multiple brazed joints are to be formed
tinuing until the brazing filler metal melts and flows simultaneously on a completedassembly,andwhen
into the joint. Overheating of the base metal and braz- many similar assemblies are to bejoined. It is success-
ing filler metal should be avoided because rapid diffu- ful when the following conditions can be met: (1) the
sionanddropthrough of themetalmayresult. parts to be brazed can be preassembled or jigged to
Natural gas is well suited for torch brazing because its hold them in the correct position,(2) the brazing filler
relatively low flame temperature reduces the danger of metal can be placed in contact with the joint, and (3)
overheating. the complex parts can be heated uniformly to prevent
Brazing filler metal may be preplaced at the joint in the distortion that would result from local heating of
the formsof rings, washers, strips, slugs, or powder, or the joint area.
it may be fed from hand-held filler metal, usually in Electric, gas, or oil heated furnaces with automatic
the form of wire or rod. In any case, proper cleaning temperature control capable of holding the tempera-
and fluxingare essential. ture within -+6C(+10F) should be used for furnace
Torch brazing techniques differ fromthose used for brazing.Fluxesorspeciallycontrolledatmospheres
oxyfuelgaswelding.Operatorsexperiencedonlyin that perform fluxing functions must be provided.
welding techniquesmay require instruction in brazing Parts to be brazed should be assembled with the
techniques. Itis good practice, for example,to prevent filler metal and flux, if used, located in or around the
the inner cone of the flame from coming in contact joints. The preplacedfiller metal may be in the form of
with the joint except during preheating, since melting wire, foil, filings, slugs, powder, paste, or tape. The
of the base metal and dilution withfiller the metal may assembly is heated in the furnace until the parts reach
increase its liquidus temperature and make the flow brazingtemperatureandbrazingtakesplace. The
more sluggish. In addition, the flux may be overheated assembly is then removed. These steps are shown in
and thus loseits ability to promote capillary flow, and Figure B-1 l .
FILLER METAL BRAZED JOINT

FILLER METAL MELTS AND FLOWS
I I I I I I
CONVEYOR b h b
Figure B-11-Illustration of Furnace Brazing Operation

STD-AWS
JWE-ENGL L997 07842b5 05Lb235 L10 m
Welding BRAZING (B) 61
Many commercial fluxes are available for both gen- cial where the remelt temperature of the filler metal is
eral and specific brazing operations. Satisfactory to be increased and where diffusion willimprove joint
results are obtained if dry powdered flux is sprinkled ductility and strength. Times of 30 to 60 minutes atthe
along the joint. Flux paste is satisfactory in most cases, brazing temperature are oftenusedto increase the
but in some cases it retards the flow of brazing alloy. braze remelt temperature.
Flux pastes containing water can be dried by heating Furnaces. Furnaces used for brazing are classified
the assembly at 175 to 200C (350to 400F) for 5 to as (1) batch type with either air or controlled atmo-
15 minutes in dryingovens or circulating air furnaces. sphere, (2) continuous typewith either air or con-
To avoid excessive interaction betweenthe filler trolledatmosphere, (3) retort typewith controlled
metal and base metal, brazingtime should be restricted atmosphere, or (4) vacuum. Figure B-12 shows a high-
to the timenecessary for the filler metal to flow temperature, high-vacuum brazing furnace with con-
through the joint. Normally, one or two minutes at the trol panel and charging carriage.
brazing temperature is sufficient to make the braze. A Most brazing furnaces have a temperature control
longer time at the brazing temperature will be benefi- of the potentiometer type connected to thermocouples
Figure B-12-A High Temperature, High Vacuum Brazing Furnace with Control Panel and Charging
Dolly

STD=AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 051623b 057 m
62 BRAZING (B) Encyclopedia Welding
and gas control valves or contactors. Most furnaces are Surface cleanliness is nevertheless required for good
heatedbyelectricalresistanceusingsilicon-carbide, wetting and flow.
nickel-chromium,orrefractorymetal(Mo,Ta,W) Induction Brazing
heating elements. When agas or oil flame is used for Induction brazing is used when very rapid heating
heating, the flame must not impinge directly on the is required. Time for processing is usually in the
parts. range of seconds when large numbers of parts are
With controlled atmosphere furnaces, a continuous handled automatically. Induction brazing has been -
flow of the atmosphere gas is maintained in the work used extensively to produce consumer and industrial
zone to avoid contamination from outgassing of the products; structural assemblies; electrical and elec-
metal parts and dissociation of oxides. If the controlled tronic products; mining, machine, andhand tools;
atmosphere is flammable or toxic, adequate ventingof military and ordnance equipment; and aerospace
theworkareaandprotectionagainstexplosionare assemblies.
necessary.
The heat for brazing with this process is obtained
Batch type furnaces heat each workload separately. fromanelectriccurrentinducedinthepartstobe
When a furnaceis lowered overthe work, it is called a brazed, hence the name induction brazing. For induc-
bell furnace. tion brazing, the parts are placed in or near a water-
Continuous furnaces are equipped with conveyors cooled coil carrying alternating current. They do not
so that the furnace receives a steady flowof incoming form a part of the electrical circuit. Parts to be heated
assemblies. The parts move through the furnace either act as the short circuited secondary of a transformer
singly or in trays or baskets. Continuous furnaces usu- where the work coil, which is connected to the power
ally contain a preheator purging area which the parts source, is the primary. On both magnetic and nonmag-
enter first. In this area, the parts are slowly brought to netic parts, heating is obtained from the resistance of
a temperature below the brazing temperature. If braz- thepartstocurrentsinduced in themby the trans-
ing atmosphere gasis used in the brazing zone, it also former action.
flows over and around the parts in the preheat zone,
The brazing filler metal is preplaced. Carefl design
underpositivepressure.Thegasflowremovesany
of the joint and the coil setup are necessary to assure
entrappedairandstartsthereduction of surface
that the surfaces of all members of the joint reach the
oxides. Atmospheregas trails the parts into the cooling
brazing temperature at
the same time.Flux
is
zone.
employed except when an atmosphere is specifically
Retortfurnaces are batchfurnaces in whichthe
introduced to perform the same function.
assemblies are placed in a sealed retort for brazing.
The air intheretort is purgedbycontrolledatmo- Frequencies for inductionbrazinggenerallyvary
sphere gas and the retortis placed in the furnace. After from 10 kHz to 450 kHz. The lower frequencies are
the parts have been brazed,the retort is removed from obtained withsolid-state generators and the higher fre-
the furnace, cooled, and its controlled atmosphere is quencies with vacuum tube oscillators. Induction gen-
purged. The retort is opened, and the brazed assem- erators are manufactured in sizes from one kilowatt to
blies are removed. A protective atmosphere is some- several hundred kilowatts output.
timesusedwithinahigh-temperaturefurnaceto Assemblies may be induction brazed in a controlled
reduce external scalingof the retort. atmosphere by placing the components and coil in a
Vacuum furnace brazingis widely used in the aero- nonmetallic chamber, or by placing the chamber and
spaceandnuclearfields,wherereactivemetals are work inside the coil. The chamber can be quartz Vycor
joined or where entrapped fluxes would be intolerable. or tempered glass.
Stainlesssteels,superalloys,aluminumalloys,tita- Resistance Brazing
nium alloys, and metals containing refractoryor reac- Theheat
necessary for resistance brazing is
tive
elementsare
brazedwith
vacuum brazing obtained from the flow of an electric current through
equipment. Base metals that can generally be brazed the electrodes and the joint to be brazed. The parts
only in vacuum are those containing more than a few comprising thejoint become partof the electric circuit.
percent of aluminum,titanium,zirconium, or other The brazing filler metal, in some convenient form, is
elements with particularly stable oxides.Vacuum is a preplaced or face-fed. Fluxing is done with due atten-
relativelyeconomicalatmospherewhichprevents tion to the conductivity of thefluxes, (Most fluxes are
oxidation by removing air from around the assembly. insulators when dry.) Flux is employed except when

Welding 63
anatmosphere is specificallyintroducedtoperform firmly together when they are removed from the bath
thesamefunction. The partstobebrazed are held until the brazingfiller metal has fully solidified.
between two electrodes, and proper pressure and cur-
MoltenChemical (Flux) Bath. This brazing method
rent are applied. The pressure should be maintained requires either a metalorceramiccontainer for the
until the joint has solidified. flux and a method of heating the flux to the brazing
For copper and copper alloys, the copper-phospho- temperature. Heat maybe applied externally with a
rus filler metals are most satisfactory since they are torch or internally with an electrical resistance heating
self-fluxing. Silver basefiller metals may be used, but unit.Suitablecontrols are providedtomaintain the
a flux or atmosphere is necessary. A wet flux is usually flux within the brazing temperature range. The size of
applied as a very thin mixturejust before the assembly the bath must be such that immersion of parts for braz-
is placed in the brazing fixture. Dry fluxes are not used ing will not cool the flux below the brazing tempera-
because they are insulators and will not permit suffi- ture. See Figure B-13.
cient current to flow.
Electrodes for resistance brazing are madeof high-
resistanceelectricalconductors,such as carbon or BRAZED JOINT
graphiteblocks,tungstenormolybdenumrods,or
even steel in some instances. The heat for brazing is
mainly generated in the electrodes and flows into the
work by conduction. It is generally unsatisfactory to
\
+ f
BRAZING SHEET
attempt to use the resistance of the workpieces alone

as a source of heat.
The pressure applied by a spot welding machine,
clamps, pliers, or other means must be sufficient to
maintain good electrical contact and to hold the pieces
firmly together as the filler metal melts. The pressure
must be maintained during the time of current flow
and after the current is shut off until the joint solidi-
fies. The time of current flow willvary from about one
second for small, delicate workto several minutes for Figure B-13-Illustration of Chemical Bath Dip
larger work. This time is usually controlled manually Brazing
by theoperator,whodetermineswhenbrazinghas
occurred by the temperature and the extent of filler
metal flow. Parts should be cleaned, assembled, and preferably
held in jigs prior to immersion into the bath. Brazing
Dip Brazing filler metal is preplacedas rings, washers, slugs,
T W O methods of dip brazing are molten metal bath paste, or asa cladding on the base metal. Preheat may
dipbrazingandmoltenchemical(flux)bathdip be necessary to assure dryness of parts and to prevent
brazing. the freezing of flux on parts which may cause selec-
tive melting of flux and brazing filler metal. Preheat
Molten Metal Bath.This method is usually limited to
temperatures are usually close to the melting tempera-
the brazing of small assemblies, such as wire connec- ture of the flux. A certain amount of flux adheres to
tions or metalstrips. A crucible,usuallymade of the assemblyafterbrazing.Molten flux mustbe
graphite, is heated externally tothe required tempera- drained off while the parts are hot. Flux remainingon
ture to maintain the brazingfiller metal in fluid form. cold parts must be removed by water or by chemical
A cover of flux is maintained over the molten filler means.
metal. The size of the molten bath (crucible) and the
heating method must be such that the immersion of Infrared Brazing
parts in the bath will not lower the bath temperature Infrared brazing may be considered a form of fur-
below brazing temperature. Parts should be clean and nace brazing, with heat supplied by long-wave light
protected with flux prior to their introduction into the radiation. Heating is by invisible radiation from high
bath. The ends of thewiresorpartsmustbeheld intensity quartz lampscapable of deliveringupto
STDoAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 0784265 05Lb238 92T m
64 BRAZING Encyclopedia Welding
5000 wattsofradiantenergy.Heatinputvaries The brazing blowpipe is used for intricate work,

inversely as the squareof the distance from the source, such as in dental and jewelry applications. A flame
but the lamps are not usually shapedto follow thecon- produced by any means maybe used. A portion of the
tour of the part to be heated. Concentrating reflectors flame is blown to the desired location for the required
focus the radiation on the parts. time by the blowpipe.
Forvacuumbrazing or inert-gasprotection, the
assembly and the lamps are placed in a bell jar or BRAZING, CarbideTools
retort that can be evacuated or filled with inert gas. Carbide tool tips usedfor turning metals on a lathe
The assembly is then heated to a controlled tempera- can be brazed with silver base copper-zinc alloys and
ture, as indicated by thermocouples. copper. Silver alloys containing nickel (B Ag-3 andB
Brazing Filler Metals Ag-4) are preferred because of their improved wetta-
Brazing filler metalsmusthavethefollowing bility. The 85% Ag-15%Mnand 85% Cu-15%Mn
properties: alloys are suitable for torch brazing.Carbide tip manu-
(1) Ability to form brazed joints with mechanical facturers recommendationsfor brazing tips should be
and physical properties suitable for the intended ser- consulted.
Reference:American WeldingSociety,
vice application Brazing Handbook, Chapter 30,
Carbide
Tools,
Miami, Florida: American Welding Society, 1994.
(2) Melting pointor melting range compatible with
the base metals beingjoined, and sufficient fluidity at Brazing Procedures
brazing temperature to flow and distribute themselves In general, brazing proceduresare as follows:
into properly prepared joints by capillary action (1) Make sure that all joint surfaces on the tip and
(3) Composition of sufficient homogeneity andsta- shank recess are clean. These surfaces can be cleaned
bilitytominimizeseparationofconstituents(liqua- by rubbing on silicon carbide abrasive cloth or the flat
tion) during brazing face of a silicon carbide wheel, then wiping with an
(4) Ability to wet surfaces of base metals and form organic solvent.
a strong, sound bond
(2) Cut a thin sheet of brazing filler metal tofit into
(5) Depending on requirements, ability to produce the recess as shown in Figure B-14 (A). An alternate
or avoid filler-metal interactions with base metals. method is to pre-coat all joint surfaces with the braze
To simplify filler metal selection,ANSUAWS A5.8, alloy.
Specification for Brazing Filler Metal, divides filler
metalsintosevencategoriesandvariousclassifica- (3)Applybrazingflux(silverorcopper)to the
tionswithin each category. The specificationlists shank recess, carbide tip and brazing alloy sheet. Fit
productswhicharecommonlyused,commercially the fluxed braze sheet and carbide tip into position on
available filler metals. Other brazing filler metals not the tool shank.
currently coveredby the specificationare available for (4)Apply torch heat to the underside of the shank,
special applications. as shown in Figure B-14 (B), so the heat will be con-
l h o sources of further information on brazing are: ducted up tothe carbide tip. Usea holding rodto keep
AmericanWeldingSociety,BrazingHandbook, the tip in position. Keep the flame in constant motion
American Welding Society, Miami, Florida. 1991 to avoid hot spots anddo not apply it to the tip at any
AmericanWeldingSociety, The WeldingHand- time.
book, V01.2, 8th Edition. American Welding Society, (5) Watch for the flux to become clear and liquid,
Miami, Florida. 1991. indicating that the flow temperature of the braze is
being approached.Just as soon as the tip can be moved
BRAZING ALLOY on the molten alloy, withdraw the flame and apply a
A nonstandard termfor BRAZING FILLER METAL. light pressure witha slight circular motion of the hold-
ingrod,to ensure a strongbondandsqueeze out
BRAZING BLOWPIPE excess flux andgas bubbles.
A device used to obtain a small, accurately directed (6) As soon as the braze alloy has solidified, cool
flame forfine work. A portion of anyflame is blown to the tool slowlyin a powdered insulating material, such
the desired location by the blowpipe, which is usually as mica or lime, to prevent cracking the tip by rapid
mouth operated. See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. cooling.

~~~ ~~~
~
~~~~ ~~~
STD.AWS JWE-ENGL L997 07842b5 05Lb239 B b b
Welding 65
CUT SILVER ALLOY AND FASTENING WITH

PLACE IN RECESS 1- NICHROME
HEATSHANK F
TO 1500-1 600F
LIGHT CHERRY RED
SCALE
FROM
ALL AGAIN BEFORE
HEATING
BE BRAZED
ALL SURFACES I FOR TORCH I !\ BRAZING I FOR FURNACE BRAZING
A B C
Figure B-14-Steps in the Brazingof Carbide TippedTools
An alternate to torch heating is the use of a con- BRAZING OPERATOR

trolled atmosphere furnaceor a closed muffle furnace. One who operates automatic or mechanized braz-
For furnace brazing, the assembly should be wrapped ing equipment. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
tightlywithseveralstrands of Nichromewire as
shown inFigure B- 14 (C). In a controlled atmosphere, BRAZING PROCEDURE
a fluxmay not be necessaryor may be used sparingly. The detailed methods and practices involved in the
Sandwich Brazing production of a brazement. See STANDARDWELDING
The above procedure applies to carbide tips under TERMS. See alsoBRAZING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION.
18 mm (3/4 in.) width; for tips over this width and
irregularly shaped tips, the sandwich procedure is rec- BRAZING PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION RECORD
ommended to minimize shrinkage strains. The sand- (BPQR)
wich is madebyusingathinsheetofcopper or A record of brazing vuriables used to produce an
Constantan (40% Ni, 60%Cu alloy) between two lay- acceptable test brazement and the results of tests con-
ers of the braze alloy. The same procedure described ducted on the brazement to qualify a brazing proce-
above can be used, except thatthe torch flame should dure specifcation. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
be applied to the sidesof the shank as well as the bot-
tom, and can be applied to thetip itself after the braz- BRAZING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION (BPS)
ing filler metal has melted.See SILVER ALLOY BRAZING A document specifying the required brazing variables
and M O L BRAZING. for a spec@ application.See STANDARDWELDING
BRAZING, Diffusion Bonding TERMS.
See DIFFUSION BRAZINGand DIFFUSION WELDING.
BRAZING PROCESSES
BRAZING FILLER METAL Several brazing processes are classed according to
The metal or alloy used as afiller metal (whichfills thesource of heat. See TORCHBRAZING,FURNACE
the capillary joint clearance), which has a liquidus BRAZING,INDUCTIONBRAZING,DIPBRAZING, RESIS-
above 450C (840F) but below the solidus of the buse TANCEBRAZING,BLOCKBRAZING,DIFFUSIONBRAZ-
metal. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. ING, ELECTRON BEAM BRAZE WELDING, EXOTHERMIC

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L777 m 07842b5 05Lb240 588 m
66 BRAZING Welding Encyclopedia
BRAZING, FLOW BRAZING, INFRARED BRAZING, LASER sured in kilograms),D is the diameter of the steel ball
BEAM BRAZE WELDING,and STEP BRAZING. (measured in millimeters) and d is the diameterof the
Brazing processes mayalso be classed according to impression (measured in millimeters), then
the brazing alloy and the brazing temperature range;
for example, copper brazing, silver brazing and nickel P
B.H.N. =
alloy brazing. 7CD
- 2( D - A / K ? )
BRAZING SHEET
Brazing filler metal in sheet form. See STANDARD in which B.H.N. is the Brinell hardness in kilograms
WELDING TERMS. per square millimeter.See HARDNESS TESTING.
BRAZING, Silver BRITISH THERMAL UNIT (B.T.U.)

A low-temperaturebrazingprocessinwhichthe The British Thermal Unit is the quantity of heat
filler metal used is essentially an alloy of silver and required to raise the temperature
of one pound of pure
copper. See SILVER SOLDERING and SILVER ALLOY water one degree Fahrenheit.
BRAZING.
BRITTLENESS
BRAZING TECHNIQUE A characteristic of a metal or material that is the
The details of a brazing operationwhich, within the opposite of ductility. A brittle material is resistant to
limitations of the prescribed brazing procedure, are formation, not malleable, and easily cracked or bro-
controlled bythe brazer or brazing operatol: See ken. Brittlematerialsexhibitvery little permanent
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. deformation before fracture, and overloading in ser-
vice causes sudden failure. Glass is an example of a
BRAZING TEMPERATURE brittlematerial;however,glass is somewhat elastic
The temperature to which the base metal is heated because it will bend a little and return to its original
to enable thefiller metal to wetthe base materials and shape when the loadis removed. If overloaded, it will
form a brazedjoint. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. fracture in a brittle fashion.
White cast iron and gray cast iron are examples of
BRAZING TEMPERATURE RANGE brittle metals. Table B-3 lists the order of brittleness of
The temperature range within which brazing can be several common elements and metals; (1) is the most
accomplished. brittle and(14) is the least brittle, or most ductile.
BRAZING WIRE
Table 8-3
A filler metal of, for example, silveror copper alloy Order of Brittleness
(brass or bronze) used in brazing.
(1) White cast iron (8) Brass
BRIDGING (2) Gray cast iron (9) Structural steel
A term applied to a weld which is made by span- (3) Hardened Steels (IO) Zinc
ning the weld metal over a groove, leaving a void in (4) Bismuth (11) Monel@ Metal
the center of the joint. While this weld may have the ( 5 ) Manganese (12) Tin
outside appearance of a good weld, it may actually (6) Bronzes ( 13) Copper
have low strength. (7) Aluminum (14) Iron
BRINELL TEST FOR HARDNESS BRITTLE NUGGET

A test for determining the hardness of metals by A nonstandard term used to describe a faying plane
applying a known load to the surface of the material to failure in a resistance weld peel test.
be tested with a hardened steel ball of known diameter.
The diameter of the resulting impression in the metal BRONZE
is measured. The Brinell hardness number is calcu- A large groupof copper, zinc, and tin alloys.gen-
In
lated asthe quotient of the applied load divided bythe eral, these constituentsare distributed in the following
area of thesurface of theimpression,which is range: copper, 70% to 90%;zinc, 1% to 25%, and tin
assumed to be spherical.If P is the applied load (mea- 1% to 18%. Manganeseandphosphorus are some-

~~~~ ~ ~
Weldinn Encyclopedia CODES
CONSTRUCTION
BUILDING 67
timesaddedtoactasdeoxidizingagents.Bronze In controlling the weave, the operator should take

alloys have been used since ancient timesfor making particular care that the molten edges of the bead do not
castings, coins, and ornaments. solidify in a way that causes undercutting and entraps
slag. This can be avoided by hesitating slightly at the
BRONZE FACING edges of thebeadandkeepingthefrequencyofthe
See BRONZE SURFACING. weavefastenoughtomaintainacompletelymolten
poolofdepositedweldmetal.Thisrelativelywide
BRONZE SURFACING weaving motion also enables the operator to control the
The deposition of a thin layerof bronze on cast iron moltenmetaltominimizeslaginclusions,impurities
or steel to provide corrosion resistance or to reduce and porosity. While the angle of the electrode in relation
sliding friction. Bronze is used to build up worn sur- to the work surface is not critical, inclining the electrode
faces to restore them to original size. Bronze surfacingslightly back in the direction of welding will float the
is frequently used to repair pistons, valves, and other molten slag back over the deposited weld metal. This
sliding surfaceson pumps, engines, and machines. will protect the deposit from oxidation while cooling
Manybronzealloys are available.Those of the andpreventtheslagfromrollingaheadoftheweld
softer type (phosphor bronzes) are intended to wear metal as it fuses with the base metal. It minimizes any
morethanthematingsurface,and the hardertype tendency for slag inclusions and poor fusion.
(hardaluminumbronzes) are intendedtowearless Slag Cleanlng
than the mating surface. Allslagshouldbecompletelyremovedfromthe
Bronze surfaces can be deposited with the oxyacet- surface of deposited metal, especially between beads
ylene process; however, most surfaces are deposited of overlayworkandlayers of multi-layerdeposits.
byshieldedmetalarcweldingandsubmergedarc Generally, the depositshouldbewire-brushedthor-
welding.Shieldedmetalarcweldingelectrodesare oughly after removing the slag and before making the
available for use with direct current, electrode positive next deposit. Careful attention to cleaning can avoid
(DCEP)andalternatingcurrent.These are basically slag inclusions and porosity in the weld deposit.
flat-position electrodes, but canbe used in the vertical
position by skilledwelders.Electrodesandwires BRONZE WELDING
availablefortheseapplications are listedinANSI/ nonstandard
A term
whenused for BRAZE
AWS A5.13, Specification for Solid Sugacing Welding WELDING.
Rods and Electrodes.
Base Metal Preparation BRUSHES, Arc Weldlng Generators
It is important that the base metal and filler metal A brush isthe sliding connection which completes a
are thoroughly clean before overlay welding is started. circuit between a fixed and a moving conductor. Arc
All foreign matter, such as grease, rust, oxides, paint, weldinggeneratorbrushes are designedto function
and other impurities should be completely removed. under the conditions of varying outputof arc welding.
Both should be free of moisture to prevent porosityin
BRUSHES, Weld Cleanlng
the deposit of aluminum bronze and other bronzes.
Rotary or manualbrushes,usuallymade ofstiff
Mlnlmum Penetration wire, are used to remove loose particles of dirt, slag,
Penetrationmustbeminimizedwhenoverlaying spatter, and other foreign materials from the weld, to
ironbasemetals.Excessivedilution of theoverlay eliminate any possibility of inclusion of these foreign
with base metal, particularly cast iron, may result in a particles in the weld beads.See WELD CLEANING.
deposit so hard that it is essentially unmachineable.
Deposition by stringer bead is not recommended, BUCKLING
because this technique tends to increase penetration Distortion caused by the heat of a welding process.
and dilutionof the deposit with base metal. In general, See EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION.
the largest size electrode consistent with the mass and
thickness of the base metal should be used. The elec- BUILDING CONSTRUCTION CODES
trodeshould be manipulated in arapidweaving The latest edition of the ANWAWS D l . 1 Struc-
motion to deposit a bead widththree to five times the tural Welding Code-Steel should be used to design,
diameter of the electrode. fabricate, inspect, and repair welded steel structures.
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb242 350 9
68 BUILDUP Encyclopedia Welding
The building codesof most cities include adefinite BUILD-UP SEQUENCE

standardcoveringstructuralwelding.Most of these A
nonstandard
term
for CROSS-SECTIONALSE-
standardshavebeenspecifiedfromthe ANSVAWS QUENCE. See also JOINT BUILDUP SEQUENCE; BLOCK
D1.l Structural Welding Code-Steel. The first AWS SEQUENCE; and LONGITUDINAL SEQUENCE.
Code of this type was published in1928.
BUNSEN BURNER
In 1988 the first editionof the Bridge Welding Code,
Agastorchusedmainly for laboratorywork, in
ANSVAASHTOIAWS D1.5 was published,covering
which the combustiblegas is mixed with air before the
fabrication of steel highway bridges by welding. zone of combustion is reached. The air is introduced
The ANSUAWS Dl. 1 StructuralWelding Code through a tube at the baseof the burner, and the mix-
does not include
such
design
considerations
as ture burns atthe mouth of the tube withan intense blue
arrangement of parts,loading,andcomputation of flame. The temperature of the flame depends on the
stresses for proportioning the load-carrying members type of gas and the pressure used.
of a structure. It is assumed that such considerations
are covered elsewhere in a general code or specifica- BURIED ARC
tion, such asthe American Instituteof Steel Construc- A CO2 gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process in
tion (AISC) Specificationfor the Design, Fabrication which the metal transfer occurs below the surface of
and Erection of StructuralSteel Buildings, or other the base metal. Relatively high currentand voltage are
specifications prescribed by local building codes and necessary for this welding technique, which is used
by the owner. See Appendix 2. only for mild steel applications. The welding current
depends on the diameter of the wire; for example, a
BUILDUP 1.14 mm (0.045 in.) diameter mild steel wire would be
A sufacing variation in which sugacing material is run at 400 to 425 amps and35 to 37 volts. Under such
deposited to achievetherequired dimensions. See conditions, the arcforce digs acrater in the base metal
which acts as a cruciblefor molten metal during weld-
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also BUTTERING,
ing. See GAS METAL ARC WELDING.
CLADDING, BRONZE SURFACING und HARDFACING.
Buildup, or padding, refers to metal deposited by an BURNBACK
arc welding processin which parallel beadsare depos- An arcoutageinwhichelectrodefeed is inter-
ited adjacent to one another, and fused toone another rupted.Burnbackin gas metalarcweldingusually
as well as to the base metal.is Itused for buildup oper- causes the filler wire and the electrical contact tube to
ations, filling in large cavities when heavy sections are melt together. This condition stops the wire from feed-
being welded, or forming a shape such as a box or lug ingthroughthecontacttubeandstopsthewelding
by the deposition of weld metal. It is very important operation. A burnback may cause weld defects. See
that each bead be completely fused to adjacent and STUBBING.
underlying passes where several layers of metal are
deposited. BURNBACK TIME
Beads are normally deposited parallel to the long MELTBACK TIME.
A nonstandard term for
dimension of the weldor surface being built up. When BURNER
building up a vertical surface, isitrecommended that a
A nonstandard term when used for OXYFUELGAS
series of beads be deposited across the bottom first,
CUTTER. Also, a name sometimes applied to a welder
then vertical beadsare deposited down fromthe top to who does flame cutting.
complete the work. If build-up is done on a surface
which tapers down to a thin edge, the current must be BURNING
carefully reduced to avoid destroying the shape of the A nonstandard term when used for OXYFUELGAS
thin edge. CU'TTING.
Two causes of poor results are failing to clean the Also, a term applied to metal whichis heated suffL
metal surface thoroughly, and depositing beads too far ciently high, or close to the melting point, to cause
apart in an attempt to reduce the number of passes permanent damage to the material. The damage may
required. be caused by the melting of some phases, oxidation of

Licensed by Information Handling Services ~~~ ~
pedia Welding WELDBUlT RESISTANCE 69
some alloying elements, loss of prior heat treatment, BUlTERlNG

or excessive grain growth. A surfacing variation that deposits su~acingmetal
This term has also been used in reference to lead onone or more surfaces to provide metallurgically
burning and paint burning. compatible weld metal for the subsequent completion
of the weld. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also
BURNING IN BUILDUP; CLADDING, and HARDFACING.
A nonstandard termfor FLOW WELDING. Buttering is a form of surfacing in which one or
more layersof weld metal are deposited on the groove
BURNOFF RATE face of one member (for example, a high alloy weld
A nonstandard term when used
for MELTING RATE. deposit on steel base metal whichis to be welded to a
dissimilar base metal).
BURNS, Treatment of
Injuries from dry heat, such asa welding flame, are BUlllNG MEMBER
called burns, and those from moist heat (steam) are A joint member thatis prevented, by the other mem-
called scalds. Both are painful, and both are dangerousber, from movement in one direction perpendicular to
whenextensive or deep. Bums andscaldsrequire its thickness dimension. For example, both membersof
medical attention. Shock often follows burns or scalds a butt joint, orone memberof a T-jointor corner joint.
even when the injury is comparatively slight; it causes See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.See Figure B- 15.See
death in severe cases. also NONBUTTING MEMBER.
Relief of pain is the object of treating slight burns,
where the skin is reddenedbutnotdestroyed. See BUlT JOINT
Appendix 12. A joint between two membersaligned approxi-
BURN-THROUGH
mately in thesame plane. See STANDARDWELDING
TERMS. See Appendix 5 (A).
A nonstandard term when used for excessive melt-
through or a holethrough a rootbead. See MELT- BUlTON
THROUGH.
The part of a weld, including all or partof the nug-
BURN-THROUGH WELD get, that tears out in the destructive testing of spot,
A nonstandard term for a SEAMWELD or a SPOT seam, or projection welded specimens. Thistermis
WELD.
sometimes applied to a spot weld nugget. See STAN-
DARD WELDING TERMS.
BUS
A shortened termfor Bus Bal: BUTTON WELDING
A term appliedto gas metal arc spot welding.
BUS BAR
A heavy,(usuallyuninsulated)bar of electrically BUTT RESISTANCE WELD
conductivematerial,suchascopper or aluminum, The two modes of resistance butt welding are flash
which serves asa main electrical conductor ina power welding and upset welding. In flash welding, pieces
plant, buildingor factory. having essentially the same cross section are brought
together slowly, and an electrical voltage is applied.
BUTANE On contact, heating and flashing occur and continue
(Chemicalsymbol: C4HI0).A flammablegaseous as the pieces move together, untilthe entire cross sec-
paraffin hydrocarbon present in petroleum and natural tion is molten. Atthistime the pieces are forced
gas,
sometimes used in oxyfuel
(flame)cutting. togetherunderpressuretosqueezeout the molten
Butane is colorless, with a slightly unpleasant odor. metal.
Butane is available as a liquefied compressed gas in Inupsetwelding,pieces of essentiallythesame
cylinders. Molecular weight, 58.123; specific gravity cross sectionare brought together under pressure; then
2.110 at20C (68F); liquiddensity, 4.81 lb/galat voltage is applied,causingelectriccurrent to flow,
21C (70F); criticaltemperature, 152C (3056F); heatingthecontactarea.Currentflowandpressure
critical pressure, 43.3 kPa (6.28 psia). See OXYFUEL continue until the joint area is heated to the plastic
GAS CUTTING and PROPANE. range and a hot forge type weldis formed. No melting

STDOAWS JWE-ENGL 3997 M 07842b5 0536244 L23
70 BUlT WELD Encyclopedia Welding
NONBUlTING MEMBERS
Figure B-15"Butting and Nonbulting Members
occurs in this typeof weld. See RESISTANCE WELDING, to form a seam or junction, and welded. Two butt-
FLASH WELDING, und UPSET WELDING. welded plates form a flat plane; two bars butt-welded
form a single straightbar.
BUTT WELD
A nonstandard term fora weld in a butt joint. BY-PASS
A butt weld is one in which two plates, surfaces,or A passage in a cutting torch connecting the oxygen
bars are brought together edge to edge, or end to end, supply and the preheating oxygen tube.

~
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 1977 M 07842b5 05Lb245 ObT M
C
C.G.S. same size as the electrode cable. The workpiece cable
Abbreviation for centimeter-gram-second units; the does not need to be as flexible as the electrode cable,
centimeter is the unitof length, the gram is the unit of since it stays in one spot mostof the time.
weight, and the second is the unit of time. The shortest cable possible should be used. If the
C.P.
distancefromthemachineistoo great, thevoltage
drop becomes so large that it affects the amount of
Abbreviation for constant potential. See CONSTANT electrical energy transmitted to the welding arc.If the
VOLTAGE POWER SOURCE.
work has to be located at a considerable distance from
CABLE AND CABLE CONNECTORS the welding machine, it is important that the connect-
Two cables,anelectrode cable andaworkpiece ing cable be larger in diameter than if the distance is
cable, are required to complete the electrical circuit short. The cable size must be selected for length as
between the welding machine and the workpiece. The wellasamperage.Table C-1 showsrecommended
correct size and the quality ofcable are basic to weld- copper cable sizes for distances from 7.5 to 38 m (25
ing operations.If the cable is too smallfor the current, to 125 ft) from the welding machine (distance = total
it will overheat and couldcause rapid deterioration of length of electrode and workpiece cables divided by
the cable insulation. It will also cause a voltage drop two) and currents from100 to 600 amp.
which could affect the welding conditions. Aluminum Cable
Copper Cable Construction One of the advantages of aluminum cable is that it
The cable mostfrequentlychosenforwelding weighslessthanhalfthat of copper,althoughthe
applications is aneoprene-covered,multiple-strand diameter must be about30% larger to compensatefor
copper cable specifically developed for welding ser- its greater resistivity.
vice. Neoprene, a synthetic rubber,is used as the outer If the duty cycle is medium to high, a good rule of
jacket because of its superiortoughness,flexibility, thumb isto increase the sizeof aluminum cable by one
and resistanceto heat, abrasion, and oil or grease. size or number of the American Wire Gauge (AWG)
Size of Workpiece Cable rating over the size of copper cable normally used. As
In arc welding, the work forms part of the electrical an example, if 1/0copper cable is used for an applica-
circuit, so it is essential that the workpiece
cable be the tion, it can be replaced by 2/0 aluminum cable.
Table C-1
Recommended Copper Welding Cable Sizes
PowerSource AWG Cable
Size for Combined
Length of Electrode
and
WorkpieceCables
Rating in Duty Cycle Oto15m 15toMm 30to46m 46to61m 61to76m
Amperes % (O to 50 ft) (50 to 100 ft) (100 to 150 ft) (150 to200 ft) (200 to 250 ft)
100 20 6 4 3 2 1
180 30 4 4 3 2 1
200 60 2 2 2 I 1O
I
300 60 1O
I 1IO 1IO 210 310
400 60 210 210 210 310 410
500 60 210 210 310 310 410
600 60 10 210 310 410 *
*Use two 3/0 cables in parallel.
71
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 D 07842b5 05Lb24b TTb
72 CADMIUM Welding Encyclopedia
To obtain the lowest resistivity, electrolytic alumi- cuit shouldbemadetocheck for cable breaksor
num is used for welding cable. This grade of alumi- shorts, followed by checking the lugs and terminals
numcable is onlyhalfasstrongascopper, so to bolted to the machine studsfor tightness and possible
achieve the same flexibility and resistance to breaking,corrosion at the contact points.
the aluminum wireis semi-annealed, while the copper
wire can be dead soft. CADMIUM
To assure a good connection, is it important to thor- (Chemical symbol: Cd). A malleable, ductile, toxic,
oughly clean the aluminum conductor prior to making bivalent metallic element added to plating to protect
either a solderedor mechanical joint. against corrosion, and used in bearing metals. It is also
Connections
used in low-friction alloys, solders, brazingalloys, and
nickel-cadmium storage batteries. Cadmium is found
Every welding circuit has at least four cable con- in nature as a carbonate or sulphide of certain zinc
nections and possibly more. All are extremely impor- ores.Cadmiumhasanatomicweight of 112.41;
tant. If a cable connection is inadequate, the resulting atomicnumber, 48; specificgravity, 8.65; melting
voltagedropintheelectrical circuit willaffectthe point, 321C (610F).
quality of welding as seriously as an inadequate cable.
The four necessary connections are those connect- CADMIUM FUMES
ing the two cables to the welding machine; cable to a See WELDING FUMES.
device for the electrode to receivethe welding current;
and cable to workpiece clamp. CALCIUM
Many of the difficulties encountered in welding can (Chemicalsymbol:Ca).Asilvery,metallicelement
be traced to the workpiece cable. If a welder attempts that occurs in nature in shells, limestone and gypsum. In
togetbywith an inefficientcontactbetweenthe the field ofwelding,calcium is commorlyassociated
workpiece cable and the workpiece, the result will be withcarbontoformcalciumcarbide.Calciumhasa
unsatisfactory welding and lost time. strong affinity for oxygen and becomes coated with an
Although thereare several waysin which the work- oxide film when exposed ato ir.When heatedin nitrogen,
piece cable can be connected to the work, the prime it forms calcium nitride. It decomposes readily in water
requisite is toensureapositivemeans of contact. with the evolution of hydrogen and formation of calcium
Regardless of which connection is used, it must pro- hydroxide.Atomicnumber, 20; atomicweight, 40.07;
vide suffcient contact surface held firmly in place to melting point,8 10C (1490F); specific gravity, 1.54.
complete the electrical circuit. Cleanlinessof the con-
tact area is of utmost importance. A dirty contact can CALCIUM CARBIDE (CaC,)
allow arcing between the workpiece connector and the Historical Background
work, which not only heats the workpiece connection,
In 1836, English chemist Edmund Davy observed
but results in poor arcing characteristics between the
that a by-product incidental the to production of potas-
electrode and the work.
siumdecomposedwaterandproduceda gas which
The welding machine frame should be connected to containedacetylene.In 1862, aGermanchemist,
an earth ground, or a person accidentally touching it Wohler, discovered that acetylene could be produced
may receive a noticeable shock. The cable connecting from calcium carbide which he had made by heating a
the power supply frame to ground should not be con- mixture of charcoal and an alloy of zinc and calcium
fused withthe workpiece cable andits connection. to a very high temperature. Like Davys material, it
Checking PowerLoss decomposedwaterandyieldedacetylene.He also
Voltage drops due to poor connections in a welding reportedthattheignitedgasproducedabrilliant,
circuit may also show up in the welding machine, mis- smoky flame. Butit was a French chemist, Berthellot,
leading the welding operator by disguising the exact whoin 1862 thoroughlydescribed the reactions.
source of trouble.Beforeassumingthatawelding Unfortunately,forthenextthirtyyearsonlyafew
machine is at fault, the operator should check the cable chemists observed the acetylene flame, and none of
and cable connectionstoassurethattheyaretight, them saw any commercial potential.
Looseconnectionsinthemachine,oroverloaded However, with the development of the electric arc
usage, can cause a transformer winding or insulation furnace,ThomasWillson,anelectricalengineer in
to bum. A visual inspection of the entire welding cir- Spray, North Carolina, attempted to produce metallic

~~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~~~~
STD-AWS
JWE-ENGL 1797 07842b5 05Lb247 932 m
Welding 73
calciumfrom lime and coal tar,Instead of calcium Gas Production

metal, he produced a dark molten mass which cooled The value of calcium carbide comes from the reac-
to a brittle solid. When he discarded it in a stream, a tion which occurs when placed directly contactin with
large quantity of gas was suddenly liberated. On being water according to the following equation:
ignited, the gas produced a bright but smoky flame. It
was not the clean hydrogen flame which would have CaC2+ 2 H20 + Ca(OH)2+ C2H2
been produced by the reaction of calcium and water, Carbide + water yield slaked lime+ acetylene
but obviously because of the soot, was a rich hydrocar-
bon.Repeating the smeltandanalyzingthe solid, Onekg (2.2 lb) of calciumcarbidewillproduce
which showed it to contain calcium carbide, Willson 0.33 m3(1 1.5 ft3) of acetylene at room temperature.
sent a specimen with a letter to Lord Kelvin in Glas-
gowonSeptember16,1892. This dateddocument CALESCENT
secured Willson the honor of being the first to produce See CURIE POINT.
calcium carbide on a commercially promising scale.
CALORIE
During the same time,others in French and German
A unit of heat. The amount of heat required to raise
laboratorieshadbeenstudyinganddescribingcar- the temperature of one gram of water one degree Celsius.
bides, but none were able to produce themon a com-
mercial scale. Thus, as the result of an accident, the CALORiZlNG
industrial possibilities of calcium and acetylene were A process of coating a metal with afine deposit of
recognized for the first time. The practicality of using aluminum similar to galvanizing with zinc. It is used
acetylene as ameansofilluminationwasdemon- primarily as a meansof protecting steel from oxidation
strated in 1892, and with the establishment of the Will- at elevated temperatures, rather than from the more
son Illuminating Company in Spray, in the spring of familiar typesof corrosion.
1895, the first factory to manufacture calcium carbide
came into being. CAP
Calclum Carbide Production A nonstandard term for the final layer a groove
of weld.
Calcium carbideis produced in electric arc furnaces CAPACITANCE
which attain temperatures of about 2760 to 3900C
The property of an electric non-conductor that per-
(5000 to7000F). The arcestablishedbetweentwo mits the storage of energy as a result of electric dis-
electrodes is used to heat a mixture of lime and coke, placementwhenopposite
surfaces
of
the
non-
causing the following changes to occur: conductor are maintained at a difference of potential.
Ca0 + 3C + CaC2 + CO
CAPACITOR
Quicklime + coke yield calcium carbide+ A condenser. An element of an electrical circuit used
carbon monoxide to store charge temporarily; the primary purpose is to
introducecapacitancein an electriccircuit.Itusually
To obtain high quality acetylene,it is necessary to use consists of two metallic plates separated by a dielectric.
quicklime that is essentially 99% pure, and low-ash
coke. The phosphorus and sulfur levels of both must CAPACITOR DISCHARGE STUD WELDING
also be verylow.
The solidifiedcalciumcarbideresemblesdark See ARC STUD WELDING.
brown or black or bluish black stone; its density is
2.24 times greater than water. It will not burn except at CAPACITY
very high temperaturesin the presenceof oxygen. It is The capability of holding or carryingan electric
not affected by organic solvents and it is unaffected by charge. Capacityis measured in farads or microfarads.
shock. It can be stored indefinitely if sealed from air. It
is odorless, but givesoff a smell due to the presence of CAPACITY REACTANCE
small amounts of acetylene produced by the interac- The measure of the opposition to the passage of
tion of moisture inthe air. In the presenceof that mois- alternating current through a condenser as expressed
ture, it slowly slakes to adry lime. in ohms.
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 051h248 879 m
74 CAPILLARY
CAPILLARY ACTION CARBON ARC BRAZE WELDING (CABW)

The force by which liquid, in contact with a solid, is A braze welding process variation that uses an arc
distributed between closely fitted faying surfaces of between a carbonelectrode and the base metal as the
the jointto be brazed or soldered. See STANDARD heat source. SeeSTANDARD WELDING TERMS.
WELDING TERMS.
CARBON ARC BRAZING
Capillary actionis the phenomenon by which adhe- A
nonstandard term for TWIN CARBON ARC
sion between the moltenfiller metal and the base met- BRAZING.
als, together with surface tension of the molten filler
metal, distribute the filler metal between parts of the CARBON ARC CUlTlNG (CAC)
brazed or solderedjoint. An arc cutting process that uses a carbonelectrode.
CARBIDE Carbonarccutting is primarilyused for foundry
A binary compound of the element, carbon, with a workandin scrap yards.Incarbonarc cutting, the
more electropositive element. intense heatof the arc melts a crevice through the parts
Amongthecommerciallyimportantcarbides are being cut. Ajagged cut results. In addition to
the irreg-
silicon(i.e.,theabrasive,Carborundum),iron (the ular
appearance of the cut,
considerable metal is
strengthening constituent in steel), and calcium (used wasted due to the width of thecut. Carbon arc cutting
toproduceacetylene). As aclass,they are hard, has largely been replaced by air carbon arc cutting.See
opaque solids.See CALCIUM CARBIDE. AIR CARBON ARC CUITING.
CARBON ARC WELDING (CAW)

CARBIDE TOOLS
An arc welding process that uses an arc between a
See BRAZING, CARBIDE TOOLS. carbon electrode and the weld pool. The process is
used with or without shielding and without the appli-
CARBON cation of pressure. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
(Chemical symbol: C). A nonmetallic element that See also BENARDOS PROCESS, GAS CARBON ARC
occurs in many inorganic and all organic compounds. WELDING,SHIELDED CARBON ARC WELDING, and
An element of prehistoric discovery, carbonis widely TWIN CARBON ARC WELDING.
distributed in nature. Itis found native in diamond and Carbon arc weldingis, for all practical purposes, an
graphite,andasaconstituent of coal,petroleum, obsoleteprocess.Like the gas-tungstenarcprocess
asphalt, limestone and other carbonates. In combina- (GTAW), itusesnon-consumableelectrodes, either
tion, it occurs as carbondioxide and as a constituent of carbon or graphite. Unlike GTAW, however, the elec-
alllivingthings.Carbon is uniqueinformingan trodes erode rapidly. And unlikeGTAW, which has the
almost infinite numberof compounds. It has an atomic greatadvantageofinert gas shielding, fluxes were
weight of 12; atomic number, 6; melting point, above often used to protect the weld metal and some of the
3500C (6300F); specificgravity,amorphous 1.88, filler wires used were coated withsuitable fluxes. Car-
graphitic 2.25, diamond 3.5l. bon contamination is a potential problem and must be
The addition of carbon to iron produces steel; car- carefully avoided when igniting thearc with a scratch
bon is the principal hardening agent in steel. In most start, or by accidental contact while using very short
cases,alloysteelscontainingcarbon up toabout arcs. Because of the poor shielding and potential for
0.20% are consideredeasilyweldable.Alloysteels carbon contamination, the process was used most fre-
containing over 0.20% carbon are generally consid- quently for weldingcopperand its alloys,andcast
eredheat-treatablesteels,and are heattreated by irons.
quenching and tempering to obtain the best combina- Historical Background
tions of strength and toughness or ductility. In some Carbon arc weldingis presently used only to a very
cases, these steels are used in the as-rolled condition. limited extent, but much was learned about shielding
As theprincipalhardeningelement inmostalloy during the early development of arc welding (circa
steels, carbon controlsthe strength and hardnessof the 1925) when CAW was popular.
steel,whilealloyingadditions are usedtoincrease Welders using the carbon arc to fusion-weld iron
hardenability and improve toughness. and steel learned to control the nature of the welding

~~~ ~~~
~~~~ ~
opedia Welding 75
atmospherebyresortingtosimplemethods. Asan This typeof job can be simplifiedby imbedding the

example, the oxidizing effect of air aspirated into the ends of the parts to be joined in carbon pasteto main-
arc was reduced by inserting a string of combustible tain alignment. Just two daubsof carbon paste on top
material into the arc alongside the electrode to com- of a fire brick are adequate to hold most parts in the
bine with at least some of the oxygen in the arc area. If correct position. The welding can then be done in a
the string consisted of tightlyrolled-uppaper, it minute or two, thus saving much time and frustration.
burned to form water vapor and carbon dioxide, both See BACKUP BARS AND PLATES.
of which are more protective of the molten steel than
oxygen. The string was fed into the upper part of the CARBON DIOXIDE
arc, the narrowestpartwhichcontainedthelargest (Chemicalformula: CO2). Acolorless, odorless,
amount of air.By removingalargeportion of the noncombustible gas usedinseveralweldingpro-
uncombinedoxygenfromthearc, the combustible cesses; supplied in cylinders, shipped at its vapor pres-
materialsometimespermittedwelding to beper- sure of 5722 kPa(830 psig) at 21C (70'F). Molecular
formed without a flux. When more effective protection weight: 44.011; specific gravity: 1.522 at 21C (70F);
was needed in carbon arc welding, the string of com- critical pressure:1183 kPa (171.6 psia).
bustible material was impregnated with slag-forming
ingredients.Asthestringburned,theseingredients CARBON DIOXIDE WELDING
melted and performed their functions rightthe at point Carbon dioxide is used either alone or an as
additive
where they were most needed. The nature of the slag to argon in shielding gases used with the gas metal arc
andfluxvariedwith the metalbeingwelded.For welding (GMAW) process when fabricating steels.
steels, minerals such as clay and asbestos were used Solid Wire GMAW
for forming the slag, and fluorspar was favored as the When CO2 is used alone for shielding with solid
flux.Fromthissimplebeginning,shieldingthearc filler wires, the arc tends to produce excessive spatter
with gases and protecting the molten metal with slag unless itis kept very short.To avoid porosity, thefiller
and flux developed into a highly refined and complex wiresmust be specially deoxidized. However, when
technology.Reference:George E. Linnert, Welding thearclength is properlycontrolled,thegasoffers
Metallurgy, Vol. 1, 4th Edition, 722-23. Miami, Flor- many advantages, such as high welding speeds, deep
ida: American Welding Society, 1994. penetration and low cost. For these reasons, is it often
the gas of choice, particularly for mechanized appli-
CARBON ARC WELDING,Shielded cations. Its use is restrictedtomildsteels,because
A carbon arc welding process in which the molten both carbon and oxygen pick-up in the welds can be
filler and weld metalare effectively protected fromthe problems with stainless steels or low-alloy steels when
air by a supplementary shielding gas. toughness or
control weld
of composition are
requirements.
CARBON BLOCKS AND PASTE Carbon dioxideis also used as an additive to argon.
Carbon in the formof blocks, rods and carbon com- A mixture of25% CO2 and75%argonisused to
positions,orpaste,havebeenused to support the improve the arc stability and weld quality
for the short
workpieceinweldingoperations.Carbonsheetsor circuiting modification of the GMAW process. Lower
blocks are availableinvarioussizes,andcanbe amounts, 6% to 8% CO2, are used with argon to stabi-
shaped as needed. lize thespraytransfermodewhenweldingcarbon
steels and low-alloy steels. Still lower concentrations
In a joining operation, the parts to be welded may
of 1% or 2% CO2 are used to stabilize the spray arc
be small and must be jointed at such an angle that
much time and patience is required to fit up the parts mode when welding stainless steels.
before the actual welding can begin. Often, just as the Flux-Cored Arc Welding
welding torch is applied, the parts which have been The effects of CO2 on the welding arc and control
balanced very sensitivelyare blown apart, and they are of weld deposit composition are completely different
much too hot to pick up and re-position without first when CO2 is used to shield flux-cored wires. Because
allowing themto cool. This sequence may occur three of arc stabilizers inthe wire cores, the arcs can be very
or four times before the welder is successful in fusing stable and free of spatter. Also, carbon pick-up canbe
the two parts. controlled, allowing the gas to be used aloneto deposit
STD-AWS
JWE-ENGL L993 m 0784265 053b250 423
ODE 76 CARBON
acceptablewelds in stainlesssteels.However,since Investigatorshavemeasuredtheeffects of alloy

better control of the arcandcarbon is obtainedby content on the preheat temperatures neededto prevent
using a mixtureof 25% CO2 and 75% argon, thismix- hydrogen-inducedcrackingorpoortoughness,and
ture is frequently used for shielding cored wires. have determined the relative importance of the alloy-
ing elements on that temperature. This
is another mea-
CARBON ELECTRODE sure of carbon equivalence (CE). One example
A nonfiller metal electrode used in arc welding and follows:
cutting, consisting of a carbon or graphite rod, which
Mn+SCir + M o +N
Vi + C u
may becoated with copper or other materials. See CE = C+-
6 + 5
+- 15
STANDARD WELDINGTERMS.
CARBON ELECTRODE HOLDER

The minimumpreheattemperatureneededtoavoid
hydrogen-induced cracking has been shown to have a
Any form of holderfor gripping carbonor graphite value of:
electrodes of 12 to 38 mm (U2 to 1-1/2 in.) diameter.
See ARC WELDING. PHmin = 200 CE- 20
CARBON ELECTRODEPROCESS
where PHis preheat temperature in degrees Celsius.
See BENARDOS PROCESS and ARC WELDING. CARBON, Free
See CARBON.
CARBON EQUIVALENT
Carbon is the most important of all alloying addi- CARBON GRADIENT
tions to steels becauseof the effects it produces on the Carbon gradient is the variation in carbon content
microstructure as the welds cool from the very high from the external face of a carburized metal article to
temperatures associated with the deposition ofweld the unaltered core. A steep gradient is to be avoided
metal. This applies as much to the heat-affected zone whenever possible. A reverseform of carbon gradient
(HAZ) of the plate as it does to the weld metal. In (lowest carbon content near the outer shell) is pro-
addition, when carbon equivalents are of concern, they duced by decarburization.
are generally relatedto the HAZ.
Two of the most troublesome problems associated CARBONIZATION
with fabricating steels are hydrogen-induced cracking Coking or driving off the volatile matter from fuels
and poor toughness or ductility. Both are aggravated such as coal and wood. (Carbonization should not be
by a microstructure called martensite. Since martensite confused with carburizing.)
is very hard, its presence canbe inferred by measuring
the hardness of the HAZ, particularly in the coarse- CARBONIZING FLAME
grained regions which are close to the weld deposit. See CARBURIZING FLAME.
Carbon has a profound and direct effect on hardness.
Other alloying elements also affect hardness, although CARBON MONOXIDE
not to the same degree. In total, they affect the facility (Chemicalformula:CO). A colorless,odorless,
with which a given hardness can be obtained in an toxic gas formedby the incomplete combustionof car-
alloy steel. This is called hardenability. bon or carbon compounds. Carbon monoxide fumes
However, the most important use of this concept may result from welding operations, and the welding
has not been in predicting hardness, but predicting the operator must avoid breathing them. If natural ventila-
minimum preheat temperature needed to avoid the for- tion is not adequate to remove the fumes, a suction
mation of the hard martensite. Since martensite is pro- system should be placed near the source to evacuate
ducedathighercoolingrates,anythingthatcanbe them.
done to reduce cooling ratescan be beneficial toward Molecular weight: 28.010. Specific gravity: 0.968 at
avoiding that microstructure or a high hardness. Pre- 21C (70F). Critical temperature: -140.2"C (-220.4"F);
heat is important becauseit has a very strong effect on critical pressure: 3499.2 kPa (507.5 psia). It condenses
the rate at which welds cool. Weldability, energy inputinto a liquid which boils at -192C (-314F) and solidi-
and cooling ratesare important variables. fies at -206C (-339F).

~~ ~____
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 07842b5 05Lb25L 3b3
Welding Encyclopedia STRAINS CASTING 77
CARBON STEEL CASCADESEQUENCE

A steel containing various percentages of carbon. A combined longitudinal
and cross-sectional
The classification carbon steelis generally accepted sequence in which weld passes are made in overlap-
for all commercial irons and plain steels. Low-carbon ping layers. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
steel is defined as having a maximum of O. 15% carbon A welding sequence developed in shipyards to min-
content.Mildsteel is described as having 0.15 to imizethedefectsthatmight be causedbythermal
0.35% carbon. Medium-carbon steel contains 0.35 to crackingin the root pass. Subsequentbeads are
0.60%carbon,andhigh-carbonsteelcontainsfrom stopped short of a previous pass, creating a cascade
0.60 to 1.0% carbon. effect. See BLOCK SEQUENCE WELDING.
Carbon primarily controls the response of steel to
hardeningheattreatments;however,otheralloying CASCADE WELDING
elements such as manganese, silicon, sulfur, and cop- See CASCADE SEQUENCE.
per may be added. These elements may impart proper-
CASE
ties to the steel that are also important.
A thin layerof metal just below or atthe surface of
CARBON TEMPER a plate with distinctively different structure
or proper-
See TEMPER CARBON. ties from the main body or core.
CASE HARDENING
CARBORUNDUM
Case hardening involves either carburizing or
A trade namefor a silicon carbide abrasive.
nitriding the surface of iron-basealloys to increase
CARBUMZING wear resistance. This is commonly accomplished in
heat-treatingfurnaceswiththepartsimmersedin
Adding carbon tothe surface of iron-base alloysby
appropriate sources of those elements. However, for
heating the metal belowits melting point while in con-
small, noncriticaljobs, it is possible to carburize parts
tact with carbonaceous solids, liquids or gases.
with a welding torch.
CARBURIZING FLAME The method requires a strongly carburizing flame,
which is used to heat the surface to be hardened. It is
A reducing oxyfiel gas flame in which there is an
excess of fiel gas, resulting in a carbon-rich zone best to use the white cone of the flame.The rate of car-
extending around and beyond the cone. See STANDARD burization can be accelerated by turning the oxygen
WELDING TERMS. See Figure A- l . See also NEUTRAL
off occasionally, allowing a carbon soot to formtheon
FLAME, OXIDIZING FLAME, and REDUCING FLAME.
surface. The depth of the case is determined by the
time the part is heated and the maximum temperature
Inanoxyacetylene flame, acarburizing flame is achieved.Meltingshould be avoided.Hardening is
one in which thereis an excess of acetylene. The flame assured by quenching the parts in water immediately
has a sharply defined inner cone and a bluish outer
after being treated.
flame, but between these, surrounding the cone, is an
intermediate white cone.The length of this intermedi- CASSElTE
ate or excess-acetylenecone may be consideredto be a A light-proof holder to contain the sensitive film
measure of theamount of excessacetylene in the used during exposure to X-rays or gamma rays in weld
flame. This flame is sometimes called excess acety- inspection.
lene, or reducing.
A carburizing flameis used in hardfacing and simi- CAST BRASS
lar processes to obtain a fusionor bond between base A form of brass generally knownas common brass.
metal and weld metal without deep melting of the baseIt may contain upto 75% copper, butthe average com-
metal. position is two parts of copper to one part zinc. Cast
brass often contains a small amount of lead.
CARRIER GAS
The gas used to transport powdered material from CASTING STRAINS
the feeder or hopper to a thermal spraying gun or a Strains accompanied by internal stresses resulting
thermal
cutting
torch.
See STANDARD WELDING from uneven solidification and uneven cooling of a
TERMS. castingandtherelief of such stresses by yielding.
STD.AWSJWE-ENGL 5997 07842b5 051b252 2TT m
78 CAST Encyclopedia Welding
Such strains are similar to welding strains which result common of the cast irons. The gray irons are readily
from the solidification and coolingof weld metal. machinable.
The whitecastironsexhibitcrystalline,whitish
CAST IRON fractures because the carbon remains in solution dur-
A large familyof alloys, generally containing more ingsolidification,producingmassivecarbidesina
than 2% carbonandbetween 1% and 3% silicon. pearlitic matrix. They are very brittle and hard, but
Unlike steels, they are not malleable when solid, and very wear-resistant.
most have low ductility and very poor resistance to The ductile irons are also known as nodular irons.
impact loading. However, cast irons are veryuseful They contain alloys which cause the graphite to nucle-
whenintricate or inexpensivecastings are required, ate as spheres. These nodulesare encased in a layer of
and they provide a high damping capacity (the ability ferrite and are in a pearlitic matrix, making them very
of a material to absorb vibration) which can be impor-ductile. Some nodulesexhibitelongations ofup to
tant for precision machinery. Cast irons have a low 18%.
melting temperature, are very fluid when molten, and Malleable cast irons are produced by heat treating
shrink very little during solidification. specially alloyed white cast irons. Heat treating results
Unlikesteels,castironscontain free graphite in the development of graphite nodules (temper car-
grains, and it is the shape and distribution of the free bon) in a ferrite matrix. Malleable cast irons are used
graphite grains which have the strongest effect on the whengoodstrength,toughness,andcastingand
properties of the castiron. Also important isthe matrix machining propertiesare required.
in which they occur. The microstructure of the matri-
ces depends onthe alloys presentin the metal, and the CAST IRON, Arc Welding
rate at which it solidifies and cools.If this sequence is Most welds in cast irons are made with arc an weld-
very rapid, the dissolved carbon does not have enough ing
processsuchas
shielded
metalarc
welding
time to nucleateasgraphiteduringsolidification; (SMAW), flux cored arc welding (FCAW), gas metal
while the matrix transforms to harder microstructure. arc
welding(GMAW),gastungstenarcwelding
Subsequent heat treatmentsare also important to tem- (GTAW), andsubmerged arc welding(SAW). The
per the very hard structures. high energy concentration associated with these pro-
cesses allows highly localized fusion of both the cast
Silicon is added to cast iron primarily to control the
irons and the electrodes. But this results in high cool-
solubility of carbon, and therefore the characteristics
ing rates and localized thermal expansion, neither of
of the graphite. Additionally, silicon serves as a deoxi-
which is desirable.Even so, reliable,high-quality
dizer, promotes fluidity, and decreases shrinkage. Sul-
welds can be produced when proper procedures and
fur might be present in thealloybut is notadded
suitable filler metals are used. Prior to the develop-
intentionally, since it causes hot cracks and can pro-
ment of the SMAW processes, the carbon arc welding
duce porosity if present in high concentrations. Phos-
(CAW) process was used extensively for welding cast
phorous is also undesirable,becauseitproducesa
irons. Few, if any, shops still considerCAW as a viable
hard,brittlecompound; its lowmeltingtemperature technique.
contributes to hot-cracking problems. However, phos-
phorous increases the fluidity of these irons, whichis a Weldlng Considerations
desirablecharacteristicwhencastingverythinsec- Because of the considerable differences in the com-
tions. Manganese is added to tie up the sulphur as a positionandmicrostructure of the castirons, it is
high-melting compound in order to reduce the prob- essential to identify the typeof cast iron before weld-
lem of hot cracking. Manganese is also used to control ing begins. Some insight about the type of iron can be
themicrostructure ofwelds,improvingthestrength determined fromthe appearance of fractures, an exam-
and ductility as wellas machinability. ination of the microstructure, or from hardness mea-
Types of Cast Irons
surements. A chemical analysis would also be helpful.
When no information is obtainable, the iron could be
The four basic types of cast iron are gray, white, assumed tobe gray cast iron because its of general use,
ductile, and malleable. and the procedures selected on that basis.
The gray cast irons contain flake graphite, which The selection of the filler metal, the energy input,
imparts a gray surface in fractures, and are the most and the preheatare very important to successful weld-
~ ~~~~~~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 07842b5 05Lb253
13b m
Welding Encyclopedia CAST IRON, Arc Welding 79
ing. Selectionof the welding processis also important what the temperature should be, and how it shouldbe
inestablishingtheproceduresandmaterialstobe distributed. Preheat prevents cracks caused by thermal
used. stresses, reduces residual stresses, distortion, and hard-
When weldingcast iron with a steel electrode, there ness in the HAZ.It bums off undesirable organic con-
are four important zones in the vicinity of the weld: taminants such as oils and greases. As a general rule,
the weld metal area, the alloyed weld metal zone, the to prevent cracking, the minimum preheat temperature
heat-affected zone, and theoriginal cast iron. See Fig- shouldbeabout40C(100F) for malleableirons;
ure C-l. InC-1,SectionA is deposited steel, unaf- between 150 and260C(300and500F) for gray
fected by dilution. Section B is also steel deposited irons,dependingonthealloycontent;between200
from the electrode, but changed from a soft steel to a and 3 15C (400 and 600F) for ductile irons, depend-
rather high-carbon steel. This is due to alloying with ing on the alloy content, and above 315C (600F)for
carbon from the cast iron. white irons to prevent the formation of martensite. The
filler metal is an important consideration in preheat-
ing,withlowertemperaturesbeingacceptablewith
weaker welds. The temperature selected and the distri-
LINE OF FUSION 7 c:f/ bution of heat within a casting are also dependent on
the complexity of the shape and size of the casting,
(with the more complex shapes and larger sizes requir-
ing more heat), and the need to produce compressive
stresses in the vicinityof the weld joint. Slow cooling
of thecastingafterwelding is alsonecessary. Very
slow cooling can be accomplished by burying the cast-
ing in sand or other material or, atthe very least, cov-
A - Steel deposited but unaffected. ering it withaheatresistantfabrictominimize
B - Steel deposited and hardened by absorption
of carbon. radiation and convective cooling.
-
C Cast iron which has been hardened.
-
D Original castiron. Thermal Stresses
Figure C-1-Steel Electrode Deposit on Cast Iron When a section of metal is heated or cooled, the
expansion or contraction which takes place will pro-
duce stresses. This canbevisualized by comparing
Cast iron which was brought up to melting tempera-thiseffecttothatproduced by drivingawedge
ture, then chilled by the cold mass of the casting, is between the sections at the point of heat application.
shown as SectionC, the heat-affected zone.The result The greatest stress is exerted at a time whenthe metal
is a metal which is extremely hard and brittle. This is just below the point of fusion, or at the time contrac-
hardening is due to rapid cooling, which prevents the tion has taken place. The effect of these stresses is
iron carbide from changing into iron and graphite. The illustrated in Figure C-2. Assume that Item 1 is to be
metal in this areais white iron; the controlling compo- welded at the point marked W and that the casting
nent is cementite. section at the point of welding is 13 by 2.5 cm (5 by
Section Dis the original cast iron. 1 in.).An application of welding heat at the point W
Failure of a welded joint of the type shown in Fig- continues to expand the metal at this point until a point
ure C-1 will usually occur in the cast iron adjacent to just belowthefusion is reached. This expansion
the line of fusion, because the hardened cast iron is causesthe free end to moveoutwardinorderto
more brittle thanthe high-carbon steel onthe steel side accommodate the greater bulk of material at the weld,
of the lineof fusion. just as if a wedge were being driven into the metal.
A specific reference is ANSYAWS Dl 1.2, Guide After the metal solidifies, this greater bulk begins to
for Welding IronCastings,published by the American recede or contract and continues todo so until a point
Welding Society. is reached at which the casting has cooled to ambient
Preheat temperature.Withthiscontraction there is a corre-
Preheating to slow the rate at which the welds cool sponding movement of the free end of the casting. If,
is important to the success of welding cast irons. It is instead of the casting having theflat section shown in
not a question of whether to use preheat or not, but Item 1, it takes the form of that shown in Item2, where

RON, 80 CAST Welding Encyclopedia
1 2 3 4 5
Figure C-2-Stresses Set Up During Welding
the leg section is similar to three sidesof a square, the positioned as needed inthe weld joint to reinforce the
leg, insteadof being free to move,is held more rigidly, welded joint. (See CASTIRON STUDDING and ARC
causing considerable strain on the lower side of the STUD WELDING).
section and opposite the weld. Another technique involves weld face grooving, in
ContractionStrains. On cooling, contraction takes
which staggeredgroovesare cut along the faces of
placeas in the previousexample,causingasevere joints to accept stringer welds. They prevent potential
strain in the lower section. If the casting is solid and cracks from propagating in completed welds.
the section so heavy that the welding heat does not Peening can be very helpful in reducing residual
penetrate all theway through, there is the same expan- tensile stresses. It is most effectivewhenusedon
sion and contraction with the accompanying stresses weldswhichareatredheat,butnotbelow 540C
and strains which often result in warpage and break- (1000F). Peening can be accomplished by hand with
age. Items3,4 and 5 in FigureC-2 show similar exam- a ball peen hammer or with anair hammer.
ples; the points W representing the places of Preventing Cracks.Cracking canalso be reducedby
welding and the points S where the greatest strainis depositing the welds in a specific sequence and direc-
exerted.Breakagefromexpansionandcontraction tion. In welding castings with irregular sections, the
stresses does not always occur atthe point of greatest area of leaststrain(theheavysections)shouldbe
stress application, but at a point where the strengthof welded first, and the area of the greatest strain (the
the section is less than that required to withstand the light sections) should be welded last. When welding
stressapplied at thatpoint. An example of this is areas of the various sections, the directionof the weld
shown in Item 3, where the weld is made in the cross should be from theheavysectiontoward the light
member between the legs, and the strainis distributed section,andalwaystowarda corner or edge when
about the apex of the angle formed at the junction of possible.
the legs. If the section of the apex is heavy enough to Joint Preparation
withstand the energyexerted, the breakage,ifany,
would then take place in the leg sections and at a point Sound, clean cast iron is an essential requirement
which is less ableto withstand the applied stress at that for joints to be repaired by welding. Sometimes the
particular point. A close study of the construction of weld zoneis impregnated with sand and other contam-
each particular castingis necessary so that proper pre- inants which accumulated while the cast component
cautions andcare can be exercised when designingthe was in use. All foreign materials must be removed,
joint, preparing it for welding,andcompleting the including casting skins, sand, rust, paint,or oil. All of
weld. the defective metal mustbe removed before the welds
are made. Sufficient metal must be removed to provide
Special Techniques the welder with a large enough opening to achieve full
Thereliability of weldsincastironscanbe penetration inthe root and side walls. The presenceof
improvedwithseveraltechniques.Oneinvolvesa contaminants might not be detected until after some
mechanical method calledstudding,in which studsare weld metal has been deposited. If such a condition is

~~ ~
STD-AWS
JWE-ENGL 1997 D 07842b5 OSLb255 T09
yclopedia Welding Welding Arc IRON, CAST 81
found, that metal as well as more of the casting must very low solubility for carbon, so carbon dissolved in
be removedso that sound weld metal can be deposited. the weld metal as the result of dilution is rejected as
Cracks are often pinned by drilling holes at the ends graphite during solidification. This minimizes shrink-
of the cracks. This reduces the high stress concentra- age in the weld metal which, in turn, reduces residual
tions at the cracks and keeps them from propagating stresses in the weld joint. Additionally, the nickel-rich
while preparing thejoint for welding and while weld- alloys are soft, easy to machine and offer high resis-
ing. Air carbon arc is the most common process used tance to hot cracking when restrained.
for removing defects and opening the joints. Follow- There are fourbasiccategories of nickel-base
ingthis,theheat-affectedzone (HAZ)shouldbe electrodes:
removed by grinding. (1) High-nickel-containing about 85% nickel and
The type of weld groove tobe prepared depends on alloyed with carbon, silicon, manganese and copper.
many factors, such as accessibility, anticipated appli- They are used in applications where the diluted weld
cation, the type of cast iron, thickness, the welding metal must be machined.
process and the filler metal. For example, when using (2) Nickel-iron- 50/50 mixofnickelandiron
high-nickel fillers, adjustments need to be made for containing the same alloy additionsas the high-nickel
the sluggishness of this material, meaning a wider electrodes. The welds are stronger and more ductile,
root opening and larger groove angle. making them more usefulfor welding ductileor high-
ShieldedMetalArcWelding strength gray irons. Theyare effective for joining cast
ironstodissimilaralloys,such as carbonsteel or
Shieldedmetalarcwelding(SMAW)isprobably
nickel base alloys. Stainless steels should be buttered
themostwidelyusedprocess for arcweldingcast with a high-nickel electrode first to keep chromium
irons because of its versatility, because it offers the
carbide from formingin the final weld. This alloy has
greatestselectionof filler metalcompositions,and the lowest coefficientof thermal expansion, making it
because it can be used in all positions. The SMAW more usefulfor welding heavysections.
process also has a numberof other advantages, suchas
(3) Nickel-manganese-iron- a 40/40mix of nickel
reasonable deposition rates, low distortion and a nar-
and iron, containing about 12% manganese.This alloy
row heat-affected zone.
has the good combination of strength, ductility and
Filler Metals forSMAW cracking resistance. It is used for welding the nodular
Gray Iron Rods. These rods can match the composi- irons, and in surfacing applications where wear resis-
tions of the castingsto be welded, including those with tance is important.
high carbon levels. They are used in the flat position at (4) Nickel-copper-a 60/40nickel copper alloyed
high currents to produce large fluid puddles. To avoid with a little silicon and manganese. These electrodes
hot cracking, the arc current should not be interrupted are used only in applications where dilution can be
quickly, but should be decreased slowlyto fill the cra- kept very low, because the addition of iron can cause
ter and allow itto solidify without cracking. Gray iron weld cracking.
rods produce welds which can matchthe color of the CopperAlloyElectrodes. Copperalloyelectrodes
casting as well as its mechanical properties. areusedforbrazeweldingcastirons.(See BRAZE
Mild Steel Electrodes. Mild steel electrodes such as WELDING). Themostcommonlyused of theseare
E7018 are usedtorepairdefectsincastingswhen strengthened with either tin or aluminum. The copper
color match is important, but easy machining is not. To alloy electrode containing aluminum is considerably
keep the weld hardness down, it is important to mini- stronger, but both offer the advantages of being very
mize dilution and discourage procedures which cause soft and ductile when hot. This allowsit to yield while
high cooling rates. Another problem is associated with cooling, relieving stresses that could cause cracking.
the large shrinkage differences with mild steel cast and The strengthincreasesrapidlyas the alloyscoolto
iron: the resultant stresses can be severeenoughto ambient temperature.
cause cracking in the HAZ. To avoid them, preheat is Technique for Deep Welds
essential. When the weld is deep enough to require that sev-
Nickel
Alloy
Electrodes. Nickel-alloyelectrodes eral layers be deposited, a special technique is used.
have a special place in the fabrication of cast irons. This technique utilizes a coated electrodein combina-
Nickel offers a number of advantages. First, it has a tion with afiller rod of silicon bronze.The first layer is

~~ ~~
STD=AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 07842b5 051b25b 945 m
IRON, 82 CAST Encyclopedia Welding
alwaysmadewiththeelectrodealone;thesilicon cuitingtransfer,thesewires can beused for braze

bronze is not added until subsequent layers.The oper- welding. See BRAZE WELDING.
ator uses one hand to maintain the arc with the elec- Flux-Cored Arc Welding
trode and feeds the bronze wire intothe pool with the Like the solid wires used for the GMAW process,
other hand. Thefiller rod is held close tothe arc and is the cored wires used with this modification of GMAW
added by intermittently bringing its end into contact must be ductile. However, since alloys can be incorpo-
with the pool behind the electrode. Care has to exer- rated in the core, many compositions can be produced
cised so that the feed rod will not make contact with without causing either drawing or feeding difficulties.
the electrode. See CAST IRON;CASTIRON, Oxyacety- In addition, some of the cored wires can incorporate
lene Welding,and CAST IRON, Malleable. constituents which provide protection to the arc and
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) weld pool, eliminating the need for shielding gases.
These are the self-shielded cored wires, some of which
The GMAW process is most commonly used with offer the advantages of high deposition rates and low
the spray-arc mode of metal transfer, a high-energy penetration at relatively low welding currents. They
technique. Producing a large heat-affected zone (HAZ) can be used to great advantage for welding heavy sec-
and deep penetration, is it more likely tocause weld or tions of cast irons. Some also have basic slags which
HAZ cracking. The buried-arc mode, which is some- increase the tolerance for sulfur, thereby reducing the
timesused for weldingcarbonsteelswith C02-rich possibility of hot cracking.
gases, also produces a deeply penetrating weld. In the
globular mode, however, using argon-rich gases and Filler Metals. Wirescontaining 70/30 nickel-iron
currents below that at which spray occurs, the weld compositions are available for welding heavy castings.
penetration is very low. Unfortunately, this mode can- Although these wires are effective for welding thick
not be used inany position exceptthe flat or, possibly, sections, the welds produced are generally too hard to
for horizontal fillet welds. The short-circuiting mode be machined. Nickel-iron-manganese electrodes with
allows low penetration welds to be made in all posi- a 60/40 ratio of Ni/Fe deposit stronger and more duc-
tions; seemingly an ideal combination for welding cast tilewelds which aremachinable. They also canbe
irons. However, due to the very low energy associated used to weld cast irons to dissimilar metals.
with
this
mode,lack-of-fusion
defects
must be
CAST IRON, Braze Welding
expected when welding thicknesses greater than 6 mm
Cast iron braze welding can be used for the repair of
(1/4 inch).
breaks in iron castings, from very small castings to
Filler Metals. The variety of electrodes available for thoseweighing several
tons. The term brazing
GMAW isnotasextensive as thoseavailable for includes metal arc processes and oxyacetylene braze
SMAW. This is becausesmalldiameterwiresare welding.
required for the gas shielded processes, meaning that Castingsmustbethoroughlycleanand free of
the alloys must have reasonably good ductility in order graphite;theymustbepreheatedbeforebrazing is
to be drawn. For this reason, high-carbon, nickel-rich applied. Joints are prepared for brazing in the same
wires cannot be made economically. It is possible to way as for welding. See CASTIRON;ARC WELDING,
use the same alloys designedfor welding steels. They JOINT PREPARATION; and PREHEAT.
provide an excellent color match; however, they must When braze welding, a black heat is all that is
beusedwithcare,andbecausedilutioncausesthe necessary (instead of the dull red heat necessary when
welds to be very hard, they cannot be machined. Pre- fusion-weldingwiththetorchand cast ironrods).
heat is essential. There are a number of bronze welding rods on the
When dilution must be tolerated and the welds must market whichmay be usedfor brazing cast iron.
be machined, alloys containing 95% or more nickel Procedure
are required. Nickel-iron wires are also available, but Afluxshouldbeusedwhenbrazeweldingcast
they deposit hard welds whichare crack sensitive. The iron with the oxyacetylene process. The torch flame
samenickel-manganese-ironalloyusedfor SMAW should be either neutral, slightly
carburizing or
offers the same high strength and crack resistancefor slightly oxidizing, depending on the recommendations
GMAWwelding.Copper-tinandcopper-aluminum of the rod manufacturer for the type of rod and the
wires can also be used and, with globular or short-cir- specific application.

STD*AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb257 8 8 1 m
Welding Encyclopedia CAST IRON, Malleable 83
One of the principal factors incast iron braze weld- tooth or boss on a gear wheelor other large casting, if
ing is good tinning.This is accomplished by careful the castingis cold and thefiller rod is added, the metal
cleaning and preparation, the use of a good tinning cools immediately on being welded, and results in a
flux, and by heating the metal to the correct heat, a hard, chilled weld, which lacks strength and is impos-
black heat adjacentthe area tobe welded. sible to machine.
It is good practiceto position the pieces beingbraze Hard,porousandunacceptableweldscan also
welded so that the weld is made uphill. A short length resultfromusinganincorrect flux oran excessive
of seam, about 5 cm (2 in.), is heated with the torch, quantity of flux, impurities in the filler rod, or rods
the rod is dipped into the flux, and this area tinned. It low in silicon.
is easy to recognize when the bronze is tinning well
because of the manner in which it flows over the hot CAST IRON, Malleable
casting. If it does not flow readily, tinningis not being Malleable cast iron is capable of beingbent,
properly accomplished; the flux should be placed so extended or shaped to some extent. For example, if a
that the metal ahead of the molten film of bronze is malleable casting is placed in a vise and an attempt is
covered. If tinning becomes difficult, as is sometimes made to break it, it will bend before breaking.If cast-
the case with an old casting, it is often possible tofile ings are subjected to great strains and rough usage,
the surface with a coarse file while the surface is hot malleable cast iron is required. Malleablecast iron can
so that the bronze will adhere. be distinguished from gray cast iron if a fracture is
Afteratwo-inchsection of the joint hasbeen broken clear through the casting. The malleable iron
welded, another two-inch sectionis tinned, and subse- has a clearly discernible white, steely skin extended
quently built up untilthe joint is completed. Any ten- slightly fromthe surface of the casting toward the cen-
dency of the bronzetobecomeliquidandruncan ter. A fracture showing the interiorof a gray ironcast-
always be prevented by drawing the torch away imme- ing lacks the bright skin at the surface.
diately. This enables the welder to control the bronze Annealing. Malleable iron castings are not used in
pool and to make an acceptable weld. the as-cast condition. They must be annealed to make
When braze welded in this manner, the strength of them malleable. The castingsare packed for annealing
this joint is such that if the weld is broken, pieces of in different ways, depending on the product desired.
the bronze will actually pullareas of the cast iron out For example, black heart castings are made by tightly
of the cast iron base metal, indicating that the weldis packing the white iron castings in the annealing boxes,
stronger thanthe cast iron base. surrounding them with mill scale (oxide of iron), and
CAST IRON, Hard Spots
covering them. They are then placed in the annealing
furnacesandmaintainedat 730 to 815C (1350 to
A cast iron weld will very often contain hard spots,
or will be hard in some places and soft in others. The
1500F) for approximately 60 hours. Duringthis time,
the carbon in the iron changes from the chemically
chief cause of this is the chilling of the metal from the
combined form, separating from the iron and becom-
molten state.
ing interspersed among the grains of the iron as very
When molten cast iron is suddenly cooled, the dis- fine particles of a coke-like carbon calledtemper car-
solved carbon remains in the iron as such, but when
bon. While this change is occumng, the mill scale, or
cooled slowly the carbon separates from the iron inthe iron oxide, surrounding the castings in the annealing
form of graphite.A fracture in asuddenlycooled
boxes combines with the carbon in the surface of the
metal would show white iron, and on testing with a castings, decarburizing the surface metal, thus chang-
file, would prove to be very hard; a fracture in slowly ing it into a grade of steel. If a black heart malleable
cooled metal would show gray iron and wouldbe soft. casting is broken by blows from asledge hammer, the
Sudden cooling of cast iron makes it hard. When a fracture shows a bright steel skin for a slight depth
cold welding rod is plunged into the pool of molten around the surfaceof the casting, and a black interior.
metal under the flame, the rod chills the metal itcomes
in contact with, and causes small round hard spots in PipeFittings. Manypipe fittings, and some other
the metal.Thesehardspotsmake it difficult to types of castings which do not require great strength,
machine or finish the weld. To overcome this problem, are made in all black form, and are called all-black
the rod should be red hot before it is brought in contact malleable castings. These castings are packed in the
with the melted iron. As an example, when welding a annealingboxes inan inertmedium like sand. The

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 W 0784265 05hb258 718 m
dia 84 CAST IRON, Malleable
Welding
packing prevents warping of the castings while they depending on the thickness of the metal. A single-V
are heated at red heat in the annealing boxes. In some should extend to within about 1.6mm (1116 in.) from
cases, no packing at allis used. the bottom,andwhenthetwopieces are placed
together,thereshouldbeabout 1.6 mm (U16 in.)
WhiteHeartCastings. Another grade of malleable
between the edges at the point wherethe bevels meet.
castings is knownas white heart castings,and are
The groove angle should be approximately 90".
more common in Europe than in the United States.
They are packedinmill scale oriron ore, andare The surfaces of the V should be thoroughly wire-
decarburized throughout the casting so that the frac- brushed, or sandblasted if equipment is available. If
ture is white. thecasting is coveredwithgreaseor oil, asolvent
should used to clean it.
ShrinkageinMalleableCastings. Theshrinkage of
malleable castings is important to welders. Gray iron Temperature Control. It is important that the casting
shrinks about10.4mm/m (U8 in./ft)duringsolidifi- be kept as cool as possible: first, to prevent change in
cation and cooling. White ironshrinks about 21 mm/m the form of the carbon, and second, to prevent strains
(U4in&). Cast steel shrinks about 26 mm/m (5/16 in./ in the castingitself. The arc should never, at any time,
ft). An interestingobservationisthatduring the be held on the casting long enough to heat the metal to
annealing of white cast iron,it regains about halfof its a red heat.
shrinkage, growing in size during the annealing pro- Cleaning Weld Beads.Before welding a second bead
cess so that the net shrinkage of malleable castingsis over one already made, the first bead should be thor-
about the same (10.4 mm/m [ 1/8 in./ft]) as that of gray oughly cleaned: wire-brushed until the steel is bright
iron castings. and free from any particles of the coating or of the
Welding Malleable Castings slag.Cleanliness is an absolute necessity,otherwise
Consideringthechangesintheironwhichtake foreign particlesmaybecomeembedded,causinga
place during the annealing process, it follows that if pocket or hole.
the torchor the arc is applied to the malleable iron and When using a steel electrode, the weld is a likely to
the temperature of the section to be weldedis actually be hard, too hard for machining. However, this is not
raised to the pointof fusion, the entire structure of the important when making anaverage repair on a mallea-
casting is altered, andthe weld section reverts approx- ble casting, because machiningis not usually required.
imately to white iron. Therefore, an ordinary fusion If machining is required, it is better to use a bronze
weldonamalleablecastingproducesaweldarea electrode.
which does not have the strength or the toughness of If the casting is heavy and the section is thick, it
the rest of the casting, may not even beas strong as a may be better to drill and tap holes at various points
gray iron casting, and would also be hard and brittle. and insert threaded studs.
Any weldwhichrequiresactualfusionofthebase
Electrodes forSMAW
metal of the casting might be counterto the objective
of annealed castings.This is usually what takes place, Electrodesmade of phosphor-bronzeandheavily
and the fusion welding process is not recommended. coated to shield the molten metal from the air can be
Arc Welding, Malleable Iron
used in making malleable iron welds. The work should
be prepared and cleaned in exactly the same way as for
When arc welding is used for malleable cast iron, other types of welding, and the electrodes should be
the procedure is generally very much the same as for used with DCEP. A 4 mm (5/32 in.) electrode can be
cast iron, however, special precautions are necessary used with a current from 70 to 170 amp, and 24 to 28
because malleable iron andcast iron have very differ- arc volts. If a 4.8 mm (3/16 in.) electrode is used, cur-
ent characteristics. Malleable iron is affected by the rent should be from90 to 220 amp, with voltage from
heat of fusion to a greater extent. If the casting must 24 to 28 volts. It is desirable to hold the electrode at
have malleable characteristics when the weld is com- approximately 90" to the work. It may be necessary to
pleted, there is no alternative but to heat treat it again, reduce the current somewhat as the work progresses
as it was first treated to makeit a malleable casting. and the heat increases. It should be remembered that
JointPreparation. Inpreparing the joint for arc with these rods, as with others, the casting mustbenot
welding, the joint opening should be chipped out, or heated too hot: the lowest current required to achieve
ground to eitherasingle-ordouble-Vopening, fusion should be used.

~ ~~
~~~ ~~
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 ,W 07842b5 051b25q 654 m

TEncyclopedia
Welding IRON,
Weldlng
Oxyacetylene 85
Monel@ alloy electrodes may also be used to pro- completed, continuing with short increments until the
duce machinable welds of high strength. Because of entire braze is completed.
the highermeltingpoint of Monel@,about 1360C Penetration. Whenbrazewelding a smallcasting
(2480F), highercurrents are neededtoproduce
with the oxyacetylenetorch,thewelder is often
proper flow and fusion. Each layer or bead is moder- tempted to fit the two parts togetherin alignment, and
atelypeenedtodiminishstresses,andthoroughly to flow the bronze on the surface, believing that the
cleaned between beads. braze metal will penetrate the depth of the break and
Oxyacetylene Torch Brazing adhere to it. This procedure mayworkin a furnace
To make a repair weld in a malleable casting, the brazing process in which castings are heated for a long
crack or break must be chipped or ground out to form time until the heat penetrates evenly to the center of
a V to an included angle of approximately 60. The the casting. The bronze spelter used for this purpose
surfaces of the V should be vigorously wire-brushed to penetrates entirely to the bottom of the casting, and
cleanthemthoroughly.If the casting is completely such repairs are very strong when properly made. isIt
broken, the parts should be placed in correct align- difficult, however, to heat the center
of a small mallea-
ment, and supported on the welding table to prevent ble casting sufficiently with the torch without over-
sagging or warping out of shape. It is a good practice heating the surface. As a rule, any attempt to torch-
to use a bronze rod with a rather low melting point. braze in this manner will result in fusing only to the
Heatingmalleableirontothepoint of fusionwill surface skin of the casting, with no appreciable fusing
change its characteristics, so the temperature should be at the center. Itis usually a better practice to forma V
kept as low as possible to avoid overheating. in the casting and tin a weld from the bottom up to
make sure that all portionsof the weld actually adhere
Temperature Control. The melting temperature of a to the iron surface.
bronze welding rod is about 885C (1626F); a man- As a general rule, whether an arcor a torch is used
ganese-bronze welding rod will melt at approximately to weld malleableiron, bronze welding rods and elec-
925C (1700F). Therefore, it is necessary to heat the trodes are preferred because of the lower temperature
casting only tothe melting temperatureof the particu- at which they can be applied, to avoid fusion of the
lar rod being used, which is about a red heat, in order malleable iron during the process.
to flow the bronze over the metal. It will adhere to the
surface, or tin the metal. CAST IRON, Oxyacetylene Welding
Flux. As in most brazing, a suitable flux is needed. Welding cast iron witha torch andcast iron welding
The flux should bea malleable ironflux, so designated rods can readily be accomplished.Preheatingthe weld
on the label, and not the type of flux used for brazing area or the entire casting is required, except when very
cast iron. The object of the flux is to clean the surface small castingsare involved. See PREHEAT.
of the casting,so that the metal willtin readily. The same techniquesfor cleaning and preparing the
Tinnlng. The most important partof any braze is the
casting for welding that are used for other processes
initial tinning, or coating, of the base metal with the are usedwith gas welding. See CAST IRON,ARC
WELDING.
bronze. If this coating readily flows over the metal at
the right temperature, the balance of the weld can be Procedure
built up to the top of the V. In this respect, malleable The cast iron weld joint is prepared and preheated.
iron does notdifferfromgrayironcastings,except A neutral oxyacetylene flameis used, along witha cast
that itis critical not to overheat the malleable castings. iron weldingflux, which is essential to break down the
Gray castings can be placed in a preheating furnace surface oxide and increase the flowing qualities of the
andpreheatedwithoutanydanger of changingthe metal. Assuming that the weld is to be made on a V-
structure of the metal, but greater attention must be joint, the torch is applied tothe edges of the V, and the
given to preventing such changes when heating mal- cast iron welding rod is heated and dipped into the
leable castings. flux, which adheres toit. The sides of the V are melted
Whenbrazeweldingmalleablecastings, a short down, andthe molten rod is added to the puddle.
section of the V should be tinned as described, and this A short section of the weld is built up in this man-
section should be built up to completion as rapidly as ner; successive sectionsare added untilthe weld is fin-
possible. The next section should then be tinned and ished. With cast iron,it is often good practice to begin

Licensed by Information Handling Services ~~ ~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b505Lb2bO376
WELDING
86 CAST IRON PIPE Weldina EncvcloDedia
at the center of a weld and back the torch out to the either brushed with the solution or dipped in it. They
edge of the weld. Then the flame is always pointing are then rinsed and allowed to dry before soldering.
towardthecompletedweld,andas the edge is Some welders prefer to prepare cast iron for solder-
approached,themetalcanbecontrolledtogood ing by tinningit with half-and-half solder,50% tin and
advantage. The edge can be built up square, or to the 50% lead. A grinder is used to remove all ofthe scale
appropriate shape. If the torch is pointing toward the from the surface so that it is clean and bright. The
edge, the hot metalis likely to be driven over theedge ground surface is then cleaned of grease by dipping it
by the force of the flame and will produce a weld with in a lye solution, then rinsed and dipped in muriatic
a ragged, incomplete finish. acid. The surface is then treated with rosin and tinned
Manipulating the torch helps finish the weld. If the with half-and-half solder. The casting may haveto be
torch is withdrawn momentarily from the hot puddle, dipped in acid several times before it becomes thor-
theweldmetalwillinstantlysolidify,enabling the oughly tinned, Rubbingthe surface of the iron casting
welder to control the metal and make a neat, square with a piece of zinc while the surface is covered with
edge weld. The oppositeside of the weld can be com- acid will facilitate the tinning. The tinned surface can
pleted using the same procedure. then be soldered withthe half-and-half solder.
Porosity CAST IRON STUDDING
Porosity in a weldis formed by gas entrapment dur- Steel can be welded to cast iron if the work-
ingsolidification.Thecavitiesorholes(blowholes) pieces are free to align themselves after contraction
which appearin the molten puddle during weldingare strains which result during cooling. Studding can be
usually the result of overheating the metal, or holding done when the weld is in a position in which the parts
the flame in one place too long, thus driving the gases are not free to align themselves.A steel weld made to
produced by the flame into the molten cast iron. Poros-cast ironappears acceptable untiljust about the timeit
ity can also be caused by gas produced in the metal is being most admired during cooling, when it invari-
during overheating. If gases are allowed to remain in ably cracks along the edge of the weld. This is easily
the metal,theweldwillbeporousandwilllack explainedwhenweconsiderthatsteelhasapproxi-
strength. mately four times the strength of cast iron. The defi-
Porosity in cast iron welds can be avoided in many nite locationof the break comes about because the cast
cases by correct manipulation of the torch.The flame iron adjacent to the weld has become chilled cast iron,
should be directedso that it is not pointed at the mol- no matter whether it was originally so or not, and a
ten puddle for more than a moment, then it is quickly sharp demarcation of structure, together with a possi-
moved to a colder part of the seam, or to the rod as isit ble layer of weaker cast iron, invariably causes the
held in the molten metal. break to take place in this layer of cementite. Studding
Standards for welding cast iron are containedin is recommended for large castings where strength is
ANSYAWS D 11.2, Guide for Welding Iron Castings. required.
Properly aligned and spaced holes are drilled care-
CAST IRON PIPE WELDING fully so that they are not drilled
all the way through the
casting. The holes are tappedfor the correct threading
See PIPE WELDING. andtheheadlessstudbolts are screwedintothese
holes; they should project from 3.2 mm to 6 mm ( U 8
CAST IRON SOLDERING to 1/4in.) above the surfaceof the casting.
Solderingcastironpresentsmanyproblems, the Studs can be ordinary steel headless stud bolts, and
most diffkult of which is properly tinning the cast iron are welded with a low-carbon steel electrode. While
surface to be soldered. If plating facilities are avail- shielded metal arc welding is usually chosen for the
able, it is best to copper plate the parts that are to be studding procedure, any process which uses this elec-
soldered. If not, a substitute tinning process can be trode can be used. The thickness and spacing of the
developedbythoroughlycleaningthesurfacesand studsshouldbeproportioned so thatthestudswill
copperplatingthemwithasolution of coppersul- have at least the full strength of the cast iron section.
phate. This solution should be made ofup30 ml (1 oz) The space between the studs should be about 2-1/2
coppersulphateand15 ml (U2 oz) acidaddedto times the diameter of the stud, and they should be stag-
240 ml (8 oz) of water. The parts to be soldered are gered. They should also have a reasonably fine thread.

Welding CAULKING 87
Strength Welding the stud to the cast iron makes the stud an
Since steel has four times the strength of cast iron, integral part of the casting. Welding from stud to stud
the problem is to proportionthe studs so that the diagonally or crosswise draws the fractured surfaces
ratio of the cross section of the steel to the cross together to their original contact if a small amount of
section of the remaining cast iron is something less the original break has been left intact at the bottom of
than four to one at any one section that will be sub- the V. This can be done in most instances, but not if
jected to cooling strains at the same time. Simply pieces are broken out and lost, in which case they must
stated, this means large studs for large sections and be replaced by a casting or forging.
smaller studs for smaller sections. Steam-tight joints Inthissteelstuddingprocess for cast iron, espe-
on cast iron can bemadewith the efficient use of ciallyforcylindersandsimilarwork,machiningis
studs. oftennecessaryafterwelding. The hardstratum of
Another good application of studding is the use of metal directly under the weld prevents ordinary cut-
large studs as an anchor or nucleus for breaks in cast- ting operations, so it must be ground. There are other
ings such as gear teeth. One to three of these large meansoftakingcare of thishardenedlayer for
anchor studs, together with some small regular studs machining on the surface;one of the methods is to fin-
appropriatelydistributed,willprovidethenecessary ish the machined part with a nickel-copper electrode,
weld strength to the cast iron, as well as strength to which hasthe property of merging with thecast iron so
withstandsomeshearandthruststrains. The weld, that no hard layer of cementiteis formed. This nickel-
built up to size and machined off, finishes into a per- copper electrode was developed for repairing scored
fect wearing or bearing surface. This method of stud- cylinders and similar applications.
ding is also applied to cast steel, in cases where the
original section hasnot been adequate to withstand the CAST IRON THERMITE
strains. A thermite mixture containing additions of ferro-
Studding Methods silicon and mild steel.See THERMITE WELDING.
Following are procedures to produce studded welds
to repair breaks in cast iron: CAST IRON, White
(1) Grind or chip the crack to form a V from one A cast iron in which the carbon is in combined form
surface, if only one surface is accessible for welding, rather than in the form of graphite. It is hard, brittle
or half way from both faces if both are accessible, sav- andhighlyresistanttoabrasivewear,andcanbe
ing enough pieces of the original assembly to keep the machined only with great difficulty with special cut-
piece securely clamped in alignment. Before any of ting tools. A freshly made fracture hasa silvery white
the weldingis done, the stud holes are be todrilled and color. See CAST IRON.
tapped with a bottoming tap, and the studs screwed in
tightly, completely filling the hole for a depthofat CAST STEEL
least four times the diameter of the studs. A conve- Any objectmade by pouringmoltensteelinto a
nient way of doing this is to have rods threaded for mold. See STEEL, CAST.
their entire length,screwthese intightly,andsaw
them off 3.2 to 6 mm (118 to 114 to in.) above the sur- CATHODE
face of the work, depending on accessibility.A narrow
V should have the studs closer to the work athan more The negative terminal of a power supply; the elec-
open one. trodewhenusingdirectcurrentelectrodenegative
(DCEN). Inan electrolytic cell, the cathode is the
(2) Weld around the studsso that theyare part of the source of electrons.
cast iron; thenweldbetweenthestudscrosswise or
diagonally until the entire surface of the V andthe
adjacent surface forming the underside of the pad is CAULKING
completely covered before proceeding with the main Plastic deformation of weldandadjacentbase
filling in of the weld. Add metal one bead ata time so metal
sur$aces
by
mechanical
means to seal or
that no large section of the weld solidifies from the obscure discontinuities. See STANDARD WELDING
molten state at any one time. TERMS.

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 07642b5 05Lb262 149
88 CAULK Encyclopedia Welding
CAULK WELD CENTIMETER (cm)

A nonstandard termfor SEAL WELD. A unit of linear measure in the metric system equal
to M O O of a meter, or 0.3937 (slightly over3/8) inch.
CAUSTIC EMBRllTLEMENT STRESS
Corrosioncracking of mildsteelincontactwith CERAMICS
alkaline solutions; sometimes called boiler embrittle- Ceramics are inorganic nonmetallic materials sepa-
ment. The failure is usually intergranular and usually rable into two broad categories: traditional ceramics
occurs with concentrated sodium hydroxide when spe- and advanced ceramics. A common characteristic of
cific impuritiessuchassilicatesactasaccelerators. ceramic materials is that they are manufactured from
Stresses above the elastic limit are especially condu- powders which are formed to a desired shape, and then
cive to the problem. heated to high temperature with or without the appli-
Caustic embrittlement is a form of stress corrosion cation of external pressure to achievea final densified
responsible for occasional boiler failures. The objec- Part.
tiveinhotwaterandsteamboileroperations is to Traditional ceramics include clay products, refrac-
avoid handling acidic water because of metal loss by tories, silicate glasses,andcements.Theyaremost
uniform corrosion. Therefore, small amountsof alkali commonly made from inexpensive, readily available,
(caustic soda) are added to the water periodically to naturally occurring minerals. These materials typically
keep the PH at about 10.5, at which level there will be have lowdensities (or relatively
high
porosity
practically no corrosion on plain steel. However, if an contents)andnormally are notusedinapplications
excess of alkali is added, such water at elevated oper- where joining by techniques other than cementing is
ating temperatures cancause stress corrosion cracking. practical.
In these situations, the steel does not become embrit- Advanced ceramics,by comparison, are made from
tled; its still-solid grains remain ductile. Instead, inter- powders that are chemically processed or synthesized
granularattackpenetrates the steel,weakeningthe and in which properties such as particle size distribu-
steel section and reducingits capacity to act in a duction and chemical purity are closely controlled. Within
tile manner. This intergranular attack is recognized as the family of advanced ceramics are materials devel-
stresscorrosioncrackingthathasdevelopedbyan oped for their exceptional mechanical properties.This
anodic mechanism. subset of advancedceramics is oftenreferredtoas
CELSIUS (C)
structural ceramics, and it includes monolithic materi-
als such as aluminum oxide (A1203), zirconium oxide
A thermometric scale on which the interval between
the freezing point and the boiling point ofwater is (Zr02), silicon carbide (Sic), silicon nitride (Si3N4),
dividedinto100degrees,with O representingthe and silicon-aluminum oxynitrides (sialons), as well as
freezing point and 100 representing the boiling point. ceramic composites like Alzo3 containing Sic whis-
This scale was devised in 1730 by Anders Celsius, a kers or Sic containing titanium diboride (TiB2) parti-
Swedish astronomer. Celsius has replaced Centigrade cles. Care is taken during the manufacture of structural
as the metric unit of temperature. ceramics to ensure that chemical composition is con-
trolled and that high densities (or relatively low poros-
CEMENTITE ity contents) are achieved.
(Chemical symbol: Fe3C) A carbide of iron which The technological interest in structural ceramics is
occurs as a micro-constituent of steel and cast iron. It directly related to their unique properties when they
is the normal form of carbon which occurs in steel. are compared to metals. Many ceramics are character-
Cementite may occur interspersed withferrite, or in a ized by high strength, not only at room temperature
free formas a network,orinplates.Onprolonged but at elevated temperatures as well. Silicon carbide,
heating, particularlyif there has been distortionof the for example, can maintain a tensile strength in excess
steel, it is possible to get decomposition of cementite of 200 MPa (29 ksi) at 1530C (2800"F), the melting
into free carbon and iron. See CAST R O N , Hard Spots point of iron. Other ceramics, like Si3N4 and certain
and METALLURGY. ceramiccomposites,alsomaintainhighstrengthat
high temperatures. Besides high strength, other prop-
CENTIGRADE ertiesthatmakeceramicsattractivecandidatesfor
See CELSIUS. applications usually
reservedfor
metallic
alloys

Welding Encyclopedia CERAMICS 89
includeexcellentwearresistance,highhardness, practically impossible because most ceramic materials

excellent corrosion and oxidation resistance, low ther- are brittle even at elevated temperatures. Also, in some
malexpansion,highelectricalresistivity,andhigh developmentprogramslikethose for advancedheat
strength-to-weight ratio. Structural ceramicsare being engines, some complex parts are being made as mono-
used or considered for use as cutting tools, bearings, liths by difficult processing schemes or by extensive
machine tool parts,dies, pump seals, high temperature machining of densified billets.
heat exchangers, and a variety of internal combustion While this approach to component manufacturing is
and turbine engine parts. Typical properties for some acceptable for development purposes,it is impractical
metals and structural ceramic materials are given in for mass production because of high costs. The diffi-
Table C-2. culty of machining ceramics also makes it costly. By
Ceramic joining, especially ceramic-to-metal join- reducing the complexity of individual parts, signifi-
ing,hasbeenthesubjectofmuchdevelopmental cantreductions inmachiningcostcanbeexpected.
research over the years. However, with high interest inEffective methods of joining ceramics may eliminate
using ceramics as structural components in demanding machining altogether in some cases.
applications, such as internal combustionengines, tur- Effective ceramic joining techniques also can play
bine engines, and heat exchangers, there is a height- animportantrole in improvingthereliability of
enedinterestinceramic joining technologies. The ceramic structures. Because ceramics are brittle mate-
development of more effective joining techniques for rials, they are very sensitive to flaws resulting from the
structural ceramics could also have a great impact on quality of raw materials usedin their production and to
their use in mass-produced components. thecharacteristics of variousprocessingtechniques,
One of the most important functionsof joining tech- includingmachining. A singleflawcan cause the
niques is to providethe means for economic fabrication rejection or, or if undetected, the failure of a ceramic
of complex, multi-component structures. Development part. Rather than dealing with complicated monolithic
of effective ceramic joining techniques will be espe- parts, it is easier to inspect and detect flaws in simple-
cially significant becauseof limitations on component shaped components beforethey are joined to form
manufacturingduetoceramicprocessingtechniques complex structures.
and to the materials themselves. For example, deforma- The electronics industry has the largest fraction of
tion of densified ceramics to form complex shapes is advancedceramicsactually in use.Also,whilethe
Table C-2
Typical Propertiesof Some Pure Metals and Structural Ceramicsa
Coefficient of Linear Electrical Themal
Strengthb
Modulus of Elasticity
Thermal
Expansion Resistivity, Conductivity,
-.
Material MPa ksi GPa ksi pm/m/"C inJinJ"F pSkcm W/(m.K)-

Al 34 4.9 62 8992 23.6 13.10 2.6548 22 1.75
Cu 69 10.0 110 15 954 16.5 9.17 1A730 393.7 1
Fe 130 18.9 196 28 427 11.7 6.50 9.7 1 75.31
Mo 345 50.0 324 46 992 4.9 2.72 5.20 142.26
Ni 152 22.0 207 30 023 13.3 7.39 6.84 92.05
Ti 207 20.0 116 16 824 8.4 4.67 42.00 2 1.90
A1203 300 43.5 380 55 114 6.8 3.78 1020 27.20
Sic 500
618 72.5
69 480 4.2 2.33 107 62.80
Si3N4 1O00 145.0
09 44 304 1 1.78 3.2 >1020 10.00
Zr07 700 101.5 205 29 733 9.7 5.39 >lo17 2.00
a. Values given are typical values for each material at or near room temperature. Property values of both metals and ceramics can vary
significantly with composition.
b. Yield strengths are given for metals; modulus of rupture strengths are given for ceramics.

Licensed by Information Handling Services-~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb2b4 T L 1
E ROD90 CERAMIC Encyclopedia
Welding
development of materials like zirconium oxide, silicon CHARLES' LAW

nitride, and silicon carbide has been rigorously pur- At a constant volume, the pressureof a perfect gas
sued in recent years, aluminum oxide is still the most is directly proportional to the absolute temperature;
or
widely used structural ceramic with sizable
a commer- at a constant pressure the volume is directly propor-
cial electronics market. tional tothe absolute temperature. Thisis expressed as
Reference:AmericanWeldingSociety,Welding follows:
Handbook, Vol 3, 8th Edition. Miami, Florida,1996.
P, - P2 and v,
"_ -=v-2
CERAMIC ROD FLAME SPRAYING T, T2 Tl T2
A thermal spraying process variation in which the
sufacing material is in rod form. See STANDARD in which T, and T2 are the initial and final tempera-
WELDING TERMS. tures, respectively.
(The absolute temperature in
degreesFahrenheit is [460 + T] where T isthe
CERTIFIED WELDER observed temperaturein degrees F).
A welder who passes qualification tests based on
standards developed by the American Welding Soci- CHARPY TEST
ety. Test results are recorded and maintained by the An impact test used to determine the notch tough-
American Welding Society. Information, study mate- nessofmaterials.In its mostcommonform,ithas
rial, and test dates and sitesare available fromthe Cer- been given the designationCharpy V-notch. The spec-
tification
Department of the American Welding imens are 55 mm long and have a squarecross section
Society, 550 N.W. LeJeuneRoad,Miami,Florida of 10 mm. A two millimeter notch is ground on one
33 126. surface at half the length. The specimen is positioned
with the ends of the notched surface straddling two
CHAIN INTERMllTENT WELD supports and is struck opposite the notch by a wedge-
An intermittent weld on both sides of a joint in shaped hammer atthe end of a pendulum. The energy
which the weld increments on one side are approxi- absorbed in breaking the specimen is calculated from
mately opposite those on the other side. See STAN- data about the mass and length of the pendulum, the
DARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure C-3. initial height of the hammer and the height of the ham-
mer after the fracture. The test is performed at a num-
ber of temperatures,theresults of whichprovide
information about the overall toughness of the metal
and the temperature at whichit can be expected tofail
in a brittle manner. A typical Charpy testing machine
is shownin Figure C-4.
CHART OF WELDING PROCESSES
See Appendix 3.
CHEMICAL DIP BRAZING
A dip brazing process in which the filler metal is
added to the joint before immersion in a bathof mol-
ten chemicals.See also ALUMINUM BRAZING.
Figure C-3-Chain Intermittent Fillet Weld
CHEMICAL ELEMENTS
All matter is composed of one or a combination of
CHAMFER two or more of over a hundred elements which make
See EDGE PREPARATIONand WELD JOINT. up the periodic table. About20 of these are used in the
manufacture of carbon and alloy steels.Some are used
CHAMFERING because of the specific properties they impart to steel
The preparationfor welding of a contour, other than when alloyed with it; others are included to rid the
for a square groove weld,on the edge of a member. steel of impurities or to render impurities harmless.

STD-AWS
JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb2b5 958 W
Welding ELECTRODE CIRCULAR 91
CHIPPING HAMMER
A tool for removing slag, scale or unwanted metal
when preparing a surface for welding or finishing a
weld.
A chipping hammer may be equipped with either
drift or chisel ends, chisels on each end set at right
angles to each other, or with adjustablechisels. Clean-
ing a surface with a chipping hammeris accompanied
by a peening action whichhelps knock off particles of
slag or scale, but also has a tendency to compact the
weld metal slightly. Peening results in higher density
of the weld and improves soundness and strength.The
peening is usuallyfollowed by avigorousbrushing
with a stiff wire brush.
CHOKE COIL
A coil of low resistance and high inductance which
will oppose changes in electric current but allow regu-
lar, steady currents to flow through easily.
Choke coils
Figure C-&Typical Charpy Testing Machine are also known asreactors or reactance coils.
CHROMIUM
The elements of the periodic table, theirchemical (Chemical symbol: Cr). A lustrous, hard, very brit-
symbols and atomic numbers are listed in Appendix tle, steel-gray metallic element used to harden steel
14. alloys,toproduce stainless steels, and in corrosion-
resistantplating.Meltingpoint:1615C(2939F);
CHEMICAL FLUXCUlTlNG
boiling point: 2200C (3992F); atomic number: 24;
A nonstandard termfor FLUX CUTTING. atomic weight, 5.996.
CHILL CAST PIG Chromium is of great technical importance in met-
Pig iron cast in metal molds or chills. If a machine allurgy because of its hardening effect on steel, and
is used the productis called machine cast pig. because of its corrosion resistant properties. It is unaf-
fected by the action of air at ordinarytemperatures and
CHILL RING is also resistant to chemicals.
for BACKING RING. A material containing chromiumis difficult to weld
because of theformation of chromium oxide. This
CHILL TIME oxide forms a coating on the surface during welding,
for QUENCH TIME. butthe coating can be removedbygrinding or by
using special fluxes.
CHIPPING Chromium is one of the basic ingredients used in
A method of removing surface defects with a chisel, producing stainless steels. As an ingredient inalloy
so that the defects will not be workedinto the finished steel, chromium is ahardening element which also
product.Chipping is oftenusedsimplytoremove tends to increase the strength of the steel. When the
metal, for example when preparing ajoint for welding. percentage is from 12% to 30%,chromium increases
See CHIPPING HAMMER. the corrosion and oxidation resistance of the steels;
Chipping is used to removescale, rust, or other for- thisholdstrueatbothhighandlowtemperatures.
eign materials from the workpiece. It can also be used There is little loss of strength in chrome steels at tem-
between beads to remove slag, and after welding to peratures up to480C (900F). See STAINLESS STEEL.
ensure a neatly finished weld. Chipping is often used
in combination with wire-brushing to prepare surfaces. CIRCULAR ELECTRODE
If defects and foreign matter are removed by gas See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See RESISTANCE
cutting, the terms de-seaming or de-sca$ng are used. WELDING ELECTRODE.
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 W 07842b5 051b2bb 894 W
ING 92 CLAD Welding Encyclopedia
CLAD BRAZING SHEET of weld spatter adhering to the threads of a C-clamp

A metal sheet on which one or both sides are clad can be solved by shielding the threads with a sleeve,
with brazing filler metal.See STANDARD WELDING coatingthethreadswith an anti-spattermaterial, or
TERMS. See also CLAD METAL. making the screw of a material to which weld spatter
will not adhere.
CLADDING Quick-acting clamps such as toggle clamps, clamp-
A surfacing variation that deposits or applies suring pliers, hand vises, and some C-clamps save time
facing material, usually to improve corrosion or heat when setting up workfor welding. When high produc-
resistance. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also tion at low cost is the objective, the clamping device
BUILDUP, BUTTERING, HARDFACING; THERMAL SPRAY- must be built in as an integral parta jigof or fixture.
ING, and EXPLOSION WELDING. See also JIG and FIXTURE.
CLAD METAL CLEAVAGE PLANE
A laminar composite consisting of a metal or alloy, A crystallographic plane which frequently makesit
with a metal or alloy of different chemical composition possible to fracture a crystal so that the surface of the
applied to one or more sides by casting, drawing, roll- fracture is smooth and plane and always parallel to
ing, sugacing, thick chemical deposition, or thick some definite crystallographic plane. A substance may
electroplating. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. cleave on more than one crystallographic plane.
CLAD STEEL CLOSED JOINT
See STEEL, Clad. See CLOSED ROOT.
CLAMP
CLOSED ROOT
A device used to join, grip, support, fasten,or hold A term appliedto a joint which hasthe root edgesor
parts in alignment.
surface in contact during welding; a design in which
Clampsarevitallyimportanttoallweldersand there is no space between the roots of the parts being
weldingoperations,andtherearemanytypes of joined.
clamps inuseinweldingshopsandmanufacturing
plants. Someof these devices are madein the shop for CLUSTER POROSITY
use with special welding tables or faceplates, and may A localized array of porosity having a random geo-
be merely dogs or wedges. There are also hook metric distribution. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
bolts, three-point bearing clamps, lever clamps, swing-
ing strap clamps, and cam-operated clamps made for COALESCENCE
specificweldingapplications. The C-clampwill be The growing together or growth into one body of
found in every shop, augmented by specially designed the materials being welded. See STANDARDWELDING
pliers,handvises,toggleclamps,angleclampsand TERMS.
other clamping devices.
When selecting a clamp for use in welding, or any COAL GAS
other operation requiring pieces to be held in align- A gas produced by high-temperature distillation of
ment, the followingare important considerations: bituminous coal. With a Btu value of about 680 Btu
(1) The size and shapeof the workpiece per CU ft, coal gas was used as a preheating mediumin
(2) Condition of the workpiece someflamecuttingapplicationsbeforenaturalgas
(3) Strength of the clamp became generally available.
(4) Easeandspeedwithwhichclampscanbe
attached or detached COATED ELECTRODE
( 5 ) Means and pointof applying pressure A nonstandard term for COVEREDELECTRODE or
(6) Frequency of Set-up LIGHTLY COATED ELECTRODE.
(7) Method of preventing the clamp from loosening
during use. COATING
The clamping device should be made so that weld A nonstandard term when usedfor THERMAL SPRAY
spatter will not cause it to malfunction. The problem DEPOSIT.

~~
opedia Welding 93
COATING DENSITY Under similar conditions, a 10-fi aluminum bar will

A nonstandard term when used for SPRAY DEPOSIT expand nearly 1 .S in.; a bronze bar, 0.781 in.; and a
DENSITY RATIO. steel bar slightly more than 0.75 Seein. Table C-3.
COBALT
(Chemical
symbol:
Co). Ametallic
hard
element, Table C-3
similar to nickel
in
appearancebut
with
bluish
a hue.It Expansion of Metals
is used for magnetic-lloys, high-temperature alloys in Linear Expansion per Footof
steel, and for pigmentsin glass and ceramics. Length, per 1000FRise in
Cobalt is malleable,ductile andin.weaklyTemperature
magnetic.It Metal
oxidizes very slowly in moist air. In the metallic form,Zinc 0.169
cobalt does not have many uses, however, when com- Aluminum, Cast 0.148
binedwith other elements, it is usedinhardfacing Tin 0.139
materials, and also as an alloying agent in steel when Silver 0.129
highstrengthorhardnessathightemperatures is Bronze 0.119
required. It impartsthe quality knownas red hardness. Brass, Cast 0.115
Atomic number: 27; atomic weight: 58.9332; melt- Copper O.106
ing point: 1467C (2673F); specific gravity: 8.5. Nickel 0.083
Wrought Iron 0.078
COBALT-60
Steel 0.076
Aradioactiveisotope of cobaltusedforweld Cast Iron 0.067
inspection. It is used in shops or in field applications
whereradiographsareneeded.Cobalt-60 is more
commonlyusedthanradiumeventhoughradium Distortion
allowsshorterexposuretimes. See RADIOGRAPHIC Differences inthe amount of thermal expansion due
EXAMINATION. to changes in temperature are responsible for the dis-
tortioncommonlyfoundincompletedwelds.When
CODES the hotregionsin the vicinity of theweld are
Asystematicallyarranged,comprehensiveset of restrainedfromexpanding by stiff,coldermetal
rules and standards for welding applications, manda- aroundthem,theycandeformplastically.These
tory where the public interest is involved. For exam- dimensional changes are reflected as distortion after
ple, there are codes for manufacturing equipment and the weldment cools. Stresses due to thermal contrac-
consumer products, for building construction, automo- tion can be sufficiently severe to cause brittle metals
tive, aircraft and rail car construction, bridges, power such ascast irons to crack.
plants, pressure vessels, and piping systems. There are
also codes for installation, operation and maintenance. COEXTRUSION WELDING (CEW)
See Appendix 16. A solid-state welding process that produces a weld
by heating to the welding temperature and forcing the
COEFFICIENT OF LINEAR EXPANSION workpieces through an extrusion die. See STANDARD
The increase in dimensions of an unrestrained mate- WELDING TERMS. See also COLD WELDING.
rial caused by being heated. As a corollary, thermal
coefficients of contraction measure the shrinkage of a COHESION
material when cooled; generally expressed per degree In a weld, cohesion is the result of perfect fusion
Celsius or degree Fahrenheit changein temperature. and penetration, with the molecules of the parent metal
The thermal expansion of various metals differ. For andtheaddedmaterialthoroughlyintegrated or
example, copper expands about0.1 in. per ft when the joined. See ADHESIVE BONDING, and DEPTH OF
temperatureisraised1000"F, A grayironcasting FUSION.
expands much less than copper: 0.067 in. per ft per
1000F. When this rate of expansion is applied to a cast COIL WITHOUT SUPPORT
iron bar 10ft long, the expansion will be approximately A filler metal package consisting of a continuous
0.6875 in.whenthetemperatureisraised1000F. length of welding wire in coil form without an internal
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 M 078426505Lb2b8 bb7
94 COIL Encyclopedia Welding
support. It is appropriately bound to maintain its WELDING

TERMS. See also DIFFUSION
WELDING,
shape. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. FORGE WELDING, and HOT PRESSURE WELDING.
A characteristic of the cold welding process is the
COIL WITH SUPPORT absence of heat, either applied externally or generated
A filler metul package consisting of a continuous by the welding process itself. A fundamental requisite
length of welding wire in coil form wound on a simple for satisfactory cold welds is that at least one of the
cylinder without flanges. See STANDARDWELDING metalstobe joined is highly ductile anddoesnot
TERMS. exhibitextremework-hardening.Bothbuttand lap
joints can be cold welded.
COLD CHISEL
Coldweldinginvolvestwoconcurrentsteps: (1)
A chisel made from steel for cutting metal. Cold distorting the contact surfacesof two ductile metals to
chisels are usually made from a 0.70 to 0.80 carbon rupture their surface oxide layers, thus exposing clean
tool steel. A steel of thistypeshouldbeforgedat metal, and (2) applying enough pressure across those
870C (1600F) and hardened at 760 to 782C (1400 surfaces to allow interatomic bonding. The oxides and
to 1440F) to get the combination of toughness and other surface contaminantsbecomescattered
as
hardness required. minute particles within thejoint. Although most com-
monly used tojoin sheets of nonferrous metals suchas
COLD CRACK
aluminum and copper, cold welding also allows dis-
A crack which develops afer solidification is com- similar metals and other shapes to joined.
be
plete. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
In all cases, however, the contacting surfaces must
Cold cracking, commonly called delayed cracking,
be clean of surface contaminants and then deformed
occurs some time after a fusion weld has been made
sufficiently to force the surface oxides to rupture and
and has fully solidified, often well after it has cooled
intimatecontact of thesurfacestobemade. Since
to room temperature. The originof this type of trans-
work hardening is inevitable, the joints are somewhat
granularcrackingisembrittlement of susceptible
stronger than might be expected. When joining sheet
microstructure(mostcommonlyuntemperedferrous
metals these objectives can be accomplished withdies.
martensite) by diffusible atomic or nascent hydrogen
The ends of bars also can be joined by using strong
in the presence of a tensile internal (i.e.7residual) or
clampingshoes,powerfulhydraulicforcesand con-
applied stress. The fact that this type of cracking can
takeconsiderabletimetooccurgivesitthename tainment dies to deform the ends. Even tubes can be
delayed cracking.See also UNDERBEAD CRACK and cold welded by positioning one tube inside the other
HYDROGEN EMBRIITLEMENT.
and pulling them between a drawing die and a mandrel
to cause the neededsurface deformation.
COLD LAP Materials for Cold Welding
A nonstandardtermwhenused for INCOMPLETE Materials withface-centeredcubic(FCC) lattice
FUSION or OVERLAP. structure are bestsuited for coldwelding,provided
they do not work-harden rapidly.Soft tempers of met-
COLD SOLDERED JOINT als such as aluminum and copper are most easily cold
A joint with incomplete coalescence caused by welded.Itismoredifficulttoweldcoldworkedor
insuficient application of heat to the base metal dur- heat treated alloys of these metals. Other FCC metals
ing soldering. SeeSTANDARD WELDING TERMS. that may be cold welded readily are gold, silver, palla-
dium and platinum.
COLD SHORTNESS
A little-usedexpressionappliedto a metalto Dissimilar Metal Welds
describe the characteristic of brittleness at ordinary or Joining copper to aluminum by cold welding is a
low temperatures. good application of the process, especially where alu-
minum tubingor electrical conductor grade aluminum
COLD WELDING (CW) is joined to short sections of copper to provide transi-
A solid-state welding process in which pressure is tion joints between the two metals. Such cold welds
used to produce a weld at room temperature with sub- are characterized by substantially greater deformation
stantial deformation at the weld.See STANDARD of the aluminum than the copper because of the differ-

Welding COLLAR 95
ence in the yield strengths and work-hardening behav- diameterstainlesssteelwire,brushing at asurface

iors of the two metals. speed of about 15 m / s (3000 ft/min) is recommended.
Numerous dissimilar metals may be joinedby cold Chemical and abrasive cleaning methods are not satis-
welding,whether or nottheyaresolubleinone factory because the chemical residue or abrasive parti-
another. In some cases, the two metals may combine tocles in or on the surface may prevent the formation of
form intermetallic compounds, Since cold welding is a sound weld.
carried out at room temperature, there is no significant Equipment
diffusionbetweendissimilarmetalsduringwelding. Pressure for welding may be applied to overlapped
The alloying characteristicsof the metals being joined or buttedsurfaceswithhydraulicormechanical
do not affect the manner in which the cold welding presses,rolls,orspecialmanuallyorpneumatically
operation is carried out. However, the interdiffusion at operated tools. A hand tool of the toggle cutter type is
elevated temperatures can
affect
the
choice of suitable for very light work; common manually oper-
postweld thermal treatments and the performance of ated presses can be used for medium size work. Heavy
the weld in service. work requires power operated machines. The rate of
Weldsmadebetweenmetalsthatareessentially pressure applicationdoes
not
usually
affect
the
insoluble in each other are usually stable. Diffusion strength or qualityof the weld.
can form an intermetallic compound at elevated ser- Pressure required to effect a weld depends on the
vicetemperatures.Insomecases,thisintermetallic workingarea of thedies.Pressuresaregenerally
layer can be brittle and cause a marked reduction in slightly above the flow point of the material, and range
the ductility of the weld. Such welds are particularly from 186 to 276 MPa (27 O00 to 40 000 psi) for alumi-
sensitive to bending or impact loading after an inter- num, and from two to four times as much for copper.
metallic layer has formed. Time during which the pressure is applied is not criti-
Applications cal: good welds can be made with either slow squeeze
Butt Joints. Cold welding is commonly used to pro- or impact. Hand welding by impact on an anvil is quite
duce butt joints in wire, tubing, and simple extruded feasible, provided correct penetration of the die can be
shapes of like and unlike metals. A major application achieved.
is in the manufacture of aluminum, copper, gold, sil- Givenasuitablearrangementofworkpiecesand
ver,andplatinumwire.Themostcommonuseisto dies, the application of pressure forces the work sur-
join successive reelsof wire for continuous drawing to facesintoclosecontactwhiletheflowtakesplace,
smallerdiameters.Diametersrangingfrom 0.06 to weldingthemsolidlytogether. The workhardening
12.7 mm (0.0025 to 0.50 in.) have been successfully that necessarily takes place is an advantage, because it
welded. tends to balance the loss in strength resulting from the
Lap Welds. Lap welds can be used for joining alumi- decrease in the cross section.
num sheet or foil to itself and also to copper sheet or The term cold welding is also applied to the self-
foil. Commercial uses of lap welding include packag- diffusion propertyofamaterial.Forexample,two
ingapplications, as wellaselectricalapplications, sheets or strips of silver in contact with one another
which is probably the major use for cold welding. It is will adhere at temperatures ranging from 200 to 400C
especiallyuseful
in
the
fabrication of electrical (400 to 750") at pressures up to
310 MPa (45 O00 psi).
devices in which a transition from aluminum windings Lead and other materials have this same quality.
to copper terminations is required. The range of elec- COLD WORK
trical applications covers large distribution transform-
The plastic deformation of metals at a temperature
ers to small electronic devices.A variation of cold lap
below that at which recovery and recrystallization take
welding is applied to the sealing of commercially pure
place. Cold work generally refers to the plastic defor-
aluminum, copper, or nickel tubing.
mation of metals at ordinary temperature. Cold work
Surface Preparation causesmetalstoharden,therebybecomingstronger
The contacting surfaces must be clean of surface but less ductile.
contaminants.Dirt,absorbedgas,oils,(evenfinger-
prints) or oxidefilmsonthesurfacesinterferewith COLLAR
metal-to-metal contact and must be removed to obtain Thereinforcingmetal of a nonpressurethermite
strong welds. Rotary brushes of 0.1 mm (0.004 in.) weld. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 0784265 05Lb270 235
Thermal
96 COLLARING,
COLLARING, Thermal Spraying reversal of the current into the coils in the case of a
Adding a shoulder to a shaft or similar component motor.
as a protective confining wall for the thermal spray
deposit. See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See Figure COMMUTATOR-CONTROLLED WELDING
c-5. The making of multiple groups of resistance spot or
projection welds sequentially with the same welding
COMBINED CARBON contactor through the use of a commutating device.
The carbon in steel and cast iron which is in the See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
form ofironcarbide(Fe$) as distinguishedfrom
graphite and tempered carbon. See METALLURGY. COMPANION PANEL
for SPRAY TAB.
COMBUSTIBLE
Capable of burning. Any substance which will unite COMPLETE FUSION
with oxygenis combustible.
Fusion over the entire fusion facesand between all
COMBUSTION adjoining
weld beads. See STANDARD WELDING
The process of burning, or oxidation producing heat TERMS. See also INCOMPLETE FUSION.
and light. In welding, the term is extended to a flame
consuming fuel, oil, or gas, and includes oxidation, as COMPLETE JOINT PENETRATION (CJP)
when metals are heated in air or oxygen. A joint root condition in a groove weld in which
weld metal extends through the joint thickness. See
COMMUTATION STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also COMPLETE
Changing alternating current produced inthe arma- JOINT PENETRATION WELD, INCOMPLETE JOINT PENE-
ture windings into direct current usinga commutator. TRATION,PARTIAL JOINTPENETRATION WELD, and
JOINT PENETRATION.
COMMUTATOR
A device by which alternating current produceda in COMPLETE JOINT PENETRATION WELD
generator is changed into direct current. A series of A groove weld in which weld metal extends through
barsorsegmentsconnectedtoarmature coils of a the joint thickness. See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS.
dynamo so that rotation of the armature, in conjunc- See als0 COMPLETE JOINT PENETRATION, INCOMPLETE
tion with fixed brushes, will result in unidirectional JOINT
PENETRATION,
PARTIAL
JOINT
PENETRATION
current output in the case of a generator, and in the WELD, and JOINT PENETRATION.
COLLAR ATTACHED TO SHAFT
SURFACE TO
SPRAYED
BE 7 7 WELDED
COLLAR 7 MACHINED
COLLAR 7
MECHANICALLY
(A) ATTACHED
COLLAR (B) WELDED
MACHINED
AND COLLARS
Figure C-5-Collaring as Used in Thermal Spraying

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 3997 W 0784265 0536233 351 W
Encyclopedia
Welding INFORMATION
WELDING
COMPUTERIZATION
OF 97
COMPOSITE An example of acomposite electrode is a flux

A material consisting of two or more discrete mate- cored electrode whichutilizesatubular electrode
rials with each material retaining its physical identity. withdeoxidizingandalloyingpowders in the core.
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also CLAD See also COVEREDELECTRODE, FLUX COREDELEC-
METAL,COMPOSITE ELECTRODE, and COMPOSITE TRODE,METALCOREDELECTRODE, and STRANDED
THERMAL SPRAY DEPOSIT. ELECTRODE.
Composites are combinations of materials, like COMPOSITE JOINT
fiberglass, in which two or more structurally compli-
A joint in which weldingor another thermal process
mentary substances such as metals, ceramics, glasses
is used in conjunction with mechanicaljoining.
and polymers are combined to produce structural or
functional properties which are not possible with the COMPOSITE STRUCTURE
individual components. A structure in which more thanone material is used.
An application is the production of low-cost alumi-
num metalmatrixcomposites for high-performance COMPOSITE THERMAL SPRAY DEPOSIT
structural components. Silicon carbide whiskers (small A thermal spray deposit made with two or more dis-
crystalline materials) have been used to reinforce the similar surfacing materials that may beformed in lay-
aluminum matrix, resultingin a structure that is lighter ers. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
in weight and equal to or greater in strength than con-
ventional materials. The reinforced composites have COMPOUND GENERATOR
applications in aerospace projects, and potential mili- A generator that has shunt and series field coils act-
tary applications such as track vehicle tread shoes (See ing together to produce a constant voltage, although
Figure C-6), power train parts, and missile structures. current output may vary.
See also POLYMERIC COMPOSITE.
COMPRESSION TESTING
See TUBE TESTING.
COMPUTERIZATION OF WELDING INFORMATION

TwodocumentshavebeendevelopedbyANSI/
AWS incooperationwiththeAmericanSociety of
Nondestructive Testing (ASNT) on the computeriza-
tion of material property data. These documents are
used to identify, define and document welds and weld
properties and nondestructive test data; also usedto
produce a ProcedureQualification Record. Reference:
ANSYAWS A9.1, Standard Guide for Recording Arc
Welds in Computerized Material Property and Nonde-
structive Examination Databases; and ANSYAWS
A9.2, StandardGuide for Describing ArcWelds in
Computerized Material Property and Nondestructive
Examination Databases.
Figure C-6-Armored Vehicle Track Shoes Cast
from an Aluminum Metal Matrix Composite willbe Computerized access to ANSI/AWSDl. 1-96 Struc-
Assembled into Treads for Field Tests on Vehicles tural Welding Code-Steel is available on a compact
such as thisM551 Sheridan Light Tank disk (CD-ROM).
Sources of information on electronic databases and
computer programs include the following: ASM Inter-
COMPOSITE ELECTRODE national (www.asm-intl.org/), American Welding
A generic term for multi-component jller metal Institute, (www.awi.org/) American Welding Society
electrodes in various physical forms such as stranded (http://www/amweld.org/); BattelleMemorialInsti-
wires, tubes, and covered wire. See STANDARD WELD- tute (www.itaiep.doc.gov/sabit/batelle.html/), and
ING TERMS. Edison Welding Institute (http://www.ewi.org).
STDDAWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb272 098 m
ILLET 98 CONCAVE
CONCAVE FILLET WELD CONDENSER DIELECTRIC

Afillet weld having a concaveface. See STANDARD The insulating material between condenser plates
or
WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 11. conductors.
CONCAVE ROOT SURFACE CONDENSER PLATE

The configuration of a grooveweld exhibiting One of the conductors forminga condenser.
underjll at the root surface. See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS. See Figure C-7. CONDUCTIVITY
The reciprocal of resistivity. For any solid or liquid
conductor, it measures the amountof electricity trans-
ferred acrossa unit area per unit voltage.
CONDUCTOR
A wire or part through which a current of electricity
flows; a carrier of electric current.
L CONCAVE ROOT SURFACE
CONDUIT
Figure C-7"Example of a Concave Root Surface A pipe, tube or duct for enclosing electric wires or
cables.
CONCAVE WELD In gas metal arc, flux cored arc, and submergedarc
A weld in which the top layer ends below the plane welding, a flexible metal tube which conducts elec-
of the surrounding materialin a butt joint, or beneath a trode wire from a spool or reel to the welding torch.
plane of 45" for a fillet weld. Although considered to Some conduits are lined with a material such as Teflon
be undesirable for many applications because of the to reduce friction and improve wire feeding.
reduced throat section and because of the increased
CONE
possibility of hot cracking, properly fused concave fil-
let welds can be beneficial for resistance to fatigue in The conical part of an oxyfuel gasflame adjacent to
service. The absence of mechanical discontinuities in the tip orifice. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See
these welds minimizes crack initiation due to concen- Figure A- l.
trated residual stresses. CONICAL SEAT
CONCAVITY A joint inthetorchheadwhichreceivesand
securelyfastensaninterchangeable tip and forms a
The maximum distance from the face of a concave
gas-tight seal.
fillet weld perpendicular to a line joining the weld
toes. See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See Appendix CONNECTED LOAD
11. The sum of the power usage ratingof all the lamps,
CONCENTRIC CABLE
motors, welders, heating devices, etc., drawing from
a
particular electric circuit.
A number of wires wound spirally arounda central
conductor or cable and insulated from the conductor CONNECTION
or
cable. A nonstandardtermwhenusedfor a welded,
brazed, or solderedjoint.
CONCURRENT HEATING
The application of supplemental heat to a structure CONNECTOR
during welding or cutting. See STANDARDWELDING A device used to connect or join one circuit or ter-
TERMS. minal to another.
CONDENSER CONSTANTAN
A device consistingof two conductors separatedby An alloy composed of 40% nickel and 60% copper.
an insulating material, capable of holding an electric Constantan is a high-resistance alloy used in winding
charge. See CAPACITOR. resistance coils, and as a thermocouple alloy.

~~
~ ~~~
STDaAWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb273 T24 m

opedia Welding 99
CONSTANT CURRENT POWER SOURCE CONSTRICTED ARC

An arc welding power source with a volt-ampere A plasma arc column that is shaped by the con-
relationship yielding a small welding current change stricting orifice in the nozzle of the plasma arc torchor
from a largearc voltage change.See STANDARD p h m a spraying gun.
See STANDARDWELDING
WELDING TERMS. See also WELDING POWER SOURCE. TERMS.
A constant current power source has a drooping
output characteristic; the output voltage decreases as CONSTRICTING NOZZLE
welding current increases. This type of power supply A device at the exit end of a plasma arc torch or
is used with shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), gas plasma spraying gun, containing the constricting ori-
tungstenarcwelding(GTAW),andsubmergedarc fice. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See Appendix
welding (SAW). 10.
CONSTANT POTENTIAL WELDER CONSTRICTING ORIFICE

See CONSTANT VOLTAGE POWER SOURCE. The hole in the constricting nozzle of the plasma arc
torch or plasma spraying gun through which the arc
CONSTANT VOLTAGE POWER SOURCE plasma passes. See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See
An arc welding power source with a volt-ampere Appendix 10.
relationship yielding a large welding current change
from a smallarc voltage change. See STANDARD CONSTRICTING ORIFICE DIAMETER
WELDING TERMS. See also WELDING POWER SOURCE. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 10.
A constant voltage power sourceis capable of pro-
viding a range of variations in welding current while CONSTRICTING ORIFICE LENGTH
maintaining nearly constant voltage. Constant voltage See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 10.
(sometimes called constant potential power sources)
have a relatively flat volt-ampere output curve. They CONSUMABLE ELECTRODE
have a lower open circuit voltage than machines with An electrode that provides filler metal. See STAN-
the drooping characteristic requiredfor SMAW. DARD WELDING TERMS.
These characteristics are achieved by low imped-
ance transformer design,in which the primary and sec- CONSUMABLE ELECTRODE WELDING
ondary coil relationships have a very tight magnetic or Allarcweldingprocessesinwhichtheelectrode
inductive coupling. supporting the arcis melted and becomes a significant
part of the weld deposit.
Gas Metal Arc Welding
With the development of solid-state devices which CONSUMABLE GUIDE ELECTROSLAG WELDING
can handle high power, the constant voltage output is An electroslag welding process variation in which
more easily and economically achieved electronically. filler metal is supplied by an electrode and its guiding
This is particularlytrue of the invertertypepower membel: See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
supplies.
Constant voltage welders were developed initially CONSUMABLE INSERT
for submerged arc welding. However, their desirable Filler metal that is placed at the joint root before
characteristics were noted and quickly adaptedfor the welding, and is intended to be completely fused into
gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process. The interac- the joint root to become part of the weld. See STAN-
tion of the drooper power supply and wire feed speed DARD WELDING TERMS.
made it difficultto set proper welding conditions. With
a constant voltage output, however, setting the weld- CONTACT ARC WELDING
ing conditions is far simpler, since the power supply A technique used with the shielded metal arc weld-
determines the voltage and the wire feed speed deter- ing(SMAW)processinwhichheavilycoatediron
minesthecurrent.Additionally,theself-regulating powder electrodes are dragged in the joint. The core
feature provided by the constantvoltagemachines rod of these electrodes becomes recessed in the coat-
make it easier for welding operators to maintain con-
a ing during welding, forming a relatively deep cone.
stant arc length with GMAW. These desirable welder Since the coating is a poor conductor, it can in becon-
friendly characteristics apply equally to SAW. tact the weld pool without shorting the arc.

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 07842b5 051b274 9b0 m
R 1O0 CONTACT Encyclopedia Welding
Thecontactarcweldingtechniquepermitsauto- CONTACT WELDING

matic maintenanceof the arc, and results inthe follow- See CONTACT ARC WELDING.
ing advantages: easily started arc, constantarc length,
improved welds, and reduction of welder fatigue. CONTINUOUS COOLING DIAGRAM
Contact arc welding was developed by Dr. van der When steels cool from high temperatures at which
Willigen of Holland in 1944. Among the classifica-
they have an austenitic microstructure, they can trans-
tions of electrodes developedto take advantageof this form into a number of very different microstructures,
procedure are E7014, E7024 and E7027. suchasferrite,pearlite,bainiteandmartensite.The
type of structure formed depends on the composition
CONTACT BAR
of the steel and the rate at which it cools. The type of
An electricterminalusedinseam
a welding structure can be predicted with a continuous cooling
machine to applyelectric current and mechanical pres- diagram similar to the one illustrated in Figure C-8.
sure to the workpieces.
CONTACT JAW
An electricterminalusedina flash welding
machine to securely clamp the workpieces and con-
duct electric current to the workpieces.
CONTACTOR
A devicewhichopensandclosesanelectrical
circuit.
CONTACT POINT
An electric terminal used in a spot welding machine
\ FERRITE
PLUS
APEARLITE
/
to apply electric current and mechanical pressure to
the workpieces. The contact point insert is a small disc I \ BAINITE\ B
of metal inserted in a contact, projecting beyond its \c
surface.
I MARTENSITE
TIME-
CONTACT RESISTANCE, Resistance Welding
Resistance to the flow of electric current between Figure C-&Simplified Continuous Cooling
two workpieces or an electrode and a workpiece. See Diagram
CONTACT ROLLER With very slow cooling rates (A), a mixture of fer-
An electricterminalusedinseam
a welding rite and pearliteis likely, andforms at a relatively high
machine to apply electric current and mechanical pres- temperature. These are the lowest strength steels and
sure to the workpieces. are very ductile. At higher cooling rates (B), but lower
temperatures,bainitecan be formed. Bainite has
CONTACT TUBE higher strength and has considerable notch toughness.
A device that transfers current to acontinuous At still higher rates (C), and the lowest temperature,
electrode. See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS. See martensite can be expected. Martensite is very strong
Appendix 10. but tends to be brittle in the as-quenched condition. In
most cases, the martensiteis considered to be undesir-
CONTACT TUBE SETBACK, Flux Cored Arc Welding andable because it lacks toughness and because it is prone
Gas Metal Arc Welding to hydrogen-induced cracking. By using low-hydrogen
The distance from the contact tube to the end of the welding processes, however, the martensitic welds can
gas nozzle. See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS. See provideveryhighstrengthswhenthatproperty is
Appendix 10. See also ELECTRODE SETBACK. desired.

~~ ~ ~
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb275 8T7 D
Welding COPPER 101
CONTINUOUS SEQUENCE
A longitudinal sequence in which each weld pass is
made continuously from one end of the weld to the
other. SeeSTANDARD WELDING TERMS.
CONTINUOUSWAVE LASER
A laser having an output that operates in a continu-
ous rather than a pulsed mode. A laser operating with
i LCONVEX ROOT SURFACE
a continuous output for a period greater than 25 milli- Figure C-%Example of a Convex Root Surface
seconds is regarded as a continuous wave laser. See
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. COOLING RATE
The rate at which designated points in a weld cool
CONTINUOUS WELD through well-defined temperature bands where metal-
A weld that extends continuously from one end of a lurgicalchangescanoccur.Theratesofcooling
joint to the other. Where the joint is essentially circu- depend on a number of factors, such as the thickness
lar; it extends completely around the joint. See STAN- of the material being welded,its thermal conductivity,
DARD WELDING TERMS. the preheat or interpass temperature, and the energy
input used to make the weld. The effects these vari-
CONTRACTION ables have on the cooling rate of steel are generally
The shrinkage of heated metal during cooling. See measured at 590 or 700C (1100or 1300"F), tempera-
EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION, Arc Welding. tures at whichsignificantmetallurgicalchangesare
expected to occur while cooling. The maximum cool-
CONTROLLED ATMOSPHERE WELDING ingratesoccurinheavysections,generallythicker
Weldingperformedinanenclosureinwhichthe than about 25 mm (1 in.). In thinner sections the cool-
conventional atmosphere has been replacedby an inert ing rates will be less because the heat sink provided
gas or a vacuum. has been reduced.
In very thin sheet, the cooling rate due to a heat sink
CONTROLLER
will be very low and most of the cooling will be due to
A devicethatcontrolstheactionofelectrical radiation or convection. See CRITICAL COOLING RATE,
machines connected toit. PREHEAT, and INTERPASS TEMPERATURE,Welding.
CONVERTER
COOL TIME, Resistance Welding
A machine that changes a-c electrical energy into
The time interval between successive heat times in
dc, or dc into ac.
multiple-impulse weldingorinthemaking of seam
CONVEX FILLET WELD welds. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
A fillet weld having a convex face. See STANDARD
COPPER
WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 11.
(Chem.symbol:Cu). A lustrous,reddishbrown
CONVEXITY metallic element which is malleable, ductile, and an
The maximum distancefrom theface of a convexfil- excellentconductorofheatandelectricity. It is
let weld perpendicular to a line joining the weld toes. extremely tough, but very ductile. When heated to just
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 11. under its boiling point, the metal becomes so brittle
that it can be powdered. Copper is very resistant to
CONVEXITY RATIO atmospheric oxidation and corrosion. Copper has an
The ratio of the reinforcementof a fillet weld to the atomicweightof63.5;atomicnumber, 29; melting
theoretical throat of the weld.
See FILLET WELD. point,
1082C (1980F);
boiling
point,
2310C
(4190F); specific gravity, 8.4.
CONVEX ROOT SURFACE Copper is widely used for electrical conductors and
The configuration of a groove weld exhibiting root for the manufacture of electrical equipment. It is used
reinforcement at the root surface. See STANDARD inwatertubing,valves,fittings,heatexchangers,
WELDING TERMS. See Figure c-9. chemical equipment and bearings. Copper is the elec-

STDeAWSJWE-ENGL L997 07842b5 05Lb27b 733 m
DE 102 COPPER Encyclopedia Welding
trical conductivity standard of the engineering world, 7xxxx are wrought alloys, and 8xxxx and 9xxxx are
with a rating of 100% IACS (International Annealed cast alloys. An alloy manufactured in both a wrought
Copper Standard). Copper and most copper alloys can formandcastformcanhavetwo UNS numbers,
be welded, brazed and soldered. dependingonmethod of manufacture.Copperand
copperalloyshavecommonlyusednames,suchas
COPPER ACETYLIDE oxygen-free copper, beryllium copper, Muntz metal,
An unstable substance which forms when acetylene phosphor bronze, and low-fuming bronze; these names
comes in contact with copper. This substanceis likely have been replaced withUNS numbers.
to explode spontaneously and cause fire. Copper tub- The following physical properties of copper alloys
ing mustnot be used to convey acetylene. are important to welding, brazing, and soldering: melt-
ing temperature range, coefficient of thermal expan-
COPPER ALLOYS sion, and electrical and thermal conductivity. Physical
Copper is usedextensivelyasaningredient of properties for some of the most widely used copper
bronze, brass and other nonferrous alloys. Molten cop-alloys are listed in Table C-5. The table includes data
per has the distinctive characteristic of expanding on for electrical and thermal conductivity, and illustrates
solidification. that when alloying elements are added to copper, elec-
Historical Background tricalandthermalconductivitydecreasedrastically.
Dr. R. H. Thurstonsworkonthestrength of The electricalandthermalconductivity ofan alloy
bronzes included an exhaustive series of tests on the will significantly affect the welding procedures used
strength and ductility of the copper-zinc series during for the alloy.
the period 1875 to 1881. Base Metals
In 1876, approximately five years before the publi- Copper alloy base metals are available as (1) sheet
cation ofDr. Thurstons work, John A. Tobin of the metalandplates, (2) pipesandtubes, (3) rods and
U.S. Engineer Corps patented the alloy known as Tobin shafts, (4) wire and cable, (5) bars and extruded archi-
bronze, a high-strengthyellowbronzeofapproxi- tectural shapes, and(6) castings.
mately 60% copper, 1%tin, and39% zinc composition. Alloying Elements
Classification Copper is capable of alloying with at. least thirtyof
Becausethere are hundreds of copperalloys in the known elements. Seventeen of these elements, used
commonuse,theyareclassifiedinseveralgeneral singly or in combination and in varying proportions,
groups, based on (1) a similarity of the characteristics combine with copper ina large number of commercial
of the elements added to copper, and (2) a similarity in copper alloys with a wide range of properties. Zinc is
the reaction to the various welding processes of the the most important commercial alloying element and is
alloys in a given group. used in proportions from 1% to 50% to make approxi-
Copper and copper alloys are classified into nine mately fifteen different commercial brasses.
major groups: Aluminum. Copper-aluminumalloys may contain
Coppers-99.3% Cu minimum upto15%aluminumaswellasadditionsofiron,
High-copper alloys-up to 5% alloying element nickel, tin, and manganese. The solubility of alumi-
Copper-zinc alloys (brass) numincopper is 7.8%,althoughthis is slightly
Copper-tin alloys (phosphor bronze) increased with the addition of iron. Alloys with less
Copper-aluminum alloys (aluminum bronze) than 8% aluminum are single phase, with or without
Copper-silicon alloys iron additions. When the aluminum is between 9 and
Leaded coppers 15%, the system is two-phase and capable of either a
Copper-nickel-zinc alloys (nickel-silver) martensiticor a eutectoidtype of transformation.
Special alloys Increasingamounts of aluminumincreasetensile
Copper and Copper Alloy Designations strength,increaseyieldstrengthandhardness,and
Copper alloys are divided into the wrought and castdecrease elongation of the alloy. Aluminum forms a
alloycategoriesshowninTableC-4.TheUnified surface refractory oxide that must be removed during
NumberingSystem (UNS) uses a five-digitnumber welding, brazing,or soldering.
(followingtheprefixletter C todesignatecopper Arsenic. Arsenic is added to copper alloys to inhibit
alloys)toclassifymetals.Copperalloys lxxxx to the dezincification corrosion of copper-zinc alloys in

~~-
STD.AWS JWE-ENGL L997 0384265 0536277 67" m
Welding Encyclopedia COPPER ALLOYS 103
Table C-4
Classification of Copper and Copper Alloys
Range DescriptionCategory Numbersa of UNS
Wrought alloys
Copper Copper-99.3 percent minimum ClOlOO-Cl5760
High-copper alloys Copper-96 to 99.2 percent C 16200-C 19750
Brasses Copper-zinc alloys C205OO-C28580
Leaded brasses Copper-zinc-lead alloys C3 12OO-C38590
Tin brasses Copper-zinc-tin alloys C404OO-C49080
Phosphor bronzes Copper-tin alloys C501OO-C52400
Leaded phosphorbronzes Copper-tin-lead alloys C53200-C54800
Aluminum bronzes Copper-aluminum alloys C606OO-C64400
Silicon bronzes Copper-silicon alloys C64700466100
Miscellaneous brasses Copper-zinc alloys C664W69950
Copper-nickels Nickel-3 to 30 percent C701OO-C72950
Nickel-silvers Copper-nickel-zinc alloys C73150479900
Cast alloysC
Coppers C80100-C81200
Copper-99.3
minimum percent
High-copper alloys Copper-94 to 99.2 percent
Red brasses Copper-tin-zinc and
Semi-red brasses
copper-tin-zinc-lead alloys
Yellow brasses
Manganese bronze Copper-zinc-iron alloys
Silicon bronzes and silicon brasses Copper-zinc-silicon alloys
Tin bronzes Copper-tin alloys
Leaded tin bronzes Copper-tin-lead alloys
Nickel-tin bronzes Copper-tin-nickel alloys
Aluminum bronzes Copper-aluminum-iron and
copper-aluminum-ironnickel alloys
Copper-nickels Copper-nickel-iron alloys
Nickel-silvers Copper-nickel-zinc alloys
Leaded coppers Copper-lead alloys
Special allow
a. Refer to ASTWSAE Publication DS-56MS 1086,Metals and Alloys in the Unified Numbering System, 6th Ed., 1933. ASTM, Philadel-
phia, PA., and Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale,Pa.
b. For composition and properties, referto Standards Handbook, Part 2-Alloy Data, Wrought Copper and Copper Alloy Mill Products,
8th Ed., New York: Copper Development Association, Inc., 1985.
c. For composition and properties, refer to Standards Handbook, Part 7-DatdSpecijcations, Cast Copper and Copper Alloy Products,
New York: Copper Development Association, Inc., 1970.

S T D - A U S JWE-ENGL 1997 m 078Y2b5 051b278 506
104 COPPER ALLOYS Welding Encyclopedia
Table C-5
Physical Propertiesof Typical Wrought Copper Alloys
Coefficient of
Thermal
Expansion
Thermal
at 200-300C
Conductivity at
Range
Melting (68472F) 20"c
(680F) Electrical
Y& pin./ W/ Conductivity,
BTU/
Alloy (m."K)
UNS No. "P "C (in.."F) (m."K) (ft.h-"F) % IACS
Oxygen-free copper C10200 1066-1088 1948-1991 17.6 9.8 370 214 101
Beryllium-copper C17200 866982 1590-1800 17.8 9.9 107-130 62-75 22
Commercial bronze C22000 1021-1043 1870-1910 18.4 10.2 188 109 44
Red brass C23000 988-1027 1810-1880 18.7 10.4 159 92 37
Cartridge brass C26000 916-955 1680-1750 20.0 11.1 121 70 28
Phosphor bronze C51000 955-1049 1750-1920 17.8 9.9 69 40 15
Phosphor bronze C52400 943-999 1550-1830 18.4 10.2 50 29 11
Aluminum bronze C61400 1041-1046 1905-1915 16.2 9.0 67 39 14
High-silicon bronze C65500 971-1027 1780-1880 18.0 10.0 36 21 7
Manganese bronze C67500 866-888 1590-1630 21.2 11.8 105 61 24
Copper-nickel, 10% C70600 1099-1149 2101-2100 17.1 9.5 38 22 9
Copper-nickel,30% C71500 1171-1238 2140-2260 16.2 9.0 29 17 4.6
Nickel-silver,65-15 C75200 1071-1 110 1960-2030 16.2 9.0 33 19 6
water. Arsenic additions to copper alloysdo not cause Cadmium-copper rod is RWMA (Resistance Weld-
welding problemsunless
thealloyalsocontains ingManufacturersAssociation)Class 1 alloy. The
nickel. Arsenic is detrimental to the weldingof copper smallamount of cadmiumstrengthenspurecopper
alloys that contain nickel. while maintaining very high conductivity. This combi-
Beryllium. The solubility of beryllium in copper is nation of properties makes this material idealfor elec-
approximately 2% at 870C (1600F) and only 0.3% trodes used for resistance welding high-conductivity
atroomtemperature.Therefore,berylliumeasily alloys such as aluminum. Because of federal restric-
forms a supersaturated solution with copper that will tions regarding the use
of heavy metals in manufactur-
precipitate inan age-hardeningtreatment.Because ing,cadmium-alloyed copperhasbeenessentially
thermal conductivity and melting point decrease with replaced by an over-aged chromium copper. The weld-
increased beryllium content, the higher beryllium con- ingoperatormustcarefullyavoidexposuretocad-
tent alloys are more easily welded. Beryllium formsa mium fumes.
refractory oxide that must be removed for welding, Chromium. The solubility of chromium in copperis
brazing, or soldering. The welding operator must care- approximately 0.55% at 1038C (1900F) and less
fully avoid exposure to beryllium fumes. than 0.5% at room temperature. The phase that forms
Boron. Boronstrengthensanddeoxidizescopper. during age hardening is almost pure chromium. Like
Boron deoxidized copper is weldable with matching aluminum and beryllium, chromium can form a refrac-
filler metals, and other coppers are weldable withfiller tory oxide on the molten weld poolthat makes oxyfuel
metals containing boron. gas welding difficult unless special fluxes are used.
Arc welding requiresa protective atmosphere over the
Cadmium. The solubility of cadmium in copper is
molten weld pool.
approximately 0.5% at room temperature. The pres-
ence of cadmium in copperupto 1.25% causes no Iron. The solubility ofironincopper is approxi-
serious difficulty in fusion welding because it readily mately 3% at 1040C (1900F) and less than 0.1% at
evaporates from copper at the welding temperature. A room temperature. Iron is added to aluminum bronze,
small amount of cadmium oxide may form in the mol- manganese bronze,
and
copper-nickelalloys
to
ten metal, butit can be removed by usinga flux. increasestrengthbysolidsolutionandprecipitation

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m O784265 051b279 442 m
lopedia Welding WELDING ALLOY COPPER 105
hardening.Ironincreasestheerosionandcorrosion Silicon oxide forms on copper-silicon alloys at tem-

resistance of copper-nickel alloys. Iron must be kept inperaturesaslowas204C(400F).Thisoxidewill
solidsolutionorintheform of an intermetallicto interfere with brazing and soldering operations unless
maintain the desired corrosion resistance benefit, par- a suitable flux is applied prior to heating.
ticularlyincopper-nickelalloys.Ironalsoactsasa
Tin. The solubility of tin in copper increases rapidly
grain refiner. Iron has little effect on weldability when
with temperature. At 788C (1450"F), the solubility of
used within the alloy specification limits.
tin is 13.5%; at room temperature, it is probably less
Lead. Leadisaddedtocopperalloystoimprove than 1%. Alloys containing less than 2% tin may be
machinability or bearing properties and the pressure single-phase when cooled rapidly.
tightness of some cast copper alloys. Lead does not Copper-tin alloys tend to be hot-short and to crack
form a solid solution with copper and is almost com- during fusion welding. Tin oxidizes when exposed to
pletely insoluble (0.06%) in copper at room tempera- theatmosphere,andthisoxide may reduceweld
ture. Lead is present as pure, discrete particles and is strength if trapped within the weld metal.
still liquid at 327C (620F). Leaded copper alloys are
hot-shortandsusceptibletocrackingduringfusion Zinc. Zinc is the most important alloying element
welding.Leadisthemostdetrimentalalloyingele- used commercially with copper. Zinc is soluble in cop-
ment with respect to the weldability of copper alloys. per up to 32.55% at 927C (1700F) and 37% at room
The welding operator must carefully avoid exposure to temperature. A characteristic of all copper-zinc alloys
lead fumes. is the relative ease that zinc will volatilize from the
molten metal with a very slight superheat.
Manganese. Manganese is highly soluble in copper.
It is used in proportionsof 0.05 to 3.0% in manganese Zinc is also a residual element in aluminum bronze
bronze, deoxidized copper, and copper-silicon alloys. and copper-nickel, and may cause porosity or crack-
Manganese additions are not detrimental to the welding, or both.
ability of copper alloys. Manganese improves the hot
working characteristicsof multi-phase copper alloys. COPPER ALLOY WELDING
Copper and copper alloys can be joined by welding,
Nickel. Copper and nickel are completely solid sol-
brazing, and soldering processes. Table C-6 summa-
uble in all proportions. Although copper-nickel alloys rizes the application of the most commonly used pro-
arereadilywelded,residualelementsmayleadto
cesses for major alloy classifications. The following
embrittlement and hot cracking. There must be suffi-
information concerns someof the more important cop-
cient deoxidizer or desulfurizer in the welding filler per alloys and their weldabilityby various processes.
metalusedforcopper-nickeltoprovidearesidual
amountinthesolidifiedweldmetal.Manganeseis Copper Alloys, Weldability
most often used for this purpose. Copper presents a unique welding problem because
Phosphorus. Phosphorus is used as a strengthener of itscombinedproperties of (1)arelativelyhigh
and deoxidizer in certain coppers and copper alloys. meltingtemperature,1083C(1981"F),and(2)very
Phosphorusissolubleincopperup to 1.7%atthe highthermalconductivity.Thismeansthatalot of
eutectic temperature of 650C (1200"F), and approxi- energy is lost due to the very deep heat sink encoun-
mately 0.4% at room temperature. When added to cop-tered by the arc. Fortunately, the problem is reduced
per-zincalloys,phosphorusinhibitsdezincification. by the alloys, because they can lower the thermal con-
The amount of phosphorus that is usually present in ductivity by as muchas70%,whilesimultaneously
copper alloys has no effect on weldability. loweringthemeltingtemperature by asmuchas
195C (350F). Heat losses due to high thermal con-
Silicon. The solubilityof silicon in copper is 5.3% at ductivitycanbereduced by controllingthepreheat
816C (1500F) and 3.6% at room temperature. Sili- and interpass temperatures.
con is used both as a deoxidizer and as an alloying ele-
ment to improve strength, malleability, and ductility. Arc Welding. Copper and most copper alloys can be
Copper-silicon alloys have good weldability, but are joined by arc welding. Welding processes that use gas
hot-shortatelevatedtemperatures.Inwelding,the shieldingaregenerallypreferred,althoughshielded
cooling rate through this hot-short temperature range metal arc welding(SMAW) can be used for many non-
should be fast to prevent cracking. critical applications.

106 COPPER ALLOY WELDING Weldina Encvclopedia
Table C-6
Applicable Joining Processes for Copper and Copper
Alloys
Oxyfuel Solid-
Beam GasState Resistance
Alloy UNS No. Welding
SMAW GMAW GTAW
Welding
Welding
Brazing
Soldering
Welding
F NR G E G NR
Oxygen-Free
C102000 F NR G G NR E E E G
Copper
Deoxidized
C12000 G NR E E NR E E E G
Copper C 123000
Berylium- C17000- NR F G G F F G G F
Copper C 17500
Cadmium/ c 6200
Chromium NR NR G G NR F G G F
C 18200
Copper
Red Brass-
C23000 F NR G G F G E E
85 %
Low Brass- G
F C24000 NR G G G E E
80%
C26000 F F NR F G G E E
Brass-70%
Leaded
Brasses
NR NR
C3 1400-
C38590
NR NR NR E G -
Phosphor C50100- F F G G G G E E -
Bronzes C52400
Copper-
Nickel-30%
C7 1500 F F G G G G E E F
Copper-
C70600 F G E E G G E E G
Nickel-10%
C75200 G NR G G F G E E -
Nickel-Silvers
Aluminum
C61300 NR G E E G G F NR G
Bronze C6 1400
Silicon
C65100 G F E E G G E G G
Bronzes C65500
~~ ~~
E = Excellent G = Good F = Fair NR = Not Recommended

- ~~
STDOAWS JWE-ENGL 3997 m 07842b5 0536283 OTO m

opedia Welding 107
Argon, helium, or mixtures of the two are used as Available as filler metals are copper,phosphor-,
shielding gases for gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), aluminum-andsilicon-bronzesandcopper-nickel.
plasma arc welding(PAW), and gas metal arc welding Filler metal specifications include: ANSI/AWS A5.6,
(GMAW).In general,argon is usedwhenmanually Specifcations for Covered Copper and Copper Alloy
welding material that is either less than 3.2 mm (U8 Arc Welding Electrodes; A5.1, Specificationsfor Cop-
in.) thick, or has low thermal conductivity, or both. per and Copper Alloy Bare Welding Rods and Elec-
Helium or a mixture of 75% helium and 25% argon is trodes; andA5.21, SpeciJication for Copper and
recommended for mechanized weldingof thin sections Copper AlloyRods for Oxyfuel Gas Welding.
and for manual welding of thicker sections or alloys Gas Metal Arc Welding. The GMAW process is an
having high thermal conductivity. Small additions of excellent choicefor welding thicknessesof copper and
nitrogen or hydrogen to the argon shielding gas may its alloys which are greater than 3.2 mm (1/8 in.). It
be used to increase the effective heat input. offers the advantages of high energy concentration at
The SMAW process can be used to welda range of the weld pool, a reasonable deposition rate, and ease
thicknesses of copperalloys.Coveredelectrodes of of use. Single-Vjoints are used with thicknesses up to
copper alloys for SMAW areavailable in standard 12 mm (U2 in.), while double-V joints are preferred
sizes ranging from 2.4 to 4.8 mm (3/32 to 3/16 in.). for thicker section sizes. Argon-rich gases are the rule.
Other sizes are available in certain electrode classifica- Helium in amounts up to80% or 90%can be added to
tions. Submerged arc welding (SAW) has been used increase the heat input without affecting the desirable
for welding copper alloys, although the use of this pro-spray-arc transfer. Although very effective, the spray
cess is not widespread. transfer is associated with a driving arc and fluid pool
Arcweldingshouldbedonein the flat position which preclude its use except in the flat or horizontal
whenpractical.Inpositionsotherthan flat, particu- positions. The pulsed-spray mode allows welds to be
made in all positions and also in thinner section sizes.
larly in the overhead position, GTAW orSMAWis
A large range of alloy systems is available as filler
preferred. For the vertical and overhead positions with
metals. (See ANSVAWS A5.1, Specifcations for
some copper alloys, GMAW with pulsed power and
Copper and CopperAlloy BareWeldingRodsand
small diameter electrodesis also suitable. Higher ther- Electrodes.)
mal conductivity and thermal expansion of copper and
its alloys resultin greater weld distortion than in com- ShieldedMetalArcWelding. Compared to the gas
parablesteelwelds.Theuse of preheat,fixtures, shielded methods, SMAW requires larger joint open-
properweldingsequence,andtackweldscanmini- ings,higherweldingcurrents,higherpreheatand
mize distortionor warping. interpass temperatures, and more welderskill. In spite
of the disadvantages, it still is being usedjob by shops
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding. The GTAW process can which rely heavily on the process for welding other
be used without filler metal to make square-buttjoints metals. Available asfiller metals are copper; phosphor,
on copper thinner than 3.2 mm (U8 in.). Heavier sec- aluminum and silicon bronzes, and copper-nickel. (See
tions, up to about12 mm (112 in.), require thejoints to ANSVAWS A5.6, Specifcations for Covered Copper
be opened up and, therefore,filler metals are required. and Copper AlloyArc WeldingElectrodes.)
In many situations, the use of pulsed GMAW should Plasma Arc Welding. The PAW process offers some
be considered for thicknesses above 3.2 mm (1/8 in.). unique advantages for welding copper and its alloys.
With the exceptionof the oxidizable alloys, direct-cur- Most important is the electrical energy concentration
rent straight polarity (DCEN) is the preferred type of which is produced. This allows higher welding speed
current for GTAW. and reduces the size of the heat-affected zone (HAZ).
Although argon shielding can be used, helium-rich Also, the high velocity plasma protects the tungsten
gasesaremoresuitablebecausetheyproducemore electrode from the fumes produced by volatile alloys
heat at the work surface for a given welding current. such as zinc and tin. Because of the high speeds and
When oxides might form on the surface of the base narrow welds, it lends itself nicely to mechanization.
metal,especiallywithberylliumcopper,alternating When filler metals are required, those used with the
current is a better choice because of thecleaning GTAW processarerecommended. A precautionary
action produced during the DCEP half cycle. In this note: The plasma arc process often uses hydrogen in
case, argon-rich gases must be used. the plasma gas to increase the energy concentration.

~~~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 0516262 T 3 3 U
ACK-UP 108 COPPER
This must be avoided because the hydrogen cancause COPPER BACK-UP BARS
embrittlementduetotheformation of watervapor See BACKUP BARS AND PLATES.
when it reduces the oxides of copper which can be
found in copper alloys. COPPER WELDING
Submerged Arc
Welding. The SAW process is See COPPER ALLOY WELDING.
typically used for making mechanized welds in thick
CORD, Thermal Spraying
sections.
References for information on copper include the Surfacing material in the form of a plastic tube
following: filled with powder that has been extruded to a com-
pact, flexible cord with characteristics similar to a
A S W S A E PublicationDS-56/HS 1086, Metals
and Alloys in the Unified Numbering System, 6th Edi- wire. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
tion, 1993. ASTM, Philadelphia, Pa., and Society of CORE
Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, Pa.
The iron or steel in the center of a coil in magnets,
American Welding Society. Welding Handbook, 8th
transformers,generators or motorsthroughwhich
Edition, Vol. 3, Materials and Applications, Miami,
magnetic lines of force pass.
Florida. 1996.
AmericanWelding
Society.
ANSYAWS A5.6, CORE LOSS
Specification for Covered Copper and Copper Alloy
The power loss in a machine due to eddy currents
Arc Welding Electrodes, Miami, Florida,
Latest and hysteresis losses.
Edition.
For composition and properties, refer to Standards CORED SOLDER
Handbook, Part 2-Alloy Data, Wrought Copper and A solder wire or bar containing flux as a core. See
Copper Alloy Mill Products; 8thEdition:Copper STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
Development Association,Inc., New York. 1985.
For composition and properties, refer to Standards CORE TRANSFORMER
Handbook, Part 7-DatdSpecifications, Cast Copper Transformer with the windings placed on the out-
and Copper Alloy Products: CopperDevelopment side of the core.
Association, Inc.,New York. 1970.
Manufacturers of copper alloy base metals, rods, CORNER-FLANGE WELD
fluxes and electrodes are an excellent sourceof infor- A nonstandard term for an edge weld in a flanged
mation on material specification, recommended weld- comer joint.
ing procedures, and safe handling for the particular
metalsandsupplementarymaterialsusedin joining CORNER JOINT
the copper alloys. A joint between two members located approxi-
Safe Practices mately at right angles to each other in the form of an
In addition to safe practices required for the weld- L. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
ing, brazingorsolderingprocessusedoncopper, a A comer joint is formed by the angular placement
good ventilation system must be provided when weld- of an edge of one base metal part on edge an or surface
ing copper alloys. This is particularly important when of another base metal partso that neither partextends
welding beryllium copper,or when using a beryllium- beyond theouter surface planeof the other part.
copperweldingrod.Thedust,fumesandmistof
berylliumcompounds in virtuallyeveryform are CORONA, Resistance Welding
highly toxic. Because no safe maximum concentration The area sometimes surrounding the nugget of a
hasbeenestablished,extremeprecautionshould be spotweld at the faying sulfaces which provides a
taken to reduce dust, fumes and mist to zero. An effec- degree of solid-state welding. See STANDARD W L D -
tive high velocity ventilating system should be used ING TERMS.
regardless of the degree of contamination. The weld-
ing operator should also be protected with clothing, CORRECTIVE LENS
gloves and a breathingmask of themostimproved A lens ground to the wearers individual corrective
type. See Appendix 12. prescription. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.

~ ~~ ~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb283 973

Welding Encyclopedia METAL WELD OF CRACKING 109
CORROSION ing from the atmosphere, deoxidation, and arc stabili-

Gradualchemicalorelectro-chemicalattackby zation, and can serve as asource of metallic additions
atmospheric contaminants, moistureor other agents.It to the weld. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also
occursin many forms, such as generalpitting,and SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING,Covered Electrodes.
creviceandintergranularcorrosion.It is evidenced The core of the covered electrodeconsists of either
most obviously as rust on steels or pits on aluminum. a solid metal rodof drawn or cast materialor one fab-
See STRESS-CORROSION CRACKING. ricated by encasingmetalpowdersinametallic
Causes: Wrong type of electrode diminishes corro- sheath. The core rod conducts the electric current to
sion resistance of the weld as compared to the parent the arc and providesfiller metal for the joint.
metal; improper weld deposit for the corrosive media; The electrode covering consists of metal and alloy
themetallurgicaleffect of welding;andimproper powders, pulverized minerals, and organic materials
cleaning of the weld. suchascelluloseandsilicatebinders. The primary
Corrections: Proper use of electrodes that provide functions of the electrode covering are to provide arc
equal or bettercorrosionresistancethantheparent stability and to shield the molten metal from the atmo-
metal.Whenwelding 18-8 austeniticstainless steel, sphere with gases created as the coating decomposes
the analysis of thesteeland the weldingprocedure from the heat of the arc. Other characteristics contrib-
should be correct to avoid carbide precipitation: this utedbytheelectrodecoveringincludealloying the
conditioncanbecorrected by annealingat 1040 to weld metal, producing slags to protect and shape the
1150C (1900 to 2100F). weld pool and providing a dam to help support weld
metal in verticaljoints.
CORROSION EMBRllTLEMENT
The shieldingmediumandtheingredients in the
The embrittlement produced in some alloys due to coveringandthe core wirecontrolthemechanical
exposure to a corrosive which attacks the grain bound- properties,chemicalcomposition,andmetallurgical
aries. Such corrosion can be particularly troublesome structure of the weld metal, as well as the arc charac-
in the coarsegrainedregions ofweldheat-affected teristics of the electrode.The composition of the elec-
zones. trode
covering varies
according
to
the
type of
CORROSIVE FLUX electrode.
A flux with a residue that chemically attacks the COVER GLASS
base metal. It may be composedof inorganic salts and
A clear glass used to protect the lens in goggles,
acids, organic salts and acids, or activated rosin. See
face shields and helmets from spatter material.
COSMETIC PASS COVER LENS

A weld pass mude primarily to enhance appear- A nonstandard term for a round cover plate.
ance. See STANDARDWELDING TERMS.
COVER PLATE
COZ WELDING A removable pane of colorless glass, plastic-coated
A nonstandard term forgas metal arc welding with glass, or plastic that covers the filter plate and pro-
carbon dioxide shielding gas. tects it from weld spattel; pitting, or scratching. See
COVALENT BOND
A primary bondarising from the reduction in CRACK
energy associated with overlapping halffilled orbitals A fracture type discontinuity characterized by a
of two atoms. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. sharp tip and high ratioof length and width to opening
displacement. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See
COVERED ELECTRODE Appendix 9.
A composite filler metal electrode consisting of a
core of a bare electrode or metal cored electrode to CRACKING OF WELD METAL
which a covering suficient to provide a slag layer on Causes: Joint too rigid; welds too small for size of
the weld metal has been applied. The covering may parts joined; poor welds; improper joint preparation;
contain materials providing such functions as shield- unsuitable electrode.

~~ ~~
REBUILDING
JOURNAL
110 CRANKSHAFT EncyclopediaWelding
Corrections:Design the structureanddevelop a eliminated by allowing the arc to dwell in the crater
welding procedure to eliminate rigid joints; increase for a shorttimeinstead of removingtheelectrode
weld size to handle the load; make a full size weld in quickly. In this way, the crater can fill up and reduce
short sections; developa welding sequence that leaves the shrinkage forces. Also helpful with gas tungsten
the ends of the joint free to move as longas possible; arc welding (GTAWj is a technique which allows the
proper fusion; preheating; prepare uniformjoints. current to decay slowlyat the end of a weld to reduce
the solidificationrate.
CRANKSHAFT JOURNAL REBUILDING
Automotive industry metallurgists have developed CRATER FILL CURRENT
superior crankshafts that eliminate most problems of The current value during crater Jill time. See STAN-
the past. However, if it is necessary to repair an older, DARD WELDING TERMS.
badly worn crankshaft journal, it can be built up with
either SMAW, GTAW, or GMAW. Before welding, it CRATER FILL TIME
is usually good practice to turn the worn surface and The time interval following weld time but prior to
shoulder down evenly,so that when the weld metal is meltback time during which arc voltage or current
added it will be of uniform thickness and structure. reach a preset value greater or less than welding val-
Theshouldershouldbeturneddowntosolidbase ues. Weld travel may or may not stop at this point. See
metal and rebuilt with weld metal. STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
Because of its low heat input, GMAW is probably
the fastest and least expensive method of rebuilding CRATER FILL VOLTAGE
crankshaft journals. The short-arc method of GMAW The arc voltage value during crater fill time. See
deposits a steel bond on the crankshaft which is equal STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
to the shaft in density. The alloy of the shaft mixes
with the welding wire to forma homogeneous deposit CREEP
which blends with the original metal. The flow, or plastic deformation, of metals when
The shaft canbe built up with GMAW and an auto- held for long periods of time at stresses below their
matic welding head. The shaft is centered in a lathe normal yield strength. The effectis particularly notice-
and turned. The welding head is attached in a fixed able whenthe temperature during stressing approaches
position, then indexed over the weld zone. The weld- the recrystallization temperatureof the metal.
ing wireis fed automatically to the arc. Creep may produce effectsof consequential magni-
The welddeposit is madewhile the crankshaft tude at normal temperatures as well as at elevated tem-
rotates in the lathe at 2 rpm. Welding is done uphill, peratures, dependingon the material and the degree to
using a high-tensile steel electrode, 0.8 mm (.O30 in.j which freedom from continuing deformation can be
diameter,with a 75% argon-25%carbondioxide tolerated.
shielding gas mixture. Distortion is held to 0.13 mm In addition to determination of creep rate at ele-
(0.005 in.), and the average weld time for rebuilding a vatedtemperatures,timedtestingincludesmeasure-
journal is threeto five minutes.Shieldedmetalarc ment of time for fracture,whensufficientload is
welding can also be used with either bare or coated applied,andmeasurement of stressrelaxation by
electrodes. creep. These additional testsare called creep rupture,
stress rupture, notched-bar rupture and relaxation
CRATER tests. Standard practices for most of these long time
A depression in the weld face at the termination of a tests can be found in ASTME139, Conducting Creep,
weld bead. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. Creep Rupture and Stress Rupture Tests of Metallic
Materials. These tests are conducted with a relatively
CRATER CRACK slow heating rate.
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 9.
Radial cracks formed in weld craters as the weld CREEP, (Regulator)
pool solidifies and shrinks. They are caused bylow Any increase in the outlet pressureof a regulator; a
melting constituents which are segregated in the pool termappliedtogasregulatorswhich may creep
during solidification and cause the metal to tear due to(because ofslowpressureincreases)whentheseat
shrinkagestresses.Whenpossible,theyshould be does not close against the inlet nozzle, allowing
gas to

~~ ~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 051b285 746 m

pedia Welding WELDING WIRE CROSS 111
enter theregulatorbeyondthepressuredesired. A CRITICAL TEMPERATURE

creepingregulatorisdetected by movement of the The preferred metallurgical term is transfomation
indicator in a low-pressure gauge. temperature. It is thetemperature atwhich a phase
In gas welding, with the valves on the torch closed, change can occur. Sometimes it is used to denote the
regulator creep occurs when the handon the dial does limiting temperature of a transformation range. Such
not remain stationary, but indicates a higher pressure transformations are expected with all metals and their
than it did while operating the torch.A creep of a few alloys, and when reversible, transformations on heat-
pounds is allowable, but when the creep reaches 50 ing occur at higher temperatures than during cooling.
poundsbeyondtheoperatingpressure,usingthe In the case of steels, some of the critical tempera-
creeping regulator is dangerous, since the pressure in tures are identified as:
the body of the regulator may burst the diaphragm or Acl-The temperature at which austenite begins to
the gauge. form during heating
Ac3-The temperature at which the transformation
CRITICAL COOLING RATE of ferrite to austeniteis completed during heating
When steels cool from high temperatures at which Arl-The temperature at which austenite completes
they have an austenitic microstructure, they can trans- transformation toferrite on cooling
form to a number ofvery different microstructures, Ar3-The temperature at which austenite begins to
such as pearlite, bainite and martensite. The structure transform tofemte on cooling
formed depends on the composition of the steel and Ms-The temperature at which austenite begins to
the rate at which it cools. With very slow cooling rates, transform tomartensiteoncooling.Notethatthis
a mixture of ferrite and pearlite is likely. This is rela- transformation is not reversible. On heating, marten-
tively weak but very ductile. At higher cooling rates, site first transforms to ferrite.
bainite will form. It is very strong and very tough. At The critical temperature is customarily associated
stillhigher rates, martensitecanbeexpected. This with the
following phenomena: hardening when
structure is very strong but tends to be brittle. In most quenched; loss of magnetism; absorption of heat; for-
cases, the martensite is considered to be undesirable, mation of coarse grain on
cooling.
so highcoolingratesmust be avoided.However, On heating a metal, the eutectoid change at approx-
heavily alloyed steels are called hardenable because imately 720C (1328F) is known as Acl (lower criti-
they will produce martensite at low cooling rates, so caltemperature), while the
finaltemperature of
the critical cooling rates for steels with high harden- transformation to austenite (upper critical temperature)
ability are much lower than those for steels with low isknownas Ac3.On cooling, the temperatures are
hardenability. With knowledge of these critical cooling somewhat lower due to hysteresis, and are known as
rates,andusingthecoolingrateequations,welding A r 3 (corresponding with Ac3) and Arl (corresponding
personnel can determine what the welding procedures with Acl) respectively.
shouldbetoavoidundesirablemicrostructures,or
toobtainthosethatarespecified. See CONTINUOUS CROSS MAGNETISM
COOLING DIAGRAM, METALLURGY, and MARTENSITE. The magnetic lines of force produced in an arma-
ture that are at right angles to those produced by the
CRITICAL PRESSURE field coils.
The pressure sufficient to causea gas to be liquefied CROSS-SECTIONAL SEQUENCE
when at its critical temperature. The order in which the weld passes of a multiple-
pass weld are made with respect to the cross section of
CRITICAL RANGE (Temperature) the weld. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also
The range of temperatureinsteels inwhichthe BLOCK SEQUENCE and CASCADE SEQUENCE.
reversiblechangefromaustenitic(stabilityathigh
temperatures) to ferrite and cementite (stability at low CROSS WIRE WELDING
temperatures) occurs. The upper limit varies with the A common variation of projection welding wherein
carbon content. The lower limit for slow heating and the localization of the welding current is achieved by
cooling is about700C (1292F). the intersection contact of wires, and is usually accom-

'STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 05Lb28b b82 m
112 CRYOGENICS Welding Encyclopedia
panied by considerable embedding of one wire intousing a process developed by Dr. Karl von Linde about
anothel: See STANDARD WELDINGTERh4S. 1890. By 1910, air separation plants, although small,
A typicalcrosswireresistanceweld is shownin became relatively common in the United States.
FigureC-10. See also PROJECTION WELDING and Air separation plants have increased in size to the
RESISTANCE WELDING. extent that a single plant can produce 2800 tons of
oxygen per day. Air separation plants use high volume,
lowpressurepumps,turbo-expandersandreversing
exchangersto drop theincoming air temperature
below the -198C (-325F) needed to liquefy it. The
liquid is thenseparated by fractional distillationin
bubble towers; the liquid oxygen is removed at the
bottom andthe cooler nitrogen from the top. The sepa-
rationandpurificationprocessescontinueuntil the
gases listed in Table C-7 are produced at the purity
levels required by customers.
In addition to the welding industry, a diversity of
industries depend heavily on cryogenic gases for their
Figure C-10-Section of a Typical Cross Wire Weld technology. For example, liquid oxygen and argonare
supplied by the ton for refining steel and heat treating;
liquid nitrogenis used for freezing foods.
CRYOGENICS
Cryogenics is the science of very low temperatures CRYOGENIC VESSELS
andtheirphenomena.Thedefinitionforcryogenic Cryogenic vessels are containers that are used
temperatureshas changed during the years asit to store products at temperatures lower than -128C
became easier
to
producecryogenicproducts.In (-200F).
about 1950, the definition of a cryogenic temperature One of the most important aspects of storing gases
was -73C (-100F). Nowit has been reduced to -128C in the cryogenic (liquid) state is the saving in space.
(-200F). Carbon dioxide, which boils at -78C (-109F) Gaseous oxygen requires 862 times more storage vol-
is no longer considered a cryogenic gas. umethanliquidoxygen.Gaseousnitrogenrequires
The commercial gas components in air, boiling tem-696 times more storage volume.
peratures at atmospheric pressure, and volume fraction Cryogenic vessels must be fabricated of materials
in airare shown in Table C-7. that retain good impact values at extremely low tem-
peratures, and must have effective insulation around
the inner vesselstoprotectthemfromatmospheric
Table C-7
heat.
Commercial Componentsof Air
The main problem in cryogenics is to maintain the
Boiling Point Fraction gases at temperatures ranging from -70 to -270C (-100
Gas "C "F Volume to -452F). The solution is in the correct selection and
fabrication of materials for low temperature applica-
Nitrogen -196 -320 78%
tions.Materialsgenerallyused are 9% nickel steel,
Oxygen -1 83 -297 21%
304 stainless steel, and various aluminum alloys, most
Argon -1 86 -303 1%
notably 5083. All have good weldability and ductility,
Neon -246 411 15 PPm primerequirements for useinlow-temperatureser-
Krypton -153 -244 1PPm vice. While theseare good selections, thereis always a
0.1
Xenon -163 -108 DDm
reasonable concern that these high-strength materials
may be subject to brittle fracture under certain condi-
The welding industry relies heavily on cryogenic tions. A notched specimen must be used in ductility
technology,becauseoxygen is needed for oxyfuel tests. Smooth specimens may show amazing ductility
weldingandcutting,andargon is needed for the at low temperatures, but a notched specimen mayfail
GMAWandGTAW processes.Thesegases,along in brittle fracture, indicating its notch sensitivity. See
withnitrogen, are produced in air separationplants CHARPY TEST.

~ ~~~
S T D = A W S JWE-ENGL 1977 W 07842b5 O51b287 519 W

Welding VESSELS CRYOGENIC 113
Actually, copper was the most widely used material electrodes. Weld joint strength, however, was some-
for early low-temperature work.One of the more suc- what below the minimum specified tensile strength.
is silicon bronze contain-
cessful alloys in such service Thus, the designercouldnotmake full use of the
ing 3% silicon and 1% manganese. strength of this steel. In all other aspects, the 25Cr,
9% Nickel Steel 20Ni stainless steel joint was satisfactory.
Ninepercentnickelsteel is a low-carbon,high- Fluorine,which is a super-cryogenicdeoxidizer
nickel,steelplatematerialprimarilyintended for usedas a rocket propellent, is highly corrosive, and
pressurevesseluse
at
low
temperatures. When must be storedin Monel@ vessels. Fluorineis the most
quenchedandtempered, or double-normalizedand powerful oxidizing agent known, reacting with practi-
tempered, it has good notch toughness characteristics cally all known organic and inorganic substances.
down to -195C (-320F). Aluminum
Fabrication with 9% nickel steel has been done with For cryogenic service in the range of -100 to -195C
a high-nickel, chromium-iron electrode (InCo@Weld (-150 to-320"F),twoweldablealuminumalloys,
A). The composition of this electrode produces joints 5083 and 5086, are frequently used for cryogenic ves-
with strengths higher than the minimum specified for sels. These are both high-strength alloys of aluminum,
the A353 steel. magnesium and manganese, but they have the excel-
A quenched and tempered 9% nickel steel in the as- lent weld ductility characteristic of other alloys in the
welded condition exhibitslow-temperature notch 5XXX series.
toughness equal to that of the double-normalized and One of the most popularof these aluminum-magne-
tempered metal. A basic requirement in welding 9% sium-manganese alloys, 5083, offersa combination of
nickel steel is extreme cleanliness. Before fabrication, properties required for cryogenic service: good weld-
components should be pickled or sandblasted. ability and weld ductility, resistance to corrosion and
Immediately prior
fitting
to the components stress concentration, andin addition, light weight.
together to closeor restrict access to inner surfacesof Since high-strengthmaterials maybe subject to
a vessel,thesesurfacesshouldbecleanedagainto brittlefractureundercertainconditions,ductilityat
ensureremoval of alldirtand oil. A muriaticacid lowtemperaturesis a majorconcern. An extensive
wash, followedby a water rinse,is suggested. battery of tests, however, has proved that at tempera-
For stress relieving after welding, a furnace with a tures as low as -195C (-320"F), 5083-H113 alumi-
neutral or reducing atmosphere is recommended. Nor- num alloy plate and welds made with5183 alloy filler
mally, a detrimentalscaleshouldnotappearunder can be used without the occurrence of ductile-brittle
these stress relief conditions. However, asa final pre- transition.
caution, another muriatic acid wash and water rinse The 5083-H113 aluminum alloy plate was usedfor
after stress relief will remove any remaining scale and the study because its temper is much stronger than the
loose particles. annealed 5083-0, and since the latter is a softer, more
Stressreliefshouldbeconductedinaccordance ductile-tempered plate, it would be at least equivalent
with American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) to the H 113 in brittle fracture resistance.
andASMEcodespecifications.Ninepercentnickel In the unnotched tensile impact tests, the increased
steel can meet and exceed these specifications in the strain rate did not produce a ductile-brittletransition in
as-welded condition. either the 5083 plate or its welds. In the notched ten-
Stainless Steel sile impacttests, a ductile-brittletransitionwasnot
The stainless steels, especiallytype304, are the produced in either the 5083 plate or its heat-affected
most widely used material for containers subject to zone, or in the 5183 welddeposit.Plateproperties
temperatures lower than -195C (-320F). Although were virtually insensitive to testing temperature.
somewhat expensive, austenitic stainless steelhas In the Charpykeyholeimpacttests(mostlikely
been a favored material for cryogenic containers. A to
produce a ductile-brittletransitionin fracture-
disadvantage of austenitic stainlessis that it may susceptible material) the results were the same as in
transformto brittle martensitic stainless
when the tensile impact tests.
exposed to extremelylowtemperaturesover a pro- Vessel Construction
longedperiod. Some of the first vessels fabricated The basic construction of this type of vessel con-
with A363 steel were welded with 310 stainless steel sists of two or more concentric tanks, one inside the
.
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb288 455 W
114 CUP Welding Encyclopedia
other. The most common type of large volume storage CUTTER

or transport container consists of an inner vessel and See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See THERMAL
an outer vessel, with the vacuum space between filled CUTTER.
with insulating powder suchas pearlite, silica aerogel,
phenolicspheres,ordiatomaceousearth.Thearea CUTTING
between the vesselsis evacuated toa high vacuum. See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See THERMAL
The outer shell is constructed to withstand rough CUTTING.
treatment and to act as protection forthe inner vessel.
The inner shell is supported within the outer shell by CUTTING ATTACHMENT
rods, cables, or chains strong and flexible enough to A device for converting an oxyfuel gas welding
withstand lateral or vertical jars and sudden forces of torch into an oxygen cuttingtorch.See STANDARD
acceleration.Connectionbetweentheshellsshould WELDING TERMS.
have a minimum contact area consistent with adequate
strength to minimize heat flow from the shell to the CUTTING, Bevel
liquid in the inner vessel. See THERMALCUTTING,OXYFUELGASCUTTING,
Plate Edge Preparation.
CUP
for GAS NOZZLE. CUTTING BLOWPIPE
A nonstandardtermfor OXYFUEL GASCUTTING
CUP FRACTURE TORCH.
The shape of a fracture of tensile test specimens
when the exterior portion is extended and the internal CUTTING ELECTRODE
relatively depressed, so that it looks like a cup. When A nonfiller metalelectrodeusedin arc cutting.
only a portion of the exterior is extended, the terms See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See als0 METAL
half-cup and quarter cup are used. ELECTRODE.
CUPPING CUTTING HEAD

A defect in wire which causes it to break witha cup The part of a cutting machine in which a cutting
fracture accompaniedby very little reduction in area. torch or tip is incorporated. See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS.
CUPRO-NICKEL
A high-nickel content copper alloy. CUTTING NOULE
A nonstandard termfor CU'ITING TIP.
CURIE POINT
Althoughthechangefromgammatoalphairon CUTTING OPERATOR
involvesanatomicrearrangement,there is another See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See THERMAL
change at about 770C (1415F) known as the Curie CUTTING OPERATOR.
point, below which alpha iron becomes ferromagnetic.
This is probably caused by an electron rearrangement CUlTlNG PROCESSES
or shift in the atoms themselves, although the exact See AIR CARBON ARC CUTTING, GAS TUNGSTEN ARC
reason has not been established. CUTTING, PLASMA ARC CUTTING, OXYFUEL GAS CUT-
TING, and FLAME CUTTING.
CURRENT
The flowof electricity througha circuit. CUTTING TIP
The part of an oxygen cutting torch from which the
CURRENT DENSITY gases issue. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.See Fig-
Current density is an indication of the amperes per ure C-1 l .
cm2 (in.2) of cross sectional area of an electrode. To
calculate the current density for an electrode, divide CUTTING TORCH
the amperes being used by the cross sectional area of See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See AIRCARBON
the electrode. ARCCU'ITINGTORCH,GASTUNGSTENARCCU'ITING

~ ~~~~
STD.AWS
JWE-ENGL 1997 9 07842b5 051b289 391
Weldina MANIFOLD CYLINDER 115
Portable. Portable manifolds are useful where mod-

erate volumes of gas are required for jobs of a nonre-
petitive nature, either in the shop or in the field. Two
portable systems are commonly used. Both permit the
manifolded cylinders to be located near the point of
use. Inone type of portable manifold,Ts are connected
CUlTING to the individual cylinder valves, and leads (pigtails)
TIP successively join the Ts together. The gas from each
cylinderpassesthroughthe T, intothemain gas
stream, and finally, to a regulator that serves entire
the
group of cylinders.
In the second type of portable manifold, the cylin-
ders are connected by individual cylinder leads (pig-
tails) to a common coupler block that is connected to a
pressure reducing regulator.
Stationary. Stationary manifolds, Figure C-12, are
KERF
installed in shops or plants where larger volumes of
gas are required. This type of manifold feeds a pipe-
Figure C-ll-Oxygen Cutting linesystemdistributingthegastovariousstations
throughout the plant. This arrangement allows many
operatorstoworkfromacommonpipelinesystem
without intermption. Alternatively, itmay supply large
TORCH, PLASMA ARC CUTTING TORCH, and OXYFUEL automatic torch brazing or oxygen cutting operations.
GAS CUTTING TORCH. This type of manifold consists of an adequately sup-
ported high-pressure header to which a number of cyl-
CUlTING, Underwater inders are connected bymeansof pigtails.Oneor
See OXYFUELGASCUTTING, Underwater Cutting; more permanently mounted regulators reduce the pres-
and PLASMA ARC CUTTING. sure and regulate the flow of gas from the manifold
into the plant piping system.
CYCLE
An important protective device for the fuel gas pipe-
The duration of alternating current represented by
line system is the hydraulic seal, or hydraulic flashback
the current increase from an initial value to a maxi-
arrester, which keeps flashback originating at a station
mum in one direction then to amaximum in the reverse
frompassingfurtherintothesystem.Itconsistsofa
direction and its returntothe original initial value.
smallpressurevesselpartlyfilledwithwaterthrough
which the gas supply flows. The gas continues through
CYLINDER the space above the water level and through the vessel
See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See GAS CYLINDER. head to the station regulator. A flashback of high pres-
sure backup will set off the relief valve to the vessel
head, which will vent the pressure to the outside atmo-
CYLINDER MANIFOLD
sphere. A check valve prevents the water from backing
A multiple header for interconnection of gas up into the line.
sources with distribution points. See STANDARDWELD-
ING TERMS. RegulationsandSafePracticesforManifoldsand
Individual cylinders cannot supply high rates of gas Pipelines. The rules and regulations set forth in the cur-
flow, particularly for continuous operation over long rent issue of NFP A51, Standard for the Installation
periods of time.Manifolding of cylinders is one and Operation of Oxyfiel GasSystems for Welding and
answer to this problem. A reasonably large volumeof Cutting, as recommended by the National Fire Protec-
gas is provided by this means, and it can be discharged tion Association, govern the installationof oxygen and
at a moderately rapid rate. Manifolds are available as acetylene manifolds and pipelines. In all cases, mani-
portable or stationary units. folds should be obtained from reliable suppliers and
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 07842b5 051b290 003
LING
SAFE FOR
116 RULES
CYLINDERS, Encyclopedia
Welding
FLOOR LINE
Figure C-12-Typical Arrangement for a Stationary Gas Manifold
installed by personnel familiar with proper construc- CYLINDER TRUCK

tion and installationof manifolds and pipelines. A wheeled cart designed to transport gas cylinders
securely fastened in an upright position.
CYLINDERS, RULES FOR SAFE HANDLING The most important quality in a cylinder truck is
Consult the material safety data sheet for each gas strength. It should be sufficientlystrong to support the
product, available from the gas manufacturer. Refer to load while being moved; it should also be stable and
ANSUAWS Z49.1 Safety in Welding,Cutting, und well-balanced to minimize chances of cylinders being
Allied Processes. See S A F E PRACTICES. knocked
over.
A worker supervises the two-pass

submerged arc Monel@ strip
cladding of a carbon steel forging
to be installed in the bottom of a
horizontal pressure vessel
Photo courtesyof Beaird Industries

~~ ~~
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 9 07842b5 051b291 T 4 T m
DC or D-C Basic Idea

Abbreviationfordirectcurrent. DC ishyphenated For years, sound welds have been made by conven-
when used as an adjective, but not when used aasnoun. tional methodsin the accepted belief that deeper pene-
trationwasproduced by slowerarcspeeds.Infact,
D-C ARC Welding
however, faster speeds, within limits, result in greater
An arc welding process using a power source that penetration, while slower speeds tend to build up more
supplies a direct current tothe welding arc. of the weld metal on the surface. A fillet weld with
DCEN or DC (-)
greater penetration resulting from faster travel speed
appears smaller, but its strength actuallyis as great or
Abbreviation for direct current electrode negative.
greater than the weld made at slow speed, which sacri-
See DIRECT CURRENT ELECTRODE NEGATIVE.
fices penetration for buildup. Since increased penetra-
DCEP or DC(+) tion reduces the amount of deposited metal needed, the
Abbreviation for direct current electrode positive. speed of welding can be increased without impairing
See DIRECT CURRENT ELECTRODE POSITIVE. the strength.
Travel Speed-Penetration
DECARBURIZATION
The key factor in applying arc force is making the
The removal of carbon (usuallyrefemng to the sur- arc travel fast enough to utilize the penetrating power
face of solid steel)by the actionof media which reacts of the arc. An analogy would be to squirt a stream of
with the carbon to cause its oxidation. waterthroughthenozzleof a hosetodigintothe
DEEP DRAWING ground. The digging action of the stream of water is
As it refers to sheet metal, drawing is a process of effective only when the stream is directed at the dig-
forming flat sheet metal into hollow shapes by means ging point in the dirt, not when directed into the pool
of a punch that causes the metal to flow into a die cav- of water that soon accumulates. To maintain the dig-
ity. If the depth of the formed part (die cavity)
is one or ging action, theof stream of water must be kept mov-
more times the sheet thickness, the process is called ing rapidly enough to stay ahead of the pool, because
deep drawing. when it is directed into the pool, its force is expended
Examples of deep drawing are found in shell case inmerely displacing and churning the water inthe
forming, the formingof deep pans, and some automo- pool, not in digging into the ground.
bile body panels and other parts. Alloys used for this The sameprinciplecan be applied in welding.
purpose are required to have high ductility. The stock When the arc is moved slowly, the poolofmolten
must be fine-grained, since a coarse-grained material metal buffers the arc, and its force is expended in the
will exhibit a very rough surface after forming, due to molten pool instead of penetrating intotheparent
localized yielding, and the ductility of such material is metal at the root
of the joint. This molten metal merely
generally too low to permit such extensive drawing flows along thejoint under the weld without fusing to
without cracking. the parent metal below the depth of arc penetration.
When the arc is moved forward rapidly enough, the
DEEP WELDING arc force digs into the base metal and the result is good
Deep welding is a term applied to a shielded metal penetration.
arc welding (SMAW) technique which utilizes higher Whenconventionalarcspeedsareused,there is
welding speeds than conventional methods, uses the usually a small puddle of molten metal under the arc,
benefits of greaterarcpenetrationtoobtainthe dissipating the arc force and preventing full penetra-
required weld strength, and thereby decreases the cost tion. The limiting speed is usually the highest speed at
of the welding operation. When applied to fillet weld- which the surface appearance remains satisfactory. See
ing, it is often calleddeep-fillet welding. Figure D-1 for a comparison of arc penetration at con-
117
. S T D - A W S JWE-ENGL L997 I07842b5 0536292 786
118 DEEP EncvcloDedia Welding
ventional and high travel speeds. Note that deposited maybeneeded.Ingeneral,thefirstindicationof

weld metal is minimized. excesscurrent is a poorsurfaceappearance ofthe
weld.
Effect of Arc Length
In a further comparison of the arc to the stream of
LARGE water from a hose, to dig deeply into the dirt the noz-
AMOUNT SMALL
OF ADDED
zle must be kept as close to the ground as possible in
AMOUNT order to avoid letting the stream of water spread out
METAL--, OF ADDED
METAL into an ineffective spray. In welding, when a long arc
/2 in.)
is held, heat is dissipated into the air, the stream of
a ,-PLATE molten metal from the electrode to the work is scat-
tered in the form of spatter, and thearc force is spread
over a large area. The result is a wide, shallow bead
instead of a narrow bead with deep penetration.
The advantagesof deep-welding are: (1) less depos-
ited metal, (2) increased rate of deposit, and (3) lower
costs and simplified process.
MISSES J - L PENETRATES
LessDepositedMetal. By gettingdeeperpenetra-
CORNER 3.2 mm (1/8 in.,) INTO
BY 0.8 mm CORNER tion, the weldedjoint is comprised of more fused base
(1/32 in.) metal and less deposited metal than in conventional
TI3AVEL SPEED: TRAVEL SPEED:
welding. Since the deposited metal is relatively costly
and the fused base metal can be utilized at practically
127 mdmin. (5 in./min.)
300 AMPS. 7 300 mm/min. (12 in./min.)
AMPS.
350 no additional cost(other than labor to make the weld),
thedeep-welded joint is madeat a proportionately
Figure D-1-Comparison of Arc Penetration at reduced cost.
Conventional and HighTravel Speeds Greater penetration also allows changing joint prep-
arationfrom a V-buttin3/8-inchplateto a plain
Effect of Current square-edge butt joint, reducing the amount of filler
An increase in currentincreasesthearcforce, metal deposited by about 50%. This, in turn, reduces
which increases penetration, just as an increase in the labor by almost 80%. Figure D-2 shows the useof arc
analogous volumeof water throughthe same size hose penetration to reduce plate edge preparation.
nozzle increases the digging power of the stream of Travel Speed. Onweldswherepenetration is the
water. To use higher currents, larger size electrodes major consideration, such as square-edge butt welds
9.5 mm (3/8in.)
PLATE 7
50 mdmin. (2 in./min.) 228 mdmin. (9 in./min.)
(A) (B)
Figure D-2-Use of Arc Penetration to Reduce Plate Edge Preparation

'STDeAWS JWE-ENGL 3997 M 0784265 0536293 832 m
Welding 119
and fillet welds made by deep-welding procedures, the (4) Porosity resulting from entrapped air or volatile
contaminants
travel speed is not proportional to the current, since the
limiting factor for travel speedis the rate at which the ( 5 ) Shrinkage, voids or cracks resulting from poor
slag will follow and cover the weld. Thus, the travel fit-up or excessive restraint
speed with this typeof joint is determinedby the slag- (6) Underfill causedby poor fit
covering characteristicsof the coated electrode, rather (7) Excessivedilutionresultingfromimproper
than by the melt-off rate. design or process selection.
Fusion-Zone Defects
DEFECT
Potential defects that can occur in the fusion ofzone
A discontinuity or discontinuities that by nature or a weld include:
accumulated efSectCfor example,totalcrack length) (1) Porosity caused by dissolved gasesbeing
render a part or product unable to meetminimum released on solidification
applicable acceptance srandards or specifications. (2) Entrapped slag within or between passes from
Theterm designates rejectability. See STANDARD thecoatings of electrodes,thecores of flux-cored
WELDING TERMS. See also DISCONTINUITY and FLAW.
wires, or other sources,in processes employing slag
Defects in welds are points, areas or volumes of a (3) Solidificationhotcracksresultingfromlow-
weld that are unsound, indicating that there is either a melting constituents at grain boundaries being pulled
geometric or metallurgical discontinuity in the struc- open by shrinkage stresses
ture. Such defects may involve regions where metal is (4)Severe macro-segregation resulting from gross
absent and there is no solid present (e.g., pores, voids, unmixed dissimilar base metals or unmatched fillers
cracks),regionswheretherearelow-density(com- and base metals
pared to the weld metal) non-metallic inclusions (e.g., (5) Cold cracks causedby hydrogen embrittlement
entrapped slag), regions where there are high-density (6) High-density inclusions resulting from contam-
(compared to the weld metal) inclusions (e.g., tungstenination by non-consumable tungsten electrodes used in
inclusions), or various geometric discontinuities (e.g., gas tungsten arc welding.
lack of penetration, missedseam,mismatch, or
undercut). Partially-Melted Zone Defects
Defects in welds can arise from one or more of the The three major defects in the partially-melted zone
following sources: in fusion welds aresolidificationhotcracks,back-
(1) Improper joint design, preparation, alignment, filled hot cracks, and hydrogen cold cracks.
or fit-up Heat-Affected Zone Defects
(2) Inherent base or filler metal characteristics Defects in the heat-affected zone of fusion welds
(3) Process characteristics include:
(4) Environmental factors (1) Hydrogen cold cracks
Regardless of origin, defects almost always act as (2) Liquation, reheat, or strain-age cracks
points of stress concentration, often reduce the cross- (3) Stress-corrosion cracks, weld decay cracks, or
sectionalload-bearingarea,andsometimesdegrade knife-lineattackcracks(e.g.,insensitizedstainless
theproperties of themetal,especiallyductilityand steels).
toughness. (4)Lamellar tears in base metals containing exten-
Joint-Induced Defects
sive non-metallic inclusions in the form of stringers
Improper or inappropriate joint design, preparation, DELAYED CRACKING
alignment, or fit-up can lead to the following types of A nonstandard term when used for cold cracking
defects: caused by hydrogen embrittlement.See COLD CRACK.
(1) Lack of completepenetration of the joint
groove or seam because of improper design or inap- DELONG DIAGRAM
propriate process or parameter selection Named after W. T. DeLong. The DeLong Diagram
(2) Mismatch or surface offset due to misalignment is a methodof calculating the Ferrite Number(FN) of
of joint elements a stainless steel weld deposit from its chemical com-
(3) Severe distortion caused by unbalanced masses position. The DeLong Diagram is a modified Schaef-
or excessive heat input fler Diagram predicting the Ferrite Number up to a

~~
-~ ~ ~~
STD*AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 07811265 05Lb274 759 m
120 DELTA Welding Encyclopedia
maximum of 18. Ferrite is important in a weld because phosphorus,silicon,manganese,cadmium,zinc or

it is known to be beneficial in reducing crackingfis-
or aluminum.All of theseagentsacttoreducethe
suring inweldmetal. See SCHAEFFLER DIAGRAM, cuprousoxideandthusentirelypurgethemetal of
WRC1992(FN)Diagram, and ANSUAWSA5.22, oxygen.Deoxidizedcopper is preferredwhenthe
Specification for Stianless Steel Electrodes for Flux metal is to be welded because weaknesses due to the
Cored Arc Welding and Stainless Steel Rods for Gas cuprous
oxide are avoided. See COPPER ALLOY
Tungsten Arc Welding. WELDING.
DELTA IRON DEOXIDIZING AGENT

A term applied to iron which assumes the body- Deoxidizing agentsare elements such as aluminum,
centeredcubicstructurebetween1535and1400C silicon, or titanium, which, when added to filler met-
(2796 and 2552F). When the temperature of the iron als, eliminateoxygenand ensure soundwelds free
isreducedto1400C (2552"F), a transformation from oxide inclusions and porosity, or blowholes.
occurs and the iron below that temperature assumes a
face-centeredcubicstructureand is calledgamma DEPOSIT
iron. See METALLURGY. A nonstandard term when used for
THERMAL SPRAY
DEPOSIT.
DEMAGNETIZATION
The process of removingthemagneticfields of DEPOSITED METAL, Surfacing
force from a magnetized substance. Demagnetization Suq5acing metal that has been added during surfac-
can be accomplished by (1) heating to a red heat, (2) ing. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
by violent jarring, or (3) by holding the magnetized
substance in the magneticfield of a solenoid operated DEPOSITED METAL, Welding, Brazing and Soldering
on alternating current, and then gradually removing it. Filler metal that has been added during welding,
brazing or soldering. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
DENDRITIC GROWTH Depositedmetalreferstometalwhichhasbeen
Growth of a crystalline solid (e.g., metal) from a added by any of these fusion processes aornon-fusion
melt along certain preferred crystallographic orienta- weldingprocess(usingfriction)toapply a surface
tions or easy growth directions, resulting in a tree-like overlay during surfacing.
appearance in thegrain.Dendritestypicallycontain
primaryandsecondarybranchesorarms,andmay DEPOSITED METALZONE
even contain tertiary branches, all of which are aligned In a fusion weld, the portion or area of the weld
with easy growth directions. In welds made in alloys, metal zone externaltotheoriginalsurface or edge
dendritic growth can exhibit anyor all of several sub- planes of the base metal, and consisting substantially
structuresincluding:equiaxeddendritic,columnar of deposited weld metal. For metal deposited aby non-
dendritic,andcellulardendritic. See METALLURGY fusion process, the deposited metal zone
is the portion
and WELD METAL. comprised of the metal added byfriction.
DENSENESS DEPOSITION EFFICIENCY

Compactness or soundness; the absenceof porosity See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.See ARC WELDING
in a material or weld. See SPECIFIC GRAVITY DEPOSITION EFFICIENCYand THERMAL SPRAYING DEP-
OSITION EFFICIENCY.
DENSITY Deposition efficiency is the ratio of the weight of
The ratio of the mass of a homogeneous portion of deposited metal tothe net weight of electrodes or wire
matter to its volume. The density of solids is compared consumed, exclusive of any loss from stubs,or cut off.
to water at 167C (62"F), and gases are compared to An effective method for calculating the deposition
air at 15.6"C (60F)at a pressure of 762 mm (30 in.) of efficiency for a given process is to use that process to
mercury (101 kPa [14.7 psi]). deposit a measurable electrode weight on a clean plate
of known weight, remove the slag and spatter, and re-
DEOXIDIZED COPPER weigh. (If wire is a factor, the method is the same as
Usually a 99 to 99.9% pure copper witha fractional above; wire weightis determined by weighing the reel
percentage of one or more deoxidizing agents suchas of wire and subtracting the weight of the reel). The

~
STD=AWS JWE-ENGL L997 W 07842b5 05Lb295 b95

Welding Encyclopedia DIE 121
ratio of weight added to the plate to the weight of the DEPTH OF FUSION
electrode used isthedepositionefficiency.Typical The distance thutfision extends into the base metal
depositionefficiencies
for
various
processes are or previous bead fmm the su$ace melted during weld-
shown in Table D-l. See also ARCWELDINGDEPOSI- ing. See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See also JOINT
TION EFFICIENCY. PENETRATION. Figure D-3 illustrates depths of fusion
for various typesof welds.
Table D-I DESCALING
Typical Deposition Efficiencies
for Various Welding Processes A process of removing scale (i.e., mill oxide) from
steel surfaces with a multi-flame torch. The term also
Deposition refers to removal of mill or process-induced oxideby
Process means of Efficiency
any of various mechanical or chemical pro-
Shielded
Metal Arc Welding 60 to 70% cesses (e.g., etching).
Flux
Cored Arc Welding (Self-Shielded) 70 to 80%
Flux Cored Arc Welding (Gas Shielded) 80 to 90% DETONATION FLAME SPRAYING
Gas Metal Arc Welding (COz Shielded) 85 to 90% A thermal spraying process variation in which the
Gas Metal Arc Welding (Argon/C02 Shielded) 90 to 96%
controlled explosion of a mixture of fuel gas, oxygen,
Submerged Arc Welding 100%
and powdered sugacing material is utilized to melt
and propel the su$acing material to the substrate. See
DEPOSITION RATE STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
The weight of material deposited in a unit of time.
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. DESTRUCTIVE TEST
Deposition rateis a direct measureof the amount of Qualitative or quantitative tests which involve the
weld metal deposited inkgh (lbh)or kg/min (lblmin) destruction of a complete welded unit, or selected rep-
under a given setof conditions. resentative specimens that have been cut from the unit
The deposition rate of a specific electrode varies to be tested. Among the destructive tests are tensile,
according to the type of power source. In a test using bend,nickbreak,impact,fatigue,specificgravity,
E6012 electrodes, the deposition rate with a d-c motor- hardness, drift and crush.
generator welding machine was about 9% greater than
the transfonner-rectifier type,and 15% greater than DIAL, DIAL GAUGE,or DIAL INDICATOR
one powered with an a-c transformer, The deposition
rate of an electrode is always less than the melting rate The graduated face of a gauge, instrumentor meter.
because of losses by spatter and fumes.
The melting rate of an electrode, sometimes called DIAPHRAGM
the burn-off rate, is the rate at which the electrode The flexible partition in a gas regulator under the
of a specific typeand size is meltedby a specific regulator spring.
welding current. It is usuallyexpressed in c d m i n
(in./min.). The melting rate increases rapidly as the DIE
currentis increased, especially for smalldiameter In resistance flash welding, a device on a fixture
electrodes. which holds the moving part. In manufacturing,a per-
forated block through which metal or plastic is drawn
DEPOSITION OR DEPOSIT SEQUENCE
or extruded.
A nonstandardtermwhenusedfor WELD
PASS
SEQUENCE. A die is a tool or device which imparts a desired
shape, form or finish toa material, or which is used to
DEPTH OF BEVEL impress an object or material. Also, a die is the larger
The perpendicular distance from the base metal of a pair of cuttingorshapingtools,which,when
surface to the root edge or the beginning of the root moved toward one another, producea certain form or
face. See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See Appen- impression by pressureorby a forcefulblow. See
dix 6 . RESISTANCE WELDING and FORGE WELDING.

~~
122 DIE Welding Encyclopedia
DEPTH OF FUSION
r FUSION FACE
FUSION FACE
WELD INTERFACE
RFACE INTERFACE
(A) GROOVE WELD (B) FILLET WELD
DEPTH OF FUSION
zl-- f
WELD INTERFACE
I FAYING
SURFACE
DEPTH OF FUSION
FUSION
INTERFACE
WELD
FACE
RESISTANCE
(C) SURFACING
(D)WELD SPOT OR
WELD
SEAM
Note: Fusion zonesindicated by shading.
Figure D-3-Depths of Fusion for Various Types of Welds
DIE CASTING DIE REPAIR

Acastingmadeinapermanentmetalmold by See TOOL AND DIE WELDING,Shielded Metal Arc.
injectingmoltenmetalunderhighpressureintothe
mold. DIFFUSION AID
A solidfiller metal applied to the fayingsu$aces to
DIE WELDING assist in dzruson welding. See STANDARDWELDING
A nonstandard term when used forCOLD WELDING TERMS.
and FORGE WELDING. See COLD WELDING.
DIFFUSION BONDING
DIELECTRIC A nonstandardtermfor DIFFUSION BRAZING and
A nonconductor of electric current. DIFFUSION WELDING.

STD.AWS
JWE-ENGL 1997
07842b5
051b297
4b8 W
clopedia Welding 123
DIFFUSION BRAZING (DFB) peratures contribute to the excellent propertiesof tita-

A brazingprocessthatproducescoalescence of nium alloy diffusion weldments.
metals by heating them to brazing temperature and by Several industries use the diffusion welding process
using a filler metal or an in situ liquid phase. The to advantage, particularly the aerospace industry. The
filler metal may be distributed by capillary attraction engine mount of the space
shuttle
vehicle
was
or may beplaced or formed atthe faying surfclces. The designed to have 28 diffusion welded titanium parts,
filler metal is diffused with the base metal to the extent rangingfromlargeframestointerconnectingbox
thatthe jointproperties arechanged to approach tubes. This structure is capable of withstanding three
those of the base metal. Pressure may or may not be million poundsof thrust. Tubes203 mm (8 in.) square
applied. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. were fabricated with diffusion welding in lengths up to
457 cm (180 in.). The gas turbine industry has used
DIFFUSION WELDING (DFW) diffusion welding to producea Ti-6%A1-4%V compo-
A solid-state welding process that produces a weld nent for an advanced high-thrust engine.This applica-
by the application of pressure at elevated temperature tionmarkedthe first productionuse of diffusion
with no macroscopic deformation or relative motion of welding ina rotating engine component.
the workpieces. A solid filler metal may be inserted Diffusion Welding Principles
between the fayng sugaces to take up gaps or facili- Metal surfaces have several general characteristics:
tate thediffusion process. See STANDARDWELDING (1) roughness, (2) an oxidized or chemically reacted
TERMS.
andadherentlayer, (3) otherrandomlydistributed
This is a process in which two absolutelyclean, per- solid or liquid (oil, grease, anddirt), and (4) adsorbed
fectly matched, metal(or ceramic or intermetallic) sur- gas or moisture, or both.
faces are placed in contact and heated, but not to the Two necessary conditions must be met for a satis-
melting point. As a result of the heating, the diffusion factory diffusion weld:
of atoms in each direction across the interface will
(1) Mechanical intimacy of faying surfaces
interlockthetwoatomicstructures so that
they
become one, eliminating the interface. (2) Thedisruptionanddispersion of interfering
surface contaminants to permit metallic bonding.
Temperature is a very important factor in diffusion
welding. Pressure may beof secondary importance, as
A diffusion weld is formed in three stages. In the
firststage,deformation of thecontactingsurface
long as intimate contact is maintained throughout the
roughness occurs primarily by yielding and by creep
solid state diffusion process.
deformation mechanisms which produce intimate con-
One of the difficulties in diffusion welding is that tact over a large fraction of the interfacial area. At the
the surfaces tobe joined are seldom, if ever, perfectly end of this stage, thejoint is essentially a grain bound-
clean or perfectly matched. All metal and many inter- ary at the areas of contact with voids between these
metallicsurfaces, no matterhowcarefullyfinished, areas.Duringthesecondstage,diffusionbecomes
have surface irregularities and become covered with moreimportantthandeformation,andmany of the
an oxide film or other tarnish layers when exposed to voids disappear as grain boundary diffusion of atoms
air. Ceramic surfaces are normally free of hindering continues. Simultaneously, the interfacial grain bound-
tarnishlayers.Othersurfacematerials may alsobe arymigratestoanequilibriumconfigurationaway
present, such as oil, grinding compounds or cleaning from the original weld interface, leaving many of the
chemicals. A weakenedordefectivebond is some- remaining voids within the grains. In the third stage,
times the result. the remaining voids are eliminated by volume diffu-
Applications sion of atoms to the void surface (equivalent to diffu-
A wide variety of similar and dissimilar metal com- sion of vacanciesawayfrom the void). The stages
binations maybe successfully joined by diffusion overlap, and mechanisms thatmay dominate one stage
welding and brazing. Most applications involve tita- also operate to some extent during the other stages.
nium, nickel, and aluminum alloys, as well as several This description is consistent with several experi-
dissimilar metal combinations. The mechanical prop- mentally observed trends:
erties of the joint depend on the characteristics of the (1) Temperature is the mostinfluentialvariable,
basemetals. For example,therelativelylowcreep since it, together with pressure, determines the extent
strength and the solubility of oxygen at elevated tem- of contact area during stage one, and it alone deter-

STD-AWSJWE-ENGL 1797 0784265 0536278 3T4
124 DILUTION Encyclopedia Welding
mines the rate of diffusion that governs void elimina- (3) The processes are not adaptable to a high pro-
tion during the second and third stages of welding. duction rate, although a number of assemblies may be
(2) Pressure is necessary only during thefirst stage joined simultaneously.
of welding to produce a large area of contact at the (4) Adequate nondestructive inspection techniques
welding temperature. Removal of pressure after this for qualityassurance are notavailable,particularly
stagedoesnotsignificantlyaffect joint formation. those that assure design properties in the joint.
However, removal of pressure before completion of (5) Suitable filler metals and procedures have not
the first stage is detrimental tothe process. yet been developedfor all structural alloys.
(3) Rough initial surface finishes
generally (6) The faying surfaces andthe fit of joint members
adversely affect welding by impeding the first stage generally require greater care in preparation than for
and leaving large voids that must be eliminated during conventionalhotpressurewelding or brazingpro-
the later stagesof welding. cesses. Surface smoothness may be an important fac-
(4) The time required to form a joint depends on tor in quality control in the case of diffusion brazing.
the temperature and pressure used; time is not an inde- (7) The need to apply heat and a high compressive
pendent variable. force simultaneously in the restrictive environmentof
This descriptionof diffusion weldingis not applica- a vacuum or protective atmosphere requires special-
ble to diffusion brazing or hot pressure welding pro- ized equipment.
cesses where intimate contact is achieved through the
use of molten filler metalandbulkdeformation, Gas Pressure Bonding.This process isa type of dif-
respectively. fusion welding.Ingaspressurebonding, the work-
pieces to bejoined are finished tofinal size, cleaned to
Advantages and Limitations
an acceptable surface condition, and assembled inside
Diffusion welding and brazing have a number of a container. The container may be an expendable sheet
advantagesoverthemorecommonlyusedwelding metal box, or it may be made from the parts them-
and brazing processes,as well as a number of distinct selves, by fusion welding around the edges. After the
limitations on their applications. Following are advan- container holding the parts is made pressure-tight, it
tages of diffusion welding and brazing: is evacuated and then placed in an autoclave contain-
(1) Jointscanbeproducedwithpropertiesand ing an inertgasathighpressure,usuallyaround
microstructure very similar to thoseof the base metal. 10 O00 psi. Under this extreme pressure the matched
This is particularly important for lightweight surfaces are pressed into intimate contact, Tegardless
fabrications. of thesurfacecontour.Afteronly a fewhoursthe
(2) Components can be joined with minimum dis- joints are diffusion welded.
tortion and without subsequent machining forming. or In addition to gas pressure, fusion welding can be
(3) Dissimilaralloyscanbe joined that are not achieved by pressing the workpieces together between
weldable by fusion processes or by processes requir- dies after heating by resistance heating. This system
ing axial symmetry, such as friction welding. works wellfor small parts, butis not appropriate when
(4) A number of joints in an assembly can be made the pieces to be joined are large, since it is difficult to
simultaneously keep the dies hot. See COLD WELDING, FORGE WELD-
(5) Members with limited access can bejoined. ING, und HOT PRESSURE WELDING. Reference: Ameri-
(6) Large joint members of base metals that would can Welding Society, Welding Handbook, 8thEdition,
require extensive preheat for fusion welding can be Vol 2, Welding Processes. Miami Florida: American
more readilyjoined. An example is thick copper. Welding Society, 1992.
(7) Defects normally associated with fusion weld-
ing are not encountered. DILUTION
Among the disadvantagesof diffusion welding and The change in chemical composition of a welding
brazing are the following: filler metal caused by the admixture of the base metal
(1) The thermal cycle is normally longer than that or previous weld metal in the weld bead. It is mea-
of conventional welding and brazing processes. sured by the percentage of base metal or previous weld
(2) Equipment costs are usually high, and this can metal in the weldbead.See STANDARD WELDING
limit the maximum size of components that can be TERMS. See Figure D-4, which shows a cross-section
produced. of a weld deposit.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 3797 m 07BY2b5 0536277 230 9
ELECTRODE
CURRENT
EncvcloPedia
(DCENI
NEGATIVE
DIRECT
Weldina 125
greater
the
amount of weaving,the
greaterthe
WELD BEAD dilution.
Dilution as low as 2% has been achieved with the
plasma arc hot wire cladding operation utilizing two
hotwiresconnectedinseries. The applicationwas
welding copper rotating bands on artillery shells.
DIP BRAZING (DB)
B
DILUTION = - (1
A brazing process that uses heat from a molten salt
A+B or metal bath. When a molten salt is used, the bath
may act as a flux. When a molten metal is used, the
Figure D-4-A Method of Calculating Weld Dilution bath provides the filler metal. See STANDARDWELD-
ING TERMS. See also METAL-BATHDIPBRAZING and
The percentage dilutioncan be determined by mea- SALT-BATH DIP BRAZING.
suring areas labeled A and B. Percentage dilution is In dip brazing, joining is produced by heating the
then calculated as: workpieces in a molten chemicalor metal bath and by
using a non-ferrous filler metal, with a melting point
B above 450C (840"F), but below that of the base met-
A+B.~OO als. The filler metal is distributedin the joint by capil-
laryaction.When a metalbathisused,thebath
Dilution is usually considered as a percentage of the provides thefiller metal.
base metal which has entered into the weld metal.
When two piecesof base metal are welded together, DIP SOLDERING (DS)
the final compositionof the weld deposit consistsof a A soldering process using the heat furnished by a
mixture of base metal and filler metal. The portion of molten metal bath that provides the solder filler metal.
the base metal that has been melted in with the filler See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
material and has diluted may
it be expressed in percent
dilution. Thisis determined by the following formula: DIP TRANSFER, or Dip Transfer Welding
A nonstandard term for SHORT CIRCUITING TRANS-
Weight of base metal in weld FER. See SHORTCIRCUIT GAS METALARCWELDING,
100
= Total
weight of weld and SPRAY TRANSFER.
Spica1 values of dilution for various processes are DIRECT CURRENT (DC)
shown in Table D-2. An electric current flowing in one direction only,
and substantially constant (non-pulsating) in value.
Table D-2 DIRECT CURRENT ARC WELDING
Average Valuesof Dilution
for Various Processes An arc welding process in which the power supply
delivers direct current to the arc.
See ARC WELDING.
process Dilution
DIRECT CURRENT ELECTRODE NEGATIVE (DCEN)
Shielded Metal Arc 25 to 40% The arrangement of direct current arcwelding
Submerged Arc 25 to 50% leads in which the electrode is the negative pole and
Gas Metal Arc 25 to 50% workpiece is the positive pole of the welding arc. See
Gas Tungsten Arc 25 to 50%
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure D-5 (A).
For DCEN,theweldingelectrode(whethercon-
Many factors affect dilution. The greatest dilution sumable or non-consumable) in an arc welding circuit
occurs when no filler metal is added. In this instance, is caused to be negative relative to the workpiece by
all of the weld deposit is self-generated by the base the arrangementof the welding leads. Electronflow is
metal. Similarly,a single-pass weld will have a higher to the workpiece, with most (about 70%) of the heat
percentage of dilution thana multi-pass weld.There is available from the electricarcconcentratedatthe
alwaysconsiderabledilution in therootpass.The workpiece.
.STD=AWS JWE-ENGL L997 0784265 0536300 882 W
Encyclopedia
Welding
ELECTRODE
CURRENT
126 NEGATIVE
(DCEN)
DIRECT
(A) DIRECT CURRENT ELECTRODE NEGATIVE
.\ I
WORKPIECE CONNECTION-/
\\
(B) DIRECT CURRENT ELECTRODE POSITIVE
Figure D-%Welding Current Polarity

STD*AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b505Lb30L 719 m
Welding Encyclopedia WELDING
FRICTION DRIVE DIRECT 127
Straight Polarity. The termstraight polarity has been DIRECT CURRENT STRAIGHT POLARITY
usedtodescribethistypeofcurrent,butthemore A nonstandardtermfor DIRECTCURRENTELEC-
accurate and standardized description is direct current TRODE NEGATIVE.
electrode negative.
DIRECT DRIVEFRICTION WELDING
DIRECT CURRENT ELECTRODE POSITIVE (DCEP) A variation of friction welding in which the energy
The arrangement of directcurrentarcwelding required to make the weld is supplied to the welding
leads in which the electrode is the positive pole and machine through a direct motor connection for a pre-
the workpiece is the negative pole of the welding arc. set period of the welding cycle. See STANDARD WELD-
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.See Figure D-5 (B). ING TERMS. See Figure D-6.
Reverse Polarity. The term reverse polarity has been One of the workpieces is held in a locked position
usedtodescribethistypeofcurrent,butthemore while the otheris rotated by a direct motor connection.
accurate and standardized descriptionis direct current Whentherotatedpartisupto speed, pressure is
electrode positive. applied to move the rotatingpart against the stationary
part. The resulting friction melts the forging surfaces.
DIRECT CURRENT REVERSEPOLARITY Molten metal is ejected from the joint as the pressure
A nonstandardtermfor DIRECTCURRENTELEC- is increased.Whentherotationalforceisstopped,
TRODE POSITIVE, forging pressureis increased to completethe weld.
FRICTION WELDING FORCE
COMPLETED
AXIS OF
ROTATION
STARTS WELDING
616
FORGE FORCE

0 \
/
/ UPSET FORGE
/ DISTANCE
FRICTION SPEED

/-
0
COMPLETION OF
WELDING
TIME b
Figure D-&Generalized Diagram of Direct Drive Friction Welding

STD.AWS JWE-ENGL L997 W 078112b5 05Lh30.2 h55 m
128 DIRECT Encyclopedia Welding
DIRECT JOINING to the volume it would normally occupy at lower tem-

Agroup of processesfor joining ceramicsthat peratures if it were not restrained from doing so by the
involveseitherfusionornon-fusionwelding,and adjacent base metal.
involveseither no filler (i.e., is autogenous) or Stresses develop within the weld, finally reaching
employs afiller with the same composition as the base the yield strength of the weld metal. At this point, the
material (i.e., a homogenous filler). weld stretches, or yields and thins out, thus adjust-
ingtothevolumerequirementsofthe joint being
DIRECT WELDING, Resistance Welding welded. But only those stresses that exceed the yield
A resistance welding secondary circuit variation in strength of the weld metal are relievedby this accom-
which welding current andelectrodeforce are applied modation. At the time the weld reaches room tempera-
to the workpieces by directly opposed electrodes, ture, (assuming complete restraint of the base metal so
wheels, or conductor bars for spot, seam, or projec- that it cannot move), the weld tendsto have locked-in
tion welding. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. tensilestressesapproximatelyequaltotheyield
strength. If one or more of the restraints are removed,
DISCONTINUITY
the locked-in stresses find partial reliefby causing the
An interruption of the typical structure of a mate- basemetaltomove,thuscausingdeformation or
rial, such as a lack of homogeneity in its mechanical, distortion.
metallurgical, or physical characteristics. A disconti-
nuity is not necessarily a defect. See STANDARD WELD- Base Metal Shrinkage
ING TERMS. See also DEFECT and FLAW. Shrinkage which produces stresses that lead to dis-
tortion in the base metal adjacent to the weld further
DISPERSION STRENGTHENED ALLOYS compounds the problemof shrinkage in the weld. Dur-
Alloyswhichderivetheirstrengthfromsecond- ing welding, the base metal near the arc is also heated
phaseparticlesrandomlyanduniformlydistributed to the melting point. A few inches away, the tempera-
throughout a matrix phase. These second phases are ture of the base metalis substantially lower.This sharp
not formed asthe result of normal metallurgical trans- temperaturedifferentialcausesnon-uniformexpan-
formations (e.g., precipitation), but, instead, must be sion, followed by base metal movement,or metal dis-
addedbymechanical,physical, or specialchemical placement, if the parts being joined are restrained. As
means. the arc passes further down the joint, thus relocating
the source of heat, the base metal begins to cool and
DISSIMILAR METAL JOINTS
shrink along with the weld metal. If the surrounding
Joints between metals or alloys of substantially dif- metal restrains the heat-affected base metal from con-
ferent compositions, usually in different alloy systems.tractingnormally,internal stresses buildup;these
combine with the stresses developed in the weld metal
DISSOCIATION
and increase the tendency to distort.
Separation of the constituents of a gas, attended by
the release of intense heat such as that developed in The volumeof this adjacent base metal, whichcon-
the combustion of acetylene with oxygen in the torch, tributes to the distortion, can be controlled by chang-
which
produces
the
white
hot
(about 3500C ing the weldingprocedures.Higherweldingspeeds
[630O0FI)cone. Dissociation of acetylene may result reduce the amountof adjacent material thatis affected
from over-pressure and shock. by the heat of the arc, and progressively decrease dis-
tortion.Higherweldingspeedscan be achievedby
DISTORTION using powdered-iron manual electrodes,semi-auto-
The non-uniform expansion and contraction of weld matic or automatic submerged-arc welding equipment,
metal and adjacent base metal during the heating and or automatic gas metal arc welding equipment.
cooling cycleof the welding process. Modes of Distortion
Weld Metal Shrinkage Knowledgeable considerationof the distortion phe-
At the precise time the weld metal solidifies and nomenon and the effects of shrinkage on various types
fuses withthebasemetal, it is atitsmaximum of welded assembliesis invaluable when planningfab-
expendedstate,actuallyoccupying the greatestvol- rication designs and setting up welding procedures to
ume it can occupy as a solid. On cooling, it contracts minimize distortion.See Figure D-7.

Licensed by Information Handling Services ~~ ~ ~
Welding DISTORTION 129
(A) TRANSVERSE (B) ANGULAR (C) LONGITUDINAL (D) ANGULAR

SHRINKAGE DISTORTION SHRINKAGE DISTORTION
WELD
BUTT OF WELD OF OF WELD OF
WELD
FILLET
f &-&
Ba
----
""""""""
PULLING EFFECTS
_. "_ """""""" -
CENTER OF GRAVITY OF AXIS

.i PULLING EFFECTS
OF WELD
(E) PULLING EFFECT OF WELD

ABOVE NEUTRAL AXIS
\a "-------
(F) PULLING EFFECT OF WELD

BELOW NEUTRAL AXIS
Figure C-7-Types of Distortion
Shrinkage of the weld can cause various types of in Figure D-7 (E); if the welds are below the neutral
distortion and dimensionalchanges. A buttweld axis,thebendingofthememberisintheopposite
betweentwopiecesofplate,byshrinkingtrans- direction, as in Figure D-7 (F).
versely, changes the width of the assembly as shown Control of Shrinkage
in Figure D-7 (A). It also causes angular distortion,as Shrinkage from the effects of the heating and cool-
in Figure D-7 (B). Here, the greater amount of weld ing cycles cannotbe prevented, but can be controlled.
metal at the top of the weld produces greater shrink- Therearevariouspracticalproceduresanddesign
age at the upper surface, causingthe ends of the plate strategiesforminimizingthedistortioncausedby
to lift. Increasing eitherthe included angle or the weld shrinkage.
reinforcement will cause even greater distortion. Lon- (1) Keep the shrinkage forcesas low as possible by
gitudinal shrinkage of the same weld would have a using only the amount of weld metal required by the
tendency to deform the joined plate, as shown in Fig- joint. The more metal placed in ajoint, the greater the
ure D-7 (C). shrinkage forces will be.See Figure D-S (A).
Angular distortion, as in Figure D-7 (D), is a prob- Correctlysizingtheweldfortheservicerequire-
lemwithfilletwelds.IffilletsinaT-assemblyare ment of thejoint helps control distortion. In a conven-
above the neutral axis (center of gravity)of the assem- tional fillet weld, only the effective throat is used in
bly, the ends of the member tend to be bent upward, as determining the strength of the weld. The amount of
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 I07842b5 05Lb304 428 m
130 DISTORTION Welding Encvclopedia
EXCESSIVE WELD METAL USE DOUBLE V

PREPARATION K
U PREPARATION
(A) DO NOT OVERWELD ...

is\
REDUCE BEVEL
ANGLES WITH LARGE
ROOT
OPENINGS x
/$Eh
0.8TO 1.6 mm 4
(C) INTERMllTENT WELDING (1/32TO 1/16 in.) MAX.
(B) CORRECT EDGE PREPARATION AND GOOD FITUP
RIGHT WRONG
(D) MINIMUM NUMBER OF PASSES
C
D
A B
C
n D
&SS
I I I DISTORTION I T
LESS
THENEAR
WELD (E) DISTORTION
(G) BACKSTEP
NEUTRAL (F) BALANCE
WELDS
AROUND
CENTER OF GRAVITY
,Da
B= (H) PRESET PARTS
db (I) PREBENDING 4b
(J) BACK-TO-BACK CLAMPING
(K) SEQUENCE WELDS (L) WELD POSKION
Figure C-8-Practical Ways to Minimize Distortion

STDnAWS JWE-ENGL L997 D 07842b5 05Lb305 3 b 4 D
Welding Encyclopedia DISTORTION 131
weld metal can be minimized ina fillet by using a flat (6) Make shrinkage work in the desired direction.
or slightly convex bead. Excess weld metal in a highly By locatingpartsout-of-positionbeforewelding,
convex bead does not increase the allowable strength shrinkage can be utilized constructively to pull them
in code work, yet it adds to the developmentof shrink- back into alignment.See Figure D-8 (H).
age forces. Pre-bending or pre-springing the parts to be welded,
In a butt joint, proper edge preparation, fit-up and asshowninFigure D-8 (I), is a simple example of
reinforcement are important to minimize the amount using mechanically-induced opposing forces to coun-
of weld metal required. When maximum economy is teractweldshrinkage.Thetop of theweldgroove,
the objective, the plates should be spaced from .8 to whichwillcontainthebulkoftheweldmetal,is
2 mm (U32 to 1/16 in.) apart. A bevel not exceeding lengthened whenthe
plates
are
sprung,
since
it
30" on each side will give proper fusion at the root of becomes the convex side of a curve. Thus, the com-
the weld, yet require minimum weld metal. pleted weld is slightly longer than it would be if it
For thicker plates, the bevel may be decreased by weremadeon a flat plate.Whentheclampsare
increasing the root opening, or a J- or U-groove prepa- released after welding, the plates tend to resume their
ration adopted, to further reduce the amount of weld flat shape, and the longitudinal shrinkage stresses of
metal. A double-V joint requires about halfof the weld the weld can be relieved by shortening it to a straight
metal of a single-V joint. See Figure D-8 (B). line. The two actions coincide, and the welded plates
Another way to minimize the amount of weld metal assume the desired flatness.
is to use intermittent welds where possible, rather than (7) Balance shrinkage force with opposing forces.
continuouswelds. As anexample,whenattaching Opposing forcesmay be:
stiffeners to plate, intermittent welds will reduce the (a) other shrinkage forces
volume of weld metal by 75%, yet will provide all the (b) restraining forces imposed by clamps, jigs,
strength needed.See Figure D-8 (C). and fixtures
(2) Useasfewweldpassesaspossible.When (c) restraining forces arising from the arrange-
transversedistortion is a potentialproblem, a few ment of members in the assembly
passes with large electrodes are preferable to a large (d) the counter force produced by the force of
number of passes with small electrodes, because the gravity action on the sag in a member.
shrinkage resulting from each pass tends to be cumula- A common practice for balancing shrinkage forces
tive. See Figure D-8 (D). in identical weldments is to position the workpieces
(3) Place welds near the neutral axis, as shown in back-to-backandthenclampthemtightlytogether.
Figure D-8 (E). This reduces distortionby providing a See Figure D-8 (J). The welds are completed on both
smaller leverage for the shrinkage forces to pull the assemblies and allowed to cool before the clamps are
plates outof alignment. released.Pre-bendingcan be combinedwiththis
(4)Balanceweldsaroundthecenter of gravity. method by insertingwedgesat suitable positions
This will balance one shrinkageforce against another. between the workpieces before clamping.
This designandweldingsequencewilleffectively Locking the workpieces in the desired position in
control distortion.See Figure D-8 (F). clamps, jigs or fixtures to hold them until welding is
( 5 ) Use backstep welding. With this technique, the finished is probably the most widely used method of
general progression of welding may be, for example, controlling distortion in small assemblies of compo-
from left to right, but each bead is deposited from right nents. The restraining forces provided by clamps cause
to left. As shown in Figure D-8 (G), as each bead is the build-up of internal stresses in the weldment until
placed, the heat from the weld along the edges causes the yield point of the weld metal is reached. For typi-
expansion,temporarilyseparatingtheplatesat B. cal welds on low-carbon plate, this would probably be
However, as the heat moves out across the plate to C, approximately 310 MPa (45O00 psi). After welding,
theexpansionalongtheouteredges CD bringsthe onemightexpectthisstresstocauseconsiderable
plates back together. Expansionof a plate is most pro- movement or distortion whenthe
workpieceis
nounced when the first bead is laid. With successive removed from the jig or clamps. This does not occur,
beads, the plates expand less and less because of the however, since the strain(unit contraction) can becal-
locking effectof prior welds. In some cases, backstep- culated to bea very low value compared to the amount
ping may have less effect, and it cannot be economi- of movement that would have occurred if no restraint
cally usedin fully automatic welding. were used during welding.
Licensed by Information Handling Services ~ ~~
The rigidity of the members and their arrangement To deposit a weld in thick plate with
a process oper-
in relation to one another may provide the balancing ating at 175 amps, 25 voltsand 7.6 cm (3 in.)per
forces needed, particularly in heavy weldments. How- minute, 34 400 joules of energy per linear centimeter
ever, if these natural balancing forces are not present, are required. The same size weld produced witha pro-
other means can be used to counteract the distortion. cessoperatingat 310 amps, 30 volts,and 20.3 cm
Shrinkage forces in the weld metal can be balanced (8 in.) per minute requires only 27 500 joules per lin-
against one another, or an opposing force can be cre- earcentimeter ofweld.Thedifferencerepresents
ated by usinga fixture. excessive heat availablefor transmission farther into
(8) A well planned welding sequenceis often help- surroundingmetal,increasing its temperature,and
ful in balancing shrinkage forces against each other. producing added
expansion
anddisplacement of
The intent should be to place weld metal at different metal.
pointsonthestructure so thatas it shrinksinone
place, it will counteract the shrinkage forces of welds DOPED SOLDER
alreadymade. An example of this is weldingalter- A solder containing a small amount of an element
nately on bothsides of theneutralaxisinmaking added to ensure retention of one or more characteris-
a buttweld,asshown in Figure D-8 (K). Another tics of the base materials on which .it is used. See
is making intermittent fillet welds,showninFigure STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
D-8 (L).
(9) One way tohelpcontrolshrinkageforces DOUBLE ARCING
occurring during or after welding is by peening, but
peening is not a definitivepractice.Peening is a A condition in which the welding or cutting arc of a
mechanical method of applying force to the weld to plasma arc torch does not pass through the constrict-
make it thinner, thereby making it longer and relieving ing orijice but transfers to the inside surface of the
residual stresses. nozzle. A secondary arc is simultaneouslyestablished
A root bead should never be peened becauseof the between the outside surface of the noule and the
danger of either concealing a crack or causing one. workpiece. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
Generally, peening is not permitted on the final pass
because of thepossibility of covering a crackand DOUBLE-BEVEL EDGE SHAPE
interfering with inspection, andalso because of a pos- A type of edge shape having two prepared surfaces
sible work-hardening effect,so the utility of this tech- adjacent to opposite sides of the material. See STAN-
nique is limited. DARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 6, Section 3.
In special cases, stress relief by controlled heating
of the weldment to an elevated temperature, followed DOUBLE-BEVEL-GROOVE WELD
by controlled cooling is another way to remove shrink- A type of groove weld. See Appendix 6, Section 5.
age forces.Sometimestwoidenticalweldments are
placedback-to-back,clampedtogether,weldedand DOUBLE-FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE WELD
then stress-relieved while held in this straight condi- A weld in grooves formed by a member with
tion. The residual stresses that would tend to distort a curved surface in contact with a planar membel:
the weldmentare thus removed.
See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See Appendix 6,
(10) Reduce welding time. Since complex cycles of Section 5.
heating and cooling are in progress during welding,
and time is required for heat transmission, the time
DOUBLE-FLARE-V-GROOVE WELD
factor affects distortion. In general,it is advantageous
to finishthe weld quickly beforetoo great a volume of A weld in grooves formed by two members with
surrounding metal expands because of the heat. The curved surfaces. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See
amount of shrinkage and distortion is affected by the Appendix 6, Section 5.
welding process used, the type and size of electrode,
welding current, and travel speed. Using mechanized DOUBLE-GROOVE WELD, Fusion Welding
welding equipment reduces the time of welding and A groove weld that is made from both sides. See
theamountofmetalaffectedbyheat,andconse- STANDARD
WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 6,
quently tends to reduce distortion. Section 5.

STDOAWS
JWE-ENGL 1997 m 0784265 0516307 237 W
Welding Encyclopedia TEST DROP-WEIGHT 133
DOUBLE4 EDGE SHAPE DRAG, Thermal Cutting

A type of J-edge shapehaving two prepared The offset distance between the actual and straight
sulfaces adjacent to opposite sides of the material. line exit points of the gas stream or cuttingbeam mea-
See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See Appendix 6, sured on the exit surface of the base metal. See STAN-
Section 3. DARD WELDING TERMS.See Figure C- 11.
DOUBLE-J-GROOVE WELD DRAG ANGLE

A type of grooveweld.See STANDARDWELDING The travel angle when the electrode (in arc weld-
TERMS. See Appendix 6, Section 5. ing) is pointing in the direction opposite to the pro-
gression of welding. This angle can also be used to
DOUBLE-SPLICEDB u l l JOINT partially define the position of guns, torches, rods, and
See STANDARD
WELDING TERMS. See SPLICED beams in welding processes. See STANDARD WELDING
JOINT. TERMS. See also BACKHANDWELDING,PUSHANGLE,
TRAVEL ANGLE, and WORK ANGLE.
DOUBLE-SQUARE-GROOVE WELD
A type of grooveweld.See STANDARDWELDING DRAG WELDING
TERMS. See Appendix 6, Section 5 . A technique of welding with a consumable coated
or stick electrode in which the coating
of the electrode
DOUBLE-U-GROOVE WELD is placed in contact with the metal surface,
joint, or fil-
A type Of grooveweld.See STANDARDWELDING let and dragged along as the arc causes melting of the
TERMS. See Appendix 6, Section 5. core wire and base metal.
DRAWING
DOUBLE-V-GROOVE WELD
See ANNEALING and TEMPERING.
A type ofgrooveweld.See STANDARDWELDING
TERMS. See Appendix 6, Section 5 . DRILLING, Oxyfuel
See OXYGEN LANCE CUTTINGand FLAME CUTTING.
DOUBLE-WELDED JOINT, Fusion Welding
A joint that is welded from both sides. See STAN- DROOPER
DARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 6, Section 5 . A term applied to a conventional welding machine
inwhichthevolt-ampereoutputcurve has asteep
DOVETAILING, Thermal Spraying angle between the open circuit voltage and the short
A method of sulface roughening involving angular circuitcurrent,calledtheapex of thevolt-ampere
undercutting to interlock the thermalspray deposit. curve.
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. The term drooper also refers to the decrease of volt-
age at points along a circuit because of resistance.
DOWNHAND
A nonstandard term forFLAT WELDING POSITION. DROP-THROUGH
An undesirable sagging or sur&ace irregularity, usu-
DOWNHAND WELDING ally encountered when brazing or welding near the
Flat position welding, in which the weldis made in solidus of the base metal, caused by overheating with
a workpiece in a horizontal plane. See FLAT WELDING rapid diffusion or alloying between thefiller metal and
POSITION and WELDING POSITION. the base metal. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
DOWNHILL, adv. DROP-WEIGHT TEST
Welding with a downward progression. See STAN- This test is used extensively to investigate the frac-
DARD WELDING TERMS. ture characteristics of ferritic steels 15.9 mm ( Y 8 in.)
and thicker.
DOWNSLOPE TIME A crack-starter bead of hard surfacing material is
See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See AUTOMATIC deposited on the specimen to be tested, then a notch is
ARCWELDINGDOWNSLOPETIME and RESISTANCE cut into the bead. After cooling to a specified tempera-
WELDING DOWNSLOPE TIME. ture,thespecimen is placedonananvil,withthe

STD*AWS
JWE-ENGL L997 'm 07842h5 05L6308 073 D
134 DRUM Encyclopedia Welding
crack-starter bead down. A weight is dropped on the considering the material's ability to absorb impact, as
specimen from a height selected to give the necessary measured by the Charpy (or related) tests.
impact energy.The impact energyis determined by the
approximate yield strength of the weldmetalbeing DUPLEX CABLE
tested. A cable consisting of two wires insulated from one
Whentheweightstrikesthespecimen, it either another, witha common insulation covering both.
bends until it hits a deflection stop, or cracks in two
pieces, withlittle or no bending. DURALUMIN
The drop-weight test is also used to determine the An old term applied to aluminum alloys, especially
nil-ductility transition temperature of the weld metal. in Germany.
This test is conducted by impacting a series of speci-
mens, each tested ata different temperature.The max- DUPLEX STAINLESS STEEL
imum temperature at which a specimen breaks is the The term duplex stainless steel describes steel with
nil-ductilitytransition. This temperaturemust be microstructurecontainingausteniteand ferrite in
determinedwithin 5C (10F). Details of theDrop which the lesser phaseis at least30% by volume. First
Weight Testare published in ASTM Standard E208. generation duplex stainless steels (typically 26% Cr,
4.5% Ni, 1.5% Mo) were about75 to 80% ferrite.
DRUM Unlike
the
common-grade austenitic
stainless
A filler metal package consisting of a continuous steels, duplexstainlesssteelsarehighlyresistantto
length of welding wire woundor coiled in a cylindrical chloride-ionstresscorrosioncracking (SCC); they
containel: SeeSTANDARD WELDING TERMS. have excellent resistance to pitting and crevice corro-
sion, and have approximately twice the strength of the
DUCTILITY common austenitics.
The property of a material that allowsit to undergo In general, poor weldability was a characteristic of
somereasonabledegree of irreversiblepermanent the first generation duplex stainless steels. Corrosion
plastic deformation without fracturing. Ductility is the resistanceandtoughness of thebasemetalheat-
property of metals and alloys that allows them to be affected zone (HAZ) were poor due to the effects of
drawn or stretched. In general, metals and alloys with the welding operation. However, HAZ problems were
face-centered cubic structures exhibit the greatest duc- greatly decreased with the advent of the argon-oxygen
tility, followed by body-centered cubic structures, and decarbonization process used in steelmakingwhich
then hexagonal close-packed structures. The order of made it possibletopreciselyalloywithnitrogen.
ductility of certain materialsis shown in Table D-3. Nitrogen, which isa strong austenite former, permitted
lower nickel contents and improved tensile properties
and resistance to pitting and corrosion. These alloys
Table D-3 are typically higher in chromium than the common-
Order of Ductility
grade austenitics. Utilization of molybdenum as high
(1) Gold (7) Aluminum as 4.5% accounts for resistance to pitting and crevice
(2) Silver (8) Tungsten corrosion.
(3) Platinum (9) Zinc Theduplexstainlessalloys are characteristically
(4) Iron (10) Tin strongerthaneitheroftheirtwophasesconsidered
( 5 ) Nickel (11) Lead
separately.Thecoefficient of expansionandheat
(6) Copper transfercharacteristicsare,aswouldbeexpected,
intermediate between the ferrite and austenitic stain-
DUCTILE-BRITTLE TRANSITION less steels. Many duplex stainless steels, as with most
The behavior of certainmetalsandalloys,most of the other stainlesssteels, are proprietary alloys.
notably those with body-centered cubic structures, in The second generation duplex materials, especially
which they exhibita pronounced decrease in ability to alloy 2205, have found increasing uses in the brewery
absorb energy without fracturing belowa certain tem- business, chemical process industry and various chem-
perature (.e., the ductile-to-brittle transition tempera- ical shipping containers including tankers and barges.
ture) or above a certainstrainrate.Theductile-to- This use includes heat exchangers, pressure vessels,
brittle transition temperatureis especially important in tanks, columns, pumps, valves, shafts and pulp digest-

STD-AUS JWE-ENGL 1997 111 07842b5 051b309 TOT
Welding Encyclopedia DYNE 135
ers wheretheincreasedresistancetochlorideion These electrodes were more commonly used when

SCC pittingandcrevicecorrosion,andincreased arc welding electrodes were initially introduced. The
strengthgive
advantages over the molybdenum- coating of a dust-coated electrode did not affect the
bearing austenitics. character of deposited weld metal, but served to pro-
Becauseofthelargequantities of ferrite in the ducemoreuniformarccharacteristicsthanthose
microstructure, the duplex stainless steels are subject obtainedwithbarewire.Thedustcoatingdidnot
to embrittlement when exposed to the 704 to 927C affecttheprevention of oxidation,andnoslagwas
(1300 to 1700F)temperature range due to the forma- formed on the weld bead. See ELECTRODE MANUFAC-
tion of chi and sigma phases. For minimization of this TURE, Historical Background.
form of metallurgical reaction, highlevels of nitrogen
arebeneficialandhighlevels of molybdenumare DUTY CYCLE
detrimental. The percentage of timeduringan arbitrary test
Weldability. Acceptable techniques have been devel- period that a power source or its accessories can be
oped for SMAW, SAW, GTAW, GMAW and PAWof operated at rated outputwithout overheating. See
duplexstainlesssteels.Thecomplexity ofwelding STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
thesealloys is relatedto the increasedconcernfor
hydrogen-related embrittlement due to large percent- DWELL TIME, Thermal Spraying
ages of ferrite, the ability to reform austenite on the Thelength of timethatthesu$acing material is
welding thermal cycle, and concern for formation of exposed to the heat zone of the thermal spraying gun.
embrittling intermetallics. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
Machinability. Specialtoolangles,lowspeedand
heavy feed are required to machine duplex stainless DYNAMIC ELECTRODE FORCE
steels. Due to the combination of high strength and The force exerted by electrodes on the workpieces
toughness,machinability is considerablypoorerfor during the actual welding cycle in making spot, seam,
these steels than the common-grade materials. or projection welds by resistance welding. See STAN-
DARD WELDING TERMS.
DUST
See WELDING FUMES. DYE PENETRANT INSPECTION
DUST-COATED ELECTRODE See NONDESTRUCTIVEEXAMINATION, and LIQUID
This term refersto an obsolete electrode which was PENETRANT TESTING.
lightly coated with an arc-stabilizing chemical. This
coating might simply have been the lime retained from DYNE
the lubricant used in the drawing operation, or a light A unit of power orforce required to cause the accel-
rust coating which formed on the electrode after it was eration of one centimeter per second ina mass of one
drawn. gram.

STD.AWS JWE-ENGL L997 0784265 0516310 7 2 1 W
136 Weldina
An automobile door panelis welded with automated resistance spot welding

STDOAWS JWE-ENGL 3997 H 0 7 8 4 2 b 5 0536333 b b 8 m
E
Symbol for volts.
E.M.F.
Abbreviation for electromotive force.
EARTHGROUND
The side of an electric circuit grounded to the earth
by means of a copper rod driveninto the ground.
EDDYCURRENT
A current running contrary to the main current. The
eddy current in armatures, pole pieces, and magnetic
cores is induced by changing electromotive force. Itis
wasted energy and creates heat.
EDDY-CURRENT LOSS Figure E-1-Typical Edge Weld

The loss of energy in an electrical machine which
is
caused by eddy currents. EDGE PREPARATION
The preparation of the edges of the joint members,
EDGE EFFECT, Thermal Spraying by cutting, cleaning, plating, or other means.See
Loosening of the bond between the thermal spray STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
deposit and the substrate at the edge of the thermal Cleanliness is importantin welding. The surfaces of
spray deposit.See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. theworkpiecesandthepreviouslydepositedweld
metal must be cleaned ofdirt, slag, and any other for-
EDGE-FLANGE WELD eign matterthatwouldinterferewithwelding. To
A nonstandard term for an edge weld in a flanged accomplish this, the welder should have a steel wire
butt joint. brush, a hammer, a chisel,and a chippinghammer.
These tools are used to remove dirt and rust from the
EDGE JOINT base metal, remove tack welds, and chip slag from the
weld bead.
A joint between the edges of two or more parallel or
nearly parallel members.See STANDARD WELDING Edge preparation may be done by any of the ther-
TERMS. See also Figure E-1and Appendix 5(E).
mal cutting methods or by machining. The accuracy of
edge preparation is important, especially for machine
An edge joint is formed by placinga surface of one or automatic welding. For example, if a joint designed
base metal part ona surface of another base metal part with a 6.4 mm (114 in.) root face were actually pro-
so that the weld joining the parts is within the outer duced witha root face that tapered from7.9 to 3.2 mm
surface planesof both the partsjoined. (5/16 to 1/8 in.) along the lengthof the joint, the weld
might be unacceptable because of lack of penetration
EDGE LOSS, Thermal Spraying at the start and excessive melt-through at the end. In
Thermal spray deposit lost as overspray beyond the such a case, the capability of the cutting equipment,as
edge of the workpiece. See STANDARD WELDING well asthe skill of the operator, should be checked and
TERMS. corrected.
137

STD.AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb3L2 5 T 4 m
138 EDGESHAPE Welding Encyclopedia
Weld Cleaning and seams. Water-based solvents are not easily rinsed
Preweld and postweld cleaning are part of the weldfrom edges, pockets and seams. Solvent cleaners are
ing operation. Reweld cleaning occurs by default in ideal for cleaning nonferrous metal particles in appli-
some types of acetylene welding, where the pre-heat- cations where water and steam might allow corrosion
ingoperation of thetorchautomaticallycleansthe or contamination.
weldsite.Inotherinstancesweldingandbrazing PetroleumSpiritCleaners. Thesecleaning agents
fluxes aidin the cleaning.Gasweldingoperations primarily remove processing contaminants, and do not
rarely require postweld cleaning unless they include a providethechemicallycleanedsurfacerequired by
corrosivetype of flux,inwhich case theoperation some finishing operations, such as plating. Petroleum
includes flux removal to prevent weld or base metal spirit cleaners are highly flammable and present afire
corrosion. hazard.
Cleaningprocesses are usuallychemical or
mechanical.Thecondition of theworkpieces,the EmulsifiedCleaners. Emulsified cleaners do not
nature of any contamination, the degree of cleanliness damage or attack the metalsurface. This type of
required, and the type, shape, size, and thickness of thecleaner is effective as a spray or in a bath. Exposure
workpieces to
be
cleaned
determine
the
choice time is usually short, sometimesas little as30 seconds.
between mechanicalor chemical cleaning. Afterabriefdrainageperiod,awatersprayrinse
removes contaminants and cleaning solution. An alter-
Chemical Cleaners
native tosolventandalkalinecleaners,emulsified
A chemicalbathprovidesuniformcleaning.This cleaners are not temperature dependent, although a hot
uniformity is necessary, for example, to produce con- water rinse assures more satisfactory resultsand rapid
sistent welds in resistance welding operations. Certain self-drying.
chemicalcleanersrequireaccuratetiming,and the
operators ability to control the exposure time of the Mechanical Cleaning
materialinthebathiscriticaltoachievingahigh Mechanical cleaning requires skilled operators who
degree ofuniformity. The cleaningsolutionwillbe must remove undesirable surface coatings and parti-
ineffective if the exposure time of the workpiece is cles without roughening the surfaceof the material or
insufficient. If left in the bath too long, the chemical causing other undesirable surface conditions. Mechan-
may react with the base metal and cause a high-resis- ical cleaning is effective for both resistance and arc
tancefilmorotherundesirablechemicalreaction. welding applications. A wire brush or abrasive wheel
Chemical cleaning processes also present a safety haz-is the most common mechanical cleaner.
ardandrequireprecautionarymeasurestoprevent The major advantageof mechanical cleaningis that
injury to workers. it requirescleaningattheweld site only;chemical
Chemicalcleaningsolutionsareusuallyone of cleaning involves theentire surface of the workpiece.
four types:alkaline,solvent,petroleumspirits,and
emulsifiable. EDGE SHAPE
The shape of the edge of the joint membel: See
Alkaline Cleaners. The alkaline cleaner is probably
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 6,
the most popular because it will emulsify greases and Section 3.
oils, and because of its low cost. Since alkaline clean-
The shape of the edge will vary with plate thick-
ers aresprayableathighpressure,themechanical
ness. See Figure E-2 for typical edge shapes based on
action of the spray assists in removing solid particles
plate thickness.
and dirt. Most alkaline cleaners are not caustics and
I therefore are less hazardousto the worker.Alkaline EDGE WELD
cleaners are effectiveinalmostallmetalcleaning A weld in an edge joint, a flanged butt joint or a
applications,althoughtheymaycausecorrosion in flanged comer joint inwhich the full thickness of the
various nonferrous alloys, especially aluminum, brass, members is fused. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
and zinc. See Figure E- l.
SolventCleaners. Thesecleaners are commonly
used in resistance welding operations. In this applica- EDGE WELD SIZE
tion, the workpieces are soaked in a tank of solvent The weld metal thickness measured from the weld
so that the cleaning penetrates rolled edges, pockets, root. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure E-3.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1797 D 07842b5 053b333 430 9
Weldina EFFICIENCY 139
FOR 20 GAUGE AND THINNER FOR 14 TO 18 GAUGE
FOR 8 TO 14 GAUGE FOR 4 mm (932 in.) METAL AND UP
FOR HEAVY SECTIONS COMPARISON OF SINGLE 'II" AND

DOUBLE 'V' JOINT DESIGN
FOR VERY HEAVY SECTIONS
Figure E-2-Typical Weld Joints for Various Thicknesses of Base Metal
EFFECTIVE LENGTH OF WELD

JOINT PENETRATION The length of the correctly proportioned cross sec-
ROOT PENETRATION tion of a weld. In a curved weld, it is measured along
the weld axis.
EFFECTIVE THROAT
The minimum
distance minus any convexity
between the weld root and the
face of ajllet weld. See
STANDARD WELDING TERMS.See Appendix 11, (A).
EFFICIENCY
The ratio of the amount of useful energy, power or
Figure E-&Edge Weld Size work delivered by a machine to the amount of energy,

STDsAWS JWE-ENGL L997 0784265 051b3L'4 377 m
140 ELASTIC Welding Encyclopedia
power or work required to operate it, or effective oper-tained for onehour, 30 kW-hr of energywillbe
ation measured by a comparison of production with expended.
cost.
ELECTRIC CONDUCTIVITY
ELASTIC LIMIT The electrical conducting characteristicsof a mate-
The maximum load (or stress) a metal will sustain rial; the reciprocal of electricalrestivity.Table E-1
before it deformspermanently or plastically. See shows a comparison of the electrical conductivity of
ELONGATION. various metals, considering copperas 100.
ELASTICITY
The resilience of a material; the property of resist- Table E-1
ing deformation by stretching. Elasticity is the charac- Electrical Conductivityof Various Metals
teristic of a materialtoreturnto its originalshape Silver 108 Iron 17
quickly after the deforming force is removed. Copper 100 Steel 17
Aluminum 56 Nickel 15
ELECTRIC ANNEALING Magnesium 38 Tin 15
See ANNEALING, Electric. Zinc 29 Lead 9
ELECTRIC ARC SPRAYING ELECTRIC CURRENT

A nonstandard term forARC SPRAYING. The path of movement or rate of movement of elec-
tricity; flowof electricity.
ELECTRIC BONDING
A nonstandardterm for surfacingbythermal ELECTRIC INDUCTION HEATING
spraying. Heating a material by means of an electric current
that is caused to flow through the material by electro-
ELECTRIC BRAZING
magnetic induction.
A nonstandard term for ARCBRAZING and RESIS-
TANCEBRAZING. A group of brazingprocessesin ELECTRIC INDUCTION PREHEATING
which heat is obtained from electric current. See also A methodofpreheatingworkpieces for welding
INDUCTION BRAZING. using an electric current to generate heat by electro-
magnetic induction.See INDUCTION HEATING and PRE-
ELECTRIC CIRCUIT HEATlNG BY INDUCTION.
The complete path of the flow of electric current,
usually including the source of electric energy. The ELECTRIC RESISTANCE
intensity or pressure of the electriccurrent is Themeasure of free electronsinamaterial;the
expressed as volts. The rate of flow or current in the property of a substance which causes it to oppose the
circuit is expressed asamperes. flow of electricity through it. Electrical resistance may
In a direct-current (d-c) circuit (sometimes called a be either the resistance of a conducting body or the
continuous current circuit), the product of the volts resistance of various contacting surfaces. Body resis-
and the amperes in the circuit represents the amount of tance is proportional to the restivity
of the material and
electrical power (watts) produced. The productof the the length of the current path, and inversely propor-
volts and the amperes in the circuit, together with the tional to the area of the current path. Contact resis-
time offlow, is expressed as watt hours ofenergy tance dependson the surface conditionof the materials
expendedinthecircuit.Onethousandwattsare involved.
expressed as a kilowatt. Electrical energy is measured
in kilowatt hours. ELECTRIC RESISTANCE WELDING
As an example of this calculation, if the voltage See RESISTANCE WELDING.
across a portionof an electrical circuit is50 volts and
the current flowing in the circuit is 600 amperes, the ELECTRIC TEMPERING
amountofpowerbeingconsumedinthecircuit is Reheating steel by electricity to impart hardness,
30 kilowatts, or 30 O00 watts. If the circuit is main- elasticity or weldability; to anneal by electric heating.

~~
dia Welding CLASSIFICATION
ELECTRODE 141
Electric tempering is a useful application for the Metal ArcElectrode. Filler metal in the form of a
electricbuttweldingmachine.Smallpiecescan be wire or rod, either bare or covered, through which cur-
tempered by clamping them between the jaws of a butt rent is conducted between the electrode holder and the
welderandheatingthemquicklybyturningon the arc.
current, then quenching them in water or oil.
CarbonArcElectrode. A carbon or graphite rod
through which current is conducted between the elec-
ELECTRIC WELDING trode holder and the arc.
The joining of metals by concentrating heat from an
electric circuit at the point to be welded. The sources AtomicHydrogenElectrode. One of twotungsten
ofheat are the electric arc established to the work- rods between the pointsof which the arc is maintained.
piece, or lossesfrominternalresistance. See ARC See ATOMIC HYDROGEN WELDING.
WELDING and RESISTANCE WELDING. Resistance Welding Electrode.The part or parts of a
resistance welding machine through which the weld-
ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE PYROMETER ing current and the pressure are applied directly to the
See PYROMETER. work. See RESISTANCE WELDING.
ELECTRICAL UNITS ELECTRODE, BARE

The nomenclature, volt(E), ampere (I) and ohm (R) An uncoated electrode.
with which electric energyis defined and measured.
Volt
(E). The electricalpressure(electromotive ELECTRODE CAP
force) which causes electricity to flow through a con- A replaceable electrode tip used for resistance spot
ductor is measured in volts. A volt is the unit of elec- welding. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
tricalpressurerequired to cause acurrent of one
ampere to flow through a conductor having a resis- ELECTRODE CARRIER
tance of one ohm. Voltageis also referred toas poten- A container for carrying arc welding electrodes.
tial difference.
Ampere (I). The unitof electric current which will ELECTRODE CLASSIFICATION
flow through a conductor with a resistance of one ohm The AmericanWeldingSociety (AWS) haspub-
underapressureofonevolt is one ampere. The lished the A5 series of specifications for consumables
ampere expresses the amount of current which flows used in the arc and electroslag welding processes.See
through a conductor. Appendix 17 for a complete listing.
Ohm (R). The unit of resistance of a circuit through Historical Background
which a potential difference of one volt produces a Standards for arc welding electrodes did not exist
current of one ampere. The ohm is usually defined as until 1940, although by that time manufactures were
the resistance of a given conductor of a certain mate- recommending similar types of electrodes for various
rial, size and form. welding applications. In 1940, the AWS, in conjunc-
The relationship between volts, amperes, and ohms tion with the American Society for Testing and Mate-
is expressed in Ohm's law as follows:I equals Em, or rials (ASTM), developed tentative specifications for
E equals I x R, or R equals Eh. iron and steel
arc welding electrodes used to weld mild
When I equals the current in amperes,E equls the steels.
electromotive force or pressure in volts, and R equals AWS Classlficatlon System
the resistancein ohms. The AWS hassincedevelopedspecifications for
filler metals to coverarcwelding of carbon,alloy,
ELECTRODE stainlessandcorrosion-resistantsteels; copper and
A component of the electrical circuit that terminates copper-basealloys,andaluminumalloys.Through
at the arc, molten conductive slag, or base metal. See thesespecificationsandclassifications,an electrode
STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See also ELECTRODE MAN- can be selected which will produce a weld metal with
UFACTURE, CU7TINGELECTRODE,TUNGSTEN ELEC- specific mechanical properties.The electrode identifi-
TRODE, STAINLESS STEEL and WELDING ELECTRODE. cation system is shown in Figure E-4.

~
~~ ~ ~ ~~~
.STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 051b31b 1 4 T
CLASSIFICATION
142 ELECTRODE Welding Encyclopedia
forms a slag to cover the deposited weld metal. The

ELECTRODE slag also serves to exclude oxygen and nitrogen from
n n the weld until it is cooled to a point where oxides and
nitrides willno longer form; it slows the cooling of the
E X X X X deposit metal to produce welds with better ductility.

Through metal additives to the coating, electrodes
can be used to add alloying agentsthe to weld metal or
restore lost elements, and sometimes to enhance depo-
COATING STRENGTH sition rates. In addition, the slag from the coating not
OPERATING
CHARACTERISTICS
only protectsthe weld bead, buteven helps shape it.
Iron Powder in Coatings
Figure E-4-SMAW Electrode Identification System Some electrodes are made for use with direct cur-
rent (dc) and some for alternating current (ac). Some
This system also classifies electrodes for minimum d-c electrodes are for DCEN (electrode holder con-
tensile strength, various positions of welding, and for nected to the negative pole) and some are for DCEP
type of welding current (alternating or direct current). (electrode holder attached to the positive pole). Still
See Table E-2. other d-c electrodes perform satisfactorily with either
polarity.
The AWS classification system uses a four or five- Iron powders are added to the coating of many basic
digit number to identify the properties of the electrode,electrodes. In the intense arc heat, the iron powder is
prefixed by the letterE. The letter E indicates that the convertedtosteel,andthiscontributesadditional
filler material is an electrical conductor. The first two metal to the weld deposit. When iron powder has been
digits indicate minimum tensile strength in thousands addedtotheelectrodecoatinginrelativelylarge
of pounds per square inch (stress relieved); if it is a amounts (up to 50% by weight), weld appearance and
five digit number, the first three digits indicate mini- the speed of welding is appreciably increased. These
mum tensile strength. The second to last digit desig- electrode coatings have an insulating effect, helpcon-
natesweldingposition.The last twodigitstaken trol the puddle for out-of-position welding, and also
together designate the type of current with which the affect the arc length and welding voltage.
electrode can be used and the type of covering on the Obviously, to serve all these functions, the compo-
electrode. Additional designators may be used to indi- sition of an electrode must be a careful blend of spe-
cate special electrodeclassifications.These classifica- cificingredients so thatperformancecharacteristics
tions are extremely important to help the welder to are correctly balanced. There are other requirements of
select the right electrode for each specification of the the electrode coating. It should have a melting point
weld; for example, selectinga particular type of filler somewhat lower than thatof the core wire or the base
metalcapable of depositing a high-strength, ductile metal. The resulting slag must havea lower density in
weld. order to be expelled quickly and thoroughly from the
Coated Electrodes rapidly solidifying weld metal. If the electrodeis to be
Prior to the development of coatedelectrodes, used in overhead or vertical welding positions, the slag
atmosphericgasesinthehigh-temperaturewelding formed from the melted coating must solidify quickly.
zone formed oxides and nitrides with the weld metal. Alloy Steel Electrodes
In general, oxidesare low in tensile strength and duc- The greatly expanded use of high alloy steel precip-
tility, and tend to reduce the normal physical proper- itateddevelopment of coatedelectrodescapable of
ties of the base metal. Coating materials were added to producing weld deposits with tensile strengths exceed-
the electrode to provide an automatic cleansing and ing 690 MPa (100 O00 psi). Mechanical properties of
deoxidizing action on the molten weld puddle.As the this magnitudeare achieved by using alloy steel in the
coating burns in the arc, it releases a gaseous atmo- core wire of the electrode.
sphere that protects the molten end of the electrode,as In most electrode compositions, the coating is lime-
wellas
the
moltenweld
pool.This
atmosphere ferritic, typical of the low-hydrogen design and fre-
excludes harmful oxygen and nitrogen from the mol- quentlycontainingironpowder.Thesehigh-tensile
tenweldareawhiletheburningresidueofcoating electrodes are usually classified as EXXl5, EXX16 or

a Welding CLASSIFICATION
ELECTRODE 143
Table E-2
Electrode Classification
AWS Classification Qpe of Covering

Welding
Positiona
Type of Currentb
E6010 High sodium

cellulose F, V, OH, H dcep
E60 11 High
cellulose
potassium F, V, OH, H ac or dcep
E60 12 High sodium
titania F, V, OH, H ac or dcen
E60 13 potassium
titania
High F, V, OH, H ac, dcep, or dcen
E60 19 Iron oxide
titania
potassium F, V, OH, H ac, dcep, or dcen
H-fillets ac or dcen
E6020 High iron oxide
F ac, dcep,or dcen
High E6022C ac F, H or dcen

H-fillets ac ordcen
E6027 High iron oxide, iron powder
F ac, dcep, or dcen
E70 14 Iron powder, titania F, V, OH, H ac, dcep,or dcen

hydrogen
sodium
Low
E7015 F, V, OH, H dcep
E7016 Low hydrogen
potassium F, V, OH, H ac or dcep
E701
8 Low hydrogenpotassium,
iron
powder F, V, OH, H ac or dcep
E70 18M Low
hydrogen
iron
powder F, V, OH, H dcep
E7024 Iron powder, titania H-fillets, F ac, dcep,or dcen
H-fillets ac or dcen
E7027 High iron oxide, iron powder
F ac, dcep, or dcen
hydrogen
E7028
Low
potassium, iron powder
H-fillets, F ac or dcep
E7048 Low hydrogen

potassium,
iron
powder F, OH, H, V-down
ac or dcep
Notes:
a. The abbreviations indicate the welding positions as follows:
F = Flat
H = Horizontal
H-fillets = Horizontal fillets
V-down = Vertical with downward progression
V = Vertical { For electrodes 3/16 in. (4.8 mm) and under, except 5/32 in. (4.0 mm) and under for classifications E7014,
OH =OverheadE7015,E7016,E7018,andE7018M.
b. The term dcep refers to direct current electrode positive (dc, reverse polarity). The term dcen refers to direct current electrode neg-
ative (dc, straight polarity).
c. Electrodes of the E6022 classification are intended for single-pass welds only.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1497 m 0784265 0516338 TL2 m
144 Encyclopedia Welding
EXXl8. The operational characteristics parallel those (5) Clays and gums to aid in coating extrusion
of the typical E60XX low-hydrogen electrode. (6)Calcium fluoride toprovideshielding,adjust
In alloy steel electrodes, the basic four- or five-digit slagbasicity,and provide fluidity and solubility to
numberdesignation for anelectrode is usuallyfol- metal oxides
lowed by a letter symbol, such as Al, B2, B3. These (7) Mineralsilicatestoprovide slag and give
AWS suffixeshavebeenadded to indicate specific strength to the coating
additions of alloying elements as indicated in Table (8) Alloying metals (i.e., Ni, Mo, Cr and others) to
E-3. provide alloy content to the deposit
(9) Iron or manganese oxide to adjust slag fluidity,
and, for small amountsof iron oxide, help stabilize the
Table E-3 S C
AWS Designation of Major Alloying Elements (10) Iron powder to enhance deposition rate
in Shielded Metal Arc Electrodes By usingdifferentcombinationsandamounts of
suffix to Element
Alloying these and other ingredients, a tremendous diversity of
Electrode coatings can be produced. Following are descriptions
Number Cr Mn Mo Ni Va
of electrodes used for mild and low-alloy steels.
Al 0.40-0.65
E6010Electrodes. Electrodes in this classification
0.45-0.65
B1 0.40-0.65 have a cellulosehodium coating and are designed to
B2 1.00-1.50 0.45-0.65 produce the best possible mechkcal proper& con-
B3 2.00-2.50 0.90-1.20 sistent with good usability characteristics in all weld-
B4 1.75-2.25 0.40-0.65 ing positions, usingDCEP.
B5 0.40-0.60 1.00-1.25 0.05 They are bestsuited for verticalandoverheadweld-
c1 2.00-2.75 ing and some sheet metal applications.The spray-type
arc produced by the E6010 electrode has a digging
c2 3.00-3.75 characteristic to produce deep penetration. This calls
c0.35
3 O. 15 o.80-1.10 0.05 for electrode manipulation by thewelder to minimize
Dl 1.25-1.75
0.25-0.45 spatter andthe tendency to undercut.
D2 1.65-2.00 0.25-0.45 Fillet welds made with 6010 electrodes are rela-
D3 1.00-1.75
~ ~ . .
~ 0.40-0.65
-~ "
tively flat in profileand have a rather coarse, unevenly
G 0.30 1.00 0.20 0.50 0.10 spaced ripple.Theseelectrodesarehighlyrecom-
mended when quality of deposit is of prime impor-
NM 0.05 0.80-1.25
0.40-0.65
0.80-1.10
0.02 tance,particularly on multi-passapplications in
Note: Single values are maximum percentages. verticalandoverheadpositions,andwhenradio-
graphic requirements must be met. Most applications
General Coating Types for the E6010 electrode are on mild steel; however,
Coated or shieldedmetal-arcelectrodesachieve they may be used to advantage on galvanized plate and
performance characteristics through design or formu- some low-alloy steels.
lation of the coating. The coatings of electrodes for E6011Electrode. Theseelectrodes are sometimes
welding mild and low-alloy steels may be designedto considered the a-c counterpart of the E6010. Perfor-
include as many ingredients and performance charac- mance characteristics of the two are similar; however,
teristics as necessary from among the following: the E6011 electrode performs equally well with either
(1) Cellulose to providea gaseous shieldon disinte- a-c or d-c power sources. These electrodes produce a
gration forceful digging arc resulting in deep penetration.
(2) Metal carbonates to adjust slag basicity and pro- While the coatingis slightly heavier on the E60 1 1,
vide a reducing atmosphere the resulting slag and weld profiles are similar to those
(3) Titanium dioxide to improve slag fluidity and of the E6010. The coatings are high in cellulose and
freezing, andto aid in ionization are designated as the highcellulose potassium type. In
(4)Ferromanganese and ferrosilicon to help with addition to the other ingredients usually found in the
deoxidation of molten weld metal and supplement the E6010 electrode coating, small quantities of calcium
Mn or Si content inthe deposit and potassiumare usually present.

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 05Lb319 959 m
a Welding CLASSIFICATION
ELECTRODE 145
As in the case of the E6010 electrodes, sizes larger While the E6012 electrode produces convex fillet
than 4.8 mm (3/16 in.) diameter are not usually used weld contour characteristics, the E601 3s produce a flat
for all welding positions. The current ranges usually fillet weld similar to that of the E6020 electrode classi-
recommended are identical to thosefor the E6010, but fication. The E6013 electrodes are also used for mak-
similarly, high currents result in high spatter losses. ing groove welds because of the concave bead shape
Usually the ductility, tensile
strength and
yield and easily removed slag. In addition, the weld metal
strength of the deposited weld metal from an E601 1 is contains fewer slag and oxide inclusions than E6012
higher than thatof an E6010. weldmetal,andqualityverified by radiography is
better.
E6012Electrodes. The E6012 electrodes are
TheE6013coating is verysimilartothat of the
designed for all purpose welding in all positions, using
E6012, containingrutile, silicious materials, cellulose,
either DCENor an a-c power source. They are specifi- ferromanganese and silicate binders. An important dif-
cally recommended for horizontal and most downhill
ference, however, is that easily ionized materials are
weldingapplications.Theyareespeciallyrecom- incorporated in the coating, permitting establishment
mended for single pass, high-speed, high-current hori-
and maintenance of an arc with ac at lower welding
zontal fillet welds. Characteristics of the E6012 are currents and low open-circuit voltages. Some manu-
ease of handling, medium penetration, no spatter, and facturers have also introduced small quantitiesof iron
good fillet weldprofile.Theseelectrodescanwith- powder into the E6013 coating.
standhighcurrentand can bridgegapscaused by
poor-fit-up conditions. E701 4 Electrodes. This designation supersedes the
The 6012electrodes are referredto as titaniaor E6014 designation.As the first two numbers of E7014
rutile type, since the coatingis high in titania, usually electrodes indicate, this is a 70,000 psi minimum ten-
exceeding 35% by weight. In addition to titania, the silestrength electrode. AlthoughsimilartoE6013
coatingsusuallycontainvarioussiliciousmaterial electrodes, the coating of E7014 electrodes is consid-
such as feldspar and clay, small amountsof cellulose, erably thicker, since it contains substantial amounts of
andferromanganese,withsodiumsilicate as the iron powder (30% of coating weight). The amount of
binder. Small amounts of calcium may be used to pro- coating and the percentageof iron powder in it is usu-
duce satisfactory arc characteristics on DCEN, and a ally less than that found in the E7020 electrodes.
small amount of iron powder is added to improve arc The presence of ironpowderinE7014permits
characteristics. The slag coverage is complete and is higher welding currents and means higher deposition
easily removed. rates and welding speeds. While the electrode is classi-
fied for all-position welding, the thicker coating is not
When E6012 electrodes are used with a d-c power ideally suited for out-of-position production welding
source, DCEN is preferred.
on thin-gaugematerials.Performancecharacteristics
E6013Electrodes. Although E6013 electrodesare make it particularly suited for production welding of
very similar to the E6012s, there are some notable dif-irregularly shaped products, where some out-of-posi-
ferences. They are designed for welding in all position welding is required.
tions, ac or dc. They produce a minimum spatter and Mechanical propertiesof the E7014 weld metal are
have a minimumtendencytoundercut. The beads superior to those of E6012 or E6013. Slag removal is
have a fine ripple andare superior in appearance. veryeasy,sometimesalmostself-cleaning.General
Slag removal is somewhat better and the arc can penetration and the rapid solidification characteristics
be established and maintained more readily, particu- make it well suited for handling poor fit-up conditions.
larly with the small(1.6,2.0, and 2.4 mm [ 1/16,5/64, E7015 Electrodes. Thiselectrode is commonly
3/32 in.]) electrodes, thus permitting satisfactory oper- referred to asa low-hydrogen electrode. It was the first
ation at a lower open-circuit voltage. These character- DCEP, all-positionelectrodedesigned for welding
istics make the E6013 ideally suited to welding thin high-sulphur and high-carbon steels, materials which
metals;thearc is softandpenetrationverylight. tend to develop porosity and sometimes crack under
Mechanicalandradiographicproperties are slightly the weld bead.
better than E6012. Underbead cracks usually occur just below the weld
These electrodes were originally designed specifi- metal in the base metal, and are caused by hydrogen
cally for sheet metal work. absorption from arc
atmospheres. Elimination of

'STD=AWS JWE-ENGL 3997 07842b5 05Lb320
b70 D
hydrogenwith its subsequentunderbeadcracking producing sound weldson troublesome steels, such as

improves welding conditions, and permits welding of the high-sulfur, high-carbon, and low-alloy grades.
"difficult-to-weld"steels
with
less
preheatthan As is common with all low-hydrogen electrodes, a
required forelectrodes which are not classifiedas low- shortarcshould be maintainedatalltimes. Fillet
hydrogenelectrodes.Althoughunderbeadcracks do welds made in a horizontalor flat position are slightly
not occur in mild steel, they may occur when an elec- convex in profile, with a smooth, finely rippled sur-
trode that is not low-hydrogen is used on high tensile face. Electrodes are characterized by a smooth, quiet
steels. arc, low penetration, very low spatter, and they can be
TheE7015coating is highinlimestone,sodium, used at high lineal speeds.
andotheringredientswithlow-hydrogencontent, The minerals in the low-hydrogen electrode coat-
whichpreventstheintroduction ofhydrogeninthe ings are limited to inorganic compounds such as cal-
weld, The arc is moderately penetrating; the slag is cium
fluoride,
calciumcarbonate,
magnesium-
heavy, friable and easily removed, and the deposited aluminum-silicate, ferroalloys and such binding agents
weld metal lies in a flat bead,or may even be slightly as sodium and potassium silicate. These electrodes are
concave. referred to as lime-ferritic electrodes because of the
The E7015s, through4 mm (5/32 in.) diameter, can lime-type coatings (since this lime is a decomposed
be used in all positions. The larger diameters are use- product of such compounds as calcium carbonate).
ful for fillet welds and horizontal and flat positions. Since thecoating of E7018electrodes is heavier
Weldingcurrentsaresomewhathigherthanrecom- than most, vertical and overhead welding are usually
mended for E6010s of comparable diameter. Also rec- limitedtothesmallerdiameterelectrodes.Currents
ommended: as short an arc as possible for all welding used are somewhat higher than for the E6010 elec-
positions will produce best results. A short arc reduces trodes of corresponding size.
the tendency for underbead cracking.
E6020 Electrodes. These electrodes are designed to
The E7015 electrode was originally developed for
produce high quality, horizontal fillet weldsathigh
welding hardenable steels, in addition to alloy, high-
carbon and high-sulfur steels. They are useful in weld-welding speeds, using either ac or DCEN. In the flat
ingmalleableirons,spring steel, andthemildsteel position, the E6020 can be used with ac or DCEN or
sides of clad plates. These electrodes are commonly DCEP.
usedformakingsmallwelds on heavyweldments, The E6020 electrodes are characterizedby a force-
since they are less susceptible to cracking than non- ful spray-type arc and heavy slag, which completely
low-hydrogenelectrodes.They are also extensively covers the deposit and is easily removed. Penetration
used for welding steels which are subsequently enam- is medium at normal welding speeds, but high current
eled, and on all steels which contain selenium. and hightravelspeedsresultin deep penetration.
The successful performanceof this electrode led to Deposits are usuallyflat or may be slightly concavein
development of theE7016andE7018electrodes, profile, and have a smooth, even ripple. Radiographic
whichalsohaveacoatingwithverylowmoisture qualities areexcellent,butthe electrode
produces
content. medium spatter and has a tendency to undercut.
TheE6020 electrodes are essentially mineral-
E7016Electrodes. Theseelectrodeshave all the coated electrodes, with high percentages of iron oxide,
characteristics of the E7015. The core wire and coat- with manganese compounds and silicates, and suffi-
ings are very similar except that the coatings of the cient deoxidizers to give the deposit the desired com-
E7016 contain certain amounts of potassium silicate position. The slagcoverage is so extensiveandthe
and other potassium salts, which makes this electrode slag-metal reactionof such a nature that the electrodes
suitable for use with ac as well as DCEP. All the char- generally do not depend on gaseous protection.
acteristicsattributedtotheE7015 also applytothe The coatings of E6020 electrodes usually produce
E701 6 electrodes. ironoxide,manganeseoxide,and silica slag.Other
E7018 Electrodes. Similar to the E7016 electrodes, materialssuch as aluminum,magnesiumorsodium
E7018 electrodes are all-position, low-hydrogen, and may be present in the coating to modify this slag. Fer-
have a coatingof 25% to40% iron powder. They oper- romanganese is used as the main deoxidizer; sodium
atewith either a-c or DCEP. TheE7018electrodes silicate is used as a binder. The quantity of basic oxide,
have all the desirable low-hydrogen characteristics of acid silica and silicates and deoxidizers must be care-

~~
STD=AWS JWE-ENGL 1997

07842b5
051b321 507
Welding 147 FORCE ELECTRODE
fully controlled to assure satisfactory operation and to E7028 Electrodes. The E7028 electrodes are the last
produce good weld metal. The heavy slag produced of themildsteelseries.Theyhave a low-hydrogen
willbewellhoneycombedontheunderside,while coating containing50% iron powder. These electrodes
completelycoveringthedeposit.Itcanbereadily are very much like the E7018 electrodes, but have sev-
removed. eral different characteristics.
E7024Electrodes. These electrodes, ideally suited
The E7018s are all-position electrodes; but E7028s
for productionfillet welding, are designed for horizon- are suitable for horizontalfillet and flat position weld-
tal fillet or flat positions using either an a-c or d-c ing only. The coating of the E7028 electrode is much
power source. thicker than that of the E7018 because of its higher
iron powder content, so it has a much higher deposi-
The E7024, although generally used on mild steel, tionrateonhorizontal fillet and flat weldingthan
also produces satisfactory welds on many low-alloy, E7018 electrodes of comparable size. (The coating of
medium and high carbon steels. The welds are slightly E7028 represents about50% of its weight).
convexinprofile,with a smoothsurfaceand an The means of metal transferof these two electrodes
extremely fine ripple. The electrodes are characterized is also different. The E7028 has a spray transfer; the
by a smooth, quiet arc, very low spatter, low penetra- E7018 has a globular transfer. Both these electrodes
tion, and can be used at high lineal speeds. are capable of producing the physical properties and
The coating contains50% iron powder, which helps weld quality typicalof low-hydrogen electrodes.
produce deposition rates and welding speeds consider-
ably higher than thoseof the E6012, E6013 or E7014 ELECTRODE EFFICIENCY
types which have similar performance characteristics. The ratio of the weight of the metal deposited from
Except for the high percentage of ironpowder,the an electrode to the weightof the electrode consumed,
coating ingredients of the E7024 are similar to those times 100.
used in the E6012 and E6013 electrodes.
ELECTRODE EXTENSION, Flux Cored Arc Welding,
E6027 Electrodes. With a 50% iron powder design, Electrogas Welding,Gas Metal Arc Welding, and
these electrodes have arc characteristics which closely Submerged Arc Welding
duplicate the E6020. They are designed to produce sat- The length of electrode extending beyond the endof
isfactory fillet or groove weldsin the flat position with the contact tube. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See
ac or dc,eitherpolarity,andwillproduce flat or Appendix 10.
slightly concave horizontal fillet welds with either ac The length of electrode extending beyond theelec-
or DCEN. trode holder (for carbon arc cutting), or the end
of the
TheE6027has a spray-typemetaltransferand contact tube (for flux-cored, electrogas, gas-metalarc,
deposits metal at a high lineal speed. Penetration is or submerged arc welding).
medium and spatter loss is very low. The slag, though
very heavy and honeycombed on the underside, crum- ELECTRODE EXTENSION,Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
bles for easy removal. The E6027 is particularly suited The length of tungsten electrode extending beyond
for multi-pass, deep groove welding. the end of the collet. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
WeldsproducedwiththeE6027have a flat to See Appendix 10.
slightly concave profile witha smooth, fine, even rip-
ELECTRODE FORCE
ple, and with good metal wash up thejoint sides. The
weld metal might be somewhat inferior in soundness The force applied to the electrodes in making spot,
to that produced with E6020. seam, or projection welds by resistance welding. See
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See &O DYNAMIC ELEC-
High current can be used;a considerable portionof
TRODEFORCE,STATICELECTRODEFORCE, and THEO-
the electrical energy passing through the electrode is
RETICAL ELECTRODE FORCE.
needed to melt the coating and the iron powder con-
tained in it. These electrodes are well suitedto welding Dynamic. In spot, seam and projection welding, the
fairly heavy sections. force (pounds)betweentheelectrodesduringthe
Inmany respects, theE6027electrodesproduce actual welding cycle.
highqualityweldmetalwithphysicalproperties Theoretical. In spot, seam and projection welding,
closely duplicating thoseof E6010. the force, neglecting friction and inertia, available at

.STD.AWS JWE-ENGL L997 07842b5 05Lb322 4 4 3
148 ELECTRODEGAP Weldina Encyclopedia
the electrodesof a resistance welding machine,by vir- order at all times. Under extreme heat, springs some-
tue of the initial force application and the theoretical timeslosetemperandmustbereplaced. A weak
mechanical advantageof the system. spring slows up welding and reduces the quality of the
Static. Inspot,seamandprojectionwelding, the weld.
force betweentheelectrodesunderweldingcondi-
ELECTRODE INDENTATION, Resistance Welding
tions, but with no current flowing and no movement in
The depressionformed on the sur$ace of workpieces
the welding machine.
by electrodes. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
ELECTRODE GAP
ELECTRODE LEAD
A nonstandard term forARC LENGTH.
The electrical conductor between the source of arc
ELECTRODE HOLDER welding current and the electrode holder:See STAN-
A device used for mechanically holding and con- DARD WELDINGTERMS. See Figure D-5.
ducting current to an electrode during welding or cut-
ELECTRODE MANUFACTURE
ting. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.See Figure D-5.
An electrodeholderis a clampingdevicewhich Electrodes are designed by metallurgists and weld-
allows the welder to hold and control the electrode. It ing engineers who specify the composition of coated
also serves asa device for conducting the welding cur- electrodes to achieve various results in weld metal and
rent from the weldingcable to the electrode. An insu- the finished weld. Manufacturers of electrodes have
lated handle on the holder separates the welder's hand developed arc weldingelectrodes to weldferrous
from the welding circuit. The current is transferred to alloys such as castiron,rolledsteel,chromesteel,
the electrode through thejaws of the holder. To assure nickel chrome steel, manganese steel, and non-ferrous
minimum contact resistance and to avoid overheating alloys such as bronze, brass, copper, or nickel alloys.
of the holder, thejaws must be kept in good condition. They have also developed electrodes for welding
Overheating of the holder not only makes it uncom- materials in the pure state,such asaluminum.The
fortable for the welder, but alsoit can cause excessive ingredients of the electrode coatings can be selected to
voltage drop in the welding circuit. Either can impair provide shielding gas, flux, and slag during welding.
the welder's performance and reduce the quality of the See ELECTRODE.
weld. Historical Background
The holdermust grip the electrodesecurelyand In the early years of welding, strips of sheet, bare
hold it in position with good electrical contact. Instal- steel rodor wire (sometimes baling wire) were used as
lation of the electrode and removal of the expended consumable electrodes to provide the filler material
electrodestubmustbequickandeasy. The holder for metal arc welding. These early electrodes produced
needs to be light in weight and easy to handle, yet it anunstable arc whichwasdifficulttoinitiate,and
must be sturdy enough to withstand rough use. Most resulted in welds that were porous and brittle. Better
holders have insulating material around the jaws to welds seemed to result when the wire and rod were
prevent groundingof the jaws to the work. slightly coated witha film of rust, or whenthe wire or
Electrode holders are produced in sizes to accom- rod had a light lime coating remaining after lime had
modate a range of standard electrode diameters. Each been used as a lubricant in the drawing process. It was
size of holder is designed to carry the current required soon determined that the bare electrode must be either
for the largest diameter electrode that it will hold. The sul-coated, which is a special rust-coated finish pro-
smallest size holder that can be used without overheat- duced by spraying the wire with water before the last
ing is the best one for the job. It will be the lightest, drawing,orlimecoated. The lightlimecoating
and it will provide the best operator comfort. assistedinkeeping the arc steadybyproducing a
The electrode holder must be kept clean to ensure vapor which would conduct the current, but it did not
maximumoperatinglife.Clean jaws andcontact significantlyimproveweldquality.Manymaterials
points maintain good electrical connection and conse- were usedin experiments tofind substances that could
quently less heating and burning of the holder. The beaddedtoimproveweldresults.When the lime
insulation mustbe kept tight and in good repair. If the coated or sul-coated electrode was wrapped in news-
jaws areclosed by a spring, the electrodeholder paper, a gaseous shield for the arc was formed which
should be inspected to see that the spring is in good improved the weld, apparently the resultof the cellu-

~~~
~ _ _ _ _ ~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 9 0784265 0516323 38T 9

Welding Encyclopedia PICKUP ELECTRODE 149
lose in the paper.Amongtheothermaterialsused Principal stabilizersfor both the cellulosic and min-
experimentally to form cellulosic coatings were saw- eral coatings are titanium dioxide, feldspar and cal-
dust, cotton, wood flour, wheat flour and rice flour. cium carbonate. Ferromanganese also appears in both
The carbon contentof welding rods for arc welding types of coatingsas a deoxidizerusedforporosity
steel changed the characteristics of the weld. Carbon control. It also tends to balance the manganese burned
steel electrodes were manufactured in two grades. A out in arc transfer. In some coatings, alloy ingredients
higher carbon content was supplied for arc welding such as molybdenum, which has good transfer charac-
and a lower carbon content for gas welding. Today, teristics, are added.
electrodes containing fromO. 13% toO. 18% carbonare Cellulosic. This coating contains such ingredientsas
widely used for welding mild steel. sodium silicate, ferromanganese, titanium dioxide and
Coatings alpha and beta cellulose. This type of coating is some-
In general,there are twotypes of electrodesfor times referred to as the high ignition loss type, because
weldingferrousalloys:mediumorsemicoated,and a considerable portion of the coating burns away to
heavily coated electrodes. form a gas in the arc.
Medium or semicoated electrodesare made by dip- The cellulosic coatingis a high-quality coating used
ping the core wire material in a liquid flux, and with- for all-position electrodes; however, itis suitable only
drawing it to allow the flux coating to dry. A coating for DCEP. Arc action produces a forceful spray weld
of this type usually represents only 1% to 2% of the metal transfer with deep penetration.
weight of the electrode. Mineral. A mineral electrode coating usually con-
The heavilycoatedelectrodesaredippedseveral sists of metallic oxides and silicates. This type of coat-
timestoobtainthedesiredthickness,orthey are ingproducesanabundance of slagwhichprovides
passedthroughanextrusionpress,thegenerally amplecoverageandcompleteshielding.Electrodes
accepted
practice,
where a coating is applied with mineral coatingsare usually confined to welding
uniformly by extrusion.Specificationsrequirethat in the horizontal and flat position. These electrodes
the extruded coating be concentric with the electrode; produce high quality weld metal using either ac or dc.
a coating which is 3% or more off
center
is The mineral ingredients in this coating form gases
unsatisfactory. aroundthemoltenandvaporizedmaterialfromthe
Core Wire Material core iron as they pass through the arc, protecting them
The most suitable core material for steel electrodes from the atmosphere as they form a molten slag cover-
is a high-graderimmedsteel.Killed or semi-killed ing the weld metal.
steels do not function as well. A typical specification Rutile (titanium dioxide) is an important substance
for a widely used typeof electrode follows: in mineral-coated electrodes. The rutile coated elec-
trodes have a coating of moderate thickness so that
.13 Carbon globulartransferand a rapidrate of solidification
Manganese .40to .60% occurs. This feature adapts well to joints with a rela-
Silicon 0.06% tivelypoorfit-up. In additiontoanabundance of
Sulphur 0.04% rutile, these electrode coatings include some ferroman-
Phosphorus 0.04% ganese,feldspar,andsodiumsilicate.Thesegeneral
Thetensilestrength of themetal,andtosome purpose,all-positionelectrodesoperate on ac or
extent, the smoothness and soundness of the deposit DCEN.
are affected by thecarbonandmanganesecontent. ELECTRODE MUSHROOMING
Minimum sulfur content is important; it should be as
far below 0.04% as reasonably possible. The enlargement of a resistance spot or projection
welding electrode tip due to heat or pressure so it
Composition of Coatings resembles a mushroom in shape. See STANDARD
Electrode coatings usually contain substances such WELDING TERMS.
as silicon,calcium,barium,andmagnesium.Water
glass, a solution of sodium silicate,is usually used asa ELECTRODE PICKUP
binder, but various gums, glues and lacquers are also Contamination of the electrode tips or wheel faces
used. They are classed as cellulosic and mineral. by the base metalor its coating during resistance spot,

~~~
STDeAWS JWE-ENGL 1777 m 07842b5 051b324 21b m
TBACK 150 ELECTRODE
seam, or projection welding. See STANDARD WELDING Process

TERMS. Electrogas welding is a machine welding process.
The mechanical aspectsof electrogas weldingare sim-
ELECTRODE SETBACK ilar to those of the electroslag process from which it
The distance the electrode is recessedbehind the was developed. Thereare two variationsof the process
constricting orifice of the plasma arc torch or thermal commonlyusedintheUnitedStates.Basedonthe
spraying gun, measuredfrom the outerface of the con- GMAW process, it can feed a solid electrode into the
stricting nozzle. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See joint; basedonthefluxcoredarcweldingprocess
Appendix 10. See also CONTACT TUBE SETBACK. (FCAW), it canincorporate a fluxwithin a tubular
electrode. Both variations use retaining shoes (dams)
ELECTRODE SKID to confine the molten weld metal, which permit weld-
The sliding of a resistance welding electrode along ingintheverticalposition.Gasshielding,when
the su$ace of the workpiece when making spot, seam, needed, is provided through inlet ports in the dams or a
or projection welds. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. gas cup around the electrode, or both. When using a
self-shielded FCAW electrode, no gas is added.
ELECTRODE TIP A square-groove or single V-groove joint is posi-
The end of a resistance spot or projection welding tioned so that the axis or lengthof the weld is vertical.
electrode in contact with the workpiece. See STAN- FigureE-5showstypicalelectrogaswelding joint
DARD WELDING TERMS. designs. There is no repositioning of the joint once
welding has started; welding continues to completion,
ELECTRODE TIP LIFE so that the weldis made in one pass. The nature of the
The number of resistance spot welds that can be melting and solidification during welding results in a
made with an electrode before redressing of the elec- high quality weld deposit. There is little or no angular
trode is required. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. distortion of thebasemetalwithsingle-passwelds.
The welding actionis quiet, with little spatter.
ELECTROFORGING DIES
Principles of Operation
See RESISTANCE WELDING ELECTRODE.
The consumableelectrode, either solidorflux
ELECTROGAS WELDING (EGW) cored, is fed downward into a cavity formed by the
An arc welding process that uses an arc between a base metals to be welded and the retaining shoes. A
continuous filler metal electrode and the weld pool, sump (starting tab)
is used at the beginning of the weld
employing approximately vertical welding progression toallow the processtostabilizebeforethemolten
with backing to confine the molten weld metal. The weld metalreachesthework. An arc is initiated
process is used with or without an externally supplied between the electrode and the sump.
shielding gas and without the application of pressure. Heat from the arc melts the continuously fed elec-
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. trode and the groove faces. This is shown schemati-
cally in FigureE-6. Melted filler metal and base metal
collect in a pool beneath the arc and solidify to form
The first availablethick-platesingle-passvertical the weld. The electrode may be oscillated horizontally
weldingprocesswaselectroslagwelding.Demand through the joint for uniform distribution of heat and
arose immediatelyfor equipment that would applythe weld metal. As the cavityfills, one or both shoes may
process to thinner sections. Almost all vertical joints move upward. Although the weld travel is vertical, the
were being welded withthe manual shielded metal arc weld metal is actually deposited in theflat position at
welding (SMAW) process or bysemiautomaticgas the bottomof the cavity.
metal arc welding (GMAW). In 1961, laboratory stud-
ieswith an electroslagweldingmachineadaptedto Applications
feed auxiliary gas shielding around a flux cored elec- Base metals most commonly joined by electrogas
trode demonstrated that plate as thin as 10 mm (3/8 welding are plain carbon, structural and pressure ves-
in.) could be welded in the vertical positionin a single sel steels. Applications of electrogas welding include
pass. The technique is called electrogas welding storage tanks, ship hulls, structural members and pres-
(EGW). sure vessels. EGW should be considered for any joint

MOVING SHOES OR
STATIONARY SHOES
FOR CONSUMABLE
GUIDE TUBE WELDING
I
(A) B U T JOINT WITH SQUARE GROOVE WELD
4L 4 mm (5/32in.)
STATIONARY SHOE
v
MOVING SHOE
(B) BUrr JOINT WITH SINGLE4 GROOVE WELD
Figure E-5-vpicai Electrogas Welding Joint Designs
to be welded in a vertical position in materials ranging (5) High duty cycle; the process is automatic and
in thickness from 10 to 100 mm (3/8 to 4 in.) thick. once started, continuestocompletion;there is little
Advantages operator fatigue.
Some of the advantages associated withEGW have (6)Minimum materials handling; the work needs to
resulted in considerable cost savings, particularly in be positioned only to place the axisof the weld in the
joining thicker materials, when compared tothe more vertical or near vertical position; there isno manipula-
conventional joining methods such as submerged arc tion of the parts once welding has started.
weldingandfluxcoredarcwelding.Eveninsome (7) Elimination of weldspatter,which results in
applicationsinvolvingthinnerbasematerials, EGW 100% filler metal deposition efficiency.
may result in cost savings becauseof its efficiency and
(8) Minimum distortion; there is no angular distor-
simple joint preparation.Thefollowingadvantages
tion in the horizontal plane. Distortion is minimal in
can be achieved with EGW:
the vertical plane, and this is easily compensated for.
(1) Extremelyhighmetaldepositionrates; EGW
has a deposition rate of 16 to 20 kg (35 to 45 lbs) per Limitations
hour per electrode. (1) The EGW process welds only carbon and low
(2) Preheating is normallynotrequired,even on alloy steels, and some stainless steels.
materials of high hardenability.
(2) The joint must be positioned in the vertical or
(3) High-quality weld deposit; the weld metal stays near-vertical position.
moltenforanappreciable time, allowinggasesto
escape and slag to float to the top of the weld. (3) Once welding has started, it must be carried to
(4) Minimum joint preparation and fit-up require- completion or a defective areais likely to result.
ments; mill edges and flame-cut square edges are nor- (4) Complexmaterialshapes maybedifficultor
mally employed. impossible to weld using EGW.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb32b O99 m
W) WELDING
152 ELECTROGAS Welding Encyclopedia
DRIVE ROLLS
WELDING WIRE
ELECTRODE
:1
ELECTRODE
GUIDE
WELDING
WIRE
r
L
OUT-
WATER
IN-
I
OSCILLATOR
PRIMARY
SHIELDING
GAS
GAS SOLIDIFIED
WELD METAL
Figure E-6"Electrogas Welding witha Solid Electrode
Electrode Variations machinemoves.Verticalmovement of themachine

SolidElectrode. Inatypicalelectrogaswelding must be consistent with the deposition rate, and may
installation, a solid electrodeis fed through a welding be automatic or controlled by the welding operator.
gun, called a nuncunsumable guide. See Figure E-6. Electrogasweldingwithsolidelectrodes can be
The electrode may be oscillated horizontally to weld used to weld base metals ranging in thickness from
thickermaterials. Gas shielding,normallycarbon approximately 10 mm (3/8 in.) to100 mm (4 in.). Base
dioxide (CO2)or an argon-carbon dioxide (Ar-CO2) metal thicknesses most commonly welded are between
mixture, is provided to the weld cavity through gas 13 mm (1/2 in.) and 76 mm (3 in.). Electrode diame-
ports, boxes, or nozzles. Water-cooled copper retain- ters most commonly usedare 1.6,2.0,2.4, and 3.2mm
ing shoes retain the weld; they move vertically as the (1/16,5/64,3/32, and 1/8 in.).

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 3997 m 07842b5 0536327T25 m
clopedia Welding WELDING
ELECTROGAS (EGW) 153
FluxCoredElectrode. The principles of operation (1 in.)from the bottom of the joint. Astheweld
and characteristicsof the self-shielded flux cored elec- progresses vertically, the electrode melts back to the
trode are identicalto the solidelectrodevariation, guidetube.Initially,thewireelectrodepenetrates
except that no separate gas shielding is needed. See about an inch beyondthe end of the guide tube. Then a
FigureE-7. The flux coredelectrodecreatesathin steady-state relationship develops between meltingof
layer of slag between the weld metal and copper shoes the end of guide tube and the electrode wire. This rela-
to provide a smooth weld surface. tionship remains until the weld is completed. The con-
Electrogas welding with a flux cored electrode may sumableguideprocess is shownschematically in
be done with an external gas shieldor a self-shielding Figure E-7.
electrode.Self-shieldedelectrodesoperate at higher The AmericanWeldingSocietypublishes ANSI/
current levels and deposition rates than shielded types. AWS A5.26, Specificationfor Carbon and Low Alloy
Diameters of flux cored electrodes commonlyvary Steel Electrodes for Electrogas Welding, which pre-
from 1.6 mm to 3.2 mm (U16 in. to 1/8 in.). The wire scribesrequirements for solidandfluxcoredelec-
(electrode) feeder must be capable of smooth, continu- trodes for electrogas welding.
ous feeding of small diameter wires at high speeds and
larger diameter wires at slower speeds. Equipment
Consumable Guide Process The basicmechanicalequipment for electrogas
EGW with a consumable guide is similar to con- welding consists of a direct current power supply, a
sumable guide electroslag welding. This variation of device for feeding the electrode, shoes for retaining
EGW is primarily used for short weldments in ship- moltenmetal,anelectrodeguide,amechanism for
building, and in column and beam fabrication. Con- oscillating the electrode guide, and equipment needed
sumable
guide
EGWuses
relatively
simple for supplying shielding gas, when used. In a typical
equipment; the principle differenceis that none of the electrogas welding system, the essential components
equipment moves vertically during consumable guide (with the exception of the power supply) are incorpo-
welding. Instead, the electrode is fed through a con- rated in an assembly that moves vertically as welding
sumable guide tube which extends to about 25mm progresses.
ELECTRODE
CONSUMABLE
GUIDE TUBE
WORKPIECE
WORKPIECE
+JOINT (ROOT)
JOINT OPENING
LENGTH MOLTEN WELD METAL
SOLIDIFIED WELD METAL
Figure E-7-Schematic View of Consumable Guide Electroslag Welding

Licensed by Information Handling Services ~ ~~ ~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 3997 m 0784265 053b328 9bL W
154 ELECTROLYTE
PowerSupply. Directcurrentelectrodepositive able shoe a specific distance above the molten weld
(reverse polarity) is normally used for EGW, with the pool.
power supply either constant voltage or constant cur- Safety
rent. The power source should be capable of delivering
the requiredcurrentwithoutinterruptionduringthe Specific instructions for safe operation of electrogas
welding of a seam that maybe of considerable length. welding equipmentare available in the manufacturers
Powersourcesused for electrogasweldingusually literature. General safety instructions for all welding
have ratings of 750 to 1000 amperes at 30 to 55 volts and cutting can be found in ANSUASC 249.1, Safety
and100%duty cycle. Direct current is usually sup- in Welding und Cutting, published by the American
plied by transformer-rectifier power sources, although Welding Society. Mandatory Federalsafetyregula-
motor-drivenandengine-drivengeneratorsmaybe tions are established by the U.S. Labor Departments
used. Occupational Safety and Health Administration, and
are available in the latest edition of OSHA Standards,
Wire feed for the electrodeis of the push type, such Code of Federal Regulations, Title29 Part191 O, from
as used with automatic GMAW or FCAW. The wire theSuperintendent of Documents, U.S. Printing
feeder is normally mounted as an integral part of the Office, Washington DC 20402.
vertical-movingweldingmachine.Wirefeedspeeds
Personnel should be protected against exposure to
may vary up to 230mm/s (550 in./min). The wirefeed noise generated in welding and cutting operations. See
system may include a wire straightener to eliminate Paragraph 1910.95,OccupationalNoiseExposure,
the cast and helix in the electrode to minimize elec- Code of Federal Regulations.
trode wanderat the joint.
The total radiant energy produced by the EGW pro-
Electrode Guide. Electrode guides are similar to the cess can be higher than that produced by the SMAW
welding guns used for semiautomatic GMAW or for process because EGW has a more exposed arc, espe-
FCAW. The guide may have a shielding gas outlet to cially when using an argon shielding gas andwhen
deliver gas around the protruding electrode. welding on aluminum. Suggested filter glass shades
for EGW are shown in Appendix18.
ElectrodeGuideOscillator. The horizontalmotion
needed when welding base metals 30 mm to 100 mm For general information on metallurgical consider-
(1- 1/4 in. to4 in.) thick to move the arc back and forth ations, mechanical properties, process variables, joint
between the shoes and over the weld pool is accom- design, fit-up and assembly, training of operators, and
plished by a system that oscillates the electrode guide troubleshooting guide,referto:AmericanWelding
and provides adjustable dwell times at either end of Society, Welding Handbook, 8thEdition, Vol. 1;
Miami,Florida1987;and WeldingHandbook, 8th
the oscillation.
Edition Vol. 2; Miami,Florida:AmericanWelding
Retaining Shoes. Retaining shoes (also called Society 1991.
darns), are pressedagainsteachside of the gap
between the base metals to be welded to retain (dam) ELECTROLYTE
themoltenweldmetalinthegroove.Nonfusing A nonmetallic conductorof electricity in which cur-
ceramicbackups are sometimesused.Slidingshoes rent is carried by the movement of ions.
may or may not contain gas ports to supply shielding In the cells of an electrolytic oxygen and hydrogen
gas directly into the cavity formed by the shoes and generator, a chemical, (caustic soda or potash) serves
the weld groove. When gas ports are not used in the as the conductor.
shoes, a gas box arrangement may be mounted on
the shoes to surround the electrode and welding arc ELECTROLYTIC OXYGEN AND HYDROGEN
with shielding gas; these are not required when using See OXYGEN PRODUCTION.
self-shielding flux cored electrodes.
Controls. With the exception of the vertical travel ELECTROMAGNET
control, EGW controls are primarily adaptations of the A soft ironcore wound witha coil through which an
devices used with GMAW and FCAW. Vertical travel electriccurrent is passed. The core is magnetized
controls, either electrical, optical, or manual, maintain while the current flows, butis demagnetized whenthe
a given electrode extension, with the top of the mov- current stops.

~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L977 m 0784265 05Lb329 AT8 m
Encyclopedia
TRON Welding 155
ELECTROMAGNETIC WELDING deep penetration, for a relatively narrow width. The

See RESISTANCE WELDING, Stored Energy. vaporcavity is surroundedbyaliquidshellwhich
closes behind the beam (in the direction opposite beam
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF) travel) to produce a liquid pool by capillary action. The
The electrical pressure or voltage which forces an weld and joint are formed on solidification. A vacuum
electric current through a circuit.The unit of measure is required to prevent scattering and dispersion of the
of electromotive force is the volt. beam. This vacuum provides shielding to the molten
weld pool and surrounding base metal.
ELECTRON BEAM BRAZE WELDING (EBBW)
A braze weldingprocess variation that uses anelec- Principles of Operation
tron beam as the heat source. See STANDARD WELD- The heart of the electron beam welding process is
ING TERMS. the electron beam gudcolumn assembly, a simplified
representation of which is shown in Figure E-8. Basi-
ELECTRON BEAMCUlTlNG (EBC) cally, an electron beam welding gun functions in much
A thermalcutting process that severs metalsby the same manner as a TV picture tube. The primary
melting them with the heatfrom a concentrated beam, difference is that a TV picture tube uses a low-inten-
composed primarily of high-velocity electrons, sity electron beam to continuously scan the surface of
impinging on the workpiece. See STANDARD WELDING a luminescent screen, and thereby produces a picture.
TERMS. An electron beam welding gun uses a high-intensity
electron beam to continuously bombard a weld joint,
ELECTRON BEAMCUlTlNG OPERATOR which converts that energy to the level of heat input
See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See THERMAL need to make a fusion weld. In both of these cases, the
CUTTING OPERATOR. beam of electrons is created in a similar manner.
The electron beam welding gun typically contains
ELECTRON BEAM GUN
sometype of thermionicelectronemitter(normally
A device for producing and accelerating electrons. referred toas the gun cathodeor filament), andan
Typicalcomponentsincludethe emitter (also called anode. Various supplementary devices, such as focus
thefilament or cathode) that is heatedto produce elec- and deflection coils, are also provided to focus and
trons via thermionic emission, a cup (also called the deflect this beam. In EBW, the total beam generating
grid or grid cup), andtheanode.See STANDARD system (gun and electron optics)is called the electron
WELDING TERMS. beam gudcolumn assembly, or simplytheelectron
ELECTRON BEAM GUN COLUMN
beam gun column.
The electron beam gun plus auxiliary mechanical There are three basic modes of electron beam weld-
and electrical componentsthatmayincludebeam ing:
high
vacuum(EBW-HV), medium vacuum
alignment,focus, and deflection coils. See STANDARD (EBW-MV), and nonvacuum (EBW-NV).The princi-
WELDING TERMS. paldifferencebetweentheseprocessmodes is the
ambient pressure at which welding is done.
ELECTRON BEAM WELDING (EBW) Highvacuumandmediumvacuumwelding are
A welding process that produces coalescencewith a done inside a vacuum chamber. This imposes an evac-
concentratedbeam,composed primarily ofhigh- uation time penalty to create the high purity envi-
velocity electrons, impinging on the joint. The process ronment. The medium vacuum weldingmachine
is used without shielding gas and without the applica- retains most of the advantages of high vacuum weld-
tion of pressure. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See ing, with shorter chamber evacuation times, resulting
also HIGH VACUUM ELECTRONBEAMWELDING, in higher production rates.
MEDIUM VACUUM ELECTRON BEAM WELDING, and Nonvacuum EB weldingis used to weld workpieces
NONVACUUM ELECTRON BEAM WELDING. at atmospheric pressure, but a vacuumis still required
When the high-velocity electrons impinge on joint,
a to produce the electron beam. Although nonvacuum
their kinetic energy is converted into heat. The density EB welding incurs no pumpdown time penalty, it is
of energy (or heat) is so great that vaporization of the not suitable for all applications because the welds it
metal(orceramic)usuallyoccurs,creatingacavity produces are generally wider and shallower than equal
calledakeyhole.Thiskeyholeallowsexceptionally power EB welds produced in a vacuum.
WELDING BEAM
156 ELECTRON
High precision requires a high-purity environment

EMllTER (high vacuum) to avoid contamination by oxygen or
(CATHODE) 1 nitrogen, or both, and with minimum heat effects and
maximum reproducibility. These typesof applications
are mainly in the nuclear, aircraft, aerospace, and elec-
tronic industries. Typical products include nuclear fuel
ACCELERATING
-
e
elements, special alloy jet engine components, pres-
sure vessels for rocket propulsion systems, and her-
ANODE- VOLTAGE
metically sealed vacuum devices.
High production applications take advantageof the
-L low heat input and the high reproducibility and reli-
MAGNETIC
F~CUSING
k ELECTRON BEAM ability of electron beam weldingif a high-purity envi-
ronmentisnotrequired.Theserelaxedconditions
permit welding of components in the semifinished or
finished condition, using both medium and nonvac-
MAGNETIC uum equipment. Typical examples are gears, frames,
DEFLECTION steeringcolumns,andtransmissionanddrive-train
parts for automobiles; thin-wall tubing; bandsaw and
hacksaw blades, and other bimetal strip products.
I The major applicationof nonvacuum electron beam
I
I
welding is in high-volume productionof parts, the size
DEFLECTION I , or composition of which preclude effective weldingin
CAPABILITY a vacuum. The automotive industry employs nonvac-
uum EB welding for many applications. An example is
a torque converter assembly. Manufacturers of welded
tubing also use nonvacuumEB welding. Integrated EB
weldingmachinekubemillunitshavebeenbuilt to
weld copper or steel tubing continuously at speeds up
to 500 m m / s (100 ft/min).
Advantages
Figure E-8-Simplified Representation of a Triode Electronbeamweldinghasuniqueperformance
Electron Beam Gun Column capabilities.
The
high-quality
environment,high
power densities, and outstanding control solve a wide
range of joining problems. The following are advan-
Applications tages of electron beam welding:
In general, metals and alloys that can be fusion (1) EBW is extremely efficient because it directly
welded by other welding processes can also be joined converts electrical energy into beam output energy.
by electron beamwelding. The weldability of a (2) Electron beam weldments exhibit a high depth-
particular alloy or combination of alloys will depend to-widthratio.This feature allowsforsingle-pass
on the metallurgical characteristics of that alloy or welding of thickjoints.
combination, in addition to the part configurations, (3) The heat input per unit lengthfor a given depth
joint design, process variation, and selection of of penetration can be much lower than with arc weld-
welding procedure. Considering these variables, the ing; the resulting narrow weld zone has low distortion,
electron beamprocess can beused to weld steels, and fewer deleterious thermal effects.
stainless steels, aluminum alloys, titanium and (4)A high-purity environment (vacuum) for weld-
zirconium, the refractory metals, and dissimilar ing minimizes contamination of the metal by oxygen
metals. and nitrogen.
Electron beam welding is primarily used for two (5) The ability to project the beam over a distance
distinctly different types of applications: high preci- of several feet in vacuum often allows welds to be
sion and high production. made in otherwise inaccessible locations.

~ ~~
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 W 07842b5 051b33L 45b W

CTRON
Encyclopedia
Welding /EBWI 157
(6) Rapid travel speeds are possible because of the tom of the electron beam gun columnto the work will
high melting rates associated with this concentrated limit the product design in areas directly adjacent to
heat source. This reduces welding time and increases the weldjoint.
productivity and energy efficiency. (8) With all modes ofEBW, radiationshielding
(7) Reasonably square buttjoints in both thick and must be maintained to ensure that thereis no exposure
relatively thin plates can be welded in one pass with- of personnelto the x-radiationgenerated byEB
out the additionof filler metal. welding.
(8) Hermetic closures can be welded with the high (9) Adequate ventilation is required with nonvac-
or medium vacuum modes of operation while retain- uumEBW, toensureproperremoval of ozoneand
ing a vacuum inside the component, other noxious gases formed during this mode of EB
(9) The beam of electronscanbemagnetically welding.
deflected to produce various shaped welds, to improve Equipment
weld quality,or increase penetration. Highvacuum,mediumvacuum,andnonvacuum
(10) The focused beam of electrons has a relatively EBW equipment employs an electron beam gurdcol-
long depth of focus, which will accommodate a broad umn assembly, oneor more vacuum pumping systems,
range of work distances. and a power supply. High and medium vacuum equip-
(11) Full penetration, single-pass weldscan be pro- ment operates with the work in an evacuated welding
duced with nearly parallel sides, and exhibiting nearly chamber. Although nonvacuum workdoes not need to
symmetrical shrinkage. be placed in a chamber, a vacuum environment is nec-
(12) Dissimilar metals and metals with high thermalessary for the electron beam gun column. All three
conductivity, suchas copper, can be welded. basic modes can be performed using so-called high-
Limltations voltage equipment, i.e., equipment using gun columns
Some of the limitations of electron beam welding with beam accelerating voltages greater than 60 kv.
are: Nonvacuum electron beam welding performed directly
(1) Capital costs are substantially higher than those in air requires beam accelerating voltages greater than
of arc welding equipment. However, depending on the 150 kv. High vacuum and medium vacuum welding
volume of parts to be produced, the final per-piece can also be performed withso-calledlow-voltage
cost attainable with EBW can be highly competitive. equipment (i.e.,equipment with guncolumnsthat
(2) Preparation for welds with high depth-to-width employ beam accelerating voltages of 60 kVand
ratio requires precision machining of the joint edges, lower). Because high-voltage gun columns are gener-
exacting joint alignment, and good fit-up. In addition, ally fairly large, they
are usually mounted on the exte-
the joint gap must be minimized to take advantage of rior of the welding chamber, and are either fixed in
the small size of the electron beam. However, these position or provided with a limited amountof tilting or
precise part preparation requirements are not manda- translational motion, or both. Low-voltage gun col-
tory if high depth-to-widthratio welds are not needed. umns are usually small. Some units are fixed exter-
nally.Others are internallymountedmobileunits
(3) The rapid solidification rates achieved cause
can
capable of being moved about, with up tofive axes of
crackinginhighlyconstrained,low femte stainless
combined translational motion.
steel.
(4)For high and medium vacuum welding, work Electron Beam Guns. An electron beam gun gener-
chamber size must be large enough to accommodate ates, accelerates,andcollimatestheelectronsintoa
the assembly operation. The time needed to evacuate directed beam. The gun components can logically be
the chamber will influence production costs. divided into two categories: (1) elements that generate
(5) Partialpenetrationweldswithhighdepth-to- free electrons (the emitter portion), and (2) a rod- or
width ratios are susceptible to root voids and porosity. disc-type filament indirectlyheated by an auxiliary
(6) Because the electron beam is deflected by mag- source,such as electronbombardment or induction
netic fields, nonmagnetic or properly degaussed met- heating. The specific emitter design chosen will affect
als should be used for tooling and fixturing close the
to the characteristics of the final beam spot produced on
beam path. the work.
(7) With the nonvacuummode of electronbeam PowerSupplies. The electrongunpowersource
welding, the restriction on work distance from the bot- used for anelectronbeamweldingmachineisan
STDeAWS JWE-ENGL 3997 0784265 O536332 392 m
Encyclopedia
Welding
Welding
158 Resistance
CONTROLS,
ELECTRONIC
assembly of at least one main power supply and one actions, (2) to start and stop the current
or to the welding
moreauxiliarypowersupplies. It produceshigh- transformer, and (3) to control the magnitude of the
voltage power for the gun and auxiliary powerfor the current. There are three general groups of controls:
emitter and beam control. timing and sequencing controls, welding contactors,
VacuumPumpingSystems. Vacuumpumpingsys- and auxiliary controls.
tems are required to evacuate the electron beam gun Electronic control of resistance welding machines
chamber, the work chamberfor high and medium vac- has enabled manufacturers to use this process in preci-
uummodes,andtheorificeassemblyusedonthe sion production, and made possible its extension to
beam exit portion of the gudcolumn assemblies for welding a wide variety of metals and alloys, such as
medium vacuum and nonvacuum welding. Two basic stainless steel, brass, bronze and aluminum.
types of vacuum pumps are used: one is a mechanical For information onelectronic controls for resistance
piston or vane-type, and the other is an oil-diffusion- welding, and such auxiliary electronic equipment as
type pump usedto reduce the pressure. heat controls, upslope and downslope current controls,
WorkChambers. Work chambers of low-voltage quench and temper controls, forge delay controls, elec-
systems are usually made of carbon steel plate. The tronic current and voltage regulators,electrical power
thickness of the plate is designed to provide adequate loaddistribution,andmonitoringandadaptivecon-
x-ray protection and the structural strength necessary trols, see Resistance Welding Controls, American
towithstandatmosphericpressure.Leadshielding Welding Society, Welding Handbook, Vol. 2, 8th Edi-
may be required in certain areas to ensure total radiation.Miami,Florida:AmericanWeldingSociety,
tion tightnessof the system. 1991.
Safety
ELECTRONIC HEAT CONTROL
Sinceelectronbeamweldingmachinesemploya
high-energy beam of electrons, the process requires
A device used in resistance welding for adjusting
theheatingvalue(rmsvalue) of current,andcon-
users to observe several safety precautions not nor-
trolling the firing or ignition of the electronic circuit.
mallynecessarywith other types of fusion welding
equipment. Thefour primary potentialdangers associ- The control uses vacuum tubes (in older systems) or
ated with electron beam equipmentare electric shock, solid-state devices (e.g., SCRs). The flow of current
x-radiation,fumesandgases,anddamagingvisible is initiated each half-cycle at an adjustable time (or
radiation. In addition to the potential dangers associ- firing angle) with respect to the zero point on the volt-
atedwithweldingspecificmaterials,suchasberyl- agewave. See ELECTRONICCONTROLS, Resistance
Welding.
lium, there may also be a potential danger associated
with collateral materials (solvents, greases and others) ELECTRONIC TUBE
used in operating the equipment. Precautionary mea-
A vacuumtubecontainingafilamentheatedby
sures shouldbe taken to assure thatall required safety
low-voltage current and emitting extremely small neg-
procedures are strictlyobserved.ANSI/AWSF2.1,
atively charged particlesof electricity (electrons). In a
Recommended SafePractices for Electron Beam Weld-
ingand Cutting, andANSI/ASC 249.1, Safetyin welding circuit, the electronic tube functions as a sin-
gle-polecontactor,makingandbreakingcircuits.
Welding and Cutting (latest editions) give the general
Small electronic tubes are used as relays and contac-
safety precautions that must be taken.
tors in timing and controlcircuits; large tubesare used
For information on fundamentals of electron beam
as power contactors.
welding, process variations, equipment, weld charac-
teristics,weldingprocedures,fixturing, filler metal Electronic tubes have largely been replaced by tran-
additions, selection of welding variables, weldability sistorsand other solid-state devices; however,some
of metals, weld quality, safety precautions, and bibli- vacuum tube equipmentis still in use.
ography,seeAmericanWeldingSociety, Welding ELECTROSLAG WELDING (ESW)
Handbook, Vol. 2,8th Edition. Miami, Florida: Ameri-
can Welding Society, 199 l. A welding process that produces coalescence of
metals with molten slag that melts the filler metal and
ELECTRONIC CONTROLS, Resistance Welding the surfaces of the workpieces. The weld pool is
The principal functions of resistance welding con- shielded by this slag, which moves alongthefull cross
trols are (1) toprovidesignalstocontrolmachine section of the joint aswelding progresses. The process

~~
STDaAWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 05Lb333 229 m

yclopedia
G Welding 159
is initiated by an arc that heats the slag. The arc is ( 5 ) Minimum joint preparation and fit-up require-
then extinguished by the conductiveslag, which is kept ments; mill edges and flame-cut square edges can usu-
moltenbyitsresistanceto electric current passing ally be used.
between the electrode and the workpieces. See STAN- (6) High duty cycle; the process is automatic and
DARD WELDING TERMS. See also ELECTROSLAG oncestarted,continues to completion;there is little
WELDING ELECTRODE and CONSUMABLE GUIDE ELEC- operator fatigue.
TROSLAG WELDING. (7) Minimum materials handling; the work needs to
The electroslag welding process is most often used be positioned only to place the axis of the weld in ver-
to join metals in the vertical or near vertical position, tical or near vertical position; there is no manipulation
usually in a single pass. However, it has been shown of the parts once welding has started.
that ESW can be used at angles of 45" or greater from (8) Elimination ofweld spatter,whichresults in
vertical. Some of the advantages associated with ESW 100% filler metal deposition efficiency.
have resulted in considerable cost savings, particularly (9) Low flux consumption; approximately 1 pound
in joining thicker materials.
Savingshave
been of flux is used for each20 pounds of weld metal.
achieved where componentsare joined to make larger (10) Minimum distortion; there is no angular distor-
units insteadof initially producing massive castings or tion in the horizontal plane. Distortionis minimum in
forgings. ESW is often less expensive than more con- the vertical plane, but this is easily compensated for.
ventional joining methodssuchassubmergedarc (11)Minimumweldingtime;ESWis the fastest
welding in thicker section weldments. Even in some welding processfor thick metal.
applicationsinvolvingthinnerbasematerials,ESW Limitations
has resulted in cost savings because of its efficiency (1) The ESW process welds only carbon and low
and simple joint preparation. The ESW process offers alloy steels, and some stainless steels.
many opportunities for reducing welding costson spe- (2) Joiningmustbepositionedin the verticalor
cific types of joints. near vertical position.
Applications (3) Once welding has started, it must be carried to
Manytypesofcarbonsteels can beelectroslag completion or adefectivere-startarea is likelyto
welded in production, such as AISI 1020, AISI 1045, result.
ASTM A36, ASTM A441, and ASTM A5 15. They (4) ESW cannot be used on materials thinner than
cangenerallybeweldedwithoutpost-weldheat about 19 mm (3/4 in).
treatment. (5) Complex materialshapes maybedifficult or
In additionto carbon steels, other steels are success- impossible to weld using
ESW.
fullyelectroslagwelded.TheyincludeAISI4130, Prlnclples of Operation
AISI 8620, ASTM A302, HY80, austenitic stainless To set up for an electroslag weld, a square groove
steels, ASTMA514,ingotiron,andASTMA387. joint is positioned so that the axisor length of the weld
Most of these steels require special electrodes and a is vertical or nearly vertical. The process is initiated by
grainrefiningpost-weldheattreatmenttodevelop starting an electric arc between the electrode and the
required weld or weld heat-affected zone properties. joint bottom. Granulated welding flux is then added
Advantages and melted by the heat of the arc. As soon as a suffi-
ciently thick layer of molten slag (flux) is formed, all
(1) Extremely high metal deposition rates; ESW has arc action stops, and the welding current passes from
a deposition rateof 16 to 20 kg (35to 45 lbs) per hour the electrode throughthe slag by electrical conduction.
per electrode. Welding is started in a sump or on a starting tab to
(2) Capability to weld very thick materials in one allow the process to stabilize before the welding action
pass; there is one equipment setup and no interpass reaches the work. Figure E-9 is a schematic represen-
cleaning, since thereis only one pass. tation of an electroslag welding operation.
(3) Reheating is normallynotrequired,evenon Heat generated by the resistance of the molten slag
materials of high hardenability. to passage of the welding current is sufficient to fuse
(4) High-quality welddeposit; the weld metal stays the welding electrode andthe edges of the workpiece.
moltenforanappreciable time, allowinggasesto The interior temperature of the bath is in the vicinity
escape and slagto float to the top of the weld. of 1925C (3500F). The surfacetemperature is

~~ ~~ ~~
SW) WELDING
160 ELECTROSLAG
CURVED ELECTRODE
MOLTEN SLAG TUBE GUIDE
BATH
MOLTEN WELD
SOLIDIFIED WELD METAL
WATER-COOLED SHOE
WORKPIECE
Figure E-+Schematic Representation of Electroslag Welding (Three-Wire)
approximately 1650C (3000F). The melted electrode cess should have a minimum open circuit voltage of
and base metals collect in a pool beneath the molten 60 V and be capableof delivering 600 A continuously
slag bath and slowly solidify to form the weld. There (100% dutycycle).Thepowersuppliesshould be
is progressive solidification from the bottom upward, equipped with remote controls.The number of power
and thereis always molten metal abovethe solidifying supplies required depends on the number of welding
weld metal. electrodes being used tofill the joint. One power sup-
Run-off tabs are required to allow the molten slag ply is required for each weldingelectrode.Special
and some weld metal to extend beyond the top of the constant-voltage d-c power supplies designedfor elec-
joint. Both startingandrun-offtabs are usually troslag and electrogas welding are available. Typical
removed flush with the ends of the joint. power supplies are transformer-rectifiers having 74 V
open circuit and a current rating of 750 A at 50 V out-
Equipment
put, 100% dutycycle. The primaryinput is 60 Hz,
The equipment used for electroslag (and electrogas)three phase,230/460 V.
welding is very similar to that requiredfor submerged
Safety
arc welding (SAW) or flux cored
arc
welding
(FCAW). The same powersourcescanbeused for As in any type of welding, reasonablecare must be
either process, with one exception: both a-c and d-c exercised in theSet-up,welding,andpost-welding
power supplies are used with the electroslag process, procedures for ESW. Various potential hazards exist,
while in the electrogas process, a-c power supplies are some minor and others serious, but all can be elimi-
not used. Standard power sources used for either pro- nated. Failure to use safety protection equipment or

Welding ETCHING 161
follow safe practices can result in physical danger to EMERY WHEEL

personnel,aswell as damagestoproductionparts, See GRINDING MATERIALS.
equipment, andfacilities.
For detailed safety information, refer to the manu- EMISSIVE ELECTRODE
facturers instructions andthe latest editions of the fol- A filler metal electrode consisting of a core of a
lowing publications: ANSI 249.1, Safety in Welding bare electrode or acomposite electrode to whicha
and Cutting, and ANSI 287.1 Practice for Occupa- very light coating has beenapplied to produce a stable
tional and Educational Eye and FaceProtection. Ref- arc. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
erence:
American
Welding
Society, Welding ENDOTHERMIC
Handbook, Vol. 1,8th Edition. Miami, Florida: Ameri-
Characterized or formed by the absorption of heat
can Welding Society, 1987.
during chemical reactions or transformations. Acety-
FormandatoryFederalSafetyRegulationsestab-
lene gas, for example, is an endothermic substance;
lished by the U.S. Labor Departments Occupational
heat is absorbed during the production of acetylene
Safety and Health Administration, refer to the latest
and later liberated during combustion.
edition of OSHA Standards, Code of Federal Regula-
tions, Title 29, Part 1910, available from the Superin- END-QUENCH TEST
tendent of Documents, U.S. Printing Office, See JOMINY TEST.
Washington, DC 20402.
Otherconsiderationsinvolveequipment,safety, END RETURN
consumables, applications, quality control, qualifica- A nonstandard termfor BOXING.
tions, training, troubleshooting, and definitions associ-
ated with the process. Reference: American Welding ENTRYLEVELWELDER
Society, Welding Handbook, Vol. 2,8thEdition. AWS document EG2.0, Guide for the Training and
Miami, Florida: American Welding Society, 199 l. Qualification of Welding Personnel:Entry
Level
Welder, provides a complete curriculum for training
ELECTROSLAG WELDING ELECTRODE welders to Entry Level (Level I) requirements. Contact
A filler metalcomponent of the welding circuit American Welding Society,(800) 443-9353.
through which currentis conducted from the electrode
guidingmember to the molten slag. See STANDARD EQUIAXED
WELDING TERMS. This term is applied to the grainsof a metalor alloy
after solidification and to grains of metals or alloys
ELECTROSTATIC which have been strained and allowed by a process of
Pertainingtoelectricity,aphenomenonproduced annealing to assume a condition approaching crystal-
by attractions or repulsionsof electric charges, but not line equilibrium.
dependent on the motion of the charges.
EQUIAXED GRAIN
ELECTROSTATIC WELDING An unstrained grain which has approximately equal
See RESISTANCE WELDING, Stored Energy. dimensions in all directions. This term is practically
restricted to unstrained metals.
ELEMENTS
See CHEMICAL ELEMENTS. EROSION, Brazing
A condition caused by dissolution of the base metal
ELONGATED POROSITY by molten filler metal resulting in a reduction in the
A form of porosity having a length greater than its thickness of the base metal. See STANDARD WELDING
width that lies approximately parallel to the weld axis. TERMS.
ETCHING
ELONGATION Aprocess of preparingmetallicspecimensand
The amount of permanent extension in the vicinity welds for macroscopic or microscopic examination.
of a fracture in the tension test; usually expressed in In examining for exceedingly small discontinuities
percentage of original gauge length, such as 20% in or for metallurgical structure at high magnifications,
50 mm (2 in.). specimens are polished,etchedandexamined by

STD-AUS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb33b T38 W
NT 162 ETCHING
microscope to reveal the microstructure of the base EUTECTIC ALLOY

metal,heat-affectedzone,fusionzone,andweld The composition in an alloy system at which two
metal. Procedures for selection,cutting, mounting and descending liquidus curvesin a binary system,or three
polishing
metallographicspecimens aregiven in descending liquidus surfaces in a ternary system, inter-
ASTM E3 Standard Methods of Preparation of Metal- sect at a point. Such an alloy has a lower melting point
lographicSpecimens. Recommendedchemicalsolu- than neighboring compositions. More thanone eutec-
tions for etching various metals and alloys and safety tic composition may occur in a given alloy system.
precautions in handling etching chemicals are given in
ASTM E407, StandardMethod for MicroEtching EUTECTOID
Metals and Alloys. The metal or alloy with the lowest melting point
possible inits classification.
Preparing Specimen for Examination
A weld can be etched by filing a top-to-bottom sec- EUTECTOID STEEL
tion of the weld with a coarse file, followed by finer A steel of the eutectoid composition. This composi-
files. File marksshouldcrisscross the previous file tion in pure iron-carbon alloys is 0.90% carbon, but
marks.After filing, the surfaceshouldbepolished variations from this are found in commercial steels,
with emery paper, starting with No. 1 and ending with and particularly in alloy steels in which the euctectoid
No. O00 to achieve a high polish. The polished surface composition is usually lower. See METALLURGY.
must be kept free of fingerprints, grease or dirt. After
polishing, an acid solution (nitric acid and water for EXCITER
iron, steel, copper, brass and bronze; hydrochloric acid A small battery or generator furnishing current to
and water for aluminum) is applied with a brush to the the field windingof a large generator.
clean surface. Etching reagents for various metalsare
shown in TableE-4. EXHAUST BOOTH
A mechanically ventilated, semi-enclosedarea in
whichan air flow across the work area isused to
Table E-4 remove jmes, gases, and solid particles. See STAN-
Etching Reagents for Metallographic Examination DARD WELDING TERMS.
Type ofReagent
Specimen EXOTHERMIC
Iron
and steel 1 part
nitric
acid
to 2 parts
water Relates to the liberation ofheatduringchemical
Copper, brass, and bronze 1 part nitric acid to3 parts water reactions or transformations. An example is the ther-
Aluminum 1 hydrochloric
part acid to 9 mite welding process, where the chemical combina-
parts water tion of iron oxide and aluminum gives off heat and
melts the steel weld metal.
This solution immediately attacks the oxide, expos-
EXOTHERMIC BRAZE WELDING (EXBW)
ing any adhesion, blowholes, lack of metal, or other
irregularities. The maximum time for the solution to A braze welding process variation that uses an exo-
act is fifteenminutes. The etchedsurface is then thermic chemical reaction between a metal oxide and
a metal or inorganic nonmetalas the heat souyce,with
washed with water and dried with alcohol.
a reaction product as the filler metal. See STANDARD
The test should be preserved by wrapping it in a WELDING TERMS.
layer of transparent polyurethane, or a similar protec-
tive covering, for subsequent microscopic inspection. EXOTHERMIC BRAZING (EXB)
A brazing process usinganexothermicchemical
ETCHING REAGENT reaction between a metal oxide and a metal or inor-
A substance, usually acid or alkali, used to reveal ganic nonmetal as the heat source, with filler metal
the structureof a metalor alloy by causinga difference preplaced inthe joint. See STANDARD WELDING
in the appearance of constituent parts or grains. The TERMS.
substance is usually a solution of reagent in water, but In this process, a commercial filler metal is heated
etching may, in some cases, be brought about by a dif- by a solid-state exothermic chemical reaction, which
ferential oxidation produced by heat tinting. releases heat as thefree energy of the reactants.

~~ ~~~
Welding GAUGE EXPANSION 163
Exothermicbrazingusessimplifiedtoolingand lower the amount of heat applied to a welded seam, the

equipment. The reaction heat brings adjoining metal smaller the expansion and contraction effect will be.
interfaces to a temperature at which preplaced brazing A bar of iron expands as it is heated and contracts
filler metalmeltsandwets the basemetalinterface when cooling; both actionsare attended by great force.
surfaces. Several commercially available brazing filler Expansion in length, width, and thicknessis governed
metals have suitable flow temperatures. The process is by a rise in temperature; contractionis regulated by a
limited onlyby the thickness of the base metal and the fall in temperature. Expansion ratesof various metals
effect of brazing heat, or any previous heat treatment, differ. A copper bar one foot long expands O. 1 in. per
on the metal properties. 1000F. A gray iron bar of the same size would expand
Reference:American Welding Society. Welding a little over 0.1 in. when heated to 1500"F, an expan-
Handbook, Vol. 2,8th Edition. Miami, Florida: Ameri- sion rateof 0.067 in. per ft per 1000Frise in tempera-
can Welding Society, 1991. ture. The expansion of aluminum is O. 148 in. perft for
each 1000F.
EXPANDED TEMPLATE Expansion in Welding
A durable pattern designedto be expanded or con- One of the greatest challenges in welding is adapt-
tracted so that similar objects of different sizes can be ing welding conditions to control the expansion and
outlined. contraction brought about by differences in tempera-
ture of different partsof the workpiece. When welding
EXPANSION, Thermal
ductile metals like iron and steel, allowances must be
The increase in the dimensions of metals caused by made for expansion and contraction, because warping,
heat. See COEFFICIENT OF LINEAR EXPANSION. distortion or bucklingwillinevitablytakeplace.In
When metalsare heated they expandin every direc- non-ductilematerials,such as castiron,aluminum
tion. The expansion in length is linear expansion; the alloys and copper, the strains produced by heat may
increase in volumeis cubical expansion. Conversely, a cause themetaltocrack or fracture,because the
decrease in temperature causes the metal to contract, strength of thesematerials is lowerwhennearthe
decreasing the cubical andlinear dimensions. melting point. Although in many cases distortion or
Each metal is susceptible to this change in volume, fracture have not taken place, the expansion and con-
and each metal expands a specific amount in relation traction effects have produced serious internalstrains,
to a specific rise in temperature. In many cases, the which require only a slight additional strain to produce
only practical concern is the increase in length. The failure by exceeding the strengthof the metal. Itis for
amount of linear expansion canbe calculated by mea- thisreasonthat failure can occur inarticleswhich
suring the unit length of a specimen rod of the metal appear to have been successfully welded.
when it is raised through one degree of temperature. The metalworker cannot restrain by force the
This amount is the coejjcent of linear expansion. expansion of metals causedby raising the material to a
The increase in length producedby a rise in tempera- high temperature, and the contraction to approximate
ture is equal to the original length, multiplied by the original dimensions caused when the heat diminishes
coefficient of expansion, multiplied by the rise in tem- and disappears. The forces of expansion and contrac-
perature in "F. The cubical expansion is calculated at tion are irresistible, and
if attempts are made tocontrol
three timesthe linear expansion. them by force, using clamps,jigs, or other means, dis-
Assuming that the arc is producing a given amount tortion, serious internalstrains, or failures will result.
of heat, the amount of expansion at a given point in the
structure being welded will depend on the length of EXPANSION GAUGE
time the arc is operating at that point.The contraction A device for indicating the degree of distortion of
will be equal in amount to the expansion, assuming metal due to expansion caused by heat. If two or more
that no internal strain is left. Therefore, it is evident gauges are placed at different points onthe metal that
that total expansion or contraction tending to deform is being heated, the various readings on the gauges
the workpieces will beless if 105 kJ/h (100 BTU/h) is will show clearly where expansion or distortion is the
applied than if heat is applied at the rate of 1050 kJ/h greatest. A change in the heating arrangement can then
( l o o 0 BTUh). The totalexpansion or contraction be made to prevent unequal distortion and to preserve
depends onthe amount of heat applied; in general, the alignment.
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07843b5 0516338 800 m
CUTTING
164 EXPLOSION
EXPLOSION CUTTlNG (EXC) EXPLOSION WELDING (EXW)

Avariant of explosionformingorwelding, in A solid-state welding process that produces a weld
which a flexible sheet (shaped) explosive allows cutby high velocity impact of the workpieces as the result
ting of metal bythe force of the explosion. of controlled detonation. See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS.
EXPLOSION FORMING
Explosion welding is a solid-state welding process
The use of explosivesfor forming metals. In explo- that produces a weld by high-velocity impact of the
sive forming, rapid movement of the metal through its workpieces as the result of controlled detonation. The
elastic range andinto the plastic range produces a per- explosion accelerates the metal to a speed at which a
manent set, or shape, within microseconds. This high metallic bond will form between them when they col-
rate of stressapplication is theessentialdifference lide. The weld is produced in a fraction of a second
betweenexplosionmetal-formingandconventional without the addition of filler metal. This is essentially
methods. Initial stress loads using conventional meth- a room-temperature process in that gross heating of
ods are considerably lower. the workpieces does not occur. The faying surfaces,
Understanding of the changes that occur in metal however, are heated to some extent by the energy of
subjected to explosive forces is largelytheoretical. thecollision,andwelding is accomplishedthrough
However, it is known that it is the cohesive and repul- plastic flowof the metal on those surfaces.
sive forces acting between atoms in a metal crystal
which are disturbed and rearranged during explosion Welding takes place progressively as the explosion
forming. and the forces it creates advance from one end of the
joint to the other. Deformation of the weidment varies
This deformation, termed aslip, occurs along many
planes inthe crystal grainof the metal. Total deforma- with the type of joint. There may be no noticeable
deformation in some weldments, and thereis no mea-
tion of a specimenis the integration of many small dis-
surable loss of metal. Welding is usually done in air,
placements along many slip planes. When the grain
boundary is encountered, slip interference(braking) although it can be done in other atmospheres or in a
vacuum when circumstances dictate. Most explosion
takes place, causing atom adjustment (healing) dueto
welding is done on sections with relatively large sur-
cohesive forces between atoms.
face areas, although there are some applications for
Theoretically, under high stress-strain rates associ-
sections with small surface areas.
ated with explosion forming, atoms go through a series
of slip,brake,andhealeventsveryrapidly. Failure A typical arrangementof the components for explo-
will occur when the healing process or cohesive forces sion weldingis shown inFigure E- 10,
between atoms are unable to cope with the continued
process of slipping.
An evaluation of dataobtainedfromexplosion DETONATOR
formingprogramsindicatesthat the capacity of a r EXPLOSIVE
STANDOFF
DISTANCE1
metal to be formed by explosives is a direct function
of one mechanical property: percentage of elongation.
Four factors are critical in determining the success PRIME
of an explosion forming or welding operation: type, COMPONENT
amount, shape, and location of the charge. A charge
placedinwater, or in someothermedia(e.g.,talc, BASE
COMPONENT
clay, plastic, or oil) that will transmit the force of the
blast, can be 1/10of the size of a charge used in open
Figure E-1 &Typical Component Arrangement for
air to do the samejob.
Explosion Welding
The explosive is adjusted to provide aforce having
correct
distribution
and
quantity
for
specific
a
forming. Fundamentally,there are threecomponents:base
Patents were granted onthe explosion forming pro- metal,prime or claddingmetal,andexplosive. The
cess to British and German engineers as early as 1900; base component remains stationaryas the prime com-
this process is presently used in the aircraft and aero- ponent is welded to it.The prime componentis usually
space industry. positioned parallel to the base component; however,

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 W 07842b5 051b339 747
clouedia Welding (EXW) WELDING EXPLOSION 165
for special applications it may be at some small angle localized plastic flowin the immediate areaof the col-
with the base component. Inthe parallel arrangement, lision point. At the same time, a jet is formed at the
the two are separated by a specified spacing, referred collisionpoint, as showninFigure E-1 l . The jet
to as the standog distance. The explosionlocally sweeps away the original surface layer on each com-
bends and accelerates the prime component across the ponent, along with any contaminating filmthat might
standoff distance ata high velocityso that it collides at be present. This exposes clean underlying metal which
an angle with and welds to the base component. This is required to makea strong metallurgical bond. Resid-
angular collision and welding front progresses across ual pressures within the system are maintained long
the joint as the explosion takes place. enough after collision to avoid releaseof the intimate
The explosive, almost always in granular form, is contact of the metal components and to complete the
distributed uniformly overthe top surfaceof the prime weld.
component. The force which the explosion exerts on Capabilities and Limitations
the prime component depends on the detonation char-
One attributeof the explosion welding process is its
acteristics and the quantity of the explosive. A buffer ability to join a wide variety of similar and dissimilar
layer, such as a neoprene material, maybe required metals. The dissimilar metal combinations range from
betweenthe explosive andtheprimecomponentto those that are commonly joined by other welding pro-
protect the surfaceof that component from erosion by cesses, such as carbon steel to stainless steel, to those
the detonating explosive.The action that occurs during that are metallurgically incompatible for fusion weld-
explosion weldingis illustrated in FigureE- 1l.
ing or diffusion bonding processes, such as aluminum
or titanium tosteel.
The process can be used to join components of a
wide range of sizes. Surface areas ranging from less
than 6.5 cm2 (1 in.2) to over 37 m* (400 ft2) can be
DETONATION welded. Since the base component is stationary during
welding there is no upper limit on its thickness. The
thickness of the prime componentmay range from .25
to 31.8 mm (0.001 to 1.25 in.) or more depending on
the material.
Geometricconfigurationsthatcanbeexplosion
welded are those which allow a uniform progression
of the detonation front and, hence, the collisionfront.
Theseinclude flat plates as well as cylindricaland
conical structures. Welds mayalso be made in certain
complex configurations, but such work requires thor-
ough understanding and precise control of the process.
BASE Applications
COMPONENT As a generalrule,anymetal can beexplosion
welded if it possesses sufficient strength and ductility
Figure E-11-Action Between Components During towithstandthe deformation requiredat the high
Explosion Welding velocities associated withthe process. Metals that will
crack when exposed tothe collision of the two compo-
There are three important interrelated variables of nents cannot be explosion welded. Metals with elonga-
the explosion welding process: collision velocity, col- tions of at least 5% to 6% (in a 51 mm [2 in.] gauge
lisionangle,andprimecomponentvelocity.The length), and Charpy V-notch impact strengths of 13.65
intense pressure necessaryto make a weld is generated (10 ft-lb) or better can be welded with this process.
at the collision point when any two of these three vari- Thecommerciallysignificantmetalsandalloysthat
ables are within certain well defined limits. These lim- can bejoined by explosion weldingare given in Figure
its are determined by the properties of the particular E-12. Metallurgical and mechanical properties of the
metals to bejoined. Pressure forces the surfacesof the materials must be considered when selectingEXW as
twocomponentsintointimatecontactandcauses a welding process and specifying welding conditions.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 051b340 4b9 m
WELDING
166 EXPLOSION Welding Encyclopedia
CARBON STEELS
ALLOY STEELS
STAINLESS STEELS
ALUMINUM ALLOYS
COPPERALLOYS
NICKEL ALLOYS
TITANIUM
TANTALUM
COLUMBIUM
GOLD
PLATINUM
COBALT ALLOYS
MAGNESIUM
ZIRCONIUM
Figure E-12-Commercially Significant Metals and Alloys that can be Joined by Explosion Welding
Cladding. The cladding of plateconstitutesthe copper, and steelare the most commonly used materi-
major commercial applicationof explosion welding. It als, and joints betweenthem are often necessary to
is customary to supply explosion clad plate in the as- take advantage of the special properties of each. Tran-
welded condition because the hardening which occurs sition joints cut from thick explosion welded plates of
immediately adjacent tothe interface does not signifi- aluminum and copper,or aluminum and steel, provide
cantlyaffectthebulkengineeringproperties of the efficient conductors of electricity. This concept is rou-
plate.Despitethis,someservicerequirementsmay tinely used in the fabrication of anodes for the primary
demand postweld heat treatment. Clad plates are usu- aluminum industry.
ally distorted somewhat during explosion welding and Tubular transition joints in various configurations
must be straightened to meet standard flatness specifi- canbemachinedfromthickcladplate.Whilethe
cations. Pressure vessel heads and other components majority of explosion welded tubular transitionjoints
can be made from explosion clad plates by conven- are aluminum to steel, other metal combinations for
tional hot or cold forming techniques. this type of joint include titaniumto stainless steel, zir-
Explosion welding can be used to clad the inside coniumtostainlesssteel,zirconium to nickelbase
andoutsidesurfaces of cylinders.Transition joints alloys, and copper to aluminum.
between two incompatible metals can be made with Explosion welding can be used to make tube-to-
EXWtechniques.Inelectricalsystems,aluminum, tube sheet joints in heat exchanger fabrication. Most

~ ~~~~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb34L 3T5 m

Welding PROTECTION EYE 167
applications of these joints involve tube diameters in EXTENSION

the range of 13 to 38.1 mm (0.5 in. to 1.5 in.). Metal The distance a workpiece or electrode projects from
combinations include steel to steel, stainless steel to a welding die, clamp, chuck, or holdel: See STANDARD
stainlesssteel,copperalloytocopperalloy,nickel WELDING TERMS.
alloy to nickel alloyclad steel, and both aluminum and
titanium to steel. EXTENSOMETER
Electric utilities and petro-chemical companies use A device for measuring the elongationof materials
explosionweldingtoplugleakingtubesinheat under stress to accurately determine the yield point or
exchangers;howeveronly qualified, trainedtechni- the stress-strain curveof a welded test specimen.
cians should implement it.An explosive handling per-
mit is required. EXTRUSION
Explosion welding is also used to join lengths of A specific shape formedby forcing metal through a
large diameter gas and oil transmission pipelines. It is die; also used as a meansof coating electrodes. Extru-
also used for buildup and repair of worn components, sion is used extensively in the manufacture of various
particularlyrepair of insideand outside surfaces of lead, aluminum, magnesium, and brass shapes.
cylindrical components.
The metal to be extruded is heated to a plastic tem-
Safety perature, then placedin a closed chamber fitted with a
Explosivesand explosive devices are apart of die of the desired shape at one end and a piston at the
explosionwelding.Suchmaterialsanddevicesare other. It is then forced by hydraulic pressure through
inherently dangerous.Safe methods for handling them the die to produce the specific shape. Perfectly round
do exist. However, if the materials are misused, they or intricately shaped forms can be extruded.
can kill or injure anyone in the area and destroy or Lead can be satisfactorily extruded as pipe orcable
damage property. sheathsat 204C (400F);brassmustbeheatedto
Explosive materials shouldbe handled and usedby about 816C (1500F).Ingeneral, the lowerthe
competent people who are experienced in that field. melting point of the metal, the easier it will extrude
Handling and safety procedures must comply withall at a given temperature. It should be noted that extru-
applicable federal,state, and local regulations. Federal sion is a process of solid flow and not of a plastic
jurisdiction over the sale, transport, storage, and useof mass,
such as molten solder. See ELECTRODE
explosives is through the U.S.Bureau of Alcohol, MANUFACTURE.
Tobacco, and
Firearms; the Hazardous Materials
Regulation Boardof the U.S. Department of Transpor- EYE PROTECTION
tation, the OccupationalSafetyandHealthAgency; Ultravioletandinfraredrays,aswellascertain
and the EnvironmentalProtectionAgency.Many welding fumes, can have a harmful effecton the eyes
states and local governments require a blasting license andskinunless the weldingoperator is adequately
or permit,andsome cities havespecialexplosive protected from them. From an early age people learn
requirements. that looking directlyat the suns raysis harmful to the
Reference:AmericanWeldingSociety, Welding eyes. The radiation from welding heat sourcesis inju-
Handbook, Vol. 2, 8th Edition. Miami, Florida: Ameri- rious to the eyes for the same reason. The invisible
can Welding Society, 1991. rays which can harm the eyes are the same from both
EXPULSION
sources.
The forceful ejection of molten metal from a resis- Inweldingandcuttingoperations, the radiation
tance spot, seam, or projection weld usually at the fay- from the arc or from intensely heated solids or gases
ing surface. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See &O may be (1) invisible ultraviolet rays, (2) visible light
SURFACE EXPULSION. rays, and (3) invisible infrared rays.
Strong ultraviolet rays are capable of causing severe
EXPULSION POINT inflammation similar to sunburn on the eyes and sur-
The level of welding current (for a specific set of rounding membranes. Extremely intense visible light
welding conditions in spot, seam, or projection weld- rays may cause eye strainandpossiblytemporary
ing) above whichthere is signifcant expulsion. See blindness. Infrared rays are not absorbed, but penetrate
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. the eye.Theymay cause cumulativeeffectswhich

STDaAWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb342 231 m
168 EYE SHIELD Welding Encyclopedia
might lead to cataracts, retina injuries, as well as to makes it unnecessaryfor the welder to wear a helmet,
opacity of the cornea and the aqueous chamber. andadequatelyprotects all workersin the vicinity
The intensity of the ultravioletand the infrared radi- from the rays of the arc.
ation is determined by the temperature of the welding Flashed Eyes
source, consequently the intensity is greater from an
arc than from gas a flame. Surroundings also affect the Despite all precautions, flashed eyes are sometimes
intensity, depending on how much of the radiation is experienced, moreoftenamong persons working in
absorbed or reflected. the vicinity thanthose engaged in the actual welding.
Despite the many potential hazards thatexist in the The symptoms of flashed eyes are apronounced
welding environment which might be harmful to the irritation under the eyelids, a feeling as if there were
eyes, strictly following recommended safety precau- sand in the eye. These symptoms usually develop
tions will prevent visual deterioration or other ocular several hours after exposure, which means that they
damage. frequently develop after the worker has left for the
The AmericanWeldingSocietyhasdeveloped day, sometimesoccurring late at night in places where
specifications for protective lenses recommended for a doctor is not readily available. To prevent incidents
variousweldingand cutting operations, shown in of flashed eyes, it isextremely important that Co-work-
Appendix 18. ers and all visitors are either completely screened from
In addition to welding personnel, other workers in thewelding operation, or providedwith the correct
the area may be indirectly or temporarily exposed to protective goggles.
harmful radiant energy and must also be protected. Standards for welding helmets, hand shields, face
These persons can be protectedbysurrounding the shields, goggles, and spectacles are given in ANSI
weldingoperationwithscreens or booths.Abooth 287.1, Practice for Occupational andEducational
provides the best protection from the arc rays. When Eye
andFace Protection. New York: American
building a boothfor arc welding,the interior walls and National Standards Institute (latest edition).
surfaces shouldbecoveredwithpaintwhichwill
absorb the dangerous arc rays. EYE SHIELD
Automaticarcweldingoperations are frequently A plastic mask with a transparentsection to protect
enclosed in a cabinet equipped with a colored glass the eyes of workers in grinding, coating or resistance
protective window,throughwhich the operator may welding operations. The transparent portionof the eye
watch the progressof the welding. This enclosure shield maybe either clear or colored.
Self-shielded fluIX cored arc

welding (FCAW) on a steel
structure

F
FACE The formula to convert Celsius temperature to Fahren-
A nonstandard term forWELD FACE. heit is "F = 9/5 "C + 32.
See Appendix 13.
FACE BEND TEST
A test in which the weld face is on the convex sur- FALSE RESISTANCE
face of a specified bend radius. See STANDARD WELD- The resistance of counter electromotive force.
ING TERMS.
FAN
FACE CRACK A commonnamefor the arcstream in atomic
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. hydrogen welding. See ATOMIC HYDROGEN WELDING.
A crack that appearson the face of a weld or on the
crownbead(s),whichrunseitherparallelwith(i.e., FARAD
longitudinal) or perpendicular (i.e., transverse) to the A unit of measure of electrical capacitance equal to
direction of welding. See Appendix 9. the capacitance of a capacitor with a potential of one
volt between its plates when the capacitor is charged
FACE FEED with one coulomb of electricity; formulated by physi-
The application offiller metal to the joint, usually cist Michael Faradayin 1867.
by hand, during brazing andsoldering. See STANDARD
FARADAY
WELDING TERMS.
A measure of the quantity of electricity transferred
FACE OF WELD in electrolysis per equivalent weight
of the element or
The exposedsurface of a weld on the side from ionequaltoapproximately 96 500 coulombs of
which the welding is done, regardless of the process electricity.
used. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also WELD
FARM IMPLEMENT REPAIR
FACE.
Farm implement repair isof ongoing importance to
FACE REINFORCEMENT agricultural communities and the welding shops which
Weldreinforcementon
the side of the joint serve them,and constitutes a challengingvariety of
from whichwelding wasdone. See STANDARD repair work for the welder.
WELDING TERMS. See Figure B-6. See also ROOT The first step in the repair of farm implements is to
REINFORCEMENT.
identify the metal from which the broken component
is made, and that will determine the process and filler
FACE SHIELD metalrequired for therepair.Manycomponentsof
A device positioned in front of the eyes and over all farm implements are castings which are madeof mal-
or a portion of the face to protect the eyes and face leable iron, and should be brazed as described under
CAST IRON, Malleable.
from arc light, weld spatter or expulsion, slag pop-
ping, or chipping and grinding. See STANDARD WELD- Tractor Wheels. Modemtractorwheels are fabri-
ING TERMS. See HAND SHIELD and HELMET. catedfromforged steel, aluminum,andsometimes
magnesium, and can be readily welded. If a spoke is
FAHRENHEIT broken loose from a forged steel hub, the repair can be
A thermometric scale on which 32" is the freezing made with shielded metal arc welding (SMAW). See
point and 212"is the boiling pointof water at standard SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING; See also ALUMINUM
atmospheric pressure. and MAGNESIUM.
Fahrenheit temperature is converted to the Celsius Older tractor wheels were made with cast iron hubs,
temperature scale by the formula "C = 5/9 ("F - 32). with the spokes cast into the hub at the time the hub
169
PLEMENT 170 FARM
was made. The spokes were riveted to a steel rim, the edge and in building up the point; but if desired,
and repairs were madebybrazing. If a spoke of low-carbon rods can be used on the land side where
an older wheel is broken loose in the hub, it should the wear is not as great.
be cut free where it is riveted at the rim and then One-Piece Design. Another method commonly used
brazed to the hub, using as little heat as possible. consists of welding a new part tothe old share, which
After the brazinghasbeen completed between the amounts to a rather wide cutting edge and point forged
spoke and the hub, the other end of the spoke can be all in one piece. The worn portion of the share is cut
quickly welded to the rim with steel welding rods, off withacuttingtorch,andthenewsection is
and the distortion of the rim will be very slight. It is clamped to the old section or held in ajig. The weld is
necessary, however, to wait until the spoke and the made with a gasor arc torch.
braze at the hub are cold before making the weld in
the rim. Forged Point. If the cutting edge of the share is not
so badly worn that an entirely new edge is necessary
Plowshares. Plowshares are madefromvarious
and onlythe point is worn away,the worn point can be
grades of steel for service in different types of soil.
cut off with the cutting torch and a new forged point
One type of plowshareis called a crucible share, prob-
welded to it.The original shapeof the share should be
ablybecause it wasoriginallymadefrom crucible
carefully preserved so that it will have a controllable
steel. Most of these shares are made of open-hearth
digging effect. These forged points are available in a
steel containing approximately 0.55 to 0.65% carbon,
grade of steel which can be heat treated and will pro-
varying withthe manufacturers specifications.
duce an acceptable repair job. The electrode or weld-
Anothertype is asoft-centerplowshare.It is a ing rod must matchthe grade of steel in the plowshare
toughplowsharewithhardoutersurfaces that will as closelyas possible. If they are not well matched, the
withstandroughusage.Thistype is madeofthree repaired section might wear hollow or form a groove
sheets of steel placed together; the center section is a along the weld.
low-carbon steel and the outsidefaces are steel with a
higher carbon content. These three sheets of steel are Welding Rods and Electrodes
preheated and welded together, using SMAW. Many welders make the mistake of welding parts,
A third type of plowshare is made of chilled cast including forged points, tothe plowshare with a weld-
iron (white iron) andis used in districts where the soil ing rod or electrode that is too low in carbon. Most
is partly composed of sharp sand. Chilled cast iron is plowshares are heat treated after welding, and unless
veryhardandverybrittle,consistinglargely of the weld metalis high enough in carbon content, it will
cementite. If used in a district where stones or rocks remain soft and unaffected by the heat treatment. This
are part of the soil, thistypewouldbesubjectto means that there will be a soft spot which will wear to
breaking. a greater extent than the harder metal on both sides of
The soft-center share hasahard surface, and the joint.
while not as hard as chilled cast iron, it is tougher. Low-carbon rods are not recommendedfor this type
The crucible steel share is hardened throughout
of work. Many high-strength rods and electrodes are
and is used in many soils where other types are not
available which contain more carbon, and some con-
practical.
tain alloying elements such as chromium, nickel, and
Repairs. If the point of the plowshare has wornoff, vanadium, all of which will produce a better grade of
it can be repaired by cutting off the old point and weld- weld metal for these repairs. Although these rods are
ing a new forged point to replace the old one. more expensive than the low-carbon grades, the rods
If the edge is completely worn down andthe point should be selected to match the steel in the plowshare,
is gone, it may be necessary to use the three-piece thepoints,edgesand other parts,(which are also
method of repair, a process in which three new pieces expensive). This will accomplish the purpose of the
ofhigh-carbonsteel are weldedtothe old share to repair, which is to make a serviceable joint. When a
build it out to its original shape. In this process, an soft, low-carbon steel rod is used, the weld metal will
edge piece, or blade, and two point pieces (one placed not harden in subsequent heat treatment. Some weld-
undertheshareandtheotherontop), are welded ers make a practice of welding the land side of the
together to form a new point. High-carbon or alloy share with low-carbon rod, and use a high-carbon rod
steel welding rods or electrodesare recommended for on the edge and share portion. Eventhis is poor prac-

~~ ~
STD.AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 07842b5 0516345 T 4 0 m
opedia Welding REPAIR
FARM IMPLEMENT 171
tice because the combination of unlike steels in the

adjacent parts makes it impossible to harden the land
side weld in any subsequent heat treatment.
Heat Treatment UNDERSIDE OF SHARE
After the weld has been made, it should not be ham-
mered while still hot fromthe heat of the torchor arc,
but should be allowed to cool, then reheated to the
propertemperatureand
forged.
During
welding,
strains are set up in the metal and the heatis irregular. ABOUT 3.2 m m ABOUT 1.6 mm
If forging or hammering occurs just as the weldis (118 in.) (V16 in.)
completed, these strains have not yet adjusted, and the
entire area surrounding the section being hammered is
notatthesametemperature.Itmaybeatredheat
immediately atthe weld area, but this red tapers off to
a black,or lower heat. For this reason, it is a much bet-
ter practice to coolthe weld; then reheat the workpiece
and forge, reheat again, andcool; subsequently apply-
ing such heat treatment as may be necessary to pro-
duce the required hardness. Steel whichis too high in DEPOSIT OF
ABOUT 3.2 m m (1/8 in.)
carbon content and tempered to too great a degree of
hardnessmaybetoobrittleforthepurpose, so the Figure F-1-Hardfacing is Most Effective When
exact heat treatment to producethe required hardness Deposited on the Undersideof the Plowshare and
can only be determined bythe knowledge and experi- on lop of the Point
ence of the welder.
Hardfacing. Hardfacingaplowsharecanincrease If an ordinary steel welding rodis used to build up
the effectiveservice life by three to five times, the point, the weld metal will be much too soft to stand
depending onthe abrasiveness of the soil in which itis upduringservice,and the hardfacingmightbe
used. See HARDFACING. poundeddown into thesofterundercoating.Special
The metal usedfor hardfacing may be deposited on high-carbon steelor other alloy rods are made specifi-
the underside of the plowshare, as indicatedin Figure callyforbuildingupthepointtoitspropershape
F-1, and on the top of the point, which will permit before hardfacing rodsare applied to it. Since hardfac-
excellent scouring of the top of the share.Insome ing rods are made of expensive metals, however, it is
localitiesweldersprefer to depositthehardfacing an acceptable practice to build up the part almost its to
metal on the top and allow the underside to be sharp- original shape with a less expensive metal which will
ened by wear. In this application, the hardfacing must answertherequirements for hardnessandstrength,
be ground smooth so that proper scouring will take and then overlay the surface with the hardfacing metal.
place. In some soils scouring is not as importantas in
Broken Gear Teeth
others,andthewelder may find thatahardfacing
deposit on the topside will be preferable. A relatively simplejob which frequently comes into
Another consideration is the type of metal which the farm shop is repairing cast iron gears with one or
should be used for building up a badly worn imple- more broken teeth. Gear teeth can be repaired or built
ment. If the part were new, it would be necessary to upusingtheoxyacetyleneweldingprocesswitha
hardfaceonlythewearingsurfaceswithagrade of good gradeof cast iron or bronze rod.
alloy suitablefor its expected service.New parts, how- With either cast iron or bronze rod, the important
ever, are not always hardfaced, or they are not hard- requirement is usinga flux. The metalshouldbe
faced often enough to prevent the points from wearing deposited carefully to minimize postweld grinding. A
downandbecomingblunt,dull,andverydifferent No. 7 tip with neutral flame is recommended for this
from their original shapes. Whenin this condition, the purpose.
point should built up to its original shape before the The job of rebuilding or replacing the internal teeth
hardfacing metal is applied. on the power lift wheel of a plow is somewhat more

difficult because it is impossible to grind the teeth to fracture results in the remaining structure. If the term
sizeaftertherebuilding job is complete. The teeth is used without qualification, the fatigue limit is usu-
must be carefully shaped and sized with the torch dur- ally the number of cycles of stress necessary to pro-
ing rebuilding. A cast iron deposit seems to offer the duce a complete reverseof flexing stress. See FATIGUE
only successful solutionfor jobs of this nature. STRESS.
Ensilage CutterBlades FATIGUE STRESS
Ensilage cutter blades which have been broken or The maximum stress which a material will endure
nicked can be repaired using the following method: without failure no matter how many times the stress
is
(1) Place a 6 mm (U4 in.) square bar of medium repeated.
carbon steel along the tapered side of the blade, with
the blade laidflat and resting on the steel bar. FATIGUE TEST
(2) Make several tack welds with the arc welding Adestructivetestusedtomeasure the stress to
torch. cause failure by fatigue in a material, part, structure, or
(3) Make an arc weld in the groove formed by the weldment after applying a fixed number of cycles of
square steel bar and the tapered face of the blade. load. Generally, the stress to cause failure is plotted
(4) Turn the blade to rest on the side to which the against the number of load cycles on a logarithmic
bar has been welded, which is the back of the blade. scale. In fatigue testing, it is important to decide on
( 5 ) Apply hardfacing. The hardfacing material fills and document the repetitive loading cycle, including
the opening between the square steel bar and the old base (minimum) load and peak (maximum) load, and
edge of the blade. frequency of loading. Loading is usually expressed as
(6) Grindon the backtosmooththehardfacing a ratio, R = maximum stress/minimum stress, consid-
metal, and grind a new taperon the front of the blade ering compressive stresses as positive (+), and tensile
to form anedge in the hardfacing. stresses as negative(-), so that load reversals between
Bladescan be repairedinthiswayeventhough tension and compression result in a negative (-) value
badly chipped or nicked. Often the hardfacing on the of R (stress ratio).
backoftheblade is appliedwith the torch.Cutter Testing for the fatigue strength of a material is so
blades are ordinarily made of high-carbon steel, rang- laborious that many materials have not been tested at
ing from about0.70 to 0.80% carbon. all, so data is simply not available. In some cases the
Based on the representative descriptions of these material has been tested by a user, and the resulting
repair jobs, it is obvious that thejob shop welder must data is often treated as proprietary andis not available
master a varietyof tasks, although almost every break in general references or in the open literature. For a
willbeinsomewaysimilartotheonewhichhas hard steel, a test of2 x lo6 cycles duration is necessary
previouslybeenfixed. See CAST IRON, ArcWelding; to establish a definite fatigue strength. For soft steel, a
CAST IRON, OXYACETYLEW WELDING, BRAZING, CAR- test of lo7 cycles duration is necessary, while for alu-
BIDE TOOLS; TOOL BRAZING, TOOL WELDING, HARDFAC- minum and magnesium and many other non-ferrous
ING, ELECTRODE, STEEL, Cast; MAGNESIUM ALLOYS. metals and alloys, 5 x lo8 cycles may be necessary,
since thesematerials exhibit an endurance limit, or
FATIGUE stress below which the material could sustain an infi-
The phenomenon of the progressive fracturing of a nite number of loading cycles without failing.
metalbymeansofacrackwhichspreadsunder There are many types of fatigue testing machines.
repeated cyclesof stress. Materials subjectto vibration Most commonly used are those which use a rotating
stress frequently fail at much lower loads than antici- beam or rotating cantilever. These rotating tests give a
pated. Investigation discloses that each material has a completely reversed stressin which the maximum unit
fatigue stress beyond which it is not safe for repeat- of tensile and compressive stress in the surface of the
edly loading it. specimen is equal. The speed of rotation varies with
this machine from2000 rpm to 12 O00 rpm.
FATIGUE LIMIT Fatigue test specimens can be of almost any size,
A stress level below which the metal will withstand dependingon the amount of availablematerial,
an indefinitely large number of cycles of stress without althoughcertainstandardsizes(asopposedtonon-
fracture. When stress is above the fatigue limit, failure standard, and especially, sub-size specimens) are pre-
occurs by the generation and growth of cracking until ferred(e.g.,byASTM).Cross-sectional shape is

Welding MATERIAL FILLER 173
generally,butnotnecessarily,round.Regardless of FERRO-NICKEL
size and shape, to give the maximum and most repeat- A compound of iron and nickel used extensivelyin
able test results, the surface of fatigue test specimens the manufactureof alloy steels.
must be carehlly prepared and finished so that they
are free of holes, notches, abrupt changesof cross sec- FERRO-SILICON
tion,machine(kerf)marksandscratches,andeven A material containing iron and silicon used in man-
residualstressesfromprocessing(unlesstheseare ufacturing welding electrode coatings and alloy steels.
expected to be used in servicein the actual item).The
slightestcorrosion or flawwillgreatlyreduce the FERRO-TITANIUM
fatigue limit of a partin service. A deoxidizing agent containing iron and titanium,
used in the manufacture of alloy steels.
FAYING SURFACE
The mating s u ~ a c eof a member that is in contact FERRULE
with or in close proximity to another memberto which A wide metal band into which the end of a welding
it is to be joined.See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See hose is inserted to obtain a gas-tight connection with-
Appendix 1l(F). outtheaidofhoseclamps. The ferrule prevents
spreading or stretching when the hose is forced over a
Fe nipple.
Chemical symbol for iron.
FERRULE, Arc Stud Welding
FEATHER A ceramic device that surrounds the stud base to
See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See also ACETY- contain the molten metal andshield the arc. See STAN-
LENE FEATHER. DARD WELDING TERMS.
FEED RATE, Thermal Spraying FIBER

A nonstandard term for spraying rate. See SPRAY- A characteristic of wrought metal manifested by a
ING RATE. See also THERMAL SPRAYING. fibrous or woody appearance of fractures, indicating
directional properties. Fiberis chiefly due to the exten-
FERRITE sion of the materials constituents, both metallic and
A solidsolutioninwhichalphairon is solvent; nonmetallic, inthe direction of working.
characterized by a body-centered cubic lattice struc-
ture. A pure form of iron, it is very soft, ductile and FIBER STRESS
magnetic.
Tensile
strength is about 275 MPA Local unit stress at a point or line on a section over
(40 psi). See CAST IRON, Hard Spots; CAST IRON, which the stress is not uniform, such as the cross sec-
and METALLURGY. tion of a beam under bending load.
FERRITE NUMBER (FN). FIBROUS WELD
An arbitrary, standardized value designating the A poorly executed, porous weld, containing blow-
ferrite content of an austenitic stainless steel weld (or holes, craters, and other unwanted features.
base) metal. It should be used in place of percent fer-
rite or volume percentferrite on a direct replacement FIELD COIL
basis. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. A coil or winding around the field magnets of a
generator or motor.
FERROGHROMIUM (FERRO-CHROME)
A material containing iron and chromium used in FIELD WELD
manufacturingweldingelectrode coatings andalloy A weld made at a location other than a shop or the
Steels. place of initial construction. See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS.
FERRO-MANGANESE
A material containing iron and manganese used in FILLER MATERIAL
manufacturingweldingelectrodecoatingsandalloy The material to be added inmaking awelded,
steels. brazed, or soldered joint. See STANDARD WELDING
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 0784265 0516348 75T W
TERMS. See also BRAZINGFILLERMETAL,CONSUM- FILLET WELD SIZE

ABLE INSERT, DIFFUSION AID; FILLER METAL, SOLDER, For equal leg fillet welds, the leg lengths of the
WELDING
ELECTRODE,WELDING
FILLER
METAL, largest isosceles right triangle that can be inscribed
WELDING ROD,and WELDING WIRE. within the fillet weld cross section. For unequal leg
fillet welds, the leg lengths of the largest right triangle
FILLER METAL that can beinscribed within the fillet weldcross
The metal or alloy to be added in making a welded, section. See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See Appen-
brazed, or soldered joint. See STANDARDWELDING dix 11.
TERMS. See also BRAZINGFILLERMETAL,CONSUM-
FILLET WELD STRENGTH
ABLE INSERT, DIFFUSION AID, FILLER MATERJAL, SOL-
DER, WELDING ELECTRODE, WELDING FILLER METAL, In structures or systems where service stresses are
WELDING ROD, and WELDING WIRE. high, such as in heavy machinery, ship and building
construction, extensive framework and intricate angles
FILLER METAL START DELAY TIME may include miles or more of welded joints. Shearing
stresses can affect a large percentage of the total sys-
The time interval from arc initiation to the start of tem of welds. Correct designof a fillet weld on angles
filler metal feeding. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. impliesanoptimumbalancebetween the effective
weld length and the contact area between the weld and
FILLER METAL STOP DELAY TIME either base metalpart.
The time delay interval from beginning of downs- Asoundengineeringapproach is mandatory,and
lope time to the stop offiller metal feeding. See STAN- allowable shearing stresses must be accurately calcu-
DARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 19(A). lated to specify weldsizes and length which will result
in the most economical application of strength, joint
FILLER ROD efficiency, and safetyin service.
The rod or wire which is added to the weld; also In dealing with angles, the welded joints must be
referred to as filler metal and welding rod. See WELD- proportioned correctly and designedto reduce internal
ING RODand ELECTRODE. stresses and strains which often cause buckling, distor-
tion, and ultimate failure. These stresses are due to the
FILLER WIRE differentialexpansionoccurringwiththeheating or
A nonstandard term forWELDING WIRE. cooling of a weld.
When designing afillet weld, weldability mustbe a
FILLET WELD consideration. A carefulinvestigationmustinclude
A weld of approximately triangular cross section individualweldingconditions,e.g.,design of the
joining two suflaces approximately at right angles to workpiece or structure, section thickness, accessibility,
each other in a lap joint, T-joint, or corner joint. See servicerequirements,andmanufacturingcost.It is
STANDARD WELDING TERMS.See also Appendix 4. essential to consider the size instead of the throat of a
fillet weld.
FILLET WELD BREAK TEST In fillet welds in which thecross section is an equal
isosceles right triangle, the throatis equal to the prod-
A test in which the specimen is loaded so that the uct of the size and sine 45":
weldroot is in tension. see STANDARD WELDING
TERMS. T = L sine 45"= 0.707L.
See Appendix 11. Any weld metal outside the tri-
FILLET WELDING GAUGE
angle limits is omitted in estimating weld strength, so
A template or other measuring devicefor checking the material between the dashed line and the curved
the Size Of a f i k t weld. See WELDING MICROMETER. surface of the weld is considered extraneous and dis-
regarded. The convexity of a fillet weldshouldbe
FILLET WELD LEG reduced, since a 45" flat fillet is the most desirable
The distance from the joint root to the toe of thefil- shape for weld performance. For equivalent strength
let weld. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appen- and rigidity, longfillet welds with smaller legsizes are
dix 11. the most economical.

dia Welding WELDING WIRE FINE 175
When the stress in an angle is transmitted entirely ticulate matter from the cooling wateror air for weld-
by weldsalongthetoeandheel of the angle,the ingequipment,fromcompressedair,orfrom the
required weld strength may be calculated as follows: breathing air for welders.
Alternatively, in radiography, a sheet or strips on
sx S (d-X)
S1 = -
d S 2 = 7 edge (which may be oscillated) of absorptive material
placed between the film and the object being radio-
S1 = requiredweldstrengthattheanglestoein graphed to reduce blurring in the recorded film image
pounds. caused by secondary and scattered radiation.
S = total stress in the angle in pounds.
FILTER GLASS
d = width of angle leg between welds in inches
x = distance from back of angle to its center of A nonstandard term for
FILTER PLATE.
gravity.
FILTER LENS
S2 = required strength of weld at the angles heel
in pounds. A nonstandard term for a round
filter plate.
According to the recommendations of AWS D l . 1, FILTER PLATE
StructuralWeldingCode-Steel, andtheAmerican An optical material that protects the eyes against
Institute of Steel Construction for steel in buildings, excessive ultraviolet, infrared, and visible radiation.
the allowable shearing unit stressof a section through See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
the throat of a fillet weld is 94 MPa (1 3 600 psi). This Filter plates are used in helmets, hand shields, and
stress is to be used in conjunction with structural steel goggles to protectthe eyes.
ASTM A-7, which is for structural steel having an ulti-
mate tensile strength between 414 and 483 (60 O00 FIN
and 70 O00 psi). The factor of safety (about4)applica-
Metalexudingfromthemolteninterface of two
ble to building construction has been applied to the
partsbroughttogetherduringflashwelding. See
working stress.
FLASH.
The required areaof contact of a weld in a building
problem, for example, maybe determined by the FINAL CURRENT
following:
A current after downslope but prior tocurrent shut-
0.707 X 13 600 = 9600 off See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See Appendix
19(A).
F
DL =
FINAL TAPER CURRENT
where Dis the weldsize; L is the effective weld length The current at the end of the taper interval prior to
in inches; and F is the resultant shearing force on the down slope. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See
weld in pounds. Appendix 19(A).
FILLET WELD THROAT FINES

See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS. See ACTUAL All material finer than a particularmesh size under
THROAT,
EFFECTIVE
THROAT, and THEORETICAL consideration. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
THROAT.
FINE WIRE WELDING
FILL WELD Fine wire welding is a variation of gas metal arc
A fusionweldmade with filler metal. See STAN- welding (GMAW), in which small diameter, consum-
DARD WELDING TERMS. able electrode wire is continuously fed into the arc.
The puddle area and surrounding metal are shielded
FILTER from the atmosphere by a gas flowingfromthe
A device consisting of aporousmaterial(e.g., GMAW torch. It is anall-positionweldingprocess
paper, felt or fiberglass)andanactivatedmedium originally designed to weld ferrous metals. See GAS
(e.g., activated charcoal) or both, used to remove par- METAL ARC WELDING.

:STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 05Lb350 308 W
WELDING 176 FIRECRACKER
FIRECRACKER WELDING theworkareashouldbekeptclearofcombustible

A shielded metal arc welding process variation that materials at all times. This precaution should be rig-
uses a length of covered electrode placed along the idly enforced, since the presence of anything that will
joint in contact with the workpieces during welding. burn constitutes afire hazard.
The stationary electrode is consumedas the arc travels SpecialWorkwithPortableEquipment. Dangerous
the length of the electrode. This is an obsolete or sel- conditions are predictable when portable welding or
dom used process variation. See STANDARD WELDING cutting equipmentis used in areas containing combus-
TERMS. tible materials. Almostall fires due to these processes
FIRE HAZARDS AND PROTECTION
start in areas not normally usedfor welding or cutting
operations that have not been checked for fire safety.
Safe practices must be the first consideration before
The best practice is to move special welding and
starting
anywelding, cutting, brazing,soldering,
cutting jobs to locations where the work can be done
bonding, or other shop operation. A specific reference
with assured safety. When this is impossible, the fol-
is the American national standard, ANSYASC 249.1,
lowing routineis mandatory:
Safety in Welding, Cutting andAllied Processes, latest
edition, published by the American Welding Society, PreliminarySurvey. Thepersonincharge of the
Miami, Florida. welding or cutting work should carefully examine the
The main causes of fire accidents in welding are site of the proposed job with a qualified person who
improper maintenance, and incorrect handling and use haslocalauthority,noting all hazardousconditions.
of the equipment. Some examples are: Among the factors to be notedare the following:
(1) Wooden floors
Oxyacetylene Flame. Serious fires can be caused if
(2) Moveableandimmovablecombustiblemate-
the flame comesin contact with combustible materials
rials near the work site
in the immediate vicinityof the work.
(3) Flammable liquids incontainers,flammable
Electrode Holder. A fire can be started if the holder vapors in
the
air,
andcombustible dust in the
is handled so that it comes in contact with conducting neighborhood.
material or with combustible material. (4)The possibility of sparks reaching combustible
Hot Metal. Small pieces of metal that drop from the materials in adjoining spaces through cracks or holes
work are dangerous. Glowing bits of ironor steel stay in floors, walls, open or broken windows, and open
hot enough to start fires for 15 to 20 seconds. Even doorways.
pieces at black heat in daylight may ignite combusti- ( 5 ) The possibility of fire being started by hot metal
bles on which theyfall. or slag dropping from a height.
Work should be undertaken only if it is decided that
Molten Slag. Molten slag that drips from the work
all hazards can be removedor thoroughly protected. It
is very hot and extremely hazardous. Even after fall- is impossible to over-emphasize this point: death and
inga considerable distance, for example, downa widespreaddestructioncanbe the result of taking
long elevator shaft, it may retain enough heat to start chances.
fires.
BeforeStarting. Removeallcombustiblesaway
Sparks. The sparks thatfly from the work actually
from the work, at least 8 m (25 ft) when welding, and
consist of small globules of molten metal, which are 11 to 12 m (35 to 40 ft) when cutting. If there are com-
thrownoutinheavyshowers,especially in cutting bustibles within
these distances that cannot be
operations, for distancesasgreatas 9 m (30 feet). removed, confine the sparks by surrounding the work
They are usuallyhotenoughtoignitecombustible with metal shields, fire-proof curtains, or other suit-
materials on contact, and as they bounce and roll along ableguards,making sure thatsparkscannotfly
floors, they can start unobserved smoldering fires that through any openingsor roll out under the guards.
later can burstinto flames. Use fire-resistant coverings to protect objects in the
Safeguards area thatare likely toignite.
Production. Weldingand flame cuttingoperators When a woodenfloor must be protectedfrom burn-
should be provided with protective clothing, suitable ing, or a concretefloor from spalling, placea container
to the kind of work to be done. Where welding and of water or a pan of sand immediately underthe work
cutting are part of the regular production processes, to catch slag.

~~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~
Welding FISHEYE 177
Before starting to cut off a piece of metal, make or welding operator, wearing dark glasses or a hood,
sure it will notdrop where it can start a fire.
To prevent cannot see smallfires if they are started.
the piece from falling, a rod or bar can be welded to The watcher should remain at the scene of the work
the piece and heldby a helper whilethe cut is made. for at least 30 minutes after the work is completed.
Check to assure that adequate portable fire extin- The watcher should be required to look carefully for
guishing equipment has been provided. If the area has smoke or fire before leaving. This is especially impor-
asprinklingsystem,getassurancefrom the proper tant if welding or cuttingsparks mayhavestarted
authority that the sprinklers are ready for operation. smoldering fires in wooden structures or in other slow-
Sprinklers should never be shut down while welding is burning materials.
in progress. Reference: National Fire Protection Association.
Sweep the floor clean, and if it is made of wood,
wet it down. FISHEYE
A written permit form should be obtained from the A discontinuity found on the fracture sur$ace of a
proper authority to perform cutting operations outside weld in steel that consists of a small pore or inclusion
the usual maintenance shop. surrounded by an approximately round, bright area.
Portable Fire Extinguishers See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
The fire extinguishers available must be appropriate Fisheyesinweldedmetalappearascircularand
to the hazards present. Where wood or other ordinary slightly conical spots, 0.4 to 3.2 mm ( U 6 4 to 1/23 in.)
combustiblematerialsmaybeignited,extinguishers diameter, exhibiting a brittle white fracture of two or
approved for use on Class A fires are required. If flam- more concentricrings in contrast withthe gray ductile
mable liquids or electrical apparatusmay be involved, matrix.Fisheyesoftencontain one or moreradial
extinguishers approved for use on Class B or Class C cracks emanating froma central nucleus(aninclusion,
fires must also be provided.The types of extinguishers a shrinkage or a gas micro-void) and endingin one of
approved for use on differentclasses of fire are shown the concentric rings. There are several possible causes
in Table F-1. for the formationof fisheyes:
(1) Microscopic particles of mechanically entrapped
slag, regardless of the structuralconstitution of the
Table F-1 deposit,and,dependingoninterpasstemperature,a
Portable Fire Extinguishers
heterogeneous condition of microstructure possessing
Use on Class of Fire differential ductility.
~~
Class A Class B Class

C (2) Incipient micro-cracks developedby the drastic
5 P e of (Ordinary
(Flammable (Electrical quenching undergone by filler metal when deposited
Extinguisher Combustibles) Liquids) Equipment) on un-preheated base material.
Pump Tank Yes No No (3) The fact that the high-pressure hydrogen gas
Gas Cartridge Yes No No contained in small discontinuities exerts an aerostatic
Yes No stress on the metal surrounding the discontinuity,
Foam Yes
but is not large enough to rupture without external
Loaded Stream Yes Yes No
aid.
Only small
Dioxide
Carbon fires Yes Yes It takes an externally applied stress to actually ini-
tiate fissuring insteelunderstressfromhydrogen.
Dry Chemical Yes Yes Yes
When the sum of the aerostaticandapplied stress
Reference: NFPA Booklet No. 10, Standard for Portable Fire exceeds the strength of the steel, the metal ruptures
Extinguishers.
internally to the extent indicated by the surrounding
circular area;the pressure of the gasis reduced, tearing
Whereanydangerofsetting fire tocombustible abates and aflake remains in a plane perpendicular to
materials exists, it is important to station a person with the direction of that stress. The concentric rings are
appropriate hand-held extinguishers who will stand by probablyassociatedwiththedegree of hydrogen
the work throughoutits progress, no matter what other embrittlement around the defect. is It believed that the
precautionshavebeentaken. An extra person is central nucleus, the circularform, and the brittle break
needed for fire extinguishing duty because the cutting identify a hydrogen defect.
5F that can be modified for several short run products.
A welding test position designationfor a circumfer- For the most part, fixtures are designed and built by
entialjillet weld applied to a jointin pipe, with its axis plant operations personnel to facilitate the production
approximately horizontal, in which the weldis made in ofone or moreassemblies,Aproduction fixture
the horizontal, vertical, andoverheadwelding posi- should be designed to accommodate the following:
tions. The pipe remains fmed until the welding of the (1) Weldjoints must be accessible in the fixture.
joint is complete. See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See (2) The fixture mustbemorerigidthanthe
Appendix 4. assembly.
(3) Holddowns,clamps,andthreads of boltsand
5G nuts should be protected from weld spatter.
A welding test position designationfor a circumfer- (4)The fixture should allow assembly of the work
ential groove weld applied to a jointin a pipe with its with a minimum of temporary welds that are visible on
axis horizontal, in which the weld is made in the flat, completion.
vertical, andoverheadwelding positions. The pipe (5) The workpiece mustbe easy to remove from the
remainsfixed until the weldingof the joint is complete. fixture after welding is complete.
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 4. The designer plans how many welds are to be made
while the work is in the jig. For example, the second
FIXED JOINT
side of a complete penetration weldmay be deposited
A joint designed so that all of the shrinkage strains after the weldment is removed from the fixture. Suffi-
are leftin the weld metal.See RIGID JOINT. cient welds should be completed in the jig to restrain
FIXTURE the assembly from distortion duringthe completion of
A device designed to hold and maintain parts in welding outsidethe jig. Since most weldmentsare fab-
proper relation to each othel: See STANDARD WELD- ricated as sub-assemblies, the tolerances are critical.
ING TERMS.
However, often the intermediate dimensions are less
The terms future and jig have essentially the same important than the end and edge dimensions that con-
meaning. The function of a fixture is to facilitate trol thefit in the final assembly.
assembly of parts and to hold a workpiece assembly in Assembly Fixtures
proper alignment during handling and welding. If the Some assemblies may require stiffening fixtures to
assembly is only tack-welded togetherit is called afit- maintain shape, and some type of clamping or fixtur-
ting jig. The use of a fixture promotes goodfitting tol- ing may be required to hold the joint alignment for
erancesinthe final product.Most fixtures fall into welding andto prevent warpage and buckling from the
three major categories:(1) assembly orfitting fixtures, heat of welding.
(2) precision fitting and welding fixtures designed to For assemblies that are inherently rigid, tack weld-
produce accurate fabrications, and(3) robotic welding ing alone may suffice. Heavy section thicknesses in
fixtures. themselves offer considerable restraint against buck-
The design and manufacture of the fixture should ling and warpage. In intermediate cases, a combina-
reflectthenumber of parts to beproduced.Small tion of tack welding, fixturing, and weld sequencing
quantities may be produced on temporary jigs assem- may be required. For joints of low restraint in light
bled specifically for the product. For large quantities, gauge materials, clamping is needed. Clamping bars
the fixture could be an integral partof the whole pro- maintain alignment and remove heat to reduce or pre-
duction system. In this case, the fixture may include vent warpage. Tack weldsare usually necessary.
automaticclampingonapositioner,andthe fixture Fixtures also include the jigs and tooling used to
mayaccommodateweldingbyanindustrialrobot. facilitate the welding operation. Weld seam trackers
This type of fixture is expensive to build, butif many and travel carriagesare used to guide machineor auto-
parts are produced on it, the fixture is cost effective. matic welding heads.
Design Precision Jigs
There are fewstandardcommercialfixtures,but Jigs must be designed to produce a fabrication to
many light and heavy duty clamping devices are avail- closetolerances.Adetailed,step-by-stepassembly
able which can be incorporated into dedicated fixtures and welding procedureare calculated and builtinto the
for large production runs, or into adjustable fixtures design.

~~
STD*AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 07842b5 051b353 O13 m

Welding 179
Robotic Fixtures FLAME

Fixtures for robotic welding have several specific See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See ACETYLENE,
requirements. They must allow access for the robot. Metalworking with Acetylene.See also CARBURIZING
Most robots are not equipped with sensing systems; FLAME,
NEUTRALFLAME,OXIDIZINGFLAME, and
those having sensing systemsare primitive in compar- REDUCING FLAME.
ison tothe vision of a human being. Therefore, the fix-
tureshouldhavelow-profileclampslocatedaway FLAME ADJUSTMENT
from the joint. The fixture should contain at least two Flame adjustment is a critical factor in the operation
reference points that are in a fixed relationship to the of an oxyfuel torch. The amount of heat produced by
weld seams of the workpiece. The robot is then pro- the flame depends on the intensity and type of flame
grammed to locate the reference points on the fixture used. Three types of flame, carburizing, neutral, and
The reference points establish a coordinate system for oxidizing,canbeachieved by adjustingthetorch
the robot to find its way along the joint on the work- valves. See Figure A-1.
piece. The fixture should be easy to use, so that the A carburizing flame with acetylene, MPS, or propy-
workpieces can be loaded and removed rapidly. lene is indicated by trailing feathers on the primary
Fixtures are often used in conjunction with turn- flame cone, or by long, rounded primary flame cone.
ing rolls, rotatingturntablesandmanipulators. See A carburizing flame is often used to produce a smooth
POSITIONER. weld finish, and also for stack cutting thin material.
Brazing Fixtures A neutral flame with acetylene, MPS,or propylene
When fixtures are needed to maintain alignment or is indicated by a sharply defined, dark primary flame
dimensions,themass of a fixture shouldbemini- cone and a pale blue secondary flame envelope. Pro-
mized, It should have pinpoint or knife-edge contact pane and propylene base fuels and natural gas have a
with the parts, away from the joint area. Sharp con- short, sharply defined cone.This flame is obtained by
tacts minimize heatloss through conduction tothe fix- adding oxygen to a carburizing flame. It is the flame
ture. The fixture material must have adequate strength most frequently usedfor cutting.
atbrazingtemperaturetosupportthebrazement.It An oxidizing flame for acetylene orMPS has a light
must not readily alloy at elevated temperatures with colored primary cone and a smaller secondary flame
the work at the points of contact. In torch brazing, shroud. It
generally bums withaharshwhistling
extra clearance will be needed to access the joint with sound. With propane and propylene base fuels and nat-
the torch flame as well as the brazing filler metal. In uralgas, theprimary flame cones arelonger,less
inductionbrazing, fixtures are generallymade of sharply defined, and have a lighter color. An oxidizing
ceramic materials to avoid putting extraneous metal in flame is obtained by adding some oxygen to the neu-
the field of the induction coil. Ceramic fixtures may be tral flame. This type of flame is frequently used for
designed to serve as a heat shield or a heat absorber. fast, low- quality cutting, and selectively in piercing
Reference:AmericanWeldingSociety. Welding and beveling.
Handbook, Vol. 1, 8th Edition. Miami, Florida, 1987;
American WeldingSociety: Welding
Handbook, FLAME BLASTING
Vol. 2,8th Edition. Miami, Florida: American Welding A process for removing paint, rust and scale from
Society, 1991. steel structures innewconstruction or in repainting
operations.Flameblasting is accomplishedwitha
FLAGGING multi-flame oxyacetylene torch which is passed over
In vertical welding, a term appliedto an inward and the surface. The extreme heat of the torch removes
upward movement of the electrode to avoid undercut. scale, oxide and paint.See FLAME CLEANING.
FLAKES FLAME, CARBURIZING
Internal fissures in large steel castings or massive See CARBURIZING FLAME.
rolled shapes. In a fractured surfaceor test piece, they
appear as sizeable areasof silvery brightness and have FLAME CHARACTERISTICS
a more coarse grain size than the surrounding metal. See ACETYLENE;CARBURIZINGFLAME,NEUTRAL
Sometimes flakes are known as chrome cracks, and FLAME, OXIDIZING FLAME, und OXYACETYLENE
when revealed by machining, as hairline cracks. WELDING.

!STD.AWSJWE-ENGL 2997 m 0784265 0536354 T53 D
180 FLAME CLEANING Encyclopedia Welding
FLAME CLEANING and (3) the temperature of the surface at the moment
A metal surface cleaning process accomplished by quenching begins.
movement of a multi-flame oxyacetylene torch over
the surface. The quick, intense heat causes depositsof FLAME MACHINING
oxide, rust, scaleor old paint to be consumed or loos- Flamemachining is alittle-usedvariation of the
ened so that they pop off easily. When a workpiece oxyfuel gas cutting process. This technique is used to
is being primedfor painting, the surface may be swept turn down the diameter of a piece of cylindrical stock
or wiped free of loosened foreign material and painted similar to machining on a lathe. The cutting oxygen
while at an elevated temperature. This improves paint stream impingeson the work (a cylindrical piece) at an
adherence andextends the life of the paint. acute angle, almost tangentially. The oxygen cutting
orifices used are the expanding low-stream velocity
FLAME CUTTING type, with a comparatively large-diameter exit. Rela-
Flame cutting is a commonly used termfor manual tively low oxygen pressures are used. The cut is not
ormechanized OXYGENCUTTING. Oxygencutting permitted to penetrate through the work, as in sever-
applications are shape cutting, stack cutting, powder ing, but is restricted to removal of material from the
cutting, piercing, gouging, and underwater cutting. See surface.
OXYFUEL GAS CUTTING.See also GOUGING, THERMAL
SPRAYING,METALPOWDER CUlTING, UNDERWATER
This change inthe angle of impingement ofthe cut-
CUTTING.
ting oxygen stream hascreated a variety of oxyacety-
lene cutting operations. Because of the similarity to
FLAME HARDENING customary tool machining, these operations are collec-
Flame hardening is a process used to harden or steel tivelytermed flame machining. See OXYFUEL GAS
other ferrous metals. In this process, an oxyacetylene CUTTING.
torch is used to heat the surface of the material to a
high temperature, then a rapid quenchis administered FLAME PRIMING
to produce a hard martensitic surface. See FLAME CLEANING.
Among the advantages of flame hardening are:
(1) The hardnessmay be limited to a comparatively FLAME SHRINKING
thincasing,leavingthebalance of themetalunaf- An oxyacetylene flame process in which buckled or
fected by the heat of the torch. This makesit possible warped plates are spot-heated and quenched immedi-
to heat treat a casting or forging for desiredcore prop- ately with either wateror a mixture of compressed air
erties, such as ductility, toughness, and resistance to and water. This sequence accomplishes an upsetting
impact,andsubsequentlyhardenthesurfacestobe action in the metal, resulting in the shrinking (with
exposed to wear. consequentstraightening,whenappliedproperly) of
(2) Because carbonis the principal hardenin4agent the plate.
in steel, it is possible in many applications to use a
flame-hardened plain carbon steel instead of an expen- FLAME STRAIGHTENING
sive alloy. Straightening structural steel with an oxyacetylene
(3) Name hardening is done on finished surfaces flameprocess is basedonthreecombined facts of
after all machining has been completed, thus saving physics: the expansion of steel as its temperature rises,
the difficulty and expense of machining a hardened the loweringof the yield pointof steel asthe tempera-
metal. ture is increased, andthe ability of steel to flow plasti-
Technique. Flame hardening is done in two stages: cally when the stress imposed exceedsthe yield point.
heating and quenching. First an oxyacetylene flameis The reverse of the first two facts is also utilized in
used to raise the surface temperatureof the area to be flame straightening under certain conditions.
hardened to just over the Ac3 critical point. Then a As heat is applied to a small area of a given section,
rapid quench traps the iron carbide existing in solid there remains enough cold metal to confine, or limit,
solution in the austenite to produce a martensitic struc- the expansion in certain directions. The lowered yield
ture of high hardness. The degree of hardness pro- pointoftheheatedarea is exceeded by the stress
duced will dependon three factors:(1) the constitution caused by expansion,therefore the heat area flows
of the steel before hardening, (2) the rate of cooling, plastically in the confined directions.

~~ ~
~
Welding Encyclopedia WELD FLANGE 181
Theflamestraighteningproceduremustbecon- weld is applicable. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS.

trolled by a person who thoroughly understands struc- See Figure F-2.
tures and has a working knowledgeof the behavior of
steel under stress atelevated temperatures. FLANGED EDGE JOINT
Flame
straightening
can also be
applied to A form of an edge joint in which at least one of the
straighten
bent plates, angle frames, pipes, and members has a flanged edge shape at the joint. See
fabrications. STANDARD WELDING TERMS.See Figure F-2.
FLAME PROPAGATION RATE
FLANGED EDGE SHAPE
The speed at which flame travels through a mixture
of gases. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. A type of edge shape produced by forming the mem-
ber: See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 6.
FLAME SPRAYER
See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See THERMAL FLANGED JOINT
SPRAYER. A form of one of the five basic joint types in which
at least one of the joint members has a flanged edge
FLAME SPRAYING (FLSP) shape at the weld joint. See STANDARD WELDING
A thermal spraying process in which an oxyfuel gas TERMS. See Figure F-2.
flame is the source of heat for melting the surfacing
material. Compressed gas mayor may not be used for FLANGED LAP JOINT
atomizing and propelling the surfacing material to the A form of a lap joint in which at least one of the
substrate. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See THER- members has ajlanged edge shape at the joint, and an
MAL SPRAYING. edge weld is not applicable. See STANDARD WELDING
FLAME SPRAYING OPERATOR TERMS. See Figure F-3.
See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See THERMAL
n
SPRAYING OPERATOR.
FLANGED B u l l JOINT
A form of a butt joint in which at least one of the
members has a flanged edge shape at the joint. See
STANDARD WELDING TERMS.See Figure F-2.
n
Figure F-%Flanged Lap Joints
FLANGED T-JOINT
A form of a T-joint in which the butting member has
aflanged edge shape at the joint, and an edge weld is
Figure F-2-Edge Weld in a Flanged Corner Joint not applicable. See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See
Figure F-4.
FLANGED CORNER JOINT
A form of a comer joint in which the butting mem- FLANGE WELD
ber has aflanged edge shape at the joint, and an edge A nonstandard term fora weld in a flangedjoint.

STD-AUS JWE-ENGL 1997 07842b5 05Lb35b 82b
WELD
182 FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE Welding Encyclopedia
the equipment or the method of operation.One or both

gases should be shutoff immediately to stop combus-
tion within the torch beforeit is damaged by heat.The
torch should be allowed to cool before relighting. If
the flashback reaches the hose, that section should be
discarded, as it has almost certainly been damagedby
the heat. Flashback arresters are available to prevent
these potentially dangerous incidents.
Forcauses of flashback, see BACKFIRE,FLAME
PROPAGATIONRATE, and PRE-IGNITION. Forpreven-
tion, seeFLASHBACK ARRESTER.
Figure F-&Flanged T-Joint FLASHBACKARRESTER

A device to limit damage from a flashback by pre-
FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE WELD
venting propagation of the flame front beyond the
location of the arrestex See STANDARD WELDING
A weld in the groove formed between a joint mem-
TERMS.
ber with a curved surface and another with a planar
surjace. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appen- FLASH BUTT WELDING
dix 6, Sections 4 and 5. A nonstandard termfor FLASH WELDING.
FLARE-GROOVE WELD FLASH COAT
A weld in the groove formed between a joint mem- A thin coating usually less than 0.05 mm (0.002 in.)
ber with a curved surface and another with a planar in thickness. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
surface, or between two joint members with curved
surjaces. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.See Appen- FLASHING ACTION
dix 6, Sections 4 and 5 . See also FLARE-BEVEL- The phenomenon in flashwelding wherein points of
GROOVE WELD and FLARE-V-GROOVE WELD. contact, formed by light pressure across faying sur-
faces, are melted and explosively ejected because of
FLARE-V-GROOVE WELD the extremely high current density at contact points.
A weld in a groove formed by two members with See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
curved su$aces. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See
Appendix 6,Sections 4 and 5. FLASH-OFF TIME
A nonstandard termfor FLASH TIME.
FLASH
Material that is expelled from a flash weld prior to FLASH TIME
the upset portion of the welding cycle. See STANDARD The duration of flashing action during flash weld-
WELDING TERMS. ing. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
Flash, or fin, is metal and oxide expelled from a
joint made by a resistance welding process. FLASH WELD
Alternatively, in arc welding, the unexpected expo- A form of resistance butt-welding, generally used
sure of the unprotected eye to the rays of a welding on stock that is wide and thin; sometimes advisable
arc. See EYE PROTECTION. when the welding faces are not cut square and true. It
is also used in welding tubing to tubing. Flash welding
FLASHBACK is used in cases where a small amount of stock is to be
A recession of the flame into or back of the mixing taken up in the weld, or when the specification is to
chamber of the oxyfiel gas torch or flame spraying shear or grind off thefin. The spacebetweenthe
gun. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. clamping jaws of the butt welding machine is never
In this situation, the flame disappears fromthe end more than the diameter of the stock when making a
of thetipand the gasesburnwithin the torch or flash-weld; generally itis only 70% of the diameterof
beyond,in the hose,usuallywitha shrill, hissing the work. See FLASH WELDING and RESISTANCE
sound. This indicates something seriously wrong with WELDING.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL I1997 m 0784265 05Lb357 7b2 m
pedia Welding (FW) 183
FLASH WELDING (FW) (8) Unclamp the weldment.

A resistance welding process that produces a weld (9) Return the platen and unload.
at the faying surfaces of a butt joint by a flashing Figure F-6 illustrates these basic steps. Additional
action and by theapplication ofpressure afer heating steps such as preheat, dual voltage flashing, postheat,
is substantially completed. Theflashing action, caused and trimmingof the flashmay be addedas the applica-
bythe very highcurrent densities at small contact tion dictates.
points betweenthe workpieces, forcibly expels the Flashing takes place between the faying surfaces as
material from the joint as the workpieces are slowly the movable part is advanced toward the stationary
moved togethel: The weld is completedbyarapid part. Heat is generated at the joint and the temperature
upsetting of the workpieces. See STANDARD WELDING of the parts increases with time. Flashing action (metal
TERMS. See Figure F-5. loss) increases with part temperature.
A graph relating part motion with time is known as
the flashing pattern. In most cases, a flashing pattern
shouldshowaninitialperiod of constantvelocity
motion of one part toward the other to facilitate the
start of flashing. This linear motion should then merge
intoanacceleratingmotionwhichshouldclosely
approximate a parabolic curve. This pattern of motion
is known as parabolic flashing.
Upset occurs when a stable temperature distribution
is achieved by flashing and the two parts are brought
Figure F-+Example of a Flash Weld together rapidly. The movable part should be acceler-
ated rapidly so that the molten metal on the flashing
surfaces will be extruded before it can solidify in the
Principlesof Operation
joint. Motion should continue with sufficient force to
Two parts to be joined are clamped in dies (elec- upset the metal and weld the two pieces together.
trodes)connectedtothesecondary of aresistance Upset current is sometimes applied as the joint is
welding transformer. Voltage is applied as one part is beingupsettomaintaintemperaturebyresistance
advancedslowlytoward the other.Whencontact heating. This permitsupset of the joint withlower
occurs at surface irregularities, resistanceheating force than would be required without it. Upset current
occurs at these locations. High amperage causes rapid is normally adjusted by electronic heat control on the
melting and vaporization of the metal at the points of basis of either experience or welding tests.
contact,andthenminute arcs form. This actionis
called flashing. As the partsare moved together at a Advantages and Llmitatlons
suitable rate, flashing continues until the faying sur- Butt joints between parts with similarcross section
faces are covered with molten metal and a short lengthcan be madeby friction welding and upset welding, as
of each part reaches forging temperature. A weld is well as by flash welding.Listedbelow are some
then created by the application of an upset force to important advantagesof flash welding:
bring the molten faying surfaces in full contact and (1) Cross sectioned shapes other than circular can
forge the parts together. Flashing voltage is terminated be flash welded: for example, angles, H sections, and
at the start of upset. The solidified metal expelled from rectangles. Rotationof parts is not required.
the interfaceis called flash. (2) Parts of similarcross section can be welded with
The basic steps in a flash welding sequence are as their axes aligned or at an angle to each other, within
follows: limits.
(1) Position the parts in the machine. (3) The molten metal film on the faying surfaces
(2) Clamp the parts in the dies (electrodes). and its ejection during upset acts to remove impurities
(3) Apply the flashing voltage. from the interface.
(4) Start platen motion to cause flashing. (4) Preparation of the faying surfaces is not critical
( 5 ) Flash at normal voltage. except for large parts that may require a bevel to ini-
(6)Terminate flashing. tiate flashing.
(7) Upset the weld zone. ( 5 ) Rings of various cross sections can be welded.

STDWAWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5051b358 bTq m
ELDING 184 FLASH (FW) Encyclopedia Welding
(6)The heat-affected zonesof flash weldsare much

narrower than those of upset welds.
The following are some limitationsof the process:
(1) The high single-phase power demand produces
unbalance on three-phase primary power lines.
(2) The molten metal particles ejected during flash-
ing present a fire hazard, may injure the operator, and
may damage shafts and bearings. The operator should
wear face and eye protection, and a barrier or shield
should be used to block flying sparks.
(3) Removal of flash and upset metal is generally
necessary andmay require special equipment.
(4)Alignment of workpieces with small cross sec-
tions is sometimes difficult.
(5) The parts to bejoined must have almost identi-
cal cross sections.
Applications
BaseMetals. Many ferrous and nonferrous alloys
u I \ can be flash welded. Typical metals are carbon and
lowalloysteels,stainlesssteels,aluminum alloys,
nickel alloys, and copper alloys. Titanium alloys can
be flash welded, but an inert gas shield to displace
airfromaround the joint is necessarytominimize
embrittlement.
Dissimilarmetalsmaybeflashwelded if their
upsetting characteristics are similar. Some dissimilar-
ity can be overcome with a difference in the initial
extensions between the clamping dies, adjustment of
flashing distance, and selection of welding variables.
Typical examples are welding of aluminum to copper
or a nickel alloyto steel.
TypicalProducts. The automotiveindustryuses
wheel rims produced from flash welded rings that are
formed fromflat cold-rolled steel stock. Theelectrical
industry uses motor and generator frames produced by
flashweldingplateandbar stock previouslyrolled
intocylindricalform.Cylindricaltransformer cases,
circular flanges, and seals for power transformer cases
are other examples. The aerospace industry uses flash
welds in the manufacture of landing gear struts, con-
trol assemblies, hollow propeller blades, and ringsfor
(0) jet engines and rocket casings.
The petroleum industry uses oil drilling pipe with
Figure F-&The Basic Steps in Flash Welding: fittings attached by flash welding. Several major rail-
roads are using flash welding to join relatively high
(A) Position and Clamp the Patts carbon steel track. In many cases, welding is done in
(B) Apply Flashing Voltage and the field using welding machines and portable generat-
Start Platen Motion
ing equipment mounted on railroad cars.
(C) Flash Miter joints are sometimes used in the production of
(D) Upset and Terminate Current rectangularframes for windows,doors,andother

S T D - A W S JWE-ENGL 1997 H 0784265 0516359 535
Welding FLAW 185
architectural trim. These products are commonly madewillvarywithsectionthickness.Thistendencycan

of plain carbon and stainless steels, aluminum alloys, often be counteracted by proper design of the clamp-
brasses,andbronzes.Usually the serviceloads are ing dies, provided the ratio of the thicknessesdoes not
limited, but appearance requirements of the finished exceed about4 to l.
joints are stringent.
Welding Procedures
Equipment
Every welding operation involves numerous vari-
Typical Machines. A typical flash welding machine
ables that affect the quality of the resulting weld. For
consists of six major parts:
this reason, a welding procedure should be developed
(1) The machinebedwhichhasplatenways
that prescribesthe settings for the welding variables to
attached ensure consistent weld quality. Flash welding involves
(2) The platens whichare mounted on the ways dimensional, electrical, force,andtimevariables.
(3) Two clamping assemblies, one of which is rig- These and other considerations in flash welding, such
idly attached to each platen to align and hold the parts as surface preparation, heat balance, initial die open-
to be welded ing, flashremoval,processvariables,weldquality,
(4)A means for controlling the motionof the mov- testing and inspection, and recommended reading list
able platen arecovered in thefollowingreference:American
( 5 ) A welding transformer with adjustable taps WeldingSociety. WeldingHandbook, 8thEdition,
(6) Sequencing controls to initiate part motion and Vol. 2, Miami,Florida:AmericanWeldingSociety,
flashing current 1991.
Flash weldingmachinesmaybemanual,semi-
automatic, or fully automatic in their operations; how- Safety. Operating personnel
shouldbe
given
ever, most of them are either semi-automatic or fully instructions on how to operate the machinery ina safe
automatic. manner. Hands must be keptclear of moving machin-
ControlsandAuxlliaryEquipment. Electricalcon- ery,and contact with electrically charged surfaces
trolsonflashweldingmachines are integraltypes must be avoided. The area around the machine must
designed to sequence the machine, control the welding kept free of combustibles that might be ignitedby
be
current, and precisely control the platen position dur- molten flash. Additional information onsafe practices
ing flashing and upsetting. for weldingmay be foundinAmericanNational
Standard 249.1, Safety in Welding and Cutting, latest
Dies. Flashwelding dies, compared to spotand edition.
seam welding electrodes, are not in direct contact with
theweldingarea.Diesmaybeconsideredwork- FLAT-COMPOUND GENERATOR
holding and current-conducting clamps. The dies are
usually mechanically fastened to the welding machine A generator designed to produce a constant output
platens. voltage under differentloads and speeds.
Fixtures and Backups
FLAT POSlTiON
The functions of fixtures for flash weldingare (1) to
rapidly and accurately locate two or more parts rela- See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See FLATWELD-
tive to each other, (2) to hold them in proper location ING POSITION, und WELDING POSITION.
while they are being welded, and (3) to permit easy
release of the welded assembly. A fixture is either fas- FLAT WELDING POSITION
tened to the machine or built into it. Parts are loaded The welding position used to weld from the upper
directly into thefixture and welded. side of the joint at a point wherethe weld axis is
Joint Design approximately horizontal, and the weld face lies in an
In general, the two parts to be welded should have approximately horizontal plane. See STANDARD WELD-
the same cross section at thejoint. Bosses may have to ING TERMS. See Appendix 4.
be machined, forged,or extruded on parts to meet this
requirement. In the flash welding of extruded or rolled FLAW
shapeswithdifferentthicknesseswithinthe cross- An undesirable discontinuity.See STANDARD WELD-
section,thetemperaturedistributionduringflashing ING TERh4S. See DEFECT.

STD=AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb3b0 257 m
pedia
ding
Welding
Seam
Resistance
COOLING,
186 FLOOD
FLOOD COOLING, Resistance Seam Welding (cubic ft per hour) for the particular gas being used.
The application of liquidcoolant directly on the The welder can setthe meter for the required flow rate.
work andthecontacting electrodes. See STANDARD The flowmeter tubeis calibrated at a positive pres-
WELDING TERMS. sure which normally exceeds any back pressure pro-
ducedby the weldingequipment. This makes it
FLOWABILITY possible to get a true reading
of the gas flow.
The ability of molten filler metal to flow or spread
over ametal surface. SeeSTANDARD WELDINGTERMS. FLOW RATE
The rate at which gas is caused to flow for oxyfuel
FLOW BRAZING (FLB) cutting or welding, or to provide shielding during arc
A brazing process that uses heat from molten non- welding by anyofseveralprocesses,including gas
ferrous filler metal poured over the joint until brazing metal arc welding (GMAW), gas tungsten arc welding
temperature is attained. This is an obsolete or seldom (GTAW), flux cored arc welding (FCAW), or electro-
used process. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. gas welding (EGW).
The flow rate is controlled by flow meters that are
FLOW BRIGHTENING, Soldering calibrated either in liters per minute or cubic feet per
Fusion of a metallic coating on a base metal. See hour.
STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. The flow rate of shielding gases for GMAW (Mig)
should be sufficient toexclude air from the weld loca-
FLOW COATING tion; theflow of gasshouldmaintainadequateand
A finishing method in which a paint or coating is effective coverage of the weld arc. This is influenced
applied with a spray gun or brush to weldments or by a number of variables: (1) the shielding gas used,
workpieces whichare too largefor dipping or are inan (2) design of weld joint, (3) distance of gas nozzle ori-
inaccessiblearea.
Special
paints or coatingsare fice from the work surface, (4) size of the gas nozzle,
needed for this application, since some do not flow (5) shape of the gas nozzle, (6) the presence of drafts
satisfactorily. or air currents, (7) inclinationof the torch, (8) arc
length, (9) welding speed, (10) size of the weld pud-
FLOW INDICATOR dle, (11) position of the workpiece, and (12) metal or
Inwelding,ameasuringinstrumentwhichdeter- alloy being welded.
mines the exact amount of gas being used by a torch. A flow rate of 3 Lpm (6 CU ft/hr) for helium and
The flow indicator allows an experienced operator to 2 Lpm (4 CU ft/hr) for argon generally provides effec-
watch the position of the indicator to find the most tive shieldingin still atmospheres. While these rates are
efficient mixture of gases for a certain class of work, only about one-third the rates normally usedfor aver-
and enablesthe operator to duplicatethe same flame at age welding conditions, they indicate that cost control
any time. This instrument also serves as an accurate is possible whenall other factorsare under control.
check on the quantity of gas being used and the effi- Excessive gas flow is not only wasteful, but can
ciency with which thegas is used by the operator. also be detrimental tothe weld metal andthe welding
operation. Excessive flow mayalso cause an unstable
FLOW METER arc at low welding currents and result in undercutting
A flowmeter measures and control the flow of a liq- the work surface by the weld bead.
uid or gas, usedespeciallytocontrol the flow of
shielding gases in welding operations. When used on a FLOW WELDING (FLOW)
high pressure cylinder, a flowmeter is usually com- A braze welding process variation that uses molten
bined with a regulator into a regulator-flowmeter unit filler metal poured over the fision faces as the heat
which reduces the high-pressure gas in the cylinder or source. This is an obsolete or seldom used process. See
cylinder manifold to a lower working pressure. The STANDARD WELDINGTERMS.
lower pressure is received by the flowmeter and the
required gas flow to the welding headis controlled by FLUORINE
manual adjustment of a throttle valve. (Chemicalsymbol: F). A paleyellow gas which
The flow of shielding gas is indicated on a flow- forms fluoride compounds with a number of elements,
metertube,which is calibrated in litersperminute some of whichare used as ingredients of welding fluxes.

~~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb3bL L93 H

Encyclopedia
Welding (FCAW)
WELDING ARC CORED FLUX 187
Atomicweight 19; meltingpoint-223C (-369F); bicarbonate of soda make a good compound for this
specific gravity, (gas) 1.3 1 (liquid) 1.41 at -200C. purpose. Also,for cast ironarc welding, various fluxes
prevent oxidation and rapid cooling of the melt, andby
FLUSH WELD combining with the excess carbon prevent the forma-
A term applied to a weld when the top layeris fin- tion of hard compounds of iron and carbon.
ished perfectlyflat or on the same plane asthe adjoin- Copper requires a filler rod containing phosphorus
ing material. The weld is made with a minimum of toproduceweldmetalwithoutoxides.Powdered
reinforcement, with depositsof a minimum numberof borax is often used as a flux with copper alloys.
layers of weld metal. This application is used when a Aluminum requires flux because there is a tendency
maximum tensile strength is not critical and must be for the heavy slag formed to mix with the meltedalu-
specified by the designer. minumandweakentheweld.Forsheetaluminum
welding it is customary to dissolve the flux in water
FLUX and apply it to the rod. After welding aluminum, all
A material used to hinder or prevent the formation traces of the flux must be removed.
of oxides and other undesirable substances in molten Flux coatings often increase the speedof arc weld-
metal and on solid metal su$aces, and to dissolve or ing,althoughthis is notuniversallytrue.Theyalso
otherwise facilitate the removal of such substances. concentrate the deposit,reducespatter,andtend to
See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. prevent oxidation of the weld metal, as well as reduce
Fluxes are used in fusion welding, brazing, and sol- the rateof cooling.
dering to prevent the formation of oxides. They are
used in brazing and soldering to dissolve or facilitate FLUX COATED ELECTRODE
removal of oxides. See ACTIVEFLUX and NEUTRAL A metal arc welding electrode coated with a flux.
FLUX. The purpose of the flux is (1) to unite with undesirable
The oxides of all the commercial metals and alloys impurities in the fused metal andfloat them away as a
except steel have higher melting points than the metals heavyslag, (2) toprotect the weldfrom the atmo-
themselves. Oxides are usually viscous (some are even sphere, and (3) to slow down the rate of cooling. See
insoluble)whenthemetal is fluid andat its proper ELECTRODE. See also FLUX CORED ARC WELDING.
welding temperature. An efficient flux combines with
oxides to form fusible slag with a melting point lower FLUX CORED ARC WELDING (FCAW)
than the metal. This slag forms a coating over the mol- An arc welding process that uses an arc between a
ten metal and thus serves as a protection against atmo- continuous filler metal electrode and the weld pool.
sphericoxidation. The chemicalcharacteristicsand The process is used with shielding gas froma flux con-
melting points of the oxides of different metals vary tained within the tubular electrode, with or without
greatly and therefore there is no one flux that will be additional shielding from an externally supplied gas,
satisfactory forall applications. andwithoutthe application of pressure. See STAN-
The melting pointof a flux must be lower than that DARD WELDING TERMS. See also FLUXCOREDELEC-
of either the metal or the oxides formedso that it will TRODE, GAS SHIELDEDFLUXCOREDARCWELDING,
be liquid during the welding operation. and SELF-SHIELDED FLUX CORED ARC WELDING.
Fluxes are availablepackedinpowder form in The feature that distinguishes the FCAW process
metal or plastic containers. Some lose their effective- from other arc welding processes is the enclosure of
ness if overexposed to atmosphere, and in such cases fluxingingredientswithinacontinuously fed elec-
smallcontainers are best.Someweldersusea flux trode. The remarkable operating characteristics of the
box, a short section of large pipe welded to a heavy process and the resulting weld properties are attribut-
plate about 150 mm (6 inches) square. This prevents abletothiselectrodedevelopment. The fluxcored
the flux from tipping over duringjob a and holds only electrode is a composite tubular filler metal electrode
asmallamount of flux so accidental losses are consisting of a metal sheath and core
a of various pow-
minimal. deredmaterials.Duringwelding an extensiveslag
Fluxes differ in their composition according to the cover is produced on the face of a weld bead.
metals with which they are used. In cast iron welding, Note that metal cored electrodes are not includedin
a slag forms on the puddle and the flux serves to break this description, because their powdered core materials
upthisslag.Equalpartsofcarbonate of sodaand produce no more than slag islands on the face of a

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 05Lb3b2 02T M
188 FLUX CORED ARC WELDING (FCAW) Encyclopedia
Welding
weld bead. Thus, they do not match the definition of The FCAW features, as well as those that distin-
flux cored electrodes. guish the two major versions of the process, are shown
FCAW offers two major process variations that dif- in Figure F-7, illustrating the gas-shielded version, and
fer in their method of shielding the arc and weld pool Figure F-8, illustratingtheself-shieldedtype.Both
from atmosphericcontamination(oxygenandnitro- figures emphasize the melting and depositionof filler
gen). One type, self-shieldedFCAW, protects the mol- metal and flux, together with the formation of a slag
ten metal through the decomposition and vaporization covering the weld metal.
of the flux coreby the heat of the arc. The other type, In the gas shielded method, shown in Figure F-7,
gasshielded FCAW, makesuse of aprotectivegas the shielding gas (usually carbon dioxide or a mixture
flowinadditiontotheflux core action.Withboth of argon and carbon dioxide) protects the molten metal
methods, the electrode core material provides a sub- from the oxygen and nitrogenof the air by forming an
stantial slag covering to protect the solidifying weld envelope aroundthe arc and overthe weld pool. Little
metal. need exists forde-nitrification of theweldmetal
Flux cored electrodes are also usedinelectrogas because air with its nitrogen is mostly excluded. How-
welding (EGW). That process is a single pass, verti- ever, some oxygen may be generated from dissociation
cal-up welding process.See ELECTROGAS WELDING. of CO2 to form carbon monoxide and oxygen. The
Flux cored arc welding is normally a semiautomatic compositions of the electrodes are formulated to pro-
process. The process is also used in machine and auto- vide deoxidizers to combine with small amounts of
matic welding. oxygen in the gas shield.
Historical Background In the self-shielded method shown in Figure F-8,
Fluxcoredwireswereinitiallyintroduced in the shielding is obtained from vaporized flux ingredients
1920s, basically for hardfacing, with the first patents which displace the air, and by slag compositions that
granted to Stoody in 1926. There was little develop- cover the molten metal droplets, to protect the molten
ment work in this area for a time becauseof improve- weld pool duringwelding.Production of CO2 and
mentsintheperformance of coatedelectrodesand introduction of deoxidizing and denitriding agents
lack of a suitable power supply to obtain the benefits from flux ingredients right at the surface of the weld
of flux cored welding. The development of GMAW in pool explain whyself-shielded electrodes can tolerate
theearly1950srenewedinterest in theuse of flux stronger air currents than gas shielded electrodes.
coredarcwelding.Widespreaduse of the product Thus self-shielded FCAW is the usual choice for field
started in 1957 withthe development of competitively work.
priced flux cored wires for welding steel. It was found One characteristic of some self-shielded electrodes
that a small quantity of flux combined with CO2 gas is theuse of longelectrodeextensions.Electrode
protection produced weld metal with very good prop- extension is the length of unmelted electrode extend-
erties. However, when used in the field for welding ing beyondthe end of the contact tube during welding.
steelstructures, for example,thewindwouldoften Self-shielded electrode extensions of 19 to 95 mm (3/4
blow the gas away. Welds produced under these condi- to 3-3/4 in.) are generallyused,dependingonthe
tions would be defective. To correct this problem, a application. A self-shielded electrode nozzleis shown
self-shielded flux cored wire was developed. Fluxing in Figure F-9.
materialswereintroducedintothe core thatwould
Increasing the electrodeextensionincreases the
produce greater quantitiesof CO2 to shield the weld.
resistance heating of the electrode. This preheats the
Process Advantages electrode and lowers the voltage drop across the arc.
The benefits of FCAW are achieved by combining Atthe same time,theweldingcurrentdecreases,
three general features: which lowers the heat available for melting the base
(1) The productivity of continuous wire welding metal. The resulting weld beadis narrow and shallow.
(2) The metallurgical benefits that can be derived Thismakes the process suitable for weldinglight
from a flux gauge material and for bridging gaps caused by poor
(3) A slag that supports and shapes the weld bead fit-up. If the arc length (voltage) and welding current
FCAW combines characteristics of shielded metal are maintained (by higher voltage settingstheatpower
arc welding(SMAW), gas
metal
arc
welding supply and higher electrode feed rates), longer elec-
(GMAW), and submerged arc welding (SAW). trode extension will increase the deposition rate.

--
Encyclopedia
Welding FLUX CORED ARC WELDING (FCAW) 189
f GASNOZZLE
/
WIRE GUIDE AND
CONTACT TUBE
SHIELDING GAS
TUBULAR ELECTRODE
POWDERED METAL,
FLUX AND SLAG
FORMING MATERIALS
L WELD POOL
L ARC AND METAL
TRANSFER
Figure F-7-Gas Shielded Flux Cored Arc Welding
On certain types of self-shielding flux cored elec- Principal Applications

trodes, the polarity should be DCEN (straight polar- Application of thetwomethodsoftheFCAW
ity). This polarity results in less basemetal process overlap. However, the specific characteristics
penetration.Asaresult,smalldiameterelectrodes of each method make each one suitable for different
such as 0.8 mm (0.030 in.), 0.9 mm (0.035 in.), and operatingconditions. The process is used to weld
1.2 mm (0.045 in.) have provento be quite successful carbon and low alloy steels, stainless steels, and cast
for work on thin-gauge materials. Some self-shielded irons.Itis also used for arcspotwelding of lap
electrodes have been developed specifically to weld joints in sheet and plate, as well as for cladding and
the zinc-coated and aluminized steels which are now hardfacing.
commonly usedin automobile production. The type of FCAW used depends on the type of
In contrast, the gas-shielded methodis suited to the electrodes available, the mechanical property require-
production of narrow, deeply penetrating welds. Short ments of the welded joints, and the joint designs and
electrodeextensionsandhighweldingcurrentsare fit-up. Generally, the self-shielded method can often
used for all wire diameters. For fillet welding, com- beused for applicationsthat are normallydoneby
pared to SMAW,FCAW welds are narrowerwith shielded metal arc welding. The gas shielded method
larger throat lengths.The electrode extension principle can be used for some applications that are welded by
cannot be equally applied to the gas shielded method the gas metal arc welding process. The advantages and
because of adverse effects on the shielding. disadvantages of the FCAW processmustbecom-

g(FCAW)
WELDING
190 ARC
FLUX CORED
TUBULAR ELECTRODE
WIRE GUIDE
f POWDERED METAL, VAPOR
FORMING MATERIALS,
AND CONTACT TUBE
DEOXIDIZERS AND SCAVENGERS
SOLIDIFIED SLAG -
/ I \
ARC SHIELD COMPOSED
OF VAPORIZED AND
SLAG FORMING COMPOUNDS
7 ARC AND METAL TRANSFER
L WELD METAL
Figure F-8-Self-shielded Flux Cored Arc Welding
pared to those of other processes when it is evaluated surfacing, joining dissimilar metals, and maintenance
for a specific application. and repair.
Higher productivity, comparedto shielded metal arc The major disadvantages, compared to the SMAW
welding, is the chief appeal of flux cored arc welding process, are the higher cost of the equipment, the rela-
for many applications. This generally translates into tive complexityof the equipmentin setup and control,
lower overall costs per pound of metal deposited in and the restriction on operating distance from theelec-
joints that permit continuous welding and easy FCAW trode wire feeder. Self-shielded FCAW may generate
gun and equipment accessibility. The advantages are large volumesof welding fumes, which, exceptin field
higher deposition rates, higher operating factors, and work, require suitable exhaust equipment. Compared
higher deposition efficiency (no stub loss). to the slag-free GMAW process, the need for remov-
FCAW hasfoundwideapplicationin fabricating ing slag between passesis an added labor cost.This is
shops, in maintenance, and field erection work.It has especially true in making root pass welds.
beenusedtoproduceweldmentsconformingtothe
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, the rules of Equipment
the AmericanBureauofShipping,andANSUAWS Semiautomatic Equipment. Asshown in Figure
Dl. 1, Structural Welding Code-Steel. FCAW enjoys F-10, the basic equipment for self-shielded and gas
prequalified status inANSUAWS D l. l. shielded flux cored arc welding is similar. The major
Stainless steel, self-shielded, and gas shielded flux difference is the provision for supplying and metering
>- coredelectrodeshavebeenusedingeneralfabrication, gas to the arcof the gas shielded electrode. The recom-

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 M 07842b5051b3b5839 W
opedia Welding 191
cally adjusts to maintain the preset arc voltage. Elec-

trode feed rate may be controlled by mechanical or
electronic means.
Weldinggunsmaybe either aircooled or water
cooled. Air-cooled guns are favored because there is
norequirementtodeliverwater.However,water-
cooled guns are more compact, lighter in weight, and
generally have higher current ratings. Capacity ratings
range up to 600 A, continuous duty. Guns may have
either straight or curved nozzles. The curved nozzle
can vary from 40" to 60". In some applications, the
curved nozzle enhances flexibility and ease of elec-
trode manipulation.
Fume Extractors
As a result of safety and health requirements for
controlling air pollution, several manufacturers have
introduced welding guns equipped with integral fume
extractors. A fumeextractorusuallyconsists of an
INSULATED exhaust nozzle that encircles the gun nozzle. It can be
GUIDE TUBE
adaptedtogas-shieldedandself-shieldedguns.The
nozzleisductedto a filter canisterandanexhaust
pump. The aperture of the fume extracting nozzle is
located at a sufficient distance behind the top of the
gun nozzle to draw in the fumes rising from the arc
FLUX CORED without disturbing the shielding gas flow.
ELECTRODE
FLUX CORED ELECTRODE
A composite tubular filler metal electrode consist-
ing of a metal sheath and a core of various powdered
WORK
materials, producingan extensive slag cover on the
Figure F--ut Away View of a Self-shielded face of aweld bead. External shielding may be
Electrode Nozzle Showing Electrode Extension required. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
A fluxcoredelectrodeconsists of a mild steel
sheath surrounded by a core of flux or alloying com-
mended power source is the dc constant-voltage type, pound, or both. The compounds contained in flux core
similar to sources used for gas metal arc welding.The make up about 15% to 20% of the weight of the elec-
power supply should be capable of operating at the trode and serve the following functions:
maximum current requiredfor the specific application. (1) Actas a deoxidizer or scavenger,helping to
Most semiautomatic applications use less than500 A. purify the metal and produce solid weld metal.
The voltage control should be capableof adjustments (2) Form slag to float on the molten weld pool and
in increments of one volt or less. Constant-current (dc) protect it from the atmosphere during solidification.
power sources of adequate capacity with appropriate (3) Actasanarcstabilizer,whichproduces a
controlsandwirefeeders are alsoused,butthese smooth welding arc and reduces spatter.
applications are rare. (4) Add alloyingelementstotheweldmetal to
The purposeof the wire feed control is to supply the increasestrengthandprovideother desirable weld
continuous electrode to the welding arc at a constant metal properties.
preset rate. The rate at which the electrode isfed into (5)Provideforshieldinggas.However,toassure
the arc determines the welding amperage that a con- weld quality,
externally
supplied shielding
gas
is
stant-voltage power source will supply. If the electrode oftenusedtosupplementandguaranteeweldmetal
feed rate is changed, the welding machine automati- shielding.
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 M 07811265 05Lb3bb 775 m
RED 192 FLUX Encyclopedia Welding
SHIELDING
GAS
SOURCE
WIRE DRIVE
ELECTRODE POWER CABLE
NOTE: GAS SHIELDING IS USED ONLY WITH

FLUX CORED ELECTRODES THAT REQUIRE IT.
Figure F-1 &Basic Equipment for Flux Cored Arc Welding
Metal Transfer Characteristics. Metal transfer from size, because the flux covering on a stick electrode
flux cored electrodesis in globular form. Molten drop- must have a binder to make it adhere to the electrode
lets appear to form on the sheath of the electrode; as wire and must also contain materials that aid in
one is transferred, another droplet forms in another the extrusion process. As a result, the fluxing mate-
location on the sheath.The flux material appearsto be rial on a coated stick electrode is about 24% of its
transportedtothewelddepositindependentof the weight, compared to a flux content of 15% in flux
metal transfer. The droplets are larger at low current cored wire.
intensity. This means there is less visible spatter, the
arcappearssmootheranddepositionefficiency is Advantages
higher
whenwelding is doneat
high
current Among the advantages of flux cored welding is that
intensities. flux cored wires canbe used at high current densities,
The flux content of a flux cored electrode is less which achieves high deposition rates and good weld-
than that for a coated stick electrode of comparable ability. The efficiency of flux cored weldingis greater

STD.AWS JWE-ENGL 1777 9 07842b5 05Lb3b7 b O 1 9
Welding Encyclopedia ELECTRODE CORED FLUX 193
thanstickelectrodewelding.Forcoatedelectrodes, electrodes are classified accordingto the requirements

theprocessefficiency is 65% to 70%, and for flux of ANSUAWS A5.20, latest edition, Specijkation for
cored wires, nearly85%. Carbon Steel Electrodes for Flux Cored Arc Welding.
Flux cored wire is also good in welding conditions Table F-2 explains the significance of the last digit of
which include narrow grooves. The minimum angleof the FCAW designations.
preparation is 40 to 45", so joints can be welded with
about half of the amount of weld metal in less time.
The lower total heat input also minimizes distortion. Table F-2
Shielding andPolarity Requirements
Manufacture. Fluxcoredwiremanufacturing is a for Mild Steel FCAW Electrodes
highlyspecializedandpreciseoperation.Most flux
cored electrode wire is made by passing low-carbon External
steel strip through a contour forming roll which bends Shielding Current and
the strip into a U-shape cross section. This cross sec- AWS Classification
Medium
Polarity
tion is filled with a measured amountof granular flux EXXT-1 (Multiple-pass) CO2 dc, electrode
positive
cored material, after whichthe U-shape section passes EXXT-2 (Single-pass) CO, dc, electrode
positive
through closing rollsthat form itintoatubewith EXXT-3 (Single-pass)
Nonedc,
electrode
positive
tightlycompressed core material. This tube,which EXXT-4 (Multiple-pass)
Nonedc,
electrode
positive
may have assumed a varietyof interior shapes, is then EXXT-5 (Multiple-pass) CO, dc, electrode
positive
pulled through drawing dies to reduce its diameter and EXXT-6 (Multiple-pass)
Nonedc,
electrode
positive
further compress the core material. After thewire has EXXT-7 (Multiple-pass)
None dc, electrode
positive
been reduced to the specified diameter, itmay or may EXXT-8 (Multiple-pass)
Nonedc,
electrodenegative
not be baked, depending on theflux content. It is then EXXT-9 (Multiple-pass)
None dc,
electrode
negative
wound on 1 0 or 20 kg (25 or 50 lb) spools or 30 kg EXXT-10 (Single-pass)
None dc,
electrode
negative
(60 lb) coils. EXXT-11 (Multiple-pass)Nonedc,electrodenegative
Classification of Electrodes EXXT-G (Multiple-pass) * *
EXXT-GS (Single-pass) * *
Figure F-11 illustrates the identification system for
*As agreed upon between supplierand user.
mild steel FCAW electrodes. Most mild steel FCAW
DESIGNATES AN ELECTRODE.
INDICATES THE MINIMUM TENSILE STRENGTHOF THE

DEPOSITED WELD METALIN A TEST WELD MADE WITH
THE ELECTRODE AND IN ACCORDANCE WITH SPECIFIED
WELDING CONDITIONS.
INDICATES THE PRIMARY WELDING POSITION FOR WHICH

THE ELECTRODE IS DESIGNED:
E XX T-X O - FLAT
AND
HORIZONTAL
POSITIONS
1 - ALL POSITIONS
Ti INDICATES USABILITY AND PERFORMANCE CAPABILITIES.
INDICATES A FLUX CORED ELECTRODE.
Figure F-Il-Identification System for Mild Steel FCAW Electrodes

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 078V2b5 D51b3b8 548
194 Soldering
Brazing
FLUX
COVER,
Dip
Dip
and
Bath
Metal Welding
Encyclopedia
FLUX COVER, Metal Bath Dip Brazing and

Dip Soldering as metal movement occurs, especially in projection
A layer of molten flux over the molten $lier metal welding. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS.
bath. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
FORCE
FLUX CUTTING (FOC) Energy exerted between twoor more bodies which
An oxygen cutting process that uses heat from an tends to change their relative shapes or positions.
oxyfiel gas flame, with aflux in the flame to aid cut-
ting. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. FOREHAND WELDING
Flux cutting is primarily intendedfor cutting stain- A welding technique in which the welding torch or
less steels. The fluxis designed to react with oxides of gun is directed toward the progress of welding. See
alloying elements, such as chromium and nickel, to STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also TRAVEL ANGLE,
produce compounds with melting points near those of WORK ANGLE, and PUSH ANGLE.
iron oxides. A special apparatus is required to intro-
duce the flux intothe kerf. With aflux addition, stain- FORGE-DELAY TIME, Resistance Welding
less steels can be cut essentially the same as carbon The time elapsing between a preselected point in
steels. Cutting speeds approaching those for equiva- the welding cycle and the initiation of the forging
lent thicknessesof carbon steel can be attained. The tip force. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
sizes will be larger, and the cutting oxygen flow will
be somewhat greater than for the carbon steels. See FORGE FORCE
OXYFUEL GAS CUTTING. A compressive force applied to the weld afier the
heating portion of the welding cycle is essentially
FLUXED ELECTRODE complete. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
A metal electrode provided with a flux.
FORGE WELDING(FOW)
FLUX INJECTION CUTTING A solid-state welding process that produces a weld
See OXYF'UELGASCUTTING,FLUX CUlTING and by heating the workpieces to welding temperature and
METAL POWDER CUTTING. applying blows sufficient to cause permanent defor-
mation at the faying suvaces. See STANDARD WELD-
FLUX, Magnetic ING
TERMS. See also COLD WELDING, DIFFUSION
The magnetic lines of force existing between the WELDING, and HOT PRESSURE WELDING,
two opposite magnetic poles
of a magnet. Forge welding was the earliest welding process and
the only one in common use until well into the nine-
FLUX OXYGENCUlllNG teenth century. Blacksmiths used this process. Pressure
A nonstandard termfor FLUX CUTTING. vessels and steel pipe were among the industrial items
once fabricated by forge welding. The process finds
FOCAL POINT some application with modem methods of applying
A nonstandard termfor FOCAL SPOT. the heat and pressure necessary to achieve a weld. The
chief present day applicationsare in the production of
FOCAL SPOT, Electron Beam Welding and Cutting, and tubing and clad metals.
Laser Beam Welding and Cutting
A location at which the beam has the most concen- Principles of Operation
trated energy and the smallest cross-sectional area. The sections to be joined by forge welding may be
See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. heated in a forge, furnace, or byotherappropriate
means until they are very malleable.A weld is accom-
FOCUS FILM DISTANCE plished by removing the parts from the heat source,
The distanceincentimeters(inches)betweenthe superimposingthem,andthenapplyingpressure or
focal spot of the X-ray or the radiation source and the hammer blows to the
joint.
film. Heating time is the major variable that affectsjoint
quality. Insufficient heat willfail to bring the surfaces
FOLLOW-UP, Resistance Welding to the proper degreeof plasticity, and welding will not
The ability of the moveable electrode to maintain take place. If the metalis overheated, a brittle joint of
proper electrode force and contact with the workpiece very low strength may result. The overheated joint is

~~
STDOAWS
JWE-ENGL L997 W 0784265 05Lb3b9 484 m
GING
Encyclopedia
Welding 195
likely to have a rough, spongy appearance where the JointDesign. The five joint designs applicable to
metal is severely oxidized. The temperature must be manual forge weldingare the lap, butt,cleft, jump, and
uniform throughoutthe joint interfaces to yield a satis- scarf types shown in Figure F-12. The joint surfaces
factory weld. for these welds are slightly rounded or crowned. This
shape ensures that the center of the pieces will weld
Process Modes
first so that any slag,dirt, or oxideon the surfaces will
Hammer Welding. In hammer welding, coalescence be forced outof the joint as pressureis applied. &a$-
is produced by heating the parts to be welded in a ing is the term applied to the preparation of the work-
forge or other furnace and then applying pressure by piecesof
forgewelding.
Similarly,the
prepared
means of hammer blows. Manual hammer welding is surface is referred to as a scarfed surface. Each work-
the oldest technique. Pressure is applied to the heated piece to be welded must be upset sufficiently for an
members by repeated high-velocity blows with a com- adequate distance from the scarfed surface to provide
paratively light sledge hammer. Modem automatic and metal for mechanical working during welding.
semiautomatichammerweldingisaccomplished by
blows of a heavy power-driven hammer operating at
low velocity. The hammer may be powered by steam,
hydraulic, or pneumatic equipment.
The size and quantity of parts to be fabricated will
determine the choice of either manual or power-driven
SCARF JI BUlT
hammerwelding.Thisprocessmaystillbeusedin
somemaintenanceshops,butitlargelyhasbeen
replaced by other welding processes.
LAP CLEFT
Die Welding. This is a forge welding process where
coalescence is produced by heating the parts in a fur-
Figure F-12-Typical Joint Designs Used for
nace and then applying pressure by means of dies. The Manual Forge Welding
dies also shapethe work while it is hot.
Metals Welded
Low carbon steels in the form of sheets, bars, tub- Flux
ing, pipe and plates are the metals most commonly In the forge welding of certain metals, a flux must
joined by forge welding. be used to prevent the formation of oxide scale. The
The major influences on the grain structure of the flux and the oxides present combine to form a pro-
weld and heat-affected zone are the amount of forging tective coating on the heated surfaces of the metal.
applied and the temperature at which the forge weld- This coating prevents the formation of additional
ing takes place.A high temperature is generally neces- oxide and lowers the melting point of the existing
sary fortheproduction of asoundforgeweld. oxide.
Annealing can refine the grain size in a forge welded Two commonly usedfluxes for steels are silica sand
steel joint and improvejoint ductility. and borax (sodium tetra borate). Flux is not required
Thin,extrudedsections of aluminumalloyare for very low-carbon steels (ingot iron) and wrought
joined edge-to-edge by a forge welding process with iron because their oxides have low melting points. The
automatic equipment to form integrally stiffened pan- fluxmostcommonlyusedintheforgeweldingof
els. The panels are used for lightweighttruckand high-carbon steelsis borax. Because it has a relatively
trailer bodies. Success of the operation depends upon low fusion point, borax maybe sprinkled on the metal
the use of correct temperature and pressure, effective while itis in the processof heating. Silica sandis suit-
positioningandclamping devices, edgepreparation, able as a fluxin the forge welding of low-carbon steel.
and other factors. Although the welding of aluminum
for this applicationis called forge welding, it could be FORGING SPEED, Friction Welding
classified as hot pressure welding because the edges to The relative velocity of the workpieces at the instant
be joined are heated to welding temperature and then the forge force is applied. See STANDARD WELDING
upset by the application of pressure. TERMS.

STD-AWS JWE-ENG,L L997 m 07842b5 05Lb370 LTb m
196 FORGING
FORGING STRAINS FREQUENCY

Strains resulting from forging orfrom cooling from The number of complete alternations per second in
the forging temperature. an alternating current.See CYCLE.
4F, Plate FRICTION SOLDERING

A welding test position designationfor a linearfillet A nonstandard termfor ABRASION SOLDERING.
weld applied to a jointin which the weld is made in the FRICTION SPEED, Friction Welding
overhead welding position. See STANDARD WELDING The relative velocity of the workpieces at the timeof
TERMS. See Appendix 4. initial contact. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See
Figures D-6 and 1-8.
4F, Pipe
A welding test position designationfor a circumfer- FRICTION STIR WELDING (FW-S)
ential fillet weld applied to a joint in pipe, with its axis A variation of friction welding that produces a weld
vertical, in whichthe weld is mudeinthe overhead between two butted workpieces by the friction heating
welding position. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. and plastic material displacement caused by a high
See Appendix 4. speed rotating tool that traverses along the weld joint.
46 A solid phase, autogenous welding method intro-
A welding test position designation for a linear duced in 1991 that has been used successfully in weld-
gmove weld applied to a joint in which the weld is ing the 2000,5000, and 6000 series of aluminum sheet
made in the overhead welding position. See STAN- alloys.
DARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 4. Welding is accomplished by
rotating
non-
a
consumableprobeandenteringitintotheabutting
FRACTURE edges of the sheets to be welded. The frictional heat
A crack or break which the welder is required to generatedbetweenthetoolandtheworkpiecespro-
repair. duces plastic deformation, then the tool is moved along
the joint. The base materialfills in behind the probe to
FRANGIBLE DISC complete the weld. No melting occurs during the oper-
A thin disc, usually of metal, which closes the dis- ation, so the process is solid phase in nature. For cer-
charge channel of a gas cylinder under normal condi- tain aluminum alloys, no shielding gas is required.
tionsbut is intendedtoruptureatapredetermined The joining of aluminumalloys,especiallythose
pressure to allow the escapeof gas. that are often difficult to weld, has been the initial tar-
get for developing and judging the performance of fric-
FREE BEND TEST tion stir welding. As the technology for this processis
developed, its use will be applied to other materials.
A bending test in which the specimen is bent with-
out constraintof a jig. Since this test can be hazardous, Applications
its use is not recommended. Friction stir welding has potential applications in
major industries suchas aerospace, aluminum produc-
FREEZING tion, automotive, construction, railcar manufacturing,
A term applied when the metallic electrode sticks torefrigeration, shipbuilding, and storage tanks and pres-
the workpiece when thearc is struck. In most welding sure vessels.
circuits, when the electrode is touched to the work- Advantages
piece the current exceeds the normal welding current (1) The electromechanical machine tool equipment
by 40% to 50%. The arc formedby this excess current is energyefficient(a single pass12.5mm [0.5 in.]
instantly fuses a portion of the electrode end to the deep weldcanbemade in 6xxxalloywitha gross
workpiece against which it is struck. The workpiece, power of 3 kW), requires verylittle maintenance, and
however, is usuallycold, so that the fused metal is apart from welding tools and electric power,relies on
solidified or frozen almost instantly, and if the end no other consumable.
of the electrode is not withdrawn quickly it becomes (2) A high level of operator skill and trainingis not
attached to the solidified metal. required.

-~
Licensed by Information Handling Services ~~ ~ ~~
S T D D A W S JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 0516371 032
pedia Welding (FRWI 197
(3) The welding process requires neither filler met-

als nor weld pool shielding gas.
(4)Special joint edge profiling is unnecessary.
( 5 ) Oxide removal immediately prior to welding is
unnecessary.
(6) The techniqueis ideally suitedto automation.
(7) Ifnecessary, the weldingoperationcantake v
place in all positions fromflat to overhead.
Limitations
(1) Single-pass welding speeds in some sheet alloys
areslowerthan for somemechanizedarcwelding
techniques.
(2) The partsmustberigidlyclampedagainst a
backingbartopreventweldmetalbreakout, if full
penetrations are required.
-x
(3) At the end of each weld run a holeis left where
the tool pin is withdrawn. Inmany cases it may be nec-
essary tofill the holeby an alternative process, suchas
friction taper plug welding.
(4) Run-odrun-off plates are necessary where con-
I
tinuous weldsare required from one edgeof a plate to
the other.
( 5 ) Due to workpiece clamping and access require-
ments, applications where portable equipment could
be used may be limited.
FRICTION SURFACING
A process variation of friction welding. See FRIC-
TION WELDING.
Figure F-13-Basic Steps In Friction Welding
FRICTION UPSET DISTANCE First, one workpieceis rotated and the otheris held
The decrease in length of work pieces during the stationary,asshown in Figure F-l3(A). Whenthe
time of friction welding force application. See STAN- appropriate rotational speedis reached, the two work-
DARD WELDING TERMS. See Figures D-6 and1-8. pieces are broughttogetherand an axial force is
applied, as in Figure F-l3(B). Rubbing atthe interface
FRICTION WELDING (FRW) heats the workpiece locally and upsetting begins, as in
A solid-state welding process that produces a weld Figure F-l3(C). Finally, rotation of one of the work-
under compressive force contact of workpieces rotat- pieces stops and upsetting is completed, as in Figure
ing or moving relative to one another to produce heat F- 13(D).
and plastically displace material from the faying sur- The weldproduced is characterized by anarrow
faces. See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See Figures heat-affected
zone,
the
presence of plastically
D-6 and 1-8. deformedmaterialaroundtheweld(flash),and the
Whileconsideredasolid-stateweldingprocess, absence of a fusion zone.
under some circumstances a molten filmmay be pro- Energy Input Methods
duced at the interface. However, even then the final There are two methods of supplying energy in fric-
weldshouldnotexhibitevidenceofamolten state tion welding. Direct drive friction welding, sometimes
because of the extensive hot working during thefinal called conventional friction welding, uses a continu-
stage of the process. Filler metal, flux, and shielding ous input. Inertia friction welding, sometimes called
gas are not required with this process.The basic steps flywheel friction welding,usesenergystoredina
in friction weldingare shown inFigure F-13. flywheel.
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL II997 H 07842b5 05Lb37Z T79 m
WELDING198 FRICTION Welding Encyclopedia
Friction Surfacing (9) The process is easilyautomated for mass

This process variation uses rotational motion of one production.
of theparts,butatthesametimeaddsarelative (IO) Weldsaremaderapidlycomparedtoother
motion in a direction perpendicular to the axis of rota- welding processes.
tion. This process is used to deposit materialin a solid- (1 1)Plant requirements (space, power, special foun-
state modetoavarietyofconfigurationsfrom flat dations, etc.) are minimal.
plates to circular or cylindrical shapes. This variation Limitations
is shown in FigureF-14. Some limitations of the process are as follows:
(1) In general, one workpiece must have an axis of
symmetry and be capable of being rotated about that
F
axis.
(2) Preparationandalignment of the workpieces
may be critical for developing uniform rubbing and
heating, particularly
with
diameters greater than
50 mm (2 in).
(3) Capital equipment and toolingcosts are high.
(4) Dry bearing and nonforgeable materials cannot
be welded.
( 5 ) If both parts are longer than 1 m (3 ft), special
machines are required.
(6) Free-machining alloys are difficult to weld.
Materials Welded
Friction welding can be used to join a wide rangeof
TF
similaranddissimilarmaterials,including:metals,
some metal matrix composites, ceramics, and plastics.
Some combinationsof materials that have been joined
accordingtothe literature andequipmentmanufac-
Figure F-14-Friction Surfacing turers data are indicated in Figure F-15. This table
should only be used as a guide. Specific weldability
Advantages may depend upon a number of factors including spe-
Friction welding, like any welding process, has its cific alloy compositions, applicable process variation,
specific advantages and disadvantages. The following component design, andservice requirements.
are some advantagesof friction welding: Applications
(1) No filler metal is needed. Frictionweldedpartsinproductionapplications
(2) Flux and shieldinggas are not required. span the aerospace, agricultural, automotive, defense,
(3) The process is environmentally clean; no arcs, marine, and oil industries. Everything from tong holds
sparks, smokeor fumes are generated by clean parts. on forging billetsto critical aircraft engine compo-
nents are friction welded in production.
(4)Surface cleanliness is not as significant, com-
Automotive parts which are manufactured by fric-
paredwithotherweldingprocesses, since friction
tion welding include gears, engine valves, axle tubes,
welding tends to disrupt and displace surface films.
drive line components,strut rods and shock absorbers.
(5) There are narrow heat-affected zones. Hydraulic piston rods, track rollers, gears, bushings,
(6) Friction welding is suitable for welding most axles and similar parts are commonly friction welded
engineering materials and is well suited for joining by the manufacturers of agricultural equipment. Fric-
many dissimilar metal combinations. tion welded aluminudcopper joints are in wide usage
(7) In most cases, the weld strength is as strong or in the electrical industry. Stainless steels are friction
stronger than the weaker of the two materials being weldedtocarbonsteelinvarious sizes for usein
joined. marine drive systems and water pumps for home and
(8) Operators are not required to have manual weld-industrialuse.Frictionweldedassemblies are often
ing skills. used to replace expensive castings and forgings.

opedia Welding 199
THIS LIST WAS COMPILED

FROM AVAILABLE FRICTION
WELDING LITERATURE. EACH
MANUFACTURER OF FRICTION
WELDING EQUIPMENT HAS
DIFFERENT KNOW-HOW AND
EXPERIENCE IN WELDING
SOME OF THESE MATERIALS.
ALUMINUM
ALUMINUM ALLOYS
BRASS
BRONZE
CARBIDES, CEMENTED
CAST IRON
CERAMIC
COBALT
COLUMBIUM
COPPER
COPPER NICKEL
IRON SINTERED
LEAD
MAGNESIUM
MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
MOLYBDENUM
Figure F-15ateriai Combinations Weldableby Friction Welding

S T D - A W SJWE-ENGL m 7 m 11784zb5 0 5 ~ 7 4841 m
WELDING
200 FRICTION FORCE Encyclopedia Welding
Safety other fuels normally used with oxygen in one of the

Friction welding machines are similar to machine oxyfuel processes and for heating. See STANDARD
tool lathes in that one workpiece is rotated by a drive WELDING TERMS.
system. They are also similar to hydraulic presses in To be suitable for welding operations, a fuel gas
that one workpiece is forced against the other with musthavethefollowingcharacteristicswhencom-
high loads. Safe practices for lathes and power presses binedwithoxygen: (1) highflametemperature, (2)
should be used as guides for the design and operation high rate of flame propagation, (3) adequate heat con-
of friction welding machines. Typical hazards include tent, (4)minimum chemical reactionof the flame with
high noise levels, high rotational speeds, and flying the base andfiller metals.
particles. Among commercially available fuel gases for weld-
Machinesshouldbeequippedwithappropriate ing, only acetylene meetsall these requirements. Other
mechanicalguardsandshields as wellastwo-hand fuel gases, such as methyl-acetylene propadiene prod-
operatingswitchesandelectricalinterlocks.These ucts (MPS), propylene, propane, natural gas, hydro-
devices should be designed to prevent operation of the gen, andproprietarygasesbasedonthese, offer
machine when the work area, rotating drive, or force sufficiently high flame temperature, but exhibit lower
system is accessible to the operator or other personnel. flame propagation rates.
When oxygen-to-fuel gas
Operatingpersonnelshouldwearappropriateeye ratios are high enough to produce usable heat transfer
and ear protection and safety apparel commonly used rates, the flames produced by these gases are exces-
with machine tool operations. Ear protection should besively oxidizing. However, methylacetylene propadi-
provided to guard against high noise levels produced ene and hydrogen are sometimes used for oxyfuel gas
during friction welding. In any case, applicable OSHA welding of low-melting metals.
standards should be strictly observed. Such gasesas methylacetylene propadiene products
The machinemanufacturers literature should be (MPS), propylene, propane, natural gas, and propri-
studied for complete safety precautions. etary gases based on these are used for oxyfuel gas
Technical Resources cutting, torch brazing, torch soldering, and other oper-
Furtherinformation on frictionwelding,suchas ations where demandson the flame characteristics and
types of relativemotion,relationshipbetweenvari- heat transfer rates are not the same as those for weld-
ables, joint design, friction welding equipment, welding. See OXYACETYLENE WELDING and OXYFUEL GAS
CUTTING.
ing procedures, tooling and fixtures, heat treatment,
testing and inspection, and recommended reading list FULLY AUTOMATIC WELD
can be found in the Welding Handbook, 8th Edition, A weld made entirely by automatic equipment.
Vol 2, published by the American Welding Society,
Miami, Florida, 1991. See also DIRECTDRIVE FFUC- FULL FILLET WELD
TION WELDING and INERTIA FRICTION WELDING. A fillet weld equal in size to the thickness of the
thinnermember joined. See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS.
The compressive force applied to the faying sur-
faces duringthe time there is relative movement FULL PENETRATION
between the workpiecesfrom the start of welding until A nonstandard
term for COMPLETE
JOINT
the application of the forgeforce. See STANDARD PENETRATION.
WELDING TERMS. See Figures D-6 and 1-8.
FUME COLLECTOR
FRllTlNG A vacuum system for removing and filtering fumes
Inpowdermetallurgy,aterm for aconditionin and smoke produced in welding operations.
which the temperatureappliedexceeds the melting
point of any of the metal powders used in a mixture. FUMES, ARC WELDING
See POWDER METALLURGY and SINTERING. See WELDING FUMES.
FUEL GAS FURNACE
A gas such as acetylene, natural gas, hydrogen, An enclosure heated by a suitable fuel which pro-
propane, stabilized methyl acetylene propadiene, and vides an atmosphere of controlled heat.

~ ~~ ~~~~~
STDoAWS
JWE-ENGL 1997 07811265 0516375 788
Welding Encyclopedia (FB) BRAZING FURNACE 201
When furnaces are used for heat treating in welding toolight for satisfactorylifeandtransformersare
operations, it is important to assure correct heat con- necessary.
trol, particularly when heat treating is applied to pres-
Operating Fuel-Fired Furnaces
sure vessels and similar equipment which are subject
to high temperatures or high stress. When metallurgi- Disastrous results can occur if fuel fired furnaces
cal requirements are rigid, the most suitable combusti- nothandledcorrectly.Tooperatethese
are furnace
ble fuels are natural gas, liquid petroleum gas, and oil. safely, there are several precautions which must be rig-
Temperature
idly followed. On all fuel fired furnaces, all doors are
to be opened before lighting the furnace. When light-
The temperature required determinesthe method in ing burners, oil, gas or the two-pipe (blast) type, turn
which heat treating furnaces are fired. For those used on the airfirst, then the fuel. When lighting burnersof
in low-temperature operations, usually under 600 "C thelow-pressureproportionalmixingtype,always
(1100 "F), the recirculating type of furnace is used, in open the gas supply valve wide open. All regulation of
which gas or oil is burned in a separate chamber and fuel is by air flow and the ratio adjusting screwon the
theresultingproducts of combustion are circulated
mixer. When shutting off an oil or gas burner of any
through the furnace by a fan.
type, always shutoff the fuel first.
For temperatures up to 1OOO"C ( 1900F), indirect
firing is generally used. In this type, the combustion Material Handling Methods
chambers may be above, below or on one side, sepa- Furnaces for heat treating applications are further
rated fromthe heat chamber by baffles. classified as one of several types, depending on the
The third typeof furnace is the direct-fired furnace, method of handling the materialto be heated.Ina
which is used for temperatures above
1o00"C batch method, the pieces are handled in groups. The
(1900F). The burner is fired directlyintotheheat furnace may be a stationary hearth solid bottom, sta-
chamber, usually above the charge. It is possible, but tionary hearth roller bottom, car bottom, or a furnace
not usual, to design direct fired gas furnaces which with removable covers and pits. In a semi-continuous
willoperatesatisfactorilybetween 500 and1000C handling method, a stationary hearth or car bottom fur-
(lo00 and 1900F). nace is used in conjunction with cranes designed to
Electric Furnaces remove the material. This reduces the time between
Electric furnaces usedfor heat treating applications changestoseveralminutes. The continuoussystem
are usually the resistor type, andare ordinarily limited conveys the parts through the furnace, and consists of
to applications for which temperatures do not exceed a pusher (direct or on pans
or shoes), tunnel kilns, with
1OOO"C (1900F). Above that temperature the operat- cars, chain conveyor andmoving finger, walking
ing life of the resistor elementsis greatly shortened.If beam,rollerhearth,rotaryhearth,rotationretort or
carbonresistorelementsareusedratherthanmetal miscellaneous special types.
elements, however,the furnace may be used at temper- Furnace Design
atures up to 1300C (2300F). Furnaces with metallic
elements and protective atmospheres have been suc- For the most efficiency,furnaces shouldbe
cessfullyoperatedat1100C(2100F) for brazing designed by afurnace manufacturer or combustion
applications. engineer. There are many variables, and the size of a
Electric furnaces operate quietly, cleanly and with- furnace required depends on the amount and size of
out the necessity for mufflers. They provide unifor- material to be heated per hour, the heating time, and
mity of temperature in applications for which electric the amount of heat that can be liberated without dam-
heat is specified. The greatest advantages are the con- age to the furnace. See ANNEALING, HEAT TREATMENT
sistency of operation after initial Set-up, and freedom and METALLURGY.
from humanerror resulting from adjustmentsof fuel.
FURNACE BRAZING (FB)
The main disadvantageof the electric furnaceis that
it is slow to heat up from a cold condition. Where it is A brazing process in whichtheworkpiecesare
possible, an electric furnace can be connected across placed in afirnace and heated to the brazing temper-
the line to save theexpense of atransformer.Fre- ature. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See ah0
quently however, elements based on line voltage are BRAZING.

i
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 07842b5 05Lb37b bL4 9
BRAZING 202 FURNACE
Base Materials (4) Assemblies can be fabricated byfurnace brazing

Compatibility with base metalsis an important fac- that cannot readily be manufactured by other joining
tor when considering brazing processes. Some materi- methods.
als are readily brazed in their commercially available ( 5 ) Complex assemblies can be mass produced by
state, while others require one or more types of treat- furnace brazing without highly skilled personnel.
ment prior to brazing. (6) Furnace brazing has no deteriorating effect on
welded areas; it has been used behind a weldfill to the
Most materials used in the fabrication of assemblies
for high-temperature service, such as 18-8 chromium- crack for positive joint sealing.
nickel andthe nickel-chromium-cobalt materials, have (7) Furnacebrazing,whenusedtobackupspot
oxides which are readily reduced by pure dry hydro- welds, improves the fatigue characteristics of the
gen or high-vacuum atmospheres. These materials can joints.
be adequately furnace brazed, therefore, without the Furnace Atmospheres for Brazing
use of flux and willcome out of the furnace bright and Specialized equipment is required for brazing base
clean. metal alloys for high-temperature service. This equip-
Materials containing more than trace quantities of ment generally includes a tightly sealed container or
such elements as aluminum or titanium, if not treated box, such as a retortfurnace, in which puredry hydro-
prior to brazing,willformhydrides or oxidesnot gen and other atmospheres can be maintained. A vac-
reducible in a pure dry hydrogen atmosphere. With uum atmosphere is one of the modes used for certain
such base metals it is necessary to use a high-vacuum applications.
atmosphereinthefurnace,ortotreatthemwitha While a pure dry hydrogen atmosphere is the most
special surface preparation such as nickel plating or frequentlyused for brazingstainlesssteels, other
acid treatments prior to brazing in a hydrogen atmo- atmospheressuch as dissociatedammonia,argon,
sphere. Zirconium, selenium and magnesium are other heliumandvacuumcan be used. The dissociated
elementswhichcanintroduceproblems in furnace ammonia atmospheresare usually avoided when braz-
brazing. ing alloys containing boronare used, because boronis
readily nitrided andthe brazing alloy will neither melt
Brazing StainlessSteels nor flow.
When brazing stainless steels in pure dry hydro- Argon and helium atmospheresare very compatible
gen, an atmosphere in the furnace having a dew point with nickel-chromium-boron brazing alloys, because
of -40C (40F) or below is required to adequately the boron content makes the alloy self-fluxing, result-
reducechromiumoxide.Reduction of chromium ing inexcellent wetting andflow properties. Similarly,
oxide is necessary tofacilitate flow and wettingof the athightemperatures,reduction or dissociation of
nickel-chromium brazing
alloy. The atmosphere metal oxides actually occurs; this is probably due to
requirements of stainless steels cannot be met by a the increase in dissociated pressure of the metal oxide.
brick-lined furnace, because the refractories or metal Joint Design
oxides will themselves reduce under the brazing con- The lap joint is the mostfrequentlyusedin the
ditions required. design of brazed joint assemblies. A lap of approxi-
Advantages of Furnace Brazing mately 4 to 5 times the thinner sheet thickness is gen-
Furnace brazing as a stainless steeljoining process erally preferred. Such a joint will seldom fail; rather,
offers a numberof specific advantages: any failure in the brazed assembly will occur in the
base metal.
(1) Furnace brazing can be used to simultaneously Butt joints exhibit higher unit strength than joints,
lap
assemble as many as a thousand joints, depending on but are seldom used in brazed assemblies because of the
size. This means high production and reduced brazing difficultyincontrollingclearanceandalignment of
costs. adjoining sheet metal thicknesses. Many combination
(2) Distortion can be prevented inthe furnace braz- lap-butt joints are successfully brazed, however.
ing of many assemblies. A poor braze is likely to result from a design in
(3) Dimensionalcontrolandcontourstability are which thejoint is either totally enclosedor located in a
much improved in furnace brazing when comparedto blind hole.Air bubbling throughthe brazed joint while
processes involving localized heating. cooling will cause porosity. In such cases a vent must

~~ ~ ~~~ ~
STDOAWS
JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb377 550
ED
Encyclopedia
Welding 203
be left in the chamber to eliminatethe pressure and to consistentandsatisfactoryresults.Furnaceoroven

purge the part if furnace brazingis used. heatingshouldbeconsideredunderthefollowing
One important requirementof brazed designsis the circumstances:
need for inspection to assure brazing alloy flow. To (1) When entire assemblies can be brought to the
provide a means of inspection, holes are incorporated soldering temperature without damage to any of the
in the back sidesof a joint. When one side of the joint components
is sealed within the assembly, it is a good practice to (2) When production is sufficiently great to allow
put the brazingalloy on theinside.Thisforces the expenditure for jigs and fixtures to hold the parts dur-
alloy to flow to the outside of the assembly, and pering soldering
mits easy and positive inspection. (3) Whentheassemblyiscomplicated,making
Whenbrazingwithalloyssuchasnickel-chro- other heating methods impractical
mium-boron and other nickel-base brazing alloys, cer- Proper clamping fixtures are important during
tain characteristics of these brazing materials mustbe ovenor furnace soldering. Movement of the joint
considered in the design of the assembly. The nickel- during solidification of the solder mayresultina
basebrazingalloy is solubleinstainlesssteelbase poor joint.
metals. It will, therefore, readily alloy with the base Furnace or ovensoldering is usuallycarriedout
metal while flowing through the joint. It is this solubil- with inorganic fluxes because of the temperature and
ity and the resulting alloying action which provides time requirements. The use of a reducing atmosphere
the desired high-temperaturestrength, but it can cause in the oven allowsjoints to be made with less aggres-
some difficulties in the brazing operation itself if the sive types of fluxes, dependingon the metal and solder
assembly is not carefully designed. The primary prob- combination. The use of inert atmospheres will pre-
lem is caused by erosion, which occurs when too muchvent further oxidation of the parts but still requires
brazing alloy is applied in a single location, or when adequate and appropriate fluxing.
the brazing alloy flows tothe bottom of the joint. The It is often advantageous to accelerate the coolingof
erosion problem is easily solved by providing proper the parts on their removalfrom the oven. An air blast
flow paths for the brazing alloy, and by applying the has been found satisfactory.
correct quantityof alloy inthe correct manner. Furnaces should be equipped with adequate temper-
The erosion phenomenonis not confined to nickel- ature controls sincethe flow of solder has an optimum
base brazing alloys. Aluminum brazing of all kinds, temperature range, depending upon theflux used. The
silver brazing of copper, copper brazing of nickel cop- optimumheatingconditionexistswhentheheating
per,andmany others require the sameattentionto capacity of the furnace is sufficient to heat the parts
design andthe same care in applying the brazing alloy rapidly under controlled flux application.
to avoid the erosion problem.
Erosion can generally be avoided by providing a FUSE
clearance of 0.05 to O. 10 mm (0.002to 0.004in.) for a Fuse (verb): to melt metal and cause fusion, amal-
or
joint of3.2 mm (1/8in.) or longer.This cleGance gamation of sections to be welded. Fuse (noun): A safety
allows sufficient time forthe alloy to proceed through device in an electrical circuit to prevent overloading. It
the joint before it picks up sufficient base metal to consists of a short length of conducting metal which
bring its melting point above the brazing temperature. melts at a certain heat and thereby breaks the circuit.
As in all designs, the proof of effectiveness is the
service test of the actual part. Service tests of many FUSED FLUX, Submerged Arc Welding
assembliesbrazedwithnickel-basealloysindicate A type of granular flux produced by dry mixing the
excellentperformance at operatingtemperatures as ingredientsfollowed by melting in a fumace. The mol-
high as 1100 "C (2000 "F). ten material is cooled to its solid state and processed
to produce the desired particle size. See STANDARD
FURNACE SOLDERING(FS) WELDING TERMS.
A soldering process in whichthe workpieces are
placed in a fimace and heated to the soldering tem- FUSED THERMAL SPRAY DEPOSIT
perature. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. A self-fluxing thermal spray deposit that is subse-
There are manyapplications,especiallyinhigh- quentZy heated to coalescence within itself and with
volume soldering, where furnace soldering produces the substrate. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
204 FUSED Welding Encyclopedia
FUSED ZONE FUSION FACE

A nonstandard termfor FUSION ZONE. A sugace of the base metal that will be melted
during welding. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See
FUSIBLE PLUG Figure D-3.
A plug made of metal or an alloy which closes the
discharge channel of a gas cylinder and is designed to FUSION LINE
meltat a predetermined temperature to permit the A nonstandard termfor WELD INTERFACE.
escape of gas.
FUSION WELDING
FUSING Any welding process thatusesfusion of the base metal
A nonstandard termfor FUSION. to make the weld. SeeSTANDARD WELDINGTERMS.
FUSION, Fusion Welding FUSION ZONE
The melting together offiller metal and base metal, The area of base metal meltedas determined on the
or of base metal only, to produce a weld. See STAN- cross section of a weld.See STANDARDWELDING
DARD WELDING TERMS.See DEPTH OF FUSION. TERMS. See Figure D-3.
Closeup of friction stir welding at Edison Welding Institute

G about 930C (1700F). If galvanizedironparts are
Symbol for giga, a metric system prefix meaning welded with steel welding rods or electrodes, the zinc
io9, or one billion.See METRIC SYSTEM. coating is heated to the melting temperature of steel,
about1510C(2750"F),and is burnedawayinthe
GAGE path of the weld, forming clouds of white zinc oxide.
See GAUGE. The zinc oxide smoke produced when zinc volatilizes
is harmful tothe welder. Alternatively, bronze melts at
GALLING about 885C (1625"F), below the volatilization point
Adhesionorcohesionoflocalized areas oftwo of the zinc; and when a bronze rod is carefully used
bearing surfaces of metal, followed by the tearing out with the oxyacetylene process, no fumes result.
of small fragments from one or the other of the sur- Galvanizedsheets or pipesshouldgenerally be
faces when they are separated. bronzeweldedwithTobinbronze, or manganese
bronze, or a high-strength bronze rod if an oxyacety-
GALLIUM lene torch is used. The zinc coating alloys with the
(Chemicalsymbol:Ga).Araremetallicelement bronzerodandspreadson each side of the joined
belonging to the aluminum group. It is used in low- edges, serving as a protective agent and leaving no
melting alloys, and alsoin semiconductor technology. bare steelfor exposure to corrosion.
Like mercury, galliumcan be a liquidat room temper- A good way to protect the galvanizing on the under-
ature. Atomic number, 3 1; atomic weight 69.72; melt- side of the sheets is to make a paste of flux and water
ing point, 30.1 "C (86.2"F); specific gravity, 5.94 at and paint iton the undersideof the sheets with a paint
22C (72F). brush. This flux coating prevents the hot sheet from
exposure to the oxygen in thesurroundingair,and
GALVANI avoids oxidation. The flux paste may also be painted
(1737-1798) An Italian physician and physicist, the on the upper side fromwhichtheseamiswelded.
discoverer of galvanism,an electrical currentpro- Another way to apply flux is to heat the welding rod
duced by chemical action. and dip it into the flux box, andthe flux will clingto it.
The seam should be a butt seam, and the sheets
. GALVANIZE should be held in ajig during welding. When correctly
To coat a metal with zinc to increase resistance to done, the bronze will appear on the lower side of the
corrosion, The following processesare used to apply a seam.
coating of zinc to iron or steel: Galvanized pipeis easily brazed, using bronzerods
(1) Hot-dip galvanizing (dipping in molten zinc) and a brazing flux. The pipe is beveled to an angle of
(2) Metallizing (spraying with molten zinc) at least 30", and if cut with a cutting torch, all oxide
(3) Painting with zinc-rich paint should be removed.
(4) Zinc plating (electro-galvanizing) IfTobin or manganese bronze rods are used, the
(5) Sherardization (heating with zincdust in a rota- torch flame may be adjustedfor a slight excessof acet-
tion h a c e ) ylene, or it may be neutral.However,withsome
bronze rods, manufacturers recommend a slightly oxi-
GALVANIZED IRON, WELDING
dizing flame. Specific rods will often require varying
Galvanizediron,whetherinpipe, sheet or other flame adjustments and techniques.
form, is iron or steel coated with zincto protect itfrom
corrosion. After cleaning,the workpiece is dipped in a GAMMA IRON
galvanizing tank containing molten zinc. Acrystalform of iron, the atoms of which are
Gas Welding. Zinchasameltingpoint of about arranged in the face-centered cubic lattice.Gamma
420C(786"F),andwillvolatilizewhenheatedto iron dissolves carbon; its grain size depends on tem-
205
'STD=AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 078Y2b5051b380 045 W
206 GAMMA RAY INSPECTION OF WELDS Welding Encyclopedia
perature, time and degree of working; it is non-mag- It is very dangerous to use oil or grease on oxygen
netic. Gammairon is denser than alpha iron. cylinders or regulators because contact with oxygen
causes oil and grease to ignite spontaneously. It is a
GAMMA RAY INSPECTION OF WELDS dangerous practice to use or store oxygen cylinders
A nondestructivemethod of testingweldsusing where oil and oxygen will be brought together. Also, it
gamma waves emitted by radio isotopes to produce is dangerous to attempt to use cylinders which have
radiographs. See RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION. containedpetroleumproducts for oxygen,because
theywillcontainacertainamountofresidualoily
GAP deposit. Only apparatus that has been manufactured
A nonstandard term when used for ARCLENGTH, expressly for oxygen service should be used, and man-
JOINT CLEARANCE, and ROOT OPENING. ufacturers specifications should be followed.
Fuel gases commonly used in oxyfuel gas welding
GAS BACKUP and cutting are acetylene, methyl acetylene-propadi-
A term for protecting the back side of a weldment ene (MPS), naturalgas,propaneandpropylene.
using an inert gas. Argon and helium are satisfactory Hydrogen is used in a few applications. Gasolene is
for the gas backup purge when welding all materials. sometimesused as fuel for oxygencutting.These
Nitrogen may be used satisfactorily for welds in auste- gasesshouldalways be referred to by the correct
nitic steels, copper and copper alloys. name.
GAS BRAZING Acetylene. Acetylenecylindersmustbehandled
A nonstandard termfor TORCH BRAZING. carefully. They should neverbe used at pressures over
100 kPa (15 psi). If heated, the gas in the cylinder
GAS CARBON ARC WELDING (CAW-G) could become unstable;if shocked, an explosion could
A carbon arc welding process variation that uses a occur.
shielding gas. This is an obsolete or seldom used pro- As asafetymeasure, the cylinders are equipped
cess. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. with fusible safety plugs that melt at 99C (210F).
Therefore, if acetylene cylinders are inafire,the
GAS CUP safety plugs should vent the internal pressure rather
A nonstandard termfor GAS NOZZLE. than let the pressure build up and cause an explosion.
Acetylene andMPS should neverbe used in contact
GAS CUlTER with silver, mercury,or alloys containing70% or more
A nonstandard term for OXYGEN CUTIER. See also copper. These gases react with these metals to form
THERMAL CUTTER. unstable compounds that may detonate under shock or
heat.Valves on fuel gas cylinders shouldnever be
GAS CUlTlNG opened to clean the valve outlet, especially not near
A nonstandard termfor OXYGEN CUlTING. possiblesources of flame ignition or inconfined
spaces.
GAS CYLINDER
Whenfuelgases are used for abrazingfurnace
A portable container used for transportation and atmosphere, they must be burned or vented to a safe
storage of compressed gas. See STANDARD WELDING location. Prior to filling a furnace or retort with fuel
TERMS.
gas, the equipment must first be purged with a non-
GAS, Safe Practices flammable gas, such as nitrogen or argon, to prevent
Oxygen. Oxygen is nonflammable but it supports
formation of an explosive air-fuel mixture.
the combustion of flammable materials. It caninitiate Special attention must be given when using hydro-
combustionandvigorouslyaccelerate it. Therefore, gen. Flames of hydrogen may be difficult to see and
oxygen cylinders and liquid oxygen containers should parts of the body, clothes, or combustibles may come
not be stored in the vicinity of combustibles or with in contact with hydrogen
flames without the operator's
cylinders of fuel gas. Oxygen should neverbe used as knowledge.
a substitute for compressed air, for example, to power Shielding Gases. Argon, helium, nitrogen, and car-
compressed air tools, because they are almost always bon dioxide (COz) are used for shielding with some
lubricated with oil. welding processes. All, except CO2, are used as braz-

~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~
STD-AWS
JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 053b383 TB1 m
Welding Encyclopedia (GMAW)
WELDINGARC METAL GAS 207
ing atmospheres. They are odorless and colorless and process. Gas metal arc cutting first occurred acciden-
are hazardous because they can displace air needed for tally during a welding operation, when it was found
breathing. that if the electrode feedrate was set too high, it would
Confinedspacesfilledwiththesegasesmustbe penetratethrough the plate.Whenthetorchwas
well ventilated before personnelenter them. If there is moved, a cut was made. GMAC is used to cut shapes
anyquestion,thespaceshouldbechecked first for in stainless steel and aluminum. Using gas metal arc
adequate oxygen concentration with an oxygen ana- welding equipment and a 2.4 mm (3/32 in.) diameter
lyzer. If an analyzer is not available, an air-supplied electrode, stainless steel up to38 mm (1-112 in.) thick,
respiratorshouldbeworn by anyoneentering the and aluminum up to75 mm (3 in.) thick can be cut.
space. Containers of these gases should not be stored The chief limitations to GMAC are the high con-
in confined places. sumption of welding electrodes and the high currents
(up to 2000 amperes) requiredfor cutting.
GASES FOR SHIELDING
See SHIELDING GAS. GAS METAL ARC SPOT WELDING
GAS FLOW RATE Gas metalarc spot weldingis a variationof continu-
The measurein liters perminute(cubic feet per ous GMAW, in which two pieces of sheet metal are
hour) of the flow of shielding gas in gas metal arc fusedtogether by penetratingentirelythroughone
welding, gas tungsten arc
welding,
and
other piece into the other. The process has been used for
processes. joining light-gauge materials, up to approximately 5
mm (3/16 in.) thick. No joint preparation is required
GAS GOUGING other than cleaningthe overlapping areas. Heavier sec-
A nonstandard termfor OXYGEN GOUGING. tions can also be spot welded with this technique by
drilling or punching a hole inthe upper piece, through
GAS HAZARDS which the arc is directed for joining to the underlying
Gases can beexplosive,toxic,corrosive,and piece. This is calleda plug weld. Acomparison
asphyxiating. For safe handling and use, refer to the between a gas metal arc spot weld and a resistance
specific gas;also refer to the manufacturers Materials spot weldis shown in FigureG- l .
Safety Data Sheets. See GAS, Safe Practices; see also
Appendix 12.
SOLIDIFIED
GAS HOSE WELD NUGGET
Flexible tubing usedto convey gas from a regulator
to the welding or cuttingequipment. See HOSE,
Welding.
GAS LASER
A laser in which the lasing medium is a gas. See
STANDARDWELDING TERMS.
RESISTANCE GMA
GAS LENS SPOT WELD SPOT WELD
One or more fine mesh screens located in the torch
nozzle to produce a stable stream of shielding gas. Pri- Figure G-l-Comparison of a Resistance Spot
marily used for gas tungsten arc welding. See STAN- Weld with a Gas Metal Arc Spot Weld
DARD WELDING TERMS.
GAS METAL ARC CUlTlNG (GMAC) GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW)
An arc cutting process that uses a continuous con- An arc welding process that uses an arc between a
sumable electrode and a shielding gas. See STANDARD continuous filler metal electrode and the weld pool.
WELDING TERMS. This is an obsolete process. The process is used with shielding from an externally
Gas metal arc cutting was developed soon after the supplied gas and without the application of pressure.
commercial introduction of the gas metal arc welding See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See also PULSED GAS

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 078VZb5 051b382 918 m
METAL
208 GAS
Encyclopedia
Welding
ARC
(GMAW)
WELDING
METAL ARC WELDING and SHORT CIRCUIT GAS METAL (2) GMAW overcomestherestrictionoflimited
ARC WELDING. electrode length encountered with shielded metal arc
The basic concept of GMAW was introducedin the welding.
1920s, but it was not until 1948 thatit was made com- (3) Welding can be done in all positions, a feature
mercially available. At first it was considered to be not found in submerged arc welding.
fundamentally a high current density, small diameter, (4) Depositionrates are significantlyhigherthan
bare-metal electrode process using aninert gas for arc those obtained with shielded metal arc welding.
shielding. Its primary application wasfor welding alu- (5) Welding speeds are higher than those with
minum. As a result, the term MIG (Metal Inert Gas) shielded metal arc welding because of the continuous
was used to describethe process andis still a common electrode feed and higherfiller metal deposition rates.
reference.ThetermMIGhasbeensuperseded by (6) Because the wire feed is continuous, long welds
GMAW. can be deposited withoutstops and starts.
(7) When spray transferis used, deeper penetration
Subsequent process developments included opera- is possiblethanwithshieldedmetal arc welding,
tion at low-current densities and pulsed direct current, which may permit the use of smaller size fillet welds
application to a broader range of materials,the and
use for equivalent strengths.
of reactive gases (particularly COz) and gas mixtures. (8) Minimal postweld cleaning is required due to
This latter development has led to the formal accep- the absence of a heavy slag.
tance of the term gas metal arc welding (GMAW) for Theseadvantagesmake the processparticularly
the process, because both inert and reactive gasesare well suited to high production and automated welding
used. applications.Thishasbecomeincreasinglyevident
A variation of the GMAW process uses a tubular with the advent of robotics, where GMAW has been
electrode in which metallic powders make up the bulk the predominant process choice.
of the core materials(metalcoredelectrode).Such Limitations
electrodes require a gas shield to protect the molten
As with any welding process, thereare certain limi-
weld pool from atmospheric contamination.
tations which restrict the use of gas metal arc welding.
Metal cored electrodesare considered a segmentof Some of these are the following:
GMAWby theAmericanWeldingSociety.Foreign (1) The welding equipment is more complex, more
weldingassociations may groupmetalcoredelec- costly, and less portable than that for SMAW.
trodes with flux cored electrodes. (2) GMAW is more difficultto use in hard-to-reach
GMAW may
be operated
semiautomatic,
in placesbecause the weldinggun is largerthan a
machine, or
automatic
modes.All
commercially shieldedmetal arc weldingholder,and the welding
important metals such as carbon steel, high-strength, gun must beclose to the joint, between 10 and 20 mm
low-alloy steel, stainless steel, aluminum, copper, tita- (318 and 3/4 in.), toensure that the weld metalis prop-
nium, and nickel alloys can be weldedin all positions erly shielded.
with this process by choosing the appropriate shield- (3) The welding arc must be protected against air
ing gas, electrode, and welding variables. drafts that will disperse the shielding gas. This limits
In addition tojoining, the GMAW process is widely outdoorapplicationsunlessprotectiveshields are
used for surfacing where an overlay weld deposit may placed around the welding area.
provide desirable wearor corrosion resistance orother (4)Relatively high levels of radiated heat and arc
properties. Overlaysare normally applied to carbonor intensity canresult in operatorresistanceto the
manganesesteelsandmustbecarefullyengineered process.
and evaluated to assure satisfactory results. Fundamentals of the Process
Uses and Advantages The GMAW processincorporates the automatic
feeding of a continuous, consumable electrode thatis
The uses of the process are, of course, dictated by shielded by an externally supplied gas. The processis
its advantages, the most important of which are the illustrated in Figure G-2. After initial settings by the
following: operator, the equipment provides for automatic self-
(1) It is the only consumable electrode process that regulation of the electrical characteristics of the arc.
can be used to weld all commercial metals and alloys. Therefore, the only manual controls required by the

Licensed by Information Handling Services ~~~~ ~~ _ _ _ _ ~
~~~
~~ ~~~ ~
STD*AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 0516383 854 m

SHIELDING CONDUCTOR
GAS IN
DIRECTION AND CONTACT TUBE
CONSUMABLE
ELECTRODE
BASE
METAL
Figure G-2-Gas Metal Arc Welding Process
welder for semiautomaticoperation are the travel provides a drooping volt-ampere curve, and the elec-
speedanddirection,andgunpositioning.Given trode feed unitis arc-voltage controlled.
properequipmentandsettings,the arc lengthand With theconstant-potentialkonstantwire feed com-
the current
(wire
feedspeed) are automaticallybination, changes in the torch positioncause a change
maintained. in the welding current that exactly matches the change
in the electrode stick-out (electrode extension), thus
Equipment
the
arc
length
remains fixed.
For
example,
an
Equipment required forGMAW is shown in Figure increased stick-out producedby withdrawing the torch
G-3. The basic equipment componentsare the welding reduces the currentoutputfrom the powersupply,
gunand cable assembly,electrodefeedunit,power thereby maintainingthe same resistance heatingof the
supply, and sourceof shielding gas. electrode.
The gun guides the consumable electrode and con- In the alternativesystem,self-regulationresults
ducts the electriccurrentandshieldinggasto the when arc voltage fluctuations readjust the control cir-
work, thus providing the energy to establish and main- cuits of the feeder, which appropriately changes the
tain the arcandmelt the electrode, as wellas the wire feed speed. In some cases (when welding alumi-
needed protection from the ambient atmosphere.Two num, for example), it maybepreferable to deviate
combinations of electrode feed units and power sup- from these standard combinations and utilize a con-
plies are used to achieve the desirable self-regulation stant-current power source with a constant-speed elec-
of arc length. Most commonlythis regulation consists trodefeed unit.
This combination providesonlya
of a constant-potential(CP) power supply (characteris- small degree of automatic self-regulation, and there-
tically providing an essentiallyflat volt-ampere curve) fore requiresmoreoperatorskillforsemiautomatic
inconjunctionwithaconstant-speedelectrodefeed welding. However, some users think this combination
unit.Alternatively,aconstant-currentpowersupply affords a range of control over the arc energy (current)

ARC METAL
210 GAS Encyclopedia
Welding
SHIELDING GAS
REGULATOR
ELECTRODE SUPPLY
ELECTRODE FEED UNI SHIELDING

GAS SUPPLY
U U
WORKPIECE
@ SHIELDING GAS TO GUN @ PRIMARY INPUT POWER
Figure G-3-Gas Metal Arc Equipment
that may be importantin coping withthe high thermal

conductivity of aluminum base metals. I CONSTANT VOLTAGE POWER SOURCE
Slope. The static volt-ampere characteristic (static

output) of a CP power source is illustrated in Figure
G-4. The slope of the output is the algebraic slope of
the volt ampere curve and is customarily given as the
voltage drop per 100 amperes of current rise.
Slope has a major function in the short circuiting
transfer modeof GMAW in thatit controls the magni-
~ A
'A D4
tude of the short circuit current, which is the amperage I I I
that flows when the electrode is shorted to the work- I I
piece. In GMAW, the separation of molten drops of CURRENT. A
metal from the electrode is controlled by an electrical
phenomenon called the eZectromugnetic pinch effect. Figure G-&Static Volt-Ampere Output Curve of a
Pinch is the magnetic "squeezing" force on a conduc- Constant Potential Power Supply
tor produced by the current flowing through it. For
short circuiting transfer,the effect is illustrated in Fig- effect determines the way a molten drop detaches from
ure G-5. theelectrode. This in turn affectsthe arc stability.
In short circuiting transfer the amountof short cir- When little or no slope is present in the power supply
cuit current is importantsince the resultantpinch circuit, the short circuit current will rise rapidly to a

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 051b385 b27 m
WELDING ARC METAL GAS 211
cuitcharacteristicaffectingthetimerate of this
CURRENT (A) increase in current is inductance, usually measured in
1 henrys. The effect of inductance is illustrated by the

curves plottedin Figure G-6.Curve A is an example of
a current-time curve immediately after a short circuit
when some inductance is in the circuit. Curve B illus-
trates the path the current would have taken if there
were no inductance in the circuit.
The maximum amountof pinch effectis determined
by the final short circuit current level. The instanta-
neous pinch effect is controlled by the instantaneous
current,andthereforethe shape of thecurrent-time
curve is significant. The inductance in the circuit con-
trols the rate of current rise. Without inductance the
pinch effectis applied rapidly and the molten drop will
beviolentlysqueezed off theelectrodeand cause
excessive spatter.Higherinductanceresults in a
decreasein the shortcircuitspersecondandan
increase in the arc-on time. Increased arc-on time
Figure G-5-Short Circuiting Transfer Causedby makes the puddle more fluid and results in a flatter,
the Electromagnetic Pinch Effect smoother weld bead.
In spray transfer, the addition of some inductance to
high level. The pinch effect will also be high, and the the power source will produce a softer arc start with-
molten drop will separate violently fromthe wire. The out affectingthesteady-stateweldingconditions.
excessive pinch effect will abruptlysqueeze the metal Power source adjustments requiredfor minimum spat-
aside,cleartheshortcircuit,andcreate excessive terconditionsvarywiththeelectrodematerialand
,
spatter. diameter. As a general rule, higher short circuit cur-
Inductance. When the electrode shorts to the work, rentsandhigherinductance are needed for larger
the current increases rapidly to a higher level. The
cir- diameter electrodes.
T E S S I V E CURRENT,
HIGH SPAlTER
SHORT CIRCUIT
-
CURVE B NO INDUCTANCE
CURRENT
CURVE A- INDUCTANCE ADDED
DESIRED CURRENT
FOR GOOD STABILITY
AND LOW SPATTER
TIME, S
Figure G-6-Effect of Inductance in a GMAW Circuit

ARC METAL
Welding
Power sources are available with fixed, stepped, or ( 5 ) Electrode extension(stick-out)

continuously adjustable inductance levels. (6) Electrode orientation (trailor lead angle)
Metal Transfer Mechanisms (7) Weld joint position
The characteristics of the GMAW process are best (8) Electrode diameter
described in terms of the three basic means by which (9) Shielding gas composition and flow rate
metal is transferred from the electrode to the work: Knowledge and control of these variables is essen-
(1) Short circuiting transfer tial toproducewelds of satisfactoryqualityconsis-
(2) Globular transfer tently. These variablesare not completely independent,
(3) Spray transfer and changing one generally requires changing one or
The type of transfer is determinedbyanumber more of the others to produce the desired results. Con-
of factors, the mostinfluential of which are the siderable skill and experience are needed to select opti-
following: mum settingsfor each application. The optimum values
(1) Magnitude and type of welding current areaffectedby(1)typeofbasemetal, (2) electrode
(2) Electrode diameter composition, (3) weldingposition,and (4) quality
(3) Electrode composition requirements. Thus, there is no singleset of parameters
(4) Electrode extension that gives optimum results in every case.
(5) Shielding gas Welding Current
Process Variables Whenall other variables are heldconstant,the
The following are some of the variables that affect welding amperage varies with the electrode feed speed
weldpenetration,beadgeometry,andoverallweld or melting rate in a nonlinear relation.As the electrode
quality: feed speed is varied, the welding amperage will vary
(1) Welding current (electrode feed speed) in a like manner if a constant-voltage power source
(2) Polarity (DCENor DCEP) is used. This relationship of welding current to wire
(3) Arc voltage (arc length) feedspeed for carbonsteel electrodes is shown in
(4) Travel speed Figure G-7.
800
t t
W
"
" 20 W
c
5 --
3
zI
$ 700
U
E
v)
W
600 -- - - 15
a
W
5 500 -- I-
W
z z
W
o
400 -- " 10 i
IL
v, cn
300 -1-
3 o
W
W W
LL LL
W 200" "5 W
i 100 --
$
I
I I I I I I I
I l l I I I I I I O
O 50 1O0 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
WELDING CURRENT,A (DCEP)
Figure G-7-Welding Current as a Function of Wire Feed Speed for Various Diametersof Carbon Steel Wires

~~ ~~
STD-AUS JWE-ENGL 1997 D 07842b5 0536387 4 T T

Encyclopedia
Welding (GMAW)
At the low-current levels for each electrode size, the The vast majority of GMAW applications use direct
curve is nearly linear. However, at higher welding cur- currentelectrodepositive(DCEP). This condition
rents, particularly with small diameter electrodes, the yields a stable arc, smooth metal transfer, relatively
curves become nonlinear, progressively increasingaat low spatter, good weld bead characteristics, andgreat-
higherrate as weldingamperageincreases. This is est depth of penetration for a wide range of welding
attributed to resistance heating of the electrode exten- currents.
sion beyondthe contact tube. Direct current electrode negative (DCEN) is seldom
With all other variables held constant, an increase in used because axial spray transfer is not possible with-
welding current (electrode feed speed) will result in outmodificationsthathavehadlittlecommercial
the following: acceptance. DCEN has a distinct advantage of high
(1) An increase in the depth and width of the weld meltingrates that cannot be exploitedbecause the
penetration transfer is globular. With steels, the transfer can be
(2) An increase in the deposition rate improved by adding a minimum of 5% oxygen to the
(3) An increase in the size of the weld bead argon shield (requiring special alloys to compensate
Pulsed spray welding is a variation of the GMAW for oxidation losses)or by treating the wireto make it
process in which the current is pulsed to obtain the thermionic (adding to the cost of the filler metal). In
advantages of the spray modeof metal transfer at aver- both cases, the deposition rates drop, eliminating the
age currents equal toor less than the globular-to-spray onlyrealadvantageofchangingpolarity.However,
transition current. because of thehighdepositionrateandreduced
Since arc force anddepositionrate are exponen- penetration, DCEN has found some use in surfacing
tially dependent on current, operation above the transi- applications.
tion current often makes thearc forces uncontrollable Attempts to use alternating current with the GMAW
in the vertical and overhead positions. By reducing the process have generally been unsuccessful. The cyclic
average current with pulsing, the arc force and deposi- wave form creates arc instability due to the tendency
tion rates can both be reduced, allowing welds to be of the arc to extinguish as the current passes through
made in all positions and in thin sections. thezeropoint.Althoughspecialwiresurfacetreat-
Withsolidwires,anotheradvantage of pulsed ments have been developed to overcome this problem,
powerwelding is thatlargerdiameterwires, i.e., the expense of applying them has made the technique
1.6 mm ( M 6 in.) can be used. Although deposition uneconomical.
rates are generally no greater than those with smaller
diameterwires, the advantage is in the lower cost Arc Voltage (Arc Length)
per unit of metal deposited. There is also an increase Arc voltage and arc length are terms that are often
indepositionefficiencybecause of reducedspatter used interchangeably. It should be pointed out, how-
loss. ever,thattheyaredifferenteventhoughthey are
With metal cored wires, pulsed power produces an related. With GMAW, arc length is a critical variable
arc that is less sensitive to changes in electrode exten- that must be carefully controlled. For example, in the
sion (stickout) and voltage compared to solid wires. spray-arc mode with argon shielding, an arc that is too
Thus, the processis more tolerantof operator guidance shortexperiencesmomentaryshortcircuits.They
fluctuations.Pulsedpower also minimizesspatter cause pressure fluctuations which pump 'air into the
from an operation already low in spatter generation. arc stream, producing porosityor embrittlement due to
Polarity absorbed nitrogen. Should the arc be too long, it tends
The term polarity is used to describe the electrical to wander, affecting both the penetration and surface
connection of theweldinggunwithrelationtothe bead profiles. A long arccan also disrupt the gas
terminals of a direct current power source. When the shield.
gun power lead is connected to the positive terminal, Withallvariablesheldconstant,arcvoltageis
the polarity is designated as direct current electrode directly relatedtoarclength.Eventhoughthearc
positive(DCEP),arbitrarilycalled reverse polarity. length is the variable of interest and the variable that
When the gun is connected to the negative terminal, should be controlled, the voltageis more easily moni-
the polarity is designated as direct current electrode tored. Because of this, and the normal requirement that
negative (DCEN), originally called straight polarity. the arc voltage be specified in the welding procedure,

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 3997 D 0784265 0536388 33b m
ARC METAL
214 GAS Welding Encyclopedia
it is the term thatis more commonly used.See Appen- Consumables

dix 10. In addition to equipment components, suchas con-
Electrode Extension tact tips and conduit liners that wear out and have to be
replaced, the process consumables inGMAW are elec-
The electrode extensionis the distance betweenthe trodes and shielding gases. The chemical composition
end ofthe contact tube andthe end of the electrode, as of the electrode, the base metal, and the shielding gas
shown in Appendix 10. An increase in the electrode determine the weld metal chemical composition. This
extension results in an increase in its electrical resis- weld metal composition, in turn, largely determines
tance. Resistance heating in turn causes the electrode the chemical and mechanical properties of the weld-
temperature to rise, and results in a small increase in ment.Thefollowingarefactorsthatinfluence the
electrode melting rate. Overall, the increased electrical selection of the shielding gas and the welding
resistance produces a greater voltage drop from the electrode:
contact tube to the work. This is sensed by the power (1) Base metal
source, which compensates by decreasing the current.
That immediately reduces the electrode melting rate, (2) Required weld metal mechanical properties
which then lets the electrode shorten the physical arc (3) Base metal condition and cleanliness
length. Thus, unless thereis an increase in the voltage (4)Typeofserviceorapplicablespecification
at the welding machine, thefiller metal willbe depos- requirement
ited as a narrow, high-crowned weld bead. (5) Welding position
The desirable electrode extension is generally from (6) Intended modeof metal transfer
6 to 12 mm (1/4 to 1/2 in.) for short circuiting transfer
Electrodes
and from 12to 25 mm (U2 to 1 in.) for other types of
metal transfer. The electrodes (filler metals) for gas metalarc
welding are covered by variousAWS filler metal spec-
Weld Joint Position ifications. Other standards writing societies also pub-
Most spray typeGMAW is done in the flat or hori- lish filler metal specificationsfor specific applications.
zontalpositions,whileatlow-energy levels, pulsed For example, the Aerospace Materials Specifications
and short circuiting GMAW can be used in all posi- are written by SAE, and are intended for aerospace
tions. Fillet welds made in theflat position with spray applications. The AWS specifications,designated as
transfer are usually more uniform, less likely to have A5.XX standards, and a listing of GMAW electrode
unequal legs and convex profiles, andare less suscep- specifications are shown in Table G-l. Theydefine
tible to undercutting than similar fillet welds made in requirements for sizes andtolerances,packaging,
the horizontal position. chemicalcomposition,andsometimesmechanical
To overcome the pull of gravity on the weld metal properties.The AWS also publishes Filler Metal
in the verticalandoverheadpositions of welding, Comparison Charts, inwhichmanufacturersmay
small diameter electrodesare usually used, with either show theirtradename for each of the filler metal
short circuiting metal transfer or spray transfer with classifications.
pulsed direct current. Electrode diameters of 1.1 mm
(0.045 in.) and smaller are best suited for out-of-posi- Table G-1
tion welding. The low-heat input allows the molten Specifications for Various GMAW Electrodes
pool to freeze quickly. Downward welding progres-
sion is usually effective on sheet metal in the vertical Material
Type
Base AWS Specification
position. A5.18 Steel Carbon
A5.28
When weldingis done inthe flat position, the incli- Steel Low Alloy
A5.1
nation of the weld axis with respect to the horizontal Alloys
Aluminum O
Alloys Copper A5.7
plane will influence the weld bead shape, penetration, Magnesium A5.19
and travel speed.A5.14
Inflat position circumferential
Alloys weld- Nickel
ing, the work rotates under the welding gun andincli- A5.9
Stainless
Steel
Series
300
nation is obtained by movingthe welding gun ineither 400 Stainless Series
A5Steel $9
direction from top dead center. Titanium A5.16

~~ ~ ~~ ~~~
Shlelding Gases GAS PRESSURE
The primaryfunction of theshielding gas is to Gas pressure can be expressed as gauge pressure,
exclude the atmosphere from contact with the molten the pressure above atmospheric pressure, or as abso-
weld metal. This is necessary because most metals, lute pressure, the gauge pressure plus the atmospheric
whenheated to their melting point in air, exhibit a pressure. For welding applications, pressure is mea-
strong tendency to form oxides and, toa lesser extent, suredinkilopascals, (Wa) or inpounds force per
nitrides. Oxygen will also react with carbon in molten square inch, (psi).
steel to form carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide.
Thesevariedreactionproductsmayresultinweld GAS PRESSURE WELDING
deficiencies, such as trapped slag, porosity, and weld See PRESSURE GAS WELDING.
metalembrittlement.Reactionproducts are easily
formed in the atmosphere unless precautions are taken GAS REGULATOR
to exclude nitrogen and oxygen. A device for controlling the delivery of gas at some
In addition to providing a protective environment, substantially constant pressure. See STANDARD WELD-
the shieldinggas and flowrate also have a pronounced ING TERMS. See REGULATOR.
effect on the following:
(1) Arc characteristics GAS SAVER
(2) Mode of metal transfer A double-valve device used in oxyacetylene weld-
(3) Penetration and weld bead profile ing which turns off both oxygen and acetylene simul-
taneouslywhenthetorch is hungonahooklever.
(4) Speed of welding
When the torch is removed from the lever both gases
(5) Undercutting tendency are turned onas originally adjusted, and relightedby a
(6) Cleaning action pilot light.
(7) Weld metal mechanical properties
Reference: AmericanWeldingSociety. Welding GAS SHIELDED ARC WELDING
Handbook, 8thEdition, Vol. 2, WeldingProcesses. A group of processes including ELECTROGAS WELD-
Miami, Florida: American Welding Society, 199 l. ING, FLUX CORED ARC WELDING, GAS METAL ARC WELD-
ING, GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING, and PLASMA ARC
GAS MIXTURES WELDING. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS.
Combining gases to utilize the best features of the
component gases. Some of the gases may be chemi- GAS SHIELDED FLUX CORED ARC WELDING (FCAW-G)
See SHIELDING GAS,
cally inert, others can be reactive. A flux cored arc weldingprocess variation in which
or the specificgas by name, shielding gas is supplied throughthe gas nozzle, in
addition to that obtainedfrom theflux within the elec-
GAS NOZZLE trode. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
A device at the exit end of the torch or gunthat
directs shielding gas. See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. GAS SHIELDING
See Appendix 10. See SHIELDING GAS.
GASOLINE TANK WELDING GAS SYSTEMS
See TANKS, Safe Practices. Gas piping systems for welding and cutting should
bemanufacturedandinstalledinaccordancewith
GAS POCKET National Fire ProtectionAssociation(NFPA) stan-
A nonstandard termfor POROSITY. dards, suchas NFPA 51 Oxygen-Fuel Gas Systems for
Welding and Cutting, and NFPA 50 Bulk Oxygen Sys-
GAS PREFLOW tem at Consumer Sites. Other standards that should be
Starting the flow of the shielding gas prior to arc consulted are CompressedGasAssociation(CGA)
ignition. Selection of the preflow technique and the CGA E-1 Regulator Connection Standards and CGA
duration of the preflow depend on the specific welding E-2 Standard Hose Connection Specification. In addi-
conditionsandmaterials.Gaspreflowcanimprove tion,refer to AmericanNationalStandards Institute
weld quality.See SHIELDING GAS. (ANSI) standard ANSI Z49.1 Safety in Welding, Cut-

STD-AUS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb390 T94
216 GASTORCH Welding Encyclopedia
ting and Allied Processes for safe practices in the use One face of the cut is usually dross-free, with dross
of gases when welding and cutting. adhering to the side of the workpiece away from the
work lead. The cut quality on the dross-free side is
GAS TORCH usually acceptable while the other requires consider-
A nonstandard termfor WELDING TORCH and CUT- able cleanup.
TING TORCH. Equipment
Standard gas tungsten arc welding torches can be
GAS TUNGSTEN ARCCUlTlNG (GTAC) used for cutting. Cutting currents up to 600 amperes
An arc cutting process that uses a single tungsten are used. Welding torches can be used for cutting at
electrode with gas shielding. See STANDARD WELDING currents up to 175% of their nominal ratings because
TERMS. there is little reflected heat from the cutting operation.
This process used a standard GTAW torch with a For example, a 300-ampere torch can be used for cut-
small diameter shielding cup, high arc current, DCEN, ting with 500 amperes for short periods.
and gas flow rates in the range of 25 L/min (50 ft3/h) A constant-current d-c power supply with a mini-
to sever metals. It is generally considered a temporary mum open circuit voltageof 70 V is recommended for
procedure. cutting. Cuts made witha-c power have a plate thick-
ness limitation of 6 mm (U4 in.). The major difficulty
Principles of Operation encountered when using a-c power is the loss of tung-
Gas tungsten arc cutting can be used to sever non- sten fromthe electrode at the high currents required.
ferrous metals and stainless steel in thicknesses up to
1/2 in. using standard gas tungstenarc welding equip- GAS TUNGSTEN ARC CUTTING TORCH
ment. Metals cut include aluminum, magnesium,cop- A device used to transfer current to a fixed cutting
per, silicon-bronze, nickel, copper-nickel, and various electrode, position the electrode, and direct theflow of
types of stainless steels. This cutting process can be shielding gas. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
used either manuallyor mechanized. Thesame electric
circuit is used for cutting as for welding. Higher cur- GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW)
rent is required to cut a given thickness of plate than to An arc welding process that uses an arc between a
weld it. An increased gas flowis also required to melt tungsten electrode (nonconsumable) and the weld
through and sever the plate. pool. The process is used with shielding gas and with-
In practice, a 4 mm (Y32 in.) diameter, 2% thori- out the application of pressure. See STANDARD WELD-
atedtungstenelectrode is extendedapproximately ING TERMS. See also HOT WIRE WELDING and PULSED
6 mm (U4 in.) beyond the end of a 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING.
diameter metallic or ceramic gas cup. A mixture of Gastungstenarcwelding (GTAW)maybeused
approximately 65% argon and 35% hydrogenis deliv- with or without the addition of filler metal. Figure G-8
ered to the torch at a flow rate of 30 L/min (60 ft3/h). shows the gas tungsten arc welding process.
Nitrogen can also be used, but the quality of the cut is GTAW has become indispensable as a tool
for many
not as good as that obtained with an argon-hydrogen industries because of the high-quality welds produced
mixture. Best cutting results are obtained using DCSP, and low equipment costs. The following information
butalternatingcurrentwithsuperimposedhigh fre- presents the fundamentals of the GTAW process,
quency has produced satisfactory cuts on material up the equipmentandconsumablesused, the process
to 6 mm (1/4 in.) thick. procedures andvariables, applications, andsafety
Arc starting canbe accomplished witheither a high- considerations.
frequency spark or by scratching the electrode on the Historical Background
workpiece. An electrode-to-work distance of 1.6 to 3.2 The possibility of using helium to shield a welding
mm (U16 to 1/8 in.) is used, but this is not a critical arc and molten weld pool wasfirst investigated in the
factor. As the torch is moved over the plate, a small 1920s'. However, little was donewiththismethod
section of the plateis melted by the heat of the arc and until the beginning of World WarII, when a great need
the molten metal is blown away by the gas stream to
form the kerf. At the end of the cut, the torch is raised 1. M. Hobart U.S. Patent 1,746,081, 1926 and P. K. Devers U.S.
from the workpiece to break the arc. patent 1,746,191, 1926.

~~
Weldina Encyclopedia (GTAW)
WELDING
ARC
TUNGSTEN
GAS 217
shielding gas. The arc is established between the oftip

the electrode and the work. Heat generatedby the arc
-
P I
CURRENT
CONDUCTOR melts the base metal. Once the arc and weld pool are
WELDING
DIRECTION OF \ established, the torchis moved along the joint and the
arcprogressivelymeltsthefayingsurfaces.Filler
wire, if used, is usually added to the leading edge of
the weld poolto fill the joint.
NONCONSUMABLE
ELECTRODE
ELECTRICAL
TL, -. . CONDUCTOR II I I
J
L ARC
J
SOLIDIFIED
WELD METAL
Figure G-&-Schematic View of the Gas Tungsten

Arc Welding Operation
developed in the aircraft industry to replace riveting

-1
WORKF'IECE I \
'INSULATING
INERT
I
SUPF
SHEATH
GAS 'LY
for joining reactive materials such as aluminum and SHIELDING GAS
magnesium. Using a tungsten electrode and direct cur-
rent arc power with the electrode negative, a stable, Figure G-+Typical Equipment Used for Gas
efficient heat source was produced with which excel- Tungsten Arc Welding
lent welds couldbe made2.
Since the early days of the invention,numerous Advantages
improvementshavebeenmade to the processand The following are some advantagesof the gas tung-
equipment. Welding power sources have been devel- sten arc process:
oped specifically forthe process. Some provide pulsed (1) It producessuperiorqualitywelds,generally
dc and variable-polarity a-c weldingpower.Water- free of defects.
cooledandgas-cooledtorchesweredeveloped. The (2) It is free of the spatter which occurs with other
tungsten electrode
has
been
alloyedwith
small arc welding processes.
amounts of active elements to increase its emissivity; (3) It can be used with or without filler metal as
this has improved arc starting, arc stability, and elec- required for the specific application.
trode life. Shielding gas mixtures have been identified (4) Itallowsexcellentcontrol of rootpassweld
for improved welding performance. penetration.
Process Description ( 5 ) It can produce inexpensive autogenous welds at
Typicalequipmentused for the gas tungstenarc high speeds.
welding process is illustrated in Figure G-9. The pro- (6)It can use relatively inexpensive power supplies.
cess usesanonconsumabletungsten(ortungsten (7) It allows precise control of the welding variables.
alloy) electrode held in a torch. Shielding gas is fed (8) It can beusedtoweldalmost all metals,
through the torch to protectthe electrode, molten weld including dissimilar metal joints.
pool, and solidifying weld metal from contamination (9) It allows the heat source and filler metal addi-
by the atmosphere.The electric arc is produced by the tions to be controlled independently.
passage of currentthroughtheconductive,ionized Limitations
The following are some limitationsof the gas tung-
2. R. Meredith, U.S. Patent 2,274,631, 1941. sten arc process:

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L797 0784265 0516392 867 m
(GTAW)
WELDING
TUNGSTEN
ARC
(1) Deposition rates are lower than the rates possi- metal to be welded. Direct current with the electrode
ble with consumable electrode arc welding processes. negative (DCEN) offers the advantages of deep pene-
(2) There is a need for slightly more dexterity and trationand fast weldingspeeds,especiallywhen
welder coordination than with gas metal arc welding helium is used as the shield.Helium is thegas of
or shielded metal arc welding for manual welding. choice for mechanized welding.
(3) It is less economical than the consumable elec- Alternatingcurrentprovidesacathodiccleaning
trode arc welding processes for sections thicker then (sputtering) which removes refractoryoxides from the
10 mm (3/8 in.). surfaces of aluminum and magnesium during the por-
(4)There is diffkulty in shielding the weld zone tion of the a-c wave that the electrodeis positive with
properly in drafty environments. respect to the workpiece. In this case, argon must be
Potential problems with the process include: used for theshieldbecausesputtering cannot be
(1) Tungsten inclusions can occur if the electrodeis obtained with helium. Argon is the gas of choice for
allowed to contactthe weld pool. manual welding whether used with direct current or
(2) Contamination of the weld metal can occur if alternating current.
proper shieldingof the filler metal bythe gas streamis A third power optionalso is available, that of using
not maintained. direct current with the electrode positive. This polarity
(3) There is low tolerancefor contaminants onfiller is used only rarely because it causes electrode over-
or base metals. heating.
(4)Possiblecontamination or porositycanbe ArcVoltage. The voltagemeasuredbetweenthe
caused by coolant leakage from water-cooled torches. tungsten electrode andthe work is commonly referred
(5) Arcblow or arcdeflection,aswith other to as the arc voltage. Arc voltage is a strongly depen-
processes. dent variable, affected by the following:
This process has beencalled Helium@(a registered (1) Arc current
trade mark of Union Carbide Corporation), namedfor (2) Shape of the tungsten electrodetip
theheliumshielding gas originallyused,andTIG (3) Distance betweenthe tungsten electrode andthe
(tungsten inert gas) welding, However, the AWS ter- work
minology for this process is gas tungsten arc welding (4) Type of shielding gas
(GTAW), becauseshieldinggasmixtureswhich are The arc voltage is changed by the effects of the
not inert can be used for certain applications. other variables, andis used in describing welding pro-
Process Variables cedures only because it is easy to measure. Since the
The primary variablesin GTAW are arc voltage (arc other variables such as the shield gas, electrode shape,
length), welding current, travel speed, and shielding and currenthavebeenpredetermined, arc voltage
gas. The amountof energy produced bythe arc is pro- becomes a way to control the arc length, a critical vari-
portional tothe current and voltage.The amount trans- able. Arc lengthis important with this process because
ferred per unit length of weld is inversely proportional it affects the width of the weld pool; pool width is pro-
to the travel speed.The arc in heliumis more penetrat- portional to arc length. Therefore, in most applications
ing than that in argon. However, because all of these other than those involving sheet, the desired arc length
variablesinteractstrongly, it is impossibletotreat is as short as possible.
them as truly independent variables when establishing Of course, recognition needs to be given the to pos-
welding proceduresfor fabricating specificjoints. sibility of short circuiting the electrode to the pool or
Arc Current. As a general statement, arc current con- filler wire ifthe arc is too short. However, with mecha-
trolstheweldpenetration, the effectbeingdirectly nized welding, using a helium shield, direct current
proportional, if not somewhat exponential. Arc current electrode negative (DCEN) power, and arelatively
also affectsthe voltage, with the voltage at a fixed arc high current, it is possible to submerge the electrode
length increasing in proportion tothe current. For this tip below the plate surface to produce deeply penetrat-
reason, to keep a fixed arc length, it is necessary to ing but narrow welds at high speeds. This technique
change the voltage setting
when the current is has been calledburied arc.
adjusted. Travel Speed. Travel speed affects both the width
The process can be used with either direct or alter- and penetration of a gas tungsten arc weld. However,
natingcurrent,thechoicedependinglargely on the its effect on width is more pronounced than that on

~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~~~~
STD-AWS JWE-ENCL L997 m 0784265 051b393 7T3 W
ING
ARC
TUNGSTEN
Encyclopedia
GAS
Welding 219
penetration. Travel speed is important because of its Water-cooledTorches. Water-cooledtorches are

effecton cost. Insomeapplications,travelspeed is cooled by the continuous flow of water through pas-
definedasanobjective,with the othervariables sageways in the holder.As illustrated in Figure G-10,
selected to achieve the desired weld configuration at cooling water enters the torch through the inlet hose,
that speed. In other cases, travel might be a dependent circulates through the torch, and exits through an out-
variable, selected to obtain the weld quality and uni- let hose. The power cable from the power supply to the
formity needed under the best conditions possible withtorch is typically enclosed within the cooling water
the other combination of variables. Regardless of the outlet hose.
objectives, travel speed generally is fixed in mecha- Water-cooled torches are designed for use at higher
nized welding whileother variables such as current or welding currentson a continuous dutycycle than simi-
voltage are varied to maintain control of the weld. lar sizes of gas-cooled torches. Spica1 welding cur-
Wire Feed. In manual welding, the way filler metal rents of 300 to 500 amperes can be used, although
is added to the pool influences the number of passes some torches have been built to handle welding cur-
required and the appearance of the finished weld. rents up to 1000 amperes. Most machineor automatic
In machine and automatic welding, wire feed speed welding applications use water-cooled torches.
determinestheamount of filler depositedperunit Collets. Electrodes of various diametersare secured
length ofweld.Decreasingwirefeedspeedwill in the electrode holder by appropriately sized collets
increasepenetrationandflatten the beadcontour. or chucks. Collets are typically made of a copper alloy.
Feeding the wire too slowly can lead to undercut, cen-The electrode is gripped by the collet when the torch
terline cracking, and lackof joint fill. Increasing wire cap is tightened in place. Good contact between the
feed speed decreases weld penetration and produces a electrode andthe inside diameterof the collet is essen-
more convex weld bead. tial for proper current transfer and electrode cooling.
Equipment Nozzles. Shielding gas is directed to the weld zone
Equipment for GTAW includes torches, electrodes, by gas nozzles or cups which fit onto the head of the
and power supplies. Mechanized GTAW systems may torch. Also incorporated in the torch body are diffus-
incorporatearcvoltagecontrols, arc oscillators,and ers, or carefully patterned jets, which feed the shield
wire feeders, gas to the nozzle. Their purposeis to assist in produc-
ing a laminar flow of the exiting gas shield. Gas noz-
Welding Torches. GTAW torches hold the tungsten
zles are madeofvariousheat-resistantmaterialsin
electrode which conducts welding current to the arc, different shapes, diameters, and lengths. These nozzles
and provide a means for conveying shielding gas to are either threaded to the torch or held by friction fit.
the arc zone.
Nozzles are also available with elongated trailing sec-
The majority of torchesformanualapplications tions or flared ends which provide better shieldingfor
have a head angle (angle between the electrode and welding metals such as titanium, whichis highly sus-
handle) of 120". Torchesare also availablewith ceptible to contamination at elevated temperatures.
adjustableangleheads, 90" heads,orstraight-line
(pencil type) heads. Manual GTAW torches often have Gas Lenses. One device used for assuring a laminar
auxiliary switches and valves built into their handles flow of shielding gas is an attachment called a gas
for controllingcurrentand gas flow.Torches for Zens. Gas lenses contain a porous barrier diffuser and
machine or automatic GTAW are typically mounted on are designed tofit inside the gas nozzle and aroundthe
a device which centers the torch over the joint, may electrode or collet. Gaslenses produce a longer, undis-
move the torch along the joint, and may change or turbed flow of shielding gas. Theyenable operators to
maintain the torch-to-work distance. weld with the ,nozzle 25 mm (1 in.) or more from the
work, improving their abilityto see the weld pool and
Gas-Cooled Torches.The heat generated in the torch
allowingthemtoreachplaceswithlimitedaccess,
during welding is removed either by gas cooling or such as inside comers.
water cooling. Gas-cooled torches (sometimes called
air-cooled) provide cooling by the flow of the rela- Electrodes
tively cool shieldinggas through the torch. Gas-cooled In GTAW, the word tungsten refers to the pure ele-
torches are limited to a maximum welding current of menttungstenand its variousalloysused as elec-
about 200 amperes. trodes. Tungsten electrodes are nonconsumable if the

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L947 .O784265 0516394 b3T
DINGARC
TUNGSTEN
220 GAS
r 'TUNGSTEN ELECTRODE
r
TORCH CAP
SHIELDING-GAS OUTLET
(LOW VELOCITY)
WATER-DISCHPLRGE
COOLING-WATER INLET
ATER
L POWER CABLE
SHIELDING-GAS INLET J
Figure G-1O-Cross-Sectional View of a Typical Water-cooled Torch for Manual GTAW
process is properly used, because they do not melt or Electrodes for Arc WeldingandCutting. The color
transfer to the weld. In other welding processes, such code identification system for the various classes of
as SMAW,GMAW, and SAW, the electrode is the tungsten electrodesis shown in Table G-2.
filler metal. The function of a tungsten electrodeis to Electrodes are produced witheither a cleanfinish or
serve as oneof the electrical terminalsof the arc which ground finish. Electrodes with a clean finish have been
suppliestheheatrequired for welding.Itsmelting chemically cleaned to remove surface impurities after
point is 3410C (6170F). Approaching this high tem- theformingoperation.Thosewithaground finish
perature, tungsten becomes thermionic; it is a ready have
been
centerless
groundto
remove
surface
source of electrons.Itreachesthistemperature by imperfections.
resistance heating and, were it not for the significant
ElectrodeSizesandCurrentCapacities. Tungsten
cooling effect of electrons boiling from its tip, resis-
tance heating would cause the tip to melt. In fact, the and tungsten alloy electrode sizes and current ranges
arelistedinTableG-3,alongwithshield-gascup
electrode tip is much cooler than that part of the elec-
diameters recommendedfor use with different types of
trode between thetip and the externally-cooled collet.
welding power. Table G-3 provides a useful guide for
Classification of Electrodes.Tungsten electrodesare selecting the correct electrodefor specific applications
classified on the basis of their chemical compositions, involving different currentlevels and power supplies.
as specified in Table G-2. Requirements for tungsten Current levels in excessof those recommended for
electrodes are given inthe latest editionof ANSUAWS a given electrodesize and tip configuration will cause
A5.12, Specijcation for Tungsten and TungstenAlloy the tungsten to erode or melt. Tungsten particles may

~~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 II 0784265 0516395 576 m

Encyclopedia
Welding TUNGSTEN
GAS ARC
(GTAW)
WELDING 221
Table G-2
Color Code and Alloying Elements for Various Tungsten Electrode
Alloys
Nominal Weight
of Alloying
AWS Classification COIOP Percent
Alloying
Oxide
Element
Alloying
Oxide
EW Green - - -
EWCe-2
Cerium Orange 2
EWLa- 1
Lanthanum Black La203 1
EWTh-1 Yellow Thorium Th02 1
EWTh-2 Red Thorium 7302 2
EWZr- 1 Brown Zirconium Zr02 .25
EWG Gray Not Specifiedb - -
a. Color may be applied in the form of bands, dots, etc., at any point on the surface of the electrode.
b. Manufacturer must identify thetype and nominal content of the rare earth oxide addition.
Table G-3
Recommended Tungsten Electrodes* and Gas Cups for Various Welding Currents
Electrode
Use Gas
A
nt,
ing
Current,
DirectI.D. Cup
Diameter A
Straight
Polarityb
Reverse
Polarityb
Unbalanced
Balanced
mm
0.010 0.25 114 15 up to up to 15 up to 15
0.50 0.020 114 5-20 5-1 5 10-20
1.00
15-80 0.040 318 20-30 10-60
1.6
/32 2.4
3.2
100-180 150-210 25-40 250-400
2 4.0 112 160-240 200-275
400-500 40-55
6 190-300
4.8 250-350 518 55-80 500-750
14 6.4 325-450 325-450
a. All values are based on the use of argon as the shielding gas.
b. Use EWCe-2, EWLa-1, or EWTh-2 electrodes.
c. Use EWP electrodes.
fall into the weld pool and become defects in the weld it is about 50% less than
DCEN and DCEP. In general,
joint. Current too low for a specific electrode diameter that of DCEN.
can cause arc instability. EWP ElectrodeClassification. Pure tungsten elec-
Direct current with the electrode positive (DCEP) trodes (EWP) contain a minimumof 99.5% tungsten,
requiresamuchlargerdiametertosupportagiven with no intentional alloying elements. Pure tungsten
level of current because the tip is not cooled by the electrodes are used mainly with ac for welding alumi-
evaporation of electrons but heated by their impact. In num and magnesium alloys.The tip of the EWP elec-
general, a given electrode diameter on DCEP would be trode maintains a shiny, balled end, which provides
expected to handle only 10% of the current possible good arc stability.
with the electrode negative. With alternating current,
the tip is cooled during the electrode negative cycle E W h ElectrodeClassifications. Thethermionic
and heated when positive. Therefore, the current-car- emission of tungsten can be improved by alloying it
rying capacityof an electrode on ac is between that of with metal oxides that have very low work functions.

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 05Lb39b 402 D
LDINGARC
TUNGSTEN
As a result, the electrodes are able to handle higher EWZr Electrode Classlficatlon. Zirconiated tungsten
welding currents without failing. Thorium oxide is one electrodes (EWZr) contain a small amount of zirco-
such additive.To prevent identification problems with nium oxide (Zr02), as listed in Table G-2. Zirconi-
these and other types of tungsten electrodes, they are ated tungsten electrodes have welding characteristics
color coded as shown in TableG-2. Two types of tho- that generally fall between those of pure and thori-
riated tungsten electrodes are available. The EWTh-1 ated tungsten. They are used for ac welding because
and EWTh-2 electrodes contain 1% and 2% thorium they combine the desirable arc stability character-
oxide (Tho2) called thoria, respectively, evenly dis- istics and balled end typical of pure tungsten with
persedthrough
their entire lengths. Theywere the current capacity and starting characteristics of
designed for DCEN applications. They are not often thoriated tungsten. Theyhave higher resistance to
usedwithacbecauseit is difficult to maintainthe contamination than pure tungsten, and are preferred
balled end, which is necessary with ac welding, with- for radiographic quality welding applications where
out splittingthe electrode. tungsten contamination of the weld must
be
Thorium is a very low-level radioactive material. minimized.
The level of radiation has not been found to represent
EWGElectrodeClassification. The EWG electrode
ahealthhazard.However, if welding is tobeper-
classification was assigned for alloys not covered by
formed in confined spaces for prolonged periods of
the above classes. These electrodes contain an unspec-
time, or if electrode grinding dust might be ingested,
ified addition of an unspecified oxide or combination
specialprecautionsrelativetoventilationshouldbe
of oxides (rare earth or others). The purpose of the
considered. The user should consult the appropriate
addition is to affect the nature or characteristics of the
safety personnel.
arc, as defined by the manufacturer. The manufacturer
A discontinued classificationof tungsten electrodes must identifythe specific additionor additions and the
is the EWTh-3 class.This striped tungsten electrode nominal quantity orquantities added.
had a longitudinal or axial segment which contained
1.0% to 2.0%thoria. The average thoria content of the SeveralEWGelectrodes are eithercommercially
electrode was 0.35% to 0.55%. Advances in powder available or are being developed. These include addi-
metallurgyandotherprocessingdevelopmentshave tions of yttrium oxide or magnesium oxide. This clas-
caused this electrode classificationto be discontinued, sificationalso
includes
ceriated
andlanthanated
and it is no longer commercially available. electrodes which containthese oxides in amounts
otherthanaslistedabove, or incombinationwith
EWCeElectrodeClassification. Ceriatedtungsten other oxides.
electrodes were first introduced into the United States
in the early1980s. These electrodes were developed as Electrode Tip Configurations.The shapeof the tung-
possible replacementsfor thoriated electrodes because sten electrode tip is an important process variable in
cerium, unlike thorium, is not a radioactive element. GTAW. Tungsten electrodes may be used with a vari-
The EWCe-2 electrodes are tungsten electrodes con- ety of tip preparations. Withac welding, pure or zirco-
taining 2% cerium oxide (Ceoz), referred to as ceria. niated tungsten electrodesform a hemispherical balled
Compared with pure tungsten, the ceriated electrodes end. For dc welding, thoriated, ceriated, or lanthanated
exhibitareduced rate of vaporizationorburn-off. tungsten electrodesare usually used. For the latter, the
Theseadvantages of ceriaimprovewithincreased end is typically ground to a specific included angle,
ceriacontent.EWCe-2electrodeswilloperatesuc- often with a truncated
end,
cessfully with acor dc. Grinding. To produce optimum arc stability, grind-
EWLaElectrodeClassification. EWLa- 1 electrodes ing of tungsten electrodes should be done with the axis
were developed around the same time as the ceriated of the electrode perpendicular tothe axis of the grind-
electrodes and for the same reason: that lanthanum is ing wheel. The grinding wheel should be reservedfor
not radioactive. These electrodes contain 1% lantha- grinding only tungsten to eliminate possible contami-
num oxide (Lazo3), referredtoas lanthana. The nation of the tungsten tip with foreign matter during
advantages and operating characteristics of these elec- the grinding operation. Exhaust hoods should be used
trodes are verysimilartotheceriatedtungsten whengrindingthoriatedelectrodes to removethe
electrodes. grinding dust from the work area.

STD*AWS JWE-ENGL L997 0764265
051b397 349
GSTEN
GAS
Encyclopedia
Welding 223
Wire Feeders
Wirefeeders are usedtoadd filler metalduring HIGH SPEED FILLER
automatic and machine welding. Either room tempera-
ture (cold) wire or preheated
(hot) wire can be fed into
AUX. Q / WIRE FEEDER
the molten weld pool. Cold wire is fed into the leading
edge and hot wire is fed into the trailing edge of the
molten pool.
Cold Wire. The system for feeding of cold wire has
threecomponents: (1) wiredrivemechanism,(2)
speed control, and (3) wire guide attachment to intro-
duce the wire into the molten weld pool.
The drive consists of a motorandgeartrainto
power a set of drive rolls which push the wire. The
control is essentially a constant-speed governor which WIRE WELD-" LWORKPIECE
can be either a mechanical or an electronic device. The
wire is fed tothe wire guide througha flexible conduit. Figure G - l l - G a s Tungsten Arc Hot Wire System
An adjustable wire guideis attached to the electrode
holder.Itmaintainsthepositionatwhichthewire trolled by limiting the wire diameter to1.2 mm (0.045
enters the weld and the angle of approach relative to in.) and reducing the heating current below 60% of
the electrode, work surface, and the joint, In heavy- the arc current.
duty applications, the wire guide is water cooled. Wires Preheated filler wire has been used successfullyfor
ranging from0.4 to 2.4 mm (0.015 to 3/32 in.) in diam- joining carbonandlow-alloysteels,stainless steels,
eter are used.Specialwirefeedersareavailableto and alloys of copper and nickel. Preheatingis not rec-
provide continuous, pulsed, or intermittent wire feed. ommended for aluminum and copper because the low
Hot Wire. The process for hot wire addition is simi- resistance of these filler wires requires high heating
lar to that for cold wire, except that the wire is resis- current, which results in excessive arc deflection and
tance heated toa temperature close to its melting point uneven melting.
just beforeitcontacts the moltenweldpool.When
using a preheated (hot) wire in machine and automatic
gas tungsten arc welding in the flat position, the wire 20T "S
is fed mechanically to the weld pool through a holder HOT WIRE WITH
from which inertgas flows to protect the hot wire from 18" "
8
oxidation. This system is illustrated in Figure G-11. 16 -- "
7
Normally, a mixture of 75% helium-25% argonis used f
to shield the tungsten electrode and the molten weld e 14" -- 6
W
pool.
Deposition rate is greater with hot wire than with
4 12"
5
e
"
cold wire, as shown in FigureG-12. This rate is com- 10"

-- 4 y
S
parable to that in gas metal arc welding. The current k
UJ 8"
flow is initiated when the wire contacts the weld sur- 2W COLD WIRE " 3
face. The wire is fedinto the moltenpooldirectly L3 6"
behind the arc at a 40 to 60" angle with respect tothe " 2
4"
tungsten electrode. The wire is resistance-heated by " 1
alternating current from a constant-voltage power 2"
source. Alternating current is used for heatingthe O ! I I
I I ! o
wire to avoid arc blow. When the heating current does O 2 4 6 8 10
not exceed 60% of the arc current, the arc oscillates ARC ENERGY, kW
30" in the longitudinal direction. The oscillation
increases to 120" when the heating and arc currents Figure G-12"Depositlon Rates for GTAW with
are equal. The amplitude of arc oscillation can becon- Cold and Hot Steel Filler Wire
STDOAWS JWE-ENGL L997 07842b5 05Lb398 285 m
LDING
ARC
TUNGSTEN
Welding
Power Supplies Inmost of the magneticallycontrolledpower

Constant-current type power sources are used for sources, the current-level control is accomplished in
GTAW. Power required for both a-c and d-c GTAW the ac portion of the power source. As a result, these
can be supplied by transformer-rectifier power sup- power sources are not typically used to provide pulsed
plies or from rotating a-c or d-c generators. Advances current because of their slow dynamic response. The
in semiconductor electronics have made transformer- addition of arectifierbridgeallowsthese power
rectifier power sources popular for both shop and field sources to provide both a-c and d-c welding current.
GTAW, but rotating-type power sources continue to be Those power sources which use a moving component
widely usedin the field. forcurrentcontrolcannotreadily be remotely con-
GTAW power sources typically have either droop- trolled with a foot pedal, while the others typically
ing or nearly true constant-current static output char- Can.
acteristics, such as those shown in Figure G-13. The The advantages of magnetically controlled power
static output characteristicis a function of the type of sources are that they are simple to operate, require lit-
weldingcurrentcontrolusedin the powersource tlemaintenanceinadverseindustrialenvironments,
design. and are relatively inexpensive. The disadvantages are
that they are large insize and weight and have a lower
efficiency compared to electronically controlled power
sources. Also, most magnetic-control techniques are
open-loop,whichlimitsrepeatability,accuracy,and
response. An essentially constant-current volt-ampere
CONSTANT characteristic can be provided by electronically con-
A I DROOPING \ YFCURRENT
T I OUTPUT \ I OUTPUT trolled power sources, suchas the series linear regula-
tor,siliconcontrolledrectifier,secondaryswitcher,
and inverter designs.
The advantages of electronically controlled power
sources are that they offer rapid dynamic response,
provide variable current waveform output, have excel-
lent repeatability, and offer remote control. The disad-
vantages are that they are more complex to operate
and maintain andare relatively expensive.
CURRENT, A
'1 12 It is importanttoselecta GTAW powersource
based on the type of welding current required for a
Figure G-l3-Static Volt-Ampere Output particular application. The types of welding current
Characteristics for Drooping and Constant Current include a-c sine-wave,a-c square-wave, dc, and pulsed
Power Supplies dc. Many power sourcesare available with a variety of
additional controls and functions such as water and
shielding gas control, wire feeder and travel mecha-
A drooping volt-ampere characteristic is typical of nismsequencing,currentup-slopeanddown-slope,
magnetically controlled power source designs includ- and multiple-current sequences.
ing the moving coil, moving shunt, moving core reac-
Shielding Gases
tor,saturablereactor, or magneticamplifierdesigns
and also rotating power source designs. A truly con- Shielding gas is directed by the torch to the arc zone
stant-currentoutput is available from electronically and weld pool to protect the electrode and the molten
controlled power sources.The drooping characteristic weld metal from atmospheric contamination. Backup
is advantageous for manual welding where a remote purge gas can also be used to protectthe underside of
foot pedal current controlis not available atthe site of the weld andits adjacent base metal surfaces from oxi-
welding.Withadroopingcharacteristic, the welder dation during welding. Uniformity of root bead con-
may vary the current level slightly by changing the arctour,freedomfromundercutting,and the desired
length.Thedegree of currentcontrolpossible by amount of root bead reinforcement are more likely to
changing arc length can be inferred from Figure 13. G- be achieved when using gas backup under controlled
GSTEN
GAS
Encyclopedia
Welding 225
conditions. In some materials, gas backup reduces roottimes that of argon. The same general relationship is
cracking and porosity in the weld. trueformixtures ofargonandhelium,particularly
Types ofShieldingGases. Argonandhelium, or those high in helium content.
mixtures of the two, are the most common types of The other influential characteristicis that of arc sta-
inert gas used for shielding. Argon-hydrogen mixtures bility.
Bothgasesprovideexcellentstabilitywith
are used for special applications. direct current power. With alternating current power,
which is used extensively for welding aluminum and
Argon. Welding grade argon is refined to a mini- magnesium, argon provides much better arc stability
mum purity of 99.95%. This is acceptable for GTAW and the highly desirable cleaning action, which makes
of most metals except the reactive and refractory met- argon superior to helium in this respect.
als, for whichaminimumpurity of 99.997% is
required. Often, such metals are fabricated in cham- Argon-Hydrogen Mixtures. Argon-hydrogen mix-
bers from which all traces of air have been purged tures are employed in special cases, such as mecha-
prior to initiating the welding operation. nizedwelding of light-gaugestainlesssteeltubing,
Argon is used moreextensively
than
helium where the hydrogen does not cause adverse metallurgi-
because of the following advantages: cal effectssuchasporosityandhydrogen-induced
(1) Smoother, quieter arc action cracking. Increased welding speeds can be achieved in
(2) Reduced penetration almost direct proportion to the amount of hydrogen
added to argon because of the increased arc voltage.
(3) Cleaning action when welding materials such as
aluminum and magnesium However, the amount of hydrogen that can be added
varies with the metal thickness and type of joint for
(4) Lower cost and greater availability
each particular application. Excessive hydrogen will
(5) Lower flow rates for good shielding cause porosity.Hydrogenconcentrationsupto35%
(6) Better cross-draft resistance havebeenusedon all thicknesses of stainless steel
(7) Easier arc starting where a root opening of approximately 0.25 to mm 0.5
The reduced penetration of an argon shielded arc is (0.010 to 0.020 in.) is used. Argon-hydrogen mixtures
particularlyhelpfulwhenmanualwelding ofthin are limited to useon stainless steel, nickel-copper, and
material,becausethetendency for excessivemelt- nickel-base alloys.
through is lessened. This same characteristicis advan-
Safe Practices
tageous in verticalor overhead welding, since the ten-
dency for the base metal to sag or run is decreased. The general subject of safety and safe practices in
welding,cutting,andalliedprocesses is covered in
Helium. Welding grade helium is refined to a purity ANSI Z49.1, latest edition, Safety in Welding and Cut-
of at least 99.99%. ting. This publication is available from the American
For given values of welding current and arc length, Welding Society. All welding personnel should be famil-
helium transfers more heat into the work than argon. iar with the safe practices discussed in this document.
The greater heating power of the helium arc can be The potential hazard areas in arc welding and cutting
advantageous for joining metals of high thermal con- include, but are not limited to, the handling of cylinders
ductivity and for high-speed mechanized applications. and regulators, gases, fumes, radiant energy and elec-
Also, helium is used more often than argon for weld- tric shock. See SAFE PRACTICES and Appendix 12.
ing heavy plate. Mixturesof argon and helium are use- Reference:American Welding Society, Welding
ful when some balance between the characteristics of Handbook, 8th Edition, Vol 2, WeldingProcesses.
both is desired. Miami, Florida: American Welding Society, 1991.
Characteristics of Argon and Helium. The chief fac-
tor influencing shielding effectiveness is the gas den- GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING, Manual
sity. Argon is approximately one and one-third times Manual gas tungsten arc weldingrequiresa fair
as heavy as air andtentimesheavierthanhelium. degree of hand-eyecoordination.Itisnecessaryto
Argon, after leaving the torch nozzle,forms a blanket keep the end of the filler metal inside the argon shield
over the weld area. Helium, because itis lighter, tends wheneveritishotenoughtoreactwiththeatmo-
to rise around the nozzle. Experimental work has con- sphere. If this is not done, the operator will bring the
sistently shown that to produce equivalent shielding oxidized end of the filler metal into the puddle, which
effectiveness, the flowof helium must be two to three results in contamination.
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 0784265 05Lb400 763
DING,
ARCTUNGSTEN
Welding
Manual Welding Procedure

Starting an Arc. To start an arc in alternating current
welding,theelectrodedoesnothavetotouchthe
workpiece. The superimposed high-frequency current
jumps the gap between the welding electrode and the
work, thus establishing a pathfor the welding current
to follow. To strike an arc, the power supply is first
turned on, and the torch held in a position about 2 in.
abovetheworkpiece.Thentheendofthetorch is
quickly swung down toward the workpiece, so that the
end of the electrode is about 1/8 in. above the plate.
The arc will then strike.This downward motion should
be made rapidly to provide the maximum gas protec-
tion to the weld zone.
In direct current welding, the same torch motion is
used for striking an arc. In this case, however, the elec-
trode must touch the workpiecein order for the arc to
Figure G-14-Before Starting the Weld, Preheat a
strike. As soon as thearc is struck,theelectrode Small Area
should be withdrawn approximately 118 in. above the
workpiece to avoid contaminating the electrodein the
molten puddle. firmly joined. Once the weld is started, the oscillating
Making a Butt Weld. After the arc has been struck, movement is no longer necessary. The torch is then
the torch is held at about a 75" angle to the surface of moved along the seam with the end of the electrode
the workpiece. The starting point of the work is first just above the edge of the top sheet.
preheated by moving the torch in small circles until a In lap welding, the puddle developed will be boo-
molten puddle is formed. (See Figure G-14). The end merang or V-shaped. Thecenter of the puddleis called
of the electrode should be held approximately 1/8 in. the "notch," and the speed at which this notch travels
above the workpiece. When the puddle becomes bright will determine howfast the torch can be moved ahead.
andfluid,thetorchshouldbemovedslowlyand Care must be taken that this notch is completely filled
steadily along the joint at a speed that will produce a in for the entire length of the seam. See Figure G-16.
bead of uniform width. No oscillation or other move- Otherwise, it is impossible to get 100 percent fusion
mentofthetorch,except for the steadyforward and good penetration.
motion, is required. When filler metal is used, faster welding speedsare
Whenfillermetalisneeded to providereinforce- possible as the rod helps fill the notch. It is important
ment, the welding rod is held at about a75" angle to the to get complete fusion. Just laying in bits of filler rod
work and about 1 in. away from the starting point. First on the cold, unfused base metal must be avoided. The
the starting point is preheated, and the puddle developed rod should be alternately dipped into the puddle and
aspreviouslydescribed.Whenthepuddlebecomes withdrawn 1/4 in. or so, as illustrated in Figure G-17.
bright and fluid, the arc is moved to theofrear the pud- By carefully controlling the melting rate of the top
dle, and filler metal added by quickly touching the rod edge, and by adding just the rightamount of filler
to the leading edge of the puddle. The rod is removed, metal where needed, a good uniform bead of proper
and the arc brought back to the leading of edge
the pud- proportions can be obtained.
dle. As soon as the puddle is again bright, the same Making a Corner or Edge Joint. This is the easiest
stepsarerepeated. This sequence,continuedforthe type of weld to make. A puddle is developed at the
entire lengthof the seam,is illustrated in FigureG-15. starting point, and the torch moved straight along the
Making a Lap Weld. The first step of starting a lap joint. Travel speed is regulated to produce a uniform
weld or joint is developing a puddle on the bottom looking bead. Too slow a welding speed will cause
sheet. When the puddle becomes bright and fluid, the molten metal toroll off the edge. Irregularor too high
arc is shortened to about 1.6 mm (1116 in.). The torch speeds will produce a rough, uneven surface. No filler
is oscillated directly over thejoint until the sheets are metal is required.

Licensed by Information Handling Services ~ ~~ ~ ~~~~~ ~
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 0 5 1 b 4 0 1 bTT
pedia Welding 227
DIRECTION OF WELDING
(A) DEVELOP THE PUDDLE
NOTCH
Figure G-16-Be Sure to Fill the Notch that Occurs

when Makinga Lap Weld with GTAW
(B) MOVE TORCH BACK
Figure G-17-Progress of the Weld wlth Filler Rod

(C) ADD FILLER METAL
GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING TORCH
A device used to transfer current to Q f e d welding
electrode, position the electrode, und direct thejlow of
shielding gus. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
GAS WELDING
A nonstandard termfor OXYFUEL GAS WELDING.
(D) REMOVE ROD
GAUGE
As applied to metals, a standard or scale of mea-
surement of thickness. As applied to gas regulators,
instrumentswhichindicatepressure. See PRESSURE
GAUGE.
GEAR TEETH, REPAIR

Broken gear teeth are usually replaced by rebuild-
(E) MOVE TORCH TO LEADING
EDGE OF PUDDLE
ing new teeth. The important precaution in this opera-
tion is to preheat the gear, wholly or in part,
to be sure
of equal expansion. The gear should be kept heated
Figure G-1 +Method of GTAW with Filler Metal while the welding is being done. See TOOL WELDING,
Addition Fabrication and Repair,und FARM IMPLEMENT REPAIR.
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 3997 m 07842b5 O536402 5 3 6
228 GENERATOR Encyclopedia Welding
GENERATOR
A motor or machine that converts mechanical ELECTRODE
energy into electric energy, used as a power source CONTACT
for arc welding processes.The mechanical power can TUBE
be from an internal combustion engine, an electric
motor, or from a power take-off from other equip-
ment. For welding,two basic types of rotating power
sources are used: the generator, which produces
direct current, and the alternator type, whichpro-
duces alternating current, and is capable of producing
low d-c power. Both have arotating member, called a
rotor or an armature, and a stationary member, called
a stator. A system of excitation is needed for both
types.
Welding power sources are available that produce
both constant current and constant voltage. These units
are used for field applications where either may be
needed atthe job site and utility poweris not available.
In many designs, electronic solid-state circuitry is inte-
grated to produce a variety of volt-ampere character-
istics. See Power Source under specific process; i.e.,
GAS METAL ARC WELDING.
Figure G-18-Globular Transfer in GMAW
GLEEBLE
A commercially available unit which is used to sim- cess, arc instabilitycaused by erratic transfer can
ulatethethermalcyclingencountered by the base generate pressure fluctuations that draw air into the
metal heat-affected zone of a welded specimen. The vicinity of the arc.
gleeble uses the electrical resistance heating technique
and is capable of producing (1) very rapid heating,(2) Highspeedphotographyandanalysis of oscillo-
short holding time at peak temperature, and (3) con- scope photographs are used to study the different types
trolled cooling to closely simulate a defined thermal of transfer. Transfer through the arc stream of covered
cycle as might be anticipated in a specific base metal electrodes can be characterized as globular (massive
section with a given welding process. drops) or as a showery spray (large number of small
drops). These modesare rarely found alone; generally,
GLOBULAR ARC metal is transferredinsomecombination ofboth.
A nonstandard termfor GLOBULAR TRANSFER. Transfer with theGMAW process varies greatly when
used with argon shielding. When the current is above
GLOBULAR TRANSFER, Arc Welding the transition level, the transfer mechanism can best be
The transfer of molten metal in large drops from a described as an axial spray and short circuits are non-
consumable electrode across the arc. See STANDARD existent. When helium or an active gas such as carbon
WELDINGTERMS. See Figure G- 18. See also SHORT dioxide is used for shielding, the transfer is globular
CIRCUITING TRANSFERand SPRAY TRANSFER. and some short circuitingis unavoidable. The GMAW
Consumableelectrodearcweldingprocesses are short circuiting arc process has been adapted to use
usedextensivelybecause filler metalisdeposited only short circuitsfor transfer of the metal to the weld
more efficiently and at higher rates than is possible pool.
with other welding processes. To be most effective, the
filler metal needs to be transferred from the electrode GLOVES, Welding
with small losses due to spatter. Uncontrollable short A gauntletorhandcoveringmade of leather or
circuits between the electrode andthe work should be other flexible, heatandflame-resistantmaterials to
avoided to help the welder or operator to maintain sta-protect the welder from arc rays, molten metal spatter,
bility of the process. In the case of the GMAW pro- sparks and other possible sources of bums.

~ ~ ~~~
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 05Lb403 472
Welding Encyclopedia GOUGING 229
GOGGLES should be held as shown in Figure G-20. The electrode

Protective glasses equipped with filter platesset in slopes back from the direction of travel with the air jet
a frame that fits snugly against the face and used pri- behind the electrode. The arc may be struck by lightly
marily with oxyfuel gasprocesses. See STANDARD touching the electrode to the workpiece.The electrode
WELDING TERMS. should not be drawn back once the arcis struck. Under
properoperatingconditions,theair jet willsweep
GOLD beneaththeelectrodeendandremove all molten
(Chemical symbol: Au).A soft, yellow metallic ele- metal. The gouging techniqueis different from that of
ment which occurs freely in nature. isItductile, highly arcweldingbecausemetal is removedinstead of
malleable, resistantto corrosion anda good conductor deposited. A short arc should be maintained by pro-
of heat; used as plating on electrical and mechanical gressing inthe direction of the cutfast enough to keep
components.Atomicnumber, 79; atomicweight, up with metal removal. The steadiness of progression
196.97; melting point 958 "C (1756F); specific grav- controls the smoothnessof the resulting cut surface.
ity 5.47 at 20C (68F). When gouging a workpiece in the vertical position,
gouging should be done downhill, to let gravity assist
GOUGING in removing the molten metal. Gouging in the horizon-
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See THERMAL tal position may be done either to the right or to the
GOUGING. left, but always in the forehand direction. In gouging
Electric 'arc and oxyfuel gas cutting processes can to the left, the cutting torch should be held as shown in
be used for gouging. Gouging is usually done to cut Figure G-20. In gouging to theright, the cutting torch
a groove or bevelin a workpiecetoprepareit for will be reversed to locate the air jet behind the elec-
welding. trode.Whengougingoverhead,theelectrodeand
Inmanualaircarbonarcgouging, the electrode torch shouldbe held at an angle that will prevent mol-
should be gripped as shown in Figure G-19, so that a ten metal from falling on the operator.
maximum of 178 mm (7 in.) extends from the cutting The depth of the groove produced is controlled by
torch. For nonferrous materials, this extension should the travel speed. Slow travel speeds produce a deep
be reduced to 75 mm (3 in.). The air jet should be groove;fast
speedsproduce a shallow groove.
turned on before striking thearc, and the cutting torch Grooves up to 25 mm (1 in.) may be cut. The width of
/
STICKOUT 178 mm (7 in). MAX
TO
TORCH HEADS (+)

COPPER PEEL BACK
R THE ELECTRODE
WORKPIECE (-)
Figure G-19-Typical Operating Procedures for Air Carbon Arc Gouging

230 GOVERNING
THICKNESS,
METAL
Resistance
Welding Welding Encyclopedia
GRAINS
Groups of crystals presentin metal afterit has solid-
ified. See METALLURGY.
GRAPHITE
An allotrope of carbon. In various forms, graphite
has a wide variety of uses in the welding industry. It
mayappearin the formofplatesandrods,and is
sometimes used as an electrode in place of a carbon
electrode. It is also used as a lubricant, and in putty,
coatings and paint.See CARBON.
GRAPHITE ARC WELDING

See GRAPHITE,CARBONARCWELDING, and CAR-
Figure G-20-Manual Air Carbon Arc Gouging BON ELECTRODE.
Operation in the Flat Position
GRAPHITE ELECTRODE
the groove is determined by the size of the electrode See CARBON ELECTRODE.
used and is usually about 3.2 mm (1/8 in.) wider than
the electrode diameter. A wider groove may be made GRAPHITIZATION
by oscillating the electrode with a circularor weaving Ametallurgicalchangein the microstructure of
motion. joints in carbon and certain low-alloy steels subjected
When gouging, a push angle of 35" from the surface to long term service in the temperature range of 450 to
oftheworkpieceisusedformostapplications.A 600C (850 to 1100F). Graphitization is a breakdown
steady rest is recommendedingougingtoensurea of carbides inthe steel to small patches of graphite and
smoothly gouged surface, particularly inthe overhead iron, caused by the thermal cycle of arc welds. This
position. Proper travel speed depends on the size of the microstructural change seriously reduces strength. A
electrode, type of base metal, cutting amperage, and practicalremedy for thisproblem is to usesteels
air pressure. An indication of proper speed and good alloyed with chromiumor molybdenum, or both. Ref-
gouge qualityis a smooth hissing soundin the arc.See erence:AmericanWeldingSociety. G. E.Linnert,
also ARCGOUGING,BACKGOUGING,OXYGENGOUG- Welding Metallurgy, p. 329-31; Vol. 2, Third Edition.
ING,PLASMAARCGOUGING, and AIR CARBON ARC Miami, Florida: American Welding Society, 1994.
CUTTING.
GRAVITY FEED WELDING
GOVERNING METAL THICKNESS, Resistance Welding A shielded metal arc welding process variation for
Thethickness of the sheet onwhichtherequired making afillet weld in which a long electrode slides
weld nugget size and depth of fusion is based. See down a tripod-mounted electrode holder as the ekc-
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. trode is consumed. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
GRADATED THERMAL SPRAY DEPOSIT GRAY CAST IRON

A compositethermal spraydeposit composed of See CAST IRON.
mixed materials in successive layers that progres-
sively change in composition from the material adja- GRINDER
cent to the substrate to the material at the surface of An electric or pneumatic device usedfor removing
the thermal spray deposit. See STANDARD WELDING excess materials by the action of abrasive wheels or
TERMS. belts on the material. Stationary or portable grinders
are used extensively as a means of finishing welds.
GRAIN GROWTH The abrasives may be emery, silicon carbide, alumi-
See METALLURGY. num oxide or a similar hard material.

S T D - A W S JWE-ENGL 1997 m 0784265 0516405 245 m
Welding Encyclopedia GUIDEDBENDTEST 231
GRINDING MATERIALS GROOVE AND ROTARY ROUGHENING, Thermal

Abrasivegranularmaterialsusedalone or com- Spraying
pounded, bonded to paper, fabric or tools to wear away A method of surface roughening in which grooves
a surfaceby friction. are made and the original surface is roughened and
The earliestindustrialgrindstonesweremade of spread. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
sandstone and were chiefly usedfor sharpening tools.
Sandstone is a natural grinding material because it is GROOVE ANGLE
composed of particles of quartz held together with a The total includedangle of the groovebetween
bond of silica. Grinding wheels were difficult to shape workpieces. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See
because of the irregular sizeof the quartz grain andthe Appendix 6.
hardness of the stone. Because there was no way to
control either grain sizeor hardness, they could not be GROOVE FACE
considered production tools. Thesurface of a joint memberincluded in the
Emery Wheels groove. See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See Appen-
Emerywheels,whichreplacedgrindstones,were dix 6.
made of various components, one of which is corun-
dum,anaturalaluminumoxide(chemicalsymbol: GROOVE RADIUS
A1203). Another abrasive ingredient of emery is iron The radius adjacent to the joint root used to form a
oxide. There are other impurities which do not add to J-edge shape. See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See
the value of emery as an abrasive. Some deposits of Appendix 6.
emery contain as little as 37% corundum, while others
containasmuchas70%.Emerywheels,,therefore, GROOVE WELD
while far better than grindstones in their speed and abil- A weld made in a groove between the workpieces.
in their composition See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 6.
ity to cut metals, were still irregular
and hardness, due to the varying amounts of impurities.
Corundum is almost as hardas the diamond. Grind-
GROOVE WELD SIZE
ing wheels made of imperfect diamonds were used on
special grindingjobs, but were too expensive for gen- The joint penetration of a groove weld. See STAN-
DARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 12.
eral use. Edward G. Acheson,one of the early experi-
menters,triedtoproduce artificial diamonds for
grinding wheelsby combining clay and carbon at high GROOVE WELD THROAT
temperatures.Clayandpowdered coke weremixed A nonstandard termfor GROOVE WELD SIZE.
and heated in acrude electric furnace. Examinationof
the result revealed a few bright crystals of material, GROUND CLAMP
which were hard enough to scratch glass. It was not A nonstandard and incorrect term for WORKPIECE
known what the material was, butit was thought to be CONNECTION.
a mixture of carbon and corundum. Acheson, there-
fore, coined the word Carborundum, and it became GROUND CONNECTION
the trade namefor the new substance. Chemical analy- An electrical connection of theweldingmachine
sis later showed that it was indeed a new substance, frame to the earth for safety. See STANDARD WELDING
one that does not occur in nature. The substance was TERMS. See Figure D-5. See also WORKPIECE CONNEC-
silicon carbide(Sic). TION and WORKPIECE LEAD.
Commercial procedures developedfor manufactur-
ing silicon carbide and aluminum oxide made it possi- GROUND LEAD
ble to produce, with suitable binders, grinding wheels A nonstandard and incorrect term for WORKPIECE
with uniform particlesize and hardness. LEAD.
GROOVE
The opening provided between two members to be GUIDED BEND TEST
joined by a weld. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See A bending test in which the specimen is placed in a
SCARF GROOVE and WELD GROOVE. jig and bent to a definite shape.See BEND TEST.
232 GUN Welding Encyclopedia
GUN GUN EXTENSION

See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also ARC CUT- The extension tube attached in front of the thermal
TING GUN, ARC WELDING GUN, ELECTRON BEAM GUN, spraying gun to permit spraying within confined
RESISTANCE WELDING GUN, SOLDERING GUN, und areas or deep recesses. See STANDARD WELDING
THERMAL SPRAYINGGUN. TERMS.
A typical deck module of an offshore oil drilling installation under construction

in Scotland for usein the
North Sea. The principal welding processes usedin offshore structural fabrication are submerged arc
welding (SAW), shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), self-shielded flux cored arc welding (FCAW-SS), and
gas shielded flux cored arc welding (FCAW-G).
Photo courtesy of Highlands FabricatorsUd.

HADFIELD STEEL (3) The presence of tensile stresses (elasticor plas-
A manganese steel invented in 1882 by Robert A. tic, residualor applied).
Hadfield in Sheffield,England. It hasanaustenitic (4) The presence of an electrolyte (water).
structure and an approximate analysis of 12.5% Mn, During SCC, the halide ions dissolve the passive
1.2% C. Patents granted to Hadfield in 1882-85 cov- protection layer on the 18-8 stainless steels; localized
ered alloys from 7 to 30% manganese. The steel was corrosion cells then become active.
first made in the UnitedStates in 1892. Austenitic stainless steels with higher nickel, chro-
Hadfieldsteelhascertaincharacteristicswhich mium,andmolybdenumcontentshavebeendevel-
make it very useful. For example, is it work hardening. opedforenhancedresistancetotheSCCproblem
The metal is relativelysoftandverytoughafter which has plagued the insulation-covered 18-8 stain-
quenching in cold water after it is removed from the less steels.
furnace. Hardness and toughness continue to increase Among the potential trouble-makers are the inks of
as items made from this steel are impacted by repeated several types of metal marking pens with high avail-
blows during service.See MANGANESE STEEL. able halogen content, as well as perspiration from the
workers hands. Clean cotton gloves should be worn
HALF-LIFE when working with stainless steel.
The timerequired for a radioactivesubstanceto
decay to half its original value. Radioactive materials HAMMERING, ResistanceSpot Welding
are used in radiographic inspection of welds. Excessive electrode impactonthe sugace of the
workpiece at the start of the welding cycle. See
HALOGEN CONTAMINATION STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
The presence of halides, particularly chlorides, has
HAMMER WELDING
resulted innumerousin-servicecracking failures of
insulation-covered 18-8 austenitic stainlesssteels. A nonstandardterm for forgeweldingandcold
These failures werefirst discovered in thermally insu- welding.
lated piping in petrochemical plants which had been
HAND SHIELD
builtin the 1940s. The elimination of allhalide
sources during welding and installation, and the pre- A protective device used in arc welding, arc cutting
vention of halidecontaminationduringsubsequent and thermal sprayingto shield the eyes, face and neck.
service, have proven to be extremely difficult. Some It is equipped with ajlter glass lens andis designed to
failures have been noted even in the presence of very be held by hand. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
low levels (10 ppm) of chlorides.
HARD CRACKING
These failures have been associatedwith stress cor- A condition which may develop in thecoarse grain
rosioncracking(SCC), an electrochemicalreaction, structure of the heat-affected zone of alloy steels, but
which producesa fine network of transgranular cracks which does not occur in mild steel. It is attributed to
on the surfaceof the insulation-covered 18-8 stainless the effectof dissolved hydrogen released from austen-
steel. Depending on conditions, failure by SCC may ite as it transforms.It can be avoidedin alloy steelsby
occur in aslittle as a few daysor weeks. preheatingorbyusinglow-hydrogenelectrodes,or
Fourconditionsarenecessary for thisSCCto both.
develop:
(1) An 18-8 austenitic stainless steel (such as 304, HARDENABILITY
304L, 316,316L, 317,321,347. The relativeability of a steeltoformmartensite
(2) The presence of halides (particularlythe when quenched from a temperature above the upper
chlorides) critical temperature.
233
;
', STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1 9 9 7 m 0784265051b408T54 m
234 HARDENING Welding Encyclopedia
Hardenability is commonly measured by the Jom- alloy ferrous materials, carbides, nickel-base alloys, or
iny (end-quench) test, in which the distance is mea- cobalt-basealloys.Afewcopper-base alloys are
sured from the quenched end to the point where non- sometimes used for hardfacing applications, but for
martensitic transformation occurs.See JOMINY TEST. the most part, hardfacing alloys are either iron, nickel
or cobalt base.The microstructure of hardfacing alloys
HARDENING generally consists of hard-phase precipitates such as
An action which induces hardness. Hardening is a borides, carbides, or inter-metallics bound in a softer
term describing the heating and quenching of certain iron, nickelor cobalt-base alloy matrix.
iron-base alloys from a temperature either within or
Cobalt-Base Alloys. The alloys listed in Table H-1
above the critical temperature range.
that contain 2.5% C have more than 30% by volume
HARDFACING total carbides, which results in extremely high abra-
A surfacing variation in which surfacing material is sion resistance. The microstructure of the Co-30, Cr-12,
deposited to reduceweal: See STANDARDWELDING W-2.5, C alloy, sometimes referred to as Alloy No. 1,
TERMS. See also BUILDUP, BUTTERING,and CLADDING. has a large volume fractionof carbides. As the carbon
Hardfacing is the application of a hard, wear-resis- content is increased, the volume fractionof the matrix
tant material to the surface of a workpiece by weldingis decreased,andtheimpactresistance,weldability
or spraying, or alliedweldingprocesses,toreduce andmachinability are alsodecreased. Thus, the
wear or loss of material by abrasion, impact, erosion, improvementinabrasivewearresistance is gained
galling and cavitation. at the expense of other properties that may be more
The stipulationthatthesurfacebemodifiedby desirable.
welding, spraying
allied
or welding
processes Nickel-Base Alloys. The commerciallyavailable
excludes the use of heat treatmentor surface modifca- nickel-base hardfacing alloys can be divided into three
tion processes such as flame hardening, nitriding, or groups:boride-containingalloys,carbide-containing
ion implantationas a hardfacing process. alloys, and Laves phase-containing alloys. The com-
The stipulation that the surface be applied for the positionsofsometypicalnickel-basehardfacing
main purpose of reducing wear excludes the applica- alloys are listedin Table H-2.
tion of materials primarily usedfor prevention or con- The boride-containing nickel-base alloys are com-
trol of corrosion or high-temperature scaling. mercially produced as spray-and-fuse powders.These
Corrosionandhigh-temperaturescalingmay,how- alloys are available from most manufacturers of hard-
ever, have a major effecton the wear rate, andfor this facing products under various trade names and in a
reason may become a significant factorin selection of variety of forms, suchas bare cast rod, tube wires, and
materials for hardfacing. powders for plasma spraying. This group of alloys is
Hardfacingapplications for wearcontrolrange primarilycomposed of Ni-Cr-B-Si-C.Usually,the
from very severe abrasive wear service, such as rock boron content ranges from 1.5% to 3.5%, depending
crushing and pulverizing, to minute mechanical appli- on chromium content, which varies from O to 15%.
cations that requireminimizationofmetal-to-metal The higher chromium alloys generally contain a large
wear,such as control
valves
where 0.05 mm amount of boron, which forms very hard chromium
(0.002 in.) of wear is intolerable. Hardfacing is used borideswithhardnessofapproximately 1800 DPH
for controlling abrasive wear on mill hammers, dig- (kg/mm2). Other borideshigh in nickel and with lower
ging tools, extrusion screws, cutting shears, parts of melting points are also present to facilitate fusing. See
earthmoving equipment, ball mills, and crusher parts. Figure H-l.
It is also usedto control wearof unlubricated or poorly The abrasion resistanceof these alloys is a function
lubricated metal-to-metal sliding contacts such as con- of the amount of hard borides present. Alloys contain-
trol valves, undercarriage parts of tractors and shovels, ing large amountsof boron such as Ni-14, Cr-4, Si-3.4,
and high-performance bearings. B-0.75, C are extremely resistant to abrasion, but have
Hardfacing Materials poor impact resistance. Because most of the boride-
Hardfacingmaterialsincludeawidevariety of containing nickel-basealloys
containonly
small
alloys, ceramics, and combinationsof these materials. amounts of solid-solution strengtheners, considerable
Conventional hardfacing materials are steels or low- loss of room-temperature hardness occurs at elevated
alloy ferrous materials, chromium white irons or hightemperatures.

~~
Welding Encyclopedia HARDFACING 235
Table H-1
Composition and Hardnessof Selected Cobalt-Base Hard Facing
Alloys
Approximate Hardnessof
Macrohardness
Microconstituents
Nominal
AWS Hard
Designation or
HVMatrix,
HRCComposition
'hadename
Nominal
HV
Alloy 21 Co-27Cr-5Mo-2.8Ni-0.2C 255 24-27 Eutectic
250
RCoCrA Co-28Cr-4W-l.lC 39-42 424 370 Eutectic
RCoCrB Co-29Cr-8W-1.35C 47 1 40-48 420 Eutectic
RCoCrC Co-30Cr-12W-2.5C52-54 577 510 M7C3
M6C
Alloy
Co-32Cr-17W-2.5C
20 653 53-55 540 M7C3
M6C
Tribaloy T-800Co-28Mo-17Cr-3Si 54-64 653 800(b) Laves phase
(a) Matrix and M7C3 eutectic.
(b)Matrix and Laves phase eutectic.
Table H-2
Composition and Hardnessof Selected Nickel-Base Hard Facing
Alloys
Approximate Hardnessof
Macrohardness
Microconstituents
Nominal
AWS Hard
Designation or
Composition
'hadename
Nominal H v HVMatrix,
HRC HV TYPe
RNiCr-C Ni-15Cr-4Si-3.5B-0.75C
420 57 633 P2300
rimary boride
Secondary
boride 950
Eutectic 750
Carbide
(M7C3)
1700
RNiCr-B Ni-12Cr-3.5Si-2.5B-0.35C 530 51 410 Pr2300
imary boride
Secondary
boride
950
phase
Eutectic 750
Hastelloy C Ni- 17Cr-17Mo-0.12C 200 HRB 95 180 1700
Haynes 716 Ni-llCo-26Cr-29Fe-3.5W- 315 32 215 M7C3 1500
3Mo- l. 1C-0.5B
Tribaloy T-700 Ni-32Mo-15Cr-3Si 470 45 800(a)phaseLaves -
(a) Matrix and Laves phase eutectic.

236 HARDFACING Encyclopedia Welding
Iron-Base Alloys. Iron-base hardfacing alloys are

more widely used than both cobalt-base or nickel-
base hardfacing alloys, and constitute the largest
volume use of hardfacing alloys. Iron-base hardfac-
ing alloys produce a broad range of desirable proper-
ties at low cost. Most equipment that undergoes
severe wear, such as crushing and grinding equip-
ment and earthmoving equipment, is usually very
large and rugged, and is often subject to contamina-
tion. Parts subjected to wear usually require down-
time for repair. For this reason, there is a general
inclination to hardface them with the materials that
are most readily available at the lowest cost. As a
result, literally hundreds of iron-base hardfacing
alloys are available.
Due to the great number of alloys involved, iron-
Figure H-l-Fusing a Ni-Cr-B-W Hardfacing Alloy to base hardfacing alloys are best classified by their suit-
the Surface of a Thermowell Using an Oxyacetyleneability for different types of wear and their general
Torch. A Thermowell is a Device Used to Protect microstructure rather than by chemical composition.
Thermocouples when Measuring Temperatures Most iron-base hardfacing alloys can be divided into
Inside Catalytic Crackers, Smokestacks, and
Similar Corrosive and Ablative Atmospheres.
the following classes: pearlitic steels, austenitic
steels, martensitic steels, and high-alloy irons. See
Photo courtesy of Wall Colmonoy Corporation Table H-3.
Table H-3
Composition and Hardness of Selected Iron-Base Hard Facing Alloys
Nominal
Hardness
Unlubricated
Abrasive
Density,
Wear
Sliding
Nominal Composition
HV HRC (a), mm3 (b), Wear mm3 Ib/in?
Pearlitic Steels
Fe-2Cr-lMn-0.2C 32 0.28 318 55 0.5
38
Fe-1.7Cr-1.8Mn-O.lC 0.27 372 67 0.6
Austenitic Steels
4Mn-2Ni-2.5Cr-0.6C
188
Fe- RHB 88 FtHB 0.4 0.28 86
Fe-15Cr-15Mn-lSNi-0.2C
230
Martensitic Steels
Fe-5.4Cr-3Mn-0.4C
54 0.4 544 52
577 Fe- 12Cr-2Mn-0.3C 0.27 60 54 0.3
High-Alloy Irons
Fe-
Fe-3OCr-4.6C 0.26 0.2 15
3 Fe-36Cr-5.7C 0.27 o. 1 12
(a) Wear measured from tests conducted on Dow-Corning LFW-I against 4620 steel ring at 80 rpm for 2000 revolutions varying the
applied loads.
(b) Wear measured fromdry sand rubber wheel abrasion tests. Tested 2000
for revolutions at a load
of 30 lb using a 9-in. diameter rubber
wheel andAFS test sand.

STD*AWS JWE-ENGL 3997
Welding Encyclopedia HARDFACING 237
Carbides. The quantity of carbides used for hardfac- moreeconomicaltoapplycopper-basehardfacing

ingapplications is smallcomparedwithiron-base alloys as overlays on less expensive base metals such
hardfacing alloys, but carbides are extremely impor- as low-carbon steels.
tant for severe conditions presentedby some abrasion The propertiesof copper-base hardfacing alloys are
andcuttingapplications.Historically,tungsten-base similarto the properties of correspondingbronzes.
carbides were used exclusivelyfor hardfacing applica- Copper-base hardfacing alloys are used for applica-
tions. Recently, however, carbides of other elements, tions where resistance to corrosion, cavitation erosion
suchastitanium,molybdenum,tantalum,vanadium andmetal-to-metalwear is required, as in bearing
and chromium have proven to be useful in many hard- materials.Copper-basehardfacingalloyshavepoor
facing applications. resistance to corrosion by sulfur compounds, abrasive
The widespread use of carbides for hardfacing is wear and elevated-temperature creep. They are not as
primarily based on the general belief that all carbides, hard as all the classes of alloys previously discussed,
due to their high hardness, resist fracture and fragmen-and are not easily welded.
tation as well as abrasion, especially under high-stress Hardfacing Alloy Selection
applications. In reality, the resistanceof carbide com- Hardfacing alloy selection is guided primarily by
posites is a function of the abrasion resistance of the wear and cost considerations. However, other manu-
matrix. While the various carbides have high hardness facturing and environmental factors must also be con-
values, they unfortunately do not have resistance to sidered, such as base metal, deposition process, and
crushing force, i.e., fracture and fragmentation. Car- impact,corrosion,oxidationandthermalrequire-
bides should not be selected based solely on hardness ments.Usually,thehardfacingprocess dictates the
value. For comparison, TableH-4 lists the hardnessof hardfacing or filler-metal product form.
various carbides andother selected materials. Hardfacing alloys are usually available as bare rod,
flux-coatedrod,spooledsolidwires,spooledtube
wires (with and without flux), or powders. Table H-5
Table H-4
Approximate Hardnessof Selected Materials lists various welding processes, heat sources, and the
proper forms of consumablesfor each process. In gen-
Hardness eral,
the
impactresistance of hardfacing alloys
decreases as the carbide content increases. As a result,
Material HV HK Mohs in situations where a combinationof impact and abra-
sion resistance is desired, a compromise between the
Diamond ... 8000 10 twomust be made.Whereimpactresistance is
Sic 3200 2750 9.2
3000 2550 +9 extremely important, austenitic manganese steels are
W2C used to build up worn parts.
vc 2800 +9
Tic 2800 2750 +9 Hardfacing Process Selection
cr3c2 2700 Hardfacing process selection, like hardfacing alloy
Alumina ... 2100 9 selection, depends on the engineering application or
WC 2400 1980 +9
serviceperformance requirements. Other technical
cr7c3 2100 ... ...
1650 .. ... factorsinvolvedin
hardfacing processselection
cf23c6
MO$ 1570 ... 8 include (but are not limited to)hardfacingproperty
Zircon ... 1340 ... and quality requirements, physical characteristics of
Fe3C 1300 ... the workpiece, metallurgical properties of the base
Quartz 1 O00 800 7 metal, form and composition of the hardfacing alloy,
Lime .. 560 .. andwelderskill.Costconsiderationsareoften the
Glass ... 500-600 .. determining factorin the final process selection.
Traditionally, hardfacing has been limited,by defi-
nition, to welding processes. However, this definition
Copper-BaseAlloys. The copper-basehardfacing has
beenexpanded to
includethermal spraying
alloys are similar to bronzes and are used in applica- (THSP) as a hardfacing process. Frequently the first
tionswherecopper-basebearingmaterials are nor- considerationinhardfacingprocessselection is to
mallyemployed as homogeneousparts. It is often determine if welding processesor THSP processesare
S T D - A U S JWE-ENGL J777 m 0784265 05Lb412 485 m
238 HARDNESS
Table H-5
Hard Facing Processing
Process Mode
SourceHeat of Application
Hardfacing
Alloy Form
Oxyfuel gas welding Oxyfuel gas Manual or automatic Bare cast rods or powder
Shielded metal arc welding
arc Electric Manual Flux coated rods
Open Semiautomatic
arc welding arc Electric Flux cored tube wire
Gas tungsten arc welding Inert gas shielded electric arc Manual or automatic Bare rods or wire
Submerged arc welding Flux coveredelectric
arc
Semiautomatic Bare solid or tubular wire
Plasma transferred welding Inert gas shielded plasma arc Automatic Powder, hot wire
Plasma arc welding Inert gas shielded plasma arc Manual or automatic Same as GTAW
Spray and fuse
Manual gas Oxyfuel Powder
Plasma spray arcPlasma Manual or automatic Powder
Detonation gun Oxyacetylene
detonation
Automatic Powder
preferred or required. As a rule, welding processes are Rockwell Hardness(HR). TheRockwellhardness

preferred for hardfacing applications requiring dense, testhasbecomethemostwidelyusedmethod for
relativelythickcoatingswithhighbondstrengths determining hardness because it provides scales that
between the hardfacing and the workpiece. Thermal can accommodate specimensof a wide varietyof met-
spraying processes, on the other hand, are preferred als in a wide variety of sizes and shapes. The Rockwell
for hardfacing applications requiring thin, hard coat- hardness test is simple to perform; the hardness num-
ings applied with minimum thermal distortion of the ber is convenientlyreaddirectly on thetesting
workpiece. machine, and the testing can be automated if required.
Source: ASM International;
Metals
Handbook, The procedureinvolves initial application of a
Desk Edition;ASM International. 1985. minor seating load to the indenter to establish a zero
datumposition.Adiamond-tippedindenterwitha
HARDNESS sphero-conical shape is used for hard metals, and a
The resistance of a material to plastic flow, most small hardened steel ballof prescribed size is used for
often measured by indentation by a penetrator under softer metals. Boththe minor load and the major load
an impressed load. Additionally, hardness may refer tocan be selected, depending on specimen requirements.
the resistance to machining, abrasion, or scratching. More than a dozen scales of hardness numbers have
See HARDNESS TESTING. been tabulated; each is designated by a letter of the
alphabet.Thesebasicscales are supplemented by
HARDNESS TESTING additional scales that provide modified conditions to
Hardnesstests are usedto evaluate welds, either compensate for specimen form (e.g., curvature) and
alone or to complement information from other test approximatelevel of hardness.Rockwellhardness
results. The Rockwell,Brinell,Vickers,and Knoop numbers should always be quoted withscale a symbol,
tests are indentation hardness tests that measure the which indicates the kind of indenter, major load, and
area or depth of indentation under load to determine other testing conditions.
the hardness. The indentations are made with testing Three Rockwell scalesare most commonly usedfor
machines selectedon the basis of specimen size, form, measuring the hardness of steels:
and purposeof the hardness measurement. Indentation (1) C Scale, which uses a sphero-conical indenter
hardness testingis a complex measurement because of which applies a 150 kg major load
the different degrees of work hardening that occur in (2) B Scale,whichusesaballindenter(usually
metals andthe influence of the indenter used. 1.588 mm [V16 in.] diameter) and a major load of 100
In the Brinell, Vickers, and Knoop tests, the area of kg (these conditions canbe adjusted by an established
theindentation is measuredtodeterminehardness. correction factor)
Rockwellhardnesstestingrelateshardness to the (3) N Scale, which encompasses many established
depth of indentation under load. conditions forsuperfkial hardness testing.

~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~
'STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 051bYL3 311, m

Encyclopedia
Welding SPOTS HARO IN CAST IRON 239
ASTM E18, RockwellHardnessandRockwell confined to a single grain in the microstructure. Stan-

Superjkial Hardness of Metallic Materials provides dards for microhardness testing using the Knoop and
standard test methods. the Vickers instruments are covered in ASTM E384,
Brinell Hardness (HB). The Brinell method for test-
Microhardness of Materials.
ing hardness, like the Rockwell scale, has a long his- Scleroscope Testlng Equipment
tory of applications and is commonly used in many The Shore Scleroscope is hardness
a testing
metal working plants. The Brinell test is used to moni- machinewhichconsists of averticalglasstubein
tor mechanical properties in metalarticles of substan- which a small cylinder, or hammer, with a very hard
tial size, such as bars, beams, or plates. The Brinell pointslidesfreely.Thishammerweighs2.5grams,
scale is based on the impression made in a flat surface and is allowed to fall on the sample to be tested from
by a hardened steel ball 10 mm (.39 in.) in diameter, a height of25 cm. The distance which it rebounds,
whendrivenintothemetalata force of 3000 kg measured on a scale on the glass tube, constitutes the
(6600 lb.). The 30-second test time ensures that plastic hardness.
flowofthemetalsurrounding the indentationhas The scale is divided into 140 parts,each part repre-
ceased. A standard procedure is used to measure the
sentingadegree of hardness.Asexamples of this
diameter of the indentation and to compute the Brinell scale, the hardness of glass is 130; the hardest steelis
hardness (HB) number, using an equation that relates 110; mild steel is from 26 to 30, and cast gray iron
load applied, ball diameter, and indentation diameter
is 39.
to thehardnessnumber.(Computation is seldom
needed, since most test resultsare available in tabular Comparison of Scales
form). The relationship among the several hardness scales
Standards for testing are set forth in ASTM Elo, is presented in Table H-6, showing the appropriate
Brinell Hardness of Metallic Materials, and ASTM E equivalent hardness valuesfor steels.
370, Mechanical Testingof Steel Products.
Brinell Tensile Strength
Vlckers Hardness Test (HV). The indenter, a square- The Brinell hardnessof steel will give a fairly accu-
based diamond pyramid with a 136" included angle, is rate indication of the tensile strengthof the material. It
usedwithavariety of loadsfrom 1 kg(2.2lb)to has been found that by correlating the Brinell hardness
120 kg (264 lb). In this microhardness test, impres- numbers andthe tensile strengthof various steels in lb/
sions can be closely spaced and depth of penetration in.2, the tensile strength of a given steel is approxi-
can be very small. mately 500 times its Brinell hardness number. In deter-
A standardmethod for thistest is providedin mining the tensile strength by the use of this rough
ASTM E92,Vckers Hardness of Metallic Materials. checkithasbeenfoundthat as a rule, thetensile
Knoop Hardness Test (HK). A very small indenter, a strengthwillbeslightlylow for hardnessbelow
rhombohedral-baseddiamondwithedgeangles of 200 HB and above 400 HB. Between the two figures
172"30 and 130",is used with a variety of loads, usu- the indicatedtensilestrength is slightly above the
ally under 1 kg (2.2 lb). The impression has one long actual strength.
andoneshortdiagonal.Impressionscanbevery
closelyspacedandthedepth of penetrationcan be HARD SElTlNG
extremely small. A nonstandard termfor the applicationof diamond-
Microhardness Testing substitute inserts to wearing surfaces, using the oxy-
acetyleneprocesswithaweldingrod of a softer
Microhardness tests can be performed with a num-
material. See HARDFACING.
ber of instruments that use a very small indenter and a
very light, precise load to make an indentation in a
HARD SOLDER
polishedsurface. The resultingindentation is mea-
sured by microscope. A polished and etched metallo- A nonstandardterm for brazing filler metal. See
graphic specimenis frequently used to allow hardness BRAZING.
determinations on individual phases or constituents in
the microstructure. By using an indenter with a test HARD SPOTS IN CAST IRON
load in the rangeof 1 to 1000 g, the indentation can be See CAST IRON, Hard Spots.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 .07842b5 05Lb414 258 W
240 HARD SPOTS IN CAST IRON Encyclopedia
Welding
Table H-6 Table H-6 (Continued)

Approximate Equivalent Hardness Approximate Equivalent Hardness
Numbers for Steels Numbers for Steels
HRC HRB HV HB HRC HRB Hv HB
(Rockwell C) (RockwellB)(Vickers)(Brinell)Scleroscope (Rockwell C) (Rockwell B) Wickers)(Brinell)Scleroscope
69 1004 33 327 311 46
68 940 97 32 318 301 44
67 900 95 31 3 10 294 43
66 865 92 30 302 286 42
65 832 91 29 294 274 41
64 800 88 28 286 27 1 40
63 772 87 27 279 264 39
62 746 85 26 272 258 38
61 720 83 25 266 253 38
60 697 654 81 24 260 247 37
59 674 634 80 1 23 O0 254 243 36
58 653 615 78
99 22 248 237 35
57 633 595 76
98.5 21 243 23 1 35
56 613 577 75 98 19.9 228 228 34
55 595 560 74 97 222 222 33
54 577 543 72 96 216 216 32
53 560 525 71 95 210 210 31.5
52 544 512 69 94 205 205 31
51 528 496 68 93 200 200 30
50 513 48 1 67 92 195 195
49 498 469 66 91 190 190 29
48 484 455 64 90 185 185 28
47 47 1 443 63 89 180 180 27
46 458 432 62 88 176 176
43 446 42 1 60 87 172 172 26
44 434 409 58 86 169 169 26
43 423 400 57 85 165 165 25
42 412 390 56 84 162 162
41 402 381 55 83 159 159 24
40 392 37 1 54 82 156 156 24
39 3 82 362 52 81 153 153
38 372 353 51 80 150 150 23
37 363 344 50 79 147 147
36 354 336 49 78 144 144 22
35 345 327 48 Note: For HB values ~460, measurements are made witha 10 mm
34 336 319 47 diameter hardened steel ball; for HB values >460,measurements
are made with a10 mm diameter tungsten carbideball.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 05L64L5 174 m
Welding Encyclopedia TREATMENT HEAT 241
HARO SURFACING HEAT-AFFECTED ZONE CRACK

A nonstandard term forHARDFACING. A crack in the heat-affected zone of the weldment.
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 9.
HARTFORD TEST
HEAT BALANCE
The Hartford test involves an inspection of welds The various material, joint, and welding conditions
for insurancepurposes.It is primarily a procedure that determine the welding heat pattern in the joint.
qualificationtestinwhichsampleweldsaremade See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
usingthesamematerial,sameequipmentandsame
type of welding wire which are to be used on the job HEAT CONDUCTIVITY
under construction. Even when this combination has See THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY.
been tested and approved, itis necessary before actual
work can be started to satisfy the Hartford inspector HEATING GATE
that the welding operator who is to do the work is The opening in the thermite mold through which the
capable of producing welds equal in quality to those partsto beweldedare preheated. See STANDARD
obtained in the procedure qualification test. WELDING TERMS. See also THERMITE WELDING.
This qualification test remains valid for the individ- HEAT INPUT
ual welder only as longas he continues to work in the The energy supplied by the welding arc to the work
same shopwiththe same equipmentandthesame piece. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
weldingwire. If the manufacturershouldwishto
change any of the details of the welding procedure, theHEATING TORCH
welder may be required to repeat the entire qualifica- A device for directing the heating flame produced
tion program. by the controlled combustion offuel gases. See STAN-
DARD WELDING TERMS.
HEALTH, SAFETY IN WELDING
HEAT OF FUSION
See ANSYASC 249.1, latestedition, Safety in
Welding, Cutting and Allied Processes, published by The heat given off during the freezing (cooling and
solidification) of a metal or alloy, or absorbed during
the American Welding Society.See Appendix 13.
the melting; sometimes called the heat of solidifica-
tion. It is expressed in calories per gram. In the
case of
HEAT-AFFECTED ZONE (HAZ)
alloys, the processesof melting and freezingare com-
The portion of the base metal whose microstructure plex and usually occur over a range of temperatures
or mechanical properties have been altered by the heat rather than ata single temperature. See METALLURGY.
of welding, brazing, soldering or thermal cutting. See
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure H-2.See also HEAT TIME
METALLURGY. The duration of each current impulse in multiple
impulse welding, resistance seam welding or projec-
tion welding. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See
also Figure H-3.
HEAT TREATMENT
The post-welding introduction of heat to the weld-
ment, to remove or improve conditions brought about
by the heat of welding. Reduction in grain size, sur-
face hardening,annealing or normalizing, or stress
relief are all withinthecapability of correctheat
treatment.
Inmostshops,postweldheattreat(PWHT) is
accomplished in a heat treat furnace with controlled
temperature modes allowing for temperature increase,
Figure H-2-View of a Heat-Affected Zone hold-at-soakingtemperature,andcontrolledcooling

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 051b4Lb O20
WELDING
242 HELIARC
Electrical
Resistance. Postweldheattreatment
using
resistance
heating
involves
wrapping the
joint with a number of resistance heaters. Advanced
electrical resistance systems with automatic control-
lers make it possible to heat treat several weldments
simultaneously.
HELIARC WELDING PROCESS
See GAS TUNGSTENARC WELDING.
HELIUM
(Chemical Symbol: He).An inert gas usedas a shield-
ing gas in various arc welding processes to protect the
weldfromatmosphericcontamination.Heliumhasan
atomic weight of 4.00;boiling point -269C (-425"F),
and specific gravity of0.137 as compared toair, Helium
can be liquefied and solidified.
HELIUM ARC WELDING

I See GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING.
INTERPULSE TIME
HELIX
A coil of wire; a solenoid.
HELMET
Figure HS-Resistance Welding Current
Characteristics See WELDING HELMET, EYE PROTECTION and
GOGGLES.
rate.Forsmallweldmentsmade by oxyacetylene HENRY (H)

welding, the torch flame can be usedfor heat treating. The electrical unit of inductance. One henryequals
For field projects, two heating processes are available: the self-inductance of a circuit in which the variation
exothermic and electrical resistance. Each method has of one ampere per second results in an induced elec-
advantagesaswellaslimitationsforuseasaheat tromotive force of one volt.
treating process.
Exothermic. Exothermic materials are special com- HERTZ (Hz)
bustible materials which burn under controlled condi- The unit of electrical frequency. One hertz is one
tions.They are commerciallyavailableinmolded cycle per second.
shapes and flexible lengths that can be stored and cut
to fit as needed. The exothermic material is wrapped HIGH-CARBON STEEL
around the weldment, such as a pipe joint, and wired See STEEL, HIGH CARBON.
in place. Then a flameis applied tothe material and it
bums rapidly, givingoff large quantitiesof heat. When HIGH FREQUENCY, Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
the temperature reaches a predetermined point, deter- An alternatingcurrent in thefrequencyrange of
mined by experimentation, the exothermic material is 2 MHz used for arc starting and stabilization.
completelyconsumed.Coolingof the joint is con-
trolled by the thickness of the insulation backing on HIGH-FREQUENCY HEATING
the form. After cooling, the wrapping wires are cut A process in which the heating effect is produced
and the material is removed from the joint. In recent electrostatically. The chief objective of the process is
years, however, the use of exothermicsfor PWHT has to obtain uniform heating throughouta mass of mate-
fallen off sharply due to environmental and thermal rial which is a non-conductor of electricity, and hence
control considerations. a non-conductorof heat.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1977 m 0384265 05Lb4L3 Tb7
Weldina Encvclooedia HIGH-FREQUENCYSYSTEMS 243
To achieve this objective, the non-conducting mate- The process is particularly suitedfor continuous pro-
rial to be heated is used to form the dielectric of a conduction of large volumes of tubular and similar prod-
denser,withtheelectrodesconsistingofconductive ucts. Welds can be made without filler metal, at speeds
surfaces, one oneach face of the material.Several to 300 &min (loo0 ft/min)inferrous,non-ferrous,
thousand volts and a frequency in the range of 1.5 to exotic and dissimilar metals, in thicknesses of 0.1 to 16
10 MHz are employed. The heat is generated by the mm (0.0045 to 0.625 in.). Usersare able to achieve high
agitation of the molecules when subjected to the high- production rates with a variety of metals, and are able to
frequency field, unlike the hysteresis effect occurring weld many of the high-strength alloys that often prove
in induction heating. The energy of agitation is con- troublesome when other welding processes are used.
vertedinto
heat,
whichis
uniformlydistributed
HIGH-FREQUENCY SEAM WELDING (RSEW-HF)
throughout the mass of the material.
A resistance seamwelding process variation in
HIGH-FREQUENCY RESISTANCE WELDING (HFRW) which the high-frequency welding current is supplied
A group of resistance welding process variations through electrodes into the workpieces. See STAN-
that use high frequency welding current to concentrate DARD WELDING TERMS. See also Figure H-4. See also
the
welding
heat at the desired location. See HIGH-FREQUENCY RESISTANCEWELDING and INDUC-
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure H-4. See TION SEAM WELDING.
also HIGH-FREQUENCYSEAMWELDING and UPSET HIGH-FREQUENCY SYSTEMS
WELDING.
Welding machines and welding processes operating
inthe 50 kHz to 3 MHz frequencyrange.High-
r WELD JOINT frequency power sources are used for arc initiation, arc
stabilization and gas ionization with the gas tungsten
arc welding (GTAW) process.
SQUEEZE ROLL
ArcInitiation. By ionizing a gas path between the
electrodeandtheworkpiece,high-frequencypower
helpsbridgethephysicaldistanceformakingnon-
touch starts. Non-touch starts are preferable in GTAW,
since they minimize the possibility of electrode con-
tamination, as wellasweldmetalcontamination,
which would result from touching the tungsten elec-
trode to the workpiece. High-frequency voltage is con-
sideredrelatively safe fortheoperatortouse in
making non-touchstarts. While the voltage is high, the
current is in milliamperes.
WELD Arc Stabilization. Arc stabilization is considered the
POINT most important function of high-frequency power in
welding. When welding with an a-c welding power
CURRENT PATH source connected to a60 Hz power system, there is an
arc outageeach U120 of a second.The time of the arc
Figure H-4-Lap Joint Made by High-Frequency outage will depend somewhat on the re-initiation char-
Seam Welding acteristics of the weldingmachine.Whenhigh fre-
quency is apartoftheweldingcircuitry system, it
High-frequency resistance weldingis a forge weld- providesthestablere-initiationeffectnecessaryto
ing process in which the faying surface is heated to maintain a steady arc.
plastic welding temperatures by usingpower in the Gas Ionization. In GTAW, the open circuit voltage of
range of 400 to 450 kHz. Power is introduced to the the welding machineis insufficient to ionize the shield-
weldmentthroughsmallcontactssliding or rolling ing gases; consequently, a direct arc path is not readily
directly on the metal to be welded.The process is con- established. This can be overcome by imposing high-
tinuous, and produces a strong forge weld when the frequency voltage onthe arc voltage, producing a high-
heated parts are passed in line through squeeze rolls. frequency voltage in the range of 20 O00 volts at the

(UW-HF)
244 WELDING
HIGH-FREQUENCY
UPSET Encyclopedia
Welding
electrode tip. Sincethe ionization potentials of the two pascals (approximately IOd to 10" torr). See
commonly used shielding gases, argon and helium, are STANDARD WELDINGTERMS.
relatively low, the high-frequency voltage creates an High vacuum electron beam welding is done inside
ionized path for the welding current to follow. a vacuum chamber. The chamber is evacuated to cre-
HIGH-FREQUENCY UPSET WELDING (UW-HF) atea"highpurity"environment(highvacuum) to
Anupsetwelding process variation in whichhigh- avoid contaminationby oxygen or nitrogen.This envi-
frequency welding current is supplied through electrodes ronment results in minimum heat effects and maxi-
into the workpieces. See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. mum reproducibility, andis required for high precision
See Figure H-5. See also HIGH-FREQUENCY RESISTANCE welding applications. Products includenuclearfuel
WELDING and INDUCTION UPSET WELDING. elements, special alloy jet engine components, pres-
sure vessels for rocket propulsion systems, and her-
meticallysealedvacuumdevices. See ELECTRON
BEAM WELDING.
HOLD TIME
The duration of force application at the point of
welding aper the last pulse ceases. See STANDARD
WELDING TERMS. See also Figure H-6.
In brazing or soldering,
the amount of time a joint is
held within a specified temperature range.
HOLDING TIME
In brazingor soldering, the amount
of time ajoint is
held within a specified temperature range.
HOLLOW BEAD
Anonstandardtermwhenused for ELONGATED
POROSITY.
Figure H-5"Butt Joint Made by High-Frequency
Upset Welding HOLOGRAPHIC NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING
A holographicprocessfortesting,utilizing the
HIGH-LOW coherent light of the laser, in which the specimen is
A nonstandard term
for WELD JOINT MISMATCH. not damaged. Holographic nondestructive testing sys-
HIGH PULSE CURRENT, Pulsed Power Welding tems usually incorporate holography (lens-less, three-
Thecurrentduringthehigh pulse timethat pro- dimensionallaserphotography),interferometry,and
duces thehighheat level. See STANDARDWELDING an appropriate means of stressing the test specimen.
TERMS. See also Appendix 19. Mild stressing is sometimes accomplished with a hot
air gun, a quartz heater, or even amplified sound.
HIGH PULSE TIME, Pulsed Power Welding
The duration of the high pulse current. See STAN- Inspection consists of optical comparison of a test
DARD WELDING TERMS. See also Appendix 19. specimenin two ormore(unstressedandstressed)
states. Performance characteristics of the test object can
HIGH-SPEED STEEL then be evaluated directly by observing the resulting
See STEEL, HIGH SPEEDund TOOL WELDING. holographic interferometric fringe pattern. Lines in the
HIGH TENSION
hologramthatshowabruptbendsindicatedefects.
Where a defect exists, the surface under stress will move
A term referring to high electric voltage.
more. Lines with sharp angular bends are one indication
HIGH VACUUM ELECTRON BEAM WELDING (EBW-HV) of adefect;ringsorspreadlines are otherpossible
An electronbeamwelding process variation in indications.Besidesbeingrelativelyfast,theprocess
which weldingis accomplished at apressure of lo4 to permits scan-testingof fairly sizeable weldments.

~~~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1797 9 0784265 0516419 83T 9

yclopedia Welding STANDARDS
CONNECTION HOSE 245
#""""""-
M""-
CURRENTWELDING I /
/
/ / * - m
/ /
/ /
/ /
VU
+- SQUEEZE TIME
4 CYCLE WELDING
Figure H-6-Single-Impulse Resistance Spot Welding Schedule
HOOD HORN
A non-standardterm for WELDINGHELMET. See An extension of thearm of a resistance welding
ah0 EYE PROTECTION. machinethat transmits the electrode force, usually
conductsthewelding current, andmaysupportthe
HOOKE'S LAW workpiece. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
A statement of a natural law thatin an elastic mate-
rial, strain is proportional to stress.
The value of stress HORN SPACING
atwhich a material ceases to obey Hooke's Law is A nonstandard term for THROAT HEIGHT on a resis-
known as the proportional limit.See ELASTICITY. tance welding machine.
HORIZONTAL FIXED POSITION HORSEPOWER (HP)

A nonstandard term for 5G. See also Appendix 4, A unit of power, numerically equivalent toa rate of
Welding Test Positions 33 O 0 0 foot-pounds of work per minute, or 550 ft-lb
per second.An electrical hp is equal to
746 watts.
HORIZONTAL POSITION
HOSE CONNECTION STANDARDS
See HORIZONTAL WELDING POSITION.
During the early yearsof welding and cutting appa-
HORIZONTAL ROLLED position ratusdevelopment,therewasnouniformityamong
A nonstandard term for 1G. See Appendix 4, Weld- manufacturers of torches, hose connections and regu-
ing Test Positions. lators. In order to use one manufacturer's torch with
another manufacturer's regulator, an adaptor had to be
HORIZONTAL WELDING POSITION, Fillet Weld inserted to make the connection, or hose connections
The welding position in whichtheweld is on the had to be changed entirely. Ina cooperative effort, the
upper side of an approximatelyhorizontal surface and equipment manufacturers developeda set of standards
against an approximately vertical s u ~ a c eSee
. STAN- which were approved by the Gas Products Association
DARD WELDING TERMS. See also Appendix 4, Welding (no longer in existence) and the International Acety-
Test Positions. lene Association.Thesestandardshavebeeninuse
since 1926. They were also adopted by the National
HORIZONTAL WELDING POSITION, Groove Weld Screw Thread Commissionof the Bureau of Standards
The welding position in which the weld face lies in (now the National Institute of Standards and Technol-
an approximately vertical plane and the weld axis at ogy), WashingtonD.C., as Standard No.107.
the point of welding is approximately horizontal. See Threads for the hose connections for small torches
STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See also Appendix 4, are 3/8 in. O.D., 24 threads perin., left hand for acety-
Welding Test Positions. lene and other fuel gases, and right hand for oxygen.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 0784265 05Lb420 5 5 1
246 HOSE Encyclopedia Welding
Threads for ordinary size torches and for regulators they should notbe repaired with tape.The section with
are 9/16 in. O.D., 18 threads perin., left hand for acet- the leak should be cut out and a union inserted, fas-
ylene and otherfuel gases, and right hand for oxygen. tened securely with clamps.
HOSE REEL HOT CONDUCTOR
A frame that turnsonanaxisonwhichwelding A term sometimes usedfor a conductor or wire car-
hose is wound; it is frequently spring-loaded to auto- rying current or voltage.
matically retract excess hose. HOT CRACK
HOSE, Welding A crack formed at temperatures near the comple-
Theflexibletubingusedtosupplygasestothe tion of solidification. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
welding or cuttingtorch.Thishosemustbesturdy HOT GAS WELDING
enough to resist the pressure of the gases and stand up A manual or semiautomatic process used to weld
undertheconstantflexingandtwisting of welding polymeric composites. A heated gas is blown over a
operations. Hose specifically manufactured for weld- welding rod and the joint surfaces. The molten rod is
ing in accordance with Specification I -P-7for Rubber used to fill in the joint and weld the two parts. Hot-
Welding Hose, published by the CompressedGas gas welding is suitable for small weld areas, but is
Association and the Rubber Manufacturers Associa- slow even for small areas, with welding rates of 0.8
tion, should be used. Lesser grades may disintegrate to 5 m d s (2 to 12 in./min).
inside, and the resulting particles can clog the torch Hot gas weldingis used primarilyfor low-cost com-
valves and contaminatethe weld. posite matrices with lower melting temperatures for
To prevent error in connecting apparatus for oxy- small-volume production of parts with many varying
fuel gas welding, two colors of hose are used: red for geometries. Hot gas welded joints cannot be used in
fuel gas and greenfor oxygen. Hose connections must high-strengthapplicationsbecause the joint area is
be checked for tightness to avoid gas leakage. When small (on the order of the part thickness) and cannot
it
parallel lengths are strapped togetherfor convenience, compensate for discontinuity in the reinforcement
no more than 100 mm (4in.) of any 400 mm (12 in.) across thejoint.
section of hose should be covered by the strapping.
Ferrulesandclampsmadespecifically for welding HOT PLATE WELDING
hoses should be used to secure hoseto fittings. A technique for welding polymer matrices with low
Long runs of hose should be avoided. Excess hose melting temperature, in which the parts are brought
shouldbecoiledtopreventkinksandtangles,but into contact with a hot plate. The plate surfaces are
should not be wrapped around cylinders or cylinder usually coated with polytetrafluorethelyne (PTFE) to
carts while in use. Twin hose lines, with two hose lines keep the parts from sticking to the hot plate. For high-
molded into a single casing of rubber, are convenient temperature polymeric matrices,special bronze alloys
and prevent twisting and kinking. Welding hose will may be used to reduce sticking. In some cases, non-
be much safer and have longer servicelife if it is kept contact weldingis used, in which the partsare brought
awayfromflames,sparks or moltenmetal.Before very close to the hot plate without actually touching it.
starting to weld,the operator should also see that hose In this case,the hot plate is elevated to very high tem-
is not left where it can be walked on or run over by peraturesandthecompositesurfaces are heatedby
vehicleswhiletheoperator is concentratingonthe convection and radiation. This technique is especially
weld. This is likely to happen if very long lengths of good for mass production of small parts. It is tolerant
hose are used. of variations in material properties and welding condi-
A backfire which reaches back into the hose ruins it tions and is widely used for welding thermoplastics.
completely, and ifit is used for any lengthof time after This technique is not flexible and is not often used in
suchanaccident the gas passages in the torch will smallproduction of partswithvaryinggeometries.
become clogged with fine particles of the burned lin- Becauseheatingandpressing are done at different
ing. Contact with grease or oil is unsafe with oxygen times, this technique is difficult to use for composites
use.Leakyhose is dangerous(andwasteful);hose with high thermal conductive reinforcements; thesur-
should be tested at regular intervals by immersing it infaces coolandresolidifybefore the partscanbe
waterwhileunderpressure.Whenleaks are found, aligned and pressed together.

~~ ~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 M 0784265 05361123 498 9
Welding HYDROGEN 247
HOT ISOSTATIC PRESSURE WELDING HUEY TEST

A diffusion welding process variation that produces A laboratory test to determine the corrosion-resist-
coalescence of metals by heating ana applyinghot ing qualities of welded stainless steel. This test is car-
inert gasunder pressure. See STANDARD WELDING ried out by subjecting welding samples to the action of
TERMS. boiling 65% nitric acid forfive 48-hour periods. After
each test the specimen is washed in water but is not
HOT PRESSURE WELDING (HPW)
polishedorscraped.It is thendried,weighedand
A solid-state welding process that produces a weld immersed in fresh acid. Four observations are made
with heatand application of pressure suficientto for eachperiod:weightloss,overallpenetration,
producemacrodeformation of the workpieces. See appearance of weld and base metal, and the relative
STANDARD WELDING TERMS.See COLD WELDING; DIF-
attack on the heat-affected zone.
FUSION WELDING and FORGE WELDING.
The specimens are exposed to the boiling acid in a
HOT RODS glass apparatus with condensers to prevent loss of acid
A term sometimes used in referring to E6020 and by evaporation. The test is used to determine metal
E6030 electrodes. They are called hot rods because qualityandalsotoshowintergranularsensitivity
when depositing weld metal inflat or horizontal posi- caused by large weight losses.
tions with these electrodes, high current may be used HYDRATED LIME
while holding a very short arc. As result,
a a high rate Hydrated lime, often called dry slaked lime, is very
of deposition is obtained. There is also a significant
useful in a welding shop to slow the cooling of cast-
increase in penetration beyond the root of the weld,
ingsaftertheyhavebeenwelded.Smallcastings
which measurably increases the strength of the weld. which can be handled after welding are placed, while
Because of thedeeperpenetrationobtained,much hot, in a box and covered with fine powdered lime.
of the weld metal is derived from the base metal of This protects them from oxygen in the air and slows
the part beingjoined, therefore the process is econom- the rateof cooling, ensuring soft welds.
icalbecauselesselectrode is consumed. See DEEP
WELDING. HYDRAULIC
Pertaining to wateror fluids in motion.
HOT SHORT
The condition of metal when it proves to be very HYDRAULIC BACK PRESSURE VALVE
brittle and unbendable at red heat but can be bent with-See VALVE, HYDRAULIC BACKPRESSURE.
out showing signsof brittleness when cold or at white
heat. This condition is often a result of a high sulphur HYDROABRASIVE MACHINING
and phosphorus content. See WATER JET CUITLNG.
HOT START CURRENT HYDROGEN
A very brief current pulse at arc initiation to stabi- (Chemical symbol:H). Hydrogen is a chemical ele-
lize the arc quickly. SeeSTANDARD WELDING TERMS. ment that occurs in free state in the gases of certain
volcanos.Incombinationwithotherelementsit is
HOT WIRE WELDING found in most organic compounds andmany inorganic
A variation of a fusionwelding process in which a compounds. Water is a chemical compound of hydro-
jller metal wire is resistance heated by current flow- genandoxygen,inwhichapproximately 11% by
ing through the wire as it is fed into the weld pool. See weight is hydrogen.
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also GAS TUNGSTEN Hydrogen is the lightest element known; it has an
ARC WELDING. atomic weight of 1.008, compared with16 for oxygen.
Thedensityascomparedwithair is ,0695. In gas
HP
Abbreviation for horsepower. form, hydrogen is colorless, odorless, andtasteless.
When liquefied, it is a clear and colorless liquid.
HUBERENIUM Underatmosphericpressuretheboilingpoint of
A non-toxic lead alloy coating for protecting iron hydrogen is -252.5C (422.5F).
and steel against corrosion. Itis produced by alloying Hydrogencombinesreadilywithoxygen in the
lead with 8% tin and1% bismuth. The alloy has a den- presence of heat, and forms water. Hydrogen and oxy-
~ i t of
y 10.7 g/cm3. genburntogetherwithanalmostcolorlessflame.
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 07842b5 0536422 324
ARC 248- HYDROGEN Welding Encyclopedia
They produce a very hot flame that can be utilized for HYDROMATIC WELDING
various purposes, such as lead burning, brazing, and Anonstandardterm for PRESSURE CONTROLLED
for welding aluminum. The principal objection to the WELDING.
oxyhydrogen flame is that it is very difficult to deter-
mine whether the flame is neutral or not, because of HYDROSTATIC TEST
the absenceof a definite inner cone in the flame. A test in which the soundness of tanks, closed con-
Hydrogen can be manufacturedeither by steam ref- tainers or pressure vessels is determined by applying
ormation of hydrocarbons, partial oxidationof coal or internal pressure. It may be nondestructive or destruc-
hydrocarbons, or electrolysisofwater.Themost tive, as required. The pressure is applied hydrostati-
widely used commercial method is steam reformation cally,andinthismethodoftestingthere is little
of natural gas or an alternate feedstock such as pro- tendency for the container to disintegrate explosively
pane or refinery gases. In this process the hydrocarbonin case of rupture and sudden releaseof pressure. The
source is reacted with superheated steam in the pres- equipment required for hydrostatic testing consists of
ence ofanickelcatalysttoproducehydrogenplus a pump, pressure gauge, and the pipe necessarycon- to
someothergaseousby-products.Thegasstream is nect tothe device being tested.
then passed through an absorption bed to purify the To conduct a hydrostatic test, the vessel to be tested
product and produce pure hydrogen. is completely filled with water andall air bubbles are
Where steam reformation is uneconomical, hydro- allowed to escape. After all outlets have been closed,
gen is manufactured by partial oxidation of hydrocar- thepump is operateduntilthedesiredpressure is
bons.Withthismethodcombustiontakesplacein obtained. Pressures up to 41 MPa (6000 psi) may be
special burners that oxidize the input material inan easily obtained.
oxygen deficient atmospherein the presence of water In some instances specifications call for a hammer
vapor. Purification is accomplished in a manner simi- test of the pressure vessel while under twice the work-
lar to that used in steam reformation. ing pressure. In thiscase the weight of the hammer in
Hydrogen is supplied to users in seamless, drawn- pounds is equal to the shell thickness in tenths of an
steel cylinders, charged to a pressure of 13.8 MPa at inch. Blowsare struck at 15 cm (6 in.) intervals at both
21C (2000 psi at 70F). The size of the hydrogen cyl- sides of the weld for the full length of the seam. A
inder standardized by the gas industry has a capacity thorough visual inspection follows; then the pressure
of about 5.4 m3 (191 CU. ft). is increased to three times the working pressure and
the seam is again inspected.See TUBE TESTING.
HYDROGEN ARC WELDING
See ATOMIC HYDROGEN WELDING. HYSTERESIS (Magnetic)
The tendency of magnetism to lag behind the cur-
HYDROGEN BRAZING rent that produces it. It is the resistance of magnetic
A nonstandard term for anybrazingprocessthat particles of a material to seek polar orientation when
takesplace in ahydrogen or hydrogen-containing subjected to a magnetic field. Hysteresis losses occur
atmosphere. in transformer core material when thereis a molecular
resistance to the changingof polarity that occurs each
HYDROGEN CUlTlNG half cycle in an alternating current.
See OXYFUEL GAS CUTTING, Underwater Cutting;
and PLASMA ARC CUTTING. HZ
Abbreviation for Hertz.
HYDROGEN EMBRllTLEMENT
References
Hydrogen embrittlementis a condition that causes a
loss of ductility and whichexists in weld metal due to Metals Handbook, Desk Edition,ASM
hydrogen absorption. In some metals the loss of duc- Standard Welding Terms and Definitions, ANSIIAWS
tility induces cracking. Underbead cracking may also A3.0
becaused by hydrogenembrittlement of theweld. Welding Handbook,Vol. 1
Metals that are subject to hydrogen embrittlement will Welding Handbook,Vol. 2
havereducedimpactvaluesandlowermechanical Welding Handbook,Vol. 2
properties. Welding Metallurgy

STDoAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 07842b5 051b423 2b0
I-BEAM INCLINED POSITION

A steel beam, the cross section of which resembles A nonstandard term for the 6G welding position.
the capital letter,I. See STRUCTURAL WELDING. See Appendix 4, WELDING TEST POSITIONS.
IMAGE QUALITY INDICATOR INCLINED POSITION, with Restriction Ring

See PENETRAMETER. A nonstandard term for the6 GR welding position.
See 6G. See also Appendix 4, WELDING TEST
IMPACT TEST POSITIONS.
A destructive test in which one or more blows are INCLUDED ANGLE
forcefully applied to a specimen to evaluate fracture A nonstandard termfor GROOVE ANGLE.
toughness or other characteristics. The results are
expressed in terms of energy absorbed or the number INCLUSION
of blows of a specific intensity required to break the
Entrapped particles of solid material, such as slag,
specimen. See CHARPY TESTand IZOD TEST.
flux, tungsten, or oxide occurring in metal or welds.
IMPEDANCE
A measure of the opposition to current flow in an INCOMPLETE FUSION (IF)
alternating current circuit;a combination of resistance A weld discontinuity in which fusion did not occur
andreactance.It is designated by Z inelectrical between weld metal and fusion faces oradjoining weld
drawings. The unitof impedance is theohm. beads. See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See Figure
1-2. Seealso COMPLETE FUSION.
IMPEDANCE COIL
A reactance choke coil, used to limit the flow of INCOMPLETE JOINT PENETRATION (IJP)
alternating current. A joint root condition in a groove weld in which
weld metaldoes not extendthrough the joint thickness.
IMPULSE, Resistance Welding See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See Figure 1-3. See
A sudden change, such as an increase or decrease also COMPLETE JOINT PENETRATION, COMPLETE JOINT
in voltage or current. In resistance welding, an PENETRATIONWELD,PARTIAL JOINT PENETRATION
WELD, and JOINT PENETRATION.
impulse of weldingcurrent consisting of a single
pulse, or a series of pulses separated only by an inter- IncompletePenetration. Amongthecauses of
pulse time. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Fig- incomplete penetrationare improper joint preparation;
ures H-6 andI- l . using an electrode that is too large, using insufficient
welding current, and excessive welding speed.
INADEQUATE JOINT PENETRATION
To correctincompletepenetration:allowproper
A nonstandardtermdescribing joint penetration opening at bottomof weld; use electrodesof appropri-
which is less than that specified. ate diameter in narrow groove; use sufficient welding
current and proper welding speed; use a backup bar;
INCANDESCENT chip or cut out the backof the joint and deposita bead.
Emitting light as a result of heating; for example, a
metal glowingor white with heat.The resistance weld- INDENTATION
ing process was once knownas incandescent welding In a spot, seam, or projection weld, the depression
because the metals are momentarily incandescent at on the exterior suface or sufaces of the base metal.
the momentof welding. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
249
250 INDIRECT
FORGE DELAY TIME MAY BE
J
FORGE FORCE
INITIATED AT SOME OTHER /"""-"- \
POINT
THE
INWELDING
CYCLE /
/ I
I
/
0
/"
b-
"""""",J
FORGE
DELAY
TIME 4- I
IMPULSE I
/ FORCE I
/ I
/ I
/
- TIME
TIME TIME TIME
DOWNSLOPE TIME
PREWELD
INTERVAL
WELD
- INTERVAL INTERVAL
POSTWELD
-
D
"
c "
4 WELDING CYCLE
Figure I-1-Multiple-Impulse Resistance Spot Welding Schedule
INDIRECT WELDING
INCOMPLETE FUSION
n A resistance welding secondary circuit variation in
which the weldingcurrent flows throughthe work-
pieces in locations away from,as well as at, the welds
for resistance spot, seam, or projection welding. See
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure 1-4.
INDUCED CURRENT
Currentin an electriccircuit that is produced by
LINCOMPLETE
FUSION inductance fi-omanother circuit.
(A)
INDUCED E.M.F. (Electromotive Force)
Voltageinan electriccircuit that is produced by
induction from another circuit.
INDUCED MAGNETISM
Magnetism that is produced by electric current or
by the action of other magnetism.
INCOMPLETEFUSION 2
(B) INDUCED VOLTAGE
Voltage or pressure in an electric circuit produced
Figure I-2-Examples of Incomplete Fusion by induction.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 0516425 033 m
opedia Welding (le) 251
ROOT
PENETRATION1 r JOINT PENETRATION
L INCOMPLETE
JOINT PENETRATION
Figure I->Examples of Joint Penetration, Root Penetration, and Incomplete Joint Penetration
Brazing by inductionheating is accomplishedby

placing the joint to be brazed in an alternating mag-
netic field. Either magneticor non-magnetic materials
may be induction-brazed.
Induction brazing of hydraulic fittings is shown in
SPOT WELD
1
Figure 1-4-Example of a Resistance Spot Weld
Figure 1-5. The fittings are placed in a reversing mag-
netic field generated in the copper bracket tothe left of
center. Parts are prefluxed and preformed filler mate-
rial is placed prior to heating.
Made with Indirect Welding
INDUCTANCE
The ability of a conducting coil to generate electro-
motive force by induction withinitself.
INDUCTION
The process of generating electromotive force in a
closed circuit by varying a magnetic flux through the
circuit.
INDUCTION BRAZING(le)
A brazing process that uses heatfrom the resistance
of the workpiecesto induced electric current. See
Inductionbrazingusesanon-ferrous filler metal
with a melting point above 425C (800"F), but below
that of the base metals. The filler metal is distributed Figure I-5-lnduction Brazing of Hydraulic Fittings
in the joint by capillary action. Photo courtesy of Pillar Industries
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 0784265 051b42b T 7 T
ACE 252 INDUCTION Encyclopedia Welding
The heating of non-magneticmaterialdepends Wear resistance of pinion gears, splines and jour-
solely on eddy current losses. Eddy current losses are a nals on shafts canbe improved byselective hardening.
function of the frequency of current reversal of the A system for hardening a small pinion gear of AIS1
magnetic field, which in turnis determined bythe fre- 4140 steel provides acase extending 0.50 to 0.75 mm
quencyof the currentreversalsin the conductor. (0.020 to 0.030 in.) below the roots of the gear teeth.
Because the resistance of non-ferrous (non-magnetic) As shown in Figure 1-6, the gear is moved from the
metals is usually less than that of ferrous (magnetic) loading position into the induction coil on a pop-up
metals, this loss is comparatively small, so a stronger rotary spindle. After being heated,it is lowered to the
magnetic field mustbeusedtoobtaincomparable quench position. The unit is serviced by a 60-kW/150
heating results. Itis necessary, therefore, togo to high to 400 kHz induction generator.
frequencies in order to increase the heating effect. See
Skin Effect. The higher the frequency of the induc-
INDUCTION HEATING.
tion heater power supply, the more the induced voltage
INDUCTION FURNACE tends to concentrate in the outer layers (skin effect)of
See FURNACE. the workpiece. Thus,the induction heatercan produce
a hardened outer surfaceof the workpiece while leav-
INDUCTION GENERATOR ing the inner surface relatively unchanged.
A rotating device, i.e., a motor, or a solid
state elec-
tronicdevicebasedonan oscillator whichmaybe INDUCTION HYSTERESIS
used to change the frequency of the a-c field, which See INDUCTION HEATING.
produces electric current for use in induction heating
applications. The device produces a varying magnetic INDUCTION SEAM WELDING (RSEW-I)
field which induces current into the workpiece. A resistanceseamwelding process variation in
whichhigh-frequencyweldingcurrentisinduced in
INDUCTION HEATING
the workpieces. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See
Heating a material from withinby causing an elec- HIGHFREQUENCYRESISTANCEWELDING and HIGH-
tric current to flow through the material by electro-
FREQUENCY SEAM WELDING.
magneticinduction. It is essentialthatthematerial
being heated is not a part of any closed electric circuit
INDUCTION SOLDERING(IS)
supplied from a source of electric energy, as is the case
with resistance welding. A soldering process in which the heat required is
Fundamentals
obtained from theresistance of the workpiecesto
induced electric current.See STANDARD WELDING
Induction heating is a phenomenon caused by an TERMS.
alternating magnetic field. The field occurs in the area
surrounding a conductor carrying an alternating cur- INDUCTION UPSET WELDING (UW-I)
rent, and the reversals of the magnetic field follow the
reversals of current in the conductor. Magnetic mate- An upset welding process variation in which high-
rial, if placed within thisfield, is heated by both hys- frequency weldingcurrent is inducedinthe work-
teresisandeddycurrentlosses.Hysteresisloss is pieces. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure
caused by molecular friction within the material, and 1-7. See also HIGH FREQUENCY RESISTANCE WELDING
the magnitude of this loss is directly proportional to and UPSET WELDING.
thefrequency of themagneticfield.Eddycurrent
losses are resistance losses resulting from small circu- INDUCTION WELDING(IW)
lating currents withinthe material. Thisloss is propor- A welding process that produces coalescence of
tional to the square of the frequency andthe square of metals by the heat obtained fromthe resistance of the
the current flowingin the field-producing conductor. workpieces to the flow of inducedhigh-frequency
Induction heating will produce fast,a localized heat welding current with or withoutthe application of
that is controllable withinclose limitations to a prede- pressure. TheefSect of thehigh-frequency welding
termined temperature; these qualities make this heat- current is to concentrate the welding heat at the
ingprocessadaptabletomanymassproduction desired location. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
manufacturing applications. See Figure 1-7.

lopedia Welding INDUCTION WELDING (IW) 253
Figure I-&Induction Heating Coil Used to Case Harden a4140 Steel Pinion Gear
Photo courtesyof the Lepel Corporation
HIGH-FREQUENCY
POWER
..""." ". .. .-.-.
INDUCTION WORK COIL

(WATER COOLED)
Figure I-7-Induction Upset Welding of Tube Showing Induction Work Coil

INDUCTION WORK COIL WELDING
TERMS. See also GAS TUNGSTEN ARC
The inductor used when welding, brazing, or sol- WELDING.
. .
dering with inductionheatingequipment.See STAN-
DARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure 1-7. INERT GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING
A nonstandard termfor GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELD-
INDUSTRIAL WELDING MACHINES ING(GTAW). See GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING. See
Arc welding machines with a 60% or higher duty also STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
cycle generally used for industrial production. They
can be transformer, motor-drive, engine-driveor solid INERTIA FRICTION WELDING
state machines. They may. beeither ac, dc or a combi- A variation of friction welding in which the energy
nation of both. required to make the weld is supplied primarily by the
stored rotational kinetic energy of the welding
INERT GAS machine. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure
A gas that does not normally combine chemically 1-8.
with materials. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See
also PROTECTIVE ATMOSPHERE. INFRARED BRAZING(IRB)
Inert gases suchas argon or helium maybe used as A brazing process that uses heat from infrared radi-
shieldinggasesinweldingoperationsbecausethey ation. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
will not react with the materials being weldedthey and
prevent atmospheric contamination of the puddle and INFRARED RADIATION
the electrode. Electrohzgnetic energy with wave lengths from 770
Nitrogen is sometimes considered to be an inert gas;to 12 000 nanometers. See STANDARD WELDING
however, under certain conditions it will react to pro- TERMS.
ducenitrides,which are undesirable. See ARGON,
HELIUM, GAS METAL.ARC WELDING, and GAS TUNG- INFRARED RAYS
STEN ARC WELDING. Part of the light spectrum produced byarc welding,
which can have harmful effects on the eyes. See EYE
INERT GAS CARBON ARC WELDING PROTECTION.
An obsolete,rarely-usedarcweldingprocessin
which joining is produced by heating with an electric INFRARED SOLDERING(IRS)
arc between a carbon electrode and the work. Shielding A soldering process in which the heat required is
is obtained from an inert gas, such as helium or argon. furnished by
infrared radiation. See STANDARD
Pressure andfiller metal may or may not be used. WELDING TERMS.
INERT GAS METAL ARC WELDING INFRARED WELDING, Plastics

A nonstandard term for GAS METAL ARC WELDING Heating by infrared lamps has been developedas a
(GMAW). See GAS METAL ARC WELDING. method for heatinglargepolymericstructures. In
The GMAW process is popularly calledMZG (metal infrared welding, infrared lamps scanthe joining sur-
inert gas); alsoCOz welding. The terms MZG and COZ face to meltthe polymer. When asuitable temperature
welding are in general usein the industry, althoughfor is reached, as controlledby sensors, the infrared lamps
technical reasons they are not listed among the stan- are withdrawnandtheparts are joined or pressed
dardterms of theAmericanWeldingSociety. See together.
INGOT IRON
INERT GAS SHIELDED ARC WELDING An open hearth iron very low in manganese, carbon
Anonstandard
term for GAS TUNGSTEN
ARC and other impurities.
WELDING (GTAW).
The GTAW process is popularly called TZG; this INITIAL CURRENT
term is in general use in the welding industry, although The current after starting the arc but before estab-
for technical reasonsit is not listed as a standard term lishment of welding current. See STANDARD WELDING
by the AmericanWeldingSociety. See STANDARD TERMS.See also Appendix 19.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 0784265 0536429 789 m
Weldina EncvcloDedia INTERMllTENT WELD 255

f
AXIS OF
ROTATION
hlP
I t WELDING STARTS
COMPLETED WELD
FORGE FORCE
L""
I r FORGE UPSET DISTANCE
I I
II _""""""
'I I I
UPSET DISTANCE
I
I I
FRICTION
DISTANCE
UPSET
COMPLETION
WELDING
OF
TIME-
Figure I-8-Generalized Diagram of Inertia Friction Welding
PRINCIPLE
TE INJECTOR
See TORCH, Injector. A soldering fluxgeneralZy
with
residue
that a does
not attack thebase metal. The original composition
INNER CONE may be corrosive. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
The brilliant, short part of an oxyacetylene flame
immediatelyadjacent to theorifice of thetorchtip. INTERMllTENT WELD
A weld in which the continuity is broken by recur-
INSPECTION OF WELDS
ring
unwelded spaces. See STANDARD WELDING
See NONDESTRUCTIVE
EXAMINATION,
TESTING, see~i~~~~ C-3.
DYE PENETRANT INSPECTION, RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMI-
NATION, and MAGNETIC
PARTICLE
INSPECTION. Chain
Intermittent
Welds
Fillet
Two lines of intermittent fillet welding in a T- or lap
INTERFACE which
joint, in the increments
line one of inwelding
See B U E INTERFACE,SOLDERINTERFACE,THER- are approximately opposite to those in the other line.
MAL SPRAY DEPOSIT INTERFACE,and WELD INTERFACE.
Staggered Intermittent Fillet Welds
INTERGRANULAR PENETRATION Two lines of intermittent fillet welding in aT- or lap
The penetration of a fizler metal along the grain joint, in which the increments of welding in one line
boundaries of a base metal. See STANDARD WELDING are staggered with respect to those in the other line.
TERMS. See also SKIP WELDING.
S T D - A W S JWE-ENGL 1997 m 0 7 8 4 2 ~ 505~1,430 TO
Encyclopedia
Welding
Spraying
256 TEMPERATURE,
INTERPASS
Thermal
INTERPASS TEMPERATURE, Thermal Spraying the material involved.The term ionization potential is
In multipass t h e m l spraying, the temperature of generally used when referring to shielding gases with
the thermal spray area between themal spray passes. the GMAW or GTAW welding processes.See ION.
See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS.
12R LOSS
INTERPASS TEMPERATURE, Welding The power loss due to current flowing through a
In a multipass weld, thetemperature of the weld conductor which has resistance.This loss is converted
between weld passes. See STANDARD WELDING into heat;its units are watts.
TERMS.
IRON
INTERPULSE TIME, Resistance Welding (Chemicalsymbol:Fe). The mostabundant of
Thetimebetween successive pulses of current metallic elements, known and used since very early
within thesame impulse. See STANDARDWELDING times. Pure iron, which is practicallyunknown in
TERMS. See Figure H-3. industry, is silver-white, very ductile, malleable, and
magnetic. It is the basis for many important alloyed
INTERRUPTED SPOT WELDING
structural materials. It hasa specific gravityof
A nonstandard termfor MULTI-IMPULSE WELDING. 7.87; atomic weight, 55.84, meltingpoint, 1536C
INTERNATIONAL ACETYLENE ASSOCIATION
(2797F);boiling point, 3000C (5432F).
An organization of manufacturers and usersof acet- Iron ores occur in large deposits in many parts of
ylene and oxygen, and equipment using these gases, the world in the form of various iron oxides. Theore is
which was formed in1898 and disbanded in1963. The heated in a blast furnace with limestone and coke to
Compressed Gas Association assumed the activities of produce molten pig iron, and with further treatment, is
this organization. converted into steel.
INVERTER POWER SUPPLY IRON CARBON DIAGRAM

Aweldingpowersupplythatutilizessolid-state See FLAhE HARDENING and METALLURGY.
components to change the incoming 60 Hz power to a
IRON LOSS
higher frequency, nominally 18to 100 kHz. Changing
the frequencyresultsingreatlyreducedsizeand The hysteresis and eddy current losses in the iron
weight of the transformer. Inverters can be used with cores of electrical machinery.
all ofthe arc welding processes.
IRON, PIG
ION See CAST IRON.
An atom, or group of atoms, of matter which has
gained or lost one or more outer shell electrons, and IRON POWDER ELECTRODES
which therefore carries an electrical charge. Positive See CONTACT ARC WELDING and ELECTRODE
ions, or cations, are deficient in outer shell electrons. CLASSIFICATION.
Negative ions, or anions, have an excessof outer shell
electrons. The ion or charged atom provides an electri- IRON SOLDERING (INS)
cal conductor for the arc welding current to follow A soldering process in which the heat required is
from the electrode to the workpiece. obtained from a soldering iron. See STANDARD
WELDING TERMS.
IONIC BOND
A primary bond arising from the electrostatic IRON, WROUGHT
attraction between two oppositely charged ions. See See WROUGHT IRON.
ISOTHERMAL TRANSFORMATION DIAGRAM
IONIZATION POTENTIAL Adiagramwhichgraphicallydescribes the time
The energy necessary to remove from or add one or delay andthe reaction rate of austenite transformation
more electrons to an atom, thereby making it an ion. to pearlite, bainiteor martensite. It also shows the tem-
The potential energy requirement varies, depending onperature at which these transformations take place.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1797 0784265 0516431 337 m
Welding IZOD TEST 257
ISOTOPES is placed on one side of the material to be tested, and

Atoms of the same element which are identical in photographicfilm on theother.After exposure, the
their chemical behavior but different from one another film is developed and interpreted.
in the number of neutrons contained in their nuclei, Isotope radiography has proven safe, reliable, and
and thus have different atomic weights. In common versatile. Inspection of complicated machinery canbe
usage,isotopesthat are radioactiveareknownas made without dismantling. Radiation sources canofbe
radioisotopes. any desired shape or size, and they offer high radio-
Isotopes have an important role in industry as pro- activity at relatively low cost.
duction aids, servingin three basic fields: (1) as tracers
andgauges,super-detectives for monitoringand IZOD TEST
controlling a wide varietyof industrial operations; (2) An impact test performed on a specimen of a metal-
in place of X-ray machines, as cameras for spotting lic material to evaluate resistance to failure at a dis-
machinery faults andwear;and (3) ascatalysts or continuityand to evaluate the resistance of a
active agents in creating and modifying materials. comparatively brittle material during extension of a
Isotopes also act as flow tracers for detecting leaks crack.
in buried or inaccessible equipment. In a typical case, In an Izod test, a small bar of round or square cross
a leak was suspected inthe copper tubing of a heating section is held as a cantilevered beam in the gripping
system buried in the concrete floor of a factory. A anvil of a pendulum machine. The specimenis broken
smallamountofaradioisotope(iodine-131)was by a single overload of the swinging pendulum, and
added to the water of the heating system. A Geiger the energyabsorbedinbreakingthespecimenis
counter quickly located the increased radioactivity at recorded by a stop pointer moved by the pendulum.
the leak; the break was repaired by removing a section The Izod specimen can be testedas an unnotched bar,
of flooring only 15cm (6 in.) long. or it can be prepared with a 45 V-notch in the face
struck by the pendulum. The energyabsorbed in
ISOTOPE RADIOGRAPHY breaking Izod specimensis reported in joules (1 joule
The production of radiographs using an isotope as a = .O737 ftAb).Standard methodsfor impact testing can
source of radiation. be found in ASTM E23, Notched Bar Impact Testing
Radioactive isotopes have largely replaced radium of Metallic Materials.
andX-raymachines for inspectingwelds, castings, The Izod test of the notched specimen is particu-
and finished products for voids and cavities. Isotopes larly useful for detecting the presence of embrittling
such as cobalt-60,cesium-137,andiridium-192are constituents, which might be caused by nitrides that
usedinradiographictesting of lead, steel, andiron take form during aging or in slow cooling after anneal-
castings. ing, and for locating the brittle zone.This test does not
Procedures using isotopes are similar to the tech- reflect the tensile properties of the weld or the parent
niques used with X-ray machines. A radiation source metal. See CHARPY TEST. See Figure C-4.

STDOAWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb432 273 m
258 Welding Encyclopedia
This high-speedX-2000 train fromABB Traction, Inc.is weld-fabricated in Sweden from the
Type 300
series of stainless steels

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 W 07842b505Lb433 LOT m
J
JAWS, Electrode Holder of the member should be milled to fit the contour of
The part ofan electrodeholderwhichgripsthe the tube.
welding electrode. The electrode holderjaws are usu- For arc oroxyfuelgaswelding ofthinsheet
ally madeof a hard copper alloy. metal ranging from, for example, 10 gauge (3.6 mm
[0.141 in.]) and thinner sections, the need to usea jig
J-EDGE SHAPE is more critical than when welding the heavier plate
An edge shapeformedbythecombinationof a metals. As a general rule, the thinner the sheet metal,
bevel with a bevel radius. See STANDARDWELDING the greater the needfor a jig. Greater changes occurin
TERMS. See Appendix 6, Section 3. the edge contours of thin sheets matched up for butt
welding than in heavier sheet or plate metal. The jig
J-GROOVE WELD must provide a means to controlwarpingandedge
A type of groove weld. See STANDARDWELDING movements by absorbing heat or forcibly restraining
TERMS. See Appendix 6, Sections 4 and 5 . See also the parts to some degree.
GROOVE WELD. Some weldingjigs are designedto hold the parts in
a level position convenient for welding, with capabil-
JIG ity of rotation ina horizontal or vertical plane.
The termsjig and fature have essentially the same Tack-welding jigs are used in laying transmission
meaning. Jigs, or fixtures, are designed to hold pieces pipelines to assure concentricityof the adjoining pipe
of an assembly in correct relationship during welding, ends and good alignment. They are essentially welding
and to expedite removal of the completed parts after jigs, which are removed immediately after the tack-
welding. Sometimes simple jigs, toggleclamps, welds have been made. The fact that the pipe ends no
C-clamps or wedges are sufficient to hold the align- longer require the support of the jig during the welding
ment. In a manufacturing setting,
elaborate jigs operation means that the function of the jig has been
designed to hold large sheet or plate metal might be transferred to the tack-welds.
required.
Jig Design
Inindustrialproduction ofweldedparts,close
dimensional control and correct alignmentare critical Simplicity should be the first consideration in the
when planningfor high ratesof production. Specifica- design andconstruction of the shop-made fixture.
tions must be precisely followed to produce parts that Sometimes the designcan accommodate set-up and
are interchangeable and readily assembled. welding inthe same fixture.
In repair work it is particularly necessary to hold the Convenience in reachingtheweldedsurfaceand
parts in alignment to bring the broken itemitsto origi- visibility are two important factors. For arc welding,
nal shape, especiallyif it is part of an assembly. the design usually includes copper backing bars with
Jigdesign requires mechanicalingenuityand a machined grooves to permit complete penetration of
knowledge of the laws of expansion and contraction the weld metal.The grooves should be extremely shal-
of metal. When steel is heated to a welding tempera- low (O. 4 to 0.8 mm [0.015 to0.030 in.]), and compar-
ture, it has very little strength and ductility. For this atively narrow (4.5 to 6.4 mm [0.18 to 0.25 in.]), and
reason a crack or tear is very easily started by any should not be square cornered.
stress due to warping contraction. In using a jig, the Allowances for heat control must be made to pre-
several parts requiredfor a welded assemblyare cut to ventmisalignment,bucklingoroverlapping of the
length and fitted so that there is only a small clearance parts. The jig should be constructed so that it carries
between the abutting members. This clearance should heatawayfromtheweld.Clampingpressureswill
be as uniform as possible, for example, when a truss largely dependon the type of structure being welded.
member is welded into the sidewall of a tube, the end See also FIXTURE and POSITIONER.
259
260 JOINT Weldina EncvcloDedia
JOINT JOINT EFFICIENCY

The junction of members or the edges of members The ratio of strength of a joint to the strength of the
that are to be joined or have been joined. See STAN- base metal, expressed in percent. See STANDARD
DARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 5. WELDING TERMS.
Of the many types of joints, the most common are JOINT FILLER
edge, butt, lap and tee.
A metal plate inserted between the splice member
and thinner joint member to accommodate joint mem-
JOINT BRAZING PROCEDURE
bers of dissimilar thickness in a spliced butt joint. See
The materials, detailed methods, and practices STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure J-1.
employed in the brazing of a particular joint. See
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. JOINT GEOMETRY
The shape anddimensions of a joint in cross section
JOINT BUILDUP SEQUENCE prior towelding. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
nonstandard
A term
for CROSS-SECTIONAL
SEQUENCE. JOINT OPENING
A nonstandard termfor ROOT OPENING.
JOINT CLEARANCE, Brazing and Soldering
JOINT PENETRATION
The distance between the faying sufaces of a joint.
The distance the weld metal extends from the weld
See STANDARDWELDING TERMS.
face into a joint, exclusive of weld reinforcement. See
In brazing, this distanceis referred to as that which STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See Appendix 12. See
is present before brazing, at the brazing temperature, als0 GROOVE WELD SIZE.
or after brazingis completed. Joint penetration is the depth of fusion of a weld
from the original surface of the base metal tothe point
JOINT DESIGN where fusionends.
The shape, dimensions, and configuration of the For the weld to be acceptableit is necessary that the
joint. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. basemetaland filler metalbecompletelyfused
MEMBER
I
JOINT FILLER L
Figure J-1-Double-Spliced Butt Joint with Joint Filler

~~
~~~
STD*AWS JWE-ENGL L777 m 0784265 05Lb435 T82 m

Welding Encyclopedia JOINTTRACKING 261
together to that point. A weld may be made with par-

tial penetration, wherea gap or notchexists at the root
of the weld, or complete penetration where fusion is
complete from top to bottom.
Complete joint penetration is normally required in
welds and when it cannot be obtained from one side in
one pass, several passes are used with grooved joint
preparation or weld passes are made from the root sur-
face, or both.
In a square buttjoint, joint penetration and root pen-
etration are the same. In a groove weld, root penetra-
tion is the distance from the bottom of the groove to
the point where fusion ends.
Through penetration and complete fusion and bond-
ingof the metal are essentialforsuccessfulsound
welds. Through penetrationis not easily accomplished
in square buttjoints over 6 mm (U4 inch) thickness by
most arc welding processes. A groove or bevel joint
preparation is used to achieve complete penetration.A
gap between two plates with square edges may help
attainpenetrationbutoxidesformed on theedges 0
0 A
could prevent complete metallurgical bonding near the #
root of the joint. Full penetration can be attained in

squarebutt joints in thickerplates by theelectron
beam, laser and plasma arc processes.
JOINT PREPARATION
See EDGE PREPARATION.
JOINT RECOGNITION Figure J-2-Typical Joint Roots

A function of an adaptive control that determines (The joint root is the shaded area.)
changes in the joint geometry during weldingand
directs the welding equipment to take appropriate
action. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See JOINT
TRACKING and WELD RECOGNITION.
JOINT ROOT
That portion of a joint tobe welded wherethe mem-
bers approach closest to each other: In cross section,
the joint root may be either a point, a line, or an area.
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure J-2.
JOINT SPACER
A metal part, such as strip, bar, or ring, inserted in
the joint root to serve as a backing and to maintain the
root opening during welding. See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS. See Figure J-3.
JOINT TRACKING
A function of an adaptive control that determines
changes in joint location during welding and directs Figure J-3lllustration of a Joint Spacer

STD-AUS JWE-ENGL L997 W 07842b5 051b43b 919
262 JOINT
the welding machine to take appropriate action. See end and at 1.6mm (U16 in.) intervals for a distance of
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See JOINT RECOGNITION 50 mm (2 in.).
and WELD RECOGNITION. The sampleconsists of apiece 10 cm (4 in.) in
length.It is 25 mm (1 in.)round for adistance of
JOINT TYPE 9.8 cm (3.875 in.), with a flange approximately 2.8 cm
A weld joint classification based on$ve basic joint (1.125 in.) in diameter and
0.4 mm (0.015 in.) thick on
configurations such as a butt joint, corner joint, edge one end. Afterthe sample has been quenched, the next
joint, lap joint and T-joint. See STANDARDWELDING step is to grind a flat about 0.4 mm (0.015 in.) deep
TERMS. See Appendix 5. along the entire length of the sample to remove the
carburized surface. Itis on thisflat area thatthe Rock-
well C hardness readings are taken. The data are nor-
JOINT WELDING SEQUENCE
mally plotted as hardness (HRC) versus distance from
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See WELDING the quenched end at which a certain hardness (such as
SEQUENCE.
HRC 50) is observed that maybe used as an indication
of hardenability.
JOMINY TEST If the hardness in the coarse-grained region of the
A laboratory test procedure developed by W. Jom- heat-affectedzone (HAZ) of aweld in a steel is
iny in 1938for determining the hardenability of steels matched with the same hardness on a Jominy bar of
and other ferrous alloys. The test, usually called the the same steel, then the cooling rates at these two posi-
End Quench Test (ASTM A255), is the most common tions (one in the HAZ and the other onthe Jominy bar)
method of determining hardenability, therelative abil- are the same. The cooling rates at various positions
ity of a steel to form martensite when quenched from along
a the Jominy barare measured and tabulated. Fur-
temperature abovethe upper critical temperature. ther, the HAZ cooling ratesfor various welding condi-
In the test procedure, a sample of a particular steel tions(platethickness, joint design, initial plate
is heated to the correct quenching temperature, assur- temperature,current,voltageandtravelspeed) are
ing that the surface is protected from oxidation. After measured and tabulated. Thus it is possible to select
heating, the sample is quenched. The quenching water conditions that avoid the formation of brittle marten-
jet impinges on the end of the sample and this areais site during the arc weldingof a particular steel.
cooled very rapidly. Since the heat must travel by con- Additionally, in lower-carbon quenched-and-
duction from the sample to the quenched end, the top tempered steels, conditions can be selected so that a
portion of the sample will cool very slowly. Different tougher martensite forms in the heat-affected zone.
rates of cooling,therefore,willoccurallalong the
sample. JOULE
The hardness of the steel at different rates of cool- A unitof electrical work.It is acurrent of one
ing is indicated by RockwellC (HRC) hardness read- ampere flowing through a resistance of one ohm for
ings, starting at 1.6 mm (1116 in.) from the hardened one second, i.e., onejoule is equal toone watt.

KERF KILOWATT
The width of the cut produced during a cutting pro- (Abbreviation: kW). One thousand watts. A watt is
cess. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See Figure C- l l . aunitofmeasure of electricalpoweravailable for
work. This is real power as indicated by a wattmeter.
KEYHOLE WELDING One kilowattis about equal to1-1/3 mechanical horse-
A techniqueinwhichaconcentratedheatsource power. kW = kVA x power factor.
penetrates partially or completely through aworkpiece,
forming a hole(keyhole)at the leading edgeof the weld KILOWATT-HOUR
pool. As the heat source progresses, the molten metal (Abbreviation: kwh). Volume of workequivalent to
fills in behind the holeto formthe weld bead. See STAN- the consumptionof one kilowattfor one hour. Electric
DARD WELDING TERMS. See PLASMA ARC WELDING. power is measured and sold by the kilowatt hour.
KEYING KLEINSCHMIDT PROCESS
A nonstandard termfor MECHANICAL BOND. A form of resistance spot welding, similar to pro-
jection welding, patented in 1898. A common applica-
KICKING COIL tion of the Kleinschmidt Process is in joining large
A reactanceor choke coil. piecesofthinmetal. The sheets are preparedwith
raised sections, or projections, to localize the flow of
KILLED STEEL current,andpointedcopperelectrodes are used.
Molten steel which has been held in a ladle, fur- Machines used in this type of application must provide
nace, or crucible (and usually treated with manganese, for the exertion of heavy pressure on the electrodes
silicon or aluminum) untilno more gas is evolved and afterthemetal is heatedtotheweldingpoint. See
the metal is perfectly quiet. RESISTANCE WELDING.
KILO KNEE
A unit equal to1OOO; a prefix placed before a word The supporting structure of the lower arm in a resis-
to indicate lo00 times that word. tance welding machine. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS.
KILOAMPERE KNURLING, Thermal Spraying
One thousand amperes. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See GROOVE AND
ROTARYROUGHENING;
ROTARY ROUGHENING, and
KILOVOLT THREADING AND KNURLING, Thermal Spraying.
One thousand volts.
KSI
KILOVOLT-AMPERE A term which indicates 1000 psi in describing ten-
(Abbreviation: kVA.) A measure of apparent electri- sile strength: 10 ksi = 10 O00 psi.
cal power made up of two components, an energy com-
ponent
and
watt-less
a or induction
component. kW
Primarilyconsidered as apparent power.Kilovolt- Abbreviation for kilowatt.
ampere and kilowattare the same when the current and kWh
voltage are in phase, Le., when the power factor
is one. Abbreviation for kilowatt hour.
voltage x amperes INA
kVA = 1O00 Abbreviation for kilovolt-ampere.
263
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m O?842b5 O536438 793
264 Welding
(GTAW) process to fabricatea hopper used in thefood

A welder uses the gas tungsten arc welding
processing industry
Photo courtesy of O. H. Hendricks Company
A typical setup for an arc spray system includes a power source, spray gun, and wire feed unit

L
LACK OF FUSION deposition of largeamounts of filler metaltendto
A nonstandard termfor INCOMPLETE FUSION. degrade the tensile properties of the base metal and
contribute to lamellar tearing. Highly restrainedjoints
LACK OF JOINT PENETRATION are also susceptible to lamellar tearing and should be
A nonstandard term for INCOMPLETEJOINTPENE- welded with caution.
TRATION. See Figure 1-3. The design of welded joints must take into account
the direction of rolling. Welding to members in the
LAG through-thickness direction
mustbe
avoided, if
A nonstandard term forDRAG, Thermal Cutting. possible.
LAMELLAR TEAR Where this is unavoidable, the joint should be detailed
A subsurface terrace and step-like crack in the base to reduce the possibility of lamellar tearing resulting
metal with a basic orientation parallel to the wrought from welding. Figure L-1 illustrates susceptible joint
surJace causedby tensile stresses inthethrough- details.
thickness direction of the base metal weakened by the Recognizing lamellar tearingmay be difficult since
presence of small dispersed, planarshaped, nonmetal- the tearing is internal, like underbead cracking. Comer
lic inclusions parallel to the metal surface. See STAN- joints and T-joints arethe most susceptible to lamellar
DARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 9. tearing, but joint details can be modified to minimize
Lamellartearing is acrackingphenomenonthat it. If there is anyquestionthatsubsurfacetearing
occurs in weldsjoining rolled steel products. Lamellar exists, then nondestructive methods should be usedto
cracks ortearsoccurmostoftenduringfabrication examine the base metal.
where weld shrinkage strains exceed the strength of For more detailed information on lamellar tearing
the base metal inthe through-thickness directionof the seeAmericanWeldingSociety, WeldingHandbook,
steel. Vol. 1,8thEd.137-138.Miami,Florida.American
All steels contain nonmetallic inclusionsin varying Welding Society, 1987.
amounts. Hot-rolled steels may contain other internal
imperfections such as porosity, seams, or laminations. LAMINATE
When the steel is rolled to the desired shapefor fabri- A laminateis the composite metal productof two or
cation,theseinclusionsandimperfectionsareelon- morelayers joined, usuallybywelding, to forma
gated in the direction of rolling. Internal seams and structural product.
tears may or may not be healed (welded togetherby
the rolling action). These defectsare likely to occur in LAMINATION
thick sections where the mechanical deformation of
A type of discontinuity with separation or weakness
theinternalseamsortears maynotbesufficiently generally aligned parallel to the worked surface of a
worked to heal the defects.The specified strengthof
metal. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS.
these steels is always measured in the directionof roll-
ing. The strength of rolled steels in the through-thick- Metal defects with separation weaknesses are gen-
nessdirection(perpendiculartothedirection of erally aligned parallel the to rolled directionof the fab-
rolling) is considerably lessthan the strength obtained ricated section.
Thesedefects may result from
in the directionof rolling. elongated pipe, seams, or inclusions in the metal that
Thecontractionorshrinkage of depositedweld are made directional during the mechanical working
of
metal during cooling sets up localized strains in the the metal.
base metal. These strains may exceed the strength of
the basemetalinthethrough-thicknessdirection, LANCE
resultinginlamellartearing.Weldsthatrequire the See OXYGEN LANCEand OXYGEN LANCE CUTTING.
265
STDnAWS
JWE-ENGL L797 W 07842b5 05Lb440 3 4 T m
266 LAND
L LAMINAR TEARS J
Figure L-l-Weld Joint Designs in Steel Plate that are Prone to Lamellar Tearing andLikely
the Location
of Tears
LAND LAP WELD

A nonstandard termfor ROOT FACE. See LAP JOINT.
LAP LASER
A device that producesaconcentrated coherent
A base metal surface defect (not caused by weld-
ing), appearingas a seam inthe base metal, causedby light beam bystimulated electronic or molecular tran-
folding over hot metal, fins,or sharp corners and then sitions to lowerenergy levels. Laser is an acronymfor
light amplijcation by stimulated emission of radia-
rolling or forging them intothe surface.
tion. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
LAP JOINT
The laser beam is a focused, high-power, coherent,
monochromaticlightbeam. The laserwasindepen-
A joint between two overlapping members in paral- dently invented in 1960 by two scientists, one at Bell
lel planes. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Laboratories andthe other at Hughes Aircraft. Most of
Appendix 5. the early application development was conducted by
Bell Laboratories. The original laser device consisted
LAP SEAM WELD of a ruby rod surrounded by a xenon flash lamp that
See SEAM WELD. excitedthechromiumatomsintheruby to higher

Encyclopedia
Welding CUlTlNG (LBC) 267
energy states. Simultaneously stimulated and returning andvaporized material. See STANDARD WELDING
to the ground state, the atoms emit an intense ampli- TERMS.
fied light beam. See Figure L-2 for a schematic dia-
gram of a ruby laser. LASER BEAM BRAZE WELDING (LBBW)
The rapid flashing of the xenon lamp produced a A braze welding process variation that uses a laser
seeminglysteady state of emittedlight.Onlya beam as theheat source. See STANDARDWELDING
focused, monochromatic light beam was permitted to TERMS.
leave the device. Initial application was limitedto the
low power ofthe ruby laser. LASER BEAM CUlTlNG (LBC)
The three basic types of laser include solid state, A thermalcutting process that severs metalby
gas discharge,andsemi-conductorinjectiontypes. locally melting or vaporizing with theheat from a
High power, pulsed outputs in the megawatt rangeare laser beam. The process is used with or without assist
provided by solid state lasers. Gas discharge lasers use gas to aid the removal of molten and vaporized mate-
helium, neon, krypton, or xenon to provide low power rial. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See LASER
output frequencies that are continuous. Semi-conduc- BEAM AIR CUTTING, LASER BEAM EVAPORATIVE CUT-
torinjectionlasershavelimitedpoweroutput,are TING, LASER BEAM INERT GAS CUTTING, and LASER
dependent on liquid nitrogen operating temperatures, BEAM OXYGEN CUTTING.
and do not need a flashlamp for exciting the atoms The source of heat for laser beam cutting is a con-
since they convert electricity directly into light. centratedcoherentlightbeamthatimpingesonthe
Earlylasermetalworkingapplicationswerelim- workpiece to be cut. A combination of melting and
ited,butwith the advent of higher-powered lasers, evaporation provides the mechanism for removal of
applications include welding, brazing, cutting, micro material from the kerf. High-power lasers have unique
perforation, and metal removal. High-powered lasers advantages for cutting applications, including capabil-
can cut steel up to 25 mm (1 in.) thick. ity to cut any metal and producing a narrow kerf and
heat-affected zone. High cutting speeds are achieved,
LASER BEAM AIR CUmNG (LBC-A) and the equipment is adaptable to computer control.
A laser beam cutting process variation that melts A laser is a heat source with some unique character-
the workpiece and uses an air jet to remove molten istics. Relatively modest amounts of laser energy can
RUBY ROD
QUARTZ FLASH TUBE
OUTPUT BEAM
OPTICAL CAVITY
Figure L-2-Schematic Diagram of a Ruby Laser

STD=AWS JWE-ENGL 1 9 9 7 9 0784265 0536442 III2
BEAM 268 LASER Welding Encyclopedia
be focused to very small spot sizes, resulting in high Laser cutting has the advantages of high speeds, nar-
power densities. In cutting and drilling, these power row kerf widths, high-quality edges, low-heat input, and
densities are in the range of 10'' to lo6 W / m 2 (6.5 x minimal workpiecedistortion. It is an easily automated
lo6to 6.5 x lo8Whn.'). Such high concentrations of process that can cut most materials. The cut geometry
energy cause melting and vaporization of the work- can be changed without the major rework required with
piece material, and material removal is enhanced by a mechanical tools; there is no tool wear involved, and
jet of gas. Depending onthe material, a jet of reactive finishing operationsare not usually required. Withinits
gas such as oxygen can be applied coaxially with the thicknessrange, it is analternative to punching or
beam, improvingprocess speed andcut edge quality. blanking, and to oxyfel gas and plasma arc cutting.
Among laser material processing applications, cut- Laser cuttingis especially advantageousfor prototyping
ting is the most common process; its use has quickly studies andfor short productionruns. Compared to most
conventionalprocesses,noise,vibration,and fume
grown worldwide. The first laser material processing
levels involved in laser cuttingare quite low.
application wasdrillingdiamonds for wire drawing
dies. Today, laser cutting and the related processes of Metals which can be cut by the laser beam process
include carbon steel, alloy steel, stainless steel, alumi-
drilling, trimming, and scribing account for more than
num, copper and copper alloys, nickel base alloys, and
50% of the international industrial laser installations.
titanium and its alloys. Nonmetals such as alumina and
A high-power CO2 laser can cut up to25 mm (1 in.) quartz can also be cut, along with organic materials,
thick carbon steel. However, goodquality cuts on steel such as cloth and the spectrum of plastics. Some types
are typicallymadeonmetalthinnerthan 9.5 mm of composite materials with organic matrices can be
(0.375 in.), because of the limited depth of focus of the cut. Lasers have been successfully used to cut several
laser beam. CO2 lasers in the range of 400 to 1500 W types of metal-matrix composites.
dominate the cutting area. Neodymium-doped, yttrium Figure L-3 shows aCO2laser cutting holes in 6 mm
aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG)lasers are also used. (0.25 in.) thick4130 steel.
Flgure L-3"Photograph of a CO2 Laser Cutting6 mm (0.25 in.) Thick 4130 Steel
Photo courtesyof Laser Machining, Inc., Somerset, WI

~ ~
STD*AWS
JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb443 0 5 9 m
BEAM
Encyclopedia
LASER
Welding (LBC-IG)
CUTTING
GASINERT 269
Laser Drllling. Hole diameters produced by laser Reference:AmericanWeldingSociety, Welding

beamdrillingtypicallyrangefromabout 0.0025 to Handbook, V01.2, 8th Edition; Miami Florida: Ameri-
1.5 mm (0.O001 to 0.060 in.). Depths achieved are can Welding Society, 1991.
usually less than25 mm (1 in.) becauseof beam focus-
inglimitations.Examples of laser drilling on a jet LASER BEAM CUlTlNG OPERATOR
engine compressor blade and a rotor component are See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See THERMAL
shown in Figure L-4. CUTTING OPERATOR.
i The process produces clean holes with very small
LASER BEAM DIAMETER
recast layers. When large holes are required, a trepan-
ning technique is used where the beam cuts a circle The diameter of a laser beam circular cross section
with the required diameter, at a spec@ed location along the laser beam axis. See
Drilling with alaser is a pulsed operationinvolving
higher power densities and shorter dwell times than LASER BEAM EVAPORATIVECUllING (LBC-EV)
laser cutting. Holes are produced by single or multiple A laser beam cutting process variation that vapor-
pulses. Laser drilling is a cost-effective alternative to izes the workpiece, with or without an assist gas (typi-
mechanical drilling, electro-chemical machining, and cally inert gas), to aid theremoval of vaporized
electrical-discharge machining for making holes of material. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS.
relatively shallow depths.
Laser drilling shares most of the advantages found LASER BEAM EXPANDER
in laser cutting. It is especially advantageous when the A combination of optical elements thatwill increase
requiredhole diameters are less than 0.5 mm the diameter of a laser beam. See STANDARD WELDING
(0.020 in.) and when holes are to be made in areas TERMS.
inaccessible to conventional tools. Beam-entry angles
can be very close to zero, a situation where mechanical LASER BEAM INERT GAS CUTTING (LBC-IO)
tools are susceptible to breakage. The industrial laser A laser beam cutting process variation that melts
drilling area is dominated byNd:YAG lasers. the workpiece and uses an inert assist gas to remove
Figure L - M e t Engine Turbine Blade Showing Laser Drilled Holes

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 07842b5 051b444 T95 m
OXYGEN
BEAM
270 LASER CUlTlNG (LBC-O) Encyclopedia
Welding
molten
and
vaporized material. See STANDARD (3) No electrodesarerequired;welding is per-
WELDING TERMS. formed with freedom from electrode contamination,
indentation, or damage from high resistance welding
LASER BEAM OXYGENCUlTlNG (LBC-O) currents.BecauseLBW is anon-contactprocess,
A laser beam cutting process variation that uses the distortion is minimizedandtoolwear is essentially
heat from the chemical reaction between oxygen and eliminated.
the base metal at elevated temperatures. The neces- (4) Laser beams are readily focused, aligned, and
sary reaction temperature is maintained with a laser directedbyopticalelements.Thusthelasercanbe
beam. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. located at a convenient distance from the workpiece,
andredirectedaroundtoolingandobstaclesinthe
LASER BEAM SPLllTER workpiece. This permits welding in areas not easily
An optical device that uses controlled reflection to accessible with other means of welding.
produce two beams from a single incident beam. See (5) The workpiece can be located and hermetically
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. welded in an enclosure that is evacuated or that con-
LASER BEAM WELDING (LBW) tains a controlled atmosphere.
A welding process that produces coalescence with (6) The laser beam can be focused on a small area,
the heatfrom a laser beam impinging on thejoint. The permitting the joining of small, closely spaced compo-
process is used without ashielding gas and without the nents with tiny welds.
application of pressure. See STANDARD WELDING (7) A wide variety of materials can bewelded,
TERMS. including various combinationsof different type mate-
The focused, high power coherent monochromatic rials.
lightbeamusedinlaserbeamweldingcausesthe (8) The laser can be readily mechanized for auto-
metal at the point of focus to vaporize, producing a mated, high-speed welding, including numerical and
deep penetrating column of vapor extending into the computer control.
base metal. Yttrium aluminumgamet (YAG) lasers are (9) Welds in thin material and on small diameter
used for spot and seam weldingof thin materials. For wires are less susceptible to burn-back thanis the case
welding thicker materials, multi-kilowatt carbon diox- with arc welding.
ide gas laser systems are available.Such systems pro- (10) Laser weldsare not influenced bythe presence
vide power densities of 10 kW/mm2 (6.5 MW/in.2). of magnetic fields, as are arc and electron beam welds;
Continuous power provides a high power laser with they also tend to follow the weld joint through to the
deep penetration welding capability. root of the workpiece, even when the beam and joint
Laser beam weldingis a high-speed process ideally are not perfectly aligned.
suited to automation, although it requires good joint (1 1)Metalswithdissimilarphysicalproperties,
fit-up. The high cost of equipment relegates applica- such as electrical resistance, can be welded.
tions to high-volume production or to critical weld- (12) No vacuum or X-ray shieldingis required.
ments requiring unique characteristics. The equipment (13) Aspect ratios (i.e., depth-to-width ratios)theon
is very sophisticated but is designed for use by weld- order of 1O:l are attainable when the weld is made by
ing operators who may not be skilled manual welders. forming a cavity in the metal, as in keyhole welding.
Process Advantages (14) The beam can be transmitted to more than one
work station, using beam switching optics, thus allow-
Major advantagesof laser beam welding include the
following: ing beam time sharing.
(1) Heat input is close to the minimum required to Process Limitations
fuse the weld metal; thus, metallurgical effects in heat- Laser beam welding has certain limitations when
affected zones are reduced, and heat-induced work- compared to other welding methods, among which are
piece distortionis minimized. the following:
(2) Single pass laser welding procedures have been (1)Jointsmustbeaccuratelypositionedlaterally
qualified in materials of up to 32 mm (1-1/4 in.) thick, under the beamandatacontrolledpositionwith
thus allowing the time to weldthicksectionstobe respect to the beam focal point.
reducedandtheneed for filler wire(andelaborate (2)Whenweldsurfacesmustbeforcedtogether
joint preparation) to be eliminated. mechanically, the clamping mechanisms must ensure

Encyclopedia
Welding LASER BEAM WELDING ILBWI 271
that the final positionof the joint is accurately aligned pressure, surface tension, and other phenomenon cre-
with the beam impingement point. ate a deep cavity. This cavity is a high-pressure region
(3) The maximum joint thickness that can be laser surrounded by walls of molten metal. As the work-
beam welded is somewhat limited. Thus weld penetra- piece moves relative to the beam, the cavity is sus-
tions much greater than 19mm (0.75 in.) are not pres- tained, and the molten metal flows from the front edge
entlyconsideredtobepracticalproductionLBW of the cavity around the sides of the cavity in a direc-
applications. tion opposite to the travel direction, and solidifies at
(4) The high reflectivity and high thermal conduc- thetrailingedgeforminganarrowfusionzone or
tivity of some materials, suchas aluminum and copper weld.
alloys, can affect their weldability with lasers. Applications
(5) When performing moderate-to-high power laser Laser beam welding is being used for an extensive
welding, an appropriate plasmacontrol device must be varietyofapplicationssuchasintheproductionof
employed to ensure thatweldreproducibility
is automotivetransmissionsandairconditionerclutch
achieved. assemblies. In the latter application, laser welding per-
(6) Lasers tend to have a fairly low energy conver- mits the use of a design that could not otherwise be
sion efficiency, generally less than 10%. manufactured. The process is also being used in the
(7) As aconsequence of the rapidsolidification production of relays and relay containers andfor seal-
characteristic of LBW, some weld porosity and brittle- ingelectronicdevicesandheartpacemaker cases.
ness can be expected. Other applications include the continuous welding of
Weld Processing Modes aluminum tubing for thermal windows and for refrig-
There are two distinctly different modes of energy erator doors.
transfer in laser welding whichare commonly referred Successful laser welding applications include weld-
toas conductionmodewelding and keyholemode ing transmission components (such as synchro gears,
welding. It is the power density incident on the mate- drive gears and clutch housings) for the auto industry.
rial surface, as well as the material properties, which These annular and circumferential-type rotary welds
ultimatelydeterminewhichmode is present for a need from3 to 6 kW of beam power, depending on the
given weld. weld speed being employed, and require penetrations
Conduction Mode Welding. In conduction mode weld- whichtypicallydonotexceed 3.2 mm (0.125in.).
ing, the laser beam does not produce sufficient vapor- Materials welded are either carbon or alloy steels. In
izationpressuretodisplacetheweldpool,forma some cases, such as the gear teeth, they havebeen
cavity, and allow the beam to emerge directly at the selectively hardened before welding. There are many
root of the weld. Instead,the incident beam energy on advantages to laser welding such assemblies.The low
the weld pool surface is transferred to the root of the heat input provided by the laserdoes not affectthe pre-
weld solely by conductive and convective heat flow in hardened zones adjacent to the weld. Also, this low
the molten metal. For a given weld diameter, conduc- heat input produces a minimal amount of distortion so
tion limited welding has a maximum penetration valuethat precision stampings can often be welded to fin-
at which no further penetration can be obtained with- ished dimensions. Since the ease of automation and
out creating a cavity.The maximum aspect ratio (pool high weld-speed capabilityof the laser process makes
depthdivided by poolwidth)forconductionmode it ideal for automotive-type production, a number of
welding is between0.5 and 1.0. these systems have been installed in the automotive
Conduction mode welding can be obtained either industry.
withcontinuouswavelasersorwithpulsedpower FigureL-5showsalaserweldinanautomotive
lasers and with either lowor high power. Selection of transmission component. This operation involved
parametersandfocusingopticsthatresultinsmall welding a threaded annular boss onto a circular ring.
vapor plumes and the absenceof spatter are necessary Here a 2.5 kW CO2 laser was used to provide a mm
4.8
to insure conduction mode welding. (O. 181in.)
deep weldat 1.5 &min (60 in./min),
employing helium shielding gas.
Keyhole Mode Welding. Keyhole mode welding occurs
when the power density of the beam is about lo6 W/ Metals Welded
cm2 (6.45 X lo6 W/in.2) or greater. The material at the Laser beam welding can be used for joining most
interaction point melts and vaporizes. The vapor recoil metals to themselves as well as dissimilar metals that
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb44b ab8m
BEAM272 LASER WELDING (LBW) Welding Encyclopedia
Figure L-5-Cross Section of a Laser Beam Weld Joining Boss

a to a Ring.A 2.5 kW CO2 Laser Produced
B Travel Speed of 1500 mm/mln (60 inJmin). Penetration was4.8 mm (0.181 in.).
are metallurgically compatible. Low-carbon steels are Copper and brass are often welded to themselves
readily weldable, but when the carbon content exceedsand other materials with specializedjoint designs used
0.25%,martensitictransformation may causebrittle for conduction welding. Aluminum and its weldable
welds and cracking. Pulsed welding helps minimize alloys can be joined for partial penetration assembly
the tendency for cracking. Fully killed or semi-killed welds and are commonly joined by pulsed conduction
steels are preferable, especially for structural applica- welds for hermeticallysealed electronic packages.
tions, because welds in rimmed steel may have voids. Joint designs must retain aluminum in tension.
Steels having high amounts of sulfur and phosphorus Refractory metals such as tungsten are often con-
may be subject to hot cracking during welding. Also, duction welded in electronic assemblies, but require
porosity may occur in free machining steels containing higherpowerthan other materials.Nickel-plated
sulfur, selenium, cadmium, or lead. Kovar is oftenusedinsealingwelds for electronic
Most of the 300 series stainless steels, withthe components, but special care is required to ensure that
exception of free machining s p e s 303 and 303Se and theplatingdoesnotcontainphosphorous,which is
stabilized 'Qpes 321and347,arereadilyweldable. usually found in the electroless nickel plating process
Welds made in some of the 400 series stainless steels commonly used for Kovar parts that are to be resis-
can be brittle and may require post weld annealing. tance welded.
Figure L-6 shows the cross section of a 416 stainless Dissimilar metal joints are commonly encountered
steel cap welded onto a 310 stainless steel body, using in conduction welds where the twistingof conductors
a 750 W C02 laser at 114 c d m i n (45 in./min) weld forms a mechanical support that minimizes bending of
speed.Penetration into thebodycomponentwas potentially brittle joints. Dissimilar metals havingdif-
1.27 mm (0.05 in.).Manyheatresistantnickeland ferent physicalproperties(reflectivity,conductivity
iron based alloys are being welded successfully with and melting points) are often joined in the welding of
laser beams.Titaniumalloysand other refractory conductors. Special techniques such as adding extra
alloys can be welded in this way, but an inert atmo- turns of one material to the joint as opposed to the
sphere is always required to prevent oxidation. other may be required to balance the melting charac-
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L777 m 07842b5 05Lbr147 7 T 4 m
Welding Encyclopedia LEAD 273
Figure L-6-Cross Section of a Laser Beam Weld Joining 416

a Stainless Steel Cap to 310
a Stainless
Steel Body
teristics of the materials. Some of these concepts can

also be applied to structural and assembly welds, but
the possibilities are much more limited.
For detailed information on LASER BEAM WELDING
see AmericanWeldingSociety, WeldingHandbook,
n WELD
V01.2, 8th Ed.Miami, Florida, AmericanWelding

Society, 199 l .
LASING GAS
A gaseous lasing medium. SeeSTANDARD WELDING
TERMS.
LASING MEDIUM
A material that emits coherent radiation by virtue of Figure L-7-Cross-Sectional Sequence Showing
stimulated electronic or molecular transitions to lower Layers of Weld Metal
energy. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
LEAD
LAYER (Chemicalsymbol:Pb).Lead is metallic,bluish-
A stratum of weld metal consisting of one or more white in color,withabrightluster.It is very soft,
weldbeads. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See highly malleable,ductile and a poorconductor of elec-
Figure L-7. tricity.Commerciallypurelead is used for making
pipe and containers for corrosive liquids, and is widely
LAYER LEVEL WOUND used in storage batteries. Lead as an alloying element
A nonstandard termfor LEVEL WOUND. is used mainlyfor manufacturing solders.
Lead has an atomic number 82, an atomic weight
LAYER WOUND 207.20,meltingpoint327C (621"F), and specific
A nonstandard termfor LEVEL WOUND. gravity 11.35 at 20C (68F).
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 II 07842b5 053611118 630 m
274 LEAD
LEAD ANGLE in a weight savingof 30%.It is also used in the instal-

A nonstandard term forTRAVEL ANGLE. lation of nuclear energy sources in power plants and
submarines. Lead may be in the form of cast slabs,
LEAD BURNING sheet lead,or lead-bonded steel.
A nonstandard term when used for the welding of Over 80% ofall lead consumed is used in lead-acid
lead. batteries. A methodtypicallyusedtoweldbattery
The term,lead burning, goes back to the time when grid lugs to internal straps is called cast-on-strap
lead burning was a skilled trade but had nothing in fusion. In the cast-on-strap welding process, the mol-
common with welding processes. tenleadalloy(normallyalead-antimonyalloy), is
poured into a preheated, coated mold. The mold is
LEAD WELDING
designedto produce a casting in the shape of the
Oxyfuel gas welding processes, especially oxyacet- desired strap. The complete cell or group of plates is
ylene and oxyhydrogen, are commonly used for weld- lowered so that the grid lugsare immersed in the strap
ing lead (also called lead burning). Several fuel gases metal. The strap metal solidifies around the grid lugs,
can be used, notably acetylene, propane, natural gas forming a strap to collect current from each lug and
and hydrogen. Although acetylene is the preferred fuel providing a complete metallurgical bond between the
in many countries, hydrogenis preferred in the United lug and strap to give a corrosion-resistant joint with
states because of the precise flame size that can be low electrical resistance.
obtained, allowing good control of the weld-bead size.
Withoxyacetylene, the higherpressureneededto Base Metal
obtain a small flame tip disrupts control of the liquid Two grades of lead primarily used in industry are
lead pool. Oxyhydrogen and oxyacetylene torches can chemical lead (commercially pure lead) and antimo-
be used for welding in all positions. Oxynatural gas nial lead (lead alloyed with antimony). The fact that
and oxypropaneare limited to the flat position because leadhasbothlowtensilestrengthandlow creep
of the greater difficulty in controlling weld pool size strength must always be considered for commercial
and shape. applications; adequate support for lead products must
In all cases,the proportion of oxygen is adjusted to always be considered.
obtain a neutral flame. Excess oxygen will oxidize the Filler Metal and Surface Preparation
leadsurfaceandinhibitwelding.Weldingposition,
flameintensity,andhow the torch is manipulated Filler metalis usually added in the form of a rod of
depend on the type of joint which is to be welded. convenient size. Its composition should be similar to
Usuallythetorch is moved in asemicircularor that of the base metal to be welded. Strips of the base
V-shaped pattern along the joint. The molten lead is metal can be sheared from sheetmaterial, or filler
controlled and directed with the flame to produce a metal can be cast in a suitable mold.
circular or herringbone appearance. Proper surface preparation,as in all joining, is nec-
essary for making sound welds. The joint area should
Applications
be cleaned with a suitable, safe solvent to remove all
The widespread use of lead in the chemical indus- dirt, oil, and greasefrom the surfaces to be joined. The
tries is a direct result of the ease with which lead can surface to bejoined, adjacent surfaces,and filler metal
be welded, as well asits exceptional resistance to cor- should be cleaned of surface oxides by wire brushing
rosion caused by a wide variety of chemicals. Lead or mechanical shaving. When pipe is to be welded, the
welding is used for lining tanks, conveyors, ducts and interior of the pipe should also be prepared.
other equipment used to store or mix chemical solu-
tions and is used extensively in chemical processing Joint Design
plants when acid resistance is a specification. Welded Joint designs commonly used in welding lead sheet
lead sheet is used worldwide as a waterproof mem- or plate are showninFigureL-8.Forverticaland
branetoprotectundergroundparkinggaragesand overhead welding, the lap joint should be used. An
other structures. Lead welding is used extensively in edge flangejoint is used only under special conditions.
the
preparation of lead-shielded components for Lap joints are generallydesignedwith one part
gamma-rayattenuation. A specificuse is inmobile overlapping the other about12 to 50 mm (0.5 to 2 in.),
power reactor equipment such as that used on naval depending on the lead thickness. The thicker the lead
ships, where the useof lead insteadof iron may result sheet or plate, the greater the overlap required.

Welding 275
LAP
3.6 mm (0.14 in.) MAX

1.5 mm (0.06 in.) MIN
V-GROOVE EDGE FLANGE
Figure L--oint Designs for Welding LeadSheet
Forbutt joints insheetthicknesses of 3.2 mm Sheet Welding

(0.125 in.) or less,asquare-groovebutt joint is Flat Position. Butt joints are usually used in welding
required. V-groove designs should be used for sections sheet in the flat position, although aflange joint is pre-
over 4 mm (O. 15 in.) thick. ferred for welding thinsheet. Filler metal is generally
An edge-flange joint, for use with thin sheet,is pre- not added to the first weld pass.
pared by flanging the edge of each sheet to be joined
Verticai Position. Lap joints are used almost exclu-
to a right angle. Theflange width should be 1.5 times
sively when welding in the vertical position. Welding
the sheet thickness.
should be uphill beginning at the bottom of the joint,
A butt joint is usually preferred for the welding of with a backing used to support the initial weld metal.
lead pipe. However, a lap or cup joint may be appro- Butt joints may be used in special cases, but this for type
priate for wall thicknessesof 4 mm (0.15 in.) or under. of joint a mold must be used to contain the weld metal.
The cup design is shown in Figure L-9. A sleeve is
often used on large diameter pipe joints. The sleeve is Overhead Position. This position is the most diffi-
slipped over the joint and welded to both pipes with cult for lead welding and should be avoided whenever
fillet welds. possible.

276 LEADS Welding Encyclopedia
Fordetailedinformationon LEADWELDING see

American Welding Society,Welding Handbook,Vo1.3,
8th Ed., Miami, Florida, American Welding Society
1996. Additional information may be obtained from
ANSI Z49.1, Safety in Weldingand Cutting, The
AmericanWeldingSociety,Miami,Florida, or the
Lead Industries Association,292MadisonAvenue,
New York N.Y. 10017.
LEADS
A nonstandard termfor WELDING LEADS.
LEG OF A FILLET WELD
See FILLETWELDLEG. See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS.
LENGTH OF WELD
See EFFECTIVE LENGTHOF WELD.
LENS
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See FlLTER PLATE.
Figure L-%Cup Joint Design for Welding Lead LEVEL WOUND
Pipe in the Vertical Position Spooled or coiledjller metal that has been wound
in distinct layers so thatadjacentturns touch. See
Horizontal Joints. A lap joint is used for both the STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See RANDOM WOUND.
overhand and underhand techniquesfor welding hori-
zontal joints. LIGHT-GAUGE WELDING
The welding of sheet metalor strip metal, including
Safe Practices cold-formed members5 mm (0.18 in.) or less in thick-
Fumesfrommoltenleadand its compounds are ness. When weldingis for structural purposes, refer to
toxic.Exposuretothesematerialscanbeaserious ANSUAWS D1.3, StructuralWeldingCode-Sheet
healthhazard if precautions are nottaken to keep Steel. Whenwelding sheet metal for non-structural
fumesatasafelevel.Exposure to leadfumescan applications, refer to ANSUAWSD9.1, SheetMetal
occur in avarietyofsituationswherecleaningand Welding.See SHEET METAL WELDING.
welding are performed on lead and lead products. Spe-
cifically, exposure results when workers must handle LIGHTER
and weld lead sheets or pipes, or when lead surfaces A device used to ignite the gases flowing from a
are cleaned with abrasive. welding torch.
Fume concentrations within the breathing zone of The spark lighter, probablythe safest, simplest and
the welding or cutting operator can be controlled by most commonly used lighter, consists of a piece of
either of two ventilation methods. Fumes can be dis- flint and a short steelfile mounted at opposite ends of
persedbydilutingfume-ladenairwithuncontami- a U-shaped piece of spring wire. The spring action
nated air, orcan be capturedbyacollectorhood causes the flint to scratch overthe file, creating aspark
connected to an exhaust system. Dilution ventilation which ignitesthe gas flowing fromthe torch.
canbeprovided either naturally or mechanically. When using a lighter of any type, the torch must be
Local exhaust ventilationis a practical means of con- directed away from the operator, other personnel, and
trolling exposure of welding and cutting operators to flammable material.
fumes produced while working. Under some circum-
stances, approved respirators may be necessary to ade-LIGHTLY COATED ELECTRODE
quately protect operators from unsafe concentrations A filler metal electrode consisting of a metal wire
of lead withinthe breathing zone. with a light coating applied subsequent to the drawing

STDaAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 051b451 125 m
Welding LIQUEFACTION 277
operation, primarily for stabilizing the arc. See STAN- LINEAR POROSITY
DARD WELDINGTERMS. See COVEREDELECTRODE A nonstandard
term
when
used
for ALIGNED
und FILLER METAL. POROSITY.
LIME LINE DROP

A solid, white (when pure), highly infusible caustic, The loss of voltage along the conductors (electrode
a constituent of the chemical calcium oxide (Cao), and workpiece leads)in a circuit, due to the resistance
made by calcining limestone, shells, or other sources of the conductors when current is flowing.
of calcium carbonate. Lime is a byproduct of acety-
lene,generated by droppingcalciumcarbonateinto LIQUID PENETRANT TESTING
water. The chemical reaction is: A non-destructive testing process in which a pene-
trating agent is used to detect weld defects and other
CaC2 + 2H20 + C2H2+ Ca(OH)2 possible flaws in non-magnetic materials. Liquid pene-
See QUICKLIME. trant inspection is accomplished in a three-step method
The temperature of acetylene generation
often for preparation and testing. First, a cleaner is sprayed
causes a quantity of carbide lime to be carried by the on the part to be tested and all dirt and grease removed;
gas.Thislimedustpassesfreelythroughwater;the the penetrant is applied and the excess removed; then
quantity is small and can be easily removed by a chem- the developer is sprayed on. The developer, on drying,
icalpurifier.Itseffectonweldsseemsnegligible, draws the penetrant to the surface and the flaws will
although there have been incidental reports thatnar- the show up in natural light. Many of the dye penetrants
row passages of some regulators or torches are affected. are packaged in spray cans for convenient use.
A variation of the dye penetrant methodof inspec-
LIMIT OF ELASTICITY tion is the fluorescent penetrant method. This system
See ELASTIC LIMIT. requires ultraviolet light (black light) to reveal defects.
If there are defects, they appear in sharp glowingcon-
LIMITED DUTY WELDING MACHINES trast to the surrounding flaw-free surface.
Alternating current arc welding machines rated at The fluorescent penetrant is an oil-base agent with
300 amperes or lower with duty cycles less than 50% suspended fluorescent particles capableof penetrating
are usually referred to as limitedduty
welding every surface defect. It is applied by dipping, spraying
machines.Theseweldingmachineshave a National or brushing on the piece to be inspected. After it has
Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) Class entered anyof the seams, cracks and pinholes, the sur-
II classification. face excess is washed away with a water spray. When
it has dried, a dry powder of water-suspension devel-
LIMITED INPUT WELDING MACHINES oper is applied to create a dry powder film on the sur-
Limited input welding machines are classed as util- face. This draws the penetrant up from the defect. The
ity or farm welding machines. There is a limit on the inspection is done under a black light in a darkened
allowable primary current anda limit on the rated out- booth. See MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION.
put load of the welding machine. Limited input weld-
ing machines are usually classified as 130 ampere for LIQUATION
a 3 kvapower circuit, or 180 amperes for a 5 kva The partial melting of compositional heterogene-
power circuit, and usually havea 20%duty cycle. ities such as banding or inclusion stringers in heated
basemetal or heat-affected zones. See STANDARD
LINEAR DISCONTINUITY WELDING TERMS.
A discontinuity with a lengththatis substantially Liquation is the separationof a low melting constit-
greater than its width. See STANDARD WELDING uent of an alloy from the remaining constituents, usu-
TERMS. ally apparentin alloys having a wide melting range.
LINEAR INDICATION LIQUEFACTION

A test result in whicha discontinuity in the material Reduction of a gas to the liquid state by compres-
being tested is displayed as a linear or aligned array. sion or refrigeration or a combination of the two. See
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. OXYGEN PRODUCTION.

STD-AWS
JWE-ENGL L777 m 07842b5 05Lb452 OLL m
PROCESS278 LIQUID AIR Encyclopedia Welding
LIQUID AIR PROCESS of gases are used. In addition to welding and industrial
A method of separating oxygen, nitrogen, argon and uses, liquid oxygen hasan important role as a fuel for
other gases presentin air. The liquid air process lique- rocketengines in the United States spaceprogram.
fies air by repeated cycles of cooling, compression, Highpurityoxygen is extensivelyused for oxygen
and expansion. therapy in hospitals and medical service organizations.
The processmakesuse of the differences in the See OXYGEN PRODUCTION; LIQUID AIR PROCESS, and
boiling points of the major elements in liquid air to CRYOGENICS.
separatethesecomponents. The boilingpoint for
oxygen is -183C (-297F) and for nitrogen, -196C LIQUIDUS
(-320.4"F). These low temperaturesare reached partly The lowest temperature at which a metalor an alloy
by refrigerationandpartly by theJoule-Thomson is completely liquid. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
effect,wherebyrapidlyexpanding gas is cooled by In a constitutionor equilibrium diagram (phase dia-
expansion. gram), the liquidus is the locus of points representing
See CRYOGENICS and OXYGEN PRODUCTION. the temperatures at which the various chemical com-
positions in the system begin to freeze on cooling or to
LIQUID ARGON finish meltingonheating,underequilibriumcondi-
Argon below its boiling point, -186C (-302.3"F), tions. See METALLURGY.
is in the liquid state. Inthe liquid state,4.0 L (1 .O6 gal-
lons) of argonis equivalent to25 m3 (890 ft3) of gas at LITHARGE
21C (70F) and 101.4 kPa (14.7 psia). Argon is more Lead oxide (PbO); a yellow, crystalline substance
convenient to handle andstore in its liquid state and is that forms on the surface of molten lead.
usedextensivelyinweldingandotherindustries
because it is inert. LOAD VOLTAGE
The voltage at the output terminals of the power
LIQUID NITROGEN supply when currentis flowing.
Nitrogen is liquid at below its boiling point-196C
of
(-320.4"F). In the liquid state, 4.0 L (1.06 gallons) of LOCAL PREHEATING
nitrogen will produce20 m3 (706 ft3)of nitrogen gas at Preheatinga specific portion of a structure. See
21C (70F) and 101.4 kPa (14.7 psia). Liquid nitro- STANDARD WELDINGTERMS.
gen is used extensively for metallurgical purposes. For The preheat temperature of the workpiece must be
example, metal parts such as pins, shafts and similar sufficiently high to prevent cracking on cooling. For
pieces are cooled in liquid nitrogen to effect shrink-fit-groove welding, it is generally accepted that the base
ting of assemblies.See CRYOGENICS. metal of the workpiecesmustbeattheminimum
specified preheatfor a distanceof not less than 75 m
LIQUID OXYGEN (3 in.) in all directions from the pointof welding. See
Oxygen as a gaseous element forms 21% (by vol- PREHEAT.
ume)oftheearth'satmosphere.Oxygen is a liquid
below its boilingpointof -183C (-297F). Liquid LOCAL STRESS-RELIEF HEAT TREATMENT
oxygen is obtained by the liquefaction of air.It is sepa- Stress relief heattreatment of a specific portion of a
rated from the other liquid atmospheric elements by structure. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
fractional distillation. The usualpurpose of apostweldheattreatment
The development of satisfactory containersfor stor- (PWHT) is tostress-relieve the weldand the heat-
age of cryogenic liquids at very low temperatures has affected zone(HAZ).Stress relieving heat treatmentis
enabled air liquefaction products to be transported and also used when necessaryto maintain dimensional sta-
stored on the premises ofthe ultimate user.As a liquid, bility during subsequent machining operations. Con-
4.0 L (1.O6 gallons) of oxygen will produce 25.2 m3 sideration must be given to possible distortion of the
(890 f i 3 ) of gaseousoxygenat 21C (70F) and structureduetolocalized stress relief. See STRESS-
101.4 kPa (14.7 psia). RELIEF HEAT TREATMENTand HEAT TREATMENT.
Liquid oxygen is converted to a gas atthe job site,
providing a sourceof high purity oxygenfor welding, LOCKED-UP STRESS
cutting, and other operations in which large volumes A nonstandard termfor RESIDUAL STRESS.

Licensed by Information Handling Services ~ ~ ~~~~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 0536453 T T 8
Welding TORCH LOW-PRESSURE 279
LONGITUDINAL BEND SPECIMEN weldandheat-affectedzones(HAZ).Diffusion of

See LONGITUDINAL WELD TEST SPECIMEN. See also hydrogen into the heat-affected zone from the weld
STANDARDWELDING TERMS. metal during welding contributes to cracking in the
HAZ.
LONGITUDINAL CRACK
A crack with its major axis orientation approxi- To eliminatethisproblem,alow-hydrogenelec-
mately parallel tothe weld axis.See STANDARDWELD- trode was developedfor shielded metal arc welding.
ING TERMS. See Appendix 9. The mainsourceofhydrogeninwelding is from
moisture,eitherfromthebasemetal, the electrode
LONGITUDINAL SEAM coating, or from the shielding gases used in gas tung-
Usually refers to pipe or tubular products that have stenarcwelding, gas metal arc welding,andflux
a joint parallel to the axis of the product. The base cored arc welding. The elimination of moisture from
metal may be joined by welding or mechanical meth- these sources is necessary to prevent the formation of
ods. See PIPE WELDING and TUBULAR JOINT. underbead or delayed cracking. See LOW-HYDROGEN
ELECTRODES.
LONGITUDINAL SEAM WELDING
Longitudinalseamweldingproducesaresistance LOW-HYDROGEN ELECTRODES
seam weld at the faying surface of overlapped parts
progressively along the lengthof the joint. See Figure Low-hydrogenelectrodes for shieldedmetalarc
H-4. See also RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING. welding were developed to control the contamination
of the weld and weld metal from hydrogen absorption
LONGITUDINAL SEQUENCE during welding. The moisture content of the electrode
The order in which the weld passesof a continuous coveringismaintainedwithinspecification limits,
weld are made with respect to its length. See STAN- usuallylessthan 0.15% moisture.Low-hydrogen
DARD WELDINGTERMS. See BACKSTEPSEQUENCE, (EXX 15 and EXX16) and low-hydrogen, iron powder
BLOCK SEQUENCE, CASCADE SEQUENCE, CONTINUOUS (EXX18, EXX24, and
EXX28) electrodes
were
SEQUENCE, and RANDOM SEQUENCE. designedanddevelopedtocontain the minimum
amount of moisture inthe coverings.
LONGITUDINAL TENSION SPECIMEN
To maintain this low moisture level in the covering,
See LONGITUDINAL WELD TEST SPECIMEN. the filler metal manufacturer furnishes these electrodes
LONGITUDINAL WELD TEST SPECIMEN inhermeticallysealedcontainers.Whenthesealed
A weld test specimen with its major axis parallel to
container is opened, electrodes not used immediately
theweld axis. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See should be stored in a holding oven at 120C (250F).
TRANSVERSEWELD TEST SPECIMEN. Electrodes should not exceed the moisture limits pre-
scribed by theappropriatespecification.Electrodes
LOW ALLOY HIGH STRENGTH STEEL which have been exposed to the atmosphere for time
See STEEL, High Strength Low Alloy. beyondthatpermitted by the specification, or have
been exposed to moisture, should either be discarded
LOW-CARBON STEEL or reconditioned by re-baking. If not specified, infor-
See STEEL, Low-carbon. mationontheappropriatetimeandtemperature for
reconditioning should be requested from the manufac-
LOW HYDROGEN turer. Wet electrodes should be discarded. See FILLER
Hydrogen has a critical effect on the qualityof weld METAL und SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING.
deposits in steels. Under certain conditions, the pres-
ence of hydrogenresultsincracking.Hydrogen- LOW MELTING, Non-Fusion Welding
inducedcracking is alsocalledunderbeadcracking,
cold cracking,or delayed cracking. Cracking generally A term sometimes used for BRAZE WELDING.
occurs at a temperature below 93C (200F) immedi-
ately on coolingor after a period of several hours. The LOW-PRESSURE TORCH
time depends on the type of steel, the magnitude of A type of oxyfuel gas torch used for welding. See
welding stresses, and the hydrogen contentof the steel TORCH and OXYFUEL GAS WELDING.
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 07842b5 05Lb454 934
Welding
Power
CURRENT,
Pulsed
PULSE
280 LOW Encyclopedia
Welding
LOW PULSE CURRENT, Pulsed Power Welding applications requiring prolonged application of heat,
The current during thelow pulse time thatproduces such as weldments in thick sections. Resistance heat-
the low heat level. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. ing is usually accomplished with heating blankets that
See Appendix 19. have nichrome wiresin a pattern throughout the blan-
ket. The high-resistance nichrome wiresare heated by
LOW PULSE TIME, Pulsed Power Welding passing an electric current through them.
The duration of the low current pulse. See STAN- Thermocouples are attached to the base metal and
DARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 19. the weldment to be heated. The thermocouple wires
are connectedto control equipment that will automati-
LOW SPOTS
cally control the time-temperaturecycle to ensure uni-
Weld defects appearing as excessive concavity or form heatingof the weldment and adjacent base metal.
cratering.Thesedefectsarecaused bymoving the
torch or electrode too rapidly or unevenly. Induction Heating. Induction heating is extensively
used at field erection sitesfor heat treatmentof welds,
LOW-TEMPERATURE STRESS RELIEF and is particularly suitable forweldsinpipeswith
The residual stresses induced in weldments during wall thickness above 50 mm (2 in.), or for structural
welding may be relieved by applying heat at tempera- members on which it is possible to wrap the copper
tures much lower than ordinarily used for stress reliev- conductorsaroundtheweldmentandbasemetalto
ing. The most satisfactory
method for
relieving beheated.Relativelylowfrequencies,25, 60, and
stresses in carbon and low alloy steels is to treat the 400 Hz, areusedwith 60 Hz input equipment.On
entire weldment in a furnace at a temperature between thick material, especially heavy-wall pipe, this method
540 to 650C (1000 to 1200F). Where the structure is has the advantage of providing uniform heat through-
too large to make this method practical, stresses due to out the material with a smaller temperature difference
welding have been satisfactorily relieved by applying between the outside and inside surfaces of the base
low-temperatureheatto the weldment, the heat- metalandweldment. The electric field is usually
affected zone, and adjacent base metal. obtained by wrapping copper conductors around the
Incarbonandlow-alloy steels, low-temperature weldment and adjacent base metal to be heated. Spe-
stress relief is accomplished by heating the weldment cial fixtures are available to facilitate the rapid attach-
andadjacentbasemetaltonotmorethan315C ment and removal ofthe induction heating coils.
(600F), although some low-alloy steels should not be Temperature Control
heated above 205C (400F).
Temperature control in heat treating operations is
Heating Methods
especially important and frequently influences equip-
Various heating methods used to accomplish low- ment selection.
temperature stress relief of weldments include (1) oxy- Fortorchheating,temperature-indicatingcrayons
fuel gas torchheatingwithacetylene,propane, or
are widely used. They should be free of sulfur and
butane,
(2)
electric
resistance
heating;
and
(3)
lead. Stress relieving temperaturesup to 370C
induction heating. Each method has advantages and
(700F) may also be monitored with direct reading,
limitations.
magnetically attached surface thermometers.
Torch Heating. For stress relieving, uniform heating In electric resistance heating, surface thermometers
canbeaccomplishedwithsingleburnertorchesto or electrically operated pyrometersare used to control
bring the temperature to 315C (600F). The softer the current flow automatically in the heating units.
flames produced by propane or butane torchesare usu- Forinductionheating,thermocouples are usually
ally preferred over oxyacetylene torches. attached to the surfaces of metals to be heated. The
Resistance Heating. Electric resistance heating is a thermocouple wires are connected to a pyrometer to
widely used methodfor low-temperature stress reliev- control the temperature of the weldment and adjacent
ing,especiallyatfielderectionsites,andalso for base metal during heat treating.

M
MFTEMPERATURE plates for accessholes.Only casualattention is
The martensite finish temperature. Specifically for required in sizing such members.
steel, the temperature at which the transformation of Deslgn Formulas. The design formulas for strength
austenite into martensiteis completed. andrigidityalwayscontaintermsrepresentingthe
load, the stress, and the strain or deformation. If two of
M, TEMPERATURE
the three terms are known, the others can be calcu-
The martensite start temperature.Specifically for lated. All problems of design thus resolve into one of
steel, the temperature at which the transformation of the following:
austenite into martensite begins. (1)Findingtheinternalstressordeformation
caused by an external load on a given member.
MACHINE
A nonstandard term when used for MECHANIZED.
(2) Finding the external load that maybeplaced
on agivenmember for anyallowablestress or
MACHINE OXYGEN CUTTING deformation
See OXYGEN CUTTING und MECHANIZED THERMAL (3) Selecting a member to carry a given load with-
CUTTING. out exceeding the specified stress or deformation.
In designing within allowable limits, the designer
MACHINE WELDING should generally selectthe most efficient material sec-
See MECHANIZED WELDING and AUTOMATIC tion size and section shape. The properties of the mate-
WELDING. rial and those of the section determine the abilityof a
member to carry a given load.
MACHINE DESIGN Sizing of Steel Welds. A weld is sized forits capabil-
The advances that have been made in welding and itytowithstandstaticorcyclicloading.Allowable
thermal cutting processes have provided the meansof stresses for weldsfor various typesof loading are nor-
shaping and joining large sections of iron and steel. mally specified by the construction standards applica-
These processes have replacedcastings in the produc- ble to the job. They are usually based on a percentage
tion of machineframes,machinebases,andother of tensile or yield strengthof the metal toensure that a
structures.Correctlydesignedweldedframesare soundly welded joint can support the applied load for
strongerand
lighter,
butrigidity
has
not
been the expected service life. Allowable stresses or stress
sacrificed. ranges are specified for various types of welds under
Designing for Strength and
Rigidity. Machine static and cyclic loads.The allowable stressranges for
designs must have sufficient strengthso that members welded joints subjected to cyclic loading specified in
will not fail by breaking or yielding when subjectedto current standards are based on testing of representative
normal operating
loads or reasonable overloads. full-size welded joints in actual or mockupstructures.
Strengthdesignsarecommon in roadmachinery, The primary requirement of machine design for a
motor brackets, farm implements, and like structures. machineandsome of its members is rigidity. Such
For weldments in machine tools and other machin- members are often thick sectionsso that the movement
ery,rigidity as well as strength is important,since under load can be controlled within close tolerances.
excessive deflection under load would result in lack of Whereas low-carbon steel has an allowable stress in
precision in the product. A design based on rigidity tension of 138 MPa (20 ksi), a welded machine base or
requires the use of design formulas for sizing mem- frame may have a working stressof only 14 to 28 MPa
bers.Someparts of aweldmentservetheirdesign (2 to 4 ksi). In these cases the weld sizes should be
functionwithoutbeingsubjected to loadingmuch designed for rigidity rather than load conditions.
greater than their own weight (dead load). Some typi- A practical method is to design the weld size to
calparts are dustshields,safetyguards,andcover carry one-third to one-half of the load capacity of the

'STD-AUS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 0536456 707 m
282 MACROETCH Welding Encyclopedia
thinner member being joined. This means if the base one of the most abundant elements;it is eighth in esti-
metal is stressed to one-third to one-halfof the normal mated amount in the earth's crust. It is removed com-
allowable stress, the weld would be strong enough to mercially from sea water in the form of magnesium
carry the load. Most rigid designs are stressed below chloride (a mineral similarto table salt). Pure magne-
these values. sium is obtained from molten magnesium chloride by
WeldingConditions. Designers specifying welding the electrolysis process; the magnesium collects on the
procedures for machinery fabrication should specify cathode.Atomicweight24.32;atomicnumber,12;
the following: melting point 65 1C (1204F); boiling point 1110C
(1) Joint type, groove angle, root opening and root (2030F).
face In the pure state, magnesium does not have suffi-
(2) Electrode type and size to be used cient strength or other properties to make it suitable
(3) Current type, polarity and currentin amperes for structural purposes. However,it alloys readily with
(4)Arc length (arc voltage) aluminum, zinc, silicon, manganese and tin,to form a
( 5 ) Travel speed variety of structuralalloys. The strengthofthese
(6)Welding position i.e., flat, horizontal, vertical, alloys is comparabletoaluminumalloysbutthey
overhead weigh only 65% as much as aluminum. See MAGNE-
(7) Test proceduresfor weld metal andjoints SIUM ALLOYS.
MACROETCH MAGNESIUM ALLOYS

Etching of a metal surface to accentuate the gross Magnesiumalloys are used in awidevarietyof
structural details and defects for observation by the applicationswherelightweight is important.Struc-
unaided eye, or at a magnification not exceeding ten turalapplicationsincludeindustrial,materials-han-
diameters. dling,
commercial, and
aerospace equipment. In
industrialmachinery,such as textileandprinting
MACROGRAPH machines, magnesium alloys are used for parts that
A graphic reproductionof the surfaceof a prepared operate at high speeds and must be lightweight to min-
specimen at a magnification not to exceed ten diame- imize inertial forces.Materials-handlingequipment
ters. When photographed,the reproduction is called a examples are dock boards, grain shovels, and gravity
photomacrograph. conveyors; commercial applicationsincludesuch
MACROSCOPIC items as luggage and ladders. Good strength and rigid-
Visible at magnifications from one to ten diameters. ity at both room and elevated temperatures, combined
with light weight, make magnesium alloys useful for
MACROSTRUCTURE some aerospace applications.
The structure of metals as revealed by examination Alloy Systems
of the etched surfaceof a polished specimen at a mag-
Mostmagnesiumalloys are ternarytypes.They
nification not greater than ten diameters.
may be considered in four groups based on the major
MACROETCH TEST alloyingelement:aluminum,zinc,thorium, or rare
A test in which a specimen is prepared with a fine earths. There are also binary systems employing man-
finish, etched, and examined under low magnification. ganese and zirconium. Magnesium alloys mayalso be
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. grouped according to service temperature. The magne-
sium-aluminum and magnesium-zinc alloy groupsare
MAG suitable only for room-temperature service.Their ten-
Metal Active Gas; a little-used term for gas metal sile and creep properties decrease rapidly when the
arcwelding in whichanactive gas such as carbon service temperatureis above about 150C(300F).
dioxide is used. See GAS METAL ARC WELDING. The magnesium-thorium and magnesium-rare earth
MAGNESIUM alloys are designed for elevated-temperature service.
(Chemical symbol: Mg). A light, white and fairly They have goodtensileand creep propertiesup to
tough metal.It tarnishes slightlyin air, and when fabri- 370C (700F).
cated into ribbon, wire or powder, ignites on heating DesignationMethod. Magnesium alloys are desig-
and bums with a dazzling white flame. Magnesiumis natedbyacombinationletter-numbersystemcom-
Licensed by Information Handling Services ~~~
Welding Encyclopedia MAGNESIUM ALLOYS 283
posed of four parts. Part 1 indicates the two principal

Table M-2
alloying elements by code letters arranged in order of Temper Designationsfor Magnesium Alloys
decreasing percentage. The code letters are listed in
Table M-l. F As fabricated
O Annealed,recrystallized(wroughtproductsonly)
H Strain-hardened
Table M-1 T Thermallytreatedtoproducestabletempersother
Code Lettersfor Magnesium than F, O, or H
Alloy Designation System W Solutionheat-treated(unstabletemper)
Subdivisions of H
Letter Alloying Element
H l , plus one or moredigits Strain-hardened only
A Aluminum H2, plus one or moredigits Strain-hardened and then
E earths Rare partially annealed
H Thorium H3,plus one or more digits Strain-hardened andthen
K Zirconium stabilized
M Manganese Subdivisions of T
Q Silver
Z Zinc Tl Cooled and naturallyaged.
T2 Annealed(castproductsonly)
T3 Solutionheat-treated and thencold-worked
Part 2 indicatesthe percentages of the two principal T4 Solution heat-treated
alloying elementsin the same orderas the code letters. T5 Cooled and artificiallyaged
The percentages are rounded to thenearestwhole T4 Solution heat-treated and artificiallyaged
number. Part 3 is an assigned letter to distinguish dif- T7 Solutionheat-treated and stabilized
T8 Solutionheat-treated,cold-worked, and artificially
ferent alloyswiththe same percentages of the two aged
principal alloying elements. Part 4 indicates the condi- T9 Solution heat treated, artificially aged, and cold-
tion of temper of the product. It consistsof a letter and worked
number similar to those used for aluminum,as shown T10 Cooled, artificially aged, and cold-worked
in Table "2. They are separated from Part 3 by a
hyphen.
ity,toughness,malleability,andweldabilityin all
An example is alloyAZ63A-T6.Theprefix AZ wrought product forms. The alloy is strengthened by
indicates that aluminum and zinc are the two principal workhardening. AZSOA andZK60Aalloyscanbe
alloying elements. The numbers 6 and 3 indicate that artificially aged to develop good strength properties
the alloy contains nominally 6% aluminum and 3% for room temperature applications.
zinc. The following A indicates that this is the first
Weldments made with AZlOA, Ml A, and ZK21A
standardizedalloy ofthiscomposition. The fourth
alloy are not sensitive to stress-corrosion cracking, so
part, T6, states that the product has been solution heat-
postweld stress relieving is not required for weldments
treated and artificially aged.
made of these alloys. They are strengthened by work
Commercial Alloys. Magnesium alloysare produced hardening for room-temperatureservice.HK3 1A,
in the formof castings and wrought products including HM21A,andHM31Aalloysaredesigned for ele-
forgings, sheet, plate, and extrusions. A majority of the vated-temperature service. They are strengthened by a
alloys produced in these forms can be welded. Com- combination of work hardening followed by artificial
mercialmagnesiumalloys are designed for either aging.
room-temperature or elevated-temperature service.
Cast Alloys. The most widely used casting alloys for
Some of themoreimportantmagnesiumalloys for
room-temperature service are AZ91CandAZ92A.
roomtemperatureservicearelistedinTable "3. These alloys are more crack-sensitive than the
Those for elevated temperature service are listed in wrought Mg-Al-Zn alloys with lower aluminum con-
Table "4. tent.Consequently,theyrequirepreheatingpriorto
Wrought Alloys. Welded construction for room-tem- fusion welding.
perature service is frequently designed with AZ31B EZ33Aalloyhasgoodstrengthstability for ele-
alloy. It offers a good combinationof strength, ductil- vated-temperature service and excellent pressure tight-
~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 0536458 58T
OYS 284 MAGNESIUM Welding Encyclopedia
Table M-3
ness.HK31AandHZ32Aalloys are designedto
Commercial Magnesium Alloys for operate at higher temperatures than is EZ33A. QH21A
Room-Temperature Service alloyhas excellent strengthpropertiesup to 260C
(500F). All of these alloys require heat treatment to
ASTM Nominal
Composition, % (Remainder
Mg) develop optimum properties. They have good welding
Designation AI MnZn RE* Zr Th characteristics.
~~~
Sheet and Plate Mechanical Properties.Typical strength properties at
1.0 3.0AZ31B 0.5 - - - room temperature for magnesium alloys are given in
M1A - - 1.5 - - - Table "5. For
castings, the compressive yield
Extruded Shapes and Structural Sections strength is about the sameas the tensile yield strength.
- However, the yield strength
in
compression for
1.2
AZlOA 0.4 0.5 - -
3.0
AZ31B 1.0 0.5 - - - wrought productsis often lower than in tension.
AZ61A 6.5 1.0 0.2 - - - The tensile and creep properties of representative
AZ80A 8.5 0.5 0.2 - - - magnesium alloys at a service temperature of 315C
M1A - - 1.5 - - - (600F) are given in Table "6. The alloys containing
ZK21A - 2.3 - - 0.6 - thorium (HK, HM, and HZ) havegreater resistance to
ZK60A - 5.5 - - 0.6 - creep at 3 15C (600F) than do the Mg-Al-Zn alloys.
Sand, Permanent Mold,or Investment Castings MajorAlloyingElements. Withmostmagnesium
AMlOOA
10.0 - 0.2 - - - alloy systems, the solidification range increases asthe
AZ63A 6.0 0.2 3.0 - - - alloy addition increases. This contributes to a greater
AZ81A0.2 0.7 7.6 - - - tendencyforcrackingduringwelding.At the same
0.7 8.7
AZ91C - - -
- - time, the melting temperature as well as the thermal
AZ92A0.2 2.0 9.0 -
conductivity andelectrical
conductivitydecrease.
K1A - - - - 0.6 -
ZE41A - 4.2 -0.7 1.2 - Consequently, less heat input is required for fusion
ZH62A - 5.7 - - 0.7 1.8 welding asthe alloy content increases.
ZK5 1A - 4.6 - - 0.7 - Aluminum and zinc show decreasing solubility in
ZK61A - 6.0 - - 0.8 - solid magnesium with decreasing temperature. These
*As mischmetal (approximately52% Ce, 26% La, 19%Nd, 3% Pr).
elements will form compounds with magnesium. Con-
sequently, alloys containing sufficient amounts of alu-
minumand
zinc
can be strengthened aby
precipitation-hardening heat treatment. Other alloying
elements also behave similarly in ternary alloy sys-
Table M-4 tems, Beryllium, manganese, silver, thorium and zir-
Commercial Alloysfor conium are majoralloyingelements in magnesium
Elevated-Temperature Service alloys.
ASm Nominal
Composition, % (Remainder Mg) Weldability. The relative weldability of magnesium
Designation Al MnZn RE* AgMn alloys by gas shielded arc and resistance spot welding
Sheet and Plate processes is shown in Table"7. Castings are not nor-
- - mallyresistancewelded. The Mg-Al-Znalloysand
HK31 A 3.0 - 0.7 -
HM21A 2.0 - - - 0.5 - alloys that contain rareearths or thorium as the major
alloyingelementhave the bestweldability.Alloys
Extruded ShaDes and StructuralSections
with zincas the major alloying element are more diffi-
H M 3 1A 3.0 - - - 1.5 - cult to weld. They have a rather wide melting range,
Sand. Permanent Mold. or Investment Castings whichmakesthemsensitivetohotcracking.With
EK4lA - - 4.0 0.6 - - proper joint design and welding conditions,joint effi-
EZ33A - 0.6 2.6
3.2 - - ciencies will range from 60 to loo%,depending onthe
HK3 1A 3.2 - 0.7 - - - alloy and temper.
HZ32A 2.1 3.2 0.7 - - - Most wrought alloys can be readily resistance spot
QH21A 1.1 - 1.2 0.6 - 2.5 welded.Duetoshortweld cycles andheattransfer
*As mischmetal (approximately52% Ce, 26% La, 19%Nd, 3% Pr). characteristics,fusionzones are fine-grained,and

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 H 07842b5 051b459 41b m
Welding 285
Table M-5
Room-Temperature Mechanical Propertiesof Magnesium Alloys
Tensile
Strength
Tensile
Yield
Strength*
Compressive
Yield
Strength*
Elongation
ASTM in 51 mm
MPa
Designation ksi MPa ksi ksi MPa (2 in.) 9%
Sheet and Plate
AZ3 1
37 B-O 255 22 21 152 16 110
AZ3
42 1 B-H24 290 32 1
15 22 26 179
HK3
33 1A-H24 228 30 9 207 22 152
HM2
34 1 A-T8 234 25 10 172 19 131
M1A-O
34 234 19 131 - - 18
1 A-H24
M 39 269 29 200 - - 10
Extruded Shapesand Structural Sections
AZlOA-F
35 1 24 22 152 11 76 10
AZ3 1
38 B-F 262 29 15 200 14 97
AZ6
45 1 A-F 310 33 16 228 19 131
AZ8OA-F
49 338 36 11 248 22 152
AZ80A-T5 303 38 44 262 27 186 8
HM3 1A-T5 303 38 44 8 262 27 186
M1A-F
37 255 26 11 179 12 83
421 A-F
ZK2 290 33 10 228 25 172
ZK60A-F
49 338 27 14 255 28 193
ZK60A-T5
52 358 11 303 36 44 248
Sand, PermanentMold, or Investment Castings
AM1
40 00A-T6 276 22 1 152 22 152
AZ63A-F
29 200 14 97 - - 6
AZ63A-T4
40 276 90 13 - - 12
AZ63A-T6
40 276 19 5 131 19 131
AZ8
40 1 A-T4 276 12 15 83 12 83
AZ9
24 1C-F 165 14 97 - - 2
401C-T4
AZ9 276 12 83 - - 14
AZ91 C-T6 276 21 40 145 21 145 5
AZ92A-F
24 165 14 97 - - 2
AZ92A-T4 276 14 40 97 - - 9
AZ92A-T6
40 276 21 2 145 21 145
251A-T5
EK4 172 13 90 - - 3
EZ33A-T5
23 159 15 103 15 103 3
HK332 1 A-T6
1 22 15 8 103 15 103
HZ32A-T5
27 186 14 4 97 14 97
K1A-F
25 172 7 48 - - 19
40 1 A-T6
QH2 276 30 207 - - 4
ZE4 1A-T5 207 20 30 4 138 20 138
ZH62A-T5 24 1 25 35 172 172 25 4
ZK5
30 1 A-T5 206 24 4 165 24 165
ZK6
45 1 A-T6 310 28 193 28 193 10
*0.2% offset yield strength.

STDOAWS JWE-ENGL L777 m 07842b505Lb4b0 L38
OYS 286 MAGNESIUM Welding Encyclopedia
Table M-6
Elevated-Temperature Propertiesof Some Representative Magnesium
Alloys
148C (300F) 316C (400F) 204C (600F)
e Tensile
Creep
Yield
Tensile
Creep
Yield
Tensile
Creep
Yield
Tensile
Strength
Strength
Strength*
Strength
Strength
Strength*
StrengthStrength
Strength*
~ ~~
Alloy
MPaksi
MPaksi
MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi MPa ksi
MPaksi
MPaksi
MPaksi
Sheet and PlateAllovs
AZ31B-H24 152 22 90 13 6.9 1.0 90 13 55 8 - - 41 6 14 2 - -
HK31A-H24 179 26 165 24 - - 165 24 145 21 41.4 6.0 83 12 48 7 - -
HM21A-T8 159 23 145 21 - - 131 19 124 18 78.6 11.4 103 15 90 34.5
13 5.0
Extrusion Alloys
172 25 103 15 20.7 3.0 .lo3 15 62 9 - - 41 6 14 2 " -
AZ31B-F
241 35 159 23 24.1 3.5 152 22 103 15 - - 62 9 21 3 - -
A780A-T5
HM31A-T5 193 28 172 25 - - 165 24 145 21 75.2 10.9 124 18 103
52.4
14
7.6
172 25 152 22 6.9 1.0 103 15 83 12 - - - -
ZK60A-T5 "
"
Casting Alloys
AZ92A-T6 193 28 117 17 26.2 3.8 117 17 83 12 - - 55 8 34 5 - -
AZ63A-T6 165 24 103 15 28.3 4.1 124 18 83 12 - - 55 8 41 6 - -
EZ33A-T5 152 22 97 14 - - 145 21 83 12 55.2 8.0 83 12 55 8 1.28.3
HK3 1 A-T6 186 27 103 15 - - 165 24 97 14 65.5 9.5 138 20 83 12
20.0
2.9
HZ32A-T5 152 22 83 12 - - 117 17 69 10 53.8 7.8 83 12 55 8 20.73.0
QH21A-T6 228 33 200 29 - - 207 30 186 27 82.7 12 97 14 90 13 - -
*Creep Strength based on 0.2%total extension in 100 h.
heat-affected zones experience only slight degradation Casting repairs should be made with a filler metal
from grain coarsening. of the same composition asthe base metal when good
colormatch,minimumgalvaniceffects, or good
Arc Welding
responsetoheattreatment is required.Forthese
Applicable Processes. The gas tungsten arc and gas unusualservicerequirements, the materialsupplier
metal arc welding processes are commonly used for should be consultedfor additional information. Refer-
joining magnesium alloy components. Inert gas shield- ences: American Welding Society,Welding Handbook,
ing is required with these processes to avoid oxidation 8th Edition, Vol. 1, 1987; Vol, 2, 1991;and Vol. 3,
and entrapment of oxide in the weld metal. Processes 1996; American Welding Society, Miami, Florida.
that use a flux covering do not provide adequate oxi-
dationprotection for themoltenweldpoolandthe SafePractices. The welding fumes from all com-
adjacentbasemetal.Procedures for arcwelding mercialmagnesiumalloys,except those containing
magnesiumaresimilar to those used for welding thorium, are not harmful when the amount of fumes
aluminum. remains below the welding fume limit of 5 mg/m3.
Weldersshouldavoidinhalationoffumesfrom the
FillerMetals. The weldability of most magnesium thorium-containing alloys because of the presence of
alloys is good when the correct filler metal is alpha radiation in the airborne particles. However, the
employed. A filler metal with a lower melting point concentration of thorium in the fumes is sufficiently
and a wider freezing range than the base metal will low so that good ventilation or local exhaust systems
provide good weldability and minimize weld cracking.will provide adequate protection. The radiation con-
The recommended filler metals for variousmagne- cern, however, is primarily responsiblefor the decline
sium alloysare given in Table"8. in use of the thorium-containing alloys. No external

STDOAWS JWE-ENGL L997 0784265 051b461 074 m
Welding ALLOYS MAGNESIUM 287
Table M-7 Table M-8

Relative Weldabilityof Magnesium Alloys Recommended Filler Metalsfor
Arc Welding MagnesiumAlloys
Gas Shielded Arc Resistance Spot
Alloy Recommended Filler Metal*
Wrought Alloys ER ER ER ER Base
Alloy AZ61A AZ92A EZ33A AZlOlA Metal
AZlOA Excellent Excellent
AZ31B, AZ31C Excellent Excellent Wrought Alloys
AZ61A Good Excellent AZlOA X X
AZSOA Good Excellent AZ3 1B X X
HK31A Excellent Excellent AZ61A X X
HM2 1A Excellent Good AZSOA X X
HM3 1A Excellent Good ZK21A X X
MIA Excellent Good HK3 1A X
ZK2 1A Good Excellent HM21A X
ZK60A Poor Excellent HM31A X
Cast Alloys MIA X
AMlOOA Good - Cast Alloys
AZ63A Fair -
kvllOOA X X X
AZ81A Good - AZ63A X X X
AZ91C Good - AZ8 1A X X X
AZ92A Fair -
AZ91C X X X
EK41A Good - AZ92A X X X
EZ33A - EK41A X X
HK31A Good -
EZ33A X X
HZ32A Good -
HK31A X X
KIA Excellent - HZ32A X X
QH21A Good -
K1A X X
ZE41A Good - QH21A X X
ZH62A Poor - ZE41A X X
ZK5 1A Poor - ZH62A X X
ZK61A Poor - ZKSIA X X
ZK61A X X
*Refer to ANSUAWS A5.19, Specification f o r Magnesium Alloy
Welding Electrodes and Rods, for additional information.
radiation hazardis involved in the handlingof the tho-
rium-containing alloys.
The possibility of ignitionwhenweldingmagne-
siumalloysinthicknessesgreaterthan 0.25 mm
(0.01 in.) is extremely remote. Magnesium alloy prod- type dust collector designed for use with magnesium.
uct forms will not ignite inair until they are at fusion Special precautions pertaining to the handling of wet
temperature. Then, sustained burning will occur only magnesium fines must be followed.
if the ignitiontemperatureismaintained.Inertgas The accumulation of magnesiumdustin a water
shielding during welding prevents ignition of the mol- bath also can presenta hazard, Dustof reactive metals
ten weld pool. Magnesium fires may occur with accu- like magnesium or aluminum can combine with the
mulations of grinding dust or machining chips. oxygen in the water molecule, leaving hydrogen gas
Accumulation of grinding dust on clothing should be trapped in a bubbly froth on top of the water. A heat
avoided.Graphite-based(G-1) or proprietarysalt- source may cause this froth to explode.
based powders recommended for extinguishing mag- Adequate ventilation, protective clothing, and eye
nesium fires shouldbeconvenientlylocated in the protectionmustbeusedwhenworkingwiththese
work area. If large amounts of fine particles, or fines, materials to avoid toxic effects, burns,or other injuries
are produced, they shouldbe collected in a waterwash- that they may cause.

STDeAWS
JWE-ENGL 1997 0784265 05Lb4b2 T O O ~ D
288 MAGNESIUM
WELDING
RESISTANCE ~~~~ ~~ ~
Generalsafetyissues are covered in the Welding are shown in Table "9. Refer to American Welding
Handbook, Volume 1, 8thEdition,Chapter16, Society, Welding Handbook,8th Edition, Vol. 3, 1996;
published by the American Welding Society; Miami, American Welding Society, Miami, Florida, for addi-
Florida. tionalinformation on resistancespotweldingof
magnesium.
MAGNESIUM RESISTANCE WELDING
SpotWelding. Magnesiumalloysheetandextru- MAGNET
sionscanbe joined by resistancespotweldingin A bar of steel, tungsten or cobalt steel in which the
thicknesses ranging from about0.5 to 3.3 mm (0.02 to alignment of the atoms and the motion of the atomic
0.13 in.). Alloys recommended for spot welding are electrons within the metal exert attractive forceson iron
MlA, AZ31B,AZ61A,HK31A,HM21A,HM31A, and steel. The ends of theare barcalledpoles. Every bar
and ZK6OA. Spot weldingis used for low-stress appli- magnet has at least two poles, usually one near each
cations where vibrationis low or nonexistent. Magne- end. Poles always exist in pairs. A magnet exerts the
sium alloys are spot welded using procedures similar greatest attractive force at points near the ends.
to thosefor aluminum alloys.
MAGNETIC ARC BLOW
Electrodes. Spot welding electrodes for magnesium
A nonstandard termfor ARC BLOW.
alloys shouldbe made of RWMA Group A, Class1 or
Class 2 alloy. The faces of the electrodes mustbe kept MAGNETIC CONTACTOR
clean and smooth to minimize the contact resistance
A device operatedby an electromagnet which opens
between the electrode and the adjacent part. Cleaning
and closes anelectrical circuit.
should be done with an electrode dressing tool with
the proper face contour covered with a very fine pol- MAGNETIC FIELD
ishing clothof 280-grit abrasive course.
The regionaroundamagnet in whichmagnetic
Copper pickup on the spot weld surfaces increases force exists, and would act on a piece of iron or on
the corrosion susceptibility of magnesium. Therefore, another magnet broughtinto the region. In a compass,
the copper should be completely removed from the the direction in which the north-seeking pole of the
surfaces by a suitable mechanicalcleaningmethod. compass needle points is called the direction of the
The presence of copper on spot welds can be deter- magnetic field at that place.
mined by applying 10% acetic acid solution. A dark
spot will form if copper is present on the surface. MAGNETIC FLUX
JointStrength. npical shearstrengths for spot The total amount of magnetism induced across a
welds in several thicknesses oftwo magnesium alloys surface; the magnetic flux is equal to the number of
Table M-9
Alloys
vpical Shear Strengthsof Single Spot Welds in Wrought Magnesium
Spot ShearStrength
Thickness Average Spot Diameter AZ31B HK3lA HM2lA
in. mm in. mm N lb N lb N lb
0.5 0.020 3.5 O. 14
220 980 - - - -
0.6 0.025 4.1 2701200O. 16 - - - -
4.6 0.8 0.032 1465 330 - -
75 1670 410 1.o 1825 0.0400.20 5.1
445 530 1.3 2355 0.050
0.23 5.8 550 - -
0.063 1.6 720
9 0.080 2.0 - - - -
2.5 o.100 8.6 0.34 5250 1180 - - - -
0.125 3.2 6625 1490 5425 1220

TICLE
MAGNETIC
N Encyclopedia
Welding (MT) 289
magnetic linesof force in a magnetic circuit.See MAG- may be the flux from either a permanent magnet or an
NETIC LINES OF FORCE. electromagnet.
Ferromagnetism is the magnetic property of great-
MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY est interestinthecontext of weldingmetallurgy,
The number of lines of magnetic flux per square because this particular magnetic behavior is frequently
centimeter or per square inch. involved in welding operations.
MAGNETIC FORCE Ferromagnetic Materials. Of all the elements in the
The attractive (or repulsive) force exerted by one periodic table only three, iron, cobalt, and nickel, are
magnet on another or by a magnet on a ferromagnetic ferromagnetic atroomtemperature.However,ferro-
material. The force between two magnets at distances magnetic alloys
can be formulatedusingvarious
muchlargerthanthelengthsof the magnets varies metallic elements which individually are notferro-
inversely with the distance between the magnets. As magnetic. Alnico is an example of an Al-Ni-Co-Cu-Fe
the distance is increased, there is a rapid decrease in alloy used to make permanent magnets, although indi-
the force. vidually some of the elements of the magnet are not
ferromagnetic.Ferromagneticmaterialsaredivided
MAGNETIC INDUCTION into two classifications:magneticallysoftmaterials,
When ironis placed in a solenoid with current flow- and hard or permanent magnet materials.
ingthroughthesolenoid circuit, theironbecomes Magnetically Soft Materials. soft ferromagnetic
magnetized, adding the linesof its own magnetic flux materials are easytomagnetize,butretain little or
to the magneticlinesproducedbythecurrent. The none of the induced magnetism when the magnetizing
total flux per square centimeter is no longer numeri- force is removed. Magnetically soft materials made in
cally equal to the magnetizing force, but to a larger large quantities include high-purity iron, silicon steels,
quantity called themagnetic induction. iron-nickel alloys, iron-cobalt alloys, and femtes.
This quantity is represented by the letter B, where B
Permanent (Hard) Magnet Materials. Hard ferromag-
is the sum of the magnetic lines produced by the cur-
rent and those produced by the iron. neticmaterials are difficulttomagnetize,butthey
retain a significant degree of magnetization when the
MAGNETIC INSPECTION OF WELDS applied magnetic force is removed. Permanent magnet
A nonstandard termfor MAGNETIC PARTICLE materialsincludebothplainhigh-carbonsteelsand
INSPECTION. See MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION. high-carbon alloy steels, magnet alloys that have use-
ful magnetic properties from the combination of spe-
MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCE cific elements but which are virtually free of carbon,
The concept of magneticlines of force was andmetallicoxidesthatpossessuniquemagnetic
invented by Michael Faraday and is useful in under- properties that make them commercially important.
standing magnetic and electrostatic phenomena. It is Martensitic alloys are the best known and oldest of
defined inthe following way: on a sphere with a radiuspermanent magnet materials. The optimum magnetic
of one centimeter surrounding a unit pole, each square properties result from untempered martensite in plain
centimeter will contain asingle line of force. The sur- high-carbon steels (0.8 to 1.0 percent carbon). Perma-
face of a sphereis 4 x; $, thus the total number of lines nent magnet alloy materials include iron-chromium-
of force due to a unit pole is 4 x;. Again, it should be carbon, and cobalt magnetsteel.
understood that these magneticlines are purely imagi- Alnico types are probably the most popular of per-
nary. But the concept is a useful study tool, and many manent magnet steels. There are a number of Alnico
technicians are in the habit of refemng to magnetic alloys, with a typical alloy containing 12A1-28Ni-5Co.
lines asif they actuallyexist in the space around every Some alloys have copper and titanium contents. All
magnet. these alloys are hard,brittle,andunmachinable,so
they must becast or finish-ground to shapc.
MAGNETIC MATERIALS
All substances, whetherin the form of liquid, solid, MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION(MT)
orgas,willrespond in some mannertoanapplied Magnetic particle inspection (MT) is a nondestruc-
magnetic field, although in varying degrees. The mag- tive method used for locating surface or near surface
netic field can be produced by an electric current orit discontinuities in ferromagneticmaterials.Magnetic
S T D - A W S JWE-ENGL w n m 0 ~ 4 z b sOWJWI 883 m
INSPECTION
PARTICLE
290 MAGNETIC (MT) Encyclopedia
Welding
particle inspection is based on the principle that mag-

netic lines of force will be distorted by a change in LINES OF
material continuity; i.e., a discontinuity creating mag- MAGNETIC FORCE
neticfieldleakage. See Figure M-l. Magneticpar-
ticles,scattered on theplate,willberetainedat
the location of magnetic flux leakage. The accumula-
tion of particles will be visible under proper lighting
conditions.
DISRUPTION OF
J MAGNETIC FIELD
AND ACCUMULATION
OF PARTICLES AT
CRACKS
AT 90" CRACKS
PARALLEL
TO LINES OF TO LINES OF FORCE
FORCE W / U SHOW WILL NOTSHOW
Figure M-2"Direct Magnetization Using DC Prods
concentrated at the surface of the weld. The alternating

nature of the current provides continuous reversal of
the magnetic field. This action provides greater parti-
cle mobility, and, in turn,aids the detection of surface
discontinuities.
Figure M-l-Magnetic Particles Attracted to
Discontinuities by Flux Leakage
A weld can be magnetized by passing an electric

current throughthe weld (direct magnetization),or by
placing it in a magneticfield (indirect magnetization).
Direct
Magnetization. The
direct
magnetization
method is illustrated in Figure "2. This method is
normallyusedwithdirectcurrent(dc),half-wave
directcurrent(HWDC) or full-wavedirectcurrent
( W C ) . These typesof current have penetrating abil-
ities that generally enable slightly subsurface disconti-
nuities to be detected. Direct magnetization can also
be used with alternating current (ac), which is limited
to the detectionof surface discontinuities only.
LARTICLE
Indirect Magnetization. Detection of subsurface dis-
continuities depends on several different variables--the MAGNETIC LINES
magnetizing method, the type of current, the direction OF FORCE
anddensity of themagneticflux,and the material
properties of the weldto be inspected. Figure M-%Indirect Magnetization Using a Yoke
When evaluating surface discontinuities only, ac is
preferred with the indirect magnetization method.See When the magnetic field hasbeenestablished
Figure "3. Alternating current has a very low pene- within the weld,magneticparticles(medium) are
trating ability, which allows the magnetic field to be applied tothe inspection surface. Afterthe excess par-

S T D - A W S JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb4b5 7 I T
Welding Encvclopedia MANGANESE 291
ticles are removed, the residual particles trapped in the Magnetizingforce,generated by currentflowing
leakagefield of a discontinuityrevealthelocation, through a coil of wire, is proportional to the current
shape andsize of a detectablediscontinuity.These and the number of turns of wire in the coil. Dividing
indications are usually distinguishable by their appear- the magnetizing force by the areain centimeters of the
ance as sharp, well defined lines of medium against iron or steel core through which the force is acting,
the background of weld surface. yields the magnetizing forcein lines per square centi-
Advantages of MTInspection. Magneticparticle meter. The unit is called theoersted, designated by the
inspection is considerably less expensive than radiog- letter H.
raphy(RT) or ultrasonicinspection (UT). Magnetic MALLEABLE CAST IRON
particle inspection equipmentis relatively low in price A cast iron made by the prolonged annealing of a
compared to equipment required by the RTand UT white cast ironin which either carburization or graphi-
methods of nondestructiveinspection.Lesstraining tization, or both, takes place. This process eliminates
time is generallyrequiredforpersonneltobecome all or almost all cementite from the microstructure. See
competent in performing magnetic particle inspection CAST IRON, Malleable.
and evaluating discontinuities.
Usingthe MT method,theinspectorobtains an MALLEABILITY
instantvisualindicationthatassistsinlocating a A property of some metals that allows them to be
defect. Compared to penetrant inspection(PT), the MT hammered or rolled into thin sheets without rupture.
method has the advantage of revealing discontinuities Malleability is the property that permits the manufac-
that are not open to the surface (i.e., cracks filled with ture of sheets, bars, and forgings, and permits fabrica-
carbon, slag or other contaminants) and therefore not tionbyhammeringandbending.Malleability is the
detectable by penetrant inspection. Magnetic particle direct oppositeof brittleness. Gold is the most mallea-
inspection is generallyfaster,requireslesssurface ble of allmetals.Copperisverymalleableexcept
preparation, andis usually more economical than pen- whennear its melting point. Zinc is malleable only
etrant inspection. between 140 and 160C (284 and 320"F), while iron
Disadvantages of MT Inspection. The MT method is andsteelbecomemuchmoremalleableatelevated
limited to ferromagnetic material. This method cannot temperatures.
be used to inspect nonferromagnetic materials such as Table "10 shows the comparative malleability of
aluminum,magnesiumorausteniticstainlesssteel. various metalsatroomtemperature, in order of
Difficulties may arisewheninspectingweldswhere decreasing malleability (1 is the most malleable and 8
the magnetic characteristics of the weld differ appre- is the least malleable).
ciablyfromthose of the base metal, e.g., austenitic
steelsurfacing on a low-carbonsteelweld.Welded
joints between metals of dissimilar magnetic charac- Table "10
Comparative Malleabilityof Various Metals
teristics may create magnetic particle indications even
thoughtheweldsthemselvesaresound.Mostweld 1. Gold 5. Tin
surfaces are acceptable for magnetic particle inspec- 2. Silver 6. Lead
tion after the removalof slag, spatter, and other extra- 3. Aluminum 7. Zinc
neousmaterial
that maymechanically hold
the 4. Copper 8. Iron
medium. Note: 1 is the most malleable and 8 is the least malleable.
MAGNETICALLY IMPELLED ARC WELDING MALLEABLIZING

An arc welding process in which an arc is created An annealing operation with slow coolingin which
between the butted endsof tubes and propelled around some of thecombinedcarboninwhitecastiron is
theweld joint by a magnetic field, followed byan transformedintographite,and in some cases is
upsetting operation. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. entirely removed from the iron.
See ANNEALING.
MAGNETIZING FORCE MANGANESE
The magnetic lines of force caused by an electric (Chemicalsymbol,Mn). A gray-white,nonmag-
current. netic metallic element resembling iron, but harder and

STD*AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 0536466 656 W
ONZE 292 MANGANESE EncvcloDedia Weldina
verybrittle. It alloysreadilywithiron,copper,and MANGANESE STEEL

nickel, forming important commercial alloys. Manga- Manganese steel, sometimes calledhigh manganese
nese is an essential alloying element used in steel; it steel, andalso Hadfield steel, can be identifiedby
increaseshardness,strength,wearresistance,and using a magnet. Carbon steel is magnetic; manganese
other properties. Manganese minerals are widely dis- steel is not. The addition of manganese to steel accom-
tributed with oxides, the most common of which are plishes three purposes:
silicates and carbonates. Atomic weight, 54.93; atomic (1) It combines with oxygen in the molten steel and
number 25; melting point, 1260 "C (2300 "F); boiling thus assists in its deoxidation.
point, 1900C (3452F). (2) It ties up any sulfur that maybe present to avoid
the formation of iron-sulfide inclusions that cause hot
Metallic manganese is obtained by the reduction of cracking.
manganese oxide with sodium, magnesium or alumi- (3) It promotes greater strength byincreasingthe
num, or byelectrolysis.High-gradeorescontaining hardenability of the steel.
manganeseareminedinIndia,Brazil,Russia,and A bonus effect of manganeseis that the fracture tough-
South Africa. Some ores are found in the United Statesness is usually improved.
but the greater tonnage is imported. For steel making, One of the most important characteristics of manga-
manganese is imported in the form of ferromanganese. nese steel is its work-hardening quality.It is relatively
Ferromanganese is prepared by melting mixed ores of soft and very tough after being cast and then quenched
iron and manganese in either a blast furnace or electric incoldwater,butasitispoundedunderrepeated
furnace. blows in service, it becomes much harder and tougher.
Ferromanganeseisanindispensablealloyingele- Under impact it will flow readily at first, but the flow
mentusedinsteelmaking,principallytodeoxidize sets and hardens under repeated blows.It is this qual-
and desulfurize the steel. Some manganese is used for ity which accounts for the difficulty in machining it
thispurposeinallsteels.Allsteelscontainasmall withcuttingtools.Machiningmanganesesteelcast-
amount of residual manganese. ings is so slow as to be impractical, and in almost all
cases they are ground where necessary.
Manganese is aneffectiveandinexpensiveagent
for cleansingmoltensteelofimpuritiesthatwould Manganese Steel Alloys
decreasethestrengthandductility of thefinished Research on Hadfield's composition of carbon and
product. A manganese content up to about 0.80% is manganese hasshownthatsmalladditionsofother
commonly present in finished steel for the sole pur- alloying elements, such as nickel, molybdenum, and
pose of combining with sulfur and phosphorus to off- vanadium, can improve impact toughness.
set embrittlement and hot shortness. Commercial alloys have a nominal composition of
1.0 to 1.4% carbon, and 10 to 14% manganese. How-
Higher content (10 to 15%) of manganese in steel ever, in steel making practice, the carbon content is
increases the toughness andalso increases the harden- held to the mid-range and the manganese content to
ing capability of the steel. An exception, however, is between 12 to 1396, since a lower range has somewhat
when manganese is present in steel between 3 4%, to it inferior tensile properties and the upper range has no
tends to promote embrittlement of the steel. economic advantage.
Manganese is added magnesium-aluminum
to Castings
alloys to improve corrosion resistance. Austenitic manganese steel castings are widely used
as components of crushing, earthmoving, and material
MANGANESE BRONZE handling equipment. In the railroad industry they are
Manganese bronzes (numbers C84100 to C85800) widely used for such itemsas switch points, crossings,
are actually high-tensile yellow brass that contain 22 and frogs, where impact resistance and resistance to
to 38% zinc with varying amounts of manganese, alu- abrasive wear are primary criteria. Their nonmagnetic
minum, iron, and nickel. Manganese bronze is weld- propertiesmakethemuseful for parts for electro-
able provided the lead contentis low. Gas shielded arc magnets, induction furnaces,
andother
electrical
(gas tungsten arc or gas metal arc) welding methods equipment.
are recommended. Manganese bronzes can be brazed Electrodes for WeldingManganeseSteels. Early
and soldered with special fluxes. electrodes for welding manganese steels were based

Welding MANIPULATORS 293
on the addition of nickel to alloys from which manga- boom, while in others the boom itself may move hori-
nesesteelweldingrodsandelectrodesaremade. zontally on the mast assembly. Most manipulators also
These alloys contained from 3 to 5% nickel, carbon have slow-speed vertical and transverse motion con-
varying from 0.80 to 1.15%, silicon ranging from 0.45 trol capabilities. This allows the operator to adjust the
to2%,and13to14%manganese.Inadditionto position of the welding head to compensate for varia-
coated electrodes, tubular steel electrodes with metal- tions along the weldjoint.
licpowdersinside,consistingofproportionsofthe
various elements required, have been used. However,
most of the electrodes are the coated type, and in some
instances a carbon steel wire core electrode is coated
with the additional manganese and nickel required.
ArcWelding. Directcurrentelectrodepositive
(DCEP) is recommended for welding manganese steel.
Suitable welding current seems to be the minimum at
whichtheelectrodewillproperlyflowandproduce
satisfactory penetration, and the arc should be as short
aspossible.Manufacturersspecificationsanddirec-
tions should be followed for each type of electrode.
WeldingProcedure. Whenbuildingupthesurface
of manganese
a steel
casting,thebuild-uparea
shouldbedividedintosquares,forexample,about
4 cm (1-1/2 in.) square, and the deposit confined to
thissquare.Whilethisdeposit is hot, itshouldbe
peenedvigorously to relieve strains fromlocalized
heat. Another section, at a distance from the first, may
thenbe
weldedusingthe
intermittent sequence
method to keep the temperature of the casting as low
as possible. Itis usually recommended that the bead be
rather wide, and applied with a semi-circular motion.
Safety. The maximumfumeexposureguideline
when welding manganese steels is 0.6 mg/m3. Local
exhaust or a respirator or both should be used to pre-
ventinhalationof fume concentrationabovethe Figure M-4-A Submerged Arc Welding Head
threshold limit value (TLV). Shown Mounted ona Manipulator
See Hadfield Steel. Photo courtesy of Pandjiris, Inc.
MANIFOLD
See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See CYLINDER
MANIFOLD.
It is essential during the welding operation that the
boom or welding head move smoothly at speeds that
MANIPULATORS are compatible with the welding process being used.
Manipulators are powered by electric motorsand The carriage itself must also move smoothly and at
are used to orient the welding head(s) used with auto- constant speedsif the manipulator is designed to move
matic welding machines. Manipulators typically con- along tracks on the shop floor. In selecting and speci-
sist of a vertical mast and horizontal boom that carries fying a welding manipulator, it is important to deter-
theautomaticweldinghead.Alargeweldinghead mine the actual weight to be carried at the end of the
manipulator is shown in Figure M-4. Manipulators are boom. The manipulator must be rigid and the deflec-
powered to move the boomup and down the mast, and tion minimized during the welding operation. Manipu-
in most units the mast swivels on the base. In some lators are more versatile than side beams because they
cases, the welding headmay move by power along the are capableof linear motion in threeaxis.
294 MANUAL, adj. Encyclopedia Welding
The desirablefeaturesthatamanipulatorshould MARAGING STEELS

have are: Maraging steels are a group of iron-nickel alloys
(1) Safety. Under no conditions of load or failure characterized by a combination of high strength and
should the boom crashor slide down the mast. toughness. They are strengthened by precipitation of
(2) The maximumverticaldeflectionshouldbe one or more intermetallic compounds in a matrix of
guaranteed for various rated loadson either endof the essentially
carbon-freemartensite. In addition
to
beam. nickel, these steels generally contain either molybde-
(3) Rigidityshouldguaranteethat the boomwill num, titanium, aluminum, and either cobalt or chro-
follow a straight line weld joint within the full limits mium. The nominal compositions of six commercial
of its length. alloys are shown in Table M- 11.
(4) The manipulator should be absolutely rigid and
steadyinall its actions,with no lostmotionor
wobble. Table M-II
Nominal Compositionsof
Commercial Maraging Steels
MANUAL, ad'.
Pertaining to the control of a process with the torch, Nominal Composition, %
gun, or electrode holder heldand manipulated by Grade"
Ni Co Cr Mo Ti AI Fe
hand. Accessory equipment, such as part motion
Sheet and Plate
devices and manually controlledmaterial feeders
maybeused.See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See ASTM A538
a h ADAPTIVECONTROL,AUTOMATIC,MECHANIZED, GrA(200) 18 8 - 4 0.2 0.1 bal.
G r B (250) 18 8 - 5 0.4 0.1 bal.
ROBOTIC, and SEMIAUTOMATIC. GrC(300) 18 9 - 5 0.7 bal.0.1
18Ni (350) 18 12 - 4 1.3 0.1 bal.
MANUAL BRAZING l8Ni
Cast 17 10 - 5 0.3 0.1 bal.
See STANDARD
WELDING
TERMS. See MANUAL ASTMA59012 - 5 3 0.40.3 bal.
WELDING. "Carbon = 0.03% mm.
MANUAL SOLDERING
See STANDARD
WELDING
TERMS. See MANUAL To achieveoptimumproperties,thecarbonand
WELDING. impurity elements in maraging steels are deliberately
kept very low.
MANUAL THERMAL CUTTING
Properties. Differences
physical
in properties
See STANDARD
WELDING
TERMS. See MANUAL
between maraging and mild steels are not significant,
WELDING.
except for thermal conductivity. Heat lossby conduc-
MANUAL THERMAL SPRAYING
tionduringweldingwouldbelowerinmaraging
steels.Maragingsteelsarenoted for toughnessand
See STANDARD
WELDING
TERMS. See MANUAL high strength. The Charpy V-notch and fracture tough-
WELDING.
ness properties are more than twice those of conven-
tional quenched and tempered high-strength steels. To
MANUAL WELDING
a great extent, toughnessis dependent on the purity of
Weldingwith the torch, gun, or electrode holder thesteel. The maximumservicetemperaturefor
held and manipulated by hand. Accessory equipment, maragingsteels is about 400C (750F). Abovethis
such as part motion devices and manually controlled temperature, long- term strength drops off rapidly due
filler material feeders may be used. Variations of this to overaging.
term are MANUAL BRAZING, MANUAL SOLDERING, MAN-
UAL THERMAL CUITING, and MANUAL THERMAL Welding. Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is the
SPRAYING. See also ADAPTIVE CONTROL WELDING, most widely used process for welding maraging steels,
AUTOMATIC
WELDING,
MECHANIZED
WELDING, but they are readily welded by most arc welding pro-
ROBOTICWELDING, and SEMIAUTOMATICWELDING. cesses. The GTAW processallowsgoodcontrol of
,see STANDARD WELDING TERMS. heatinputandprotection from weldoxidation. Gas

STD.AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 II 0784265 0516469 3b5 D
opedia Welding WELDING SEAM MASH 295
tungsten arc welded joints have better toughness than bility to cracking. These shortcomings can be relieved
those made by gas metal arc welding. bythermaltemperingofthemartensiticmicrostruc-
Procedures. Welding procedures and postweld heat ture. Postweld stress relief of steel welds is the most
treatmentprocedures vary with the
alloy
being effective procedure to obtain highly satisfactory com-
welded, and the steel manufacturer's recommendation binations of strength,hardness, ductilityand tough-
should be followed. Filler metal of the same composi- ness in steel. Welds in steel with a carbon content of
tion as the base metal should be used. In general, the 0.25% or less are not very susceptible to cracking due
following rules apply: to martensitic formation in the weld or heat-affected
(1) No preheat is required. However, if the tempera- zone. Thus, most structural steels can be used in the
ture of the metal falls below 0C (32"F), it is best to as-welded condition without concern for martensitic
preheat the weldjoint area to 2 1 "C (70F). cracking.
(2) Anneal at approximately 815C (1500F). Tempering of Martensite. Martensite,intheas-
(3) Austenite aging (ausage) should be at approxi- quenched condition, is generally unsuitable for engi-
mately 700C (1300F). neering applications because it can be quite brittle. It
(4) Perform cold working, if necessaryor required. requiresatemperingheattreatment to effectively
(5) Refrigerate (if possible) at-73C (-100F). increase its ductility and toughness while only moder-
(6) Marage (martensite age)
at
approximately atelyreducingitsstrength.Temperingconsists of
480C (900F). reheatingthesteel to anappropriatetemperature
(7) Cool in still air. (always below the austenitizing temperature, A,) and
holding at that temperature for a short time. The heat
MARTENSITE treatment allows the carbon to precipitate in the form
Namedinhonorof A. Martens, martensite is the of very small carbide particles. The resulting micro-
hardest microstructure that can be formed in a carbon structure is tempered martensite. The necessary com-
or alloy steel. In a polished and etched steel specimen, promise betweenhardnessandtoughnesscan be
martensiteappearsasanacicularmicroconstituent. obtained by adjustments to the correct tempering tem-
The level of hardness in a fully martensitic microstruc- perature and holding time.The higher the temperature,
ture is commensurate with the carbon content of the the softer and tougher the steel.
steel; almost regardless of the amounts of other alloy-
ing elements present. Consequently, a very low-carbonMASH RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING
steel,eveninthemartensiticcondition,willnot be A nonstandard term forMASH SEAM WELDING.
very hard. It is important to note that with a carbon
content of about 0.60%, the maximum hardness that MASH SEAM WELDING
canbeachievedinsteelisroughly 68 HRC;anda
highercarboncontentwillnotachieveanyreal A resistanceseamwelding process variation that
increase in the maximum obtainable hardness. makes a lap joint primarily by high-temperature plas-
tic working and diffusion as opposed to melting and
A martensitic structure is produced when austenite
solidification. The joint thickness after welding is less
is continuously cooled at a rate faster than that steel's
than the original assembled thickness. See STANDARD
critical cooling rate. With low hardenability, austen-
WELDING TERMS.
itized steel must usually be cooled by quenching, in oil
or water,toproduceamartensiticmicrostructure. Mash seam welding requires high electrode force,
Somealloysteelswithhighhardenabilitywillform continuousweldingcurrent,andaccuratecontrolof
martensite whenthe
austenitized structure is air force, current, welding speed, overlap and joint thick-
cooled. Regions of steel that are austenitized by the ness
to
obtain
consistentweldingcharacteristics.
localized heat of welding have the potential for form- Overlap is maintainedto close tolerances by clamping
ing martensite because cooling rates in welds can be or tack-welding the workpieces.
notably fast, but the final microstructure also depends This seamweldingprocessrequiresconsiderably
on the hardenability of the steel. less overlap than a conventional lap joint. With proper
The higher hardness in the martensitic microstruc- welding procedures, the overlap is about1 to 1.5 times
ture is accompanied by lower ductility and toughness the sheet thickness. Wide, flat-faced wheel electrodes
that, under many circumstances, can increase suscepti- that completely cover the overlap are used.

STD.AWS JWE-ENGL 5777 m 0784265 051b470 087 m
ermal 296 MASK, Encyclopedia Welding
Mashseamweldingproducescontinuousseams impact testing. The results of these tests are used to

that have good appearance and are free of crevices. indicate how the metals and weldments will perform
Crevice-free joints are necessary in many applications in service and how metallurgical variablesare affected
with strict contamination or cleanliness requirements, by the mechanics of these tests.See METALLURGY.
such as joints in food containers or refrigeration liners.
To obtain acceptable welds, the materials to be mash MECHANICAL TESTING
seamweldedmusthavewideplastictemperature Application of engineering test methods to deter-
ranges.Low-carbonsteelandstainlesssteelcan be mine the physical propertiesor mechanical properties,
mash seam welded in certain applications. or both, of base metalor weldments.
The tests usually result in the destruction ofthe test
MASK, Thermal Spraying specimen, but not always, as in the case of hardness
A device for protecting a substratesulface from the testing. See TENSION TEST, BEND TEST, FATIGUE TEST-
effects of blasting or adherence uf a thermal spray ING, IMPACT TEST, HARDNESS TESTING and TUBE
deposit. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. TESTING.
MATRIX MECHANICAL WORKING

A matrix is the principal substance (usually more The plastic deformation of a metal by subjecting the
than 50%) inwhichaconstituentisembedded.For metal to pressure exerted by rolling, pressing, or ham-
example, when a plain carbon steel with 0.20% carbon mering, to change its form or to affect the structure
is cooled very slowly from the molten state to room and mechanical properties.
temperature, platelets or lamellae of ferrite and iron Mechanical working has two objectives: (1) to pro-
carbide are alternately formed. This microstructure is duce a desired shape, and(2) to improve the properties
called pearlite, and it forms a constituentin an alpha- of the metal. These objectivesareaccomplishedby
iron or ferrite base that is called the matrix. The pearl- altering the distribution of microconstituents, refining
ite is said to be embedded in a ferrite matrix. grain size, and introducing strain hardening. Mechani-
MECHANICAL BOND, Thermal Spraying
cal working operations are classified as hot-working
and cold-working operations. Hot workingis the initial
Theadherence of athermalspraydeposit to a stepinthemechanicalworlung of mostmetalsand
roughened sur$ace by the mechanism of particle inter-
alloys.
locking. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
MECHANICALLY OPERATED TORCH
MECHANICALLY MIXED FLUX, Submerged Arc Welding
A type of Jux produced by mixing two or more A torch using an electric motor to provide steady
agglomerated, bonded, or fusedpuxes.See STANDARD feed motion at speeds adjustable to the thickness ofthe
WELDING TERMS.
metal being weldedor cut.
MECHANICAL METALLURGY MECHANICAL PROPERTIES, Metal

Mechanical metallurgy is an areaof knowledge that Characteristics of metal suchas strength, toughness,
dealswiththebehaviorandresponse of metals to and ductility which make metals useful.
applied forces or loads. It covers aspects of physical The properties which govern the design and service
metallurgy, applied mechanics, and plastic forming of behavior of the weldment are the following:
metals, as well as the engineering aspectsof mechani- (1) Modulus of elasticity
calfailure ofmetals.Although it is notaprecisely (2) Elastic limit
defined area, much data concerning weldments can be (3) Yield strength
determined by mechanical testing. (4) Tensile strength
Basic data concerning the strength of metals, and (5) Fatigue strength
measurements for routine control of mechanical prop-
erties are obtained from a relatively small number of (6) Ductility
standardized mechanical tests. Common testing tech- (7) Fracture toughness
niques associated with the mechanical testing of welds (8) Low temperature properties
are tension, torsion, fatigue, hardness, bend, creep, and (9) Elevated temperature properties

~ ~~ ~~ ~~~ ~
~
~~ ~~
0784265 051b471 T 1 3 m
STD=AWS JWE-ENGL L997 'I
Welding 297
MECHANIZED, adj. MECHANIZED WELDING

Pertaining to the control of a process with equip- Welding with equipment that requires manual
ment that requires manual adjustment of the equip- adjustment of the equipment controls in response to
ment controls in response to visual observation of the visual observation of the welding, with the torch, gun,
operation, with the torch, gun, wireguideassembly, or electrode holder held by a mechanical device. Vari-
or electrode holder held by a mechanical device. ations Of this term are MECHANIZED BRAZING, MECHA-
See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See also ADAPTIVE NIZED SOLDERING, MECHANIZED
THERMAL
CUl'TING,
CONTROL, AUTOMATIC, MANUAL, ROBOTIC, and SEMI- and MECHANIZEDTHERMALSPRAYING. See STANDARD
AUTOMATIC. WELDINGTERMS. See ADAPTIVECONTROLWELDING,
AUTOMATICWELDING,MANUALWELDING,ROBOTIC
MECHANIZED BRAZING WELDING, and SEMIAUTOMATIC WELDING.
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See MECHANIZED
WELDING. MEDIUM VACUUM ELECTRON BEAM WELDING
(EBW-MV)
MECHANIZED OFC EQUIPMENT An electron beam welding process variation in
Mechanized oxyfuel gas cutting (OFC) equipment which welding is accomplished at a pressure of 1O" to
is similar to manual equipmentin principle, but differs 3 x Id pascals (approximately IO" to 25 torr). See
in designto accommodate higher fuel pressures, faster STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See ELECTRONBEAM
cutting speeds, and meansfor starting the torch. Many WELDING.
variations of mechanized cutting systemsare available
commercially. Some machinesare designed for special MELTBACK TIME
purposes,such as makingverticalcuts,preparing The time interval at the end of craterfill time to arc
edges for welding, and pipe cutting and beveling. outageduring which electrode feed is stopped.See
Mechanized OFC equipment varies in complexity STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See Appendix 19.
from simplehand-guidedmachinestosophisticated
numerically-controlled units. Dependingon the appli- MELTING POINT
cation, mechanized OFC equipment will require addi- The temperature at which a pure metal, compound,
tional facilities: oreutecticchangesfromasolid to aliquid; the
(1) A machine to move one or more torches in the temperatureatwhichthesolidandliquid are in
required cutting pattern equilibrium. See Table M-12.
(2) Torch mounting and adjusting arrangements on
the machine Table M-12
(3) A cutting table to support
the work Melting Pointsor Ranges of Metals andAlloys
(4)Means for loadingandunloading the cutting Melting Point, or Melting Range
table
(5) Automatic preheat ignition devicesfor multiple Material "C "F
torch machines.
Aluminum 1220 660
MECHANIZED SOLDERING. Copper 1 198 1083
Iron 2798 1535
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See MECHANIZED Magnesium 1202 650
WELDING. Nickel 2647 1453
Silver 1761 1 96
MECHANIZED THERMAL CUTTING Titanium 3035 1668
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See MECHANIZED Tungsten 6170 3410
WELDING. Zirconium 3366 1852
Steel, 0.2% Carbon 1490-1520 2720-2770
MECHANIZED THERMAL SPRAYING Steel, 0.8% Carbon 1380-1490 2520-2710
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See MECHANIZED Stainless Steel, 18-8 1400-1450 2550-2650
WELDING. Cast iron, 3.5% Carbon 1130-1200 2065-2200

~ ~~ ~
~~~~ ~ ~~
298 MELTINGRANGE Welding Encyclopedia
MELTING RANGE MESSERSCHMITT PROCESS

The temperature range between solidus and liqui- A method of producing hydrogen developed from
dus. SeeSTANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Table M-12. the principle thatif steam is passed over a red-hot iron,
the steam is decomposed into hydrogen and oxygen.
MELTING RANGE, ALLOYS The oxygen in the steam unites with the iron forming
See MELTING RANGE. iron oxide and the free hydrogen is accumulated.
Pure metals that are elements have a definite melt- METAL
ing point, i.e, solid and liquid are in equilibrium at a An opaque, lustrous elemental chemical substance
specific temperature. Alloys, because they are a mix- that is a good conductor of heat and electricity, usu-
ture of two or more metals, melt or solidify within a ally malleable, ductile, and more dense than other ele-
range of temperatures and not at a single temperature. mental substances. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
For example, with an alloy, a liquidusis found, (liqui- Definedchemically,metalisanelementwhose
dus is the temperature at which various compositions hydroxide is alkaline.
of the alloy system begin to freeze on cooling, or com-
plete their melting on heating), and a solidus is found METAL ARC CUTTING
(solidus is the temperature at which freezing is com- See ARCCUTTING(AC). See also AIRCARBONARC
pleteoncooling, or atwhichmeltingbeginsinthe CUTTING,GASMETALARCCUTTING,GASTUNGSTEN
solid alloy on heating). Noting the range of tempera- ARCCUTTING,PLASMAARCCUT'MNG, and SHIELDED
ture between liquidus and solidus can yield important METAL ARC CUTTING.
information about an alloy because it can be indicative
of susceptibility of the particular alloy to cracking dur-METAL ARC WELDING
ing solidification. A large difference between liquidus See ARC WELDING (AW). See also FLUX CORED ARC
and solidus favors conditions that promote hot crack- WELDING, GAS METAL ARC WELDING, GAS TUNGSTEN
ing.Reference:Linnert,George E. WeldingMetal- ARCWELDING,SHIELDEDMETALARCWELDING, und
lurgy,Volume l , 4thEdition.AmericanWelding ARC STUD WELDING.
Society, Miami, Florida. 1994.
METAL, BASE
MELTING RATE The metal or alloy that is welded, brazed, or cut.
The weight or length of electrode, wire,rod, or See BASE MATERIALand SUBSTRATE.
powder melted in a unit of time. See STANDARD WELD-
ING TERMS. METAL-BATH DIP BRAZING
A dip brazing process variation. See STANDARD
MELT-THROUGH WELDING TERMS.
In this process, the molten metal bath provides heat
Visiblerootreinforcementproducedin ajoint
for brazing and the filler metal.
See also DIP BRAZING.
welded from oneside.See STANDARD
WELDING
TERMS. See Figure C-9. METAL CORED ELECTRODE
A composite tubular filler metal electrode consist-
MERCURY
ing of a metal sheath and a core of various powdered
(Chemical symbol; Hg). Mercury is a heavy silver- materials, producing no more than slag islands on the
white, shiny, toxic metallic element, the only common face of a weld bead. External shieldingmaybe
metal that is liquid at room temperature. It is a fair required. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
conductor of heat and electricity. Mercury occurs free
in nature, but the chief source is the sulfide (cinnabar, METAL, DEPOSITED
HgS), from which it maybe obtained by heating in air. Fillermetalthat has beenaddedduringwelding,
Mercury is usedextensivelyinelectricalapparatus, brazing or soldering.
and because of its linear coeficient of thermal expan-
sion, it is used in laboratory thermometers, barome- METAL ELECTRODE
ters,andmanyotherinstruments.Atomicweight A filler or nonfiller metalelectrodeused in arc
200.61; atomic number 80; melting point -38.87 "C welding and cutting that consists of a metal wire or
(-39 "F); boiling point 356.9"C(673F). rod that has been manufactured by any method and

~~~
~~
Welding Encyclopedia IDENTIFICATION METAL 299
that is either bare or covered. See STANDARD WELD- Magnetic Test. Magnetic properties are determined
ING TERMS. using a bar magnet. All structural and carbon steels are
magnetic, as are most tool steels.
METAL, FILLER
Stainless Steels
Themetal or alloyintheformofweldingelec-
trodes, welding rods or welding wire added in making Some quick tests can be used to separate stainless
a welded, brazed,or soldered joint. steels from other metals andalso to identify the grade
of stainless steel.
METAL IDENTIFICATION Copper Sulfate Spot Test. This is one of the simplest
It is essentialtoidentify the basemetaltobe teststodifferentiatebetweencarbon steels andall
welded, brazed, or soldered. If metals have become types of stainless steel. A solution of 5 to 10%copper-
mixed duringstorage and identifying marks have been sulfate (blue vitriol) in water is used. Before perform-
lost, it is necessary that some means be taken to sort ing the spot test the areas to be tested should be thor-
out the mixed metals and identify each item. Obvi- oughly cleaned and roughened with a mild abrasive. A
ously, the best and most reliable methodis to perform drop of the test solutionis then released onthe cleaned
aspectrographic or quantitativechemicalanalysis. and prepared area. Carbon steel or iron will become
This is notalwayspossible or practical.There are coated with metallic copper in a few seconds; stainless
some relatively quick andfairly reliable tests to iden- steel will showno deposit or copper color.
tify metalsin a shop or construction environment.
Magnet Test.This test is used to distinguish between
Carbon and Structural Steels austenitic stainless steel (300 series) andferritic stain-
Carbon and structural steels may be satisfactorily less steels (400 series). Annealed austenitic stainless
identified by one or more of the following tests: steel types are nonmagnetic; if heavily cold-worked,
they exhibit a slight attraction to a magnet. Ferritic
Spark Test. The most common test to sort grades of
structural carbon steel and toolsteels is the spark test. stainless steels are alwaysstronglyattracted to a
The piece to be identifiedis touched against a grinding magnet.
wheel; this results in a definite pattern of sparks. These Nitric Acid Spot Test. Stainless steels are noted for
sparks can then be comparedto steels of known com- theirresistancetonitricacidattack. This property
position either by (1) using a comparison chart show- makes it easy to separate them from other metals and
ing sparks from known steel compositions or (2) by alloys.Onlyhigh-carbonstainlesssteelalloys(420
sparking a steel specimen of known composition and and 440) may show signs of a slight attack by nitric
comparing it with the unknown steel. Many shops that acid.Carbonandstructural steels arevigorously
use a variety of steels will keep sample specimens of attacked bydilute nitric acid.
steels ofknowncomposition to
compare
with
unknownspecimens.Atechnicianexperiencedwith Spark Test. This test has somewhat limited value for
this technique can make rapid identification of steel separatingstainlesssteels,althoughanexperienced
specimens. technician can classify stainlesssteels into four groups
but usually cannot identify individual classifications.
Chip Test. In this relatively simple testthe metal to The four groups with their characteristic spark appear-
be identified is chipped with a cold chisel. Identifica- ance follow:
tion is made by comparing the size of chips, color of
metal,hardness,andsurfacecondition of chipped Group I : Types 302, 303, 304, and 316 produce a
metal with a known metal. Additional tests such as short reddish spark with few forks.
magnetic tests, hardness tests, or specific gravity may Group 2: Qpes 308,309,310, and 446 produce few
be necessary. short red sparks with few forks.
Hardness Test. The hardness can be approximated Group 3: Types 410, 414, 416, 430, and 431 pro-
with a file test. It is done by comparing the resistance duce long white streams with few forks.
of the metal to the cutting action of the file. Again, an Group 4: Types 420,42OF, and 440 A, B, C, and F
experiencedwelder,machinist, or technician can produce long white to reddish sparks with pronounced
approximate the Rockwellor Brinell hardness number. bursts.
~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1777 m 0784265051b474722 m
TINGPOWDER
300 METAL Encyclopedia
Welding
METAL POWDER CUTTING (POC) SPRAY TRANSFER, ROTATIONAL SPRAY TRANSFER,and

An oxygen cutting process that uses heat from an SHORT CIRCUITING TRANSFER.
oqfuel gas flame,with iron or other metal powder to
aid cutting. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. METAL, White
The metal powder cutting process is a techniquefor A group of white-colored metals with relatively low
supplying an oxyfuel cutting torch with a stream of melting points (antimony, bismuth, tin, lead, cadmium,
iron-rich powered material. Iron powder and mixtures and zinc) and alloys based on these metals. Most of
of metallic powders, such as iron and aluminum, are these metals and their alloys are difficult to weld.
used. The powdered material promotes and accelerates
the oxidation reaction and also the melting and spal- METALLIC BOND
lingactionofhard-to-cutmaterials. The powder is The principal bond that holds metals togethel: It is
directed into the kerf through either the cutting tip or a primary bond arising from the increasedspatial
single or multiple jets external to the tip. When the extension of the valence electron wavefunctions when
firstmethodisused,gas-conveyedpowder is intro- an aggregate of metal atoms is brought close togethel:
duced into the kerf by special orifices in the cutting See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See also BONDING
tip. When the powder is introduced externally, the gas FORCE, COVALENT BOND, IONIC BOND, and MECHANI-
conveyingthepowderimpartssufficientvelocityto CAL BOND.
the powder particlesto carry them through the preheat
envelope into the cutting oxygen stream. Their short METALLIZING
time in the preheat envelope is sufficient to produce Anonstandardtermwhenusedfor THERMAL
the desired reaction in the cutting zone. SPRAYING, or the applicationof a metal coating.
Someofthepowdersreactchemicallywiththe
refractoryoxidesproducedinthekerfandincrease METALLOGRAPHY
their fluidity. The resultant molten slags are washed The term metallography originallycoveredthe
out of the reaction zone by the oxygen jet. Fresh metal microscopic study of metals under substantial magni-
surfaces are continuously exposed to the oxygen jet fication and the recording of microstructural details by
and powder. photography. Initially all the work was done with an
Cutting of oxidation-resistant steels by the powder ordinaryvisible-lightmicroscope,andphotographs
cutting method can be done at approximately the same made of the details observed at various magnifications
speeds as oxygen cutting of carbon steel of equivalent werecalledphotomicrographs.Inabout 1960, the
thickness. The cutting oxygen flow must be slightly electron microscope was put to use in examination of
higher with the powder process. metallic structures. In recent years, variations of the
Powder is dispensed from a hopper by a controlla- electron microscope have developed, such
as the trans-
ble vibratory device, and delivered through a hose to mission electron microscope (TEM), and the scanning
the torch. The other type of dispenser is a pneumatic electronmicroscope (SEM), scanningtransmission
device coordinated with a fluidizing unit.The powder electronmicroscopy(STEM),andionmicroscopy.
is picked up by a gas stream that serves as the trans- Associated with these advances in microscopy were
porting medium to the torch. A special manual powder developments in chemical analysis of microstructural
cutting torch mixes the oxygen and fuel gas and then constituents, using anelectron-probemicroanalyzer,
discharges this mixture through a cutting tip with mul- ion-probe microanalyzer, andAugerelectronspec-
tiple orifices. The powder valve is an integral part of troscopy among otherlate
20thcenturyanalytical
the torch. developments.
The following information is confined to the practi-
METAL SPRAYING cal knowledge of the structure of metals as obtained
See THERMAL SPRAYING. usingtheopticalmetallograph. The opticalmetallo-
graph is a special microscope with an inverted stage
METAL TRANSFER MODE, Arc Welding that allows a flat specimen to be placed face-down on
The manner in which molten metal travels from the it so that portions of interest on the specimen can be
end of a consumable electrode across the welding arc scanned. The metallographusuallyhas an integral
to the workpiece. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.See camera(oftenaPolaroidcamera),andcanhavea
ah0 GLOBULAR TRANSFER, PULSED SPRAY TRANSFER, number of
features for changingspecimen illu-

STD.AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 07842b5 051b475 b b 9 m
Welding METALLOGRAPHY 301
mination and for measuring details observed on the and heavy reductions produce very elongated grains,
specimen. but grain boundaries persist despite severe grain defor-
Specimen Preparation. Metallographic examination mation. When the temperatureis raised, the grainsdis-
requires a smallmetalspecimen,usuallynotover torted by cold-workingrecrystallizetoundistorted
25 mm (1 in.) diameter or square, that is cut to provide equiaxedgrains. The temperature at which the dis-
a flat surface. The flat surface is ground and polished torted grains are replaced by equiaxed grains is called
by a specific procedure until it is as scratch-free as the recrystallization temperature. Metal that is heated
possible. A complete procedurefor preparing metallo- above the recrystallization temperature and held for
graphicspecimens is found in ASTMStandardE3, long periods of time willexperience the growth of
Standard Methods for Preparation of Metallographic abnormally large grains. The temperature atwhich
Specimens. A polished specimen surface, when exam- grain growth becomes significant depends a great deal
ined with the metallograph at a magnification in the on the metal and alloy.
range of 100 to 500X,is unifonnly reflective and fea- Where the weld is made in a single pass, the grain
tureless unless thereare cracks, porosity, or nonmetal- size andgraingrowthintheweldzone are largely
lic inclusionsin the metal. dependent on the travel speed of the pass. Welds made
It is necessary to etch the polished surface of the atslowtravelspeedtendtoberelativelycoarse-
metallographic specimen to reveal the microstructure. grained while welds made atfast travel speeds tend to
Etching can be accomplished in a number of different be relatively fine-grained. Welds of the latter type tend
ways, dependingon the metal or alloy, and conditions to have solidified last at the centerline and are suscep-
such as whether the metal is cast, wrought, or weld tible to centerline hot cracking. Welds made at moder-
metal.Many ferrous specimens can be etched by ate travel speed are more typical of commercial
merely dipping or swabbing for a few seconds in a practice and a fine grain structure is developed in the
solution of 1 to 5% nitric acid in alcohol (commonly weld zone.
called 2%nital). Metals and alloys that are resistant to In the case of multiple pass welds, the first pass is
acid attack, such as nickel or stainless steel, can be reheated during the making of the second weld passso
electrolyticallyetched.Detailsforetchingvarious that the first weld pass is tempered andthe grain struc-
metals and alloys can be found in ASTME407,Stun- ture is refined. Each successive passtempers and
dard Methods for Microetching Metals and Alloys. refines grain of the previous passes. This produces a
Specimens containing a weld often present a chal- weld microstructure that is desirable since a substan-
lenge to the metallographer because of the marked dif- tial portion of the weld has been grain-refined and
ference in etching rates betweenthe base metal, heat- tempered by subsequent weld passes. These multipass
affected zone, and weld metal, especially when work- weldsusuallyhaveexcellentmechanicalproperties
ing with weldedjoints of dissimilar metals. and are usually much tougher than a single pass weld.
Graln Size. The first feature noted by the metallog-
For a specific typeof steel and strength level, fine-
rapher duringthe examination of the microstructure of grained steelshavesuperiormechanicalproperties
a polished and etched metalis its grain size. The size compared to the coarse-grainedsteels,especially
of the grains exerts a profound effect onthe properties strength, ductility, and notch toughness. For elevated
of ametal,especiallyitsmechanicalproperties.In temperature service, coarse-grain steels have superior
most metals and alloys, both grain growth or grain size performance since fine-grain steels' will exhibit lower
strength.Obviously,grainsize is a feature of the
reduction can be accomplished by either mechanical
working or heat treatment or both. microstructure that deserves closescrutinyin the
examination of metal structures.
Standardizedmethods ofmeasuringgrainsizeto
permit evaluation of metal properties, specifications, Austenltlc Grain Structure. The austenitic grain size
and control have evolved, andare described in ASTM of a steel depends on the austenitizing temperature.
E112, StandardMethods for DeterminingAverage Grain refinement occurs when a steel that will trans-
Grain Size. form is heated to a temperature slightly above its A3
Because weldments may benefit or may suffer from temperature andis then cooledto room temperature. A
grain growth in cold-worked metal, the mechanics of fine grain size is desirable for improved toughness and
recrystallizationmustbeconsidered.Duringcold- ductility. Steel forgingsandcastingsfrequentlyare
working the grains in a metal are severely deformed normalized specifically to produce grain refinement.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 W 0784265 05Lb47b 5 T 5 M
BOND 302 METALLURGICAL Encyclopedia Welding
At higher austenitizing temperatures (over 1000C molds are used to retard the solidification of castings.
[ 1800"F]), steels usually develop a coarse austenitic The strikingdifferencebetweenweldingandother
grain structure. Coarse-grained steels usually are infe- metal-producing operations is the contrast in the mass
riortofine-grainedsteelsinstrength,ductility,and of metal involved and the effect of mass on physical
toughness. and metallurgical changes. Welding involves compara-
Microstructure of Metals. Muchofthepractical tivelysmallmassesthatareheatedveryrapidly by
knowledge of
the
structure
of
metalshas
been intense heat sources and that cool rapidly because of
obtained using the optical metallograph. This knowl- intimatecontactwithalargersurroundingmassof
edgewasobtainedbyexaminationofpolishedand colder base metal. Consequently, it can be expected
etched metallurgical specimens at magnifications from that weld zones are prone to display unusual structures
50 to 1500X.Steelandotherironalloyshavebeen and properties.
more extensively studied than other metals and alloys Welding involves many metallurgical phenomena,
because of their wide commercial usage. This knowl- such as melting, freezing, solid state transformations,
edge has been applied to the weldments of iron and thermal strains and shrinkage stresses that can cause
steel to insure that the metallurgical structures in the many practical problems.Theseproblemscanbe
weldmentsaresuitablefortheserviceconditions avoided or solved by applying appropriate metallurgi-
expected of the structure. Microstructures in steel weld cal principles to the welding process.
metal are markedly different from those of either cast An understanding of welding metallurgy requires a
or wrought base metals. The microstructure of weld broad knowledge of general metallurgy. For this rea-
metal is controlledprincipallybycompositionand son, general metallurgy is addressed first, followed by
cooling rate. specificaspectsofweldingmetallurgy.Thebrief
description of general metallurgy is only an outline of
METALLURGICAL BOND topics necessary to provide a basis for welding metal-
A nonstandard term forMETALLIC BOND. lurgy. For a more complete treatment of metallurgy the
reader should refer to the specific references at the end
METALLURGY of this article.
Metallurgy is defined as the science and technology
General Metallurgy
of metals, and consists of two broad divisions:
(1) Process metallurgy, which involves the reduc- Structure of Metals. Solid metals have a crystalline
tion of ores, refining of metals, alloying, casting, and structureinwhichtheatomsofeachcrystalare
theworkmgandshapingofmetalintosemifinished arranged in a specific geometric pattern. This orderly
and finished products arrangement of the atoms, called a lattice, is responsi-
(2) Physical metallurgy, which includes heat treat- ble for many of thepropertiesofmetals.Themost
ment,mechanicaltesting,metallographyandother common lattice structures found in metals are listed in
subjects dealing with the application, design, testing, Table M-1 3. Their atomic arrangements are illustrated
and inspection of metal products. in Figure M-5.
Bothprocessmetallurgyandphysicalmetallurgy Each grain in a pure metal at any particular temper-
are involved in welding. Welding can be compared to ature has the same crystalline structure and the same
a series of metallurgical operations involved in metal atomicspacingasalloftheothergrains.However,
production,likesteelmaking,butwelding is per- each grain grows independently of every other grain,
formed on a small scale with the pertinent steps car- and the orientation of the grain lattice differs from one
riedoutinrapidsuccession.Duringmostwelding grain to another. The periodic and orderly arrangement
processes, a volume of molten metal (weld pool) is of the atoms is disrupted where the grains meet, and
formed (cast) within the confines of solid base metal thegrainboundaries form continuous
a network
(mold). Weld metal initiates solidification in a unique throughout the metal. Because of this grain boundary
manner,unlikemoltenmetalcastinaconventional disorder, differences in the behavior of the metal often
mold.Weldmetal is susceptibletoblowholesand occur at those locations.
internal porosity caused by the evolution of gases, as Up to this point, only pure metals have been consid-
experienced in ingot making and castings. ered. However, most common engineering metals con-
The base metal of a weld can be preheated to retard tainresidualorintentionallyaddedmetallicand
the cooling rate and solidification, just as preheated nonmetallicelementsdissolvedinthematrix.These

Licensed by Information Handling Services ~~~ ~~~
S T D e A W S JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 051b477 431 W
Welding Encyclopedia METALLURGY 303
Table "13 ingredients, called alloying elements, affect the prop-

Crystal Structuresof Common Metals erties of thebasemetal.Theatomicarrangement
(crystal structure), the chemical composition, and the
A. Face-Centered Cubic [Figure M-5(A)] thermal and mechanical history have an influence on
Aluminum Ironb the propertiesof an alloy.
Cobalt" Lead Alloying elements, calledsolutes, are located in the
Copper Nickel parent metal matrix in one of two ways. The solute
Gold Silver
atoms may occupy lattice sites replacing some of the
B. Body-Centered Cubic [Figure M-5(B)] parent metal atoms, calledsolvent. Alternatively, if the
Chromium Titanium" solute atoms are small enough, they may fit into the
Ironb Tungsten spaces between the solvent atoms.
Molybdenum Vanadium
Columbium ZirconiumC Substitutional Alloying. If the solute atoms are simi-
C. Hexagonal Close-Packed [Figure M-5(C)] lar in size and chemical behavior to the solvent atoms,
Cobalt" TitaniumC they may occupy sites at the lattice locations as shown
Magnesium Zinc in Figure M-6 (A). This type solid solution is called
Tin ZirconiumC substitutional. Examples of substitutional solid solu-
a. Cobalt is face-centered cubic at high temperature and trans- tions are gold dissolved in silver, or copper dissolved
forms to hexagonal close packed at lower temperatures. in nickel.
b. Iron is body-centered cubic near the melting temperature and InterstitialAlloying. Whenthealloyingatomsare
againatlowtemperatures,butatintermediatetemperatures
iron is face-centered cubic. very small in relation to the parent atoms, they can
c. Titanium and Zirconium are body-centered cubic at high tem- locate (or dissolve) in the spaces between the parent
peratures and hexagonal close packed at low temperatures. metal atoms without occupying lattice sites. This type
of solid solution is calledinterstitial, and is illustrated
in Figure M-6 (B). Small amountsof carbon, nitrogen,
or hydrogenforexample,alloyinterstitiallyiniron
and other metals.
MultiphaseAlloys. Frequently,thealloyingatoms
cannot dissolve completely, either interstitially or sub-
stitutionally. The result, in such cases, is the formation
of mixed atomic groupings (different crystalline struc-
tures) within a single alloy. Each different crystalline
structureisreferredtoasa phase, andthealloyis
called a multiphase alloy. The individual phases may
(A) FACE-CENTERED (B) BODY-CENTERED be distinguished from one another, under a microscope
CUBIC CUBIC
at magnifications of 50X to 2000X, when the alloy is
appropriately polished and etched.
Allcommercialmetalsconsist of theprimaryor
basicelementandsmalleramounts of oneormore
alloyingelements.Thealloyingelementsmaybe
intentionallyadded or mayberesidual(tramp)ele-
ments. Commercial metals can be single or multiphase
alloys.Eachphasewillhaveitsowncharacteristic
crystalline structure.
The overall arrangementof the grains, grain bound-
aries, and phases present in a metal alloy is called the
(C) HEXAGONAL
microstructure of thealloy.Themicrostructureis
CLOSE-PACKED largelyresponsibleforthephysicalandmechanical
properties of the metal. It is affected by both the chem-
Figure M-&The Three Most Common Crystal ical composition and the thermal and mechanical his-
Structures in Metals tory of the metal. Consequently, microstructure is also
STD.AWS JWE-ENGL L997 W 0 7 8 4 2 b 5 05Lb478 378 m
304 METALLURGY Welding Encyclopedia
body centered cubic. A phase change in crystal struc-

tureinthesolidstateisknownasan allotropic
transformation.
Othermetalsthatundergoallotropictransforma-
tions are titanium, zirconium, and cobalt. Factors that
influencethetemperatureatwhichtransformation
takesplacearechemicalcomposition,coolingrate,
and the presence of stress.
A metalalsoundergoesaphasechangewhenit
melts or solidifies. Pure metals melt and solidify at a
single temperature. Alloys, on the other hand, usually
melt and solidify over a range of temperatures. The
exception to this ruleis the eutectic composition.
Phase Diagrams. Metallurgical
events,
suchas
phase changes and solidification, are best illustrated
withadrawingcalleda phase diagram (sometimes
referred to as anequilibrium diagram or a constitution
diagram).
Phase diagrams only approximately describe com-
mercial alloys because most published phase diagrams
are based on two-component systems at equilibrium.
Most commercial alloys have more than one compo-
nent, and equilibrium conditions are approached only
at high temperatures. However, with a knowledge of
the normal responses of the alloy, a phase diagram is a
powerful tool in understanding the behavior of com-
(6)
mercial metals.
Phasediagramsforsystemswithmorethantwo
Figure M6"Schematic Illustration of components are complex and more difficult to inter-
Substitutional and Interstitial Solid Solutions pret, but still provide the best way to study most alloy
systems.
affected by welding, but the effect is confined to the Effects of Deformation and Heat Treatment
local region of the weld. The metallurgical changes in Deformation and Annealing of Metals. When metals
thelocalregion(calledthe heat-afectedzone) can are plastically deformed at room temperature, a num-
have a profound effect on the service performance of a of changes takes place in the microstructure. Each
ber
weldment. individualgrainmustchangeshapetoproducethe
Fine-grained
materials
generally
have
better anticipated overall deformation. As deformation pro-
mechanicalpropertiesforserviceatroomandlow ceeds,eachgrainbecomesstrongerand,therefore,
temperatures.Conversely,
coarse-grainedmaterials moredifficulttodeformfurther.Thisbehavior is
generally perform better at high temperatures. called work hardening. When the metal is deformed
belowcritical
a temperature,there is gradual
a
Phase Transformations increase in the hardness and strength of the metal and
Critical Temperatures. At specific temperatures, the a decrease in ductility. This phenomenon is known as
atomsofmanymetalschangetheircrystallographic cold working.
structure.Forexample,thecrystallinestructure of If the metal is worked moderately or severely and
pureiron at temperaturesupto910C(1670F) is then heated to progressively higher temperatures, sev-
body-centeredcubic,FigureM-5 (B). From910to eral things happen. At temperatures up to about 205C
1390C (1670 to 2535 F), the structure is face centered (400F) there is a steady decline in the residual stress
cubic,Figure M-5 (A),andfrom1390to1535C level, but thereis virtually no change in microstructure
(2535 to 2795"F), the melting temperature, it is again or properties. At about 205 to 230C (400 to 450"F), a
~ ~~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 W 07842b5 05Lb473 204
Welding METALLURGY 305
relatively low level of residual stress remains, but the When a weld is deposited, the first grains to solidify
microstructure has not changed. The strengthofthe are nucleated by the unmelted base metal, and these
metal remains relatively unchanged compared to that grains maintain the same crystal orientation. Depend-
of the original cold-worked material, and the ductility, ing on composition and solidification rates, the weld
while improved, is still rather low. This reduction in solidifiesinacellularoradendriticgrowthmode.
stress level and the improvement in ductility are attrib- Both modes cause segregation of alloying elements.
uted to the metallurgical phenomenon called recovery, Consequently,theweldmetalmaybelesshomoge-
atermindicatingareductionincrystallinestresses neous than the base metal.
without accompanying microstructural changes. The weld heat-affected zone is adjacent to the weld
When the cold-worked metal is heated to a tempera- metal.Theheat-affectedzoneisthatportionofthe
tureabove230C(450"F),mechanical
property basemetalthathasnotbeenmelted,butwhose
changesbecomeapparent,as do changesinmicro- mechanicalpropertiesormicrostructurehavebeen
structure. In place of the deformed grains, a new groupaltered by the heat of welding. The width of the heat-
of grains form and grow. These grains replace the old affectedzone is afunctionoftheheatinput.The
grains, and eventually all signs of the deformed grains heat-affected zone may in theory include all regions
disappear. The new microstructure resembles the orig- heated to any temperature above the ambient. From a
inalmicrostructure(beforecold-working),andthe practical viewpoint, however, it includes those regions
metal is softened and made more ductile than it was in which are actually influenced by the heat of the weld-
thecold-workedcondition.Thisprocessiscalled ing process.
recrystallization, a necessary part of annealing proce- For a plain carbon as-rolled steel, the heat of weld-
dures. (Annealing refers to a heating and cooling pro- ing has little influence on those regions heated to less
cess usually applied to induce softening). When heated thanabout700C(1350F).Foraheat-treatedsteel
to higher temperatures, the grains begin to grow and thatwasquenchedtomartensiteandtemperedat
the hardness and strength of the metal are significantly 315C (600F), heating above this temperature would
reduced.Metalsareoftenannealedpriortofurther change the mechanical properties of the metal. For a
cold working or machining. heat-treatedaluminumalloyagehardened at 120C
Metallurgy of Welding (250"F), any portion of a welded joint heated above
this temperature is the heat-affected zone.
A welded joint consists of weld metal (which has
Heat-affectedzonesare
often
defined
by
the
been melted), heat-affected zones, and unaffected base
response of the welded joint to hardness variation or
metals. The metallurgy of each weld area is related to
microstructural changes. Thus, changes in microstruc-
thebaseandweldmetalcompositions,thewelding
ture produced by the welding heat which are seen in
process, and the procedures used. Most typical weld
etching or in hardness profiles may be used to estab-
metals have rapidly solidified, and usually have a fine
lish the heat-affected zone. In many cases, these are
grain dendritic microstructure. The weld metal is an
arbitrary measures of the heat-affected zone, although
admixture of melted base metal and deposited (filler)
they may be of practical value in testing and evaluat-
metal,ifused.Somewelds(autogenous)arecom-
ing weldedjoints.
posed of only remelted base metal. Examples of autog-
enous welds are gas tungsten arc and electron beam Adjacent to the heat-affected zone is the unaffected
welds made without filler metal, and resistance welds. base metal. The base metal is selected by the designer
In most arc welding processes, a filler metal is used. for the specific application based on a specific prop-
erty or combination of properties, such as yield or ten-
To achieve mechanical and physical properties that
sile strength, notch toughness, corrosion resistance, or
nearly match those of the base metal, a filler metal is
density. It is the job of the welding engineer to select
often selected which is similar in chemical composi-
theweldingconsumablesandprocesstodevelop
tiontothebasemetal.This is notauniversalrule;
welding procedures that allow the design properties to
sometimes the weld metal compositionis deliberately
befullyutilizedinservice.Thecharacteristicofa
madesignificantlydifferentfromthatofthebase metalthatallows it tobeweldedwithoutlosing its
metal. The intent is to produce a weld metal with prop-
desirable properties is called weldability.
erties compatible with the base metal. Therefore, vari-
ationsfromthebasemetalcompositionarenot Weld Metal. The microstructure of the weld metal is
uncommon in filler metals. considerably different from that of the base metal. The
306 METALLURGY Encyclopedia Welding
difference in microstructure is not related to chemical ship. The grain size may be influenced by nucleating
compositions, but to different thermal and mechanical agents, vibration, or other process variables, but the
histories of the base metal and the weld metal. The dendrite arm spacing is exclusively a functionof solid-
structure of the base metal is a result of a hot rolling ification rate whichis controlled by heat input.
operation
and
multiple
recrystallization
the
of Gas Metal Reactions
hot-worked metal. In contrast, the weld metal has not
beenmechanicallydeformedandtherefore,hasan Gas-metal reactions depend on the presence of oxy-
as-solidified dendritic structure. This structure and its gen, hydrogen, or nitrogen used alone or combined, in
attendant mechanical properties are a direct result of the shielding atmosphere. There are many sources for
the sequence of events that occur as the weld metal these elements. Oxygenis intentionally added to argon
solidifies. These events include reactions of the weld in gas metal arc welding of steel to stabilize the arc. It
metal with gases in the vicinity of the weld and with can also be drawn in from the atmosphere or result
nonmetallic liquid phases (slag or flux) during weldfrom the dissociation of water vapor, carbon dioxide,
ing, and also reactions that took place in the weld afteror a metal oxide. Air is the most common source of
solidification. nitrogen,buttherearemanysourcesofhydrogen,
principallyfromatmosphericmoisture,moisturein
Solidification. The unmelted portions of grains in the
electrode coatings, slag, and shielding gases. Hydro-
heat-affected zone at the solid-liquid interface serve as genmay bepresentinsolidsolutioninnonferrous
nucleation sites for weld metal solidification. Metals
metals or in surface oxides and lubricating compounds
growmorerapidlyincertaincrystallographicdirec-
from the wire drawing operation.
tions.Therefore,favorablyorientedgrainsgrowfor
substantial distances, while the growth of others that Welding Ferrous Metals. Gas-metalreactionsin
are less favorably orientedis blocked by other grains. weldingsteelsoccurinseveralsteps.First,thegas
As a result, weld metal often exhibits a microstruc- molecules are broken down in the high temperature of
ture, described as columnar, in which the grains are the welding atmosphere and then the gas atoms dis-
relativelylongandparalleltothedirectionofheat solve in the liquid metal. Oxygen and nitrogen will
flow. This structure is a natural result of the influence generallyreactwithintentionallyaddeddeoxidizers
offavorablecrystalorientationonthecompetitive such as manganese,silicon,andaluminum.These
nature of solidification grain growth. oxides will form a slag and float to the surface of the
Dendrites. Weld metal solidification of most com- weldorprecipitate as discreetoxides.Oxidesand
mercial metals involves micro-segregation of alloying nitridesare
present as smalldiscreet
particles.
and residual elements. This action is associated with, Although they reduce the ductility and notch tough-
and, in large measure, responsible for the formation of nessofsteelweldmetal,theresultingmechanical
dendrites. Adendrite is astructuralfeaturewhich propertiesare
satisfactory
for
most
commercial
reflects the complex shape taken by the liquid-solid applications.
interface during solidification. In consumable electrode welding, the oxide content
As the primary dendrites solidify, solutes that are of steelweldmetal is significantlygreaterthanthe
moresolubleintheliquidarerejected by thesolid nitrogen contentbecauseoxygen is intentionally
material and diffuse into the remaining liquid, lower- present in arc atmospheres, whereas nitrogen is not. If
ing the freezing point. As the solute alloys concentrate the weld metal does not contain sufficient deoxidizers,
nearthe
solid-liquidinterface,
crystalgrowth is the soluble oxygen will react with soluble carbon to
arrested in that direction. The grains then grow later- produce CO or CO2 duringsolidification.Thegas
ally,producingthedendrite arms characteristicof moleculeswillberejectedduringsolidificationand
as-solidified metals. Many dendrites may grow simul- produce porosity in the weld metal.
taneously into the liquid from a single grain during Hydrogen is always present in the arc atmosphere,
solidification. Therefore, each of these dendrites has if only in small quantities. Hydrogen atoms are soluble
the same crystal orientation, and they will all be part of in liquid steel and less soluble in solid steel. Excess
the same grain. However, a solute-rich network will hydrogenthat is rejectedduringsolidificationwill
exist among the dendrites in the final structure. cause porosity. A more significant problem is created
The general tendencyis for weld-metal grain size to by the hydrogen that remains dissolved in the solid
increase with heat input, but there is no fixed relation- steel.

~~ ~~ ~
STDeAWS
JWE-ENGL 3997 m 07842b5 0536481 962 m
Welding Encyclopedia METALLURGY 307
Welding Nonferrous Metals. The primary gas-metal The slags produced in the shielded metal arc weld-
reactions of concernare the solution,reaction,and ing(SMAW),submergedarcwelding(SAW),and
evolution of hydrogen or water vapor. These gases, electroslag welding (ESW) processes are designed to
therefore, should be excluded from the molten weld absorb deoxidation products and other contaminants
pool.Withaluminumandmagnesium,hydrogen is produced in the arc and molten weld metal.The quan-
oftenintroducedinto the weldpoolfromhydrated tity and type of nonmetallic deoxidation products gen-
oxides on the surfaces of thefiller wire or workpieces, erated when arc welding steelare primarily silicates of
or both. It is rejected from the metal during solidifica- aluminum, manganese, and iron, that float to the sur-
tion to produce porosity. For this reason, cleaned alu- face of the molten weld pool and become incorporated
minum and magnesium filler metals should be stored in the slag. Some products can be trappedin the weld
in sealed, desiccated containers. Mechanical cleaning metal as inclusions.
or vacuum heating at 150C (300F) is recommended Hot Cracking. Another important effect that results
for workpieces or filler metalswhichhavebeen from the interactionof the liquid and solidstate is the
exposed to moist air. The hydrogen solubility differ- welddefectreferredtoashotcracking.Shrinkage
ence between the liquid and solid states for magne- stressesproducedduringsolidificationbecomecon-
sium is less than that for aluminum. Consequently, the centrated in a small liquid region and produce micro-
tendency for hydrogen-produced porosity is lower in cracks between the dendrites. These cracks are called
magnesium. hot cruch because they occur at temperatures closeto
In the case of copper and copper alloys, hydrogen the solidification temperature.
will react with any oxygen inthe molten weld pool to The most common cause of hot cracking is the pres-
produce water vapor, and thus porosity, during solidi- ence of low-melting alloy sulfides that wet the den-
fication. The filler metals for copper alloys contain drite surfaces. In some ferrous alloys, such asstainless
deoxidizers to prevent this reaction. Porosity caused steels, silicates havealso been foundto produce crack-
by water vapor will not form in alloys of zinc, alumi- ing. Avoidance of cracking in these alloys is usually
num, or beryllium because these elements form stable accomplished by controllingboth the amount andtype
oxides.Porosityfromwatervaporcanformin of sulfides that form and the minor alloy constituents
nickel-copper andnickel
alloy
weld metal,
and that may promote cracking.
filler metals for these alloys shouldcontainstrong
deoxidizers. Solid State Reactions. In terms of the behavior of
weld metals, there are a number of solid state reactions
Titanium alloys are embrittled by reaction with a that are important as strengthening mechanismsin the
number of gasesincludingnitrogen,hydrogen,and weld metal itself. There are some important phenom-
oxygen. Consequently, these
elements should be ena involving solid state transformations and subse-
excluded from the arc atmosphere. Welding should be quent reactions with dissolved gasesin the metal. The
done using carefully designed inert gas shielding or in most significant of these phenomena is the formation
a vacuum. Titanium heat-affected zones are also sig- of cold cracks insteelweldmetal or heat-affected
nificantlyembrittledbyreactionwithoxygenand zones, often referredto as delayed cracking. The steels
nitrogen. Titanium weldments should be shielded so most susceptible to this type of cracking are those that
that any surface heatedto over 260C(500F) is com- can transform to martensite on cooling from the weld
pletelyprotected byan inertgas.Hydrogen is the thermal cycle. The cracking occurs after the weld has
major cause of porosity in titanium welds.The hydro- cooled to ambienttemperature,sometimeshoursor
gen source, as in other nonferrous andferrous metals, even days after welding. It is always associated with
can be the filler metalsurface. In addition, soluble dissolved hydrogen in the weld metal which remains
hydrogen in the filler metal and the base metal can there during solidification and subsequent transforma-
contributesignificantly to thetotalhydrogeninthe tion to martensite.
molten weld pool. Because delayed crackingis always associated with
Llquid Metal Reactions.During the welding process, dissolvedhydrogen,twoprecautions are universally
nonmetallic liquid phases that interact with
the molten used to minimize the risk of delayed cracking. They
weldmetal are frequentlyproduced.Theseliquid are:
phases are usually slag formed by the melting of an (1) Preheating the base metal to slow the cooling rate.
intentionally addedflux. (2) Using low-hydrogen welding processes.

STD*AWS JWE-ENGL L997 M 07842b5 05Lh4B2 8T9 m
The use of preheat prevents the formation of a crack- Transformation Hardening. Hardening will result in
susceptiblemicrostructure and
also
promotesthe ferrous weld metal even if the austenite decomposition
escape of hydrogen from the steel by diffusion. product is notmartensite. The rapid cooling rates,
Hydrogen is relatively soluble in austenite, and vir- achieved during the cooling portion of weld thermal
tually insoluble in ferrite. On rapid cooling,the auste- cycles, decrease the austenite transformation tempera-
nite transforms either to an aggregate of ferrite and ture. The ferrite-carbideaggregateformedatlow
carbide or to martensite, and hydrogen is trapped in transformation temperatures is finer and stronger than
solution.Inaplaincarbonsteel,thistransformation thatformed at highertransformationtemperatures.
takes place at a relatively high temperature, even if The effect of transformation temperature on the ulti-
T
cooling is rapid, and the hydrogen atoms have suffi- mate tensile strength of steel weld metal is shown in
cient mobility to diffuse out of the metal. A rapidly Figure M-7.
cooled hardenable steel transforms at a much lower
temperaturewherethehydrogenatomshavelower
mobility, the microstructure is martensitic, and crack TEMPERATURE, "C
sensitive, and this combination will likely cause crack- 180,200
~ 600 800
ing. The association of hydrogen with delayed crack-
ing led to the development of low-hydrogen covered 1200
electrodes. Low-hydrogen electrode coverings must be 160
kept essentially moisture free since moisture is a pri-
mary source of hydrogen. 3 140 1000 2
Another 'solid state reaction that affects weld joint 5
r
mechanical properties in ferrous and nonferrous alloys I-
is the precipitation of second phases during cooling. - 800 (3
6
Precipitation of a second phase in grain boundaries is a:
I-
particularly deleterious because the grain boundaries - 600
v)
are continuous throughout the metal. A concentration =!

v,
ofasecondphaseatgrainboundariesmaysignifi- i
5
cantly reduce ductility and toughness. - 400 L
Strengthening Mechanismsin Weld Metal AND - 2
E
The practical methods for strengthening weld met-
als are fewer than for base metals. For example, weld
BAINITE
2
- 200
I I
metal is not usually cold worked. There are four mech-
anisms for strengthening weld metal, and where appli- O
cablethey are additive: (1) solidification grain 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
structure, (2) solid solution strengthening, (3) transfor- TEMPERATURE OF MAXIMUM
mationhardening,and (4) precipitationhardening. RATE OF TRANSFORMATION, "F
The first mechanism is common to all welds, the sec-
ond is applicable to any alloy type, but the third and Figure M-7-Effect of Transformation Temperature
fourth apply only to specific types of alloys. on Strength
SolidificationGrainStructure. Weldmetalfreezes
rapidly,creatingasegregationpatternwithineach Precipitation Hardening.Weld metal of precipitation
grain. The resultingmicrostructureconsistsoffine hardeningalloysystemscanbestrengthenedbyan
dendrite arms in a solute-rich network. This type of agingprocess.Inmostcommercialapplications,the
microstructureimpedesplasticflowduringtensile precipitation hardened weldments are aged after weld-
testing. As aresult,weldmetalstypicallyhavea ing without the benefit of a solution heat treatment. In
higher yield-to-tensile strength ratio than base metals. multipass welds, some of the zones of weld metal will
Solid
Solution
Strengthening. Weldmetal
is be aged or overaged from the welding heat. The heat-
strengthened by alloying elements present. Both sub- affectedzonewillalsocontainoveragedmetal.An
stitutional
and
interstitial
alloying
elements
will aging heat treatment will strengthen the weld metal
strengthen ferrous and nonferrous weld metal. and the heat-affected zone. The weld metal and the
~~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m O7811265 05361183 735

Welding Encyclopedia 309
heat-affectedzonemaynotstrengthentothesame alphaphase.Thesecondfine-grainedzoneresults
level as the base metaldue to the presenceof overaged from the allotropic transformation to the high tempera-
metal. Some aluminum precipitation hardening weld ture phase.
metals will age naturallyat room temperature. Precipitation-Hardened Alloys. Alloys that
are
The Heat-Affected Zone strengthened by precipitation hardening respond to the
The strengthenedtoughness of theheat-affected heat of welding in thesame manner as work hardened
zone in a weldedjoint is dependent onthe base metal, alloys;thatis, the heat-affectedzoneundergoesan
the weldingprocess,andtheweldingprocedure. annealingcycle. The response of the heat-affected
Because the weld thermal cycle is generally a rapid zone is more complex because the welding thermal
one, the base metals most influenced by welding will cycle produces different effects in different regions.
be those strengthened or annealed by heat treatments. The heat treating sequencefor precipitation hardening
The temperatures in the weld heat-affected zone vary is: solution treat, quench, and age. The welding heat
from ambient to near the liquidus temperature. Metal- willre-solutiontreat the heat-affectedzoneregions
lurgical processes that proceed slowly at lower tem- closest to the weld, and produce a relatively soft single
peratures can
proceedrapidly to completion at phasesolidsolutionwithsomecoarsegrains. This
temperatures close to the liquidus. region canbehardened by post
a weld aging
To understand the various effects of welding heat treatment.
on the heat-affected zone, these effects can basically Those regions of theheat-affectedzonethat are
be considered in terms of four different typesof alloys heated to temperatures below the solution treatment
that can be welded. Some alloys can be strengthened temperature will be overaged by the welding heat. A
by more than one ofthese processes, butfor simplicity postweld aging treatment will not reharden this region.
the processesare considered separately. If the welding heat does not raise the heat-affected
Solid-SolutionStrengthenedAlloys. Solid-solution zone temperature above the original aging tempera-
alloys normally exhibit the fewest weld heat-affected ture, the mechanicalproperties are notsignificantly
zone problems. If they do not undergo a solid state affected.
transformation, the effectof the thermal cycle is small, It is difficulttoweldhigh-strengthprecipitation
and the properties of the heat-affected zone will be hardenable alloys without some loss of strength, but
largelyunaffectedbywelding.Graingrowthwill three techniques may be used to minimize the loss.
occur next to the fusion line as a result of the high The most effective of these techniquesis to re-solution
peaktemperature. This willnotsignificantlyaffect treat, quench, and age the weldment. This techniqueis
mechanical properties if the grain-coarsened zone is expensive, and in many cases may not be practicable.
only a few grains wide. A second approach would be to weld precipitation-
Commonly used alloys strengthened by solid solu- hardened base metal and then re-age the weldment.
tion are annealed aluminum alloys, annealed copper This raises the strength of the solution-treated region
alloys, and hot rolled and annealed low-carbon steels. of the heat-affected zone, but does not improve the
Annealed ferritic and austenitic stainless steels come strength of the overaged zone. Another alternative is to
under essentiallythe same category. weld the base metal in the solution treated condition
and age the completed weldment. The overaged zone
Strain Hardened Base Metals. Strain hardened base
is still the weakest link, but the overall effect may be
metals will recrystallize when heated above the recrys-
an improvement over the previous approaches.
tallizationtemperature. The heat of weldingwill
recrystallizetheheat-affectedzones in coldworked Since it is the weld thermal cycle that lowers the
metals and soften the metal considerably. The recrys- strength of the heat-treated base metal, high heat input
tallized heat-affected zone is softer and weaker than welding processes are not recommended for precipita-
the cold worked base metal, and the strength cannot be tion-hardenedalloys.Lowheatinputwillminimize
recovered by heat treatment. the width of the heat-affected zone andthe amount of
If the cold worked materials undergo an allotropic softened base metal.
transformation when heated,the effects of welding are TransformationHardeningAlloys. The transforma-
evenmorecomplex.Steelandtitaniumalloysmay tion hardening alloysof interest are the steels with suf-
have two recrystallized zones. The first fine-grained ficientcarbonandalloycontenttotransform to
zone results from recrystallization of the cold worked martensite upon cooling from welding. These may be

steels which are already heat treated to tempered mar- Region 3, some grains transform to austenite and some
tensite prior to welding, or steels that have adequate do not. The austenite grains are very fine. No austen-
hardenability to transform to martensite during a weld itic transformation takes place in Region4 next to the
thermal cycle, even though they may not have been unaffected base metal, but the ferrite grains may be
heat treated. In either case, the heat-affected zone is tempered by the heatof welding.
affected by the weld thermal cycle in approximately The width of the heat-affected zone and the widths
thesamemanner.Theheat-affectedzones,together of each region in the heat-affected zone are controlled
withthesteelportion of theiron-carbonphasedia- by the welding heat input. High heat inputs result in
gram, are illustrated in Figure M-8. slow cooling rates, and therefore, the heat input may
In Figure M-8, the grain coarsened region is near determine the final transformation products.
the weld interface (Region 1). Rapid austenitic grain High-carbon martensite is hard and strong, and it
growth takes place in this region when exposed to the cancreateproblemsintheheat-affectedzone. The
near melting point temperatures. The large grain size hardness of the weld heat-affected zone is a function
increaseshardenability,andthisregioncanreadily ofthebasemetalcarboncontent. The hardness and
transform to martensite on cooling. Region 2 is austen- crack-susceptibility
increase
and
the
toughness
itized, but the temperatureis too low to promote grain decreases with increasing carbon content. Martensite
growth. The hardenability of Region2 will not be sig- alone will not cause cracking; dissolved hydrogen and
nificantlyincreasedbygraingrowth,butmaystill residual stresses are also present.
transformtomartensiteifthecoolingrate is fast The sameprecautionsusedtopreventdelayed
enough or ifthealloycontent is greatenough.In cracking in weld metal will also prevent cracking in
T, "F I T, "C
1700
1500
1300
1100
900
700
500
Figure M-&Approximate Relationships Among Peak Temperature, Distance from Weld Interface, and the
Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram

Welding Encyclopedia SYSTEM METRIC 311
the heat-affected zone. The hardness of a weld heat- achieve the desired function within the design criteria
affectedzone is usuallya good indication of the for the whole assembly.
amount of martensitepresent and the potential for References:
cracking. Cracking rarelyoccurs when the weld hard- (1) American Welding Society, Welding Handbook
ness is 250 HB or less, but is common whenthe hard- Vol. 1,8thEd.,Miami,Florida:AmericanWelding
ness approaches 450 HB andnoprecautions are Society, 1987.
taken. (2) Linnert, G.E. Welding Metallurgy, Vol.1 (Fun-
Special precautions may be necessary when weld- damentals), 4th Ed., Miami, Florida: American Weld-
ing hardenable steels that have been intentionallyheat ing Society, 1994.
treated to produce a temperedmartensitic microstruc-
ture. It is usually desirable to use a low welding heat METALWORKING MACHINES
input to control the size of the heat-affected zone, and Any of a variety of portableor stationary machines
a high preheat temperatureto control the cooling rate that cut, bend, punch or otherwise prepare metal for
of the weld. The weldingrecommendationsof the fabrication.
steel manufacturer should be followed in preparing
welding procedures for low-alloy,high-strength METRIC SYSTEM
steels. A system of measurement which has been inexist-
ence for approximatelytwo hundred years. It is widely
Base Metal used in Europe; however variations in terms and units
The third component in a welded joint is the base existed between countries, and in 1960 this variety of
metal.Manyof the commonengineeringmaterials metric units was replacedby the International System
available today are readily weldable. However, some of Units (SZ).For more complete information on the SI
materials are more difficultto weld and require special system, including units, symbols and conversion prac-
precautions. tices, refer toANSYAWS A I A , Metric Practice Guide
for the Welding Industry.
Weldability. Weldability is the capacity of a material SI is a modernized metric system of measurement
tobeweldedintoaspecificallydesignedstructure that hasbeen offkially recognized by all industrial
under the imposed fabrication conditions, and to per- nations. It hasfeatures that makeit superior to theU.S.
form satisfactorily in the intended service. Some sys- Customary and toother metric systems. These features
temsmayhave
poor
weldability
undercertain are the following:
conditionsandhavesatisfactoryweldabilityunder (1) An Absolute Base. A base thatis not defined by
other conditions. For example, all grades of ASTM the action of gravity.
A5 14 (a heat treated690 MPa [ 100 ksi] yield strength (2) Coherence. Coherence is the characteristic
constructional alloy steel) have satisfactory weldabil- which relates any derived unit to any other, or to base
ity, providedthe base metal is sufficiently preheated, a unitsfromwhich it is formed,withoutconversion
low-hydrogenweldingprocess is followed,and the factors.
heat input limitationsare not exceeded. (3) Unique Units. The use of only one unitfor each
The primary factor affecting the weldability of a physicalquantity; for example, SI units for force,
base metal is its chemical compositionor the grade of energy, and power are the same regardless of whether
the material. Each grade of material has welding pro- the processis mechanical, electrical, or thermal.
cedural limits within which sound weldments with sat- (4) Decimal System. SI is a decimal system; it is
isfactory properties can be fabricated. If these limits easier to use because it is easier to work in multiples of
are wide, the gradeis said to have good weldability. If ten andin decimal notations than in fractions and deci-
the limits are narrow, the material is said to have poor malized fraction equivalents common to the U.S. Cus-
weldability. If extraordinary precautionsare necessary, tomary system.
then the material is often saidto be unweldable. Yet, This combination of features makes SI a reliable
in some cases and in some industries, unweldable system suitable for allkinds of measurements.
materials are routinelyweldedundertight controls Although areas remain that can and no doubt will be
with vigorous inspection procedures and acceptance improved, the SI system is practical for universal
criteria. These methods are followed because welding applicationand is rapidlybecoming the commonly
maybetheonly (or atleast the best) method to used world measurement system.

STDWAWS JWE-ENGL L777 M 07842b5 0536486 444
312 MHO Encyclopedia Welding
SI Units Pertaining to Welding.The recommended SI (3) The electron microscope, capable of magnifying
unitsusedinweldingnomenclatureareshownin atleast200 OOOX withremarkablygooddepthof
Appendix 14. The selection of these terms was based focus and resolution. Images of metal microstructure
on the use of (1) SI base units where practicable; (2) areobtained eitherbyelectronbeamstransmitted
numbers of reasonable size, and(3) accepted units cur- through a specimenor by beams thatare reflected and
rently in useor anticipated to be used. emitted.
SpecialConversions for Welding. Termsthatare MIG SPOT WELDING
commonly used in the welding industry and conver- Anonstandardtermforaspotweldmadeusing
sions between U.S. Customary and SI units are shown either gas metal arc welding (GMAW) or flux cored
in Appendix 14. arcwelding(FCAW). MZG is anabbreviation for
metal inert gas.See GAS METAL ARC SPOT WELDING.
MHO
The practicalunit of conductancedefined as the MIG WELDING
conductance of a body through which one ampere of A nonstandard term for gas metal arc welding and
current flows when the potential difference one
is volt. flux cored arc welding. See GAS METAL ARC WELDING
The conductance of a body in mho is the reciprocal of and FLUX CORED ARC WELDING.
the value of its resistance in ohms.
MILD STEEL
MICROETCH TEST A genericterm for alow-carbonstructuralsteel
A test in which the specimen is prepared witha pol- with a carbon content ofless than 0.25%.
ished finish, etched, and examined under high magni-
fication. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. MISMATCH
See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See WELDJOINT
MICROGRAPH MISMATCH.
A graphic reproduction of a metallic surface (a sec- MIXED ZONE
tionofmetalwhichhasbeenground,polished and
The portion of the weld metal consisting of a mix-
etched) at a magnification of 10 diameters or greater.
ture of base metal and filler metal. See STANDARD
When reproduced by photography it is called aphoto-
WELDING TERMS. See also UNMIXED ZONE.
micrograph. See METALLOGRAPHY.
MIXING CHAMBER
MICROSTRUCTURE
The part of a welding or cutting torch in which a
The term microstructure isused to describethe fuel gas and oxygen are mixed. See STANDARD WELD-
structureofmetals.Abasicvisualexaminationof ING TERMS.
etched metal surfaces and fractures will reveal some
configurations in etched patterns that relate to struc- MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
ture,butmagnification of minutedetailswillyield A measure of the rigidityof a material is called the
considerably more information. modulus of elasticity. Specifically, the slope of the ini-
Threewidelyusedtools for theexamination of tial linear portion of the stress-strain curveis the mod-
structures in metals and their applications are: ulusofelasticity;whenobtainedincompression or
(1) The low-power magnifying glass, when applied tension it is Youngs modulus. Since the modulus of
toetchedmetalsurfacesrevealsgrossdetailsin elasticity is needed for computing deflectionof beams
microstructure. and other members in a structure, it is an important
(2) The metallograph, an optical microscope, usu- design value.
ally fitted with an inverted stage for convenience in The modulus of elasticityis determined by the bind-
scanning the flat face of prepared specimens. Metallo- ing forces between the atoms in the material. These
graphicexaminationusuallyrequiresmagnification forces cannot be changed without changing the basic
in the range of 50 to 1500X (X = diameters). Because nature of the material, and it follows that modulus of
of the wave length of visible light, there is an upper elasticity is one of the most structure-insensitive of all
limit of about 2000X for magnification of an optical the mechanical properties.The modulus of elasticity is
microscope. only slightly affected by alloying additions, heat treat-

~~~
Welding Encyclopedia WELDING MOLYBDENUM 313
ment or cold work. However, only increasingthe tem- MOLYBDENUM

peratureresultsinadecrease in the modulus of (Chemical symbol:Mo). A hard, silver-white metal,
elasticity. molybdenum is a significant alloying element in the
production of engineeringsteels,corrosionresistant
MOHS HARDNESS SCALE steels, tool steels, and cast irons. Atomic number 42;
Mohs Hardness Scale is a scratch-hardness evalua- a t o k c weight, 95.95; melting point, 262OOC
tion of materials and is the oldest hardness evaluation.(4748F);boiling point4804C (8680F),and specific
The Mohs Hardness Scale (circa 1822) was developed gravity 10.2.
by mineralogists and is based on the capability of a Molybdenum does notoccur free in naturebut
harder material to scratchthe surface of a softer mate- is obtained from molybdenite (Mos2)and from wul-
rial. The tenminerals listed in TableM-14were fenite (PbMoO,). The metal is prepared by the reduc-
selected to form the Mohs scale, and each makes a tion per-of the oxide with carbon, usually in an electric
manent scratch (one that cannot be rubbed off) on all furnace.
minerals listed below it. There is a very great differ- Small additions of molybdenum to steel promote
ence between diamond and corundum compared to the relatively uniform
hardnessand
strength
even
relatively smalldifferencesbetween softer minerals.A throughout heavy sections. In addition, molybdenum
humanfingernailcanscratchgypsum. A hardness contributes the following properties:
approximation of apolishedmetalsurface can be (1) Increases the resistance of commonly usedengi-
obtained by determining which pair of adjacent miner-neering steels to softening after tempering.
als scratch and do not scratch the sample. Hardened (2) Increases the strength and creep resistance of
tool steel is between 8 and 9 on the Mohs scale. Low- low- and high-alloy steels at elevated temperatures.
carbonsteel is usuallybetween 3 and 4, while (3) Improves the resistance to corrosion by pitting
annealed copper is between 2 and3. The Mohs scratch in engineering steel, and improves the general corro-
test is not normally applied to metals because of its sionresistance of chromiumandchromium-nickel
semi-quantitativenature;
however,
uniformly
a corrosion resistant steels.
applied scratch with the tip of a sharp needle across (4) Tends to retard intergranular corrosion in auste-
the face of a polished and etched metallographic spec- nitic chromium-nickel steels if some delta ferrite is
imen can give useful information on the metal's micro- present.
constituents.
Careful
observation
and
perhaps In addition, molybdenum contributes other proper-
measurement of the scratch width alongits length, can ties when added to steel. Molybdenumdoes not cause
provide an indication of the relative hardness of the the formation of a tightly adherentscale on steel when
microconstituents. See HARDNESS TESTING. the steel is heated in an oxidizing atmosphere for hot
working.Thisassistsinsubsequentcleaningopera-
tions when the steel is pickled or sand blasted; a tight
Table M-14 scale is more difficult and costly to remove.
Mhos Scale of Hardness
Whenaddedtocastiron,molybdenumimproves
Material Position Material Position thehigh-temperaturestrengthandtoughness.Itis
Diamond 10 Apatite 5 neither a graphitizer nor a strong carbide stabilizer in
Corundum 9 Fluorite 4 cast iron. The addition of molybdenum to gray cast
Topaz 8 Calcite 3 iron increases the tensile strength; this is attributable
Qum 7 Gypsum 2 to direct solid solution effect in ferrite and to retarda-
Feldspar 6 Talc 1 tion of transformation of austenite.
MOLYBDENUM WELDING
MOLDING SHOE
A nonstandard term forBACKING SHOE. Weldingprocessselection is determinedby the
physical and metallurgical propertiesof molybdenum.
MOLTEN METAL SPRAYING Molybdenum has an extremely low room-temperature
See THERMAL SPRAYING. solubility limit (1 ppm or less) for oxygen, nitrogen,
and carbon.Wann-working below the recrystallization
MOLTEN WELD POOL temperature breaks up grain boundary films and pro-
A nonstandard term forWELD POOL. ducesafibrousgrainstructure. This structurewill

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 31797 111 0784265 O5316488 2317 111
314 MONEL@ Welding Encyclopedia
havegoodductilityandstrengthinthedirectionof furic acid and strong caustic solutions. It should not be

working, but not transverse to it. used in sulfurizing atmospheres above 370C (700F)
Alloys. Some alloying is necessary to improve the or with strong oxidizing acids suchas nitric acid.
high-temperatureandroom-temperatureproperties. Welding. Commercial nickel
alloys,
including
Molybdenum is alloyed with small amounts of tita- Monel@, that contain30 to 45% copper, are tough and
nium, zirconium, and carbon to improve high-temper- ductile. Exceptfor
free-machining(high-sulfur)
atureandroom-temperaturestrengthproperties. An alloys,thesealloysarereadilyjoined by welding,
alloydesignatedaTZM(Mo-0.5Ti-0.087Zr-O.015C) brazing, and soldering, with proper precautions. See
is produced commercially. Also, an addition of about NICKEL ALLOY WELDING.
20 atomic percent of rhenium to molybdenum greatly
improves ductility near room temperature. MOTOR GENERATOR
Surface Preparation. Prior to welding, the surfaces A power source which converts mechanical energy
must be clean and free of dirt, grease, oil, oxides and intoelectricalpowersuitableforarcwelding. The
otherforeignmatter. The molybdenumcomponents source of mechanical power is usually an induction
should be fist degreased in a suitable, safe solvent; motor-drivenweldinggeneratoravailablefor 200,
followed by a cleaning method recommended by the 240, 480, and 600 V, three-phase, 60 Hz input. The
molybdenum supplier, rinsing in clean water, and air motors of weldinggeneratorsusuallyhaveagood
drying. power factor (80 to 90%) when under load. This type
of power source can be used with shielded metal arc
Welding. Fusionweldingmustbedone in a pure welding(SMAW),gasmetalarcwelding(GMAW),
inert gas atmosphere or in a high vacuum to prevent gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) and submerged arc
contamination by oxygen and nitrogen. Any fixtures welding (SAW).
used should provide minimum restraint on the weld-
ment, especially when welding a complex structure. MOVABLE-COIL CONTROL
The components should be preheated above the transi- A movable-coil transformer consists essentially of
tion temperature of the metal. Weldments should be an elongated core on which are located primary and
stress-relievedpromptlyatatemperaturebelowthe secondary coils. Either the primary coil or secondary
recrystallization temperatureof the base metal. coil may be movable, while the other one is in a fixed
For arc welding, molybdenum can be joined by the position. Most a-c transformers of this design have a
gas tungsten arc welding process using direct current fixed-position secondary coil.The primary coil is nor-
electrode negative. Argon or helium may be used for mally attached to a lead screw and, as the screw is
shielding. Welds should be made using procedures thatturned, the coil moves closer to, or further from, the
give a narrow heat-affected zone with minimum input secondary coil.
of heat. FigureM-9showsoneform of amovable-coil
The electron beam welding process is well suited fortransformer with coils spread apart for minimum out-
joining molybdenum becauseof its high energy density. put and a steep slope volt-ampere curve. Figure "10
Narrow, deep welds can be produced by this process shows the coils close together.The volt-ampere curve
using less energy than with arc welding. Since electron is indicated at maximum output with less slope than
beam welding is done in a high vacuum, contamination the curve in Figure "9.
of the weld metal with oxygen or nitrogen is prevented.
See ah0 CARBON STEEL and STAINLESS STEEL. MOVABLE-SHUNT CONTROL
The movable-shunt control is often used with a-c
MONEL@ transformer-type welding power supplies. It may also
The term MoneZ@is the registered trade markof the be used with ac-dc power sources. The shunt acts to
InternationalNickelCompany,Inc.foraseries of divertthemagneticfluxaroundthecoils.(Inthis
nickel-copperalloys.Thenominalcomposition of usage, the term Jzurefers to the magnetic lines of
Monel@ is 67% nickel, 30% copper, 1.7% iron, 1.1% force). In this design, the primary coils and the sec-
manganese, with small residuals (CO. 1%) of carbon and ondary coils are in fixed position. Control is obtained
silicon. Monel* is used where high strength and resis- withalaminatedironcoreshuntthatismoved
tancetocorrosionarerequired.Itisusefulagainst between the primary and secondary coils. It is made of
many common corrosives, such as sea water, dilute sul-the same material as used in the transformer core.

Welding Encyclopedia MOVABLESHUNT CONTROL 315
IRON CORE
80
MINIMUM
V OUTPUT
O I
I
I I
O I
50 100
I 150 I 200
I 250
I
Figure Y-9ovable-Coil AC Power Source with Coils Set for Minimum Output
IRON CORE
80
O
O 250
200
150
100
50
A
Figure M-1&Movable-Coil AC Power Source with Coils Set for Maximum Output

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 0536490 975 m
316 MOVING
As the shuntis moved into position between thepri- MULTIPLE-IMPULSE WELDING

mary and secondarycoils, it diverts more orless of the A resistance welding process variation in which
available flux field. The more magnetic lines of force welds are made by more than one impulse. See STAN-
diverted, the less the output current. DARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure I- 1.
MOVING SHOE MULTIPORT NOZZLE

A backing shoe that slides along the joint during A constricting nozzle of the plasma arc torch that
welding. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. contains two or more orifices located in a configura-
MULTIPASS FILLET WELD tion to achieve some control over the arc shape. See
MULTIPASS WELD MULTIPLE WELDING POSITION
A fision weld produced by more than one progres- An orientation for a nonrotated circumferential joint
sion of the arc, $ame or energy source along the joint. requiring weldingin more than one weldingposition. See
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See 5F, 5G, 6F, 6G, and 6GR.
Color metallographic analysis is a useful tool for evaluating reactive and refractory metal structures. This
specimen is a C103 alloy weld showing the interface region an ofequiaxed base metalstructure with an
as-cast (elongated) grainstructure in the weldarea. This weld was produced using the electronbeam
welding processon 3-in. thick material (400X).

NARROW GAP WELDING
A nonstandard termfor narrow groove welding. 10 TO 16 mm
-4 (W8TO 5'8 in.)
NARROW GROOVE WELDING
i
A variation of a welding process that usesmultiple-
pass welding with filler metal. The use of a small root
opening, with either a square groove or a V groove
and a small groove angle, yields a weld with a high
ratio of depth to width. See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS. TO 300 mm
This gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process was 25
developed to make narrow weldsin thick plates. Suc- (1 TO 12 in.)
L
cessful welds have been made on steel plates up to
20 cm(8 in.) thick.The process is suitable for welding
in all positions,and is usedonavariety ofheavy
sectioncarbon and low-alloysteelswithminimum
distortion.
Narrow groove GMAW usesthespraytransfer
technique. A squared buttjoint with a root opening of
6.0 to 9.0 mm (1/4 to 318 in.) wide is used for all plate
thicknesses. A typical narrow groovejoint configura-
tion is shown in Figure N- l.
Using GMAW to weld joints in the narrow groove Figure N-1-vpical Narrow GrooveJoint Edge
configurationrequires special precautions to assure Preparation
that the tip of the electrode is positioned accuratelyfor
proper fusion into the sidewalls. Numerous wire feed- Among the manyadvantagesofnarrow groove
ing methodsfor accomplishing this have been devised welding are:
and successfully used in a production environment.
(1) Improved economy because less filler metal is
Examples of some of these are shown in Figure N-2.
required
Narrowgrooveweldshave
been
madewith
electrode wires ranging from 0.9 to 1.6 mm (0.035 to (2) Good mechanical properties in both the weld
1/16 in.) diameter.Out-of-positionnarrow groove metal and the heat-affected zone because of the rela-
welds are preferably made with 0.9 mm (0.035 in.) tively low heat input
diameter electrode wires. (3) Improved controlof distortion
Because of the narrow groove opening, relatively (4)Fully automatic operation in all welding posi-
hightravelspeeds are usedduringwelding. If the tions,includingoverhead,usingthespraytransfer
travel speed is too slow, the weld puddle becomes too technique.
large to be controlled. The first layer is deposited
against a suitable backing, and because of the high NATURAL GAS
travel speed, is relatively thin. Weld beads are depos- Natural gas consists of gaseous hydrocarbons which
ited one on top of the other, with approximately 10 have been distilled from mineral oils stored in porous
passes requiredfor each 25 mm (1 inch) of plate thick- strata inthe earth. Itis found in all oil-producing local-
ness being welded. Close control over the composition ities all over the world. Natural gas is obtained from
of narrow groove welds can be maintained with this wells and distributed by pipelines. Its chemical com-
technique. position varies widely, depending onthe locality from
317
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L777 m 07842b5 051b492 748 W
318 NAVAL Welding Encyclopedia
Figure N-2-Typical Wire Feeding Techniques for Narrow Gap Gas Metal Arc Welding
which it is obtained. The principal constituentsof most NEGATIVE

natural gasesare methane (CH4) and ethane (C2H6). In an external electrical
circuit, the cathode, or point
Natural gas finds its principal use in the welding toward which the currentflows; it is opposite to anode
industry as a fuel gas for oxygen cutting and heating (positive).
operations. The volumetric requirementof natural gas
is about 1-1/2 times that of acetylene to produce an NEGATIVE BRUSH
equivalent amountof heat. An electrical conductor made of copper strips or a
Natural gas is not suitable for welding due to the block of carbon that makes sliding contact between a
oxygen-to-fuel-gas ratio which producesa highly oxi- stationaryand a movingpartof a generatorfrom
dizing flame and prevents the satisfactory welding of which the current enters the armature; or in a motor,
most metals. Many ferrous and nonferrous metals can from whichthe current leaves the armature.
bebrazeweldedwithcarefuladjustment of flame
adjustment and the use of flux. NEGATIVE POLARITY
Natural gasis also used extensively in the chemical In welding, the condition in which the electrode is
industry for the production of acetylene (C2H2),syn- negative in relationtotheworkpiece.Alsocalled
thetic rubber, and plastics. straightpolarity. See DIRECTCURRENTELECTRODE
NEGATIVE (DCEN).
NAVAL BRASS
A copper-zincalloywith a smallamountoftin
NEODYMIUM
addedtoimprovemechanicalproperties.Nominal
composition: Cu--60.0,Zn-39.25,Sn-0.75. See (Chemical symbol: Nd).A metallic element belong-
COPPER ALLOY WELDING. ing to the rare earth group.
Neodymium is used in the electronics industry. Itis
NEUTRON also used in the ceramics industry for glazes and to
' An atomic particle found in the nucleusof an atom. add color to glass. Neodymium glass can be used as a
It is electrically neutral;it has zero electrical charge. laser material insteadof ruby. It has an atomic number

STDDAWS
JWE-ENGL L997 D 07842h5 05Lh493 h84 m
Welding 319
of 60; atomic weight: 144.24; specific gravity: 7.003;

melting point 1010C (1850F).
NEUTRAL FLAME
Anoxyfuel gas flame thathas characteristics
neither oxidizing nor reducing. See STANDARD WELD-
ING TERMS. See Figure A-l. See also CARBURIZING
FLAME, OXIDIZING FLAME, and REDUCING FLAME.
A neutral flame is obtained by burning a mixtureof
approximately 50% acetylene and 50% oxygen; it is a
well balanced flame indicating complete combustion.
The cone next to the tip is white hot and beyondit is a
longbluestreamer. The moltenmetalproducedin
welding with a neutral flame is quiet and clean, and
flows well. Few sparks are produced. See OXIDIZING
FLAME,CARBURIZINGFLAME, and ACETYLENE,
Metalworking with Acetylene.
NEUTRAL FLUX,Submerged Arc Welding
A flux that will not cause a signifcant change in the
weld metal composition when there is a large change
in the arc voltage. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
See also ACTIVE FLUX.
NICK-BREAK TEST
-- VISE
An impact test that can be made to provide prelimi-Figure N-SNlck-Break lest

nary visual inspection of the weld. Visual inspection of
the broken sectionmay reveal porosity, fracture mode, netic, afair conductor of electricity, and belongsthe to
incomplete fusion, or any other defects which maybe iron-cobalt group of elements. Atomic weight, 58.69;
present. specific gravity, 8.90; melting point, 1453C (2647F).
A welder can use the nick-break test to checkon a Nickel adds ductility when alloyed with steel, low-
weld by making a test bar out of material similartheto ers the critical point for heat treatment, aids fatigue
metal being welded. If necessary, the test specimen strength, and increases notch toughness.
may be cut directlyout of the weld with a torch, and a Nickel is used as analloyingagentinsteelto
new piece welded back in its place. As indicated in increase strength and toughness at low temperatures.
Figure N-3, the baris nicked in the weld metal, 1/8 of Most nickel additions are from 1 to 4%, although in
its width on each side. It is preferable to makethis nick some applications, the nickel content runs as high as
or cut with a hacksaw, but if a hacksaw is not avail- 36% or more. In all cases, the addition of nickel will
able, it can be made with a cutting torch. increase the strength without decreasingthe toughness
A sharp blow with a hammer to the specimen held of the steel. Steels with a nickel content of 24% have
in a vise will break the weld metal from nick to nick. reduced magnetism. When the
nickel
content is
The hammer must be heavy andthe blow sufficient to increased to 36%,the steel has a very small coefficient
make a clean break. A visual inspection for defects can of expansion due to heat (up to 482C [900"F]).
then be made.
The is used in welder performance testing to API NICKEL ALLOYS
1104. Nickel alloys offer unique physical and mechanical
propertiesand are usefulinavariety of industrial
NICKEL applications,notablybecause of theirresistanceto
(Chemical symbol: Ni). A silvery white, hard, mal- attack in various corrosive media at temperatures from
leable, ductile metallic element, resistant to corrosion, 200C(400F)toover1090C(2000"F),andtheir
used mainly in alloys andalso as a catalyst. Itis mag- good low- and high-temperature mechanical strength.

STD.AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 0 5 1 b 4 9 4 510
320 NICKEL Welding Encyclopedia
In demandingindustrialenvironments,nickelalloy alloy 400 (UNSN04400)immersedinhydrofluoric

welds must duplicate the attributes of the base metal to acid is not sensitive to stress-corrosion cracking, butit
a very high degree. Welding, heat treating, and fabri- is when exposed tothe aerated acidor the acid vapors.
cation procedures should be established with this in The choice of welding process will be basedon the
mind.Thechemicalcompositionsofvariousnickel following:
alloys are listed in Table N- l. (1) Alloy to be welded
High-qualityweldmentsarereadilyproducedin (2) Thickness of the base metal
nickelalloysbycommonlyusedweldingprocesses. (3) Design conditions of the structure (such as tem-
Not all processes are applicable to every alloy; metal- perature, pressure, or type of stresses)
lurgical characteristics or the unavailability of match- (4) Welding position
ing or suitable welding filler metals and fluxes may ( 5 ) Need for jigs and fixtures
limit the choiceof welding processes. (6) Service conditions and environments
Welding procedures for nickel alloys are similar to
Metal Characteristics
those used for stainless steel, except the molten weld
metal is more sluggish, requiring more accurate weld Nickel has a face-centered-cubic (FCC) structure up
metal placement in thejoint. Thermal expansion char- to its melting point. Nickel can be alloyed with a num-
acteristics of nickel alloys approximate those of car- ber of elements without forming detrimental phases.
bon steelandaremorefavorablethanthose of Nickel in some aspects bears a marked similarity to
stainlesssteel.Thus,warpinganddistortionarenot iron, its close neighbor in the periodic table. Nickel is
severe during welding. only slightly denser than iron, and it has similar mag-
The mechanical properties of nickel alloy base met- netic and mechanical properties. The crystalline struc-
als will vary depending on the amount of hot or cold ture of pure nickel at room temperature, however, is
work remaining in the finished form (sheet, plate, or quite different from that of iron. Therefore, the metal-
tube).Somemodification in theprocedures maybe lurgy of nickel and nickel alloys differs from that of
needed if the base metal is not in the fully annealed iron alloys.
condition. Alloy Groups
In general, the properties of welded joints in fully Nickel alloys can be classified into four groups:
annealed nickel alloys are comparable to those of the (1) Solid-solution-strengthenedalloys
basemetals.Postweldtreatmentisgenerallynot (2) Precipitation-hardened alloys
needed to maintain or restore corrosion resistance in (3) Dispersion-strengthened alloys
most nickel alloys. In most media, the corrosion resis- (4) Cast alloys
tance of the weld metal is similar to that of the base
Solid-Solution-Strengthened Alloys
metal. Welds made on Ni-Mo alloyNlOOOl and Ni-Si
castalloyscommonlyaresolutionannealedafter All nickel alloys are strengthened by solid solution.
weldingtorestorecorrosionresistancetotheheat- Additions of aluminum,chromium,cobalt,copper,
affected zone (HAZ). iron, molybdenum, titanium, tungsten, and vanadium
Over-alloyedfillermetalsareoftenused(some- contribute to solid-solution strengthening. Aluminum,
times in lieu of postweld heat treatment) to fabricate chromium, molybdenum, and
tungsten contribute
components for veryaggressivecorrosiveenviron- strongly to solid-solution strengthening whileothers
ments.Theover-matchingcompositionoffsetsthe have a lesser effect.Molybdenum and tungsten
effects of weld metal segregation when using a match- improve strength at elevated temperatures.
ing composition. Examples are the use of filler metal Pure Nickel.Nickel 200 and the low-carbon version,
NiCrMo-3productstoweldthesuperstainless nickel 201, aremostwidelyusedwherewelding is
alloys, containing 4 to 28% molybdenum, and the use involved. Of these, the low-carbon nickel (201) is pre-
of filler metal NiCrMo-10 to fabricate components of ferred for applications involving service exposure to
the base metal Ni-Cr-Mo alloy C-276 (UNS N10276). temperaturesabove315C(600F)because of its
Postweld heat treatment may be required for precip-increased resistance to graphitization at elevated tem-
itationhardening in specificalloys.Postweldstress peratures. This graphitization is the result of excess
reliefmaybenecessarytoavoidstress-corrosion carbon being precipitated intergranularly in the tem-
crackinginapplicationsinvolvinghydrofluoricacid perature range of 315 to 760C (600 to 1400F) when
vapor or certain caustic solutions. For example, Ni-Cu nickel 200 is held therefor extended time.

! STD*AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb495 4 5 7
Welding Encyclopedia NICKEL ALLOYS 321
~ ~ ~ ~~
Table N-1
Nominal Chemical Compositionof vpical Nickel Alloys
Composition, wt. %
UNS
Alloy Number Nib C Cr Mo Fe Co Cu Al Ti Nbc Mn Si W B Other
~~
Commercially Pure Nickels

N02200
200 99.5 0.08 - - 0.2 - 0.1 - - - 0.2 0.2 - - -
-
201 N02201
0.01
99.5 - - 0.2 - 0.1 - - - 0.20.2 - -
205 N02205 99.5 0.08 - - 0.1 - 0.08 - 0.03 - 0.08 0.2 - - 0.05Mg
Solid-Solution Allow
400 No4400 66.5 0.2 - - 1.2 - 31.5 - -0.2 1 - -
404 N04404 54.5 0.08 - - 0.2 - 44 0.03 - 0.05 0.05 - -
R45 N04405 66.5 0.2 - - 1.2 - 31.5 - - 0.020.1 - -
X N06002 47 220.10 1.5 18 9 - - - 1 1 0.6 -
NICR 80 N06003 76 20 0.1 - 1 " - - 2 1 "
NICR 60 N06004 57 16 0.1 - bal. - - - - 1 1 "
G 2 N06007
2.5 20 6.5 4422 0.1 - 1 1.5 2 1 -
IN 102 N06102 68 7 0.063 15 - - 0.4 3 " 0.005 3
RA 333 N06333 45 0.05 25 33 18 - 3 -1.2 1.5 1 -
600 N06600 76 0.08 15.5 - 8 - 0.2 - - 0.5 0.2 - -
601 NO6601 60.5 0.05 23 - 14 - - 1.4 - 0.20.5 - -
617 N06617
12.51.5 529 220.07 - 1.2 - 0.5 0.5 - -
622 N06622 59 0.005 14.2
20.5 2.3 - - - - " 3.2 -
625 N06625 61 0.05 2.5 921.5 - - 0.2 0.20.23.6 - -
686 N06686 58 0.005 1.5
16.3
20.5 - - - - " 3.8 -
-
690 N06690 60 300.02 - 9 " - - OSd OSd -
725 N07725 73 15.5 0.02 - 2.5 - - 0.7 1.0 - - - -
825 N08825 42 321.5 0.03 30 - 0.1 2.25 - 0.5 0.25 - -
B NlOOOl 61 0.05 1 28 5 2.5 - - - 1 1 "
N N10003 70 0.0616.5 7 5 - - - - 0.8 0.5 - -
W N10004 60 0.12 5 24.5 5.5 2.5 - - - 1 1 "
C-276 N10276 57 O.Old 16 15.5 5 2Sd - - - Id 40.08d -
c-22 N06022 56 0.010" 22 3 13 2Sd - - - O S d 0.08d 3 -
B-2 N10665 69 O.Old Id 28 Zd Id - - - Id O.ld - -
C-4 N06455 65 15.516 O.Old 3d 2d - - - Id 0.08d - -
G-3 N06985 44 19.570.015d
22 5d 2.5 - OSd ld Id lSd -
G30 N06030 43 0.03d 30 5.5 15 5d 2 - - lSd
lSd Id 2.5 -
S N06635
67 0.02d15 16 2d 3d - 0.25 - - 0.5 0.4 Id 0.015d G 2 L a
230 N06230 57 0.10 22 3d 2 5d - 0.3 - - 0.5 0.4 0.015d
140.02La
214 N07214 75 0.10 16 - 3 " 4.5 - - OSd 0.2d - 0.01d
O.OlY, 0.1P
Precipitation-Hardenable Alloys
0.15
N03301
96.5
301 - 0.6-4.40.130.3 - 0.25 0.5 - - -
K-500
N05500
0.10
66.5 - - 1 0.6
2.7
29.5 - 0.20.08 - - -
Wa~paloy N07001
58 0.08 419.5 - 13.5 - 3 1.3 - - - - 0.006 0.06Zr
10 190.10
N07041
55
R-41 - 3 1.5 - 0.10.05 - 0.005 -
N07080
80A 0.06
76 19.5 - - - - 2.41.6 - 0.30.3 - 0.006 0.06Zr
90 N07090 59 19.5
0.07 - - 16.5 - 2.51.5 - 0.3 0.3 - 0.003 0.06Zr
10 20M
0.15
N07252
252
55 - 10 - 1 2.6 - 0.5 0.5 - 0.005 -
U-500
NM500
54 0.08 4 18 - 18.5 - 2.92.9 - 0.5 0.5 - 0.006 0.05Zr
713C 4 12.5
0.12
N07713
74 - - - 6 0.82 - - - 0.012 0.1oZr
-
N07718
52.5
718 18.5 3 19
0.04 - - 0.20.5
0.25.10.9 - -
N07750
X750
73 0.04 15.5 - 7 - - 2.5 0.7 1 0.5 0.2 - - -
16N09706
0.03
41.5
706 - 40" 0.20.22.91.80.2 - - -
901 12.5
N09901
0.05
42.5 - 6 36 - 2.8 0.2 - 0.10.1 - 0.015 -
-
cNO9902
902
0.03
42.2 5.3 - 48.5 - - 2.6 0.6 - 0.4 0.5 - -
INlW N13100 60
3 100.18 - 15 - 5.5 4.7 - - - - 0.014 O.O6Zr,
1.OV
Dispersion-Strengthened Alloys
TDNickel N03260
98 - " " " - " " - 2ThO*
TDNICR N00754
78 - 20 - - - - - - - - - - - 2Th02
a. Several of these designations useparts of or are registeredtrade names. Theseand similar alloys maybe known by other designations and trade names.
b. Includes small amount of cobalt, if cobalt content is not specified.
c. Includes tantalum (Nbt Ta).
d. Maximumvalue.
e. Casting alloys.

STD.AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 W 0784265 0536496 393 m
322 NICKEL Encyclopedia Welding
Major applications for the two alloys are food pro- moderated by titanium and niobium. Niobium has the
cessing equipment, caustic handling equipment, labo- greatesteffect on decreasingtheaging rate and
ratory
crucibles,
chemicalshipping
drums,and improves weldability.
electrical and electronic parts. Nickel-CopperAlloys. The principalalloyinthis
Nickel-CopperAlloys. Nickelandcopperform a group is K-500. Strict attention to heat-treating proce-
continuous series of solid solutions with a face-cen- dures must be followed to avoid strain-age cracking.
tered-cubiccrystalstructure. The principalalloysin Its corrosion resistance is similar to the solid-solution
this group are alloy 400 and the free-machining ver- alloy 400. The alloy has been in commercial existence
sion of it, R-405. These alloys have high strength and for well over 50 years and is routinely welded, using
toughness, and they are important in industry prima- proper care, with the gas tungsten arc welding process.
rily because of their corrosion resistance. The alloys Weld metal properties using filler metals of matching
haveexcellentresistanceto sea or brackishwater, composition seldom develop 100% joint efficiencies,
chlorinatedsolvents,glassetchingagents,sulfuric thus a commonconsideration by thedesigner is to
acids, and manyother acids and alkalis. locate the weld in an area of low stress. ERNiFeCr-2
Nickel-copper alloys are readilyjoined by welding, filler metal has been used to join thisalloy,but an
brazing,andsolderingwithproperprecautions. To evaluation of serviceenvironmentandthediffering
improve strength and to eliminate porosity in the weld aging temperatures between the two alloys must be
metal, filler metals that differ somewhat in chemical made. The base metal supplier should be consulted for
composition from the base metal may be used. Weld- recommendations for filler materials.
ing without the addition of filler metal is not recom- Dispersion-Strengthened Alloy
mendedformanualgastungstenarcwelding.Most Nickel and nickel-chromium alloys can be strength-
automatic or mechanized welding procedures require ened to very high strength levels by the uniform dis-
the additionof filler metal, but a few do not. persion of very fine refractory oxide (Tho2) particles
Welding filler metals applicable to this alloy group throughout the alloy matrix. This is done using powder
are also widely used to weld copper alloys. metallurgy techniques during manufacture of the alloy.
Nickel-ChromiumAlloys. Nickelalloys600, 601, When these metalsare fusion welded, the oxide parti-
690,214,230, G-30, and RA-330 are commonly used. cles agglomerate during solidification. This destroys
Alloy 600, which is the most widely used, has good the original strengtheningafforded by dispersion
corrosionresistanceatelevatedtemperaturesalong within the matrix.The weld metal will be significantly
with good high-temperature strength. Because of its weaker than the base metal. The high strength of these
resistance to chloride-ion stress-corrosion cracking, it base metals canbe retained with processes that do not
finds wide use at all temperatures and has excellent involve melting the base metal. Contact the base metal
room-temperature and cryogenic properties. supplier for recommendations for specific conditions.
Precipitation-Hardenable Alloys Cast Alloys
These alloys are strengthened by controlled heating, Casting alloys,like wrought alloys, can be strength-
which precipitates a second phase known as gamma enedbysolid-solutionorprecipitationhardening.
prime, from a supersaturatedsolution.Precipitation Precipitation-hardening alloys high in aluminum con-
occurs upon reheatinga solution-treated and quenched tent, such as alloy 713C, will harden during slow cool-
alloytoanappropriatetemperature for a specified inginthemoldand are consideredunweldableby
time. Each alloy will have an optimum thermal cycle fusion processes. However, surface defects and service
to achieve maximum strength the in finished aged con- damage are frequently repaired by welding. It should
dition. Some cast alloys will age directly the
as solidi- beunderstoodthat a compromiseisbeingmade
fied casting cools in the mold. betweentheconvenience of weldingandthe cast
The mostimportantphasefrom a strengthening strength and ductility. Most nickel cast alloys will con-
standpoint is the ordered face-centered-cubic gamma tain significant amounts of silicon to improve fluidity
prime that is based upon the compound Ni3A1. This and castability. Mostof these cast alloys are weldable
phase has a high solubility for titanium and niobium; by conventionalmeans,butasthesiliconcontent
consequently, its composition will vary withthe base- increases, so doesweld-crackingsensitivity.This
metal composition and temperatureof formation. Alu- crackingsensitivitycan be avoidedusingwelding
minum has the greatest hardening potential, but this is techniques that minimize base metal dilution.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 0536497 2 2 T m
EL
Encyclopedia
Welding 323
Nickel castings that are considered unweldable by When weaving is used, a trailing shieldmay be neces-
arc welding methods may be welded using the oxy- sary for adequate shielding. In any case, the nozzle
acetylene process and a very high preheat temperature. should be large enoughto deliver an adequate quantity
Cast nickel alloys containing 30% copper are consid- of gas under low velocity tothe welding area. Repre-
ered unweldable whenthe silicon exceeds2% because sentativechemicalcompositions of automatic gas
of their sensitivity to cracking. However, when weldmetal arc cladding are shown in Table N-2. The clad-
able grade castings are specified, weldability is quite dinginthistablewasproducedwith the following
good,andsuchweldswillpassroutineweld-metal welding conditions:
inspections using methods such as radiography, liquid- (1) Torch gas, 24 Umin (50 ft3 /h) argon
penetrant testing, and pressure tests. (2) Trailing shield gas,24 Umin (50 ft3 /h) argon
(3) Electrode extension,19 mm (3/4 in.)
NICKEL ALLOYS, Weld Cladding (4) Power source, DCEP
Nickel alloy weld metal is readily applied as clad- (5) Oscillation frequency,70 cycledmin
ding on carbon steels, low-alloy steels, and other base (6) Bead overlap,6 to 10 mm (1/4 to 3/8 in.)
metals to increase the service life of the workpiece or (7)Travel speed, 110 mm/min (4-1/2 in./min)
to provideacorrosion-resistantsurface.One of the When nickel-copperor copper-nickel claddingis to
benefits of this procedure,for example, is the cost sav- be applied to steel, a barrier layer of nickel filler metal
ing realized by cladding a steel vessel with a thin cor- ER61 must be appliedfirst. Nickel weld metal will tol-
rosion-resistantlayer of nickelalloyratherthan erate greaterirondilutionwithoutfissuring.When
making the whole vessel of nickel alloy. cladding is applied manually, the iron content of the
Nickel-alloy cladding can be applied to cast iron, first bead will be considerably higher than that of sub-
butatrialcladdingshouldbemadetodetermine sequent beads. The first bead should be applied at a
whether standard procedures can be used.The casting reduced travel speed to dissipate much the of penetrat-
skin, or cast surface, must be removed by a mechani- ing force of the arc in a large weld pool and reduce the
cal meanssuchasgrinding.Cladding on cast irons iron content of the bead. The iron content of subse-
with high sulfur or phosphoruscontentmaycrack quent beads,as well as the surface contourof the clad-
because of embrittlement by those elements. Cracking ding, can be controlledby elimination of weaving and
can often be eliminated by applying a barrier layerof maintaining the arc at the edge of the preceding bead.
AWS ENiFe-CI welding electrodeor AWS ENiFeT3- Suchaprocedurewillresult in a 50% overlap of
CI coredwire.These filler metalswereespecially beads, and the weld metal will wet the steel without
developed for welding cast iron, andthe weld metal is excessive arc impingement. The welding gun should
more resistant to cracking caused by phosphorus, sul- be inclined up to5" toward the preceding bead so that
fur, andcarbondilution.Whencladding is applied the major force of the arc does not impinge on the
directly to cast iron without a barrier layer, amperage steel.
should be the minimum that provides proper arc char- Submerged Arc Cladding
acteristics in order to hold dilution atthe lowest level.
The submergedarcwelding (SAW) processpro-
Gas Metal Arc Cladding duceshigh-qualitynickel-alloycladding on carbon
Gas metal arc welding(GMAW) with spray transfer steel and low-alloy steel. The process offers several
is successfully used to apply nickel-alloy cladding to advantages over gas metal arc cladding:
steel. The cladding is usually produced with mecha- (1) High deposition rates, 35 to 50% increase with
nized equipment and with weaving of the electrode. 1.6 mm (0.062 in.) diameter surfacing metal, and the
Argon is often used as the shielding gas. The addition ability to use larger electrodes.
of 15 to 25% helium, however, is beneficial for clad- (2) Fewer layers are required for a given cladding
ding with nickel and nickel-chromium-iron. Wider and thickness. For example, with 1.6 mm (0.062 in.) sur-
flatter beads and reduced depthof fusion result as the facing metal, two layers applied by the submerged arc
helium content is increased to about 25%. Gas-flow process have been foundto be equivalent to three lay-
rates are influencedbyweldingtechniqueandwill ers applied by the gas metal arc welding process.
vary from 15 to 45 Wmin (35 to 100 ft3 /h). As weld- (3) The welding arc is much less affected by minor
ing current is increased, the weld pool will become process variations such as welding wire condition and
largerandrequirelargergasnozzles for shielding. electrical welding fluctuations.

~~ ~~ ~ ~~
STD.AWS JWE-ENGL 1997
0784265 0536498 366
ALLOYS,
Table N-2
Chemical Compositionof Gas Metal Arc Cladding on Steela
Surfacing Chemical Compositionof Weld Metal, wt.%
Current,
Filler Voltage,
Metal C CuACr FeLayer
Ni V Mn S Si Mg Ti Al Nb+Ta
ERNi-I 280-290
27-28 1 71.6 25.5 - - 0.12 0.28 0.005 0.32 - 2.08 0.06 -
2 84.7 12.1 - - 0.09 0.17 0.006 0.35 - 2.46 0.07 -
94.9 3 1.7 - - 0.06 0.09 0.003 0.37 - 2.76 0.08 -
E R N ~ C U 280-300
- ~ ~27-29 66.3
7.8
2 - 19.9
0.06 2.81 0.003 0.84 0.008 2.19 0.05 '-
3 65.5 2.9 - 24.8 0.04 3.51 0.004 0.94 0.006

2.26 0.04 -
ERCuNib 280-290
27-28 2 41.1 11.5 - 45.8 0.04
0.53 0.007 0.14 - 0.84 - -
3 35.6 3.1 - 60.1
0.01
0.61
0.006 0.08 - 0.43 - -
ERNiCr-3 280-300
29-30 1 51.3 28.5
15.8
0.07
0.17 2.35 0.012 0.20 0.017 0.23 0.06 1.74
2 68.0 8.8 18.90.06 0.040 2.67 0.008 0.12 0.015 0.30 0.06 2.27
3 72.3 2.5 19.7 0.06 0.029 2.78 0.007 0.11 0.020 0.31 0.06 2.38
a. Automatic cladding with 1.6 mm (0.062 in.) diameter filler metal
on SA 212 GradeB steel.
b. First layer applied with ERNi-1 filler metal.
(4) Weldedsurfacesofsubmergedarccladding electrode. The major force of thearcshouldbe

aresmoothenoughtobeliquid-penetrantinspected directed at the edge of the previous bead so that the
withnospecialsurfacepreparationotherthanwire weld metal will spread onto the steel with only mini-
brushing. mum weaving of the electrode. If beads with feather
( 5 ) Increasedcontrolprovided by thesubmerged edges are applied, more layers will be required, and
arcprocessyieldsfewerdefectsandrequires fewer the potentialfor excessive dilution will be greater. The
repairs. weld interface contour of the cladding should be as
Chemical compositions of specific submerged arc smooth as possible. A scalloped weld interface con-
weld claddingsare shown in Table N-3. tour can result in excessive iron dilution, with subse-
Thepowersupplyfor all weldcladdingapplied quent cracking as the weld specimenis subjected to a
using weaving techniques is direct current electrode 180-degree longitudinal bend test.
negative (DCEN) with constant voltage. DCEN pro-
duces an arc with less depth of fusion, which reduces Hot-wire Plasma Arc Cladding
dilution.Directcurrentelectrodepositive(DCEP) High-quality cladding can be produced at high dep-
resultsinimprovedarcstabilityandisusedwhen osition rates with the hot-wire plasma arc process. The
stringer-bead cladding is needed to minimize the pos- process offers precise controlof dilution, and dilution
sibility of slag inclusions. rates as low as 2% have been obtained. For optimum
Shielded Metal Arc Cladding uniformity, however, a dilution rate in the 5 to 10%
Shielded metal arc cladding on cast and wrought rangeisrecommended.Highdepositionratesresult
steels is widely used for such applications as facings from the use of twofiller metal wires, whichare resis-
on vessel outlets and trim on valves. The procedures tance heated by a separate ac power source. The filler
outlined for shielded metal arc joining should be fol- metal is in a nearly molten state before it enters the
lowed, except that special care must be taken to con- weldpool.Depositionrates for nickel-alloyweld
trol dilution of the cladding. Excessive dilution can metal are 16 to 18 kgh (35 to 40 lbh), approximately
resultinweldmetalthat is cracksensitiveorhas double those obtained with submerged arc weld dad-
reduced corrosion resistance. The amperage should be ding. Welding conditionsfor hot-wire plasma arc clad-
in the lower half of the recommended range for the ding are given in Table N-4.

EL
Encyclopedia
Welding ALLOYS, Weld Cladding 325
Table N-3
Chemlcal Compositionof Submerged Arc Cladding on Steel, wt. %*
Flux and
Layer
Metal
Filler Ni Fe Cr Cu C Mn S Si Ti Nb+Ta Mo
and 4 Flux 1 63.6 12.5 17.00 - 0.07 2.95 0.008 0.40 0.15 3.4 -
2 ERNiCr-3 5.3 17.50 - 0.07 3.00 0.008 0.40 0.15 3.5 -
71.5 3 2.6 18.75 - 0.07 3.05 0.008 0.40 0.15 3.5 -
Flux 5 and60.6 1 12.0 21.0 0.06 5.00 0.014 0.90 0.45 - -
ERNiCu-764.6 2 4.55 24.0 0.04 5.50 0.015 0.90 0.45 - -
Flux 6 and
88.8 2 ERNi-1 8.4 - - 0.07 0.40 0.004 0.64 1.70 - -
.6 2 ERN9Cr-3 7.2 18.50 - 0.04 3.00 0.007 0.37 - 2.2 -
Flux 7 and
ERNiCrMo-3
60.2 1 3.6 21.59 - 0.740.02 0.001
3.29
0.13
0.29 8.6
*Cladding onASTM SA 212 GradeB steel appliedby oscillating techniquewith 1.6 mm (0.062 in.) diameterfiller metal.
Table N-4
Typical Conditions for Hot-wire Plasma Arc Cladding
Characteristic Metal Filler
ERNiCu-7 Metal Filler
ERNiCr-3
Filler metal diameter 1.6 mm (0.062 in.) 1.6 mm (0.062 in.)
Plasma arc power source DCEN DCEN
Plasma arc current 490 A 490 A
Plasma arc voltage 36 V 36 V
Hot-wire power source AC AC
Hot-wire current 200 A 175 A
Hot-wire voltage 17 V 24 V
Orifice gas and flow rate 75% He, 25% Ar; 26Umin (55 ft3/h) 75% He, 25% Ar; 26 Wmin(55 ft3/h)
Shielding gas and flow rate Argon; 19 Umin (40 ft3/h) Argon; 19Umin (40 ft3/h)
Trailing shield gas and flow rate Argon; 21Umin (45 ft3/h) Argon; 21 Wmin (45
Standoff distance 21 mm (13/16 in.) 21 mm (13/16 in.)
Travel speed 190 mm/min (7-1/2 in./min) 190 mdmin (7-1/2 in./min)
Weave width 38 mm (1-1/2 in.) 38 mm (1-1/2 in.)
Weave frequency 44 cycledmin 44 cycledmin
Bead width 50 mm (2 in.) 56 mm (2-3/16 in.)
Bead thickness 5 mm (3/16 in.) 5 mm (3/16 in.)
Deposit rate 18 kg/h (40 lbh) 18 kg/h (40 lbh)
Preheat temperature 120C (250F) 120C (250F)

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 05Lb500 b44 W
LLOY 326 NICKEL CUlTlNG Encyclopedia Welding
Welding of Nickel Alloy Clad Steel

Steels clad witha nickel alloy are frequently joined
by welding. Since the cladding is normally used forits 30-40" Y-. I
corrosion resistance, the cladding alloy must be con-
tinuous over theentire surface of the structure, includ-
ingthewelded joints. Thisrequirementinfluences
joint design and welding procedure. Butt joints should
1 il\
I
STEEL
I
1.6 mm (1/16in.)
be used when possible.

Figure N-4 shows recommended weld joint designs
-TCLADDING
for two thickness ranges [see (A) and (B)]. Both designs (A) MATERIAL 4.8 TO 16 mm
include a small root face of unbeveled steel above the (W16TO 5/8 in.) THICK
cladding to protect the cladding during welding of the
steel. The steel side should be welded first with a low-
hydrogen filler metal. It is important to avoid fusion of
the cladding during the first welding pass. 10-15"
Dilution of the steel weld with the nickel-alloy
ding can cause cracking of the weld metal. The clad
side of the joint should be prepared by grinding or
chippingandweldedwiththe
clad-
filler metalrecom-
1 STEEL \li 5-8.0mm (W16-5/16in.)
mended for cladding. The weld metal will be diluted

with steel. To maintain corrosion resistance, at least CLADDING 1.6 mm (U16in.)
two layers, and preferably three or more, should be
applied. (B) MATERIAL 16 TO 25 mm
The strip-back method is sometimes used instead of (5/8 TO 1 in.) THICK
theproceduredescribedabove.The
cladding is
removed from the vicinityof the joint as shown in Fig-
ure N-4 (C). The steelis then welded using a standard
joint design and technique for steel, and the nickel-
alloycladding is reapplied byweld cladding. The
advantage of the strip-back methodis that it eliminates
the possibilityof cracking causedby penetration of the
steel weld metal into the cladding.
Somejoints, such asthose in closed vesselsor tubu- CLADDING
lar products, are accessible only from the steel side. In (C) STRIP-BACK METHOD OF
such cases, a standard joint design for steel is used, JOINT PREPARATION
and the cladding at the bottom of the joint is welded
first with nickel alloy weld metal. After the cladding is Figure N--oint Designs for Clad Steel
welded, the joint can be completed with the appropri-
ate nickel alloy weld metal, or a barrier layer of car-
(LBC). Other processes used are abrasive cutting and
bon-free iron can be applied and the joint completed
machining, and waterjet cutting.
with steel weld metal. If the thickness of the steel is
8 mm (Y16 in.) or less, it is usually more economical Initially,
metal
powder cutting (POC),which
to complete the joint with nickel alloy welding filler employs an oxidizing powder with an oxyfuel torch,
metal.Figure N-5 showsthemostcommonlyused was the only thermal method used, but the process has
fabrication sequence when both sides are accessible. been superseded. Plasma arc
cutting (PAC) is the most
widely usedof the thermal cutting processes.
NICKEL ALLOYCUlTlNG Plasma-ArcCutting. Cuttingwiththeplasma arc
Nickel alloy plate can be successfully cut by any process is fast and versatile, andit produces high-qual-
one of several thermal cutting processes: metal pow- ity cuts. High power concentration and gas velocity
der cutting (POC), air carbon arc cutting (CAC-A), are required for cutting, so that the molten metal is
plasmaarccutting(PAC),andlaserbeamcutting blown out of the cut as the torch progresses.

opedia Welding CUlTlNG 327
and is widely used for back-gouging on welds andfor

STEP 1 the removal of fillet welds.cnGolling
By depth
the of
ZERO ROOT OPENING WITH 2 MM the groove, limited thicknesses of material can be cut.
W16 IN.) MNMJM ROOTFACEIN Groovesup to 25 mm (1in.) deep canbemadeina
STEEL.
single pass, but increments of 1 mm (0.004 in.) can
STEP 1 also be removed. The width of the groove is deter-
mined primarily by the size of electrode. Torch angle
and speed affect depth of the groove and the heat-
STEP 2 affected zone.
WELD WITH CARBON-STEEL FILLER
h-METAL. DO NOT WELD INTO NICKEL-
f ALLOYCLADDING.
Laser Beam Cutting (LBC). Laser beam cutting is a
thermal cutting process that severs materialby locally
1.6 mm melting or vaporizing, with the heat generated by a
(1116 in.)
laser beam. The process is used with or without assist
STEP 2 gas to aid in the removal of molten and vaporized
material.
STEP 3
Laser cutting has the advantage of high speeds, nar-
BACKGOUGENICKEL-ALLOY SIDE row kerf widths, high quality edges, low heat input,
TO SOUND METAL. IN VERY CORRO- andminimumworkpiecedistortion. It is aneasily
SIVE
SERVICE,
GOUGINGTO A
DEPTHTOALLOWTHREELAYERS
automated process that can cut most metals.
STEP 3 OF
NICKEL-ALLOY
FILLER
METAL Most nickel-base alloysare intended for some form
MAY BE NECESSARY. of severe service, i.e., high temperatures or corrosive
environments. While these metals are easily laser-cut,
STEP 4 it is usually necessary to examine the workpiece for
FILLTHEGROOVEWITHNICKEL- such metallurgicaldefects as micro-cracking and grain
ALLOY FILLER METAL. growth to ensure that the part will perform properly.
Water Jet Cutting.Water jet cutting severs metals and
STEP 4
other hard materials using a high-velocity water jet. The
Figure N u l a d Metal Joint Design and Welding water stream, with a flow rate of 0.4 to 19 Umin (0.8
Fabrication Sequence When BothSides of Joint to 40 ft3his usually manipulatedby a robot or gantry
are Accessible system, but small workpieces maybe guided past a sta-
tionary waterjet by hand. Metals and other hard mate-
Gasesused for plasma cutting includeargon- rials are cut by adding an abrasive in powder form to
hydrogen mixtures, nitrogen-hydrogen mixtures, oxy- the waterstream.Higherflowrates of water are
gen and nitrogen. The choice of gas depends on the required to accelerate the abrasive particles.
applicationand the type of equipmentused. The Materials are cutcleanly,withoutragged edges,
equipmentmanufacturersrecommendationsshould without heat, and generally faster than on a band saw.
be followed. A smooth, narrow 0.8 to 2.5 mm (0.030 to 0.100 in.)
Cuts up to 150 mm (6 in.) thick have been made in kerf is produced. There is no problem of thermal
high-nickel alloys. Because of the constricted plasma delamination, or deformation, when water jet cutting
jet and the speed of the process, heat-affected zones is properly applied.
are usually only 0.25 to 0.4 mm (0.010 to 0.015 in.) Metal Powder Cutting (POC).Metal powder cutting is
wide. The cut surfaces of sections thinnerthan 75 mm based on the use of an oxygen jet into which finely
(3 in.) are superior to those produced by the powder divided powder is fed. The powder initiates an exo-
cutting process. Theyare similar to sheared edges but thermic reaction that supplies the heat necessary for
have less bevel. For many applications they can be cutting. Nickel alloys can be readily cut with an iron
welded without
intermediatecleaning
operations. powder or mixtures of iron and aluminum powders.
Quality of cuts in heavy sections is about equal to that In powder cutting, considerable amounts of oxide
of cuts produced by powder cutting. and burned material accumulate onthe metal, withthe
Air CarbonArcCutting (CAGA). This process is greatest buildup occurring on the top surface. This slag
more effectivefor gouging operations thanfor cutting is moreadherent on nickel-copperalloysthan on
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 E 07842b5 0536502 417
LLOY 328 NICKEL Encyclopedia Welding
nickel or nickel-chromium alloys. All adherent slag, Surface Preparation

powder or dross must be removed prior to any further Cleanlinessis the singlemostimportantrequire-
operation. ment for successful welding of nickel alloys. At high
The depth affected by heat from powder cutting is temperatures, these alloysare susceptible to embrittle-
extremely shallow. Corrosion resistance of the metalis mentbymanylow-meltingsubstances.Suchsub-
not impaired if all discoloration is removed. stances are often found in materials used in normal
Reference:AmericanWeldingSociety, Welding manufacturing processes. Nickel alloysare embrittled
Handbook, 8thEdition, Volume2. Miami,Florida: by sulfur,phosphorus,andmetalswithlowmelting
American Welding Society,199l. points such as lead, zinc, and tin. Lead hammers, sol-
ders, and wheels or belts loaded with these materials
NICKEL ALLOY WELDING arefrequentsources of contamination.Detrimental
With minor modifications, the welding procedures elements are often presentin oils, paint, markingtray-
used for joining steel are applicable to nickel alloys, ons, cutting fluids, andshop dirt.
such as nickel-copper,ornickel-chromium. Since a Arc Welding
number of processes are capable of producing satisfac-
tory joints, the selection can be determinedby the fol- Nickelalloys are weldable by all the processes
lowing considerations: commonlyusedforsteelandotherbasemetals.
Welded joints canbeproducedtostringentquality
(1)Corrosiveenvironmenttowhichtheproduct requirements in the precipitation-hardenable group,as
will be exposed (to establish whether welding, silver
well as the solid-solution group.
brazing or soft soldering is applicable)
(2) Gauge of metal Applicable Processes. Some arc welding processes
(3) Design of the product broadly applicable to nickel alloys are identified by
(4)Design of the individualjoints in the product individual alloy in Table N-5. Note that the shielded
metal arc welding(SMAW) and gas metal arc welding
Filler Metals and Fluxes
(GMAW) processes are not applicable to the welding
Covered Electrodes. In most cases, the weld metal of the precipitation-hardenable alloys. Covered elec-
composition from a covered electrode resembles that trodes for weldingtheage-hardenablealloyssuffer
of the base metal with which it is used. Invariably, its fromdramaticallyreducedmechanicalproperties of
chemicalcompositionhasbeenadjustedtosatisfy theweldandinterbeadslagadhesion,whilethe
weldability requirements; usually additions are made GMAW process results in high heat input, to which
to control porosity, enhance micro cracking resistance, most of the age-hardenable alloysare sensitive.
or improve mechanical properties. Covered electrodes
normallyhaveadditionsofdeoxidizingingredients Heat Input Limitations.High heat input during weld-
such as titanium,manganese,andniobium.ANSI/ ing may produce undesirable changesin nickel alloys.
AWSA5.11, SpecificationforNickelandNickel Some degree of annealing and grain growth will take
AlloyWeldingElectrodes for ShieldedMetalArc place in the heat-affected zone (HAZ). The heat input
Welding, is usedalmostuniversallyin filler metal of the welding process and the preheat temperature
selection.
Sometimesmilitary
specifications
will will determine the extent of these changes. High heat
apply, such as the MIL-E-22200 series, but they dupli- input may result in excessive constitutional liquation,
cate the AWS specification in most respects. carbide precipitation, or otherharmfulmetallurgical
phenomena. These,in turn, may cause cracking orloss
Fluxes. Fluxesareavailable for submergedarc of corrosion resistance.
welding of many nickel alloys. Fluxes, in addition to
protecting the molten metal from atmospheric contam- Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
ination, provide arc stability and contribute important Gas tungsten arcweldingiswidelyusedinthe
additions to the weld metal. Therefore, the filler metal welding of nickel alloys, especially for the following
and the flux must be jointly compatible with the base applications:
metal. An improperfluxcancauseexcessiveslag (1) Thin base metal
adherence, weld cracking, inclusions, poor bead con- (2) Root passes when the joint will not be back-
tour, and undesirable changes in weld metal composi- welded
tion.Fluxesusedtoweldcarbonsteelandstainless (3) When flux residues fromthe use of coated elec-
steel are not suitable. trodes would be undesirable

~~
~~~ ~ ~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1797 07842b5 051b503 353

Welding Encyclopedia WELDING ALLOY NICKEL 329
Table N-5
Arc Welding Processes Applicableto Some Nickel Alloys
Processb
W PAW GTAW,
AlloyaSMAWNumber UNS
Commercially Pure Nickel

200 X X X X
201 N02201 X X X X
Solid-Solution Nickel Alloys
(Fine Grain)c
400 X X X X
404 X X X X
R405 N04405 X X X -
X N06002 X X X -
NICR X X - -
60 NICR X X - -
G N06007 X X X -
N06333 RA 333 - X - -
600 NO6600 X X X X
601 X X X X
625 X X X X
20Cb3 X X X X
800 X X X X
825 X X X -
B N10001 X X X -
C N10002 X X X -
N N10003 X X
Precipitation-HardenableNickel Alloys
K-500 - X - -
waspaloy N07001 - X - -
R41 N07041 - X - -
80A - X - -
90 N07090 - X - -
M 252 N07252 - X - -
u-500 N07500 - X - -
718 N077 18 - X - -
X-750 N07750 - X - -
706 - X - -
901 N09901 - X - -
Severalof these designations useparts of or are registered trade names. These and similar alloys may
be known byother designations and
trade names.
SMAW -Shielded metal arc welding
GTAW - G a s tungsten arc welding
PAW-Plasma arc welding
GMAW-Gas metal arc welding
SAW Submerged arc welding
Fine grain isASTM Number5 or finer.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784tb5 0536504 29T m
LLOY 330 NICKEL
The GTAW andplasma arc weldingprocesses frequentlymadetobring the basemetalandweld

are alsothebest joining processes for weldingthe metal properties into closer agreement.
precipitation-hardenable alloys. Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)
Shielding Gases.The recommended shieldinggas is Nickel alloys can be readily joined with the plasma
helium, argon, or a mixture of the two. Small quanti- arcweldingprocess. The constrictedarcpermits
ties of hydrogen (about5%) may be added to argonfor greater depth of fusion than that obtainable with the
single-pass welds. The hydrogen addition produces a gas tungstenarc, but the welding procedures with both
hotter arc becauseof its higher voltage gradient. How- processes are similar.Square-grooveweldscanbe
ever,hydrogen may causeporosity in multiple-pass made in base metal up to about 8 mm (0.3 in.) thick
welds with some alloys. The choice of shielding gas with a single pass when keyhole weldingis used. Thin
for arccharacteristicsanddepth of fusionshape basemetalcanbeweldedwithmelt-inwelding, as
should be based on trial welding for the particular pro-
with gas tungsten arc welding. Base metal over 8 mm
duction weld. (0.3-in.) thick can be welded using one of the other
Electrodes. Either pure tungsten or those alloyed groove weldjoint designs. The first pass can be made
with thorium, cerium or lanthanum may be used. A with keyhole welding and the succeeding passes with
2% alloyed electrode will give good results for most melt-in welding. The root face should be about 5 mm
GTAW welding. The alloyed electrodes yield longer (0.18 in.) wide, compared to 2 mm (0.06 in.) for gas
life, resulting from low vaporization of the electrode tungsten arc welding. Special techniques are required
and cooler operation. is It important to avoid overheat- for keyhole welding of thicknesses of 3mm (0.13 in.)
ing the electrode through the useof excessive current. and greater. Upslope of the orifice gas flow and the
Arcstability is bestwhenthetungstenelectrode is weldingcurrent is requiredto initiate the keyhole;
ground to a flattened point. Cone angles of 30 to 60 downslope of theseconditionsisneededto fill the
degrees with a smallflat apex are generally used. The keyhole cavity at the end of the weld bead. Argon or
pointgeometry,however,shouldbedesigned for argon-hydrogen mixtures are normally recommended
the particular application and can vary from sharp to for the orifice and shielding gases. Hydrogen addition
flat. With higher amperages, the use of a larger diame- to argon increases the arc energyfor keyhole welding
ter flat area is often desirable. The shape of the elec- and high-speed autogenous welding. Additions up to
trode has an effect on the depth of fusion and bead 15% may be used, but these should be used with care
width, with all other welding conditions being equal. becausehydrogencan cause porosity in theweld
Thus,theweldingprocedureshould spell outits metal. Therefore, the gas mixture for a specific appli-
configuration. cation should be determined by appropriate tests.
WeldingCurrent. Thepolarityrecommended for Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
both manual and mechanized welding is direct current
This process is used primarily for welding nickel
electrodenegative (DCEN). Frequentlyincorporated
andsolid-solution-strengthenedalloys.Thesealloys
in the welding machine is a high-frequency circuit to
are readily welded in all positions, with thesame facil-
enhance arc initiation and a current-decay unit to grad-
ually decrease the sizeof the weld crater when break- ity as steel. Welding techniques similar to those used
ing the arc. in making high-quality welds in stainless steel should
be used. Shallower depth of fusion and relatively slug-
Alternatingcurrentcanbeused for mechanized gishmoltenweldmetalrequireminorvariations in
welding if the arc length is closely controlled. Super- technique. Shielded metal arc welding is seldom used
imposed high-frequency power is required for arc sta- to weld the precipitation-hardenable alloys. The alloy-
bilization. High-frequency power is also useful with ing elements that contributeto precipitation hardening
dc power toinitiate the arc. are difficult to transfer across the welding arc. Struc-
Filler Metals.Filler metalsfor the GTAW process are turesthat are fabricatedfromtheseage-hardenable
generally similar to the base metals with which they alloys are welded with better results by one of the gas-
are used. However, a weld is a casting withan inherent shielded processes.If this processis used to weld age-
dendritic structure, as opposed to the relative uniform hardenable alloys, interpass bead cleaning to remove
grain size of the wrought base metal. Based on this oxides is critical to making a sound weld. Also, joint
knowledge, adjustments in chemical composition are efficiencieswillbesignificantlylowerthanthose

STD-AWS
JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 05Lb505 L2b m
lopedia Welding 331
made usingthe gas tungsten arc welding or plasma arc ShieldingGases. The protectiveatmosphere for
process. GMAW is normallyargon or argonmixedwith
Jointdesignwillvaryaccording to the material helium. The optimum shielding gas will vary with the
thicknessand the joining processused.Because type of metal transfer used.
nickel-alloy weld metaldoes not spread readily,joints Using spray and globular transfer, good results are
must be more open than those used for mild or low- obtainedwithpureargon. The addition of helium,
alloy steels to permit manipulation of the filler metal however, has been found to be beneficial. Increasing
and placementof the weld bead. helium content leads to progressively wider and flatter
Preheat is generally not required. However, if the beads and less depth of fusion. Used alone, helium
base metal temperatureis cold, it is advisable to warm tends to produceexcessive spatter.
a 250 to 300 mm (10 to 12 in.) area surrounding the A shielding gas of oxygen or carbon dioxide added
weldlocationtoapproximately 15 to20C (60 to to the argon, a mixture commonly used to weld some
7OoF)to prevent condensation. base metals, should be avoided when welding nickel
Welding current should be kept as low as possible, and cobalt alloys, because even small amounts will
consistent with smootharc action. The best procedure result in heavilyoxidizedandirregularbeadfaces.
is to follow the manufacturers recommendations for Such additions also cause severe porosity in nickel and
the particular electrodeand materials being welded. nickel-copper alloys.
Postweldheattreatment is notneededtorestore Filler Metals. Filler metals for the GMAW process
corrosionresistanceofhigh-nickelalloys for most are identical, almost without exception, to those used
applications. with the gas tungsten arc welding process.
Weld slag removal is accomplished by scratching Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
with the comer of a cold chisel and brushing with a The submergedarcweldingprocessleavesas-
stainlesssteelwirebrush. Slag should be removed weldedsurfacesready for dye-penetrantinspection
from each crater before making a re-strike, and com- without machining, grinding, orother special prepara-
pletelyremovedbefore each pass in multi-pass tion. Additional advantagesof submerged-arc welding
welding. are that gas shielding problems and operator discom-
Electrodediametersshould be chosen for weld fort are virtually eliminated.
quality rather than for production speed. The size of Filler metals andfluxes are available for submerged
the electrode should not be so large that it interferes arc weldingof several solid-solution nickel alloys. The
with proper manipulation or results in excessive heat process is not recommended for joining thick nickel-
buildup. molybdenum alloys, because the high heat input and
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) slow coolingrate of the weld resultsin low weld duc-
The gas metal arc welding process can be used to tility andloss in corrosion resistance dueto changes in
weld all the solid-solution nickel alloys except high- chemical compositionfrom flux reactions.
silicon castings,.but it is an inferior choice of process Because of its high deposition rate, the submerged
for welding manyof the age-hardenable alloys. arc process is an efficient method for joining thick
The dominant modeof metal transferis spray trans- base metal. Compared to other arc welding processes,
fer, but short circuiting and pulsed spray welding are bead surfaces are smoother, a properflux will be self-
widely employed. Spray transfer of filler metal is more peeling, and welding operator discomfort is less. The
economical because it uses higher welding currents double-U-groove is the preferred design for all joints
andlargerdiameterweldingwires,but the pulsed that permit its use. It can be completed in less time
spray welding method using smaller welding wire and with less filler metal and flux, and yields lower resid-
lower currents is more amenable to welding positions ual welding stresses. Deposition rates for submerged
other than flat. Both methods are widely used in the arc welding for two filler metal andflux combinations
production of low-dilution weld cladding on less cor- are shown in Table N-6.
rosion-resistant base metal (such as carbon and low Fluxes. Submerged arc fluxes are available for sev-
alloy steels). eral nickel alloys, and they are designedfor use with a
Globulartransfer is seldomused,because the specificweldingwire.Fluxesusedtoweldcarbon
erratic depth of fusion and uneven bead contour it pro-steels and stainless steel are invariably unsuitable for
duces are conducive to defect formation. weldingnickelalloys.Inaddition to protectingthe
~
~~
STD.AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 05Lb50b Ob2 m
LOY 332 NICKEL
Table N-6
maybeused.DCEP is preferred for groove joints,
Deposition Rates for Submerged Arc Welding yielding flatter beads and greater depth of fusion at
for Specific Filler Metal and Flux Combinations low voltage (30 to 33V). DCEN
is frequently used for
weld surfacing, yielding higher deposition rates and
Wire reduceddepth of penetration,thus
reducing the
Rate
Deposition
Diameter amount of dilutionfrom the basemetal.However,
Filler Metal DCENrequires a deeperfluxcoverandcausesan
and Flux mm in. Polarity kg/h lbh increaseinfluxconsumption.DCEN also increases
ERNiCr-3 1.6 1/16 DCEN 7.3-8.2 16-18 the possibility of slaginclusions,especiallyinbutt
with Flux4* 1.6 1/16 DCEP 6.4-7.7 14-17 joints wherethemoltenweldmetal is thickerand
2.4 3/32 DCEN 9.1-9.5 20-21 solidification occurs from the sidewalls as well as the
2.4 3/32 DCEP 7.3-7.7 16-17 root of the weld.
Electron Beam Welding (EBW)
ERNiCu-7 1.6 1/16 DCEN 7.3-7.7 16-17
withHux5* 1.6 1/16 DCEP 6.4-7.3 14-16 Some advantagesof electron beam welding are:
2.4 3/32 DCEN 9.1-9.5 20-21 (1) Single pass welds with nearly parallel sides can
2.4 3/32 DCEP 7.3-7.7 16-17 be made because of the high depth-to-width ratio and
full penetration of EBW.
*ProprietaryfluxfromIncoAlloysInternational,Inc.Weight of
flux consumed is approximately equalto weight of filler metal. (2) The process is extremelyefficientbecauseit
converts electrical energydirectlytobeamoutput
energy.
moltenmetalfromatmosphericcontamination, the (3) The heat input per unit length for a given depth
fluxes provide arc stability and contribute important of penetration is lessthanwitharcwelding.This
additions to the weld metal. results in a narrower heat-affected zone withits atten-
dant lower distortion and adverse thermal effects.
The flux cover should be only sufficient to prevent
(4) Rapid travel speeds are possible because of the
thearcfrombreakingthrough. An excessiveflux
cover can cause deformed weld beads. Slag is easily high meltingratesassociatedwiththeconcentrated
removedandshouldbediscarded,butunfusedflux heat source. This increases productivity and efficiency
can be reclaimed. However, in order to maintain con- by reducing welding time.
sistency in the flux particle size, reclaimed flux should Joints that can be welded include: butt, corner, lap,
be mixed with an equal amount of unused flux. edge, andT-joints. Normally, fillet welds are not
attempted because they are difficult to make. Square
Submergedarcfluxes are chemicalmixturesand butt welds require fixturing to maintain alignment and
can absorb moisture. Storage ina dry area and reseal-
fit-up. Without the addition offiller metal, the fit-upis
ing opened containers are standard practice. Flux that
morecriticalthan for arcwelding.Poorfit-upwill
has absorbed moisture can be reclaimed by heating. result in lack of fill in the joint. High quality welding
The flux manufacturer should be consulted for the rec-
requires cleanliness of the parts. Weld contamination
ommended procedure.
can cause porosity and cracking along with a decrease
FillerMetals. Submerged arc welding employs the in mechanical properties.
same filler metals used with the gas tungsten arc weld- Usually,anymetal or alloythatcanbefusion
ing and gas metal arc welding processes. Weld metal welded by other welding processes can be joined by
chemical composition will be somewhat different as EBW. The weldability of a particular alloy or combi-
additions are made through the flux to allow the use of nation of alloys will depend on the metallurgical char-
highercurrentsandlargerweldingwires.Welding acteristics ofthatalloy or combination,thepart
wire diameters are usually smaller than those used to configuration, joint design,processparametersand
weld carbon steels. For example, the maximum size special welding procedure.
used to weld thick base metal is 2.4 mm (3/32 in.), Laser Beam Welding (LBW)
where 1.1 mm (0.045 in.) has been used to weld thin
Manyof the nickel and nickel-based alloys have
base metal. beensuccessfullyweldedwithlaserbeamwelding.
WeldingCurrent. Direct current electrode negative Welded joint cross sections are similar to those pro-
(DCEN) or direct current electrode positive (DCEP) ducedbyanelectronbeam.Laserweldinghas the

STDaAWS
JWE-ENGL L997 W 0784265 05Lb507 T T 9 m
Welding Encyclopedia WELDING ALLOY NICKEL 333
advantage of being done in the open, compared to the Generally,however,because OFW is slow,and
vacuumchamberrequired for electronbeam.Some because it requires fluxing and more heat input,it has
process limitations includethe following: been displaced by the GMAW and GTAW processes.
(1) Positioning of the weld joint mustbevery Welding Dlsslmllar Metals
closely controlled.
Selecting the appropriate welding process and the
(2) Parts mustbeaccuratelyclamped to assure filler metal requires careful consideration when join-
alignment with the beam. ing dissimilar metals. The choice of both should be
(3) Maximum joint thickness is commonly limited based on metallurgical factors such as differences in
to 19 mm (0.75 in.). thermal expansion coefficients between the weld metal
(4) Because of rapid solidification, some porosity andbasemetal,theeffects of dilution on the weld
may be experienced. Workpiece cleanliness is of great metal, and the possibility of changes in the structure
importance because of possible weld contamination. of thematerials after extendedservice at elevated
Joint design is important because the laser beam must temperatures.
have accessto the weld area. The shieldedmetalarcweldingprocesshasthe
Resistance Welding (RW) advantage in making dissimilar metal welds in that the
This category includes spot, seam, and projection amountof filler metaladded is lessinfluenced by
welding. The weld is made bythe generation of heat at weldertechniquethanthe GTAW or GMAW pro-
thefayingsurfaces of adjoiningparts.Current is cesses. In GTAW, theweldercan vary filler metal
passed through the parts to be welded and the heat is addition toa very large degree.
generated by the resistance to the passage of current. The gas tungstenarc welding process permits more
The size and shape of the weld depends on a number control over dilution than most other processes. The
of factors, some of which are: (1) the type of equip- gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process is sometimes
ment being used, (2) the amount of current passing used for joining dissimilar metals, but the procedure
through the parts, (3) the length of time used to make must be carefully controlledto prevent excessive dilu-
the weld, (4) the cleanliness of the parts, and (5) the tion. The submerged arc welding (SAW) process can
metallurgicalcharacteristics of thematerialsbeing also be used, but again, procedures must be controlled
welded. to avoid excessive dilution from the joint sidewall.
Generally, nickel-base alloys are readily weldable
Filler Metals. A variety of materials can be welded
using resistance welding processes. Some cast precipi-using nickel alloy filler metals. Stainless and carbon
tation-hardenable, low-ductility alloys can be difficult steels,low-alloysteels,andhigh-nickelalloysare
to weld without cracking. Because nickel-base alloys among the possibilities.
have high strengthat elevated temperatures, high elec-
Either covered electrodes or bare filler metals are
trode forces are needed. Surface contaminants contain-
ing lead and sulfur must be removed prior to welding available and can be specified to suit equipment and
skills. Someof the most commonly used electrodes are
because these materials can cause embrittled welds.
listed in ANSVAWS A5.14, Specijcation for Nickel
Occasionally,mechanicalsticking of electrodes is
and Nickel Alloy Bare Welding Rods and Electrodes;
encountered when welding pure nickel because of its
highelectricalconductivity. The values ofwelding and A5.11, Specijcation for Nickel and Nickel Alloy
Welding Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding.
currents used to join various nickel-based alloys are
dependentontheirresistivityandstrength. As the Welding 9% Nlckel Steel
resistivity (compared to low-carbon steel) increases, Ninepercentnickel steel is generallyspecified
less current is required to make a satisfactory weld. for commercial applications in the production, han-
Oxyfuel Weldlng( O m dling, storage, and transportation of liquid gases, as
Oxyfuel welding is seldom used for welding nickel well as related cryogenic applications. The following
and nickel alloys. The selection of the method is deter- properties are required:
mined not bythe metal butby the physical characteris- (1) High strength and toughness
tics of the piece to be welded: gauge of the metal, (2) Resistance to embrittlement at temperatures as
design of the workpiece and design of the individual low as -196C (-320F)
joint. Goodweldingisaccomplishedwith OFW in (3) Highstressallowances of pressurevessel
flat, vertical or overhead positions. designs
S T D e A W S JWE-ENGL L997 M 07842b505Lb508 935 m
Electrodes and filler metals used to join 9% nickel NITROGEN

steel are recommended in ANSVAWS A5.14, Spec$- (Chemicalsymbol:N).Agaseouselementthat
cationsfor Nickel and Nickel Alloy Bare Welding Rodsoccurs freely in nature and constitutes about 78% of
and Electrodes, and also in A5.11, Specification for theatmosphere.It is acolorless,odorlessandrela-
NickelandNickel Alloy Welding Electrodes for tivelyinertgas,althoughitcombinesdirectlywith
Shielded Metal Arc Welding. Additional information magnesium,lithiumandcalciumwhenheatedwith
can be found inthe alloy manufacturer's literature. them. Nitrogen occursin all living things as an essen-
Nickel Overlays
tial element. When mixed with oxygen and subjected
to electric sparks, it forms nitrogen peroxide. Atomic
Weld overlays of high-nickel welding materials can weight,14.008;meltingpoint,-210.5"C(-347F);
be selectively applied toeither large or small sections boiling point, -195C (-319F); specific gravity, 0.967
of tanks,shafts,rollers,tubesheets,vessels,valve (air).
seats, pumps, and other equipment made of various Nitrogen is producedeither by liquefactionand
materialstoincrease the corrosion,heat,andwear fractional distillationof air, or by heating a water solu-
resistance in harsh environments. Overlaying vulnera- tion of ammonium nitrate (a mixture of ammonium
ble equipment, old or new, can extend the service life chloride and sodium nitrite). For a description of the
of the equipment and provide easier maintenance. See liquefaction process, seeOXYGEN PRODUCTION.
NICKEL WELD CLADDING.
NONBUlTlNG MEMBER
NICKEL SILVER A joint member that is free tomove in any direction
An alloy of copper, zinc and nickel. See COPPER perpendicular to its thickness dimension. For exam-
ALLOY WELDING. ple, both members of a lap joint, or one member of
a Tjoint or corner joint. See STANDARDWELDING
NICKEL STEEL TERMS. See Figure B- 15. See also BUTTING MEMBER.
A steel alloyed with nickel to obtain characteristics
such as high strength, toughness, corrosion resistance, NON-CONDUCTOR
and other propertiesof nickel. See STEEL, Alloy. A material which does not readily conduct electric
current; an insulator.
NIOBIUM
NONCONSUMABLE ELECTRODE
(Chemical symbol: Nb) A ductile metallic element
used in alloys, tools and dies and superconductor mag- An electrode that does not provide j l l e r metal. See
nets. Also known as columbium (Cb). It is used as a STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
major alloying element in nickel-base, high-tempera- NONCORROSIVE FLUX
turealloysandasanimportantadditivetohigh-
A soldering flux that in either its original or resid-
strength structural steel. Atomic number, 41; atomic
ual form does not chemically attack the base metal. It
weight, 92.906; melting point, 2468C (4474F); spe-
usually is composed of rosin-base materials. See
cific gravity, 8.57 at 20C (68F).
STANDARDWLDING TERMS.
NITRIDE OF IRON NONDESTRUCTIVE EVALUATION
A compoundcloselyresemblingcementitewhen nonstandard
A term
for NONDESTRUCTIVE
etched, caused by the nitrogen of the air combining EXAMINATION.
with iron at a very high temperature.
NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION (NDE)
NITRIDING The act of determining the suitability of some mate-
A process by which certain steels can be surface rial or componentfor its intended purpose using tech-
hardened. The workpieces are placed in a nitriding box niques
that do not afect its serviceability. See
in a furnace. Ammonia gas is passed through the box STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
andthefurnace is keptatatemperatureofabout Nondestructive testing (NDT) and Nondestructive
510C (950F) for periods from two to ninety hours, Inspection(NDI) are termssometimesusedinter-
depending on the depthof hardness required.See HEAT changeablywithNDEandaregenerallyconsidered
TREATMENT. synonymous.Nondestructiveexaminationsareper-

~~~ ~ ~ ~~
formed on weldments to verify that the weld quality NONFERROUS
meets the specification, and to determine if weld qual- Metals containingno ferrite, or iron. Copper, brass,
ity is degraded during service. bronze, aluminum and leadare among the non-ferrous
Visual inspection should be the primary evaluation metals most commonly used in industrial production.
method of any quality control program.It can disclose
flaws, signsof possible fabrication problems in subse- NONMAGNETIC
quent operations, and can be incorporated in process Materials that do not produce a field of force and
controlprograms.Promptandconscientiousvisual are not attractedby iron.
detection and correctionof flaws or process deviations
NON-INDUCTIVE
can result in significant cost savings, detecting conti-
nuities that would be found later by more expensive A material having little or no inductance.
nondestructive examination methods. NONPRESSURE WELDING
All NDE methodsmustinclude the followingto A group of welding processes in which the weld
render valid examination results: ismadewithoutpressure,i.e. arc, gas and thermite
(1) A trained operator welding.
(2) A procedure for conducting the tests
(3) A system for reporting the results NON-RIGID JOINT
(4) A standard to interpret the results A joint designed so that the parts are free to move
The commonly usedNDE methods that are applica- andabsorbthestressesduringwelding. See RIGID
ble to the inspectionof weldments are: JOINT.
(1) Visual Inspection (VT) with or without optical
aids NONSYNCHRONOUS INIllATlON
(2) Liquid penetrant(T) The closing of a resistance welding contactor
(3) Magnetic particle (MT) withoutregard to the voltagewave form pattern. See 9
(4) Radiographic inspection(RI) STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
(5) Eddy current (ET)
(6)Ultrasonic (UT) NONSYNCHRONOUS TIMING
(7) Acoustic emission (AET) A nonstandard
term for NONSYNCHRONOUS
There are other NDE methods, suchas heat transfer INITIATION.
and ferrite testing, that are used for special cases.The NONTRANSFERRED ARC
considerationsgenerallyusedinselectingan NDE An arc established between the electrode and the
method for welds are summarized in Table N-7. See constricting nozzle of the plasma arc torch or t h e m 1
also PENETRANT TESTING,
MAGNETIC PARTICLE
spraying gun. The workpiece isnot in the electrical
INSPECTION, METALLOGWHY, RADIOGRAPHIC EXAM-
circuit. See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See also
INATION, and ULTRASONIC TESTING.
TRANSFERRED ARC.
Reference documents on NDE include the follow-
ing:AmericanSocietyforNondestructiveTesting NONVACUUM ELECTRON BEAM WELDING (EBW-NV)
(ASN") No. SN"-TC-1 A, Personnel Qualifications An electron beam welding process variation in
and Certification in Nondestructive Testing, American which welding is accomplished at atmospheric pres-
Society for Nondestructive Testing, Columbus, Ohio. sure. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
AmericanWeldingSociety, B1.O, Guide for the
Nondestructive Inspection of Welds. American Weld- NORMALIZING
ing Society, Miami, Florida, (latest edition). See ANNEALING.
NONDESTRUCTIVE INSPECTION NORMALIZING BY INDUCTION HYSTERESIS
A nonstandard
term
for NONDESTRUCTIVE See INDUCTION HEATING.
EXAMINATION.
NORWAY IRON
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING A very pure low carbon iron made in Norway. Its
A nonstandard
term
for NONDESTRUCTIVE purity andlow carbon contentmade it especially desir-
EXAMINATION. able for welding rods, and in the early days of the
~~
336 NORWAY IRON Welding Encyclopedia
Table N-7
Nondestructive Testing Methods
Equipment Needs
Limitations AdvantagesApplications
Visual
~~~ ~
Magnifiers,
Welds
color
which
Economical,
have expedient,
Limited tosurface
external
or
enhancement,projectors,
discontinuities
requires
the
on relatively little conditions
only.
Limited
the
to
other
measurement
equipment
surface.
training
relatively
and little visual
acuity ofobserver/
the
equipment
micrometers,
(ie., rulers, for many inspector.
arators, optical light applications.
source).
Radiography (Gamma)
Gamma ray sources, gamma Most weld discontinuities Permanent record-nables Radiation isa safety hazard-
ray camera projectors, film including incomplete review by parties ata later requires specialfacilities or areas
holders, films, lead screens, fusion, incomplete date. Gamma sources may where radiation will be used and
film processing equipment, penetration, slag, as well be positionedinside of requires special monitoringof
film viewers, exposure as corrosion andfit-up accessible objects, i.e., exposure levels and dosages to
facilities, radiation monitoring defects, wall thickness pipes, etc., for unusual personnel. Sources (gamma)
equipment. dimensional evaluations. technique radiographs. decay over their half-lives and
Energy efficient source must be periodically replaced.
requires no electrical energy Gamma sources havea constant
for productionof gamma energy of output (wavelength) and
rays. cannot be adjusted.Gamma
source and related licensing
requirements are expensive.
Radiography requires highly
skilled operating and interpretive
personnel.
Radiography (X-Rays)
X-ray
sources
(machines)
Same
application
Adjustable
as energy
levels,
High initial costx-ray
of
electrical
power
source,
above.
same
generally
produces
higher
equipment.
generally
Not
equipment
general considered
radiation
portable,
radiographs
quality
than
as used
gamma
sources
(above).
with
gamma sources.
gamma
sources,
with as
hazard
Offers
permanent record as with skilled operational and
gamma radiography interpretive personnel
(above). required.
Ultrasonic
Pulse-echo instrument capable Most weld discontinuities Most sensitive to planar type Surface conditions must be
of exciting a piezoelectric including cracks, slag, discontinuities. Testresults suitable for coupling to
material and generating inadequate penetration, known immediately. transducer. Couplant(liquid)
ultrasonic energy withina test incomplete fusion; lack Portable. Most ultrasonic required. Small welds and thin
piece, and a suitable cathode of bond in brazing; flaw detectorsdo not require materials may be difficult to
ray tube scope capable of thickness measurements. an electrical outlet. High inspect. Reference standards are
displaying the magnitudesof penetration capability. required. Requiresa relatively
the reflected sound energy. Reference standards are skilled operator/inspector. The
Calibration standards, liquid required. results of the inspectionare
couplant. usually reportedby the operator
on a preprinted form.

Welding Encyclopedia NORWAY IRON 337
Table N-7 (Continued)

Nondestructive Testina Methods
Equipment Needs Applications Advantages Limitations
Magnetic Particle
~ _ _ _ _ ~~ ~ ~~~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~
Prods, yokes, coils suitable for Most weld discontinuities Relatively economical and Must be appliedto ferro-magnetic
inducing magnetisminto the open to the surface- expedient. Inspection materials. Parts must be clean
test piece. Power source some large voids slightly equipment is considered before andafter inspection. Thick
(electrical). Magnetic powders, sub-surface. Most portable. Unlike dye coatings may mask rejectable
some applications require suitable for cracks. penetrants, magneticparticle indications. Some applications
special facilitiesand ultraviolet can detect some near surface require partsto be demagnetized
lights. discontinuities. Indications after inspection. Magnetic particle
may be preserved on inspection requires useof
transparent tape. electrical energy for most
applications.
Liquid Penetrant
~~ ~ ~ ~ _ _ _ _____
Fluorescent or visible (dye Weld discontinuities openMay be usedonallnon- Surface filmssuchas coatings,
penetrant,
developers, to surface (Le., cracks, porous
materials.Portable,
scale,
smeared
metal
mask or hide
cleaners, solvents, emulsifiers,
porosity,
seams).
relatively
inexpensive
rejectable defects. Bleed out from
etc.). Suitable
equipment.
cleaning
gear.
Expedient
surfaces
can
porous also mask
Ultraviolet light source if inspection
results.
Results are indications. Parts must be cleaned
fluorescent
dye is used. easily interpreted.
and
Requires
before after inspection.
no electrical energy except
for light source. Indications
may be further examined
visually.
Eddy Current
An instrument
capable of
Weld discontinuities open
Relativelyexpedient,low Limited to conductive
materials.
inducingelectromagnetic to the surface (i.e.. cracks,cost.Automationpossible for Shallowdepthofpenetration.
fields within a test
piece
and
porosity,
incomplete
symmetricalparts. No Some indications may be
sensing the resulting electrical fusion) as well as somecouplantrequired. Probe maskedby part geometrydue to
currents (eddy) so induced subsurface
inclusions.
need
not
be in intimate
sensitivity
variations.
Reference
with a suitable
probe or Alloy
content,
heat contact with
piece.
teststandard
required.
detector.
Calibrations
treatment
variations,
wall
standards.
Acoustic Emission
Emissionsensors.amplifyingInternalcracking inweldRealtimeandcontinuousRequirestheuse of transducers
electronics,signalprocessingduringcooling,cracksurveillanceinspection. May coupledonthetestpart surface.
electronics including
initiation
and growth be inspected
remotely. Part must be in use or stressed.
frequency
gates, filters. A rates. Portability of inspection
More ductile materials
low
yield
system outputsuitable
be signalevaluating
acoustic the inspection
of the
(audio
counters, tape recorders,X-Y
recorder).

STDlAWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b505Lb512 3bb m
338 NOZZLE Encyclopedia Welding
industry it was used almost exclusively for this pur- NUCLEAR POWER PLANT
pose. The iron was imported from Norway in ingot Since all ofthemajorcomponentsofanuclear
form and drawn into wire in the United States. power plant are joined by welding in accordance with
Section III of the ASME Pressure Vessel Code, weld-
NOZZLE ing plays an important role in the delivery of nuclear
See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See CONSTRICT- power. Nuclear plant piping systems account for most
ING NOZZLE and GAS NOZZLE. of the welding, but it is also a major application in the
reactors, steam generators, pressure vessels, and con-
NOZZLE, Arc Spraying tainment vessels, as well as the powerhouse structures;
A device at the exit end of the gun that directs the all are welded to specifications in Section III.
atomizing air or other gas. See STANDARDWELDING More engineering analysis, more care, and more
TERMS. safeguards are in place in the design and construction
of nuclear plants than in any other method of power
NOZZLE, Flame Spraying generation. The United States NuclearRegulatory
Commission is involved directly in the design, con-
A device at the exit end of the gun that directs and struction, licensing and operation of plants.
forms the flow shape of atomized spray particles and
the accompanying air or other gases. See STANDARD NUGGET
WELDING TERMS. The weldmetal joining the workpieces in spot, seam,
or projection welds. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS.
NOZZLE ACCUMULATION
Filler metal or surfacing material deposited on the NUGGET SIZE
inner surface and on the exit end of the nozzle. See A nonstandard term when used for resistance spot
STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. weld size.
Joining the minute

connections in this
electronic packageis an
example of microwelding.
Paper-thin material and
hair-like strands canbe
welded with laser beam
and ultrasonic technology.

~~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb5L3 2 T 2 m
O
OCCLUSION 1 F, Pipe
The chemical property of some metals to absorb A welding test position designationfor a circumfer-
gases and retain them, usually resulting in porosity in entialfillet weld appliedto a joint in pipe,
with its axis
welds. Aluminum, iron and many other metals absorb approximately 45" from horizontal, in which the weld
hydrogen, oxygen and other gases in varying volumes, is made in the flat welding position by rotating the
particularly when the metals are in molten or powder pipe about its axis. See STANDARDWELDING TERMS.
form. Therealnature of metallicocclusions is See also Appendix 4,Figure 5 .
unknown.
1F, plate
OFF TIME, Resistance Weldlng
A welding test position designation for a linearfillet
The time during which the electrodes are off the weld applied to a joint inwhich the weldis mude in the
workpieces. The term is generally used when the weld- _flat weldingposition. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS.
ing cycle is repetitive. See STANDARD WELDING See also Appendix 4,Figure 2.
TERMS. See Figure O-l.
OHM lGl pipe

A unitof electricalresistance.It is equaltothe A welding test position designation for a cimmfer-
resistance of a circuit in whicha potential differenceof entia1 groove weld appliedto a joint in pipe, inwhich
one volt producesa current of one ampere. the weld is mude in the flat welding position by rotat-
ing the pipe about its axis. See STANDARD WELDING
OHM'S LAW TERMS. See also Appendix 4,Figure 4.
The rule that gives the relation between current,
voltage and the resistance of an electrical circuit. The l G , plate
voltage Q is equal to the current(I) in amperes times A welding test position designation for a linear
resistance (R) in ohms, Le. E = I X R or R = En. groove weld applied to a joint in which the weld is
"
"
"
"
"
"
e
- /-""
WELDING CURRENT I 0
/
/ /
/ /
/ /
I I
uu
4- SQUEEZE TIME
4 CYCLE WELDING
Figure O-l-Slnglelmpulse Resistance Spot Welding Schedule
339
STDoAWS JWE-ENGL 3997 D 07842b5 0516554 539 W
SIDED 340 ONE Welding Encyclopedia
made inthe flat welding position. See STANDARD The processmaybeusedtoproduceautogenous

WELDING TERMS. See also Appendix 4,Figure 1. welds (withoutthe addition of filler materials), or filler
may be added that becomespart of the finished weld-
ONE SIDED ARC WELDING ment. The welding is done in an inert gas atmosphere
A term generally applied to welding applications in to protect the metal from oxidation as it is heated to
which all of the filler metal is deposited from one side. melting temperature. Gas metal arc welding(GMAW)
The resulting welds are usually free of imperfections may also be used for orbital welding.
on the backsideso that it should not be necessary do to PowerSupplies. Orbital tube welding power sup-
any welding on the backside, Submerged arc welding pliescontrolweldparametersthattypicallyinclude
(SAW) has been considered a one-sided method. For
weldingcurrents,backgroundandpulseamperes
themostpart,weldingcanbecompletedfromone (which determine the amount of heat input into the
side, but sometimes there may be imperfections that weld),travelspeed(RPM),timersthat control the
necessitate back-chipping or gouging and welding on amount of time ata particular setting, delayof rotation
the underside. at the startof the weld, and a current downslope atthe
OPEN BUTT JOINT end of the weld.
A nonstandard term for a butt joint with an open A timed prepurge and postpurgeare usually used to
root. time the flowof inert gas intothe weld head before arc
initiation and to continuethe purge for a timed period
OPEN CIRCUIT VOLTAGE after the arc has been extinguished. This allows the
The voltage betweentheoutput terminals of the weld to cool sufficiently to prevent oxidation before
power source when no current is flowing to the torch the weld head is opened to removethe welded tube.
or gun. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. Orbitaltubewelding is generally done autoge-
nously, so additional controls used for wire feed are
OPEN GROOVE notrequired.Powersuppliesused for orbital tube
A nonstandard termfor OPEN ROOT JOINT. welding generally supply100 to 150 amperesof weld-
ing current, direct current, electrode negative.
OPEN HEARTH STEEL Modernorbitaltubeweldingpowersupplies are
Steel whichhasbeenmanufacturedbytheopen microprocessor-based.Thispermitsthestorage of
hearth process. In this process steel is smelted in a gas weld programs or schedules for a large number of tube
fired,regenerativefurnaceconsisting of a shallow sizes. The programs can be written, entered into the
trough or hearth. power supply, and modified by the operator based on
welding results, and programs can be changed without
OPEN JOINT loss of other programs.The power supply may be able
A nonstandard term forOPEN ROOT JOINT. to print out the weld schedule or to interface with a
computer for documentation of operationalweld
OPEN ROOT JOINT parameters.
An unwelded joint without backing or consumable
insert. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. WeldHeads. Weld heads for orbital tube welding
typically span a range of sizes. For example, a weld
OPTICAL PYROMETER head for tubingupto 38.1 mm (1-1/2 in.) outside
See PYROMETER. diameter (OD) may also be able to weld tube mea-
suring 6.4 mm (U4 in.), 9.5 mm (3/8 in.), 12.7 mm
ORBITAL WELDING (U2 in.), 19.1 mm (3/4 in.), and 25.4 mm (1 in.).
Orbital welding is a mechanized version of the gas Autogenous(fusion)tubewelds are practicalin
tungstenarcwelding(GTAW)process.Inmanual diametersfrom 3.2 mm (0.125 in.)up to about
GTAW, the welder moves the welding torch and con- 152 mm (6 in.)withwallthicknessesupto 4 mm
trols the welding current. In orbital GTAW, the tung- (0.154 in.).
sten is installed ina weld head that clamps on the tube Standard orbital weld heads have tube clamp inserts
or pipe. The tube remains in place while the weld headon both sides of theweldtoholdthetubesduring
rotor revolves or orbits around the weldjoint circum- welding, and the tungsten electrode is located in the
ference to complete the weld. rotor in the centerline of the head. To weld two tubes

- ~ ~~ ~- ~~
STD.AWS JWE-ENGL L797 m 07842b5 051b515 075 m

Welding Encyclopedia OVERHANG 341
or fittings in a particular size weld head, the lengthof eral government. It became effective April 28, 1971.
tubing or the straight section of the fitting must reach Most states also have an OSHA regulatory board that
from the outside of the head to the electrode location enforces safety and health regulations.
in theweldheadcenter.Reference: Tubeand Pipe The Occupational Safety and Health Act provides
Quarterly, The CroydonGroup,Ltd.,Rockford,Ill. the federal government with an instrument to support,
JanuaryFebruary, 1996. encourage and carry forward into new areas the safety
and health activitiesthat American industry pioneered
ORIFICE
on a voluntary basis. Initially, the Act offeredno new
See CONSTRICTING ORIFICE. See also STANDARD standards but has relied on accepted industry-devel-
WELDING TERMS.
oped standards. The responsibility is to build on what
ORIFICE GAS
management, labor andgovernment (state and
The gas that is directed into theplasma arc torchor national) have accomplished in job safety since the
t h e m l sprayinggun to surroundthe electrode. It early years of this century,
becomes ionized in thearc to form the arc plasma, and The provisions of OSHA have had a great impact
issues from the constricting orifice of the nozzle as a on employers and industry in observing specific safety
plasma jet. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also andhealthstandards. The following is required of
Appendix 10, Figure 1. employers:
(a) The employer must furnish to each employee,
ORIFICE THROAT LENGTH employment and a place of employment which is free
The length of the constricting orifice in the plasma from recognized hazards that are causing or likely to
am torch or thermalsprayinggun.See STANDARD cause death or serious harmto these employees.
WELDING TERMS. See also Appendix 10, Figure 1. (b) Complywith the OccupationalSafetyand
OSCILLATOR, ELECTRICAL
Health standards promulgated by this Act.
Anyof variouselectronicdevices that produce WhiletheActcovers all industriesandmost
alternating electrical current,commonlyemploying employees, there are many areas that are of specific
tuned circuits and amplifying components. interest to welding. Much of the healthy and safety
information available to the fabricator and consumer
OSCILLATOR, MECHANICAL has originated with manufacturers of welding equip-
A mechanical device used to impartoscillatory ment and consumables, metals and materials, as well
motiontoelectrodeholders,withinlimitationsof as the professionalassociationsthatsupportthese
stroke and amplitudein arc welding. It is used to meet groups. See Appendix ??.
a wide rangeof welding conditions, particularly in gas
metal arc welding (GMAW). OSMIUM
Commercial units are available to linearly oscillate (Chemical Symbol: Os) A bluish-white, hard, crys-
loads at frequencies of 30 to 240 cycles per minute, tallinemetallicelementbelongingto the platinum
with infrnite adjustments within this range and with family of elements. Discoveredin 1803 by Tennant, it
runningamplitudeadjustment of from O to 18 mm is used as a hardening alloy in platinum. Osmium is
(O to 3/4 in.). Other oscillators are available in which used for fine machinebearings, for penpointsand
the motion is that of a pendulum, with strokes up to instrumentpivots.Withiridium, it forms analloy,
62 mm (2- 1/2 in.) wide. osmiridium,whichisused for makingfilaments in
The types of motions imparted by oscillators are incandescent lamps.Atomicnumber: 76; atomic
harmonic or uniform, or a combination, with dwellas weight: 190.;melting point: 3000C(5432F);specific
required. The motions are produced by linkagesor gravity: 22.48 at 20C (68F).
cams. The units are driven by electric motors and are
controlled mechanically or by an electronic governor. OVEN SOLDERING
OSHA A nonstandard termfor FURNACE SOLDERING.
The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970,
known as Public Law 91-596, is the most far-reaching OVERHANG
safety and health regulation ever enacted by the fed- A nonstandard term when used
for EXTENSION.

Licensed by Information Handling Services ~-
S T D - A W S JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5051651bT01 m
TION 342 OVERHEAD Encyclopedia Welding
OVERHEAD POSITION locally, such over-stressed parts may the

be source of a
See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See also OVER- fatigue crackif the operating stressesare of a repeated
HEAD WELDING POSITION. or fluctuating nature. Overstressing may beof a local
or general nature.
OVERHEAD WELDING POSITION
The welding position in which welding is performed OXIDATION
from the underside of the joint. See STANDARD WELD- The combination of a substance with oxygen; the
INGTERMS. See also Appendix 4, Figures 1, 3, 4, chemical reaction between oxygen andother elements
and 6. resulting in oxides.
OVERHEAD WELD OXIDE, Weld Metal
A butt or fillet weld made by a fusion welding pro- Rust,corrosioncoating,film, or scale.Oxygen
cess with its linear direction horizontal or inclined to combineswith the metalandwithimpurities,and
an angle less than45" to the horizontal,the weld being unless the oxide is removed by using an appropriate
made from the lower or under side of the partsjoined. flux the weld will possibly be unsatisfactory.
See WELDING POSITION.
OXIDIZING FLAME
OVERHEATING
An oxyfuel gas flame in which there is an excess of
A term applied to metals which have been heated tooxygen, resulting inan oxygen-rich zone extending
such high temperatures that grain growthis caused to
around and beyondthe cone. See STANDARD WELDING
occur, yet not heated sufficiently high to cause partial
TERMS. See also FigureA-1(C), and CARBURIZING
melting. Inthe case of steels, to whichthe term is usu-
FLAME, NEUTRAL FLAME, and REDUCING FLAME.
allyapplied,theoverheatedgrainstructurecanbe
removed by normalizing. OXYACETYLENE BORING
OVERLAP See OXYGEN LANCE.
Anonstandardtermwhenusedfor INCOMPLETE
OXYACETYLENE BRAZING
FUSION.
See COPPER ALLOY WELDING, and OXYACETYLENE
OVERLAP, Fusion Welding WELDING.
The protrusion of weld metal beyondthe weld toe or
weld root. See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See also OXYACETYLENE CUlTlNG (OFC-A)
Appendix 8, Figure 1-C. An oxyfuel gas cutting process variation that uses
acetylene as the fuel gas. See STANDARDWELDING
OVERLAP, Resistance Seam Welding TERMS. See also OXYFUEL GAS CUTTING.
The portion of the preceding weld nugget remelted
by the succeedingweld.See STANDARD WELDING OXYACETYLENE FLAME
TERMS. The flame producedby the combustion of a mixture
of oxygen and acetylene in various proportions. The
OVERLAYING proportions of these two gases affect the temperature
SURFACING. of the flame; temperature is controlled by varying the
ratio of oxygen to acetylene. See Table O- 1, Oxyacety-
OVERSPRAY, Thermal Spraying leneFlameTemperatures. See also CARBURIZING
The portion of the thermal spray deposit that is not FLAME, NEUTRALFLAME,OXIDIZING FLAME and
deposited on the workpiece. See STANDARD WELDING REDUCING FLAME.
TERMS.
OVERSTRESSING Le Chatelier is credited with discovering the oxy-
A partis said to be over-stressed when an operating gen-acetylene flame in 1895. This flame produces the
stress exceeds the limits of the metal and permanent highest flame temperature 3482C (6300F) known to
deformation occurs. The effects of overstressing usu- mankind. It is the flame most commonly usedin weld-
ally accompany plastic deformation. When occurring ingandcutting operations. The Fust oxyacetylene

~ ~~
STD*AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 053b537 948 m

Welding Encyclopedia (OAW) WELDING
OXYACETYLENE 343
Table 0-1 weight than any of the other hydrocarbon fuel gases.
Oxyacetylene Flame Temperatures Colorless and lighter thanair, it has a distinctive odor
resembling garlic. To stabilize acetylene in cylinders,
Ratio of Temperature it is dissolved in acetone; thereforeit has a slightlydif-
Oxygen to ferent odor than pure acetylene.
Acetylene Type of Flame "C "F At temperatures above 780C (1435"F), or at pres-
0.8 to 1.0 3065 5550
sures above 207 P a (30 psig), gaseous acetylene is
Carburizing unstable, and even in the absence of oxygen, decom-
0.9 to 1.0 Carburizing 3 150 5700
1.0 to 1.0 Neutral 3100 5600 position may result. This characteristic has been taken
1.5 to 1.0 Oxidizing 3427 6200 into consideration in the preparation of a code of safe
1.8 to 1.0 Oxidizing 3482 6300 practices for the generation, distribution, and use of
2.0 to 1.0 Oxidizing 3370 6100 acetylene gas. The accepted safe practice is never to
2.5 to 1.0 Oxidizing 3315 6000 use acetylene at pressures exceeding103 kPa.(lS psi)
in generators, pipelines or hoses.
Theoretically, the completecombustion of acety-
torches were madeby Fouche and Picard in 1900.See lene is represented by the chemical equation:
0XYACE'IYL.m WELDING.
C2H2+ 2.5 O2 + 2C02 + H 2 0 (Equation 0-1)
OXYACETYLENE PRESSURE WELDING
See PRESSURE GAS WELDING (PGW). This equation indicates that one volume of acety-
lene (C2H2) and2.5 volumes of oxygen (O2)react to
OXYACETYLENE WELDING (OAW) produce two volumes of carbon dioxide (COz)and one
An oxyfuel gas welding process that uses acetylene volume of water vapor(H20). The volumetric ratio of
as the fuel gas. The process is used without theappli- oxygen to acetyleneis 2.5 to one.
cation ofpressure. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. Note thatthe reaction of this equation does not pro-
Hlstorlcal Background
ceed directly to the end products shown. Combustion
takes place in two stages. The primary reaction takes
By 1895, when Willson had established facilities toplace in the inner zone of the flame (called the inner
producecalciumcarbide,acetylenebecamerecog- cone) and is represented by the chemical equation:
nized as an important illuminating and heating gas. In
about 1900, a Frenchman, Edmund Fouche, invented C2H2 + 02 + 2CO + H2 (Equation 0-2)
the oxyacetylene torch. It was a high-pressure torch
Here, one volume of acetylene and one volume of oxy-
which used a mixture of oxygen and acetylene, both
gen react to form two volumes of carbon monoxide
available compressedin cylinders, the acetylene stabi-
and one volume of hydrogen. The heat content and
lized with acetone. Later, when Fouche changedjobs
hightemperature of this reactionresultfrom the
and wentto work for a company which produced acet-
decomposition of the acetylene and the partial oxida-
ylene from low-pressure generators, Fouche designed
tion of the carbon resulting from that decomposition.
a torch that would work on low fuel gas pressures.
See Table 0-2.
This torch received oxygen under high pressure, which
entered the mixingchamberof the torchanddrew The Oxyacetylene Flame
acetylene from the acetylene orifice by the injector When the gases issuing from the torch tip are in the
principle. These early torches incorporatedthe princi- one-to-one ratio indicated in Equation 0-2, the reac-
ples that are still used in modern low- and medium- tion produces the typical brilliant blue inner cone in
pressure welding torches. the flame. This relatively small flame creates the com-
When Eugene Bournonville broughtthe first weld- bustion intensity needed for welding steel. The flame
ing torch to the United States in 1906, welders began is termed neutral because there is no excess carbon or
to find commercialapplications for welding,anda oxygentocarburize or oxidize the metal. The end
major industry was started. products are actually in a reducing status, a benefit
Acetylene is the fuel gas preferred for many oxyfuel when welding steel.
welding applications because of its high-combustion In the outerenvelope of the flame, the carbon mon-
intensity.Acetylene is hydrocarbon
a compound, oxide and hydrogen producedby the primary reaction
C2H2,which contains a larger percentage of carbon by burn with oxygen fromthe surrounding air.This forms

(OAW) WELDING
344 OXYACETYLENE Welding Encyclopedia
Table 0-2
Properties of Common Fuel Gases
Methyl-
acetylene-
Acetylene
Propane
Propylene
propadiene (MPS) Natural Gas
Formula Chemical C2H2 C8H8 CH4
C3H6 C3H4
(Methylacetylene,
(Methane)
propadiene)
Neutral flame temperature
"F 5200 4580 4600
5600 5200
"C 2870
3100 2520 2540 2870
Primary flame heat emission
btu/ft3 11 255 507 517 433
MJ/m3 0.4 10 1920 16
Secondary flameheat emission
btu/ft3 2243
989 963 1889 1938
MJ/m3 94 36 72 90 37
Total heat value
(after vaporization)
btu/ft3 2498 1470
1 2406 1 237 O00
mJ/m3 55 04 1 88 90 37
Total heat value
(after vaporization)
btu/lb 900 23 21
100500 21 21 800
100 21
kJkg 50 O 0 0 51 O00 49 O00 49 o00 56 O00
Total oxygen required
[neutral flame)
vol. 02/vol. fuel 2.0 2.5 4.05.O 4.5
Oxygen supplied through torch
(neutral flame)
1.53.5
vol. 02/vol. fuel 1.1 2.5 2.6
ft3 oxygedlb fuel(60F)
30.3
35.4 16.0 22.1 23.0
15.6"C)
m3 oxygenkg (2.2 1.o 1.4 1.9 1.4
Maximum allowable
regulator pressure
psi 150 15 150 150 Line
Wa 103
1030 1030 1030
Explosive limits inair:
2.0-10
percent 2.3-9.5 2.5-80
Volume-to-weight ratio
ft3/lb (60F) 8.66 14.6 8.9 8.85 23.6
0.91 m3kg ( 15.6"C) 0.54 0.55 0.55 1.4
0.62 Specific
gravity 1.48 of1.48
gas 1.52 0.906
(60"F, 15.6OC)
Air = 1

cyclopedia
LENE Welding 345
carbon dioxide and water vapor, as shown in the fol- WeldingTorches. A typical welding torch consists
lowing secondary reaction: of a torch handle, mixer and tip assembly. It provides a
means of independently controlling the flow of each
2CO + Hz + 1.5 02 + 2C02 + H20(Equation 0-3) gas, a method of attaching a variety of welding tips or
Although the heatof combustion of this outer flame is other apparatus, and a convenient handle for control-
greater than that of the inner, its combustion intensity ling the movement and direction of the flame. Figure
and temperature are lower because of its large cross- 0 - 3 is a simplified schematic drawing of the basic ele-
sectional area. The final end products are produced in ments of a welding torch.
the outer flame because they cannot exist in the high The gases pass through the control valves, through
temperature of the inner cone. separate passages in the torch handle, and to the torch
The oxyacetylene flame is easilycontrolledby head. They then pass into a mixer assembly where the
valves on the welding torch. By a slight changein the oxygen and fuel gas are mixed, and finally pass out
proportions of oxygen and acetylene flowing through throughan orifice attheend of the tip. The tip is
the torch, the chemical characteristicsin the inner zone shown as a simple tube, narrowed at the front end to
of the flame and the resulting action ofthe inner cone produce a suitable welding cone. Sealing rings or sur-
on the molten metal can be varied over a wide range. faces are provided in the torch head or on the mixer
Thus, by adjusting the torch valves, it is possible to seats to facilitate leak-tight assembly.
produce a neutral, oxidizing, or carburizing flame. Torch Handles. Welding torch handles are manufac-
Equipment tured in a variety of styles and sizes, from the small
The minimum basic equipment needed to perform size for extremely light (low gas flow) work to the
oxyfuel gas welding is shown schematically in extra heavy (high gas flow) handles generally used for
Figure 0-2. This equipment setup is completely self- localized heating operations.
sufficient and relatively inexpensive.It consists of fuel A typical small welding torch usedfor sheet metal
gas and oxygen cylinders, each with agas regulator for welding will pass acetylene at volumetric rates rang-
reducing cylinder pressure, hoses for conveying the ing from about 0.007 to 1.0 m3/h (0.25 to 35 ft3/h).
gases to the torch, and a torch andtip combination for Medium sized torches are designed to provide acety-
adjusting the gas mixtures and producing the desired lene flows from about 0.028 to 2.8 m3/h (1 to 100 ft3/h).
flame. Heavy-dutyheatingtorchesmaypermit acetylene
PRESSURE REGULATORS
n
HOSES
GAS CONTROL
WELDING
.-. .-..
TORCH
OXYGEN
CYLINDER
FUEL GAS CYLINDER
Figure O-2-Basic Oxyfuel Gas Welding Equipment

~ ~~
STDOAWS JWE-ENGL L997 I07842b5 0 5 L b 5 2 0 432 m
OAW) WELDING
346 OXYACETYLENE
FUEL GA!
GAS
CONTROL VALVES
-
--
OXYGEN \
TORCH HANDLE
Figure O-3Schematic Drawing of the Basic Parts of a Welding Torch
flows as high as 11 m3/h (400 ft3/h). Fuel gases other This is sometimes called cracking the valve, which
than acetylene may be used with even larger torches blowsawayanydustthatmightbe in the cylinder
that have fuel-gas flow rates as highas 17 m3/h valve nipple. The regulator is then connected to the
(600 ft3/h). cylinder, with the regulator adjustment screw turned
Mixers. The chief function of the mixer is to thor- fully
counterclockwise. The valveshouldthenbe
oughly mix the fuel gas and oxygen to assure smooth slowly opened. If the valvewereopenedsuddenly,
combustion. Another functionof the mixer is to serve 13.8 MPa (2000 psi) of pressure wouldenter the regu-
as a heat sink to help prevent the flame from flashing lator with a violent rush. If the regulator adjustment
back into the mixeror torch. screw should happen to be screwed in, forcingthus the
Two general types of oxygen fuel-gas mixers are valve seat to the open position, it would
be quickly and
the positive pressure (also called equal or medium- violently snapped backinto the closed position, which
pressure) and the injector or Zow-pressure. The posi- might damage the seat or the nozzle, through which
tive pressure mixer requires the gases to be delivered the oxygen passes. Itis also possible under certaincir-
to the torch at pressures above 14 kPa (2 psig). In the cumstances with certain types of regulators, to raise
case of acetylene, the pressure should be between 14 the temperature at the seat enough to ignite the hard
and 103 kPa (2 and 15 psig). Oxygen is generally sup- rubber seat and thus create too much pressure in the
pliedatapproximatelythesamepressure.There is, regulator, damaging the gaugesand the mechanism
however, no restrictive limit on the oxygen pressure. It itself.
can range up to172 kPa (25 psig) with the larger sized While the pressurein the acetylene cylinder is much
tips. lower than inthe oxygen cylinder, and thereis not the
The purpose of the injector-type mixer is to increase same likelihood of damage to the regulator, pressure
the effective use of fuel gases supplied at pressuresof should always be turned on slowly and carefully.
14 kPa (2 psig) or lower. In this torch, oxygenis sup- HoseConnections. Hoses should be connected to
plied at pressures ranging from 70 to 275 kPa (10 to the outlet fittings of both regulators. The oxygen hose ,
40 psig), the pressure increasing to match the tip size. has right-hand threads on each end and the acetylene
The relatively high velocityof the oxygen flow is used hose has left-hand fittings.
to aspirate, or draw in, more fuel gas than would nor-
mally flow at the low supply pressures. Torch Valves. Before connecting either hose line to
Setting Up Equipment the torch,it is important to check to see that both torch
valves are closed. When the hose connections have
It is essential that the operator follow the correct been tightened and it has been determined that none of
sequence in setting up equipment. the joints leak, the correct size tip for the work should
Connecting the Regulator.The first step is to slightly be screwed intothe torch. The adjustment screwof the
open the oxygen cylinder, then immediately close it. acetylene regulator should be turned to the right until

~~ ~~ ~~ ~~
Welding Encyclopedia OXYACETYLENE WELDING (OAW) 347
the correctpressureofacetylene for the tip in use both oxygen and acetylene. Both gases are delivered
shows on the low-pressure gaugeof the regulator. This from the regulators atequal pressures.
is done with only the acetylene torch valve open; the Another type of torch with an acetylene opening
oxygentorchvalveremainsclosed. The acetylene slightly smaller than the oxygen opening delivers the
torch valveis then closed. acetylene to the mixing chamber at a pressure slightly
The oxygen torch valve is opened and the adjust- greater thanthe oxygen pressure.
ment screwof the oxygen regulator turned to the right All torches are designed to deliver one part oxygen
until the correct pressure of oxygen for the tip in useis through the torch for each part of acetylene entering
shown on the low-pressure gaugeof the oxygen regu- through the acetylene passage.While it is true that
2-112
lator. The oxygen torch valve is then closed. There is volumes of oxygen are required to completely con-
now pressure of both gases in the two hose lines, and sume one volumeof acetylene, only oneof these vol-
in the torch up to the torch valves. To light the torch, umes is delivered through the torch, and burns at the
the acetylene valveis opened andthe acetylene lighted tip of the torch to produce the luminous cone of flame,
with a flint scratch lighter as it issues from the torch and the secondary reaction, the flame envelope. The
tip. The oxygen valve is then opened, permitting the remaining 1-1/2 partsof oxygen are obtained fromthe
oxygen pressure to enter the torch and burn with the surrounding air.
acetylene at the tip, whereit forms a luminouscone of n p Size. Torch tips are interchangeableand are
flame. Further adjustment may now be made to assure madeinvarious sizes toproducelarge or smaller
that the flame is exactly neutral,and that the regulatorflames as mayberequired for the thickness of the
pressures,when the torchvalves are openand the workpiece. A very light sheet of steel, for example,
flame is burning, are correct. requires a very smallflame, hence a small tip, while a
It is important to have regulators with two gauges, piece of 25 mm (1 in.) steel plate requires a much
one showing the pressure of the gas in the cylinder, larger tip. The various sizes oftipsdelivervarying
and the other showing the pressure of the gas in the pressures of both oxygen and acetylene.
hose line to the torch. These gauges should always be Some welders tend to increase the regulator pres-
in good condition, and the regulator should never be sure and adjust the torch valves to cut down the vol-
usedif the gauges are broken. Dangerous pressures ume of gases which pass through the torch. This is not
can very easily develop in the hose lines if broken or agoodpracticebecause it may lead to a careless
inaccurate gaugesare used. adjustment of the flame. Accurate maintenance of a
neutral,oxidizing, or carburizingtorchflame, as
Types of Torches. A number of different types of required for the metal being welded,is important.
torches are available, designated by the relative pres- Auxiliary equipment includes protective clothing,
sures of the two gases. For example,the low-pressure helmet,goggleswithprotectivelenses,andgloves.
or injector torch supplies acetylene to the torch at a Before welding,it is imperative thatthe welding oper-
pressure of less than 14 kPa (2 psi). This pressure is ator read and understand safety precautions relatedto
constant for most tip sizes. The oxygen pressure is oxyacetylene welding.See Appendix 11.
considerably higher, ranging from 70 to 206 kPa (10 to The Welding Process. Oxygenand acetylene are
30 psi) or more, depending on the tip size. The tip is delivered through the hose lines to the torch, and are
designed with an injector nozzle through which the adjusted for either neutral, oxidizing, or carburizing
oxygenpasses,drawing the acetylenethrough the flames, depending on the metal to bewelded. The
torch and tothe mixing chamberin the tip. This neces- adjustment of the flame is probably the most critical
sitates a very small opening for the oxygen through the condition of oxyacetylenewelding. The welds are
injector nozzle, and a much larger opening for acety- made by a torch (or blow pipe) flame to heatthe work-
lene adjacent to the mixing chamber because of the piece to the melting point. Usually some new metalis
differenceinthepressuresof the two gases.Low- added from a welding rod whichis melted at thetime
pressure torches are designed with unequal areainlets and flowed together with the fused metal of the two
to the mixing chamber so that the oxygen pressure is edges of the joint. The temperature of the flame pro-
often twicethe acetylene pressure. duced by the oxygen and acetylene delivered through
Equalpressuretorches are those designedwith the torch is in the range of 3200 to 3480C (5800 to
equal area inlets to the mixing chamber of the tip for 6300F).

~ ~~
S T D o A W S JWE-ENGL $997 m 0784865 0516522 205 m
TORCH 348
WELDING
OXYACETYLENE Welding Encyclopedia
The diameterof the welding rod to be used depends The OFC torchis a versatile tool that can be readily
onthethickness of theworkpiece. The rodmaybe taken to the work site. is It used to cut platesup to 2 m
straight or bent to an angle as necessary. If the edges (7 ft) thick. Because the cutting oxygenjet has a 360
are to be beveled, the workpieces should be prepared cutting edge, it provides a rapid means of cutting
with either a single or double V, forming a deep U bothstraightedgesandcurvedshapestorequired
shape, or in the case of sheet metal, flanging the edges dimensionswithoutexpensivehandlingequipment.
upward. See BEVELING. Thecuttingdirectioncan be continuouslychanged
Weldingproceedseitherforward(awayfromthe during operation.
operator), or backward (toward the operator), depend- Principles of Operation
ing on the required procedure.The motion of the torch The oxyfuel gas cutting processemploys a torch
dependsontheoperator;sometimesthe flame is with a tip (nozzle). The functions of the torch are to
moved in a semi-circle and the rod straight back and produce preheatflames by mixing thegas and the oxy-
forthimmediatelyahead of theflameinalternating gen in the correct proportions, and to supply a concen-
motions. tratedstreamofhigh-purityoxygentothereaction
Welding Rods. It is essential that the correct welding zone. The oxygen oxidizes hot metal and also blows
rodbeusedtoinsureweldintegrity. The American the molten reaction products from the joint. The cut-
WeldingSociety(AWS) filler metalspecifications ting torch mixes the fuel and oxygen for the preheating
should be consulted for the recommended materials. flames and aims the oxygen jet into the cut. The torch
Additionally, the manufacturer of the material to be cutting tip contains a number of preheat flame ports
welded,aswell as themanufacturer of appropriate and a center passage for the cutting oxygen.
filler metals,are excellent sourcesof information con- The preheat flames are used to heat the metal to a
cerningproperweldingproceduresandappropriate temperature where the metal will react with the cutting
filler metals. oxygen. The oxygen jet rapidly oxidizes most of the
metalin a narrowsection to make the cut.Metal
OXYACETYLENE WELDING TORCH oxides and molten metal are expelled from the cutby
See OXYACETYLENE WELDING,Equipment. the kinetic energy of the oxygen stream. Moving the
torch acrossthe workpiece at a specified rate produces
OXYACETYLENE WELDING, Pressure a continuous cutting action. The torch may be moved
See PRESSURE GAS WELDING (PGW). manually or bya mechanized camage.
The accuracyof a manual operation depends largely
OXYFUEL GAS CUTTING (OFC) on the skillof the operator. Mechanized operation gen-
A group of oxygen cutting processes that uses heat erally improves the accuracy and speed of thecut and
from an oxyfuel gas flame. See STANDARD WELDING the finishof the cut surfaces.
TERMS. See also OXYACETYLENECUTTING,OXYHY- Kerf. When a piece is cutby an OFC process,a nar-
DROGENCUTTING,OXYNATURALGAS CUlTING, and rowwidth of metalisprogressivelyremoved. The
OXYPROPANE CUTTING. width of the cut is called a ke& as shown in Figure
Oxyfuel gas cutting(OFC)processessever or 0-4. Control of the kerf is important in cutting opera-
remove metalby the chemical reactionof oxygen with tionswheredimensionalaccuracyof the partand
the metal at elevated temperatures. The necessary tem- squareness of the cut edges are significant factors in
perature is maintained by a flame of fuel gas burning quality control. Withthe OFC process, kerf width is a
in oxygen. In the case of oxidation resistant metals, the function of the size of tip used, speed of cutting, and
reaction is aided by adding chemical fluxes or metal flow rates of cutting oxygen and preheating gases. As
powders to the cutting oxygen stream. material thickness increases, oxygen flow rates must
The process is known by various other names, such usually be increased. Cutting tips with larger cutting
as burning, flame cutting, and flame machining. The oxygen ports are required to handle the higher flow
actual cutting operation is performed by the oxygen rates. Consequently, the width of the kerf increases as
stream. The oxygen-fuel gas flame is the mechanism the material thickness being cut increases.
used to raise the base metal to an acceptable preheat Kerf width is especially important in shape cutting.
temperature range
and
to
maintain
the
cutting Compensation mustbe made for kerf width in thelay-
operation. out of the work, or the design of the template. Gener-

UEL
Encyclopedia
Welding (OFC) 349
Cutting speeds below those recommended for best

quality cuts usually result in irregularities in the kerf.
The oxygen stream inconsistentlyoxidizes and washes
away additional material from each side of the cut.
Excessive preheatflame results in undesirable melting
and wideningof the kerf at the top.
Chemistry of Oxyfuel Gas Cutting
The process of oxygen cuttingis based on thechar-
acteristic of high-purityoxygentocombinerapidly
with iron when it is heated to its ignition temperature,
above 870C (1600F). The iron is rapidly oxidized by
the high-purity oxygen and heat is liberated by several
reactions.
The balanced chemical equations for these reactions
are the following:
(1) Fe + O + Fe0 + heat (267H), first reaction
(2) 3Fe + 202 + Fe304 + heat (1 120 kJ) second
reaction
(3) 2Fe + 1.5 O2 + Fe203 + heat (825 H),third
Figure 0-4-Kerf and Dragin Oxyfuel Gas Cutting reaction
The tremendous heat release ofthe second reaction
ally, on materials up to50 mm (2 in.) thick, kerf width predominates over that of the frst reaction, which is
can be maintained within+0.4 mm (+1/64 in.). supplementary in most cutting applications. The third
reaction occursto some extent in heavier cutting appli-
Drag. Whenthespeed of the cuttingtorch is cations. Stoichiometrically, 2.9 m3 (104 ft3) of oxygen
adjusted so that the oxygen streamenters the top of the will oxidize 1 kg (2.2 lb) of iron to Fe304.
kerf and exits from the bottom of the kerf along the Inactualoperations, the consumptionof cutting
axis of the tip, thecut will have zero drag.If the speed oxygen per unit mass of iron varies withthe thickness
ofcutting is increased, or if the oxygenflow is of the metal. Oxygen consumption per unit mass is
decreased, the oxygen availablein the lower regions of higher than the ideal stoichiometric reactionfor thick-
the cut decreases. Withless oxygen available,the oxi- nesses less than approximately40 mm (1-112 in.), and
dation reaction rate decreases, and also the oxygenjet it is lower for greater thicknesses. For thicker sections,
has less energy to carry the reaction products out of the the oxygen consumption is lower than the ideal sto-
kerf. As a result, the most distant part of the cutting ichiometric reaction because only part of the iron is
stream lags behind the portion nearest to the torch tip. completely oxidizedto Fe304.Some oxidized or partly
The length of this lag, measured along theline of cut, oxidized iron is removed by the kinetic energy of the
is referred to as the drug. This is shown in Figure 0-4. rapidly moving oxygen stream.
Drag may also be expressed as a percentage of the Chemicalanalysis
has
shown that, in some
cut thickness. A 10% drag means that the far side of instances, over 30% of the slag is unoxidized metal.
the cut lagsthe near side of the cut by a distanceequal The heat generated by the rapid oxidationof iron melts
to 10% ofthe material thickness. some of the iron adjacent to the reaction surface. This
An increase in cutting speed with no increase in molten iron is swept away with the iron oxide by the
oxygen flow usually results in a larger drag.This may force of the oxygen stream. The concurrent oxidizing
cause a decrease in cut quality. There is also a strong reaction heats the layer of iron at the active cutting
possibility of loss of cut at excessive speeds. Reverse front.
drag may occur when the cutting oxygen flow is too The heat generated by the iron-oxygen reaction at
high or the travel speedis too low. Under these condi- the focal point of the cutting reaction (the hot spot)
tions, poor quality cuts usually result. Cutting stream must be sufficient to continuously preheatthe material
lag caused by incorrect torch alignmentis not consid- to the ignition temperature. Allowing for the loss of
ered tobe drag. heat by radiation and conduction, there is ample heat
S T D - A W S JWE-ENGL L997 M 07842b505Lb524 O86 m
G GAS
350 OXYFUEL Encyclopedia
Welding
to sustain the reaction. In actual practice, the top sur- intensity preheating to the starting operation. Then the
face of the materialis frequently coveredby mill scale preheat flames are reduced to lower intensity during
or rust. That layer must be melted away by the preheatthe cutting operation, to save fuel and oxygen and to
flames to expose a clean metal surface to the oxygen provide a better cut surface.
stream. Preheat flames help to sustain the cutting reac- A number of commercially available fuel gases are
tion by providing heat tothe surface. They also shield used with oxygen to provide the preheating flames.
the oxygen stream from turbulent interaction with air. Some have proprietary compositions. Fuel gases are
Thealloyingelementsnormallyfoundincarbon generallyselectedbecause of availabilityandcost.
steelsareoxidizedordissolvedintheslagwithout Properties of somecommonlyusedfuelgases are
markedly interfering with the cutting process. When listed in Table 0-2. To understand the significance of
alloying elements are present in steel in appreciable the information in this table, it is necessary to under-
amounts, their effect on the cutting process must be stand some of the terms and concepts involved in the
considered. Steels containing minor additions of oxi- burning of fuel gas.See OXYFUEL GAS WELDING.
dationresistantelements,suchasnickelandchro- Fuel Selection
mium, can still be
oxygen-cut.
However, when Combustion intensity or specific flame output for
oxidation resistant elements are presentin large quan- various fuel gasesare important considerationsin fuel
tities,modificationsto the cuttingtechniqueare gas selection. Some of the more common fuel gases
required to sustain the cutting action. This is true for usedare:acetylene,naturalgas,propane,hydrogen,
stainless steels. propylene and methyl-acetylene propadiene.
Oxygen. Oxygen used for cutting operations should Some of the factors to be considered when selecting
have a purity of 99.5% or higher. Lower purity reduces a particular fuelgas are:
the efficiency of the cutting operation.A 1% decrease (1) The time required for preheating when starting
in oxygen purity to 98.5% will result ina decrease in cuts on squareedgesandrounded comers andalso
cutting speed of approximately 15%, and an increase when piercing holesfor cut starts.
of about 25% in consumption of cutting oxygen. The (2) The effecton cutting speeds
quality of the cut will be impaired, and the amount and (3) The effecton productivity
tenacity of the adhering slag will increase. With oxy- (4) The cost and availabilityof the fuel gases
gen purity below 95%, the familiar cutting action dis- (5) Volume of oxygen required per volume of fuel
appears, and it becomes a melt-and-wash action thatis gas to obtain a neutral flame
usually unacceptable. (6) Safety in transporting and handling of gases
Preheating Fuels.Functions of the preheatflames in For best performance and safety, the torches and tips
the cutting operation are the following: should be designedfor the particular fuel selected.
(1) Raise the temperature of the steel to the ignition Acetylene. Acetylene is widely used asa fuel gas for
point oxygen cutting and also for welding. Its chief advan-
(2) Add heat energy to the work to maintain cut- the tagesareavailability,highflametemperature,and
ting reaction widespreadfamiliaritywith its flame characteristics
(3) Provide a protective shield between the cutting among users.
oxygen stream and the atmosphere Combustion of acetylene with oxygen produces a
(4) Dislodge from the upper surface of the steel any hot, short flame with a bright inner cone at each pre-
rust, scale, paint, or other foreign substance that wouldheat port. The hottest point is at the end of this inner
stop or retard the normal forward progressof the cut- cone.Combustion is completed in the longouter
ting action flame. The sharp distinction between the two flames
A preheat intensity that rapidly raises the steel to helps to adjust the oxygen-to-acetylene ratio for the
the ignition temperature will usually be adequate to desired flame characteristics.
maintaincuttingactionathightravelspeeds,How- Depending on this ratio, the flamemay be adjusted
ever, the quality of the cut will not be the best. High- to reducing(carburizing),neutral, or oxidizing, as
qualitycutting can becarriedoutatconsiderably shown in FigureA- l. The neutral flame, obtained with
lower preheat intensities than those normally required a ratio of approximately one part oxygen to one part
for rapid heating. On most larger cutting machines, acetylene, is used for manual cutting. As the oxygen
dual range gas controls are provided that limit high- flow is decreased, a light streamer begins to appear.

~~
STDeAWS JWE-ENGL L777 m 07842b5 051b525 TL4 m
UEL
Encyclopedia
Welding (OFC)
GAS CUTTING 351
This indicates a reducing flame, which is sometimes Natural Gas. The composition of natural gas varies
used to rough-cut cast iron. depending on its source. Its main component is meth-
When excess oxygen is supplied, the inner flame ane (CH,). The ratio of torch-supplied oxygento natu-
cone shortens and becomes more intense. The flame ral gas is 1.5to 1 for aneutral flame. The flame
temperature increases to a maximum at an oxygen-to- temperature with naturalgas is lower than with acety-
acetylene ratioof about 1.5 to l. An oxidizing flameis lene. It is also morediffusedand less intense. The
used for short preheating times and for cutting very characteristics of the flame for carburizing, neutral, or
thick sections. oxidizingconditions are not as distinct as withthe
oxyacetylene flame.
The high flame temperature and heat transfer char-
Because of the lower flame temperature and the
acteristics of the oxyacetylene flame are particularly
resulting lower heating efficiency, significantly greater
important for bevel cutting. These characteristics are
quantities of natural gas and oxygen are required to
also an advantage for operations in which the preheat
produce heating rates equivalent to those of oxygen
time is an appreciable fraction ofthe total time for cut-
and acetylene.To compete with acetylene, the cost and
ting, suchas short cuts. availability of natural gas and oxygen, the higher gas
MPS Gas. MPS is a liquefied, stabilized, acetylene- consumptions, and the longer preheat times must be
like fuel that can be stored and handled similarly to considered. The use of tipsdesigned to providea
liquid propane. M P S is a mixture of several hydrocar- heavy preheat flame,or cutting machines that allow a
bons, including propadiene (allene), propane, butane, high-lowpreheatsetting,maycompensate for defi-
butadiene, and methylacetylene. Methylacetylene,like ciencies in the lower heat outputof natural gas.
acetylene, is anunstable,high-energy,triple-bond The torch and tip designs for natural gas are differ-
compound. The other compounds in M P S dilute the ent from those for acetylene. The delivery pressure for
methylacetylene sufficiently to make the mixture safe natural gas is generally low and the combustion ratios
for handling. The mixture bums hotter than either pro- are different. See Table 0-2, Properties of Common
pane or natural gas. It also affords a high release of Fuel Gases.
energy in the primary flame cone, another characteris- Propane. Propane is routinelyused for oxygen
tic similar to acetylene. The outer flame gives rela- cutting in a number ofplants because of its availabil-
tively high heat release, like propane and propylene. ity and because it has a much higher total heat value
The overall heat distribution in the flame is the most (MJ/m3) than natural gas (see Table 0-2). For proper
even of any ofthe gases. combustion during cutting, propane requires 4 to 4- 1/2
A neutral flame is achieved ata ratio of 2.5 parts of times its volume of preheat oxygen. This requirement
torch-supplied oxygen to 1 part M P S . Its maximum is offset somewhat byits higher heat value. Propaneis
flame temperature is reached at a ratio of 3.5 parts of stored in liquid form and is easily transported to the
oxygen to 1 part of M P S . These ratios are used for the work site.
same cutting applicationsas the acetylene flame. Propylene. Propylene, under many different brand
Although M P S gas is similar in many characteris- names, is used as fuel gas for oxygen cutting.One vol-
tics to acetylene, it requires abouttwice the volume of ume of propylene requires 2.6 volumes of torch-sup-
oxygen per volume of fuel for a neutral preheat flame. plied oxygen for a neutral flame, and 3.6 volumes for
Thus, oxygen cost will be higher when M P S gas is maximum flame temperature. Cutting tips are similar
used in place of acetylene for a specific job. To be to those usedfor MPS.
competitive, the cost of M P S gas must be lower than Advantages and Disadvantages
acetylene for the job. Advantages. Oxyfuel gas cutting has a number of
MPS gas does have an advantage over acetylene for advantages and disadvantages comparedother to metal
underwater cutting in deep water. Because acetylene cuttingoperations,such as sawing,milling,andarc
outlet pressure is limited to 207 kPa (30 psi) absolute, cutting.
it usually is not applicable at depths below6 m (20 ft) (1) Steels can generally be cut faster by OFC than
of water. M P S can be used there and at greater depths, by mechanicalchip removal processes.
as can hydrogen. For a particular underwater applica- (2) Section shapes and thicknesses thatare difficult
tion, M P S , acetylene, and hydrogen should be evalu- to produce by mechanical means can be severed eco-
ated for preheat fuel. nomically byOFC.
~~~ ~~
~
STD*AWS JWE-ENGL L997 I0784265 05Lb52b 950
G 352 OXYFUEL
GAS Encyclopedia
Welding
(3) BasicmanualOFCequipmentcostsarelow (2) Requiredtorchcuttingtipstocutarange of

compared to machine tools. material thicknesses
(4) ManualOFCequipment is veryportableand (3) Oxygen andfuel gas hoses
can be used in the field.
(4) Oxygen andfuel gas pressure regulators
(5) Cutting direction can be changed rapidly on a
small radius during operation. ( 5 ) Sources of oxygen andfuel gases to be used
(6) Large plates can be cut rapidly in place
by mov- (6) Flame strikers, eye protection, flame and heat
ing the OFC torch rather than the plate. resistant gloves andclothing, and safety devices
(7) OFC is an economical method of plate edge (7) Equipmentoperatinginstructionsfromthe
preparation for bevel and groove weldjoint designs. manufacturer
Disadvantages. Following are several importantdis- Torches. See OXYFUEL GAS CUTTING TORCH.
advantages of oxyfuel gas cuttingof metals:
(1) Dimensional tolerances are significantly poorer ManualCuttingTips. Cuttingtips are precision-
than machine tool capabilities. machined copper-alloy parts of various designs and
(2) The process is essentially limited commercially sizes. They are held in the cutting torch by a tip nut.
to cutting steels and cast iron, although other readily All oxygen cutting tips have preheatflame ports, usu-
oxidized metals, suchas titanium, canbe cut. ally arranged in a circle around a central cutting oxy-
(3) The preheat flames and expelled red-hot slag gen orifice. The preheat flame ports and the cutting
present fire and bum hazards to plant and personnel. oxygenorifice are sized for the thicknessrange of
(4) Fuelcombustionandoxidation of themetal metal that the tip is designed to cut. Cutting tips are
require properfume control and adequate ventilation. designatedasstandardorhighspeed.Standardtips
(5) Hardenable steelsmay require preheat, postheat, have a straight bore oxygen port, and they are usually
or both, adjacent to the cut edges to control their met- used with oxygen pressures from 205 to 415 Wa (30
allurgical structures and mechanical properties. to 60 psi). High-speed tips differ from standard tips in
(6) Specialprocessmodifications are needed for that the exit end of the oxygen orifice flares out or
OFC of high-alloy steels and cast irons. diverges. The divergence allowsthe use of higher oxy-
gen pressures, typically415 to 690 kPa (60 to 100 psi),
Equipment
while maintaining a uniform oxygenjet at supersonic
There are two basic typesof OFC equipment: man- velocities.High-speedtips are ordinarilyused for
ual and machine. The manual equipment is used pri- machine cutting only. They usually permit cutting at
marily for maintenance, for scrapcutting,cutting speeds approximately 20% greater than speeds avail-
risers off castingsand other operationsthatdonot able with standard tips. Both types of tips are shown in
require a high degree of accuracy or a high quality cut Figure 0-5.
surface. Machine cutting equipment is used for accu-
rate, high quality work, and for large volume cutting, Gas Pressure Regulators. The ability to make suc-
such as in steel fabricating shops. Both types
of equip- cessful cutsalso requires a meansof precisely regulat-
ment operateon the same principle. ing the specified gas
pressures
and
volumes.
No one should attemptto operate any oxyfuel appa- Regulators are pressure control devices used to reduce
ratus until trained inits proper useor under competent high source pressures to required working pressures
supervision. It is important to closely follow
the manu- by manually adjusted pressure valves. They vary in
facturers recommendations and operating instructions design, performance, and convenience features. They
for safe use. See Appendix ??.For more information are designed for use with specific types of gases and
on safe practices, refer to American Welding Society, for definite pressure ranges.
Miami, Florida: Welding Handbook, Vol.1, 8th Edi- Gas pressure regulators usedfor OFC are generally
tion. American Welding Society,1987. similar in designto those usedfor oxyfuel gas welding
ManualEquipment. Asetup for manual OFC (OFW). Regulators for most other fuel gasesare simi-
requires the following: lar in design to acetylene regulators. For OFC, regula-
(1) One or more cutting torches suitablefor the pre- torswithhighercapacitiesanddeliverypressure
heatfuel gas to be used and therange of material ranges than those used for OFW may be required for
thicknesses tobe cut multi-torch operations and heavy cutting.

STD*AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 0784265 U5Lb527 897
ncyclopediaWelding OXYFUEL GAS CUlTlNG (OFC) 353
starting the cut. Many machines are designed for spe-

cial purposes, such as those for making vertical cuts,
edge preparation for welding,andpipecuttingand
beveling. Many variations of mechanized cutting sys-
tems are commercially available.
MachineTorches. A typical machine cutting torch
consists of a barrel, similarto a manual torch but with
DIVERGING See Figure 0-6.
heavier construction, and a cutting tip.
TAPER See also OXYFUEL GAS CUTTlNG TORCH.
MachineCuttingTips. Machinecuttingtips are
designed to operate at higher oxygen and fuel pres-
sures than those normally used for manual cutting. The
two-piece divergent bore tip is one type used for oper-
ation at high cutting speeds. Divergent bore cutting
tips are based on the principles of gas flow through a
venturi. High velocities are reached as the gas emerges
from the venturi nozzle. Divergent bore cutting tips
Figure O--tandard and High Speed Oxyfuel are precision machined to minimize any distortion of
Gas Cutting Tips the gases when they exit from the nozzle. They are
used for the majority of machine cutting applications
Hoses and Other Equipment. Hoses and such equip- because of theirsuperiorcutting characteristics for
ment as tip cleaners, wrenches, and strikers used in materials up to150 mm (6 in.) thick. Theyare not rec-
OFC are the same as those usedfor OFW. ommended for cutting materials over 250 mm (10 in.)
thick.
Safety. Tinted gogglesor other appropriate eye pro-
tection devices are available in a number of different Cutting Machines. Oxyfuel gas cutting machinesare
shades. All appropriate safety devices, including pro- either portableorstationary.Portablemachines are
tective clothing, shouldbe used. They are specified in usually moved to the work. Stationary machines are
Z49.1, Safe@inWelding,Cuttingand Allied Pro- fixedinlocationandthework is movedto the
cesses, published by the American Welding Society, machine.
Miami, Florida.
PortableMachines. Portablecuttingmachines are
Mechanized Equipment primarily used for straight-line cutting, although they
MechanizedOFCwillrequireadditionalequip- canbeadapted to cutcirclesandshapes. Portable
ment, dependingon the application: machines usually consist of a motor driven carriage
(1) A machine to move one or more torches in the with an adjustable mountingfor the cutting torch. See
required cutting pattern Figure 0-7.In most cases, the machine travels on a
(2) Torch mounting and adjusting arrangements on track,whichperformsthefunction of guiding the
the machine torch.The carriage speedisadjustableoverawide
(3) A cutting table to support the work range. The degree of cutting precision depends on both
(4) Means for loadingandunloading the cutting the accuracy of the track, or guide, and thefit between
table the track andthe driving wheelsof the carriage. Porta-
(5) Automatic preheat ignition devicesfor multiple ble machinesare of various weights and sizes, depend-
torch machines ing on the type of worktobedone.Thesmallest
Mechanized OFC equipment can vary in complex- machines weigh only a few pounds. They are limited
ity from simple hand-guided machines to very sophis- to carrying light-duty torches for cutting thin materi-
ticatedcomputer-controlledunits. 'The mechanized als. Large, portable cutting machines are heavy and
equipment is analogous to the manual equipment in rugged.Theycancarry one ormoreheavy-duty
principle, but differs in design to accommodate higher torches and the necessary auxiliary equipmentfor cut-
fuelpressures, faster cuttingspeeds,andmeans for ting thick sections.
STDOAWS
JWE-ENGL $797 m 0784265 0516528 723 W
354 OXYFUEL
GAS CUTTING (OFC) Encyclopedia
Welding
r CUTTING
PREHEAT
OXYGEN
VALVE
VALVE
GEAR RACK
FOR HEIGHT
ADJUSTMENT
\
Figure O-7-Machine Cutting Torch Mounted on a
BARREL Portable Carriage
Generally, the operator must follow the carriage to

make adjustments, as required, to produce good qual-
ity cuts. The operator ignites the torch, positions it at
the starting point, andinitiates the cutting oxygen flow
and carriage travel. The operator adjusts torch height
to maintain the preheat flames at the correct distance
from the work surface. At the completion of the cut,
the operator shuts off the cutting torch andcarriage.
Stationary
Machines. Stationary machines are
designed to remain in a single location. The raw mate-
rial is moved to the machine, and the cut shapes are
transported away.The work station is composed of the
machine, a system to supply the oxygen and preheat
fuel to the machine, and amaterial handling system.
The torchsupport carriage runsontracks. The
structure either spans the workwitha gantry-type
bridge across the tracks or it is cantilevered off to one
side of the tracks. A gantry machine is shown in Fig-
r TIPNUT ure 0-8. Cuttingmachines are usuallyclassified
according to the width of plate that can be cut (trans-
CUTING verse motion). The length that can be cut is the travel
TIP distance on the tracks.The maximum cutting length is
dictatedbyphysical limitations of gasand electric
power supply lines. An operator station with consoli-
dated controls for gas flow, torch movementand
Figure O-&Three Hose Machine Cutting Torch machine travelis generally a part ofthe machine.
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 1777 m 078q2b5051b527 bbT m
EL
ncyclopedia
Welding GAS CUlTiNG (OFC) 355
Flgure 0"Gantry vpe Shape Cutting Machine with Computer Control
Shape Cutting and usingthe equipment should always be closely fol-

A number of torches can be mounted on a shape lowed. This will prevent damage to the equipment and
cutting machine, depending on the size of the also insure its proper and safe use.
machine. The machine can cut shapes of nearly any Procedures
complexity and size.In multiple torch operations, sev- Starting a Cut. Several methods can be used to start
eral identical shapes can be cut simultaneously. The a cut on an edge.The most common method is to place
number depends on the part size, plate size and the the preheat flames halfway overthe edge, holding the
number ofavailable torches. end of the flame cones 1.5 to 3 mm (U16 to 1/8 in.)
It ispossible to feedinformationto the electric above the surface of the material to be cut. The tip axis
drive motors of the carriage and cross arm from any should be aligned with the plate edge. When the top
suitable control. One method uses a photoelectric cell corner reaches a reddish yellow color,the cutting oxy-
tracerthatcanfollow line drawingsorsilhouettes. genvalve is openedandthecuttingprocess starts.
Numerical control machinesuse profile programs Torchmovementis started after the cutting action
placedonpunched or magnetictapesorcomputer reaches thefar side of the edge.
disks. These storage devices, in turn, control the shape Another method is to put the tip entirely over the
cutting by appropriate signals to the cutting machine material to be cut. The preheat flameis held there until
drive motors. the metal reaches its kindling temperature. The tip is
Operating Procedures then moved to the edge of the plate so the oxygen
In the operation of OFC equipment, the recommen- stream will just clear the metal. With the cutting oxy-
dations of the equipment manufacturer in assembling gen on, the cutis initiated. This method has the advan-
STD-AUS JWE-ENGL L997 078Y265 0536530 381 m
GAS CUTTING
(OFC)
Welding
tage of producing sharper corners at the beginningof desired preheat flame. If sufficient flow rates are not
the cut. obtained,pressuresettingsat the regulatorcan be
For plate thicknesses of 13 mm (U2 in.) or more, increased to compensate.Cleanliness of the nozzle,
thecuttingtipshouldbeheldperpendicularto the type of base metal, purityof cutting oxygen, and other
plate. For thin plate, the tip can be tilted in the direc- factors havea direct effect on performance.
tion of the cut. Tilting increases the cutting speed and Manufacturers differ in their recommended travel
helpspreventsslagfromfreezingacrossthekerf. speeds. Some give a range of speeds for specific thick-
When cutting material in vertical position, start on the nesses, while others list a single speed. In either case,
lower edgeof the material and cut upward. the settings are intended only as a guide. In determin-
Piercing. It is often necessary to start a cut at some ing the proper speed for an application, begin the cut at
point other than on the edge of a piece of metal. This a slowerspeedthanthatrecommended.Gradually
techniqueisknownas piercing. Piercingusually increase thespeeduntil cut quality falls belowthe
requires a somewhat larger preheatflame than the one required level. Then reducethe speeduntilthecut
used for an edge start. In addition,the flame should be quality is restored,andcontinue tooperate .at that
adjustedtoslightlyoxidizing to increase the heat speed.
energy. The areawherethepiercecut is tobegin Typicaldata for cutting low-carbonsteel,using
should be located ina scrap area. Hold the torch tip in commonlyavailablefuelgases, are showninTable
one spot until the steel surface turns a yellowish red 0-3. The gas flow rates and cutting speeds are to be
and a few sparks appear fromthe surface of the metal. considered only as guides for determining more pre-
The tip should be angled and lifted up as the cutting cise setting for a particular job. When new material is
oxygen valve is opened. The torch is held stationary being cut, a few trial cuts should be made to ascertain
until the cuttingjet pierces through the plate. the most efficient operating conditions.
Torch motion is then initiated along the cut line. If
Plate Beveling. The beveling of plate edges before
the cutting oxygen is turned on too quickly and the
welding is necessary in many applications to insure
torch is not lifted, slag may be blown into the tip and
proper dimensions and fit, and also to accommodate
may plug the gas ports.
standard welding techniques. Beveling may be done
MachineCutting. Operating conditions for mecha- by using a single torch or multiple torches operating
nized oxygen cutting will vary depending on the fuel simultaneously. Althoughsingle beveling can be done
gas and the style of cutting torch being used. Tip size manually, beveling is best done by machine for accu-
designations,tipdesign,andoperatingdatacanbe rate controlof the cutting variables. Whencutting bev-
obtained from the torch manufacturer. elswith two or threetorches,plateridingdevices
Proper tip sizeandcuttingoxygenpressure are should be used to insure constant tip position above
importantinmaking a qualitymachinecut. If the the plate, as shown in Figure 0-9.
proper tipsize is not used, maximum cutting speed and
Cutting Oxidation-Resistant Steels
the best quality of cut will not be achieved. The cutting
oxygen pressure setting is an essential condition; devi- The absence of alloying materials in pure iron per-
ationsfromtherecommendedsettingwillgreatly mits the oxidation reaction to proceed rapidly. As the
affect cut quality. For this reason, some manufacturers quantityandnumber of alloyingelementsiniron
specify setting the pressure at the regulator and operat- increase, the oxidation rate decreases from that of pure
ingwith a givenlength of hose.Whenlongeror iron. Cutting becomes more difficult.
shorterhosesareused, an adjustmentinpressure The iron oxides produced have melting points near
should be made. An alternative is to measure oxygen the melting pointof iron. However, the oxides of many
pressure at the torch inlet. Pressure settingsfor cutting of the alloying elements in steels, such as aluminum
oxygen are then adjusted to obtain the recommended and chromium, have melting points higher than those
pressure at the torch inlet, rather than at the regulator of iron oxides. These high-melting oxides, which are
outlet. refractory in nature, may shield the material inthe kerf
Otheradjustments,such as thepreheatfueland so that fresh iron is not continuously exposed to the
oxygen pressure settings and the travel speed, are also cuttingoxygenstream.Thus,thespeed of cutting
important. Oncethe regulators have been adjusted, the decreases as the amount of refractory oxide-foming
torch valves are used to throttle gas flows to give the elements in the iron increases.

~~
~~~
'STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 051b531 218 m

UEL
Encyclopedia
Welding GAS CUlTlNG (OFC) 357
Table 0-3
Data For Cutting of Low Carbon Steel
SI units
Gas Flow, Llmin

Thickness Diameter
Cutting
OfSteel ofcutting speed cutting
mm Orifice, mm muds Oxygen Acetylene MPS Natural Gas Propane
3.2 0.5 1-1 .O2 6.8-13.5 7.2-21.2 2-4 24 4-1 2 2-5
6.4 0.76-1.52 6.8-1 1.O 14.2-26.0 2-4 2-5 4-12 2-6
9.5 0.76-1.52 6.4-10.1 18.9-33.0 3-5 2-5 5-12 .3-7
13 1.02-1.52 5.1-9.7 26.0-40.0 3-5 2-5 7-14 3-8
19 l. 14-1 S2 5.1-8.9 47.2-70.9 3-6 3-5 7-17 3-9
25 l. 14-1.52 3.8-7.6 5 1.9-75.5 4-7 4-7 8-17 4-9
38 1.52-2.03 2.5-5.9 51.9-75.5 4-8 4-8 9-17 4-10
51 1.52-2.03 2.5-5.5 51.9-82.6 4-8 4-8 9-1 9 4-10
76 1.65-2.16 1.7-4.7 61.4-89.6 4-9 4-10 10-19 5-11
102 2.03-2.29 1.7-4.2 113-170 5-10 4-10 10-19 5-11
127 2.03-2.41 1.7-3.4 127-170 5-10 5-10 12-24 5-12
152 2.41-2.67 1.3-3.0 123-236 5-12 5-12 12-24 6-19
203 2.41-2.79 1.3-2.1 217-293 7-14 10-19 14-30 7-15
254 2.41-2.79 0.85-1.7 274-33 1 7-17 10-19 16-33 7-15
305 2.79-3.30 0.85-1.7 340-401 9-19 15-29 20-75 10-22
U.S. Customary UNts
Gas Flow, ft3m

Thickness Diameter
Cutting
ofSteelof cutting speed cutting
in. OrlfICe, in. inJmin. Acetylene
Oxygen MPS Natural Gas Propane
118 0.020-0.040 16-32 15-45 3-9 2-10 9-25 3-10
114 0.030-0.060 16-26 30-55 3-9 4-10 9-25 5-12
318 0.030-0.060 15-24 40-70 6-12 4-10 10-25 5-15
112 0.O4O-O.060 12-23 55-85 6-1 2 6-10 15-30 5-15
314 0.0454.060 12-2 1 100-150 7-14 8-15 15-30 6-18
1 0.045-0.060 9-18 110-160 7-14 8-15 18-35 6-18
1-112 0.060-0.080 6-14 110-175 8-16 8-1 5 18-35 8-20
2 0.600-0.080 6-13 130-190 8-16 8-20 20-40 8-20
3 0.065-0.085 4-1 1 190-300 9-20 8-20 2040 9-22
4 0.080-0.090 4-10 240-360 9-20 1 0-20 20-40 9-24
5 0.080-0.095 4-8 270-360 10-25 10-20 25-50 10-25
6 0.0954.105 3-7 260-500 10-25 20-40 25-50 10-30
8 0.095-0.110 3-5 460-620 15-30 20-40 30-55 15-32
10 0.095-0.110 2-4 580-700 15-35 30-60 35-70 15-35
12 0.110-0.130 2-4 720-850 20-40 30-60 45-95 20-45
Notes:
1. Preheat oxygen consumptions: Preheat oxygen for acetylene= l.1 to 1.25 x acetylene flowfi%; preheat oxygen for natural gas= 1.5 to
2.5 X natural gas flowft3h;preheat oxygen for propane = 3.5 to 5 X propane flowft3h.
2. Operating notes: Higher gas flows and lower speeds are generally associated with manual cutting, whereas lower gas flows and higher
speeds apply to machine cutting. When cutting heavily scaled or rusted plate, use high gas flow and low speeds. Maximum indicated
speeds apply to straight line cutting;
for intricate shape cutting and best quality, lower speeds be will
required.

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 05Lb532 L54
358 OXYFUEL GAS CUlTlNG (OFC) Welding Encyclopedia
or Three Torches
Figure O-9-Plate Riding Device Used When Cutting Bevels with Two
For ferrous metals with high-alloy content, such as When the above methods are used to cut oxidation
stainless steel, the useof plasma arc cutting(PAC) and resistant metals, the quality of the cut surface
is some-
in some cases air carbon arc cutting (CAC-A) should what impaired. Scale and slag may adhere to the cut
beconsidered. If theseoptions are notavailableor faces.Pickup of carbon or iron, or both, usually
practical, then variations of OFC techniques must be appears on thecutsurfaces of stainlesssteelsand
used. nickel alloy steels. This may affect the corrosion resis-
There are several variations for oxygen cutting of tance and magnetic propertiesof the metal. If the cor-
oxidation resistant steels, whichare also applicable to rosion
resistance or magnetic properties of the
cast irons. The important ones are the following: material are important, approximately 3 mm (1/8 in.)
(1) Torch oscillation of metal should be machined from the cut edges. See
(2) Waster plate FLUX CUTTING and METAL POWDER CU'ITING.
(3) Wire feed Torch Oscillation. Low-alloy content stainless steels
(4)Powder cutting up to 100 mm (4in.) thick can sometimes be severed
(5) Flux cutting withastandardcuttingtorchandoscillation. The

STDOAWS
JWE-ENGL L797
07842b5
05Lb533 O90 m
FUEL
Encyclopedia
Welding ( O M ) 359
entire thickness of the starting edge must be preheated (1) Tinted gogglesor face shields withfilter lenses;
to a bright redcolor before the cut is started. This tech-the recommended filter lenses for various cutting
nique shouldbe combined with someof the other cut- operations are:
ting methods listed. (a) Light cutting, up to 25 mm (1 in.) shade 3
or 4
Waster Plate. One methodof cutting oxidation resis-
tantsteels is to clamp alow-carbonsteelwaster (b) Medium cutting, 25 to 150 mm (1 to 6 in.)
shade 4 or 5
plate on the upper surface of the material to be cut.
The cut is started in the low-carbonsteel material. The (c) Heavy cutting, over150 mm (6 in.) shade 5
heat liberated bythe oxidation ofthe low-carbon steel or 6
provides additional heat at the cutting face to sustain (2) Flame-resistant gloves
the oxidation reaction. The iron oxide from the low- (3) Safety glasses
carbon steel helps to wash away the refractory oxides (4)Flame-resistant jackets, coats,hoods,aprons,
from stainless steel. The thickness of the waster plate etc.
must be in proportion to the thickness of the material (a) Woolen clothing, preferably, not cotton or
being cut. Several undesirable features of this method synthetic materials
are the cost of the waster plate material,the additional (b) Sleeves, collars, and pockets kept buttoned
setup time, the slowcuttingspeeds,and the rough (c) Cuffs eliminated
quality of the cut. ( 5 ) Hard hats
(6)Leggings andspats
wire Feed. With the appropriate equipment, a small
(7) Safety shoes
diameterlow-carbonsteelwire is fedcontinuously
(8) Flame extinguishing protective equipment
into the torch preheat flames, ahead of the cut.The end
of the wire should melt rapidlyinto the surface of the (9) Supplemental breathing equipment
alloy steel plate.The effect of the wire additionon the (10) Other safety equipment
cutting actionis the same as that of the waster plate. A Reference:AmericanWeldingSociety, Welding
motor-driven wire feeder and wire guide, mounted on Handbook, 8th Edition, Vol. 2. Miami, Florida: Ameri-
the cutting torch, are needed as accessory equipment. can Welding Society, 1991.
This is a seldom-used method. OXYFUEL GAS CUlTlNG TORCH
Safe Practices A device used for directing the preheating flame
Safe practices for the installation and operation of produced by the controlled combustion of fuel gases
oxyfuel gas systems for welding and cuttingare given and to direct and control the cutting oxygen. See
STAN-
in American National Standard 249.1, latest edition, DARD WELDING TERMS. See also OXYFUEL GAS CUT-
published by the American Welding Society, Miami, TING TORCH, Equipment.
Florida. These practices and those recommended by
OXYFUEL GAS SPRAYING
the equipmentmanufacturershould always be fol-
lowed bythe person operatingthe equipment. A nonstandard termfor FLAME SPRAYING.
Fumes are a potential health hazard. When the pro- OXYFUEL GAS WELDING( O m
cess is usedinanenclosed or semi-enclosedarea, A group of welding processes that produces coales-
exhaust ventilation shouldbe provided and the opera- cence of workpieces by heating them with an oxyfuel
tor should be equipped with a respirator. Noise from gas flame.The processes are used with or without the
the operation may exceedsafe levels in some circum- application of pressureand with or without filler
stances. When necessary, ear protection should be pro- metal. See STANDARD WELDING TER.
vided for the operator. Fire is a potential hazard and Oxyfuel gas welding is an inclusive term used to
combustible materials should be cleared away from describe any welding process that uses afuel gas com-
the cutting area for a distance ofat least 11 m (35 ft). bined with oxygen to produce a flame having suffi-
Appropriate protective clothing and equipment for cient energy to melt the base metal. The fuel gas and
any cutting operation will vary with the nature and oxygen are mixed inthe proper proportions in a cham-
location of the work to be performed. Some or all of berwhich is generallyapart of theweldingtorch
the following maybe required: assembly. The torch is designedtogivethewelder
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 3997 m 0784265 0536534 T27 . W
NG GAS
Welding
complete controlof the welding flame to melt the base See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also OXYACETY-
metal and the filler metal in joint.
the LENE WELDING, Equipment.
Oxyfuel gas welding is normally done with acety-
lene as the fuel gas. Other fuel gases, such as methy- OXYGAS CUlTlNG
lacetylenepropadieneandhydrogen,aresometimes A nonstandard termfor OXYFUEL GAS CUTTING.
used for oxyfuel gas welding of low-melting metals.
The welding flame must provide high localized energyOXYGEN
toproduceandsustain a moltenweldpool.With (Chemical symbol: O). An odorless, tasteless gas-
proper adjustment, the flames can also supply a pro-
eous element; colorless except inits liquid state, when
tectivereducingatmosphereoverthemoltenweld
it is a faint bluecolor.Atomicnumber, 8; atomic
pool. Hydrocarbonfuel gases such as propane, butane,
weight, 16; melting point, -218.4"C (-361.1"F); boil-
natural gas, and various mixtures of these gasesare not
ing point; -183.0"C (-297.4"F); density, 1.429 grams/
suitable for welding ferrous materials because the heat
liter. The critical temperature is -118C (-180.4"F),
output of the flameis too low orthe flame atmosphere
and its criticalpressure49.3atmospheres (5 MPa
is oxidizing.
[725 psi]).
In combination with pressure, oxyfuel gas flames
can be used to make upset welds in butt joints without Oxygen is a non-metallic element that can be found
filler metals. This process is called pressure gas weld- nearly everywhere in nature, either in free state or in
ing (PGW). InPGW, abutting surfacesare heated with combination with other elements. Oxygen combines
oxyfuel gas flames and forced together to obtain the with all elements except inert gases. It is one of the
forging action needed to produce a sound weld. The chief constituents of the atmosphere, and without oxy-
process is ideally adapted to a mechanized operation, gen, life as we know it would be impossible. Water is a
and practically all commercial applications are either compound of oxygen and hydrogen, in which approxi-
partly or fully mechanized. mately 89% by weightis oxygen.
Since the OFW processes are primarily manual, isit Oxygen constitutes about 115 (20.99% by volume)
essential thatthewelderbeadequatelytrainedand of the earth's atmosphere, and it has been roughlyesti-
highly skilled for specific critical welding jobs such as mated to constitute nearly half of the weight of the
pipe welding. The skill required bythe welding opera- various rocks of which theearth's crust is composed.
tor for a fully mechanized PGW machine would be The discoveryof oxygen as an element was made in
lower that than required by the manual welder, since 1774 by two chemists, Priestly and Scheele, working
the machine control, when set, performs the complete independently and
without
knowledge of one
operation. another's endeavors. Various methods havesince been
Oxyfuel gas welding can be used for joining thick perfected for the commercial production of oxygen. Of
plate,butwelding is slowandhighheatinput is practical value today are the chemical, electrolytic,
required. Welding speed is adequate to produce eco- and the liquefaction methods.
nomical welds in sheet metal and thin-wall and small In the welding industry the principal value of oxy-
diameter piping. Thus, OFW is best applied on mate- gen is that it will support combustion: it will combine
rial upto about 6 mm (1/4 in.). Pressuregas welding is with other substances in the production of flame and
used tojoin sections up to25 mm (1 in.) thick. theevolution of heat. This property of oxygenhas
Oxyfuel gas welding equipment is versatile and can been utilized inthe development of oxyfuel gas weld-
be used with most construction materials. The equip- ing and cutting torches. Regardless of the nature of the
ment involved is easily portable. For these reasons, the combustible gas used in these torches, oxygen is a req-
cost effectivenessis good. However, when partsare to uisite of operation.
be made in quantity, other welding processes are usu- Usedwithacetylene,andto a lesserextentwith
ally more suitable.See OXYACETYLENE WELDING. other fuel gases, oxygen produces a sufficiently hot
flame to cut and weld metals. It is also used, in mix-
OXYFUEL GAS WELDING TORCH tures with selected carbonaceous matter, as an explo-
A device used in oxyhel gas welding, torch brazing, sive for quarrying in strip coal mining, and in other
and torch soldering for directing the heating flame mining operations to break upores in copper and cer-
produced by the controlled combustion of fuel gases. tain other minerals.

Encyclopedia
N Welding CUlTlNG (AOC) 361
Pharmaceutical oxygen is used in medical applica-

tions for resuscitation and rehabilitation, and
in certain
forms of therapy. \OrnGEN IN
OXYGEN ARCCUlllNG (AOC)

An oxygen cutting process that uses an arc between
the workpiece andaconsumabletubular electrode,
through which oxygen isdirected to the workpiece. See
II
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. WWER LEAD
The oxygen arc processis used in cutting, piercing,
and gouging. Mild steelis cut by usingthe arc toraise
the temperature of the material to its kindling point in ELECTRODE
the presence of oxygen. The combustion reaction that
occurs is self-sustaining, liberating sufficient heat to
maintain the kindling temperature on all sides of the
cut. The necessary preheat atthe start of cutting is pro-
vided by the electric arc. A schematic illustration of FLUX COATING
the process is shown in Figure 0-10.
Applications
Oxygen arc cuttinghasbeenusedeffectivelyby
foundries and scrap yards for cutting mild and low-
alloy steels, stainless steel, cast iron, and nonferrous
metals in any position. The usefulness of the process
varies withthe thickness and compositionof the mate-
rial being cut. The edges of metal cut by the oxygen
arc torch are somewhat uneven and usually require a
light surface preparationtomakethemsuitable for
welding.
Oxygen arc cutting electrodes were developed pri-
marily for use in underwater cutting and were later
applied to cutting in air. In either application, oxygen
arc electrodes can cut ferrous and nonferrous metals in
any position.
Equipment
Either constant current a-cor d-c power sourcesof
sufficient capacitycan be used for oxygen arc cutting. Figure 0-1O--Schematic of Oxygen-Arc Electrode
Direct current electrode negative(DCEN) is preferred in Operation
for rapidcutting. The speciallydesignedelectrode
holder used for oxygen-arc cutting conveys electric The extruded covering is comparable to a mild steel
current tothe electrode anddelivers oxygen tothe cut. electrode of AWS classification E6013. Underwater
This is accomplished by bringing oxygen to the elec- electrodes are steel tubes with a waterproof coating.
trode holder and passing it through the bore of the
electrode into the arc. Metallurgical Effects
For cutting in air, a fully insulated electrode holder The oxygen arc method of cutting produces metal-
is required. When usedfor underwater cutting, a fully lurgical effectsin the heat-affected zone comparable
to
insulated holder equipped with a suitable flash-back those that occur in shielded metal arc welding. The
arrester is required. power input approachesthat of shieldedmetal arc
Tubular steel electrodesare available in5 and 8 mm welding, but the heat penetration is generally not as
(3/16 and 5/16 in.) diameter sizes,46 cm (18 in.) long, deep in AOC because of the faster speed of travel.
with bore diameter approximately 1.6 mm (U16 in.) This produces a somewhat more pronounced quench

~ ~~~~~
362 OXYGEN
effect. Metals that do not require a postheat treatment The gougingprocessusuallyrequires a special
after welding may be severed by this process without gouging tip with extra-heavy preheat capacity and a
detrimental effect. Gradesof austenitic stainless steels central oxygen orifice that causes a high level of tur-
that are sensitive to corrosion attack when subjected to bulence in the oxygen stream. This turbulence causes a
shielded metal arc welding will be sensitized along thewideflow of oxygenthatcanbecontrolledby the
cut when severed by the AOC process. operatortoachievethedesiredwidthanddepthof
Oxygen arc cuts in cast iron and medium carbon, gouge. Other factors used to determine the shape of
low-alloy steels are apt to develop cracks on the face the
gouge are speed, tip angle,
oxygenpressure,
of thecut.Theextentandfrequency of cracking amount of preheat, and tip size. One of the significant
depend on the composition and hardenability of the advantages of oxygen gouging is that no additional
steel. equipment other than that already used in the oxyfuel
cutting
process is required. See OXYFUEL GAS
OXYGEN CUTTER CURING.
See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See also THER-
OXYGEN GROOVING
MAL CUTTER.
A nonstandard termfor OXYGEN GOUGING.
OXYGEN CUlTING (OC)
OXYGEN HOSE
A group of thermal cutting processes that severs or
A hose through which oxygen flows fromthe regu-
removes metal by means of the chemical reaction
lator to the torch. Hoses usedgas in welding are manu-
between oxygen and the base metal at elevated tem-
facturedspecificallytomeet the utilityandsafety
perature. The necessaly temperature is maintained by requirements for this service. Oxygen hoses are col-
the heat from an arc, an oxyfuel gas flame, or other
ored green;the connections each havea plain nut with
source.See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See also
right-hand threads matchingthe oxygen regulatorout-
OXYFUELGASCUTTING,OXYGENLANCECUTTING,
let and the oxygen inlet fitting on the torch. To avoid
ana' THERMAL CUTTING.
error, fuelgas hose connections will notfit the oxygen
regulator outlet and the torch inletfitting for oxygen.
OXYGEN CUTTING OPERATOR
See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See also THER- OXYGENLANCE
MAL CURING OPERATOR. A length of pipe used to convey oxygen to the point
of cutting in oxygen lance cutting. See STANDARD
OXYGEN CYLINDER WELDING TERMS.
Oxygencylindersareconstructed of seamless
drawn steel to contain compressed oxygen. They are OXYGEN LANCE CUTTING
annealed, tested, and threaded to accommodate an out- Oxygen lance cutting (LOC) is an oxygen cutting
let valve and cylinder cap. Oxygen cylinders are madeprocess that uses oxygen supplied through a consum-
in several sizes, but the most frequently used cylinder able steel pipe or lance. The preheat required to start
in welding and cutting contains approximately 7 m3 the cutting is obtained by other means. See STANDARD
(250 ft3) at a pressure of 15 MPa (2200 psig) at 21C WELDING TERMS.
(70F). The earliest versionof LOC used a plain black iron
pipe as a lance, with oxygen flowing through it. An
OXYGEN GOUGING improved version of the lance involves a number of
Thermal gouging that uses an oxygen cutting pro- low-carbon steel wires packedinto the steel tube. This
cess variation to form a bevel or groove. See STAN- increases the cutting life and capability of the lance.
DARD WELDING TERMS. Commerciallyavailabletubesaretypically 3.2 m
Oxygen gouging of steel plate is usually limited to (10-1/2 ft) long and 16 mm (0.625 in.) in diameter.
steel plate thicknesses up to 25 mm (1 in.). The OFC An oxyfuel gas cutting or welding torch is used to
processisfrequentlyusedontheunderside of a heat the cutting end of the lance to a cherry red, and
welded joint to remove defects that are in the original then the oxygen flow is started. The iron pipe burns in
root pass,or to remove defective weld joints or cracks a self-sustaining, exothermic reaction, andthe heating
when repairing previously fabricated metal. torch is removed. Whenthe burning end of thelance is

STDOAWS JWE-ENGL L777 078YZb5 05Lb533 73b
Welding Encyclopedia MACHINING OXYGEN 363
brought close to the workpiece, the work is melted by

the heat of the flame. The oxygen lancing operationis
shown schematically in Figure 0-11.
CONSUMABLE
STEEL PIPE
1
W O F F VALVE
7
OXYGEN + Llfl U
CLAMP J
Figure 0-1 l-schematicView of Oxygen Lance
Cutting
Oxygen lancecutting can be usedto pierce virtually

all materials. It has been used successfully on alumi- Figure 0-1+Holes Pierced in a 102 cm (Win.)
num, cast iron, steel, and reinforced concrete. Oxygen Diameter Cast ironRoll Using an Oxygen Lance
lancing of a 1 m (40in.) diametercast iron roll used in
a paper mill is shown in Figure 0-12. Cutting oxygen
was supplied at 550 to 870 kPa (80 to 120 psi). Holes TheLOCprocesscanbeusedunderwater. The
pierced in the roll are shown in Figure0-13. The vari- lance must be lighted before it is placed underwater,
able angle bracket shown in Figure0-13 was found to but then piercing proceeds essentially the same as in
be helpful in guiding the lance. air. The processproduces a violentbubblingaction
which can restrict visibility.
Arc-Started Oxygen Lancing.A variation of the oxy-
gen lancing process uses an arc to start the iron-oxy-
genreaction. This equipmentuses tubes typically
45 cm (18 in.) long and either 6.4 or 9.5 mm (0.25 or
0.375 in.) in diameter.A 12-volt battery can be used as
a power source, withthe cutting tube connected to one
battery terminal and a copper striker plate connected
to the other.
To start the burning operation, the operator starts
the oxygen flow and draws the steel tube across the
copper plate at a 45" angle. Sparking at the copper
plate will ignite the tube. The burning rod can then be
used for cutting, piercing, or beveling steel. It can also
Figure 0-12 4 x y g e n Lancing of a 102 cm (40411.) be used to remove pins,rivets, and bolts.
Diameter Cast IronRoll from a PaperMill
OXYGEN LANCING
A 64 mm (2-112 in.) diameter hole can be made in A nonstandard term forOXYGEN LANCE CU~TING.
reinforced concrete at a rate of about 100 &min
(4 inAmin). The process has been usedto open furnace OXYGEN MACHINING
tap holes and to remove solidified material from ves- A process of shaping ferrous metals by oxygen
sels, ladles, and molds.It can be used to cut refractory cutting or oxygen grooving. See OXYFUEL GAS
brick, mortar, and slag. CUTTING.
:STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 07842b5 0536538 672 M
OXYGEN PRODUCTION the liquefactionprocesseswouldbecommercially

Mostoxygenused in the weldingindustry is practical.
extracted from the atmosphere by liquefaction tech- In 1903 Georges Claude showed that a further cool-
niques. Nitrogen canalso be separated by liquefaction. ing could be effected by allowing the compressed gas
In the extraction process, air may be compressed to to expand and at the same time do external recoverable
approximately20MPa(3000psig),althoughsome work through the intermediary of an expansion tech-
types of equipment operate at much lower pressure. nique.Applyingthisprinciple, the needforoutside
The carbon dioxide and any impurities in the air are refrigeration was eliminated, and the initial compres-
removed; the air passes through coils, and is allowed sion requirements were decreased.
to expand to a rather low pressure. The air becomes Inallrectificationprocesses, the separation is
substantially cooled during the expansion, and then it accomplished in a rectification column by means of
is passed back overcoils, further cooling the incoming the interaction between a descending streamof liquid
air, until liquefaction occurs.The liquid air is sprayed andanascendingstream of vaporindirectcontact
on a seriesof evaporating trays or plates in a rectifying with one another. As it descends, the liquid partially
tower. absorbstheconstituenthaving the higherboiling
Nitrogen and other gases boil at lower temperatures point, and as it ascends, the vapor partially absorbs the
than the oxygen and, as these gases escape from the constituent having the lower boiling point. When the
top of the tower, high-purity liquid oxygen collects in mixture treated in a rectification column is liquid air,
areceivingchamberatthebase.Someplants are thedescendingliquidstreamultimatelybecomes
designedtoproducebulkliquidoxygen;inother almost pure oxygen, while the percentageof nitrogen
plants, gaseous oxygen is withdrawn for compression in the vapor stream increases as it ascends.
into cylinders.
In addition toits value in the production of oxygen,
Historical Background liquid air has a number of interesting commercial uses,
While oxygen can be produced chemically, as in the such as solidifying mercury vapor in high-vacuum
Brinn and the Jaubert processes, the most efficient and work; the formation of a powerful explosive by soak-
economical means is the liquification process. In the ing charcoal cartridges in it; producing low tempera-
liquid air process, airis liquefied by means of very low turesfortestingmaterialsthat are tobeused at
temperatures and compression. temperatures far below the freezing temperature; pul-
The
basic
idea
for
the
separation of the verization of various compounds for chemical analy-
elements of air by liquefactionwas first suggested sis; purifying chemicals,and for refrigeration-
by Parkinson in 1892, and depends on the difference ventilation.
intheboilingpoints of themajorelementsconsti- Oxygen and Hydrogen Production by Electrolysis
tuting air,approximately -183C (-297F) for oxygen,
and -196C (-320.4"F) for nitrogen. Various modifi- In the year 1800, Nicholson and Carlisle showed
cations of this idea have been developed; the principal that on conducting an electric current through water by
processes were developed by Linde, Claude, Messer, immersing the two terminals of a voltaic pile into it,
Heylandt,Pictet,andHilldebrandt.Theseverylow hydrogen was produced at one of the terminals and
temperatures are reached by external refrigeration, and oxygen was produced at the other. In the commercial
the Joule-Thompson eflect: the fall in temperature pro- electrolysis of water, the water is made a conductorby
duced when a compressed gas is allowed to expand theaddition of alkalies or acids. The alkalies are
freely through a nozzle, which results in self-cooling almost entirely used commercially because they are
of the gas causedby absorption of energy (heat) during cost effective, and because of the resistanceofa
theexpansion.Whentheoxygenandnitrogenare greater classof materials to their chemical action.
allowed to boil off from the liquid air, the resulting When an electric current is passed through an alka-
gases are very cold. This phenomenon is used in all line solution, the water is decomposed by a primary
commercial processes to cool more incoming air for and secondary reaction, so that the hydrogen is liber-
liquefaction. This refrigeration process takes place in a ated at the negative pole, or cathode, and the oxygen is
heatinterchanger,theprinciple ofwhichwassug- liberated at the positive pole, or anode. The equipment
gested by Siemensin1857.Withoutthesaving of andfunctionsnecessaryfor the decomposition of
power made possible by the heat interchanger, none of water follow:

~~~ ~ ~~ ~ -~
STD.AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 05Lb539 507 m

yclopedia
E Welding CUlTlNG (OFC-P) 365
(1) A container to hold the alkaline or acid solution is damaged, it must not be used priorto being properly
or water, called the electrolyte; an anode, whichis sub- cleaned or serviced by a qualified repair technician.
merged in the solution and to which the current from See OXYACETYLW WELDING and REGULATOR.
an outside sourceis led
(2)A cathode, submerged in the solution to receive OXYHYDROGEN CUlllNG (OFC-H)
the current and lead it back to its source An oxyfuel gas cutting process variation that uses
(3) A dividingwall to separatethegasesand a hydrogen as the fuel gas. See STANDARD WELDING
means for collecting them separately, and conducting TERMS. See also OXYFUEL GAS CWITING.
them to some desired point
OXYHYDROGEN FLAME
W= Current. The necessary c m n t must be a direct The flame produced by combustionof a mixture of
current so that the evolution of gas will always be at one volume of oxygen and two volumes of hydrogen.
the same point. It is not practical to use alternating If the flame is to be used for welding, the proportion
current. should be one volume of oxygen to four volumes of
The introduction, development and use ,of hydrogen hydrogen to prevent oxidation of the metal. The tern-
and oxygen for cutting steel and welding aluminum, perature of the flame is about 2660C (4820F). The
and the large demandfor hydrogen for other industrial relatively low heat content of the oxyhydrogen flame
purposes contributed further to the development of the restricts its use to certain torch brazing operations and
electrolysis method of producing oxygen and hydro- to welding of aluminum, magnesium and lead.
gen. The distinctivefeature of this method is the
simultaneous productionof two volumes of hydrogen OXYHYDROGEN WELDING (OHW)
for every one volume of oxygen. An onyfuel gas welding process that uses hydrogen
Modern productionof hydrogen involves the steam as the fuel gas. This process is used without theappli-
re-forming of natural gas over a nickel catalyst. See cation of pressure. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
HYDROGEN. See also OXYFUEL GAS WELDING.
OXYGEN REGULATOR OXYNATURAL GASCUlTlNG (OFC-N)
A device designed to reduce and control pressureof An oxyfuel gas cutting process variation that uses
oxygen cylinders to a level compatible with the oper- natural gas as the fuel gas. See STANDARD WELDING
ating system or process. The regulator must handle TERMS.
incoming gas pressure and providea range of delivery
pressures. OXYPROPANE CUTnNG (OFC-P)
Oxygen regulators must be clean and in good work- An oxyfuel gas cutting process variation that uses
ing condition.If there is oil, grease, or foreign material propane as the fuel gas. See STANDARD WELDING
on a regulator or other equipment,or if the equipment TERMS.

:STD.AWS JWE-ENGL L997 I078426505Lb540 220 m
366 Welding
High precision oribital welding machine using hot-wire gas tungsten arc welding has the advantage
of
high deposition rates which shorten welding time
Photo courtesyof Polysoude France and Astro Arc,USA
Robotic arc welding cell designed to maximize accuracy and minimize cycle time
Photo courtesyof Fanuc RobotsNorth America

PACK ANNEALING electrical pathsto simultaneously form multiple resis-
Annealing a stackof several sheetsof metal instead tance spot, seam or projection welds. See STANDARD
of a single sheet. Pack annealing minimizes oxidation WELDING TERMS. See also Figure P- 1.
and scale formation onthe surfaces of the sheets.
PADDING
This term is nolongeringeneraluse;theterm
buildup is generallyusedwhensurfacingmaterial
deposited has essentially the same chemistry as the
base metal. See BUILDUP.
PARALLEL BEADS
See BEADING WELDand STRINGER BEAD WELDING. J
I
I
PARALLEL CIRCUIT
An electrical circuit in which the current divides at
a connection and flows through two or more devices
connected to it. Figure P-1-vpical Arrangements for Multiple
Spot Welding
PARALLEL CONNECTION
The connection of two or more arc welding PARAMAGNETIC
machines so that higher welding currentsare provided Asubstancewhichdisplaysasmallbutpositive
than are available fromone machine separately. susceptibility to a magnetic field, varying little with
For parallel operation, the welding machines must field strength. Examplesare aluminum and platinum.
be similar and the recommendations of the manufac-
turers must be closely followed to adjust control set- PARENT METAL
tings correctly and to use the equalizer connections. A nonstandard term
for BASE METALor SUBSTRATE.
Allmachines in parallelmust be set for the same
polarity and open circuit voltage, and current settings PARTIAL JOINT PENETRATION WELD
should be kept as nearly equal as possible on all the A joint root condition in a groove weld in which
machines. incomplete jointpenetrationexists. See STANDARD
WELDING TERMS. See Figure 1-3. See also COMPLETE
PARALLEL GAP WELDING
JOINTPENETRATION,COMPLETEJOINTPENETRATION
A nonstandard termfor series welding with closely
WELD,INCOMPLETE JOINT PENETRATION, and JOINT
spaced electrodes.
PENETRATION.
PARALLEL SERIES
PASS
An electrical circuit in which a number of devices
are connected in series with one another, forming a See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See also THER-
group. Several groups of series circuits can be con- MAL SPRAY PASSand WELD PASS.
nected in parallel withone another to form a parallel. A pass is a single progression of welding along a
joint, resulting in a weld bead
or layer.
PARALLEL WELDING
A resistance welding secondary circuit variation in PASS SEQUENCE
which the secondary current is divided and conducted See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See also WELD
throughthe workpieces and electrodes in parallel PASS SEQUENCE.
367
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 3797 07842b5 0536542 OT3 m
ER BRAZING
368 PASTE Encyclopedia
Welding
PASTE BRAZING FILLER METAL are used to clamp lugs on both surfaces of the patch.
A mixture offinely divided brazing j l l e r metal with See also CORRUGATED PATCH.
a flux or neutral carrier. See STANDARDWELDING
TERMS. PATENTING
An archaic term for annealing. In wire production,
PASTE SOLDER it refers to an annealing treatment applied to medium-
or high-carbonsteelbeforedrawing the wire, or
A mixture ofjnely divided solder with ajlux orneu- between drafts. The process consists of heating to a
tral carrier. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. temperatureabove the transformationrange,then
coolingtoatemperaturebelow the transformation
PATCHING SHEET range in air, molten leador salt. See ANNEALING.
A sheet of material used to place a patch in a flat,
round or warped plate where cracking has occurredor PEARLITE
is expected to occur during or after welding, or while A microstructural aggregate or a mechanical mix-
in service.See Figure P-2. Thecross section of the dia- ture of ferrite and cementite (iron carbide) platelets
gram shows that the patch is slightly dished to allow whichnormallyoccursinsteelandcastiron.This
for contractionin the weld. The preferredcircular lamellar structure can be observed only through a met-
patch shape equalizes stresses aroundthe weld. How- allographic microscope because the platelets are very
ever, if a circular patch is not practical, a patch shape thin, on the orderof 0.001 mm (0.00004 in.).
as nearly circularas possible, such as oval elliptical,
or Pearlite was givenits name by H. M. Howe because
should be used. If the opening is rectangular, corners its lamellar appearance resembles mother-of-pearl.
of the patch and opening should be rounded. See METALLOGRAPHY.
PEEL TEST
A destructive method of testing that mechanically
separates a lap joint by peeling. See STANDARD WELD-
ING TERMS.
PEENING
Themechanicalworking of metalsusingimpact
blows. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
Peening is accomplishedbyrepeatedhammer
blows to the surface of the metal. The blows may be
administeredmanually,aswithahammer,orwith
pneumatic tools. Peening tends to stretch the surface
of the cold metal, thus reducing contraction stresses.
PENETRAMETER
A penetrameter, or image quality indicator(IQI), is
a device used to measure the quality of radiographic
images. Penetrameters consist of a piece of metal of
simple geometric shape, with similar absorption char-
acteristics as the weld to be tested. The thickness is
Figure P-2-Patching Sheet generally 2% of the weld thickness. A penetrameter
usually has three holes, the diameters of which are 1,
2, and 4 times the thickness of the penetrameter. The
Where equipmentfor forming a dished patch is not penetrameters are placed on a test piece during setup
available, the patchcanbedishedbyhammering, and are radiographed at the same time as the test piece.
which should be done when the plate is hot. The dia- Sharpness of the penetrameter features in the devel-
gram shows a simple method for holding the patch in oped imageis a measureof image quality. See RADIO-
place. Holes are drilled through at the joint, and bolts GRAPHIC EXAMINATION.

~ ~~
S T D - A W SJWE-ENGL 5997 m 07842b5 05Lb543 T3T m

a Welding 369
PENETRANT INSPECTlON or water suspensionof a fine powder, is applied to the

Penetrant inspection is a non-destructive test surface. The developer draws the penetrant from the
method for revealing fine surface discontinuities such pores and cracks and makes them more visible under
as cracks, poresor seams in weld metalor base metal. ultraviolet light.
It is useful for detecting discontinuities in magnetic Before the fluorescent penetrant test is started, the
and nonmagneticmaterialswheremagneticparticle partmust be thoroughlyclean,becauseany dirt,
inspection cannot be used. grease, or paint could close the discontinuities to the
Penetrant inspection is accomplished by applying a penetrant. The penetrant may be applied by spraying,
liquidwithhighwettingcapabilities to the surface dipping or brushing. The time the penetrantmust
which can be drawn into surface cavities or openings. remain on the surface will vary from a few minutes to
The excess penetrant is then removed from the sur- several hours, dependingon the thickness of the work-
face, and a liquid-propelled or dry powder developer piece, but5 to 15 minutesis usually required.
is applied.Ifthere is a significantdiscontinuity, the After the penetratingtime,theexcesspenetrant
penetrantwill be heldin the cavity.Blotteraction must be removed carefully to avoid removing more
draws the penetrant from the discontinuity to provide athan the surface penetrant. Water-wash penetrantscan
contrasting indication on the surface. This is a rela- be washedwithalow-pressurewaterspray. Some
tively reliable and inexpensive method for obtaining commercial penetrants require a solvent wash or an
information on questionable welds. emulsifier. The emulsifier is applied to the surface and
The followingsequence is normallyused in the allowed to remain for oneto four minutesbefore
application of a typical penetrant test. When the order washing with the water spray.The parts are then dried
is changed or short cuts are taken, the validity of the by wiping, air blower, or hot air oven.
test is suspect. The dry developer is applied to the dried parts with
(1) Clean the test surface. a powder gun, spray bulb, or by dipping the part into
(2) Apply the penetrant. the developer powder.The penetrant is drawn from the
(3) Wait for the prescribed dwell time. discontinuities, making the discontinuities visible in
(4) Remove the excess penetrant. ultraviolet light. If a wet developer is used, drying
( 5 ) Apply the developer. after washing is not necessary. The wet developer in
(6)Examine the surface for indications, and record the form of a colloidal suspensionis applied by spray-
the results. ing or dipping. The developer should remain on the
(7) Clean to remove the residue. surface for at least half the penetrating time. After this,
Dye Penetrant the partis dried by hot air.
When viewed under ultraviolet light, the indications
The dye penetrant method uses a bright red dye
with high wetting capabilities. To begin this method,
of discontinuities are brilliantly fluorescent, revealing
the depth and length of discontinuities by the amount
the part is cleaned with a cleaning solutionto prepare
the surface. The dye penetrant is appliedbybrush,
of penetrant which bleeds out. Contrast is enhanced
when viewedin a darkened location, which allows the
spray, or dipping, and allowed to remain for at least
finer indications to be observed.
five minutes.(Detection ofverysmallcracksmay
require two or three such applications). After applying HistoricalBackground. The oldoilandwhiting
the dye penetrant, excess penetrant is removed with a method might be considered the forerunner of pene-
cleaning solution, and the developer is sprayed on or trant inspection. A light oil was applied to a surface,
applied with a brush.As the developer dries,the pene- wiped off, then the surface was coated withchalk. The
trant is drawn to the surface, and the discontinuities oil showing throughthe chalk pointed up the location
are revealed. of cracks.
Fluorescent Penetrant Standard Practices and References
In fluorescent penetrant examination, a highly fluo- For additional information, refer to ASTM E165,
rescent liquid with good wetting or penetrating proper- Standard Practice for LiquidPenetrantInspection,
ties is applied tothe surface of the part to be inspected. and ASTM E433,Standard Reference Photographsfor
The liquid is drawn into very small surface openings Liquid PenetrantInspection. Thesedocuments are
by capillary action. Excess liquidis removed from the published by American Society for Testing and Mate-
surface and a developer in the form of a fine powder, rials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L797 0784265 05Lb544 97b W
370 PENETRATION Welding Encyclopedia
PENETRATION (8) Unload the machine.

Anonstandardtermwhenusedfor DEPTH OF
Operation. Weldingheat is generated by anarc
FUSION, JOINT PENETRATION, or ROOTPENETRATION.
between the two parts to be joined. The current density
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. is very high, and this melts a thin layer of metaltheon
PERCENT FERRITE
faying surfaces in a few milliseconds. Then the molten
A
nonstandard
term
when
used
for FERRITE
surfaces are brought together in a percussive manner
to completethe weld.
NUMBER.
Capacitor Discharge
PERCUSSION WELDING (PEW) With the capacitor discharge method, power is fur-
A welding process that produces coalescence with nished by a capacitor storage bank.The arc is initiated
an arc resulting from a rapid discharge of electrical by the voltage across the terminals of the capacitor
energy.Pressure is applied percussively during or bank (charging voltage) or a superimposed high-volt-
immediately following the electrical discharge.See age pulse. Motion may be imparted to the movable
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. part by mechanicalor pneumatic means.
Theelectricalenergy is storedinacapacitor or Magnetic Force
group of capacitors at a relatively high voltage and
discharged directly, or through a transformer, to the For magnetic force welding, poweris supplied by a
part to be welded. Discharge is initiated by closing a welding transformer. The arc is initiated by vaporizing
mechanical or electronic switch. a small projection on one part with high current from
Percussion welding is the process used in the elec- the transformer. The vaporized metal provides an arc
tronics industry for joining wires, contacts, leads, and path. The percussive force is applied tothe joint by an
similar items to flat
a surface. However,if the item is a electromagnet that is synchronized with the welding
metal stud that is welded to a structure for attachment current. Magnetic force percussion welds are made in
purposes, it is called capacitor discharge stud welding. less than one-half cycle of 60 Hz. Consequently, the
In applying the process, the two parts are initially timing between the initiation of the arc and the appli-
separated by a small projection on one part, or one part cation of magnetic force is critical.
is moved toward the other. At the proper time, an is arc Advantages of Percussion Welding
initiated between them. This arc heats the faying sur- The extreme brevity of the arc in both versions of
faces of both parts to welding temperature. Then, an percussion welding limits melting to a very thin layer
impact force drivesthepartstogethertoproducea on the faying surfaces. Consequently, thereis very lit-
welded joint. There are basically two variationsof the tle upset or flash on the periphery of the welded joint,
percussion process: capacitor discharge and magnetic onlyenoughtoremoveimpuritiesfrom the joint.
force. Heat-treated or cold-workedmetalscanbewelded
Although the steps may differ in certain applica- without annealing them. Filler metal is not used and
tionsbecause of processvariations,theessential there is no cast metal at the weld interface. A percus-
sequence of events in making a percussion weld is as sion weldedjoint usually has higher strength and elec-
follows: trical conductivity than a brazed joint. Unlike brazing,
(1) Load and clamp the partsinto the machine. no special flux or atmosphere is required.
(2) Apply a low force on the parts or release the A particular advantage of the capacitor discharge
driving system. method is that the capacitor charging rate is easily con-
(3) Establish an arcbetweenthefayingsurfaces trolled and low compared to the discharge rate. The
(a) with high voltage to ionize the gas between the line power factoris better than with a single-phase a-c
parts or (b) with high current to melt and vaporize a machine. Both these factors contribute to good operat-
projection on one part. ing efficiency and low power line demand.
(4) Move the parts together percussively with an Percussion welding can tolerate a slight amount of
applied force to extinguish the arc and complete the contamination on the faying surfaces because expul-
weld. sion of the thin molten layer tends to carry any con-
(5) Turn off the current. taminants out of the joint. Figure P-3 shows several
(6) Release theforce. electricalcontactdesigns joined by magnetic force
(7) Unclamp the welded assembly. percussion welding.

Figure P-3-vpical Electrical Contacts Joined by Magnetic Force Percussion Welding
Llmltatlons between the work-holding clamps or the parts to be

The percussion welding process is limited to butt welded. Dual hand controls, latches, presence-sensing
joints between two like sections, and to flat pads or devices, or any similar device may be employed to
contacts joined to flat surfaces. In addition, the total prevent operation in
an unsafe manner.
area that can be joined is limited, since control of an Electrical. All doors and access panelson machines
arc path between two large surfaces is difficult. and controls should be kept locked or interlocked to
Jointsbetweentwolikesectionscanusually be prevent access by unauthorized personnel. When the
accomplished more economically by other processes. equipment utilizes capacitors for energy storage, the
Percussion welding is usually confined to the joining interlocks should interrupt the power and discharge all
of dissimilar metals not normally considered weldable the capacitors through a suitable resistive load when
by other processes, and to the production of joints the panel door is open.A manually operated switch or
where avoidanceof upset is imperative. Another limi- other positive device should alsobe provided in addi-
tation of this process is that two separate pieces must tion to the mechanical interlock or contacts. Use of
be joined. It cannot be used to weld a ring from one thisdevicewillassurecompletedischarge of the
piece. capacitors.
Satety A lock-out procedure should be followed prior to
Mechanical. The weldingmachineshould
be working with the electrical or hydraulic systems.
equippedwithappropriatesafetydevicestoprevent Personal Safety Equlpment. Eyeprotectionwith
injury to the operators hand or other parts of the body. suitable shaded lenses should be worn by the operator.
Initiating devices,such as pushbuttonsorfoot When the welding operations produce high noise
switches, should be arranged and guarded to prevent levels, operating personnel should be provided with
them from being actuated inadvertently. ear protection. Metal fumes produced during welding
Machineguards, fixtures, oroperatingcontrols operations shouldbe removed by local ventilating sys-
should prevent the hands of the operator from enteringtems.Additionalinformationonsafepracticesfor

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 W 07842b5 051h54b 749
ELDING 372 PERCUSSIVE Encyclopedia Welding
welding may be found in the American National Stan- ates from three-phase electrical power, and utilizes a
dard 249.1, Safety in Welding und Cutting (latest edi- rectifier circuit to obtain d-c output for welding.
tion),available from the American Welding Society.
Reference:
AmericanWeldingSociety, Welding PHOS-COPPER
Handbook,Vol. 2, 8th Edition Miami, Florida: 1991. A brazing alloy filler metal made up of copper and
5 to 10% phosphorus. Phos-copper begins to melt at
PERCUSSIVE WELDING 714C (13 17F)and is completelymoltenatabout
A nonstandard term for PERCUSSIONWELDING. 832C(1530F).Phos-copper is considered to bea
self-fluxing brazing alloy in which the phosphorous
PERIODIC DUTY preventsoxideformationon the coppersurfaces.
Arequirement of electricalservicethatdemands However, if gas-tight or
liquid-tight joints are
operation for alternateperiods of loadsandrest in required, or brass, bronze or other alloys are being
which the load conditions are well defined, with recur- joined, apasteflux is recommended.Thepaste is
rent magnitude, duration and character. mixed with water and applied with a brush.
Phos-copper may be used tojoin copper and copper
PERMANENT MAGNET alloys, and has limited usefor brazing silver, tungsten
A ferromagnetic material which canbe magnetized and molybdenum. These alloys should not be used for
permanently by applying a magneticfield to the mate- ferrous and nickel base alloys or on copper base alloys
rial. A permanent magnet retains its magnetization and with more than 10% nickel to avoid formation of brit-
magnetic polesfor a long periodof time afterthe mag- tle, intermetallic phosphide compounds. Brazed phos-
netizing fieldis removed. copper joints can be used for continuous service up to
150C (300F). Lapjoints are recommended, but butt
PERMANENT MOLD
joints can be used where strength properties are less
A form consisting of two or more parts which is stringent. Recommended joint clearances are 0.03 to
used repeatedly to make castings of the same shape. 0.13 mm (0.001 to 0.005 in.).
Castings are made by pouring liquid metal into the
mold cavity. After thecast metal solidifies, the mold is Brazing. The procedure for brazingwithphos-
taken apart andcan be reassembled and used again. copper dependsonthematerialtobebrazedand
the brazingprocess,butthefollowing are general
PERMANENT SET procedures:
The shape retainedafterplasticdeformation of (1) Clean alljoint surfaces thoroughly.
materialsfollowingdrawing,bendingandforming (2) If flux is needed, apply a paste flux mixed with
operations, after the stress that produced the deforma- water toall joint surfaces.
tion has been removed. (3) Heat the joint to between 800 and 830C (1475
and 1525"F), using a neutral flame if heating with an
PERMEABILITY acetylene or other gas torch.
(1) Sand Molds: The characteristic of the molding (4) Apply phos-copper rod or wire to the heated
material which permits gases to pass through it. joint, ensuring that itflows into the joint gap.
(2) Powder Metallurgy: The property which indi- If phos-copper ribbon is to be used insteadof wire
cates the rate at which a liquidgas orwill pass through or rod, it should be inserted intothe joint before heat-
a sintered powdered metal compact. ing, then heated to 830C (1525"F), or until the braze
(3) Magnetism: a term used to express the relation- has melted and flowed throughout the joint. Excess
ship betweenmagneticinductionandmagnetizing amounts of the phos-copper braze alloy in fillet joints,
force. Stated another way, it is the affinity of a sub- for example, shouldbe avoided.
stance to conductor carry magnetic linesof force.
PHOSPHOR BRONZE
PHASE A bronze with a high degree of hardness, elasticity,
Ina-cpower,aphase is the cyclicallyrecurring and toughness, that contains a small amount of phos-
wave form of a current or voltage wave form. Phase phorus.Thisgroup of copper,tinandphosphorus
also refers to the branches
of an electrical circuit. alloys contains from1.3 to 10% tin and 0.03to 0.35%
An a-c welding machine operates from single-phase phosphorus.Thesealloysmaybebrazed,soft sol-
electrical power. A d-c welding machine usually oper- dered,andflashwelded.Theymayalso be welded

~~~ ~~~~ ~ ~~~ ~
~~
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b505Lb547b85 m

Welding Encyclopedia OXYGEN PIERCING, 373
with resistance spot welding and gas metal arc weld- PHYSICAL TESTING
ing processes. Oxyfuelgas welding and shielded metal Testingmethods by whichphysicalproperties of
arc welding of the phosphor-bronzealloysproduce materials are determined. This term may also be used
only fair results. for a test procedure in which mechanical properties
are
A free-machining variety of phosphor bronze con- determined. See TESTING.
tin, 1.5 to4.5% zinc
tains 3.5 to 4.5% lead, 3.5 to 4.5%
and0.01to 0.50% phosphorus. The free-machining PICKLING
alloys can be soldered, brazed, or flash welded, but The chemical cleaning of steel surfaces by dissolv-
other welding processesare not recommended. ing or loosening scale withacid. Sulfuric, hydro-
Coated or uncoated welding rods are available for chloric,
nitric
and hydrofluoric acids in
various
several of these alloys. Melting rangefor these alloys combinationswith
water are used.
Sulfuric-
is 1035 to 1075C (1900 to 1970F) for the lower tin hydrochloric acid mixtures are used for plain carbon
alloys, and 845 to 1OOO"C (1550 to 1830F) for the steelsandlow-alloysteels.Mostpicklingsolutions
higher tin alloys. include organic inhibitors, which minimize pitting and
hydrogen pickup. Time in the pickling solution must
PHOSPHORUS .
be limited to minimize hydrogen pickup.
Stainless steels, nickel base alloys, titanium alloys,
(Chemical symbol: P) A highly reactive, toxic, non-
andcopperalloysrequiremoreaggressivepickling
metallic element used in steel, glass, and pyrotechnics.
solutions, which include nitric and hydrofluoric acids.
In the free state phosphorus has three allotropic forms;
The appropriatepicklingspecifications for agiven
yellow, red and black. However, it is almost always
alloy may be obtained from the producer of the alloy,
foundincombinationwith other elementssuch as
or the ASM Metals Handbook, published byASM
minerals or metalores.Atomicnumber,15;atomic
International, Materials Park, Ohio.
weight,31.02; specific gravity,12.16;andmelting
point, 442C (111.6"F). PICKUP
Phosphorus is usually found in steel and cast iron as This term usually refers to dilution of weld metal
an impurity. Itis therefore the practice of steel makers with metal melted from the base metal. To make a
to reduce the phosphorus level to 0.05%, or lower if good weld, the joint edges of the base metal must be
possible.Higheramounts cause embrittlementand melted and intentionally mixed with the weld metal.
loss of toughness; however, small amounts of phos- This meltedweldmetal"picksup"metalfrom the
phorus in low-carbon steel produce a slight increase in base metal.
strength and corrosion resistance. This term also appliestoresistancewelding,in
which the electrode tips partially melt and weld to the
PHOTOMICROGRAPH base metal, and pick up metal from the other. This type
A photographic reproduction of an object magnified of pickupresults in degradedweldsandcan be
more than ten times. In metallurgy,it usually refers to avoided by correct control of the welding parameters,
apolishedandetchedmetalsurfacephotographed and by reshaping worn electrode tips to their original
through a microscope to show the grain structure and dimensions.
other microstructuralconstituents. As anexample,
photomicrographs are made of sectionscutfroma PIERCING
weld or a piece of metal to show the metallurgical Producing a hole in metal by forcing a pointed bar
structure. See METALLOGRAPHY. throughit. As anexample,seamlesssteeltubing is
usuallymadefromasteelbilletwhichhasbeen
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES pierced longitudinally and on center withapointed
Characteristics of a material that can be measured probe.
withoutapplication of force.Examples of physical The term piercing also applies to starting an oxyfuel
properties of metal that may require consideration in gas or plasma arccut at some pointother than the edge
designing or fabricating a weldment are thermal and of a pieceof metal.
electrical conductivity,meltingtemperature,thermal
expansionandcontraction,anddensity. See METAL- PIERCING, OXYGEN
LURGY. See also PHYSICAL TESTING. See OXYGEN LANCE.

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 051b54B 511 W
374 PIG Encyclopedia Welding
PIG IRON PIPELINE REPAIRING, Under Pressure

Crude iron castin oblong blocks,or pigs. Pig iron Oil and gas pipelines become damaged in service as
is produced in a blast furnace by heating iron ore and a result of severe rust pitting. Salt waterand other
coke with a limestone flux. Pig ironis high in carbon chemicals in creek beds and in the ground cause rust-
and impurities and must be refined to produce steel, ing on the outside of the pipe. Sulphide gas inside the
wrought iron or ingot iron. pipecausescorrosionandpitting.Leaksoccurring
when the pits penetrate the pipe wall must often be
PILED PLATECUlTlNG repaired while crude oil, gas or other petroleum prod-
See STACK CUTTING and OXYFUEL GAS CUTTING. ucts are being pumped throughthe pipe at pressures up
to 3400 kPa (500 psi). These repairs can be difficult
PILOT ARC and hazardous, especially when flammable liquidsare
A low current arc between the electrode and con- being carried.
stricting nozzle of a plasmaarc torch to ionize the gas Sometimes a large area of pitting will be repaired
and facilitate the start of the welding arc. See STAN- by sleeving, in which a section from a slightly larger
DARD WELDING TERMS. diameter pipeis cut to cover the pitted portionof pipe.
The edges of the sleeve are fillet welded all around to
PINCH EFFECT
the outer surfaceof the pipe.
Pinch effect is the radial force or pinch on a con-
Insomecases,asectionmustbecut out and
ductor carrying anelectrical current. For a given diam- replaced, requiring that pumps be shut down, the pipe-
eter wire, the effectis proportional to the squareof the
line section be bledof any liquid, and the section to be
current. In gas metal arc welding (GMAW), the sepa-
repaired purged with inert gas. The defective section is
ration of molten drops of metal from the electrode is
cut out and a replacement section of the same diameter
controlled byan electricalphenomenoncalledthe
and wall thicknessis welded into the line.
electromagneticpinch effect. Pinch effecton the weld-
ing wire is one of the most important factors control- PIPE, Thawing
ling metal transfer. The shape,size and rateof transfer Arc welding machines have been used effectively
are governedby this phenomenon. for thawing frozen metal water pipes, either under-
PINHOLES ground or through the basement walls of a building.
Minute gas cavitiessometimesfound in
weld Leads from a welding machine are attached tothe pipe
deposits. See POROSITY. on each side of the frozen section and the current is
turned on until the ice begins to melt and the water
PINTSCH GAS pressure pushesthe slush ice out of the pipe. One lead
A combustible gas, no longer used, produced by the may be connected to a pipe inside the basement and
destructive distillationof petroleum or some ofits dis- the other lead to a shut-off valveoutside by the curb.
tillates. It is theoldest of thecommerciallycom- If an entire main is frozen, cables maybe connected
pressed combustible gases, and greatly influenced the to fire plugs on eachend of thefrozensection.
development of the compressedgas industry. C-clamps can be used to connect the ends the of
cables
to the pipe.It is critical thatthe connections to the pipe
PIPE are tight and that no overheating takes place. These
A cavity formed incidentally in metal (especially connections should be checked frequently while the
ingots) during the solidification of the last portion of current is flowing. The welding machine and cables
liquid metal. Contraction of the metal causes this cav- should also be checked and adjusted to avoid over-
ityorpipe.Thepipeinaningotmustberemoved loading.
before rolling to prevent defects such as laminations, Copper and brass pipes have less electrical resis-
or coldshuts,thatwillreducethestrength of the tance than ironor steel and require higher current and
product. longer times to thaw. Currents upto 500 amperes may
be required depending onthe pipe diameter. Particular
PIPING POROSITY care should be used with lead pipe to prevent melting
A form of porosity having a length greater than its the lead or joints; current of 75 amperes may be ade-
widththat lies approximatelyperpendicular to the quate for manycases,andshouldnotexceed 150
weldface. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. amperes.

~~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 0784265 0536549 458
Welding 375
Details of specific instances of pipe thawing may Titusville, Pennsylvania.Soon after, wrought iron pipe
be obtained
from
manufacturers of arcwelding came into the picture, with its various lengths joined
equipment. by screwed couplings.
A search followed to find a way to make a tighter
PIPELINE WELDING and stronger joint than the screw-type coupling pro-
The American Petroleum Institute (API)sets speci- vided. Attempts were made to weld pipelines with the
fications for welding procedures and qualifications for oxyacetylene process; the first of these was an 18-km
personnel employed on pipeline welding in its Stan- (1l-mile) line laid in 191 1 near Philadelphia. In 19 14,
dard for Welding Pipelines andRelatedFacilities a 55-km (34-mile) pipeline was constructed near Enid,
(API Standard 1104).This document is available from Oklahoma, followed by a longerline in the bay area of
the AmericanPetroleumInstitute,1220 L Street, San Francisco, which supplied gas for the 1915 Pan
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005-8029. American Exposition.
API Code liO4 However, the real breakthrough in welding came in
Before production welding is started, a procedure 1922, when the Prairie Pipeline Company welded a
specificationmust be establishedandqualifiedto 20-cm @-in.) diameter, 225-km (140-mile) line carry-
demonstrate that welds having acceptable mechanical ing crude oil from Mexico to Jacksboro, Texas, using
properties and soundness will result from the proce- oxyacetylene welding. The advantages of welding
dure. The quality and propertiesof the weld are deter- overscrewedcouplingswereclearlydemonstrated
mined by destructive testing. When tensile tests are when the final cost of the project was 35% less than it
performed, the tensile strength of the weld, including would have been if couplings had been used. The cost
the fusion zone, should be equal to or greater than of the weld, labor and material was only $2.00 for
theminimumspecifiedtensilestrengthof the pipe each joint.
material. PipelineBuilders. After the surveyorscrewhad
The API Standard 1104 does not include welding identified the right-of-way, the brush crew came on
procedures for joining steel pipelines; however, the the sceneto clear awaybrush and trees. Then the
API1104Committeehascollectedandcataloged trenching crew dug the trench for the pipeline. Sec-
successfullyusedprocedures,and the Committee tions of pipe were then dropped alongside the trench.
Secretaryprovidesthem on request as guides for The line-up and tacking crew came ahead of the con-
thosewishing to usethem as astartingpoint for structiongang.Aided by atractorandhoist,they
qualification. placed the pipe lengths on ball-bearing dollies to per-
These API Procedure Specifications are identified mit rolling. Atfour points in the circumferenceof the
by the position of thepipe(horizontal or vertical), pipe, the tack welder made a tack weld, joining as
whether rolled during welding or maintained in a fixed many lengths ofpipe as the contour of the land
position, and the rangeof diameter and wall thickness required. This long tack-welded section, lined up on
for which the procedure is considered suitable. These the dollies, was left by the line-up and tacking for
crew
are basicallysuggestionswhichtheskilledwelder the fdng line crew, the welders.
can use, with proper material and equipment, to gain Severalwelderscomprisedthecrewwhichcom-
qualification. pleted the welding of the long tack-welded sections.
When API 1104is applied to any pipeline project, it Helpers turned the pipewithchainpipewrenches,
is mandatory that the method used in making, testing enabling the welders to weld at the top of the pipe, in
and inspecting welded joints is in complete conform- the flat downward position.
ance with the requirements of the Standard. The fabri- PIPE RINGS (Backing Rings)
cator is expected to provide details of the procedure See PIPE WELDING, Backing Rings.
which are to be used on each particular pipe size.
PIPE TEMPLATES
See PIPE WELDING, Accessories.
First Pipelines. Pipelines were used to transport nat-
ural gas long before Edwin Drake drilled his first oil PIPE WELDING
well.Hollow logs wereused for this purposed in Welding is the most important and most common
Fredonia, New York, in 1821. By 1862, cast iron pipe method ofjoining all kinds of pipe, from cross-country
was used on a 6.4-km (4-mile), 50 mm (2-in.) line at line pipe to piping usedin power plants, refineries and

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 3997
0784265
0536550
L7T m
376 PIPE
chemical processing plants. Muchof this piping oper-

ates at high internal pressure, at temperature extremes r WELD
or incorrosiveenvironments.It is obviousthatthe
welding used to join piping for these various applica-
tions must beof the highest quality and integrity.
Pipe welding is a specialized occupation different
from plate welding. Welders must pass special tests on
pipe welding to qualifyfor welding pipe in production
or on an installation job. Performance tests have been
established by the American Petroleum Institute (API)
and the AmericanSociety of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME). These societies have also established specifi-
cations for pipe composition and properties, and the
American Welding Society has establishedfiller metal
specifications.
Pipe Steels and Welding Electrodes
The API publishes standards covering all aspects of LWELD
pipe welding procedures, operator qualifications, joint
design, testing, inspection and specificationsfor types Figure P-&Bell and Spigot Pipe Joint
of pipe steel.
In the early daysof pipe welding, lapjoints, or Bell inspector may call for cuttingout a pipe weld for sub-
and Spigot typejoints (Figure P-4), were used with fil- sequent cutting into four specimens and testing. The
let welds instead of butt joints, because only bare or possibility of testing at any time helps assure that the
lightlycoatedelectrodeswhichproducedmarginal welder is careful at all times.
weld properties were available at that time. Now, how-
Utility Piping
ever, with the availability of a variety of coated elec-
trodesand filler wireswhichprovidethenecessary Local building codes must be consulted when weld-
weldproperties,buttweldsareusedalmostexclu- ing, soldering, brazing or mechanically joining con-
sively.Specifications
for
pipe
steels
range
from nections are used in
commercial, industrial
and
240 MPa (35 ksi.) min. yield, 414 MPa (60 ksi.) min. residential buildings.
tensile for APT Grade B X-42; to 448 MPa (65 ksi.) Piping is usedinbuildingstoconductwater for
min.yield, 552 kPa (80 ksi.)min.tensile for API plumbing and sprinkler systems, steam and gas, and
Grade B X-65.The higher strength steels allow the use for sewer, waste and vent connections. Copper tubing,
of thinner pipe walls, and improved coatings are avail- which is joined by soft soldering (using lead-free sol-
able to protect the pipe from corrosion caused by the der), or brass pipe, which is joined by threaded con-
soil. nectionsorbrazing, maybeused for waterpiping.
Welder Qualification Steam heating systems which operate below 103 kPa
(15 psi) may use wrought iron or steel piping, which
API pipe welders must make butt welds to specifi- can be welded.See BRAZING, SOLDERING, und COPPER
cation on API pipe of the same material they are to ALLOY WELDING.
weld on the job. Four longitudinal specimens are cut
fromequallyspacedlocationsaroundthepipeto Forged Fittings for Welding
include the weld at the midpoint of each. The speci- Forged steel fittings are made with beveled edges
mens must be ground or machined to provide a uni- whichmatchthebevelededges of pipesandform
form width across the weld and into the base metal. V-grooves when butted to the beveled pipe ends. The
These specimens are tested in tension. The welder is wall thickness of the fittings matches the wall thick-
qualified if three of the four, and in some cases, all ness of the pipe, and presents an unrestricted flow path
four, break in the base material. This assures that the for the fluid. For low-pressure steam lines in build-
weld has at least the strength of the base metal. Weld- ings, pipe may be cut and beveled withan oxyfuel gas
ing and testing must be witnessed by an AWS-certifiedcutting torch, but the cut surfaces must be ground to
weldinginspector.Whileonthe job, thewelding remove scale and roughness. Cutting machines which

Welding Encyclopedia PIPE WELDING 377
produce a clean, uniform cut and bevel on pipe should both pipe ends to be joined, providing alignment and
be used when available. filler material for the root weld pass, which
is made by
Some city ordinances require pipesto be joined by the GTAW process. Inertgas shielding ofthe root area
threading. Where welding is allowed in local codes, of the joint is necessary for best results.
cast iron and galvanized pipes may be brazed. Black
wrought iron and steel pipecan be arc welded. Galva-
nized pipe is brazed in basically the same manner as
other galvanized steels.See GALVANIZED IRON.
Nuclear Power Plants
Piping systems in nuclear power plants operate at
approximately 315C (600F)underhighpressure.
These parameters, along withthe need to prevent any
leakage of radioactive fluids, require high weld integ-
rity.Weldersmust be nuclear-qualified. To assure
complete root penetration and fusion, the root pass is
usually made by the manual gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW) process, and the remainder of the groove is
filled by the manualshieldedmetal arc welding
(SMAW) process. Submerged arc welding is used for
shop welding of pipewherepipesectionscanbe
rotated underthe welding head.
Qpe 304 stainless steel is used extensively in pri-
mary piping for nuclear power systems to minimize
corrosion and corrosion residue, which may become
radioactive in the reactor coolant stream. High ferrite
308 fdler rods are used to avoid hot cracking in the
weld deposit. Extreme care must be used in the han-
CONSUMABLE INSERTS
ding of carbon steel and stainless steel electrodes to
prevent moisture pickup in the coating. Oven storage
facilities should be provided at the job site.
Backing Rings
A backing ring is a device placed against the back
side of a pipejoint to supportthe weld metal or bridge
an excessive gap between pipe ends. The material may
be partially fused or remain unfused during welding BACKING RING
and may be either metal or nonmetal.
Consumable Inserts Figure P-5-Cross Sectional Views of vpical
A consumableinsert is a pieceof metal formed into Consumable Inserts anda Backing Ring
a ring whichis fitted into the inside surface of the pipe
or tube prior to welding. It should be essentially the
same composition asthe pipe or tube. The ring serves Flat rings may have nubs formed or tack-welded to
two purposes: (1) to help align the two pipes to be the outer surface to serve as spacers to establish the
joined, and (2) to assure completeroot penetration and joint gap. The other shapes automatically establishthe
fusion. joint gap, align the pipes, and providefiller metal.
Several insertcross sections are available, as shown
in Figure P-5. One type of flat ring is designed to fit Stress Relieving
inside both rings at the joint, another fits in the joint Stress relieving of pipe weld joints is recommended
between the pipe ends, and others fit inside the pipes for lines operating at less than200C (400F).All high-
and in thejoint. These rings are split and are cut to fit pressure steel pipe welds should be stress relieved at a
the inside diameter of the pipe. All are tack-welded to temperature of about 620C (1150F) for one hour for
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 11997 m 0784265 051b552 T 4 2 9
378 PIPE WELDING Encyclopedia Welding
each inch of wall thickness, then slow-cooled to room Accessories

temperature. Stress relieving can be done (1) in a fur- Many types of clamps, jigs and fixtures are avail-
nace, or (2) with a wrap-around electrical resistance able for holding pipe in position for welding. Rollers
heating pad connected to a transformer with a rating of
allow pipe sections to be rotated together so that the
about 200 kVA. entire joint can be welded from the top in the flat posi-
Whenweldingthick-walledpipe,severalsmall tion. It is best that the ends of pipe be cut and joint
passes prove to be more satisfactory than using a few preparation be done bymachining to provide the
large passes. Depositing thinlayers of weld beadhelps cleanest and most accurate fit. Oxyacetylene cutting
prevent porosity and produces a finer grain structure, torches or plasma arc cutting torches can be used to
as a resultof the thermal effect of each
successive pass cut bevelson pipe that is rotated underthe torch. If the
on previous passes. Each bead is cleaned with a light rotating equipment is not available or an irregular cut
chipping hammer and a wire brush to remove all slag is required, it may be necessary to do the cutting with a
particles. hand-held torch.
Pipe Welding Processes PipeClamps. Clamps are used to hold pipe ends
All of the standard arc welding processes are suit- together in proper alignment for tack welding. A typi-
able for welding pipe, although the shielded metal arc cal bar clamp is shown in Figure P-6. These devices
welding (SMAW) process is used for the majority of feature quick-release handles for holding a widerange
pipe welds. Oxyacetylene welding was formerly used of pipe diameters. Sets of rollers, as shown in Figure
for welding pipe of less than 100 mm (4 in.) diameter. P-7, can be usedto rotate the pipe as it is being
The advantage of this processis that base metal can be welded.Usually four sets of rollers are required to
heated without applying filler metal, and heat can be support twosections of straight pipe.
applied independently of the rate of filler metal addi-
tion, particularly for making root passes. At present,
however, many root passes are made by the GTAW
process, followed by one or more shielded metal arc
passes tofill the joint. This is true for welding stainless
steeland especially nuclearpiping,where stainless
steel and high-nickelalloys are used. Gas tungsten arc
welding is used more frequently for filler passes in
these materials, especially for critical highly stressed
applications.
Pipes made of the so-called exotic metals, such as
titanium, zirconium and tantalum must be arc welded
by an inert gas process, GTAW or GMAW, with inert
gas shielding of the weld root.The plasma arc welding
(PAW) process uses an inert gas shield, and in many
cases can be used inplace of the GTAW process.
Submerged arc welding (SAW) is used frequently
for pipe welding in fabricating shops, where it is con-
sidered to be the most efficient pipe welding process
available. It is applied mainly to large-diameter pipes Figure P-6-A Typical Bar Clampused to Hold
where it is possible to clamp sections of pipe together Pipe Ends Together for Tack Welding
and rotate them so that all welding is done in the flat Photo courtesy of Walhonde Tools, Inc.
position. Its greatest use is in the double lengthening
of line pipe, where two or more sections of pipe are
shop-welded into longer sections. Miter Joints. The design of miter joints produces a
When welding steel piping with the GMAW pro- sharp bend in right angle connections unless the joint
cess, CO2 or argon-C02 gas mixtures are used. Argon is made with more than one weld. Miterjoints are not
is the primary shielding gas used when welding stain- recommended and
should
be
avoided,
not only
less steel, nickel base alloys and aluminum. because they are difficult and expensive to lay out and
~~ ~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb553 989 m.
Welding 379
(1) self-contained or unit refrigeration systems subject

to requirements of Underwriters Laboratories or any
other nationallyrecognizedtestinglaboratory, (2)
water piping, or (3) piping designed for external or
internalpressurenotexceeding103 kPa (15 psig)
regardless of size. See PIPE WELDING.
PIT
A depression in thesurface of a metal.
PLAIN CARBON STEEL

See STEEL, Carbon.
PLANISHING
See ROLL PLANISHING.
PLASMA
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also ARC
PLASMA.
Figure P-7-Tbming Rolls Used to Rotate Pipe for PLASMA ARC

Welding The arc plasma forms as a result of the electrical
Photo courtesy of Koike Aronson, Inc. heating of any gas to a very high temperature so that
its atoms are ionized and conduct electricity.
The plasma arc torch consists of an electrode sur-
weld, but also because they result in sharp bends that rounded by a constricting nozzle which forms a ple-
cause turbulence and addedresistance to flow. Stresses num chamber around the electrode. The plasma gas
from thermalexpansionandcontractionandother flows through this chamber and is heated and ionized
loads on the system canbe excessive and concentrated by an electric current between the electrode and the
at the miter joint welds. Weld fittings are available for nozzle or the work. The heatingcauses the gas to
everysituationwhere a miterconnectionwouldbe expand greatly andexit a small orifice at the end of the
used and are much simpler to install. See also 0RBm.u nozzle at high velocity. A pilot arc or high-frequency
TUBE WELDING. spark is required tostart the main arc.
The plasma gas exits from the nozzle at very high
PIPING CODE speeds and temperatures; up to 16 0oo"C (30 000F)
See PRESSURE PIPING CODE. and 6000 m/s (20 000 ft/s). The energy of the arc is
concentrated ina small area and thereby produces very
PIPING, Building rapid heatingof the workpieceit impinges.
See PIPE WELDING. There are two forms of plasma arc torch operation:
transferred arc and non-transferred arc. In the trans-
PIPING, Power Plant ferred arc mode, the arc current flows between the
See PIPE WELDING, Nuclear Power Plants. electrode and the work.This mode of operation is used
for welding and cutting. In the non-transferred arc ver-
PIPING, Pressure sion, the current flows from the electrode to the torch
See PIPE WELDING. nozzle. The arc within the nozzle heats the plasma gas
which exits the nozzle at high speed. This mode of
PIPING, Refrigeration operation is used for plasma spraying powder, where
ASME B31.5, Refrigeration Piping, covers piping no electrical connection is made with the work. The
systems for refrigerant and brine at temperatures as extreme heatof the arc is absorbed partlyby the water-
low as -196C (-320"F), whether erected on the pre- cooled nozzle and partlyby the plasma gas on ioniza-
mises or factory assembled.Coverage does notinclude tion. When the ionized gas strikes the workpiece, it
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 E 07842b5 05Lb554 &L5 E
ARC 380 PLASMA CUlTlNG (PAC) Encyclopedia

Welding
gives up its energy to supply heat to the workpiece as Limitations. There are notable limitations to PAC.
it returns to the normal gaseous state. When compared to most mechanical cutting means,
PAC introduces hazards such as fire, electric shock,
PLASMA ARC ClJlTlNG (PAC) intense light, fumes and gases, and noise levels that
An arc cutting process that uses a constricted arc may not be present with mechanical processes. It is
and removes the molten metal with a high velocity jet also difficult to control PAC asprecisely as some
of ionized gas issuing from the constricting orifice. See mechanical processes for close tolerance work. When
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. compared to OFC, the PAC equipment tends to be
Plasma arc cutting produces fast, high-quality cuts more expensive, requires a fairly large amount of
that often require nofurther finishing. It accomplishes electric power,and introduces electrical shock
this by passing an electric current through a column of hazards.
gas, causing it to ionize and become a plasma. The Principles of Operation
resulting
plasma
produces
temperatures
up to
The arc is constricted by passing it through an ori-
16 000C (30 000F). This causes the gas to expand
fice downstream of the electrode. The basic terminol-
and results in high-velocity flow through the torch ori-
ogyand the arrangement of the parts of a plasma
fice.When this high-temperature plasma arc stream
strikes a workpiece, it meltsthe metal rapidly, and the cutting torch are shown in Figure P-8. As plasma gas
high-velocity jet blows it away. The process makes passes through the arc, it is heated rapidly to a high
clean cuts and formslittle or no dross or slag on most temperature, expands, and is accelerated as it passes
metals, requires no preheat, and producesa minimum through the constricting orifice toward the workpiece.
heat-affected zone, with little or no distortion. The intensity and velocityof the plasma is deter-
mined by several variables including the type of gas,
While oxyfuelgas cutting is limited to metals which its pressure, the flow pattern, the electric current, the
combine with oxygen at elevated temperatures, plasmasize and shape of the orifice, and the distance to the
arc cutting is not limited to this chemical reaction: it workpiece. Plasma arc cutting circuitry is shown in
is onlylimitedtomaterialswhich are electrical Figure P-9, The process operates on direct current,
conductors. straight polarity. The orifice directs the super-heated
Historical Background plasma stream from the electrode toward the work-
PACwas invented in the mid1950sandbecame piece. When the arc melts the workpiece, the high-
commercially successful shortly after its introduction velocity jet blows away the molten metal to form the
toindustry. The ability of theprocesstoseverany kerf, or cut. The cutting arc attaches to or transfers
electricallyconductivematerialmadeitespecially to the workpiece, and is referred to as a transferred
attractive for cutting nonferrous metals that could not arc.
be cut by the oxyfuel cutting (OFC) process. It was
initially used for cutting stainless steel and aluminum.
As the cutting process was developed, it was found
that it had advantages over othercutting processes for r ORIFICE GAS
cutting carbon steel as well as nonferrous metals.
Advantages and Limitations CONSTRICTING PLENUM
Advantages. When compared to mechanical cutting
processes, the amount of force required to hold the - ELECTRODE
workpiece in place and move the torch (or vice versa) SETBACK
is much lower with the non-contact plasma arc cut- ORIFICE THROAT
CONSTRIC:TING
STAND OFF^^^^^^f0
tingprocess.Comparedto OFC, the plasma cutting ORIFICE
process operates ata much higher energy level, result- DIAMETER
ing in faster cutting speed. In addition to its higher TORCH
speed, PAC has the advantage of instant start-up with-
DISTANCE
out requiring preheat. Instantaneous starting is particu-
larly
advantageous for applicationsinvolving -
interrupted cutting, such as severing mesh. Figure P-&Plasma Arc Torch Terminology

_ _ ~
STDuAWS JWE-ENGL L777 D 0784265 05Lb555 7 5 1 m

EncyclopediaWelding PLASMA ARC CUlTlNG (PAC) 381
open circuit voltage of the power supply is generally

- about twice the operating voltageof the torch. Operat-
I ing voltages will range from 50 or 60 volts to over
HIGH 200 volts so PAC power supplies will have open cir-
FREQUENCY cuit voltages ranging from about 150 to over 400 volts.
GENERATOR Newertypesofplasmacuttingpowersupplies
include electronic phase control and various types of
switchmode, or inverter,powersupplies. The
POWER RESISTOR switch mode power supplies utilize high-speed, high-
SUPPLY current semiconductorsto control the output. They can
eitherregulatetheoutput of a standard DC power
supply, the so-called chopper power supply, or they
can be incorporated in an inverter-type power supply.
CONSTRICTING
As newtypes
of semiconductors become com-
PILOT
mercially available, it can be expected that improved
ARC
RELAY - versions of thistypeofpowersupplywillappear,
I + Switch mode supplies have the advantage

efficiencyandsmallersize,andareattractivefor
applications whereportability
and
efficiencyare
of higher
Figure P-9-Basic Plasma Arc Cutting Circuitry important considerations.

Motion Equipment.A variety of motion equipmentis
The gases used for plasma arc cutting include nitro-availableforusewithmechanizedplasmacutting
gen,argon, air, oxygen,andmixtures of nitrogen/ torches. This equipment can range from straight-line
hydrogen andargonhydrogen. tractors to numerically-controlled or direct computer-
The most common pilot arc starting techniqueis to controlled cutting machines with parts nesting capabil-
strike a high-frequency spark between the electrode ities, etc.Plasmacuttingequipmentcanalsobe
and the torch tip. A pilot arc is established across the adapted to robotic actuators for cutting other than flat
resulting ionized path. When the torch is close enoughplates.
to the workpieceso the plume or flameof the pilot arc
touches the workpiece, an electrically conductive path Environmental Controls.The plasma cutting process
from the electrodeto the workpieceis established. The isinherently a noisyandfume-generatingprocess.
cutting arc will followthis path to the workpiece. Several different devices and techniquesare available
tocontrolandcontainthehazards.Onecommonly
Equipment used approach to reduce noise and fume emissions is
Torches. The plasma cutting process is used with to cut over a water table and surround the arc with a
either a hand-held torch or a mechanically-mounted watershroud.Thismethodrequires a cutting table
torch.Thereareseveraltypesandsizesofeach, filled with water up to the work-supporting surface, a
depending on the thickness of metal to be cut. Some water shroud attachment for the torch, aand recirculat-
torches canbe dragged along in direct contact with the ing pump to draw water from the cutting table and
workpiece,whileothersrequirethat a standoff be pump it through the shroud. In this case, a relatively
maintained between the tip of the torch and workpiece. high 55 to 75 Umin (15 to 20 gpm) water flowis used.
Certain plasma arc torch parts must be considered Another method, underwater plasma cutting,is also
to be consumable. The tip and electrode are the most in common use. With this method, the working end of
vulnerable to wear during cutting, and cutting perfor- the torch and the plate tobe cut are submerged under
mance deteriorates as they wear. The timely replace- approximately 75 mm (3 in.) of water. While the torch
ment of consumable parts is required to achieve good is underwater but not cutting,a constant flow of com-
quality cuts. pressed air is maintained through the torch to keep
Power Supplies. Plasma arc cutting requires a con- water out.
stant current or drooping volt-ampere characteristic, The primary requirements in water table design are
relativelyhigh-voltage,direct-currentpowersupply: adequate strength for supporting the work, sufficient
To achieve satisfactory arc starting performance, the scrap capacity to hold thedross or slag resulting from
STD=AWS JWE-ENGL L997 M 07842b5 051b55b b98 W
ARC 382 PLASMA
cutting, procedurefor removing the slag, and ability to dross adherence,andsquarenessofthetopedge.

maintain the waterlevelincontactwith the work. These factorsare affected by the typeof material being
When the table is used for underwater cutting, it is cut,theequipmentbeingused,and the cutting
necessary to provide a means of rapidly raising and conditions.
lowering the water level. This can be accomplished by Plasma cuts in plates up to approximately 75 mm
pumping the water in and outof a holding tank,or by (3 in.) thick may have a surface smoothness very simi-
displacing it with air in an enclosure under the surface lar to that produced by oxyfuel gas cutting.
of the water. Kerf widths of plasma arc cuts are 1-1/2 to 2 times
A cutting tablefor mechanized or hand plasma cut- the width of oxyfuel gas cuts in plates up to 50 mm
ting is usuallyequippedwithadown-draftexhaust (2 in.) thick.Forexample,atypicalkerfwidth in
system. This is vented to the outdoorS.in some cases, 25 mm (1 in.) stainless steel is approximately 5 mm
althoughfumeremovalorfilteringdevicesmaybe (3/16 in.).Kerf width increases with plate thickness. A
required to meet air pollution regulations. plasma cut in 180 mm (7 in.) stainless steel made at
Applications approximately 3 m m / s (4 in./min) has a kerf width of
The first commercial applicationof plasma arc cut- 28 mm (1-1/8 in.).
ting was the mechanized cutting of manway holes on The plasma jet tends to remove more metal from the
aluminum railroad tank cars at the Graver Tank plant upper part of the kerf than from the lower part. This
in Edgemoor, Delaware. In five minutes the plasma results in beveled cuts wider the at top than at the bot-
arc torch produced a beveled, ready-to-weld joint, in a tom. A typical included angleof a cut in 25 mm (1 in.)
16 mm (Y8 in.) thick shell that previously took five steel is four to six degrees. This bevel occurs on one
hours to prepare. The process has since been used on a side ofthecutwhen orifice gas swirl is used. The
widevariety of aluminumapplications.TableP-1 bevel angle on both sides of the cut tends to increase
showstypicalconditions for mechanizedcutting of with cutting speed.
aluminum plate. Dross is the material that melts during cutting and
Typical conditionsfor mechanized cutting of stain- adheres tothe bottom edge of the cut face. With mech-
less steel plateare shown in Table P-2. anized equipment, dross-free cuts can be producedon
Manual plasma arc cutting is widely used in auto- aluminum andstainlesssteeluptoapproximately
mobile body repairfor cutting high-strength low-alloy 75 mm (3 in.)thicknessandoncarbonsteelupto
(HSLA) steel. Instant starting and high travel speeds approximately 40 mm (1-1/2 in.) thickness. With car-
reduce heat input to the high-strength, low-alloy steel bon steel, selection of speed and currentare more crit-
and help maintainits strength. ical. Drossis usually present oncuts in thick materials.
The chiefapplication of mechanizedplasmaarc Top edgeroundingwillresultwhen excessive
cutting of carbon steel is for thicknesses up to 13 mm power is used to cut a given plate thickness or when
(1/2in.).Thehighercostofplasma arc equipment the torch standoff distance is too large. It may also
compared to oxyfuel cutting (OFC) equipment can be occur in high-speedcuttingofmaterialslessthan
justified by the formers higher cutting speeds. Condi- 6 mm (1/4 in.)thick,Examples of high-definition
tions for mechanizedplasmaarccutting of carbon (square edge, dross-free) plasmaarc cuts in carbon and
steel plateare shown in Table P-3. stainless steelare shown in Figure P-10.
The plasma process has been used for stack cutting Metallurgical Effects
of carbonsteel,stainlesssteel,andaluminum.The During PAC, the materialat the cut surface is
plates to be stack-cut should preferably be clamped heated to its melting temperature and ejected by the
together,but PAC cantoleratewidergapsbetween force of the plasma jet. This produces a heat-affected
plates than OFC. zonealong the cut surface,aswithfusionwelding
Plate and pipe edge beveling is done by using tech- operations. The heat not onlyalters the structureof the
niques similar to those for OFC. One to three PAC metal in this zone, but also introduces internal tensile
torches are used, depending on the joint preparation stresses from the rapid expansion, upsetting, and con-
required. traction of the metal at thecut surface.
Cut Quality The depth to which the arc heat will penetrate the
Factors to consider in evaluating the qualityof a cut workpiece is inversely proportional to cutting speed.
includesurfacesmoothness,kerfwidth,kerfangle, The heat-affected zone on the cut face of a 25 mm
~~~~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~~~~~
Welding Encyclopedia PLASMA ARC CUrrlNG (PAC) 383
Table P-1
vplcal Conditions for Plasma Arc Cutting of Aluminum Plate
TbiCheSS speed 0M1ceDiam*
Current
mm in. mds inJmin m m (dcsp), in. "
A Power k W
6 300114 127 3.2 1/S 300 ' 6 0
13 200 1/2 86 3.2 1/S 250 50

25 1 38 5/3290 4.0 400 80
51 9 5/3220 4.0 400 80
76 6 3/1615 4.8 450 90
02 450 1 3/16 4.85 12 90
152 114 8 6.4 170 750
'Plasma gas flow rates vary with orifice diameter and gas usedfrom about 47 Umin. (100 A3/h) for a 3.2 mm (118 in.) orifice to about
120 Umin. (250 ft%) for a 6.4 mm (114 in.) orifice. The gases used
are nitrogen and argon with hydrogen additions fromO to 35%. The
equipment manufacturer should be consulted for each application.
Table P-2
nplcal Conditions for Plasma Arc Cutting of Stainless Steel
Thickness speed Orifice Diam*
Current
mm in. mmls inJmin mm (dcsp), in. A Power k W
6 200 114 86 118 3.2 60 300
2 13 100 42 118 3.2 300 60
25 21 5/32 50 4.0 400 80
51 9 20 4.8 1003116 500
76 16 7 3/16 4.8 100 500
4 102 3 3/16 8 4.8 100 500
'Plasma gas flow rates vary with orifice diameter andgas used from about47 Umin. (100 ft3/h) for a 3.2 mm (118 in.) orifice to about
94 Umin. (200 ft3/h) for a 4.8 mm (3116 in.)orifice. The gases used are nitrogen and argon with hydrogen additionsOfromto 35%. The
equipment manufacturer shouldbe consulted for each application.
Table P-3
vplcal Conditions for Plasma Arc Cutting of Carbon Steel
ThiChesS Speed Orifice Diam*
Current
mm in. d S inJmin mm (dcsp), in. A Power k W
1 6 14 86 118 200 3.2 275 55
13 100 112 42 3.2 118 275 55
25 1 21 5/32 50 4.0 425 85
2 51 11 25 4.8 3/16 550 110
'Plasma gas flow rates vary with orifice diameter and gas used from about94 Umin. (200 ft3h) for a 3.2 mm (118 in.) orifice to about
104 Umin. (300 ft3h)for a4.8 mm (3116 in.) orifice. The gases used are usually compressed
air, nitrogen with up to10% hydrogen addi-
tions, or nitrogen with oxygen added downstream from the electrode (dual flow). The equipment manufacturer should be consulted for
each application.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 3997 m 07842b5 05Lb558 4b0 W
ARC384 PLASMA Encyclopedia

Welding
Hardening will occur in the heat-affected zone of a

plasma arc cut in high-carbon steel if the cooling rate
is very high. The degree of hardening can be reduced
by preheatingthe workpiece toreduce the cooling rate
at the cut face.
Various metallurgicaleffects may occur when long,
narrow, or tapered parts, or outside comers are cut.
The heat generated during a preceding cut may reach
and adversely affectthe quality of a following cut.
Safety
The potentialhazards of plasma arc cutting and
gouging are similar to those of most arc welding and
cutting. The following information concerns the less
obvioushazard categories of electrical shock, fume
and gas generation, noise, andradiation.
Figure P - l S H i g h Definition (Square Edge) Emergency first aidshould be available.Prompt,
Plasma Arc Cuts in Carbon Steel Made Using trained emergency response may reduce the extent of
Oxygen as the Cutting Gas injury due to accidental electrical shock. Only trained
Photo courtesyof Hypertherm, Inc. personnel should be permitted to operate or maintain
the equipment. In addition to the manufacturers
instructions, the following may be ofassistance:
(1 in.) thick stainless steel plate severed at 21 m m / s
(50 in./min) is 0.08 to 0.13 mm (0.003 to 0.005 in.) (1) ANSI C-2, the National Electrical Safety Code
deep. This measurement was determined from micro- (2) ANSI 249.1, Safety in Welding and Cutting
scopic examination of the grain structure at the cut (3) 29CFR1910, OSHA General Industry Standards
edge of a plate. (4)NFPA Standard 5 lB, Fire Prevention in the Use
Because of the high cutting speed on stainless steel of Cutting and Welding Processes.
and the quenching effect of the base plate, the cut face The equipment should not be operateduntil the
passes through the critical 650C (1200F) tempera- manufacturers instructions have been read and under-
ture very rapidly. Thus,there is virtually no chance for stood. In addition, other potential physical hazards
chromium carbide to precipitatealongthe grain such as those due to the high-pressure gas and water
boundaries, so corrosionresistance is maintained. systems mustbe considered.
Measurements of the magnetic properties of Type 304 Some cutting gas mixtures contain hydrogen. Inad-
stainless steel made on base metal and on plasma arc vertent release of such gases can result in explosion
cut samples indicate that magneticpermeability is and fire hazards. The equipment should not be oper-
unaffected by arc cutting. ated when gas leaks are suspected. The manufacturer
Metallographicexamination of cuts inaluminum should be contacted if there is a question about the
plates indicates that the heat-affectedzones in alu- equipment operation withcertain gases.
minum are deeper than those in stainless steel plate of Electrical. Voltagesused in plasma cutting equip-
the same thickness. This results from the higher ther- ment range from 150 to 400 V direct current. Electric
malconductivity of aluminum.Micro-hardness sur- shock can be fatal. The equipment must be properly
veys indicate that the heateffect penetrates about grounded and connected as recommendedby the
5 mm (3/16 in.) into a 25 mm (1 in.) thick plate. Age- manufacturer.
hardenablealuminum alloys of the 2000and 7000 Some additional safetyitems are listed below:
series are crack-sensitive at the cut surface. Cracking (1) Keep all electrical circuits dry. Moisture may
appears to result when a grain boundary eutectic film provide an unexpected path for current flow. Equip-
melts and separates under stress. Machining to remove ment cabinets that contain waterand gas lines as well
the cracks may be necessary on edges that will not be as electrical circuits should be checked periodically
welded. for leaks.
(2) All
electrical
connections should be kept locally and are specified by OSHA for most industrial
mechanicallytight.Poor electrical connectionscan environments.
generate heatand start fires. The water-shroud technique is commonly used to
(3) Cable insulatedfor high voltage shouldbe used. reduce noise in mechanized cutting applications. The
Make sure cables and wires are kept in good repair. water effectively acts as a sound-absorbing enclosure
Consult the manufacturersinstructions for proper around the torch nozzle.The water directly below the
cable and wire sizes. plate keepsnoisefromcomingthrough the kerf
(4) Do nottouch live circuits.Keepequipment opening.
access doors closed.
Radiation. The plasma arc emits intense visible and
(5) The riskof electrical shock is probably the invisible (ultraviolet and infrared) radiation. In addi-
greatestwhenreplacingusedtorchparts.Operators tion to potential harm to the eyes and skin, this radia-
must make sure that the primary power to the power tion may produce ozone, oxides of nitrogen, or other
supplies and the power to the control circuitry is dis- toxic fumes inthe surrounding atmosphere.
connected when replacing torch parts.
It is necessary to weareye and skin protection when
(6)Operators and maintenance personnel should be exposure to radiation is unavoidable. The recom-
aware that plasma arc cutting equipment, due to the
mended eye protection is shown in Appendix 18. The
higher voltages, presents a greater hazard than conven-
tional welding equipment. likelihood of radiation exposure may be reduced by
the use of mechanical barriers suchas walls and weld-
Fumes and Gases. Plasma arc cuttingproduces ingcurtains.Thewatershroudwill also act as a
fumes and gases which can harm the operators health. light-absorbing shield, especially when dye is added to
The composition and rate of generation of fumes and the water in the table. Whenthe use of dye is contem-
gases depend on many factors including arc current, plated, contact the equipment manufacturer for infor-
cutting speed, material being cut, and gases used. The mationon the typeandconcentration to use. It is
fume and gas by-products will usually consist of the advisable to provideoperator eye protection,even
oxides of the metal being cut, ozone, and oxides of when using these dyes, because of the possibility of
nitrogen. unexpectedinterruption ofwaterflowthrough the
These fumes must be removed from the work area watershroud. See PLASMAARC and PLASMAARC
or eliminated at the source by using an exhaust system. WELDING.
Codes may require that the exhaust be filtered before
being vented to the atmosphere. PLASMA ARC CUlTlNG TORCH
There is apossibilityofhydrogendetonation A device used to transfer current to a f i e d cutting
beneath the workpiecewhencuttingaluminum or electrode, position the electrode, and direct the flow of
magnesium plateon a water table.This can be caused shielding gas and orifice gas. See STANDARD WELD-
by hydrogen released bythe interaction of molten alu- ING TERMS.
minum or magnesium and water. The hydrogen can
accumulate in pockets under the workpiece and ignite PLASMA ARC GOUGING
when the cutting arcis near the pocket. Before cutting Plasma arc gouging is an adaptation of the plasma
aluminum or magnesium on a water table, the equip- cuttingprocess.Forgouging,arcconstriction is
mentmanufacturershould be contacted for recom- reduced, resulting in a lower arc stream velocity.The
mended practices. temperature of the arcand the velocityof the gas
Noise. The amount of noise generated by a PAC stream are used to melt and expel metal in a similar
torch operated in the open depends primarily on the manner to other gouging processes. A major differ-
cutting current. A torch operating at 400 A typically ence compared to other gouging processes is that the
generates approximately 100 dBA measured at about gouge is bright and clean, particularly on nonferrous
six feet. At 750 A the noise level is about 110 B A . material such as aluminum and stainless steel. Virtu-
Much of the noise is in the frequency rangeof 5000 to allynopost-cleaning is requiredwhentheplasma
20 O00 Hz. Such noiselevels can damagehearing. gouged surface is to be welded. A plasma arc gouging
Hearingprotectionshould be wornwhen the noise operation on stainless steel plate is shown in Figure
level exceeds specified limits. These valuesmay vary P-11.

STD.AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 07842b5 051b560 0x7
G ARC386 PLASMA Welding Encyclopedia
depth is determined by speed of travel. It is important

not to attempt removal of too much metal in a single
pass.
Applications
Plasma gouging can be used on all metals. It ispar-
ticularlyeffective on aluminumand stainless steel,
where the gouges produced are clean and devoid of
any carbon contamination. See PLASMA ARC, PLASMA
ARC WELDING, and PLASMA ARC CUlTING.
PLASMA ARC WELDING (PAW)

An arc welding process that uses a constricted arc
between anonconsumable electrode and the weld pool
(transferred arc) orbetween the electrode and the con-
stricting nozzle (nontransferred arc). Shieldingis
obtainedfrom the ionized gas issuing from the torch,
Figure P-1 -Plasma Arc Gouging of Stainless which may be supplemented by an auxiliary source of
Steel Plate
shielding gas. The process is used without theapplica-
tion ofpressure. See also HOT WIRE WELDING.
Equipment
The basic equipment for plasma gouging is the
same as for plasma cutting. Most plasma cutting One of the earliest plasma arc systems was a gas
equipment can be used for plasma gouging provided vortex stabilized device introduced by Schonherr in
that the volt-ampere output curve of the power source 1909. In this unit, gas was blown tangentially into a
is steep enough and the voltage high enough sustain
to tube through which an arc wasstruck. The centrifugal
the long arc used for plasma gouging. force of the gas stabilized the arc along the axis of the
The torch utilizes a gouging tip whichis designed to tube by creating a low pressure axial core. Arcs up to
give a softer, wider arc and proper stream velocity. several meters in length were produced, and the sys-
The torch used is the same as a plasma cutting torch tem proved usefulfor arc studies.
and may be either single- or dual-gas flow and air or Gerdien and Lotz built a water vortex arc-stabiliz-
water cooled. ing device in 1922. In this device, water injected tan-
gentially into the center of a tube was swirled around
Gases the inner surface and ejected at the ends. When an arc
The recommendedplasma gas for all gouging is struck between carbon electrodes was passed through
argon plus 35 to 40% hydrogen. The gas can be sup- the tube, the water concentrated the arc along its axis,
plied from cylinders or prepared using a gas-mixing producing higher current densities and temperatures
device.Heliummay be substituted for the argon- than were otherwise available. The Gerdien and Lotz
hydrogen mixture, butthe resulting gouge willbe shal- invention had no practical metalworking applications
lower. The secondary or cooling gas, when used, is because of the rapid consumption of its carbon elec-
argon, nitrogen,or air. Selection is based on brightness trodes and the presence of water vapor in the plasma
of gouge desired, fume generation, and cost. jets.
While working onthe arc melting of refractory met-
Air is sometimes used for the plasma gas on air als in 1953, R. M. Gage, U.S. Patent No. 2 806 124,
operating systems but is generally limited to carbon observed the similarity in appearance between a long
steel gouging.Mostmanualair cutting systems are electric arc and an ordinary gas flame. Efforts to con-
limited to 100 A output and this restricts the size and trol the heat intensity and velocity of the arc led to the
speed of plasma gouging. development of the modern plasmaarc torch.
Operating Procedure The first practical plasma arc metal-working tool
The technique for plasma gouging is essentially the was a cutting torch introduced in 1955. This device
same as for other gouging methods. The torch is was similar to a gas tungsten arc welding torch in that
angled approximately 30 from the horizontal. Gouge it used a tungstenelectrode and a plasmagas. How-
Licensed by Information-~
Handling Services
~ ~~ ~
Encyclopedia
Welding (PAW)
PLASMA ARC WELDING 387
ever, the electrode was recessed in the torch, and the consists of acentral tungsten electrode, a constricting
arc was constricted by passing it through an orifice in nozzle with a small orifice and an outer gas nozzle
the torch nozzle. The usual circuitry for gas tungsten which supplies shielding gas to the material being
arc welding was supplemented in the plasma arc cut- welded.
ting torch with a pilot arc circuit
for arc initiation. As the orifice gas passes through the plenum cham-
ber of the plasma torch, itis heated by the arc, expands
and exits through the constrictingorifice at high veloc-
The plasma arc process can be considered as an ity. Since too powerful a gas jet can cause turbulence
extension of the gas tungsten arc welding process. in the weld puddle, orificegas flow ratesare generally
However, the plasma arc processes haveamuch held to within 0.25 to 5 Llmin (0.5 to 10 CU ft/hr). The
higher arc energy density and higher gas velocity as orifice gas alone is not normally adequateto shield the
a result of the arc plasma being forced through a weld pool from atmospheric contamination, therefore
constricting nozzle. See Figure P-12 for a compari- auxiliary shielding gas is provided through an outer
son of the gas tungsten arc and plasma arc welding gas nozzle. vpical shielding gas flow ratesare in the
torch configurations. A plasma arc weldingtorch range of 10 to 30 Llmin (20 to 60 CU ft h).
3 o
f
Y Y
SHIELDING
O A S 1
r ORIFICE
GAS
+ffl SHIELDING
GAS
SHIELDING
GAS NOZZLE
SHIELDING
GASNOZZLE
ARCPLASMA /- ARC PLASMA

/-
-??
ARC PLASMA ARC TUNGSTEN GAS
Figure P-12"Comparison of Gas Tungsten Arc and Plasma Arc Processes

~~~
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 078qZb5 05Lb5b2 991 W
cyclopedia
Welding
388 PLASMA
(PAW)
ARC WELDING
The degreeof arc collimation,arcforce,energy tomake use of thesurfaceoxideremoval feature

density on the workpiece and other characteristics are (sputtering) of this polarity. Arc currentis usually lim-
primarily functionsof the following: ited to a maximum of 100 amperes to prevent rapid
(1) Plasma current deterioration of the electrode.
(2) Orifice diameter andshape Sine wave alternating current with continuous high-
(3) Type of orifice gas frequency stabilization can also be used for welding
(4)Flow rate of orificegas aluminum and magnesium, but the maximum is still
The fundamental differences amongthe plasma arc limited to about 100 amperes. Surface oxide removal
metalworking processes, arise from the relationship of occurs during the positive half cycles of alternating
these four factors. They can be adjusted to provide current.
very high or very low thermal energies.The very high Square-wavealternatingcurrentwithunbalanced
flowrates may resultinturbulenceandperhaps positive and negative current half cycles, also called
remove the melted metal from a groove. Therefore, the variablepolarityplasmaarc(VPPA), is highly effi-
high energy densities, small orifice diameters and high cient for weldingaluminumandmagnesiumalloys
jet velocities are used for cutting. For welding, a low and permits use of higher average weld current than
plasma jet velocity is necessary to prevent expulsion sine wave ac. This is possible because the durationof
of the molten metal from the groove. This is accom- the negative portion is considerably longer than the
plished by using largerorifice diameters, lower plasma positive portion, thus developing most of the heat at
gas flow rates, and lower currents than normally used the work, where it is needed. The short positive pulse
for cutting. is sufficient for removing surface oxides and does not
Polarity cause excessive heating ofthe electrode. Good results
Plasmaarcwelding is normally done with direct were obtained with 15 to 20 milliseconds DCEN and
current electrode negative (DCEN), pure tungsten or 2 to 5 milliseconds DCEP. Shorter DCEP times were
tungstenalloyelectrodes,argonplasmagasanda not effective; longer times caused electrode deterio-
transferred arc. Current range for plasma arc welding ration. A typical VPPA waveform is shown in Figure
is from 0.1 to 500 amperes, depending on the torch P-13.
sizeandmaterialthickness. Steel, stainlesssteel, Keyhole Welding Technique
nickel base alloys and titanium alloys can be welded Plasma arc welding can be performed in either the
with DCEN. melt-in or keyhole mode. The melt-in mode is similar
Direct current electrode positive (DCEP)is used to to the gas tungsten arc process butthe arc has greater
a limited extentfor welding aluminum and magnesium stiffness and heat concentration; permitting narrower
DCEN AMPLITUDE
I
..."
DCEP AMPLITUDE
A"
U
IUIL
I HMr3
4 le DCEPTIME
2-5 MILLISECONDS
Figure P-13-A Typical Variable Polarity Plasma Arc Waveform

~
~ ~~~
STD.AWS
JWE-ENGL 1977 D 07842b5 051b5b3 828 9
Welding Encyclopedia (PAW) WELDING ARC PLASMA 389
beads and less distortion than GTAW. In the keyhole (6) Where the addition of filler metal is desirable,
mode,astiffer,highercurrentdensityarc is used, this operation is much easier since torch standoff dis-
which produces a small hole completely through the tance is generous and the electrode cannot touch the
joint being welded. Figure P-14is a pictorial represen- filler or puddle. This also results in less downtime for
tation of the keyhole in plasma arc welding. The key- tungsten repointing and eliminates tungsten contami-
hole
technique is generally
performed
the
in nation of the weld.
downhandposition on materialthicknessesranging (7) Reasonable variationsin torch standoff distance
from 1.6 to 9.5 mm ( M 6 to 3/8 in.). However, using have little effect on bead widthor heat concentration at
appropriate welding conditionson certain metal thick- the work; this makesout-of-positionweldingmuch
nesses, keyhole welding can be done in any position. easier.
The principal advantage of keyhole welding is making
Limitations. Some of the limitations associated with
welds in a single pass. As the plasma arc moves along
low-currentandhigh-current(melt-in)plasma arc
the joint, the melted metal flows back into the hole to
welding include:
make the weld. If the arc moves too rapidly, the result
will be cutting instead of welding. (1) Due to the narrow constricted arc, the process
has little tolerancefor joint misalignment.
~~ ~
(2) Manual plasma welding torches are generally

more difficult to manipulate than a comparable GTAW
torch.
Equipment
The basicequipment for plasmaarcwelding is
shownin Figure P-15.Plasmaarcwelding is done
with both manual and mechanized equipment.
TORCH TRAVEL
A complete system for manual plasma arc welding
consists of a torch, control console, power source, ori-
fice and shielding gas supplies, source of torch cool-
ant,andaccessoriessuch as gasflowtimersand
remotecurrentcontrol.Equipment is available for
Figure P-14-Pictorial Representationof the operation in the current rangeof 0.1 to 225 A, DCEN.
Keyhole in PlasmaArc Welding Mechanized equipment mustbe used to achieve the
high welding speeds and deep penetration advantages
Advantages and Llmitations associatedwithhigh-currentplasmaarcwelding.A
Advantages. The low-current and
high-current typicalmechanizedinstallation consists of apower
(melt-in) modes have the following advantages over source,controlunit,machineweldingtorch,torch
gas tungsten arc welding: stand or travel carriage, coolantsource,high-fre-
quencypowergenerator,andsupplies of shielding
(1) Energy concentration is greater, with the result gases. Accessory units such as an arc voltage control
that: and filler wire feed system may be used as required.
(a) Welding
speeds are higher
in some Machineweldingtorchesareavailable for welding
applications. with currents upto 500 A, DCEN.
(b) Lower current is needed to produce a given
Accessory Equipment
weld and results in less shrinkage. Distortion may be
reduced by as much as 50%. Wire Feeders. As with the GTAW process, conven-
tional filler wire feed systems can be used with the
(c) Penetration can be controlled by adjusting PAW process. The filler metal is added to the leading
welding variables.
edge of the weld pool or the keyhole at a predeter-
(2) Arc stability is improved. mined feed rate.Awirefeedsystemmayalleviate
(3) Arc column has greater directional stability. occurrences of undercutorunderfillwhenwelding
(4) Narrowerbeads(higherdepth-to-width ratio) thicker materials.
for a given penetration, resulting less
in distortion. Hot wire feed systemsmay also be used and should
(5) Need for fixturing is less for some applications. be fed intothe trailing edgeof the weld pool. Initiation

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5
05Lb5b4
7b4
ARC390 PLASMA
Encyclopedia
Welding
WELDING (PAW)
START/STOP
WELDING SWITCH COOLANT IN
TORCH
p-1 OoLANT OUT
COOLANT
CIRCULATOR
ORIFICE GASHOSE
- LEAD & COOLANT
CONTROL
IN
+ LEAD L COOLANT
OUT
CONSOLE
SHIELDINGGASHOSE
GAS
I WORK I
, ,1
REMOTE
CURRENT
CONTROL
Figure P-15-Typical Equipment for Plasma Arc Welding

E
:i
DC
1
and termination of wire feed may be controlled and mizingtheduration of thepositiveelectrodecycle.
programmed with automatic welding equipment. One pass keyhole welds can be made in aluminum
PositioningEquipment. Positioningequipment for
alloysupto12.7 mm (U2 in.)thick.Metallurgical
PAW is similar to that used for GTAW, Depending on effects of the heat from the plasma and gas tungsten
the application, either the workpiece may be manipu- arc welding processes are similar, except the smaller
lated or the torch motion can be controlled. Workpiece diameter plasma arc will usually melt less base metal,
manipulationgenerallyinvolvesarotarypositioner resulting in narrower and deeper penetration. Preheat,
with the capability of tilt control. Moving the torch postheat, and gas shielding procedures are similar for
while the workpieceremainsstationaryrequiresa both processes. Eachbasematerialhas its require-
carriage on tracks or a side beam carriage for follow- ments that maximize weld quality.
inglinear joints. Combining the movement of the Consumables
torch and workpiece as a system would require the use FillerMetals. Filler metals used to weld the work
of computer programming for coordinating
the basematerialsare the same as those usedwith the
operations. GTAW and GMAW processes. They are added in rod
Materials form for manual welding or wire formfor mechanized
welding.TableP-4liststhe AWS specifications for
Base Metals. The plasma arc welding process can be
appropriate filler metals.
used tojoin all metals weldable by the GTAW process.
Most material thicknesses from0.3 to 6.4 mm (0.01 to Electrodes. The electrode is the same as used for
0.25 in.) can be welded in one pass with a transferred gas tungsten arc welding. Pure tungsten rods and tung-
arc. All metals except aluminum and magnesium and sten with small additions of thoria, zirconia, lantha-
their alloys are welded with DCEN. Square-wave ac num, or ceria may be used for DCEN welding.
is used to effectively remove refractory oxides when Electrodes are made to ANSYAWS A5.12, Specifi-
weldingaluminumand
magnesium.Alternating cation for TungstenArcWelding Electrodes. Pure
currentweldingreduces the current capacity of the tungstenelectrodesaregenerallyselected for a-c
electrode unless the power source is capable of mini- welding.

S T D = A W S JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 051b5b5 bTO W
Welding Encyclopedia WELDINGMATERIALS, PLASTIC 391
Table P 4 shielding gas and orifice gas. See STANDARD WELD-

AWS Speciflcatlons for Filler Metals ING TERMS. See also PLASMA ARC WELDING.
Used for Plasma Arc Welding
PLASMA SPRAYER
AWS See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also THER-
Specification Filler Metals MAL SPRAYER.
A5.7 Copper and copper
alloy
welding rods
PLASMA SPRAYING (PSP)
A5.9 Corrosion
resistant chromium and chromium A t h e m 1 spraying process in which a nontrans-
nickel steel bare electrodes ferred arc is used to create an arc plasma for melting
A5.10 Aluminum and aluminum alloy welding rods and propelling the suflacing material to the substrate.
and bare electrodes See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also THERMAL
SPRAYING.
A514 Nickel and nickel alloy bare
weldingrods
and electrodes PLASMA SPRAYING OPERATOR
A5.16
Titanium
and
titanium
alloy
bare
welding See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also THER-
rods and electrodes MAL SPRAYING OPERATOR.
A5.18 Mild steelelectrodesforgasmetalarcwelding PLASTIC DEFORMATION
A5.19
Magnesium
alloy
welding rods and
bare Permanent changesin the shape, structure and prop-
electrodes erties of a metalor material causedby the action of an
A5.24 Zirconium and zirconium alloy bare welding applied stress greater thanthe elastic limit of the mate-
rods and electrodes rial. Plastic deformationis an inherent consequence of
cold working.
PLASTIC FLOW
Gases. The choice of gases to be used for plasma
arc welding depends on the metal to be welded. For See CREEP.
many PAW applications, the shielding gas is often the PLASTIC MATERIALS, WELDING
same as the orifice gas. Qpical gases used to weld Among weldable thermoplastics, polyvinyl chloride
various metals are shown in Table P-5, Gas Selection and polyethyleneare the most frequentlyjoined. Ther-
Guide for HighCurrentPlasmaArcWelding. The moplastics or plastics that soften when heated can be
shielding gases are generally inert. Active shielding welded using a filler rod of the same composition as
gas can be used if it does not adversely affectthe weld the base material. Applications of welded plastics have
properties. been used inthe chemical and food industries, in laun-
Safety Recommendations dries, breweries,in home and industrial plumbing, and
For detailed safety information, refer to the manu- other industries.
facturers instructions and the latest edition of ANSI The process requires a torch using either electricity
249.1, Safety in Welding and Cutting. For mandatory or an oxyfuel gas flame to heat air or an inert gas,
federalsafetyregulationsestablishedby the U.S. which will then be used to heat the filler rod and the
Labor Departments Occupational Safety and Health base material.Temperature of the compressed gas
Administration, refer to the latest edition of OSHA stream may be regulated
by gas flow rate and by vary-
Standards, Code of Federal Regulations, Title 29 Part ing the torch-to-work spacing. Although thefiller rod
1910,availablefrom the SuperintendentofDocu- should preferablybe of the same chemistry as the base
ments, U.S. Frinting Offke, Washington, D.C. 20402. material, a rod whichis slightly more plasticized than
Reference:AmericanWeldingSociety. Welding the base material will give greater control over weld
Handbook, V01.2,Sth Edition, Miami, Florida: Ameri- contour. However, welds made with plasticized filler
can Welding Society. rod show a slight reduction in resistance to chemicals.
Welds in plastic resemble types produced by elec-
PLASMA ARC WELDING TORCH tric arc welding. Fora fillet weld, nojoint preparation
A device used to transfer current to a@ed welding is necessary. For a butt weld, the two pieces are bev-
electrode, position the electrode, and direct thejlow of eled by sawing,filing, or grinding.

.STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 9 07842b5 05Lb5bb 537
392 PLASTICITY Welding Encyclopedia
Table P-5
Gas Selection Guide for High Current Plasma Arc Weldinga
Technique
WeldingThickness
Metal mm in. Keyhole Melt-In

steel Carbon ......................................... under 3.2 118 Ar Ar
3.2 over
(aluminum killed) 118 Ar He-25% 75% Ar
steel
Low alloy .....................................
118 3.2 under Ar Ar
3.2 over 118 Ar 75% He-25% Ar
Stainless
steel ....................................... under 3.2 118 Ar, 92.5%Ar-7.5% Hz Ar
3.2
over 118 Ar, 95% Ar-!% H2 75% He-25% Ar
Copper.................................................. Ar 3/32 2.8
under 75% He-25% Ar
recommendedb
He
Not 3/32 2.8
over
Nickel
alloys ........................................ under
3.2 118 Ar, 92.5%
Ar-7.5% H2 Ar
over 3.2 118 Ar, 95%Ar-5% H2 15% He-25% Ar
metals
Reactive .................................... 6.4 under 114 Ar Ar
Ar-He
114
over
6.4 (50 to 75%
He) 75% He-25% Ar
a. Gas selections are for both orifice and shielding gases.
b. The underbead will not form correctly. The techniquecan be used for copper-zinc alloys only.
The prepared surfaces should be clean and rough- are somewhat lower than this. A weld will attain full
ened with a scraper to improve the weld bond. A seal- strength in two to six hours, depending on thesize of
ingpassonthereverse side of thebuttweldwill the weldment and the type of weld. To determine the
ensure higher tensile strength. soundness of a weld and the thoroughness of surface
One essential difference between metal welding and bonding, the operator may attempt to pull the end of
plastic welding lies in the joining of filler rod and par- the welding rod from the welded piece after the weld
ent material. Complete fusion of the twois characteris- has completely cooled. In a good weld, the filler rod
tic of arc welding. With plastics, however, a simple will tear off at the endof the weld; a poorly made weld
bondingprocesstakesplace,sinceonlytheactual will allow the rod to be pulled out of the joint.
meetingsurfacesmelt.Theotherpartsremainrela-
tively
unaffected
andrigid.
Theslight
pressure PLASTICITY
required to force the filler rod intothe joint combines A state of ductility or malleability; a capability of
melted surfaces into one homogeneous mass. In this continuous or permanentdeformation or change in
manner, a bonded, integral weldis produced. shape without rupture.
The torch should be used to pre-heat surfaces or
edges to be welded, as well as the filler rod, to produce PLATE
uniformcoalescence. The fillerrodcannotadhere A term usually applied to metal in sheet form thatis
properlyifsurfaceshavenotbeensufficientlypre- over 3.2 mm (1/8 in.) thick. Thisis not a hard andfast
heatedandmelted.Torch-to-workspacingmustbe designation;however,metaluptoandincluding
controlled to avoid overheating, which causes darken- 3.2 mm (118 in.) thick is referred to as sheet metal and
ing of the material, and too much sub-surface melting.anything thickeris referred toas plate.
The process can be used in the downhand, vertical
and overhead positions. The tensile strength of butt PLATE EDGE PREPARATION
welds in plastic should approach 90% of the tensile The cutting or beveling of plate edges preparatory
strength of the base material. Figures for fillet welds to welding.See EDGE PREPARATION.
COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc. ~

Welding 393
PLATEN FORCE PLUG WELD

In flash and upset welding,the force available atthe A weld made in acircular hole in one member of a
movable platen to cause upsetting. This force may be jointfusing that member to another membel: A
static or dynamic. fillet-welded hole is not to be construed as conforming
to this definition. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See
PLATEN, Resistance Weldlng Figure P- 16.
A member with a substantiallyflat surface to which
dies, jxtures, backups, or electrodeholdersare
attached, and that transmits theelectrode force or
upset force. One platen usually is f i e d and the other
moveable. See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See also
RESISTANCE WELDING.
PLATEN SPACING
The distance between adjacent surfaces of the plat- W
ens in a resistance welding machine. See STANDARD ~~ ~
WELDING TERMS. See also THROAT HEIGHT. Figure P-16-Vpical Plug Welds
PLATINUM
PLUG WELD SIZE
, (Chemicalsymbol, Pt). Agrayish-whiteprecious The diameter of the weld metal in the plane of the
metallicelementwhich is noteasilyoxidized.It is faying surfaces. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS.
ductile, malleable, and non-corrosive, and is difficult
to fuse. It is used extensively for electrical contacts, POINT WELDING
thermocouples, laboratory equipment and jewelry. It
can be alloyed with palladium,indium and other met- A term sometimes usedto refer to projection weld-
als such as copper and nickel. Atomic weight, 195; ing and the projections or points embossed in sheet
atomic number, 78; melting point, 1755C (3191F); for concentrating the weld current. See PROJECTION
WELDING and RESISTANCE WELDING.
specific gravity, 21.4.
POKE WELDING
PLATINUM-IRIDIUM
An alloy of platinum and iridium used extensively A nonstandard termfor PUSH WELDING.
for electrical contacts. Alloying platinum with iridium
POLARITY
increases hardness overthat of pure platinum.
See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See also DIRECT
PLENUM CURRENTELECTRODENEGATIVE(DCEN) and DIRECT
See STANDARD WELDING T E M S . See also P L E W CURRENT ELECTRODE POSITIVE (DCEP).
CHAMBER. When welding with direct current it is important
that the work and electrode are connected to the cor-
PLENUM CHAMBER rect terminalsof the power supply. In the early days of
The space between the electrode and the inside wall arc welding, bare electrodes were almost always used
of the constricting nozzle of the plasma arc torch or with the holders connected to the negative terminal
t h e m 1 spraying gun.
See STANDARDWELDING and the work connected to the positive terminal of the
TERMS. See also Appendix 10. power supply.This was known as straight polarity but
the standard termis now direct current electrodenega-
PLOWSHARE WELDING tive (DCEN).
See FARM IMPLEMENT REPAIRand HARDFACING. Heavilycoatedelectrodesmaybeconnectedand
operated on either polarity, but most types are con-
PLUG nected to the positive terminal with work connected to
In piping, a threaded fitting that screws into a pipe the negativeterminal. This wasformerlyknown as
fitting to close the system. In electrical usage, a con- reverse polarity, but now the standard term is direct
nection to the receptacle of a power source. current electrodepositive (DCEP).
.STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 O784265 05bb5b8 30T m
394 POLE Encyclopedia Welding
Normally, about two thirds of the arc heatis devel- Some of the common materials used as fibers are
oped atthe positive terminal andone third at the nega- steel, tungsten, E-glass, S-glass, silicon carbide whis-
tive terminal. The heavily coated electrodes used in kers (small monocrystalline materials), boron, graph-
shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) require that the ite, Kevlar, and aluminum oxide. The most common
most heat be developed atthe positive wire electrode, types of resins are epoxyresins,polyamideresins,
where it is needed to melt the wire. For gas tungsten polyester resins, and thermoplastic resins.
arc welding (GTAW), the most heat is developed atthe Polymeric composites can be classified according
positiveworkpiece,where it is neededtomeltthe to reinforcement forms, such as particulate-reinforced,
metal in the joint. The negativetungstenelectrode fiber-reinforced, or laminate composites.
does not melt, even thoughit is ground to afine point. Welding Composites
Whenweldingaluminumusing DCEP,which is Welding is accomplishedthroughdiffusionand
required toclean the aluminum oxide from the surface,entanglement of the matrixmolecules. There are
a much larger diameter electrode with a hemispherical two general groups of polymeric matrices: thermoset-
tip is used to help dissipate the extra heat and prevent ting-matrix and thermoplastic-matrix. Thermosetting-
the electrode from melting. matrix composites cannot be welded because of the
When alternating current is used, there is little dif- cross-linking of the polymer chains; they can be joined
ference in the heat developed at either pole because only by mechanical fasteningor adhesive bonding, or
the polarity changes every half cycle. Alternating cur- both.However, in thermoplasticmatrixcomposites,
rent is advantageous for welding aluminum becauseit the polymer chains are heldtogether by secondary
provides a cleaning action with less heat developed at chemical bonds that weaken and break when heated,
the electrode. freeing the chains tomoveand diffuse. Therefore,
POLE thermoplasticcompositescan be welded or fusion
One of two opposing terminals of an electric gener- bonded.
ator or direct current welding power supply. Theyare Most welding processesthat are suitable for joining
termed positive and negative terminals.The ends of a thermoplastics can also be used to fusion bond com-
magnet are also called poles. posites. The processes for welding plastics and com-
posites can be classified twoin groups. The first group
POLYMER uses anexternal heat source, such as hot plate welding,
A chemical compound or mixture of compounds hot gas welding,resistively or inductivelyheated
consisting essentially of repeatedly linked structural implants, and infrared or laser welding. Processes in
units, each a light, relatively simple molecule. Poly- thesecondgroupuseinternalheatgenerationand
merization is a chemicalreactioninwhichtwo or includedielectricandmicrowaveheating,friction
more molecules combine to form larger molecules. heating (spin welding), vibration welding, and ultra-
Synthetic organicpolymersareusedinadhesive sonic welding.
bondingto join metalassemblies. See POLYMERIC Gas metal arc welding (GMAW), gas tungsten arc
COMPOSITE. welding (GTAW), laser beam welding (LBW), elec-
POLYMERIC COMPOSITE
tron beam welding (EBW), resistance welding (RW),
frictionwelding (W),anddiffusionweldingand
Polymeric composites consist of reinforcing fibers
brazing can be used to weld composite matrices.
bound together by the cohesive and adhesive charac-
Following are five stepsinvolved in welding
teristics of a resin composite matrix. The purpose of
composites:
the matrix is to transfer the loadto and between fibers.
The matrix keeps the reinforcing fibers in the proper (1) Surface preparation to remove contaminants
orientationandposition so that theycancarry the (2) Heating and melting of the thermoplastic matrix
intended loads andalso helps distribute the loads more on the weld surfaces
uniformly throughout the material. (3) Pressing to promote flow and wetting
Polymericcompositematerialsweredeveloped (4)Intermoleculardiffusionandentanglementof
because no single,homogeneousmaterialcouldbe the polymerchains
found that had all of the desired properties for a given (5) Cooling and resolidification of the thermoplastic
application. They were developed initially for aero- The as-welded properties of GTAW in fiber-rein-
space applications. forced Ti/w are shown in TableP-6.

STDoAWS JWE-ENGL L997 W 07842b5 05Lb5b3 24b m
Welding Encyclopedia POPPING 395
Table P 4
As-Welded GTAW Properties of Fiber-Reinforced TitanlumAmgsten Composites
Yield Strength
SpecificModulus (0.2%offset) Tensile Strength
-ten Elongation,
Fiber, % SpecimenQpe Msi GPa ksi MPa ksi MPa %
O Base 14.3 99 69.2 477 88.7 612 29.0

O Butt Weld 16.7 115 73.0 503 92.8 640 17.5
O Bead-on-sheet 15.5 107 82.4 568 101.6 701 14.0
4.5 Base 21.8 150 82.4 568 102.3 705 15.8
4.4 Butt weld 17.0 117 80.9 558 101.5 700 11.7
4.5 Bead-on-sheet 20.3 140 106.8 734 129.6 894 4.5
9.8 Base 21.2 146 95.2 656 103.5 714 3.4
9.9 Bead-on-sheet 17.2 119 105.9 730 131.3 905 4.0
Common Matrix Alloys. Because of their origins in providesthataluminum-matrix MMCs beidentified

the aerospace industry, most metal-matrix composites with designations in the following format:
("Cs) emphasizehighperformancewithlight
weight. As aresult,mostdevelopmenttimeand matrix/reinforcement/volume%form
resources have been putinto low-density alloys. Mag- where
nesium has the lowest density among the commonly matrix = metal or alloy designation of matrix
used light metals, however, it creeps at low tempera- reinforcement = chemical formulafor reinforcement
tures, has relatively low strength, andis prone to cor-
rosion.Titanium is morethantwice as strong as volume% = volume percentage (withoutthe % sign)
aerospace grade aluminum alloys. Its exceptional tem- form = f, fiber or filament
peratureandcorrosionresistancemaketitaniuma c, chopped fiber
favored choice for demanding environments, whereits W, whiskers
high cost is justifiable. P, particulate
Aluminum is the most widely used matrix material
becauseit is easytoprocess,inexpensive, light in Safety. Regardlessof the materialbeingwelded,
weight, and can be alloyed to fairly high strengths. It standard welding safety practices should be followed
retains useful strength at moderate temperatures and at all times. Welding should take place in a well-venti-
has excellent corrosion resistance. lated area and operators should use appropriate eye
protection and safety equipment. For general welding
Common Reinforcements. The choice of reinforce-
safety procedures, referto ANSUASC Z49.1, Safety in
ment material generally depends on the desired prop-
Welding, Cutting andAllied Processes.
erties of the composite, its compatibilitywith the
matrixmaterial,and the M M C processingroute. For additional information and alist of supplemen-
Among the reinforcement materials used for metal- tary references on polymeric composites, see Ameri-
matrixcomposites are siliconcarbide,aluminum canWeldingSociety, Welding Handbook, Vol. 3,
oxide, titanium carbide, and boron carbide, graphite, American Welding Society, Miami,Florida, 1996.
and titanium diboride.
POOL
Becausemorealuminummetal-matrixcomposites
are producedthanalltheotheralloyscombined,the See WELD POOL.
Aluminum Association developed a standard designa-
tion system for "Cs that has been adopted by the POPPING
American National Standards Institute. ANSI 35.5-1993 See BACKFIRE und FLASHBACK.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 0784265
05Lb570
Tb8
396 POROSITY
POROSITY
Table P-7
Cavity-type discontinuities formed by gas entrap- Common Causesof and Remediesfor Porosity
mentduring solidljkation or in a thermal spray
deposit. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. Cause Remedies
Porosity reduces the strength of a weld. In fusion
welds, it is caused by dissolved gases that are usually Excessive hydrogen, Use low-hydrogen welding
presentinthemoltenweldmetal. If thedissolved nitrogen, or oxygen in process; filler metals high in
gases are presentin amounts greater than their solubil- welding atmosphere deoxidizers; increase shielding
ity limits, the excess is forced out of solution in the gas flow
form of bubble orgas pockets as the weld metal solid- High solidification rate Use preheator increase heat
ifies. The gases which may be present in the molten input
weld pool include hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide, water vapor, hydrogen sul- Dirty base metal Clean joint faces and adjacent
phide, and rarely, argon, and helium. Hydrogen is the surfaces
major cause of porosity in weld metal.
Dirty filler wire Use specially cleaned and
The weldingprocess,procedureandbasemetal packaged filler wire, and store it
type directly affect the quantities and types of gases in clean area
that are present in the molten weld pool. The welding
process and welding procedure control the solidifica- Improper arc length, Change welding conditions and
tion rate, which in turn affects the amount ofweld welding current, or techniques
metal porosity. Proper welding proceduresfor a given electrode manipulation
combination of welding process and base metal should
produce welds that are essentially free of porosity. Volatization of zinc Use copper-silicon filler metal;
from brass reduce heat input
The common causesof porosity in fusion welds and
suggested methodsof preventing it are summarized in Galvanized steel Use E6010 electrodes and
Table P-7. manipulate the arc heatto
volatilize the zinc ahead of the
POROSITY TEST molten weld pool
A test which can determinethe presence of porosity
in any particular weld or welded assembly. Radiogra- Excessive moisture in Use recommended procedures
phy is the most effective and reliable non-destructive electrode coveringor for baking and storing electrodes
on joint surfaces
test method, butit cannot detect porosity smaller than Preheat the base metal
a minimum size. Radiographs taken from two different
angles can establish the depth of the porosity from a High sulfur base metal Use electrodes with basic
Surface. See RADIOGRAPH. slagging reactions
Fine porosity and otherfine voids which extend to a
free surface canbe detected by a dye penetrantor fluo-
rescent penetrant which is applied to a surface, soaks POSITIONAL USABILITY
into voids and finally bleeds out of the voids after the A measure of the relative ease of application of a
excess is removed. welding filler metal to make a sound weld in a given
Another typeof porosity testis used to test the abil- position and progression. See STANDARD WELDING
ity of a welder to produce welds which are satisfactory TERMS.
for oil, water, or gas containers. A test weld joint can
be clamped over a pressure box against a rubber gas- POSITIONER
ket and the box pressurized with air. Liquid soap is A mechanicaldevicethatsupportsandmovesa
applied to the weld joint, and porosity or voids are weldment tothe desired positionfor welding andother
indicated by the appearance of bubbles on the surface. operations. In some cases, a positioner may move a
weldment as welding progresses alongjoint. a A weld-
POSITION ing fixture may be mounted on a positioner to place
see STANDARD WELDING TERMS, See also WELDING the fixture and the weldment in the most advantageous
POSITION. positions for loading, welding, and unloading.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b505Lb57L TT4 m
Welding 397
Positioning can be done with one, two, or three Positioners are widely used for positioning weld-
different motions. One motion is rotation about one mentsinthe flat or downhandpositiontoimprove
axis. This is normally accomplished with turning weldquality, increase production,reduce costs and
rolls, headstock and tailstock arrangements, or turn- promote safety in the shop for both production and
tables, all of which rotate the assembly about a single repair
welding operations.
Quality is improved
axis. because the operator has greater control overthe weld
-0-motion positioning is a combination of rota- pool. Costs are reduced because filler metal can be
tion and tilting. It is normally accomplished with a deposited faster in the flat position, and because less
positioner that hasa tilting table as well as rotation. A skill is required of welding operators.
typical two-motion positioneris shown in Figure P-17.
POSITION OF WELDING
Three-motionposition is accomplished by adding
vertical
movement with
an elevating device in See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See also WELDING
the machinebase,thusprovidingrotation,tilt,and POSITION.
elevation. POSITIVE ELECTRODE
An electric conductor through which a direct cur-
rent enters or leaves a positive welding circuit; it is
termed DCEP (direct current electrode positive). See
POLAFUTY.
POSTFLOW TIME
Thetime interval from currentshut 08to either
shielding gas or cooling water shut 08See STANDARD
WELDING TERMS. See also Appendix 19.
POSTHEATING
The application of heat to an assembly after weld-
ing, brazing, soldering, thermal spraying, or thermal
cutting. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
POSTWELD HEAT TREATMENT
Any heat treatmentafter welding.
POSTWELD INTERVAL, Resistance Welding
Thetotal elapsed time from theend of the weld
a Rotating and Tilting
Figure P-17"Posltioner with interval to the end of hold time. See STANDARD WELD-
TClmtabie ING TERMS. See also Figure I- l.
Photo courtesy of Pandjiris, Inc. POT ANNEALING

The annealing of steel by heating, usually at a sub-
critical temperature, in a closed metal box or pot to
The positioner tables contain slots and holes which
protect it from oxidation. Slow heating and cooling
can be used for anchoring parts to the table. On the
rates are involved. The process is sometimes called
smaller positioners, adjustment of the table angle is
box annealing.
accomplished by hand-wheels and gears; rotationmay
be by a hand wheel and gear but is usually by an elec- POT METAL
tric gear drive.Angleandrotationadjustmentson See WHITE METAL WELDING.
large positioners are accomplished by electric motor
gear drive. POTASSIUM
Parts to be welded and entire jigs and fixtures can (Chemicalsymbol: K). A silvery-white, lustrous,
be attached to the plane tables, tipped to any angle, highly reactive metallic element used in the produc-
and rotated as required. tion of certain types of photoelectric cells; also used
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 3997 m 07842b5 0536572 830 _ D
CATE 398 POTASSIUM
instead of mercury in some types of high-temperature POWDER METALLURGY

thermometers. The art and scienceof producing metal powders and
Potassium reacts instantly toair or oxygen, forming usingmetalpowderstoproduceserviceablemetal
a coat of oxide. Potassium is lighter than water and objects. The process involves heating, or sintering, a
will float in it, reactingviolentlywith it torelease compactformed by compression of metalpowder
hydrogen. Potassium is usually obtained by the elec- underhighpressure.Thepowdermaybeasingle
trolyiis of caustic potash. Atomic weight: 39; melting metal powder, a mixture of two or more metal pow-
point: 65.5"C (149.9"F); specific gravity: 0.859. ders, or alloy powders. Compositions and properties
not attainable by the conventional method of melting
POTASSIUM SILICATE andcastinghavebeenproducedthroughpowder
See SODIUM SILICATE. metallurgy.
Figure P-18 is a photograph of two powder-forged
POTENTIAL connecting rods used in automobile engines. Devel-
Thepressure,voltage or electromotive force that oped in the mid 1980s, these powder forged connect-
causes an electric current to flow through a complete ingrodsareinuse in approximatelyseventy five
circuit. millionautomobiles.Powder-forgedunits like these
have higher dimensional tolerance and higher fatigue
POWDER ALLOY strengththancastironconnecting rods; they are
A nonstandard termfor ALLOY POWDER. lighterandlessexpensivetomanufacturethancast
iron rods.
POWDER BLEND
A heterogeneousmixture of two or more alloy,
metal, or nonmetal powders. See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS. See also ALLOY POWDER.
POWDER COMPOSITE
Two or more d&Gerentmaterials combined to form a
single particle, formed by either chemical coating or
mechanical agglomeration. See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS.
POWDER CUlTlNG
A nonstandard term for FLUX CUTTING and METAL
POWDER CUTTING.
POWDER FEEDER
A device for supplying powdered su$acing material
to a t h e m 1 spraying gun or cutting torch. See STAN-
DARD WELDING TERMS. Figure P-i &Two Powder Forged Connecting
Rods
POWDER
FEED
GAS '
Photo courtesy of the Metal Powder Industries Federation

A nonstandard termfor CARRIER GAS.
POWDER FEED RATE' POWER
The quantity of powder fed to a thermal spraying Electricalenergy;indirectcurrentcircuitsit is
gun or a cutting torch per unit of time. See STANDARD equal to E X I (volts x amperes). The electric unit of
WELDING TERMS. power is the watt.
POWDER FLAME SPRAYING POWER CIRCUIT
A jlame spraying process variation in whichthe Wires or other conductors which carry current to
surfacing material is in powder form. See STANDARD electricweldingmachinesandotherdevicesusing
WELDING TERMS. See ah0 FLAME SPRAYING. electric current.

Welding 399
POWER FACTOR the thickness of the zinc coating. Reference: ASTM

The ratio oftruepower(watts)to the apparent A239.
power(voltstimesamperes). The powerfactor is
equal to the cosine of the angle of lag between the PREFLOW TIME
alternating current and voltage waves. The timeinterval between start of shielding gas
flow andarc starting. See STANDARD WELDING
POWER LOSS TERMS. See also Figure L-13.
The energy or power lost in an electric circuit due
to
the resistance of the conductors. Itis often referred to PREFLUXING
as the 12R loss. A meansof fluxing cast iron priorto brazing to pro-
mote tinning,or precoating. The free graphite in cast
POWER SOURCE iron impedes wetting by the braze material. Surface
An apparatus for supplyingcurrentand voltage free graphite can be removed by an oxidizing agent
suitable for welding, thermalcutting, or thermal such as potassium chlorate. This is spread on the sur-
spraying. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also face to be brazed just ahead of the braze pool on that
VOLT-AMPERE CURVE. part of the base metal which has been heated to a red
heat. As soon as the oxidizing agent ceases to foam
PRECIPITATION HARDENING from the heating, the part is ready to be tinned in the
A methodofstrengtheninganalloyinwhicha usual manner.
constituentprecipitatesfromasupersaturatedsolid
solution. It is important inthe hardening of nonferrous PREFORM
metals andis a method of developing high strength and Brazing or soldering filler metal fabricated in a
hardness in some steels.See AGE HARDENING. shape or form for a specijc application. See STAN-
DARD WELDING TERMS.
PRECOATING
Coating the base metalin the joint bydipping, elec- PREHEAT
troplating, or other applicable means prior to solder- The heat applied to the base metal or substrate to
ing or brazing. See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. attain and maintain preheat temperature. See STAN-
The term tinning is popularly usedfor the termpre- DARD WELDING TERMS.
coating. Tinning is most commonly used to describe Preheat is the application of heat to the workpiece
the process of coating a metal with tin (although other prior to welding, brazing or cutting. There are three
metals suchas lead may be used insteadof tin) or a tin basic reasonsfor preheating:
alloy (e.g., solder). In brazing, a thin layer of fluxed (1) To equalize temperature in the workpiece. Weld-
filler metal is spread aheadof the main depositto form ing heats a local area of the workpiece, causing local
a coating which provides a strong bond between base expansion andatendency to warp or distort. This
metal and bronze. expansion alsocauses local stresses which could result
in rupture of a weldment. Preheating lowers the yield
PREECE TEST strength ofmostmetalsandallows stresses tobe
The Preece testis a procedureto determine the thin- relieved or reduced. Preheating reduces the tempera-
nest areas of zinc in newly galvanized components. It ture difference between the base metal and the area
is notusedonweathered or old components. or to welded.
determine the relative weight of a coating. The test (2) To reduce the amount of heat neededto make a
involves immersionof a test sample in a copper sulfateweld or braze. When a cold part is to be welded or
solution inintervals of one minute in orderto dissolve brazed, it requires a higher arc current or hotter gas
the zinc coating. After each immersion and cleaning torch flame to start welding than whenthe part is pre-
the sample is visually evaluated to see if the zinc is heatedtoatemperatureof 150 to 200C (300 to
removed. When the copper is plated out on the steel, 400F). Obviously, the preheating should be done by
the test is completed and the relative thickness of the some lowercost fuel than usedfor welding.
coating is known. (3) To prevent hardening and cracking when a part
The Preece test is no longer in common use; elec- is cooled too rapidly throughthe transformation range,
tronic and magnetic instrumentsare used to determine particularly for cast iron and most carbon steels. Pre-
~~~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997
07842b5
0536574
b03 W
400 PREHEATING BY INDUCTION Encyclopedia Welding
heatingreduces the temperaturedifferential so that ately before brazing or soldering is started. See STAN-
heat flow from the weld area is reduced and the cool- DARD WELDING TERMS.
ing rate is slower.
Preheating may be applied locally by oxyfuel torch, PREHEAT TEMPERATURE, Thermal Cutting
by electrical resistancetechniquesorbyinduction The temperature of the base metal in the volume
heating. Entire components may be heated in a furnace surrounding the point of t h e m l cutting immediately
or oventhat is large enough to hold the part. before t h e m l cutting is started. See STANDARD
Preheat temperature depends uponthe material, the WELDING TERMS.
workpiece size and shape, and the welding process to
PREHEAT TEMPERATURE, Thermal Spraying
be used. Cast iron requires a red heat and brass and
bronzea dull redheat. Steels requireapreheat of The temperature of the substrate in the volume sur-
between 90 and 300C (200 and 600"F), depending on rounding the point of t h e m 1 spraying immediately
carbonandalloycontentandmaterialthickness. before t h e m l spraying is started. In a multipass ther-
Excessive preheats will remove any benefits of prior mal spraying, it is also the temperature immediately
heat treatment. Aluminum should be preheated care- before the second and subsequent passes are started.
fully, because too high a temperature will remove any See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
prior agingor cold work benefits, or even cause partial PREHEAT TEMPERATURE, Welding
melting.Temperature-indicatingcrayons are usually
The temperature of the base metal in the volume
used to determine the temperature,ofthe workpiece.
surrounding the point of welding immediately before
PREHEATING BY INDUCTION welding is started. In a multipass weld, it is also the
Preheating by induction will take place when a volt-temperature immediately before the second and subse-
age or electromotive force is induced in a workpiece quent passes arestarted.See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS.
by exposing it to an alternating current magnetic field.
The induced voltage will cause current to flow in the PREHEAT TIME, Resistance Welding
workpiece, heating it by its resistance to the flow of The duration of preheat current flow during the
current. Usually, a water-cooled copper coil is placed preweld interval. See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See
close to the workpieceor area to be heatedor wrapped also Figure I- l.
around the part. If 60 Hz ac is to be used, the coil can
be connected to a step-down transformer of adequate PRE-IGNITION
kVA rating. If higher frequency is to be used, then a Overheating at some point within a welding torch
high-frequency generator of adequate kVA rating will which causes the unwanted burning of mixed gases
be needed. (oxygen and a fuel gas). See FLASHBACK,BACKFIRE,
One major advantage of preheating by induction is and FLAME PROPAGATIONRATE.
that it can be applied to very large items or systems
such as pressure piping, boilers and valves for power PREQUALIFIED WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION
plants. These items are made from high-carbon, high- A welding procedure specification that complies
alloysteelsdesigned for high-temperatureservice. with the stipulated conditions of a particular welding
They require preheat for welding and could not be code or specification and is therefore acceptable for
welded satisfactorily without preheat. Induction heat- use under that code or specification without a require-
ing rapidly develops the heat within the workpiece as ment for qualification testing. See STANDARD WELD-
well asat the surface. ING TERMS.
PREHEAT CURRENT, Resistance Welding PRESSURE CONTACT WELD

An impulse or series of impulses that occur prior to A term sometimes applied to resistance butt weld-
and are separatedfrom the welding current. SeeSTAN- ing. See RESISTANCE WELDING.
DARD WELDING TERMS. See also Figure I-1.
PRESSURE-CONTROLLED WELDING
PREHEAT TEMPERATURE, Brazing and Soldering A resistancewelding process variation in which
The temperature of the base metal in the volume a number of spot or projection welds are made with
surrounding the point of brazing or soldering immedi- several electrodes functioning progressively under
Welding Encyclopedia GAUGE PRESSURE 401
thecontrol of a pressure-sequencing device. See

STANDARD WELDING TERMS. seealso RESISTANCE
WELDING.
PRESSURE, ELECTRICAL
The voltage which forces currenta through an elec-
tric circuit. It is also called potential difference.
PRESSURE GAS WELDING (PGW)

An oxyfuel gas welding process which produces a
weld simultaneously over the entire faying s u ~ a c e s .
The process is used with the application of pressure
andwithout filler metal. See STANDAIZD WELDING
TERMS.
The two variations of pressure gas welding are the
closed joint and open joint methods. In the closed joint
method, the clean faces of the parts to be joined are
butted together under moderate pressure and heated by
gas flames until a predetennined upsetting of the joint
occurs. Inthe open joint method, thefaces to be joined Figure P-l&vpical Pressure Gas Welds 25 inmm
are individually heated by the gas flames to the melt- (1 in.) and 32mm (1-1/4 in.) Diameter Steel Bars
ingtemperatureandthenbrought into contact for
upsetting. Both methods are easily adapted to mecha- alloy and high-carbon steels for fabricating assemblies
nized operation. subject to high service stresses.
Pressure gas weldingcan be used for welding low- While pressure gas welding still has applications in
and high-carbon steels, low- and high-alloy steels, andthe welding of railroadrails,thisprocess has been
severalnonferrousmetalsandalloys. In the closed largely supersededby flash welding. Automatic weld-
joint method, since the metal along the interface does ingofpipe,aformerapplication, is accomplished
not reach the melting point, the mode of welding is using automatic gas metal arc welding.The basic ele-
different from that of fusion welding.In general, weldments of the pressure gas weldingassistedinthe
ing takes place by the action of grain growth, diffu- development of similar processes, such as flash and
sion, and grain coalescence along the interface under friction welding thatuse other sources of energy,
the impetus ofhightemperature(about 1200C Equipment
[220O0F]for low-carbon steel) and upsetting pressure.
The welds are characterizedbyasmoothsurfaced Machines. The apparatus for pressure gas weldingis
bulge or upset, as shown in Figure P-19,and by the comprised of the following:
general absence of cast metal at the weld line. In the (1) Equipment for applying upsettingforce
open joint method, the joint faces are melted, but mol- (2) Suitable heating torchesand tips designedto
ten metal is squeezed from the interface to form flash provide uniform and controlled heating of the weld
when the joint is upset. These welds resemble flash zone
welds in general appearance. (3) Necessary indicating and measuring devicesfor
regulating the process during welding
Appllcatlons
Pressure gas welding has been successfully applied PRESSURE GAUGE
to plain carbon steel, low-alloy and high-alloy steels, Pressure gauges are used to measure gas or liquid
andtoseveralnonferrousmetals,includingnickel- pressure.Mostgauges are the Bourdontubetype,
copper, nickel-chromium, and copper-silicon alloys. It which consist of a flattened metal tube bent into a cir-
has been very useful for joining dissimilar metals. In cular shape, sealed at one end and connected to the
general, pressuregas welding has a minimum effect onfluid tobe measured atthe other end. The sealed endis
the mechanicalandphysicalproperties of the base linked to a mechanism which moves the indicating
metals. Pressure gas welding has been used with low- needle. When pressureis applied to the tube it tendsto
.STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 W 07842b5051b57b48b
402 PRESSURE Welding Encyclopedia
straightenslightly,moving the needleupscale. The position of the lower link screw in the slotted sector
actuating mechanisms are usually mounted in a brass arm.
or steel cup or housing, which also supports the dial Tube. The tube material, cross section dimensions,
and cover glass.Thesegauges are named for the andwallthicknessdepend on thediameter of the
inventor, Bourdon. gauge case and fluid pressure range to be measured.
Figure P-20 shows a pressure gauge with the front Generally, the wall thickness increasesas the pressure
cover glass and dial removed. This particular one is increases. The dimensions of the tube must be such
known as an independent movement type, in which the that the material is never stressed beyond its elastic
entire mechanism is mountedindependently of the limit at the maximum operating pressure. If this hap-
case on the socket (8), which is held securely in place pened, the hand ofthe dial would not return to the zero
on the case by two holding screws (9). This arrange- position when the pressure is released. General prac-
ment protectsthe mechanism from damage while han- tice is to design and calibrate a gauge for double its
dling and connecting to a system. maximum average working pressure. For example, a
gauge intended for a maximum working pressure of
690 kPa (100 psi) would be designed and calibrated
for 1380 kPa (200 psi). This designprinciplewill
/ avoid over-stressing a gauge in service.
Standard Equipment
The following types of gauges are normally
employed with oxyfuel welding and cutting equipment
and for inert gas welding and cutting:
21 MPa (3000 psi) for oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen,
argon, helium
345 kPa (50 psi) for low-pressure oxygen, argon,
helium
345 kPa (50 psi) for acetylene
1380 or 2070kPa(200 or 300psi) for cutting
oxygen
Care of Gauges
Gauges should be given the care afforded to any
precision instrument.
(1) To avoid the possibility of an explosion, never
permit oil to get into any oxygen apparatus.
Figure P-P+Mechanism of a Pressure Gauge (2) Never apply pressures to gauges suddenly. Open
valves on cylinders slowly.
(3) Do not apply pressures to the full scale of the
The nomenclature of the constituentparts is as dial.
follows: (4) Do not apply full tank pressures with the regu-
(1) Case, (2) Tube, (3) End Piece, (4) Link, ( 5 ) Sec- lating screw on reducing valves whichare screwed all
tor, (6) Pinion Post, or Pinion; (7) Movement: collec- the wayin.Increasethepressureonlow-pressure
tively
parts 5 and 6, including front
andback gauges slowly.
movement plates, spacing bars and screws;(8) Socket (5) Wheninstallinggaugesto apparatus, do not
or Connection, (9) Socket Screws. attach a wrench on the pipe threads; use the square
Actuating
Principle. Pressureadmitted
through above the pipe threads.
socket (8) into tube (2) causes the tube to straighten (6) Handle gauges with care. The mechanism can
slightly. The motion of the free end (3) is connected by be damaged or destroyed if they are bumped, jammed
link (4)to sector ( 3 , which is engaged with pinion (6) or allowed to fall on the floor.
causing it to rotate. The indicator hand, or needle, is (7) A gauge thatis giving incorrect readingscan be
mounted onthe pinion shaft and indicates the pressure.a hazard. Do not try to repair a defective gauge. Take
it
Travel of the hand can be calibrated by adjusting the to an authorized gauge repair shop.

Licensed by Information Handling Services ~~~ ~~~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~~
r~
~- ~ ~~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 051b577 312 m

Welding Encyclopedia (ASME-B31)
CODE PIPING
PRESSURE 403
PRESSURE PIPING CODE (ASME-631) CodeSectionscurrentwith new developmentsin

TheAmericanSociety for MechanicalEngineers materials,
construction
and
industrial
practice.
(ASME) Code for Pressure Piping (B-31) sets forth Addenda are issuedperiodically.Neweditions are
engineering requirements deemed necessary for safe published at intervalsof three to five years.
designandconstruction ofpipingsystems.While The ASME B31 Code for Pressure Piping consists
safety is the basic consideration,this factor alone will of seven sections. Each section prescribes the mini-
not necessarily govern the final specifications for any mum requirements for the design, materials, fabrica-
piping system. The designeris cautioned thatthe Code tion, erection, testing and inspection of a particular
is not a design handbook;it does not do away with the type of piping system.
need for theengineerandcompetentengineering 831.1, Power Plplng. This section covers power and
judgment. auxiliary service systems for electric generation sta-
To the greatest possible extent, Code requirements tions; industrial and institutional plants; central and
for designare stated in termsof basic design principles districtheatingplants;anddistrictheatingsystems.
and formulas. These are supplemented as necessary This section excludes boiler external piping, whichis
with specific requirements to assure uniform applica- defined by SectionI of the ASME Boiler and Pressure
tion of principles and to guide selection and applica- Vessel Code. Boiler piping requires a quality control
tion of piping elements. The Code prohibits designs systemandthirdpartyinspectionsimilartothose
and practices known to be unsafe and contains warn- required for boiler fabrication. Otherwise the materi-
ings where caution, but not prohibition, is warranted. als,design,fabrication,installationandtestingfor
The specific design requirements of the Code usually boiler external piping must meet the requirements of
revolve arounda simplified engineering approach toa B3 1.l. A fabricator is not requiredto provide a quality
subject. It is intended that a designer capableof apply- control system and third party inspection for the other
ing more complete and rigorous analysis to special or piping systems coveredby B3l .
unusual problems should have latitude in the develop-
ment of such designs and the evaluation of complex or 831.2, Fuel Gas Piping. This section covers piping
combinedstresses.Insuch cases thedesigneris systems for fuel gases including natural gas, manufac-
responsible for demonstrating the validity of approach tured gas, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) andair mix-
which is taken. tures above the upper combustible limits, LPG in the
The Code for Pressure Piping
includes
the gaseous phase, or mixtures of these gases. These pip-
following: ing systems, both in and between buildings, extend
(1) Materialspecificationsandcomponent stan- from the outlet of the consumers meter set assembly
dards including dimensional requirements and pres- (or point of delivery) to and including the first pres-
sure ratings which have been accepted for Code usage sure-containing valve upstream of the gas utilization
(2) Requirementsfordesignofcomponentsand device.
assemblies, including pipe supports 831.3 Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refinery Piping.
(3) Requirements and data for evaluation and limi- This section coversall piping within the property lim-
tation of stresses, reactions, and movements associated its of facilities engaged in processing or handling of
with pressure, temperature changes and other forces chemicals, petroleum or related products. Examples
(4) Guidance and limitations on the selection and are chemical plants, petroleum refineries, loadingter-
application of materials,componentsand joining minals, natural gas processing plants (including lique-
methods fied natural gas facilities), bulk plants, compounding
( 5 ) Requirements for the fabrication, assembly and plants and tank farms. This section applies to piping
erection of piping systems that handle all fluids, including fluidized sol-
(6)Requirements for examination, inspection and ids and toall types of service including raw, intermedi-
testing of piping ate and finished chemicals; oil and other petroleum
The Code for PressurePiping is organizedand products;gas,steam, air, water,andrefrigerants,
operatedunderthedirection of ASME Committee except as specifically excluded.
B3 1, under procedures of the American Society of Piping for air and other gases, which is not within
Mechanical Engineers (ASME), which has
been the scope of existing sections of this Code, maybe
accredited by the American National Standards Insti- designed,fabricated,inspectedandtestedinaccor-
tute. The Committeeis a continuing one, and keeps all dancewith the requirements of thissection of the

~ ~~
'STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 9 07842b5 05Lb578 259
RESSURE 404 (ASME-BIl) Welding Encyclopedia
Code. The piping mustbe in plants, buildings and sim- All sectionsof the Code for Pressure Piping require
ilar facilities that are not otherwise within the scope of qualification of theweldingproceduresandperfor-
this section. mance of welders and welding operatorsto be used in
construction.Somesectionsrequirethesequalifica-
B31.4,LiquidPetroleumTransportationPiping Sys- tions to be performed in accordance with SectionofIX
tem. This section covers pipingfor transporting liquid the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, while in
petroleumproductsbetweenproducers' lease facili- others it is optional. The use of API Std 1104, Stan-
ties, tank farms, naturalgas processing plants, refiner- dard for Welding Pipelines and Related Facilities or
ies,
stations,
terminalsand
other
delivery
and AWS D10.9, Specjcation for Qualification of
receiving points. Examplesof such productsare crude Welding Procedures and Weldersfor Piping and Tub-
oil, condensate, gasoline, natural gas liquids and lique-ing is permitted in some sections as an alternative to
fied petroleum gas. Section IX. Each section of the Code should be con-
B31.5,RefrigerationPiping. This section applies to sulted for the applicable qualification documents and
refrigerant and brine pipingfor use at temperaturesas detailed requirementsfor joint designs, welding proce-
low as -196C (-320F) whether erected on the pre- dures, heattreatment,qualitycontrolandoperator
mises or factoryassembled. It doesnotinclude (1) qualification.
self-contained or unit refrigeration systems subject to Weld Filler Metals
the requirements of Underwriters Laboratories or any All filler metal, including consumable insert mate-
other nationallyrecognizedtestinglaboratory, (2) rial, should comply with the requirements of Section
water piping, or (3) piping designed for external or IX, ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. A filler
internalpressurenotexceeding 103 kPa(15psig), metal not incorporated in Section IX may be used if
regardless of size. Other sectionsof the Code may pro- aprocedurequalificationtest is first successfully
viderequirements for refrigerationpiping in their madeinaccordancewithSection K. Fillermetals
respective scopes. with less than 0.05% carbon content should not be
B31.8, Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Sys- used for high temperature applications (above 450C
tems. This section addresses gas compressor stations, [850"F]) in low-alloysteels due to reduced creep rup-
gas metering and regulating stations, gas mains and ture properties.
service lines up the to outlet of the customers meter set Backing Rings
assembly. Gas storage lines andgas storage equipment The design and dimensions of backing rings vary
of the closed pipe type that are either fabricated or according to the application; therefore if backing rings
forged from pipe or fabricated from pipe and fittings are to be used, the applicable subsection of the Code
are also included. should be consulted to determine the required design
831.9, Building Services Piping. This section applies and dimensions.
to piping systems for services in industrial, commer- Ferrous metal backing rings which become a per-
cial,public,institutionalandmulti-unitresidential manent part of the weld should be made from a mate-
buildings. It includes only those piping systems within rial of weldable quality and should be compatible with
the buildings or property limit. the base material. The sulphurcontentshouldnot
exceed 0.05%. If two butting surfacesare to be welded
When no section of the ASME Code for Pressure
to a third member used as a backing ring, and one or
Piping specifically covers a piping system, at the dis-
two of the three members are ferritic and the other one
cretion of the user, the user may select any section of or two members are austenitic, the satisfactory use of
the Code determinedto be generally applicable. How- such materials should be determined by a welding pro-
ever, it is cautioned that supplementary requirements cedurespecification.Backingrings of nonferrous
of the section chosen may be necessary to provide for materials may be used for backing provided they are
asafepipingsystem for theintendedapplication. included in a welding procedure specification.
Technicallimitations of the varioussections,legal
requirements and possible applicabilityof other codes Consumable Inserts
or standards are some of the factors to be considered Consumable inserts maybe used provided they are
by the user in determining the applicability of any sec- made from material compatible withthe chemical and
tion of this code. physical properties of the base material. The welding

~~ ~ ~
~~ ~ ~~~ ~~~~~~
:STD=AWS JWE-ENGL 3997 m 07842650536579 L95 W
Welding Encyclopedia PROCEDURE
CONTROL
(Welding
Procedure
Specification) 405
procedure for using consumable inserts must be proce- WELDING, PRESSURE GAS WELDING, and COLD
dure-specified. WELDING.
Girth Butt Welds In this group of welding processes, the parts are
joined byapplyingmechanicalpressurewhile the
Girth buttweldsshould be completepenetration metal is in a highly plastic or molten state.
welds and should be made with a single V, double V,
or other suitable type of groove, withor without back- PRETlNNlNG
ing ringsor consumable inserts.The depth of the weld A nonstandardterm for PRECOATING.
measured between theinside surface of the weld prep-
aration and the outside surface of the pipe should not PREWELD INTERVAL, Resistance Welding
be less than the minimum thickness required by the The elapsed time between theinitiation of the
Code. squeeze time and the beginning of the weld time or
The rules for welding pressure piping systems are weld interval time. See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS.
covered in detail in the ASME B3 1 Codefor Pressure See also Figure I- l .
Piping. Any designer or fabricator planning to weld
pressure piping should be familiar with the require- PRICK PUNCHING
ments of the Code, particularly withthe Section which Producing a series of closely spaced indentations
applies to the application involved. with a hard pointed instrument, such as a center punch,
to lay out a line on a metal surfaceto mark the location
PRESSUREREDUCER of a planned weldor cut.
A device designed to reduce and regulate the pres-
sure of gases used in cutting and welding. PRIMARY CIRCUIT
The coil orcircuit to whichalternating current
PRESSURE REGULATOR power is applied and which transfersit to a secondary
A device designedtomaintainanearlyconstant circuit by induction.
welding gas pressurefrom a cylinder,generator or
PRIMARY LEADS
pipeline.Pressureregulators are sometimescalled
reducer valves. They may be usedtolower the The wires or cables connecting the primary winding
pressure of gas fromthe source of supply to the neces- of a transformer to the main power source used in all
saryworkingpressure. See PRESSUREGAUGE and typesoftransformers,includingarcandresistance
REGULATOR.
welding transformers.
PRIMARY WlNDtNGS
PRESSURE TESTING
The windings which are connected to and receive
See HYDROSTATIC TESTand TUBE TESTING. power from anelectrical circuit.
PRESSURE THERMITE WELDING PROCEDURE
A pressure welding process in which the heat is The detailed elements of a process or method used
obtainedfrom the liquidproduct of a thermite to produce a speci$c result. See STANDARD WELDING
reaction. TERMS.
PRESSURE VESSEL CODE PROCEDURE CONTROL (Welding Procedure

See BOILER
CONSTRUCTION
CODE. See als0 Specification)
UNFIRED PRESSURE VESSEL CODE. The fundamentalprinciples for the control and
supervision of every step in a welding operation. The
PRESSURE VESSEL INSPECTOR procedure controlis intended for the guidance of those
See Appendix16,NationalBoard of Boilerand in charge of planning and directing the work, rather
Pressure Vessel Inspectors. than the operator or welder. It involves:
(1) Checkingthe welding machines
PRESSURE WELDING (2) Selection and inspection of materials
Anonstandardterm for SOLID-STATEWELDING, (3) Design and layoutof the welded joint
HOT PRESSURE WELDING, FORGE WELDING, DIFFUSION (4)Preparing the components for welding

STD=AWS JWE-ENGL Lq.77 I0784~265 05Lb58O -?O7 0
QUALIFICATION
406 PROCEDURE
(5) Establishingthe welding technique and organiz- the welding current. The resulting welds are localized
ing the procedures at predetermined points by projections, embossments,
(6) Inspecting welding operationsand testing weld- or intersections. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See
ments also RESISTANCE WELDING.
Asystematicmethod of obtainingandretaining As with spot and seam welding, projection welding
complete control overall factors involved in a welding can be used to produce lap joints. The purpose of a
job isan important requirementin production welding, projection is to localize the heat and pressure at a spe-
and is equally valuable in repair work of a repetitive cific point on the joint. The number and shape of the
nature. It can also be useful for investigating welding projectionsdependupon the requirements for joint
operations to assure full efficiency. strength.
Circular or annular ring projections can be used to
PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION weldpartsrequiring either gas-tightorwater-tight
The demonstration that welds made by a specific seals, or to obtain a larger area weld than button-type
procedure can meet prescribed standards. See STAN- projections can provide.
DARD WELDINGTERMS.
Projection Designs
PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION RECORD (PQR) The projection design determines the current den-
A document containing all of the actual values of sity. Various types of projection designs are shown in
the welding variables used to fabricate a welding pro- Figure P-2l.
cedure qualification test weldment and the actual val- The method of producing projections depends on
ues of the results of tests performed on the test the material in which theyare to be produced. Projec-
weldment, See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See also tions in sheetmetalparts are generallymade by
BRAZINGPROCEDUREQUALIFICATIONRECORD and embossing, as opposed to projections formed in solid
WELDING PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION RECORD. metal pieces which are made by either machining or
forging. In the case of stamped parts, projections are
PROCESS generally located on the edge of the stamping.
A grouping of basic operational elements used in
Applications
welding, thermal cutting, or thermal spraying.See
STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See also Appendix 3, Projectionwelding is primarilyusedto join a
Master Chartof Welding and Allied Processes. stamped, forged,or machined part to another part. One
or more projections are produced on the parts during
PROCESS ANNEALING the forming operations.
Fasteners
mounting
or
See ANNEALING. devices, such as bolts, nuts, pins, brackets, and han-
dles, can be projection-welded to a sheet metal part.
PROD Projection welding is especially useful for producing
A contact used in magnetic inspection. See MAG- severalweldnuggetssimultaneouslybetweentwo
NETIC INSPECTIONOF WELDS. parts. Marking of one part can be minimizedby plac-
ing the projections on the other part.
PROGRESSIVE BLOCK SEQUENCE The process is generallyused for sectionthick-
A block sequence in which successive blocks are nesses ranging from 0.5 to3.2 mm (0.02 to 0.125 in.)
completed progressively along the weld, either from thick.
Thinner
sections
require
special
welding
one end to the other or from an intermediate location machines capable of following the rapid collapse of
of the weld toward either end. See STANDARD WELD- the projections.Variouscarbonandalloysteelsand
ING TERMS. some nickel alloys can be projection welded.
PROGRAM WELDING Advantages and Limitations
A term sometimes applied to sequence resistance In general, projection welding can be used instead
welding. of spot welding tojoin small partsto each other andto
largerparts.Selection of one methodoveranother
PROJECTION WELDING (PW) depends on the economics, advantages, and limitations
A resistance welding process that produces a weld of the two processes. The chief advantages of projec-
by the heat obtained from the resistance to the flow of tion welding include the following:

~~ ~ ~~
lopedia Welding PROJECTION WELDING (PW) 407
1
r
(F) (0)
Figure P-21-Examples of Various Projection Designs
(1) A number of welds canbe made simultaneously (4) Projectionweldscan be locatedwithgreater

in one welding cycle of the machine. The limitation accuracyandconsistencythanspotwelds,andthe
on thenumber of welds is theabilitytoapply welds are generallymoreconsistentbecauseofthe
uniform electrode force and welding current to each uniformity of the projections. As a result, projection
projection. welds can be smaller in size than spot welds.
(2) Less overlap and closer weld spacings are possi- (5) Projectionweldinggenerallyresultsinbetter
ble, because the currentis concentrated by the projec- appearance, on the side without the projection, than
tion,andshuntingthroughadjacentwelds is not a spot welding can produce. The most deformation and
problem. greatest temperature rise occur in the part with the pro-
(3) Thickness ratios of at least 6 to 1 are possible, jectionleaving the other part relatively cool and free
because of the flexibility in projection size and loca- of distortion, particularlyon the exposed surface.
tion.Theprojectionsarenormallyplaced on the (6) Large,flat-facedelectrodesareused;conse-
thicker section. quently electrode wear is muchlessthanthatwith

WELD408 PROJECTION SIZE Encyclopedia Welding
spot welding and this reduces maintenance costs. In tank oxygen to one volume of propane. This requires
some cases, the fixturing or part locators are combined about three timesas much oxygento produce the same
with the welding diesor electrodes whenjoining small amount of heat as with acetylene.
parts together. Advantages of OxyLP Gas Cutting
(7) Oil, rust, scale, and coatings are less of a prob-
In flame cutting, the function of the preheating
l e h than with spot welding because the tipof the pro-
flames of the cutting tipsis to raise the temperature of
jection tendstobreakthrough the foreignmaterial
thesteel to the kindlingtemperature:cherryred or
early in the welding cycle; however, weld quality will
approximately 900C (1650F). Atthattemperature
be better with clean surfaces.
the steel will burn in a stream of air or oxygen. The
The most important limitations of projection weld-
oxyLP mixture will produce a very satisfactory cut,
ing are the following: despite the fact that its flame temperature is lower than
(1) The forming of projections may require an addi- that of the oxyacetylene flame. This means that the
tional operation unless the parts are press-fonned to timerequiredto start a cut willbeafewseconds
design shape. longer than with acetylene.
(2) With multiple welds, accurate control of projec-
Once a cut is started, there are a number of advan-
tion height and precise alignment of the welding dies
tages of oxyLP gas. Because of its lower temperature
are necessary to equalize the electrode force and weld-
flame, the edges of the cut are not overheated, and a
ing current.
narrower kerf is burned away. The smaller volume of
(3) With sheet metal,the process is limited to thick- metalremovedrequireslessoxygentooxidize the
nesses in which projections with acceptable character- metal. This minimizes the slag adherence tothe under-
istics can be formed, and for which suitable welding side of the kerf. If slag is present, it is easily removed.
equipment is available. The lower preheat temperaturedoes not melt downthe
(4)Multiple welds must be made simultaneously, top edgesof the cut.
which requires higher capacity equipment than does
spot welding. This also limits the practical sizeof the A special tip is required when LP gas is used with
component that contains the projections. a standard flame cutting outfit. The torch, regulators,
and hoses are the same as for oxyacetylene cutting.
PROJECTION WELD SIZE Backfiring,pre-ignition,
and
flashback are very
The diameter of the weld metal in the plane of the rarewithLP gas because of its slowerburning
faying surfaces. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See characteristic.
also Appendix 11.
PROPERTIES OF METALS
PROPANE The properties of metals can be divided into five
(Chemicalsymbol: C3H8).A colorless,liquefied general groups: (1) mechanical, (2) physical, (3) cor-
petroleumfuelgaswhich is shipped in tank cars, rosion, (4) optical, and (5) nuclear. The specific prop-
stored in large tanks under pressure, and is available in erties ineachofthesegroups are divided into
small tanks under pressure for shop use and as a cook- structure-insensitive properties and structure-sensitive
inggas.Smallself-containedpropanetorchsets are properties. This distinction in properties is commonly
available for home workshop use and incidental heat- made in most textbooks on metals to emphasize the
ing operations. considerations that should be given to reported prop-
Propane is used for many purposes, among themto erty values.See Table P-8.
fuel heattreatingfurnaces, core bakingovens,soft Structure-insensitiveproperties are welldefined
metal melting, unit heaters for industrial buildings,gas properties of a metal. Theydo not vary fromone piece
fired refrigerators, automatic steam boilers and braz- of metal to another of the same kind. This is true for
ing torches. most engineering purposes, andis verified by the data
obtained from standard engineering tests. These prop-
PROPANE CUTTING erties can often be calculated or rationalized by con-
Propane and other liquefied petroleum (LP) gases sideration of the chemical composition and
the
are used in flame cutting. The maximum temperature crystallographic structureof the metal. They are com-
ofanoxypropane flame is approximately2030C monly listed in handbooks as constants for the particu-
(53OO0F), and is achieved by using five volumes of lar metals.

Welding Encyclopedia PROTECTION FOR WELDERS 409
Table P 4 values of these properties mustbe accepted with reser-

Properties of Metals vation.It is notuncommon for plates or bars of a
metal, which represent unusual sizes or conditions of
structure- treatment, to have significant deviationsin mechanical
General Structure-Insensitive
Sensitive properties from those published for the metal. Also,
Groups Properties pr
ope
rt
is the mechanical properties, as determined by standard
Mechanical Elastic
Moduli
Ultimate
strength qualityacceptance tests in anAmericanSociety of
Yield strength TestingandMaterials(ASTM)specification, do not
Fatigue strength guarantee identical properties throughoutthe material
Impact strength represented by the test sample.For example, the direc-
Hardness tion inwhichwroughtmetal is tested (longitudinal,
Ductility transverse, or through-thickness)maygivesignifi-
Elastic limit cantlydifferentvalues for strengthandductility.
Damping capacity Although the physical and corrosion properties of met-
Creep strength als are considered to be structure-insensitive for the
Rupture strength most part, some ofthevaluesestablished for these
Physical Thermal expansion propertiesapplyonlytocommonpolycrystalline
Thermal conductivity metals.
Melting point Metals are appraised for the following mechanical
Specific heat characteristics:modulus of elasticity, elastic limit,
Emissivity yield strength, tensile strength, fatigue strength, ductil-
Thermal evaporation rate ity, fracture toughness, low temperature properties and
Density elevated temperature properties.
Vapor pressure
Electrical conductivity Physical properties that may require consideration
Thermoelectric properties in designing or fabricating a weldment are: thermal
Magnetic
properties
Ferromagnetic conductivity, melting temperature, thermal expansion
Thermionic emission properties and contraction,ind electrical conductivity.
Corrosion resistanceis often an important consider-
Corrosion Electrochemical potential ation; particularly since weld joints often display cor-
Oxidation resistance
rosion properties that differ from the remainder the of
Optical Color weldment.
Reflectivity
PROTECTION FOR WELDERS
Nuclear Radiation absorbtivity
Nuclear cross section The welding operator and personnelin the welding
Wavelength of area must be protected from the potential hazards of
characteristic x-rays welding. These include radiation from thearc and hot
spatter from a welding electrode. Arc radiation can
veryquickly cause damagetothe eye ifviewed
Structure-sensitiveproperties are dependentnot directly without adequate eye protection. Even when
onlyonchemicalcompositionandcrystallographic viewed directly from a distance of 6 m (20 feet), the
structure, but also on microstructural details that may retina can be damaged in a few seconds. Damage to
be affected in subtle ways by the manufacturing and the skin does not occur as quickly, but if exposed for
processing history of the metal. Even the size of the several minutes, arc radiation cancause painful burns
sample can influence test results obtained for a struc- similar to sunburn.The severity depends onthe inten-
ture-sensitive property, and they are likely to vary to sity of the arc andthe distance from the arc.
some degree if there are differences in the treatment Eye Protection.Eye protectionconsists of wearing a
and preparationof the samples. helmet with the correct filter lens when welding, or
The mostimportantmechanicalpropertiesinthe using a hand shield with the correct filter when watch-
design of weldments,with the exceptionofelastic ing an arc. The filter lenses are available in several
moduli, are structure-sensitive.Consequently,single shades of darkness, numbered from2 to 14 in a light-
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL $997. H 07842b5 0.516584 552
ATMOSPHERE
410 PROTECTIVE Weldina EncvcloDedia
to-dark sequence. Number 2 would be used for torch PUDDLE

soldering; number14 would be usedfor arc welding at A nonstandard term when used
for WELD POOL.
currentsofmorethan 250 to 500 amperes.Shade
selection for a given application should start with a PUDDLE STICK
dark shade. If it is difficult to see, successively lighter A steel rod flattened at one end used to break up
shadesshould be trieduntil the operation is suffi- oxides and to remove slags and impurities in alumi-
ciently visible for good control. In no cases should a num welding. A puddle stickis especially useful when
shade lower than number 7 be used for arc welding, weldingcastironoraluminumwithoutaflux. See
and then only for arc current of less than 60 amperes. ALUMINUM, Oxyfuel Gas Welding.
These lensesare designed tofilter out harmful ultravi-
PUDDLE WELD
olet and infrared radiation from the arc.
Anonstandardterm for an ARCSPOTWELD, or
Special radiation-sensitive helmet lenses are avail- PLUG WELD.
able which are clear when no radiation is present, but
darken within milliseconds when an arc is initiated. PUDDLING
The lenses becomeclearagainwhen the arc is Stirring the molten metal in a weld pool. Welds in
extinguished, cast iron and steel are usually puddled with the weld-
In addition tothe welder, other workers in the shop ing rod. Weldsin aluminum are puddled with a puddle
area should be protected with curtainsor screens sur- stick madeof flattened steel rod.
rounding the weldareas.These curtains or screens
may be opaque, or made of a translucent plastic which PULL GUN TECHNIQUE
absorbs ultraviolet radiation. Portable curtains can be A nonstandard termfor BACKHAND WELDING.
moved to a weld operation to completely shield it from
other workers. Shielding should be provided to protect PULSATING CURRENT
crane operatorsfrom arc flashes.Shopwallareas A current that always flows in the same direction,
should be painted with coating which provides a low but rises andfalls at regular time intervals.
reflectively for ultraviolet radiation. Paintsor coatings
PULSATION WELDING
formulated with titanium dioxide or zinc oxide have
low reflectivity for ultraviolet radiation. See Appendix nonstandard
A term for MULTIPLE-mULSE
18, Recommended Eye Protection. WELDING.
Protective Clothing PULSE, Resistance Welding

Sturdy shoesor boots and heavy clothing should be A current of controlled duration of either polarity
worn to protect the whole body from flying sparks, through the welding circuit. See STANDARDWELDING
spatter, and radiation bums. Leather gloves should be TERMS. See also Figure H-3.
worn to protect the hands and forearms. Woolen cloth-
ing is preferred to cotton because it is not as readily PULSED ARC WELDING
ignited. Leather aprons and leg shields are much better See PULSED SPRAY WELDING.
protection against hot droplets of metal than wool or
PULSED GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW-P)
cotton cloth. A leatherjacket should be worn to cover
the upper body. Cuffless pants and covered pockets are A gas metal arc welding process variation in which
recommended to avoidsparkentrapment; the pants the currentis pulsed. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS.
should be worn outside the shoes. A cap should be Set? also PULSED POWER WELDING.
worn under the helmet to protectthe hair or head from PULSED GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW-P)
sparks. A gas tungsten arc welding process variation in
which the current is pulsed. See STANDARD WELDING
PROTECTIVE ATMOSPHERE TERMS. See ah0 PULSED POWER WELDING.
A gas or vacuum envelope surrounding the work-
pieces, used to prevent or reducethe formation of PULSEDLASER
oxides and other detrimental surface substances, and A laser whoseoutputiscontrolled to produce a
to facilitate their removal. See STANDARDWELDING pulse whose duration is 25 milliseconds or less. See
TERMS. STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See also LASER.

~
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 0516585 499 m

Welding 411
PULSED POWER WELDING designed so that the pulsing rate can be varied over a
Anan:welding pmcess variation in whichthe wide range, and the width of the pulse can be varied
power source is programmedto cycle between low and independently of the pulsing rate. The magnitude of
high power levels. See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. the backgroundandpulsecurrent levels canbe
See also PULSED SPRAY WELDING. adjusted independentlyof one another.
Pulsed arc welding canalso be useful for gas tung-
PULSED SPRAY TRANSFER sten arc welding (GTAW) applications, particularlyfor
A variation of spray transfer in which the welding autogenouswelding of tubing in a fixed position,
power is cycled from a low level to a high level, at where satisfactory penetration and weldface contoys
which point spray transfer is attained, resulting in a can be maintained. The high current pulse produces
loweraverage voltage andcurrent.See STANDARD full penetration quickly, but does not remain at this :
WELDING TERMS. highlevellongenough to cause excessivemelting.$
The lowerbackgroundcurrentmaintainsthe arc
PULSED SPRAY WELDING betweenpulses.Comparedwiththesteady arc, the
An a x welding process variation in which the cur- pulsing arc increases the penetration, with less heat
rent is pulsed to utilize the advantages of the spray input into the joint; however,weldingspeeds are
mode of metal transferat averagecurrents equalto or reduced by20 to 40%.
less than the globular to spray transition current. See Generally the pulsation rate can be adjusted from 1
to over 100 pulses per second, and with some equip-
Also known as pulsedarcwelding,pulsedspray ment, to over lo00 pulses per second. When a pro-
welding is a direct-current welding system in which a grammed weld is made involving current upslope and
pulsing current is superimposed on a constant voltage downslope, pulsationstarts at the beginning of upslope
d-c background current. It can be used for either gas where both the peak and background current increase
metal arc welding (GMAW)or gas tungsten arc weld- to the beginning of main weld current and continue to
ing (GTAW), butis generally associated withGMAW. pulse at those values for the remainder of weld time.
Pulsed arc weldingis a modified form of gas metal At this time, both peak and background current start to
arc spraytransferwelding,whichproducesacon- diminish to a final current at the end ofthe downslope
trolled and periodic meltingoff of droplets which are time. This type of weld programis often usedfor girth
projectedacross the arc.Thisprocessallowsspray welding pipe or tubingby the automatic GTAW
transfer welding ataverage currents which are consid- process.
erably lower than the steady-state current necessary
for spray transfer welding.The pulsed current process PULSE START DELAYTIME
allows welding of thin sheet which would be melted
through by the standard GMAW process. In the pulsed
The timeinterval from currentinitiation to the
arc processthe filler wire is heated by the background beginning of current pulsation. See STANDARD WELD-
ING TERMS. See also Appendix 19.
currentand the end may start to meltintoadrop.
When the high current pulse occurs, the drop melts
PULSE TIME, Resistance Welding
completely and is propelled, by the arc pinch effect,
The duration of a pulse. See STANDARDWELDING
directly from the wire to the weld pool. One or more
dropsmay be propelledacross the arc during each
pulse. The pulsed arc mode of gas metal arc welding
TERMS. See also Figure H-3. Q
producesdeeperpenetrationandbetter root fusion PURGING
than the dip transfer,orshortcircuitingmode, of The removal of any unwanted gas or vapor from a
GMAW. For this reason, pulse arc welding is particu- container, chamber, hose, torch,or furnace. It includes
larly suited to welding the thinner materials. the removal of remaining gases or vapors from a con-
Initially, pulsed arc power supplies consisted of a tainer that may have held flammable material, such as
standard three phase d-c powerrectifier and a60 cycle grease, oil or gasoline, by washing with detergentsor
half-wave rectifier. The 60 cycle half-cycle pulse was with live steam, and subsequently filling with carbon
superimposed onthe direct current to provide the pul- dioxide, nitrogen or inert gas to minimize explosion
sating dc. With the introduction of solid state devices hazard during hot work. Purging includes removing air
andcomputers,pulsecurrentpowersupplies are from an acetylenegeneratorthatmayhaveentered
Licensed by Information Handling Services ~~~ ~ -
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 W 07842b5 051658b 325 m
412 PURGING, Welding Encyclopedia
while the generator was being charged with water and reduce the time needed to purge a system; however,
carbide. slow flow rates reduce gas consumption. If a system
can be closed off and evacuated, then backfilled with
PURGING, PtPE inert gas, the air can be reduced toless than O. 1% with
Purging of pipe is the processof replacing the atmo- onlyonevolume ofgas.Onceasystemhasbeen
sphere within a pipe or tube with an inert gas atmo- purged to a suitable level, the purging gas flow rate
sphere to prevent the contamination of the root bead can be reducedsubstantiallytoavaluewhichwill
during welding. maintain a positive pressure and flow.
Satisfactory welds can be made in carbon steel pipe Determining Oxygen Content. One method of deter-
using consumable root insert rings without inert gas mining the quality of the chamber or pipe atmosphere
backup. However, the weld root will usually be rough is to exhaust a sample of the gas through an oxygen
and irregular, andthe fused metal does not readily wet analyzer. This provides a quick and accurate indication
the base metal. When inert gas is used for a backup of the oxygen content, which will indicate whether the
shield, the weld rootwill have a uniform, smooth, con- atmosphere is satisfactory for welding. If a gas ana-
tour free of oxides. The fused metal will readily wet lyzer is notavailable,flowratechartscanbeused
the base metal. which indicate flow rates and times required to purge a
Total System Purging given size chamberto 1% or less oxygen.
If the use of purging damsis prohibited by code, or Purging Dams
cannot be used for some other reason, may it be neces- Purging damsare plugs madeof a varietyof materi-
sary to purge the entire system. In systemic purging, als which are placed inside tubing or piping at both
the ends of a pipe string are sealed off with plugs of sides of a joint to be welded. These dams isolate the
rubber or other suitable material, and the pipe stringis weld joint so that only the root of the weld zone needs
purged of air with inertgas, usually argon because is it to be shielded with inert gas rather than the whole pipe
heavier than air.The inert gas is introduced atone end string. Some of the more commonly used systems are
of the string and vented at the other end through a described inthe following sections.
small opening. The inlet opening should always beas
low as possible and the vent as high as possible to take Soluble Dams. Soluble dams are constructed of a
advantage of the different densitiesof air and argon. material which can be dissolved in a liquid, and are
available commercially in the form of discs cut to fit
Volume of Purging Gas Required. Purging an entire
the IDSof standard pipe sizes.The discs havethe tex-
system is usually the most expensive methodof purg-
ture of heavy paper and sufficient strength to resist the
ing because of the time and the volume of inert gas
required. Usually a minimum of six volume changesis slight pressures usedfor purging. The discs are placed
in the two pieces of pipe to be joined, as close to the
required to reduce the oxygen content of the purged
joint as the estimated maximum temperature will per-
volume to approximately 1%.The number of volume
mit, and cemented in place with water soluble cement.
changes of gas required to achieve a suitable degree of
A typical distance from disc to joint is 15.2 to30.4 cm
inertness(usuallylessthan 1% oxygen)dependson
(6 to 12 inches).
several factors. In a gas-tight system, as few as twoor
three volume changes will provide an atmosphere suit- The inert gas is usuallyintroducedto the weld
able for welding stainless steel and high-nickel alloys, purge zone through small diameter tubing inserted
into
but only if the inert gas is introduced slowly through a the center of
the joint preparation or through one of the
diffusing device. Theoretically, if argon is introduced discs. Large pipe may require more than one purge
slowly into the bottom of a closed chamber which is tube for adequate purging. After welding, the dam can
vented at the top, only one volume change should be be removed by flushing with water, which dissolves all
necessary .to remove all the air. However, this is not dam material.See Figure P-22 (A).
possible becausegas molecules are in constant motion, Inflatable BladderDam. Inflatable bladdersare made
and some of the heavier argon willrise and mix with of rubberized fabric, or a flexible plastic which will
the lighter air. not soften or melt at slightly elevated temperatures.
Analysis of a number of typical purges indicates They have been usedfor many years in the repair and
that a minimum of ten volume changes is required to modification of low-pressure natural gas piping. An
reduce the percentage of air to 0.1%. High flow rates advantage of bladders is that they can be collapsed to
~~
~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~ ~
STD*AWS
JWE-ENGL L997 m 078112b5 05Lb583 2 b l W
Welding Encyclopedia WELDING PUSH-PULL 413
end of the pipe string while soluble dams can be dis-

solved and thus removed through a small opening in
the pipe string.See Figure P-22 (B).
Collapsible Disc Dam. Collapsible disc damsare the
simplest and least expensive dam system. The discs
may be fabricated from one-inch plywood or similar
material, are hinged across the middle and are fitted
with a thick band of foam rubber, or similar material,
around the rim to provide a gas-tight seal withthe pipe
inside diameter. A chain attached to one side of the
disc is positioned so that a tug will collapse the disc
and rotate it so that it can be pulled out through the
pipes open end. The collapsible discs must be posi-
tionedinthepipeendsbeforetheyarebrought
together. See Figure P-22 (C).
PURIFIER
A deviceorapparatusforremovingsulphurated
hydrogen and other gases from acetylene.
PUSH ANGLE
The travel angle when the electrode is pointing in
the direction of weld progression. This angle can also
beusedto partiallydefine the position of guns,
torches,rods,and beams. See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS. See also DRAG ANGLE, FOREHAND WELDING,
TRAVEL ANGLE, and WORK ANGLE.
PUSH-PULL GMAW
A welding system in whicha motor andset of drive
rolls in the wire feeder pushes,or drives, the welding
wire toward the welding gun, where another motor and
This arrangement per-
set of drive rolls pulls the wire.
mits welding to take place 15 to 18 m (50 to 60 feet)
away from the wire feeder, or three times the usual
operating range forGMAW equipment. The system is
Figure P-=-Three -pes of Purge Dams:(A) The especiallyuseful whenweldingwithrelatively soft
Soluble Dam; (B) The Inflatable Bladder Dam; andwires like aluminum.
in Both Closed and
(C) The Collapsible Disc Dam
Open Position PUSH-PULL WELDING
A spot welding process using series-opposed split
transformers. It consists of a dual point moving elec-
permit insertion into thepipethrough a relatively
trode welding unit and a dual point backup unit with
small opening. The collapsed bladders are positioned
flat electrodes. Advantages of this type of equipment
in the pipe at the desired location and inflated, gener- are that spot welds are produced with flat surfaces,
ally with the same gas used for purging.The gas used
without indentations, on the side of the joint against
to inflate the bladders and for purging is introduced the flat backup electrodes. This is particularly desir-
through a set of hoses passing through the open end of able for spot welding sheet metal cabinets, furniture
the pipe string. These are removed through the open and boxes.
end after welding. It is important to note that the blad-
Mounting flexibility is achieved when the backup
der type dam can only be removed through an open
unit is mounted in a fixed position with largeflat elec-
STD*AWS JWE-ENGL L997 07842b5 0 5 1 b 5 B B LTB m
414 PUSH Welding Encyclopedia
trodes, so that the moving unit may be moved to any radiation fromthe object to be measured on a thermo-
positionwhere the electrodeswouldmakecontact pile, which produces a small voltage proportional to
with the backup electrodes. the body temperature.The voltage is converted to tem-
perature andis indicated on a calibrated meter.
PUSH WELD Anothertype of opticalpyrometermeasuresthe
A spot or projection weld madeby push welding. temperature of a heated object be to measured by com-
paring the color,or redness, ofthe heated object with a
PUSH WELDING wire heated in the instrument by an electric current.
A resistancewelding process variation in which This current converted to temperature is indicated on a
spot or projection welds are made by manuallyapply- calibrated meter.
ing force to one electrode and using the workpiece or a PhotoelectricPyrometer. Thistypemeasures the
support as the other electrode. See STANDARD WELD- voltage from a photronic or photoelectric cell, which
ING TERMS. receives radiation from the heated object. The voltage
In push welding, sometimes called poke welding, is converted to temperature andis indicated on a cali-
pressure is applied manually to one electrode only. It brated meter.
differs from spot welding in that only one electrode is
used in direct contact with the spot to be welded.The ElectricalResistancePyrometer. Thistypeusesa
other electrode is clamped to any part ofthe metal in Wheatstone bridge to measure the resistance (which
much the samemannerthat the workpiece is con- varies with temperature) of a fixed length of platinum
nected to the power supply in arc welding. This ele- wire which is exposed to the temperature to be mea-
ment makesit possible to weld in places that wouldbe sured. It is useful to 2400C (4350F).
inaccessible for machine-madespotwelds. In poke ThermocouplePyrometer. Thermocouplepyrome-
welding, the moveable electrode is operated by hand ters make useof the small voltage produced when two
and placed at the point to be welded. When sufficient different metals whichare in contactare heated. Wires
pressure is exerted on the workpiece, a pressure switchof the two different metals are welded to form a hot
initiates the weld current at a preset value. Usually the junction and a voltageis measured by a sensitive volt-
welding machine controls thetime of current flow to a age measuringinstrumentatthe other ends of the
set value. wiresatroomtemperature.Severalstandardmetal
combinations are available,andtemperature-voltage
PYROMETER values have been determined and published for each.
An instrument capable of indicating temperatures The more common thermocouple metal combinations
higherthanamercurialthermometerwillindicate. are: chromel-alumel;platinum-platinum 10% rhod-
There are several types of pyrometers, including the ium; platinum-platinum 13% rhodium; iron-Constan-
following: tan; and copper-Constantan.
OpticalPyrometer. There are several variations of Mechanical Pyrometer. A mechanical pyrometer uti-
optical pyrometers which use a lens system to focus lizes the differential expansion of two different metals
the radiation fromthe heated object tobe measured on when heated to actuate a pointer by meansof gears or
thesensor of theinstrument.Onetypefocuses the levers. Theseare not accurate over 538C(1000F).

Q
QUALIFICATION A code is generally consideredto be the most rigid
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.See also WELDER of these requirements, since it carries the implication
PERFORMANCE QUALIFICATION, PROCEDURE QUALIFI- of law, and in some cases, actually isa law enacted by
CATION and QUALIFICATION AND TESTING. a government body. Standards are commonly included
or referenced in the code ina municipal, state or fed-
QUALIFICATION AND CERTIFICATION eral government project to establish limits and con-
The wordsqualification and certification are proba- trols over some features of the code. Some examples
bly the two most misunderstood words in the vocabu- are a municipal building code, a state boiler and pres-
lary of a welder. These two termsare erroneously used sure vessel code,or a federal highway bridge code.
interchangeably. Often the person who speaks these A properly worded code does not include explana-
words has in mind a meaning that is entirely different tory matter. Since thefeaturesoutlinedinthecode
from what the person who hears them perceives. Gen- must be enforceable as a law, the code is written in
erally, certified refersto the welder who hasa certif- mandatory language, usingthe imperatives shall and
icatesigned bysomebodyandcertificatescanbe must,orequivalentwords.Explanatorymatter is
issued by almost anyone. A welder can geta certificate relegated toother documents orto appendices.
of welding proficiency on graduating from a voca-
tional training course, high school course, community The most frequently cited codes involving the weld-
college or industrial training school. However, none of ing industry are the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
these will qualify the welder for doing code welding. Code and the AWS D 1.l Structural Welding Code-
Where welding codes are concerned, specific qualifi- Steel. Other codes and standards, such as API 1 1 0 4
cation tests are spelled out by the various codes. Standard for Welding Pipelines and Related Facilities,
Often the statement, Im a certified pipe welder and ASME B31, Code for Pressure Piping, include
leaves unanswered questions suchas: specified qualification tests.
(1)Qualified to what pipe welding code? Thereare There may be other instances when a welder maybe
several, including those drawn up by the American qualified to a code, even though the work being done
Petroleum Institute,
the
American
Society
for is not involved with such a code. This frequently hap-
MechanicalEngineers,AmericanWeldingSociety, pens when shop welding personnel are qualified
to the
NuclearRegulatoryCommission,andtheAmerican D 1. l, D1 .2 , and DD
11
..3 4
, series of the AWS Struc-
Water Works Association. tural Welding Codes.
(2) Qualified for what procedure? For what posi- Requalification. Some codes require requalification
tion; what type of electrode and base material; what for every job. For example, even though a person may
thickness of base material? have qualified as an Em18 welder (most qualifica-
Another questionis that of duration of the qualifications are by type of electrode) on a certain building,
tion. Some qualifications, such as AWS, are consid- thatqualification maynot be accepted at another
ered to remain in effect indefinitely unless the welder building site, althoughit can be acceptedat the option
is not engaged in a given process of welding for a of the local building commission and the owners or
period of three months or more, or unless thereis some architects. In most areas, even though a welder may
specific reasonto question the abilityof the welder. still be working for the same contractor, the owners or
Code Welding architects of a new project will usuallycall for requali-
Every welding operation is intended to be carried fication of all welders involved. The same is true in
out to assure operator performance at a stipulated level mosttypesofpressurevesselandpressurepiping
of quality for a givendesign,withcertainbuilt-in work. A welder will also be required to requalify when
safetyfactors.Theseperformancefeatures may be certain changes in the welding procedure are made.
required by shop standards, customer specifications, These changesare listed in the codesas Limitations of
or rules and regulations of a specific code. Welder Qualiftcation.
415
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 07842b5
051b590 8Sb
RTIFICATION ANDQUALIFICATION
416
A welder is qualified after passing a particular qual- welding procedure is a written specification covering
ification test. For example, a welder might be qualified the necessary steps to be taken to produce a satisfac-
under the requirements of Section IX of the ASME tory weld.
BoilerandPressureVesselCode.Ingeneral,an Test Administration. Most codes are not specific on
i employer is responsibleforassuringthatwelders are the point of whois to do the testing, but usually leave
giventhecorrectqualificationtestsbeforework it to the optionof the fabricator (or owner). In order to
begins, since the employer is responsible for the work become certified under an AWS code, the welder must
of the welders. take the qualification test at an AWS accredited test
The welder who wants to be certified (not just qual- facility.While the architectorowner maydemand
ified),
shouldlearn
andpractice
the
procedures control over testing,in most cases they do not, leaving
described in AWS B2.1 latest edition, Standard for it up to the contractor. The latter, however, is respon-
WeldingProcedureandPeqformance Qual@ation sible for every weld made during construction, so the
Procedure, issued by the American Welding Society, contractormustdocument the qualificationofeach
as well as any particular requirements of the specific procedure used and of every welder working on the
codes governing the type of work the welder wants job.
to do. The qualification test record,or certification of pro-
Qualification. There are two distinct steps toward cedure or welder, generally calls for the signature of
qualification. The first is qualification of the welding the person conducting the test, as well as that of an
procedure; the second is qualification ofthe welder. individualwhowitnessedit.
Whetherthey are
The procedure qualification is a common require- employed by the weld fabricating company or by an
ment of all codes and specifications governing weld- independenttestinglaboratory,they are responsible
ing. Its purpose is totest the capabilityof the for documenting the qualification.
procedure to produceasatisfactorywelded joint, Preparation of the test specimen is a key factor in
although this does not guarantee that all welds made the success of the mechanical tests; improper prepara-
under the procedurewillbesatisfactory.Itmerely tion of a specimen maycause it to fail.
serves to prove that satisfactory welds can be made by There are five differenttypes of codeswhich
following the various steps of the procedure. Quality requireweld
qualification:(1)
industrial (AWS,
in welding depends on a great many interrelated fac- ASME, API, AWWA, and others); (2) military (NAV-
tors, in which the procedure is the dominating control. SHIPS, MILSPEC; (3) governmental (local, state and
The second qualification is a test of the welders federal); (4) consumer or customer specifications, and
ability to perform the work;this is amandatory (5) manufacturers specificationson products for which
requirement in many codes. Again, passing this test is weld quality is mandatory, but for which there are no
not a guarantee; it merely proves that the welder has existing specifications.
theabilitytomakesatisfactoryweldsundergiven In many product areas, the influence of the insur-
circumstances. ance companies affects the codes. The insurers, while
Procedure Qualification. Before taking the welding
notcode-writingbodies in themselves,havebeen
procedure qualification test, the welder will have to influential in having codes writtensince the beginning
select a weldingprocess,equipment,andmaterials, of welded fabrication. The insurance companies got
then design appropriate weldjoints, and conduct trial involved in metal fabrication in the early days of this
welds. Each of these must be considered according to century with the introduction of pressure vessels of
the metallurgicalandmechanicalpropertiesof the riveted construction. This culminated in 1915 in the
materials involved, the degree of weld soundness or publication, by the American Society for Mechanical
quality required, and cost. The step-by-step method Engineers, of thefrrstBoilerandPressureVessel
which evolvesis the welding procedure,and all codes Code, which is updated as required and is considered
require that it be in written form. The procedure may the bible of the industry.
be expressed in broad,generalterms, or it may be Nuclear Systems Code
explicit in detail, depending on the class of work or ASMEs responsivenessto the needs of nuclear sys-
type of product being welded,the ease or diffkulty of tems development andfor public safety ledto the first
reproducingsatisfactorywelds,andtheknowledge, Nuclear Systems Code. This was accomplished
skill and integrity of the person doing the work. The through a close relationship with the Atomic Energy

~~ ~ ~~~ ~~~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~
~~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842h5 053h593 392 m

Welding Encyclopedia TESTING AND QUALIFICATION 417
Commission,whichrequestedthatoneorganization pressure heating, air conditioning, sanitary, water, and

accept responsibilityfor codifying the pressure bound- some gas or chemical systems.
ary of the entire nuclear system. As a result, Section MIL-STD-248, WeldingandBrazingProcedure
III of the Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, initially and Perfomuznce Quulijcation, and MIL-STD- 1595,
published inMay, 1971, includes rules for design, fab- Qualijcatiun of Aircrufi, Missile, and Aerospace
rication and inspection of various classes of nuclear Fusion Weldersmay be used when federal government
componentssuch as piping,vessels,pumps,valves or military requirementsare involved.
andmetalcontainmentvessels.Previous issues had AWS B2.1, Standard for Welding Procedure and
included provisionsfor nuclear vessels. Performance Qualification, provides requirements
for qualification of welding procedures, welders and
QUALIFICATION FOR CODE WORK welding operators. It may be referenced in a product
The primary purpose of all the codes is to secure code, specification, or contract documents. Appli-
safe boilers, pressure vessels, and piping through min- cable base metals are carbon and alloy steels,
imum construction standards. Welding codes also pro- cast irons, aluminum, copper, nickel, and titanium
videmeansthatwilldiscloseinherent defects in alloys.
methods of welding and lack of competency on the AWSB2.2, Standard for Brazing Procedure and
part of welding operators, since defective welds are Performance Qualification, coversrequirements for
almost invariablydue to lack of control of the welding qualification of brazing procedures, brazers, and braz-
procedure. ingoperators for furnace,machine,andautomatic
No two codes are exactly alike with respect to the brazing. It is to be used when required by other docu-
provisions for qualifying welding operators. It is there- ments,such as codes,specifications,orcontracts.
fore necessary, when seeking detailed information as Those documents must specify certain requirements
to the types of tests required, and the method of test applicable to theproductionbrazement.Applicable
supervision, to consult the specific code or specifica- base metals are carbon and alloy steels, cast iron, alu-
tion governing the particular type of work to be done. minum,copper,nickel,titanium,zirconium,magne-
sium, and cobalt alloys.
QUALIFICATION AND TESTING ANSYAWS C3.2, Standard Method for Evaluating
hocedure and performance qualification and test- the Strength of Brazed Joints in Shear, describes a test
ing standards for welding procedures, thermal spray- method used to determine shear strengths of brazed
ing, brazing, testing and inspection are published by joints. Forcomparisonpurposes,specimenprepara-
the American Welding Society. tion, brazing practices and testing, procedure mustbe
AWS C2.16, Guide for T h e m 1 Spray Operator consistent. Production brazed joint strength may not
and Equipment Qualjcation provides for qualifica- be the same as test joint strength if the brazing prac-
tion of operators and equipment for applying thermal tices are different. With furnace brazing,for example,
sprayedcoatings.Itrecommendsproceduralguide- the actual part temperature or time at temperature, or
lines for qualificationtesting. The criteria used to both, during production may vary from those used to
judge acceptability are determined by the certifying determine joint strength.
agent aloneor together withthe purchaser. ANSYAWS B4.0, Standard Methods for Mechani-
AWSD10.9, Specification for Qualification of cal Testing of Welds, describes the basic mechanical
Welding Procedures and Weldersfor Piping and Tub- tests used for evaluation of welded joints, weldability,
ing, covers circumferential groove andfillet welds but and hot cracking. The tests applicable to welded butt
excludes welded longitudinal seams involved in pipe joints are tension, Charpy
impact,
drop-weight,
and tube manufacture.An organization may makethis dynamic-tear, and bend types. Tests of fillet welds are
specification the governing document for qualifying limited to break and shear tests.
welding procedures and welders by referencing it in For welding materialsand procedure qualifications,
the contract andby specifying one of the two levels of themostcommonlyusedtests are round-tension;
acceptance requirements.One level appliesto systems reduced-sectiontension;face-,root-,andside-bend;
that require a high degree of weld quality. Examples andCharpyV-notchimpact. Fillet weld tests are
are lines in nuclear, chemical, cryogenic, gas,or steam employed to determine proper welding techniques and
systems. The other level applies to systems requiring conditions, and the shear strengthof welded joints for
an average degreeofweldquality,suchaslow- design purposes.

S T D o A W S JWE-ENGL L997 m 0764265 05bb592 b29 D
AND
418 QUALIFICATION
AWS B1.10, Guide for the Nondestructive Inspec- side only and breaking by a sharp blow onthe side of
tion of Welds, describes the common nondestructive the plate oppositethe weld and (3) making a lap fillet
methods for examining welds. The methods included weld on one side only, then breaking through the weld
are visual, penetrant, magnetic particle, radiography, by supporting the outside edges of the plates and ham-
ultrasonic and eddy current inspection. mering or pressing on the center of the weld; (4)mak-
Qualification testshelp determine the proficiencyof ing a butt weld and cutting nicks in both ends of the
welders to ensure that failures will not be caused by weld so that a sharp blow with a sledge hammer will
lack of skill. Also, the application ofthe welding pro- result in a break directly through the weld metal.
cesses in some fields is subjecttoregulationand Other methodsof designing an observationtest can,
inspection which, in some cases, is very rigid. Most of course,beused.It is alwaysdesirable to usea
&
welding codes require that individual operators pass a designwhichapproximatestheworkingconditions.
qualification test. The important thing is to complete a fracture through
The nature and the comprehensiveness of qualifica- the weldso that the entire cross section of the inside of
tion tests varies with the work to be done. In general, theweld can be examined for fusion, penetration,
the qualifying welds madeby an operator will be made porosity, slag inclusions and grain structure.
under conditions which duplicate, as nearly as practi- This test can be made with ordinary shop tools and
cable, the working conditions of the prospective job. involves a minimumof expense. Itis obviously unnec-
For example, there would be a great deal of difference essary to proceed to a more expensive laboratory test
between the test required of a welder working on an in the case of operators who do not show satisfactory
aerospace application and those requiredfor a welder proficiency atthis point.
who works wholly with structuralsteel.
There is some differenceof opinion as to the neces- Quantitative Test
sity of examining a welder on the theoretical knowl- The quantitative testis for the purpose of determin-
edge of a process. Whether or not it is worthwhile to ing how strong a weld the operator can make. If the
insist that an operator know something about the sci- welder is to be tested on butt welds only, the specimen
entific background of theprocesswouldseemto plates are welded together and coupons are cut from
depend on individual circumstances. There are many these. The coupons are then tested for tensile strength
supervisorswhothinkthatif the foreman or head and ductility in a laboratory. If the welder is tobe
welder is wellinformed,satisfactoryresultscanbe tested onfillet welds, a double-strap lap joint is recom-
obtained from welders who have demonstrated only mended. As a rule, it is difficult to make these test
their ability to manipulate the torch or the arc. Itis Cer- specimens withthe welds in longitudinal shear.
tain, however,thatknowledge of theprocess is no
handicap. Hartford Test
Before requiring welders to take qualification tests The Hartford Test
refers to qualifying an
for any kind of work,it is advisable to prepare forms employer'sorganization for aninsurancecompany.
on which a record can be made of all the operating The qualifying tests of the procedures and the welding
conditions, the observations made by the inspector, whichoperatorshavecompleted are part of the
anda complete record of test results. These indi- requirements for qualifyingtheemployer'sorgani-
vidualrecords should be carefully preserved for zation. The weldingoperatorscanweldoncode
reference. work only for the employer with whom the tests were
A good deal of unnecessary expense can be circum-performed.
vented if thequalificationtest is divided into two An insurance company engaged in shop inspection
parts: first, observation of a preliminary break test, and does not issue certificates of qualification to welding
second, a quantitative test. operators, since the certificates would be of no value
Preliminary Break Test to another shop.
A preliminary break test should be a made with a See TESTING for further reference to various qualifi-
simpleweldthatcaneasilybebrokenthroughthe cation tests and testing methods.See also QUALIFICA-
weld itself. There are several methods of doing this: TION FOR CODE WORK, ASME BOILER CONSTRUCTION
(1) using a plain butt weld and breaking it in a (2) vise, CODE;BOILERWELDING;BUILDINGCONSTRUCTION
welding one plate to another in the form ofT aon one CODES; HARTFORD TEST; und TRAINING.

1 STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1777 W 07842b5 051b593 5b5 m
Welding Encyclopedia INTERRUPTED QUENCHING, 419
QUARTZ To harden steels it is necessary to use a more rapid

A crystalline form of silica (silicon dioxide Sioz). quenching medium. The three common mediums used
Found abundantly in nature, quartz is the main constit- are brine, water, and oil. Brine produces the fastest
uent of granite,sandstoneandotherstones. In the temperature change; water is next, while oil produces
welding industry it is used in powdered form in elec- the least drastic change. Although oil does not the cool
trode coatings to prevent access of air to the hot weld heated steel through the critical range as rapidly as
metal. The quartz powder and other ingredients inthe waterorbrine, it cools the steel rapidly enough to
electrode coating form a protective slag on the weld develop sufficient hardness for practical purposes.
bead. A drasticquench is required for relativelylow-
carbon steels in order to develop the required hard-
QUATERNARY ALLOY ness. However, this type of quench is likely to cause
An alloycontainingfourprincipalelements. An the steel to warp and crack, and may set up internal
example of a quaternaryalloy is a "chrome-moly- stresses. When the structure changes from austenite to
steel," which contains the key elements of chromium, martensite, the volumeof the steel is increased. If the
molybdenum, and carbon in iron. change is too sudden cracking will occur. Cracking
occurs particularly in the lower temperature ranges,
QUENCHING when the steel is no longer plastic enough to adjust
itself to expansion and contraction.
The sudden cooling of heated metal by immersion
in oil, water, or some other liquid medium (e.g., glycol The shapeandthickness of theworkpieceinflu-
or liquid nitrogen),a molten salt, or by spraying witha ences warping and cracking. Thin flanges on heavy
sections are especially susceptible to warping. When
jet of water or compressed air. The purpose of quench-
tubular parts are quenched they should be immersed
ing is to produce desired weld strength properties in
with the long axis verticalto reduce warping. Because
hardenable steel.
of the less drastic action of the oil quench, many of
Ferrous alloys (e.g., especially, plain carbon, high- these difficultiesare avoided, and forthis reason oil is
strength low-alloy, and tool steels) which can undergo preferred over brine or water if sufficient hardness can
transformation hardening,or non-ferrous alloys which be obtained.
can be precipitation hardened, are generally quenched The quenching medium is normally maintained at
to either produce or retaina particular microstructure. about 20C (70F),and provision should be incorpo-
In non-ferrous alloys (for example age-hardenable rated to preventtemperaturechange ofmorethan
aluminum alloys with copper, magnesium-silicon, lith- *lO"C (k2O"F). This involves a large reservoir of liq-
ium, or other additions) quenching is usually applied uid and a method of providing circulation and cooling.
after the alloy is rendered single-phase by heating, i.e., It is important to note that the rate of cooling through-
is solution-treated or solutionized, in order to retain out the critical range is ,governed by the temperature
that single phase ina supersaturated state relative to a maintained in the quenching medium. Since a slight
key solute element. Heating under controlled tempera- variation inthe temperature of the quenching medium
ture-time cycles allows a second-phase to precipitate will have an appreciable effecton the rate of cooling,
and induce hardening in what is called aging. the quenchingmediumtemperaturemustbeheld
The rate of cooling through the critical range deter- within narrowlimits to obtain consistent results.
mines the form in which the steel will be retained. In After steel is reheated and prepared for tempering,
annealing, the heated steel may be furnace-cooled to it isquenched in eitherair or oil. Chrome-nickelsteels,
about 595C (1100"F), then it may be air cooled to because of their tendency toward temper brittleness,
room temperature. Slow cooling to 595C (1100"F), should always be quenched in oil.
which is below the critical range, provides sufficient
time for complete transition from austeniteto pearlite, QUENCHING, INTERRUPTED
whichisthestabilizedcondition of steelatatmo- Interrupted quenching is used to modify the rate of
spheric temperature, In normalizing, the heated steel is cooling of an alloy in heat treatment. An example of
removed from the furnace and allowed to cool slowly interrupted quenching is found in the treatment of an
in the air. Such cooling is more rapid than in annealing axle after repairby welding. A specific time inoil will
and complete transition to pearlite is not obtained. In cool the surface rapidly enough to suppress the trans-
this instance,air cooling is a mild form of quenching. formation to a given depth below the surface. In inter-

Licensed by Information Handling
~ _ _ Services
_ ~~ ~ ~~~~ ~
STDsAWS JWE-ENGL 1797 m 07842b5 05Lb594 4 T 1
420 QUENCHING Welding Encyclopedia
rupted quenching, ifimmersion time is sufficiently or timed quenching. Air provides the mildest type of
short, there will be enough heat in the interior of the quench.
axle to raise the temperature of the exterior layer,
effecting a tempering treatment. Subsequent temper- QUENCH TIME, Resistance Welding
ing is unnecessary, and the highly stressed condition The timefrom the end of the weld, weld interval, or
caused by full quenchingis avoided. downslope time to the beginning of the temper time,
during which no currentjlows through the workpieces
QUENCHING MEDIA and the weld is rapidly cooled by the electrodes. See
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure I- 1.
There are various quenching media such as water,
oil, brine,moltensalts,moltenmetal, still air or QUICKLIME
blasted air. Waterandbrine are themost drastic (Chemicalsymbol: Cao). Quicklime, or calcium
quenching mediums. To satisfactorily harden steel, oxide, is unslaked lime. When quicklime is added to
water should be kept below 25C (80F) and continu- coke and heated in an electric furnace, the resulting
ally agitated during the quenching operation. Agitation products are calcium carbide and carbon monoxide.
of the cooling medium insures a more uniform and Calcium carbide is used in the process of generating
faster cooling action. Brine is faster, is more uniform, acetylene.
and is less affected by increases in temperature. Oil is
used as a quenching medium in hardening operations. QUICKSILVER
Molten salts or moltenmetals are high-temperature Common name for mercury; used in instruments,
quench baths and are frequently used with interrupted vapor lamps and batteries.

RADIAN appear as light areas on the developedfilm.Figure R-1
A term applied tothe angle at the center of a circle showstheeffect of thickness on film darkness.The
where the arc of thecircumference is equal to the area
thinnest areaof the test object produces the darkest
radius of the circle. Expressed as an angle, the radian on thefilm because more radiationis transmitted to the
is 57.3. film.The thickest area of the test object produces the
lightestareaonthe film becausemoreradiation is
RADIATION absorbed and thus,less is transmitted. FigureR-2 shows
A combination of the processes of emitting, trans- the effectof the material density onfilm darkness.
mitting and absorbing waves or particles.
RADIOACTIVE
The property of some elements to emit charged or
uncharged particles as alpha or beta rays, and some-
times gamma rays, caused by the disintegration of the
nuclei of atoms. See RADIUM and RADIOGRAPHIC
EXAMINATION.
RADIOGRAPH
A shadow picture or image produced by passing
radiation, such as X-rays, gamma rays,or high-energy
neutrons, through an object and recording the varia-
tions in the intensity of the emerging radiation on a
sensitized film orscreen.
A radiograph shows thegross structure of a metal or
weld, suchas the presence of blowholes, slag, high- or
low-density inclusions, porous spots, cracks, or other
defects or abnormalities which could not otherwise be Figure R-1-Effect of Part Thickness on Radiation
found exceptby cutting through the material. Transmission (Absorption)
RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION
The use of radiant energy in the form of X-rays, Of the metals shown in Figure R-2, lead has the
gamma rays, or high-energy neutrons for the nonde- highest density: 11.34 g/cm3 (0.409 lb/in.3), followed
structive examination of visually opaque
objects in order by copper: 8.96 g/cm3 (0.323 lb/ in3); steel:
which yield a record of their soundnesson a sensitized 7.87 g/cm3 (0.284 lb/in.3), and aluminum: 2.70 g/cm3
film or screen. (O.O97/lb in3). W ith the highest density (weight per
Radiography is a nondestructive test method based unit volume), lead absorbs the most radiation, trans-
on the principleof preferential radiation transmission, mits the least radiation, and thus produces thelightest
or absorption.Areas of reducedthicknessorlower film.
density transmit more, and therefore absorb less radia- Lower energy,non-particulateradiation isin the
tion. The radiation which passes through a test object form of either gammaradiationorX-rays. Gamma
will form a contrasting image on a film receiving the rays are the result of the decay of radioactive materi-
radiation. als; common radioactive sources include Iridium 192,
Areas of high radiation transmission, or low absorp- Cesium 137, and Cobalt 60. These sources are con-
tion, appear as dark areason the developed film.Areas stantlyemitting radiation andmustbe kept in a
oflowradiationtransmission,orhighabsorption, shieldedstoragecontainer,referred to as a gamma
421
STD.AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842h5 05Lb59b 274 m
EXAMINATION
422 RADIOGRAPHIC Weldina Encvclopedia
When a test object or welded joint is exposed to

penetratingradiation, some of the radiationwill be
absorbed,some scattered, and some transmitted
through the metal to a recording medium. The varia-
tions in amount of radiation transmitted through the
weld depend on the following:
(1) The relative densities of the metal and any
inclusions
(2) The relative thickness of materials in the radia-
tion path
(3) The penetrating power of the radiation source.
Nonmetallic inclusions, pores,aligned cracks, and
other discontinuities result in more or less radiation
reaching the recording or viewing medium. The varia-
tions in transmitted radiation produce optically con-
trasting areas on the recording medium.
The most important factor ofany nondestructive
weld test method is the ability of the inspector to cor-
Figure R-2-Effect of Material Density on rectly interpret the meanings of thediscovered defects.
Radiation Transmission (Absorption) Onlythrough careful study ofmanyradiographs
exhibiting known defects can such ability be gained.
camera when not in use. These containers are often The common welding faults revealed by radiographs
shielded with lead or steel. are, in order of frequency, porosity, entrapped slag,
X-rays are man-made;they are producedwhen cracks, and lack of fusion.
electrons, traveling at high speed, collide with matter. Porosity. Porosity usually (but not always) appears
The conversion of electrical energy to X-radiation is as small,black circular spots.A certain amount of
achieved in an evacuated (vacuum) tube. A low cur- porosity is allowable in a weld; how much is allowable
rent is passed through anincandescent filament to pro- is determined by comparing the radiograph with stan-
duce electrons.Application of
a high potential dard radiographsof acceptable welds.
(voltage) between the filament andametaltarget
Inclusions. Entrapped slag is readily distinguished
accelerates electrons across this voltagedifferential.
from porositybecause of its large and irregularly
The actionofan electron stream striking the target
shaped shadows. Slag often extends parallel to a side-
producesX-rays.Radiation is producedonlywhile
wall of the joint, and is easily and quickly identified.
voltage is applied to the X-ray tube. Whether using
Only a very limited amount of entrapped slag is per-
gamma or X-ray sources, the test object is not radio-
missible in acceptable welded structures.
active following the test.
Slag inclusions show as dark areas in ferrous mate-
The following are essential elements of radio- rials, but may appear as comparatively light streaks in
graphic testing: lighter weightmetals. The dark areas are created
(1) A source of penetrating radiation, such as an because the slag is less dense than the ferrous alloy,
X-ray machineor a radioactiveisotope but may be of greater density than the lighter weight
(2) The object toberadiographed,such as a metal.
weldment Tungsten inclusions in aluminum welds, produced
(3) A recording or viewing device, usually photo- by improper GTAW techniques, appear as very light
graphic (X-ray)film enclosed in a light-proof holder areas on the film; the density of tungsten is 19.3 g/cm3
(4) A qualified radiographer, trained to produce a (0.697 1b/h3).
satisfactory exposure Cracks. Cracks appear as dark lines in the weld.
(5) A means to processexposed film or operate Shrinkage and stress cracks may be readily distin-
other recording media guished by their appearance. Shrinkage cracks are
(6)A person skilled in the interpretation
of generally irregular, whilestress cracks are regular and
radiographs well defined.
Welding (Ra) 423
Lack of Fusion. Lack offusion is usually easy to rec- The major advantage of this test method is that it
ognize, since it has the appearance of a thin line of can detect subsurface discontinuities in all common
slag, or a crack, closeto the joint wall. engineering materials. A further advantage is that the
developed film serves as anexcellentpermanent
Equipment
record of the test if properly stored awayfrom exces-
The equipmentrequired to performradiographic sive heat and light.
testing begins with a source of radiation; this source Along with these advantages are several disadvan-
can be either an X-ray machine, which requires electri-tages. One of those is the hazard posed to humans by
cal input, or aradioactive isotope whichproduces excessive radiation exposure. Many hours of training
gamma radiation.The isotopes usually offer increased in radiation safety are required to assure the safety of
portability. Either radiation type requires film and a both the radiographic test personnel andother person-
light-tight film holder, and an alphabet of lead letters nel in the testing vicinity. For that reason, the testing
which are used to identify the test object. Because of may be performed only after the test area has been
the high density oflead and the local increased thick- evacuated, which may present scheduling problems.
ness, these letters form light areas on *e developed Radiographictestingequipment can also bevery
film. Image Quality Indicators (IQI),or penetrameters expensive, and the training periods required to pro-
(pennys), are used to verifythe resolution sensitivity duce competent operators and interpreters are some-
of the test. These IQIs are usually one of two types: what lengthy. Interpretation of film should always be
shim or wire. They are both specified as to material done by those currently certified to a minimum Level
type. The shim type will have a specified thickness II per the AWS NDE Certification or ASNTs SNT
and included hole sizes, and the wire type will have TC- 1A. Another limitation of this test method is the
specified diameters. Sensitivityis verified by the abil- need for access to both sides of the test object (one
ity to detect a given difference in density due to the side for the source andthe opposite for the film).
penetrameterthicknessandholediameter, or wire Another disadvantageof radiographic testingis that
diameter. it may not detect those flaws which are considered to
Shimpenetrametersvaryinthicknessandhole be more critical (e.g., cracks and incomplete fusion)
diameters,depending on the metalthicknessbeing unless the radiation source is preferentially oriented
radiographed. Figure R-3 shows the essential features with respect to the flaw direction. Further, certain test
of various penetrameter designs, When the penetrame- object configurations (e.g., branchor fillet welds) can
ter thickness is 0.025 in., it will have the designation make boththe performance of the testing and interpre-
of #25, for the shim thickness in mils (a #10 is 0.010 tation of results more difficult. However, experienced
in. thick; a #50 is 0.050 in. thick). The hole diameters test personnel can obtain radiographs of these more
and positions are specified, and are noted in terms of difficultgeometriesandinterpretthemwithahigh
multipliers of the individual shim thickness.The larg- degree ofaccuracy. See also X-RAY TESTING OF
est hole in a #25 penny is 0.100 in., and is called the WELDS.
4 hole, indicating that it is equal to four times the
shim thickness. A2T hole (0.050 in,) is equal to two RADIO INTERFERENCE
times the shim thickness. The smallest hole between The high-frequency radiation used to stabilize a-c
the 4T and 2T hole is referred to as the 1T hole and gas tungsten arc welding may cause telephone, radio
is exactly equal to the shim thickness, 0.025 in.These and television interference. This problem can be alle-
holes are used to verify resolution sensitivity, which is viated by using an earth ground to ground the work-
usually specifiedto be 2%of the weld thickness. How- piece and the welding power supply case. It is also
ever,a l% sensitivitycan also be specified,but is helpful to keep cables as short as possible and to shield
more difficult to attain. the primary wiring.
Film processing equipment is required to develop
the exposed film and a special film viewerwith RADIUM (Ra)
intense lighting is best for interpretation of the film. A rare, brilliant white, radioactive metallicelement
Because of the potential dangers of radiationexposure used in luminousmaterials.Atomicnumber 88;
to humans, radiation monitoring equipment is always atomic weight, 226.05. Melting point, 700C
required. (1292F).

S T D e A W S JWE-ENGL L997 07642b5 05Lb598 047
424 RADON
F 6-
- , 2T DIAM.
T
r 2T DIAM. T DIAM.
T DIAM. T
+
c 4T DIAM. 1 -W8
2-1,14 in. mm
- I.D. nos.
-I 114
318
7/16
314
11
19
6.4
9.5
DESIGN FOR PENETRAMETER DESIGN FOR PENETRAMETER DESIGN FOR PENETRAMETER

THICKNESS FROM0.005 in. TO THICKNESS FROM 0.060 in. TO THICKNESS FROM0.180 in. AND
AND INCLUDING 0.050 in. AND INCLUDING 0.160in. MADE ABOVE. MADE IN 0.020 in.
ININCREMENTS.
0.010INCREMENTS.
in.
DIMENSIONS ARE IN INCHES.
Figure R-3-Typical Penetrameter Designs
RADON In the past, rails were heat treated to raise

the elastic
(Chemical symbol: Rn). A heavy, gaseous -element limit of the steel in the tread portion of the rail suf-
which is given off as the initial product during radium ficiently to overcome the cold flow effect. The oxy-
disintegration. Radon is a gas which has a half-life acetyleneprocess
was
used.
Heat
treating
was
period of 3.85 days. Either radium saltsor radon may accomplished by heating the end portions of the tread
beusedinindustrialradiography,however,when surfaceof the rails untiltheywerewell above the
radon is used,complicatedcorrectionsinexposure transformation point, then quenching the rail ends. If
time estimates are necessary because of its short half- necessary,asecondheattreatmentwasappliedto
life. See RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION. obtain the required degree of hardness, about 400 on
the Brinell hardness scale.
RAIL-END HARDENING
The advent of rail joint welding almost completely
In railroad tracks, the wearing down, or battering,
did away withthe need for rail-end hardening.
of rail endsis caused mainly by the cold flow of metal.
When trains pass over a rail, the concentrated load
RAIL JOINT WELDING
applied under the wheels produces at times a stress
greater than the elastic limit of the steel in the rail. Rails are joined in the field by either flashbutt
This stress is furtherincreased by thehammer-like welding (a resistance welding process)or by thermite
blows resulting from any unevenness in the height of welding.In the shop, flash buttwelding is used to
the abuttingrails, or poor joint or surface maintenance. weld the standard (11.9 m [39 ft]) lengths of rail into
In addition, the metal at the ends of the rail can flow in 300-ft sections. For additionalinformation,referto
two
directions,laterally
and
longitudinally.
This ANSYAWS D15.2, Recommended Practices for the
causes a much more rapid lowering of the surface of Welding of Rails and Related Rail Components for Use
the rail atthe very ends. by Rail Vehicles.

~ ~~
~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 05lh599 T83 m

Welding Encyclopedia RANDOM INTERMilTENT WELDS 425
Rail joints are welded for the following reasons: Continuous welded rail was introduced in 1930 by
smoother riding qualities, reduced track maintenance, the Central Georgia Railroadfor the track throughtwo
and to eliminate the need for shimming and building tunnels. Its Fust use in open track occurred in 1932.
up worn rail ends. Welded joints increase the life of Today thereare open track installations ranging from 1
ties and reduce the effects of vibration on cars and to 68 km (1/2 to 42 miles) in lengthon railroads in all
locomotives.MostAmericanrailroadsystems are sections of the country.
operating on trackage that has continuous welded rail. In tunnels, continuous welded rails have eliminated
See FLASH WELDINGand THERMITE WELDING. the use of joint bars, bolts and other connections that
Expanslonand Contraction Problems. Since rail- often servedas a focal point for corrosion. The continu-
roads frequently operate in temperatures which range ous railtechnique was quickly adapted to subway
from -34 to 48C (-30 to 120"F), an 82C (150F) tracks. On bridges, continuous welded railsystems
range,continuous rails wouldexpand as much as eliminated noise and vibration and reduced impact. At
152 cm (60 in.) in a length of 1.6 km (1 mile) if they road crossings, welded rail reduced the usual excessive
were free to move. To prevent this movement, welded maintenance and helped greatly to prevent the frequent
rail is spiked down to the ties using cleats. The spikes breakdown of the pavement. Similar advantages were
keep the rails from rising and thecleats restrain the rail realized in station platforms and tracks running through
from moving longitudinally. city streets,privately owned railroads on industrial
It is important to install the welded railat a temper- sites,andrailsforcranesandotherequipment. See
ature above the median operating temperature so that THERMITE WELDING,RESISTANCEWELDING,FLASH
If WELDING, and OXYACETYLENEPRESSURE WELDING.
the rail willbe in tension more than in compression.
thecompression forces (fromheating)exceedthe
RAILROAD CAR REPAIR
restrictingeffectofthe cleats, the trackmaybulge
sideways and cause a derailment. If the tension forces Information on the repair of railroad cars is con-
(from cooling) exceed the tensile strength of the rail, it tained in ANSUAWS D15.1, latest edition, Railroad
willbreak. This willautomaticallysignal the train WeldingSpecijcation-Carsand Locomotives. This
engineer and the right-of-way techniciansthat there is publication contains material on processes, consum-
a problem so that traffk on the defective rail will be
ables, base metals, operator and procedure qualifica-
shut down. tion,
anddesign welded
of joints. Reference:
American Welding Society, 550 N.W. LeJeune Road,
Records are maintained on each rail showing when
Miami, Florida 33126.
it was initially installed, the ambient temperature when
it was installed, and other pertinent data. Monitoring RAILWAY EQUIPMENT, Weldlng
systems keep technicians in constant touch with rail
The primary source of welding information relating
conditions.
to the construction of new railway equipment is the
Historical Background Manual of StandardsandRecommended Practices
The first significant stretches of welded rail joints prepared by the Mechanical Division, Association of
werecompletedin1938,butitwasnotuntil1950 AmericanRailroads(AAR). This manualincludes
thatwelded joints becameastandard of railroad specifications, standards, and recommended practices
construction. adopted by the Mechanical Division. Several sections
Early production rail joint welding was done with of the manual relate to welding, and the requirements
gas pressurewelding. In thisprocess, the railends are similar to those of ANSVAWS Dl .l,Structural
weresquaredupbypowersawing.Aftercleaning, Welding Code-Steel. This code is frequentlyrefer-
theywereclampedtogether in aweldingmachine enced for weld procedure and performance qualifica-
under a pressure of 17 to 18 MPa (2500 to 2700 psi). tion. In 1986, the American Welding Society
Multiflame torch tips were used to heat the ends of the published AWS D 15.1, Railroad Welding Specijca-
rails to 1260C (2300F). After about five minutes of tion, which has been endorsed by AAR.
heatingunderthisextremepressure, the railswere
welded. Excess weld metal was trimmed from the rail RANDOM INTERMIlTENT WELDS
by air-powered shears, and the rails were ground to Intermittent welds on one or both sides of a jointin
contour. Gas pressure welding was eventually phased which the weld increments are made without regardto
out in favorof flash butt welding. spacing. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.

~~ ~ ~~~~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 07842b5 051tbbOO 525
CE 426 RANDOM
RANDOM SEQUENCE slows therate of change of the current, andstores elec-

A longitudinalsequence in which the weld bead tromagnetic energy.The frrst feature enables the oper-
increments
are d e at random. See STANDARD atortostrike the metal electrodearcmoreeasily,
WELDING TERMS. because the tendency of the electrode to freeze to the
work is minimized. The second feature gives the arc
RANDOM WOUND additional stability, counteracting any influences, such
Spooled or coiled filler metalthathasnotbeen as air drafts or gas formation caused by impurities in
woundin distinct layers. See STANDARD WELDING metalbeingwelded,whichtend to extinguish the
TERMS. See also LEVEL WOUND. shielded metal electrode arc.
RATE OF DEPOSITION REACTOR CONTROL
See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See als0 DEPOSI- As used in a-c welding machines, reactor controls
TION RATE. provide for remoteadjustment of weldingcurrents.
The reactor control consists of a motor-driven gear
RATE OF FLAME PROPAGATION
device that may be applied to crank-adjusting units, or
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also FLAME arheostat at the workstation for reactorsthat are
PROPAGATION RATE. adjustedelectrically.Foot-operatedremotecontrol
units are available which permit a gradual buildup or
REACTANCE
reduction of the welding current. This type of control
The property of a device to impede the flow of an
device is useful in preventing weld craters.
alternatingcurrentwhileallowingdirectcurrentto
flow without opposition. RECALESCENCE
REACTANCE COIL The liberation of heat when steel is cooled from a
A choke coil. It is used to oppose the flow of high- white heat toa dull red heat, at which point
it suddenly
frequency currents in a circuit.See REACTOR. brightens, then continues to cool to ambient tempera-
ture. See METALLURGY.
REACTION FLUX, Soldering
RECOVERY
A flux composition in whichone or more of the
ingredients reacts with a base metal upon heating to The amount of alloying elements in a weld depos-
deposit one or more metals. See STANDARD WELDING ited from the filler metal, For example, the deposit
TERMS. from a bare rod containing 0.50% carbon generally
will not contain over 0.05% carbon. In this case, the
REACTION SOLDERING recovery is 10%. If the electrode is coated, the carbon
A soldering process variation in which a reaction recovery may rise to 50 or loo%, depending on the
flux is used. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. coating. Low recovery of an alloying element may be
due to the low boiling point of the element, its ten-
REACTION STRESS dency to join with the slag because of its affinity for
A stress that cannot existin a member ifthe member oxygen,nitrogen or othergases, or maybe due to
is isolated as a free bodywithout connection to other incorrect welding procedure, such as overheating the
parts of the structure. See STANDARD WELDING base metal.
TERMS.
RECTIFIER
REACTOR A device for changingalternatingcurrent into
A device used in arc welding circuits to minimize direct, or continuous, current.
irregularities in the flow of the welding current. See
STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. RECTIFIER WELDING MACHINE
Reactors are choke coils used in an electrical circuit A rectifierweldingmachine is used for welding
for protectionor for changingthe power factor. processesorelectrodes that requiredirectcurrent
On an arc welding machine, a reactor is an induc- rather than alternating current. isIta machinein which
tive coil of copper wireor strap, surroundedby a lami- a-cinputpower is changedtod-cweldingpower.
nated iron circuit provided with an air gap.The reactor Alternating currentis supplied tothe rectifier from the

~
~~ ~ ~~ ~
, STD'AWS JWE-ENGL L777 07842b5 05LbbOL 4bL m

Welding 427
power line through a transformer.The welding current are convenience of operation and adaptability to auto-
control maybe incorporated in the transformer, ormay matic welding process control.
be a separate reactor between the transformer and the
rectifier. RED SHORT
Rectifier welding machines may have either single- See HOT SHORT.
phase or three-phase input. While some machines may
supply either a-c or d-c output, the most efficient are REDUCED SECTION TENSION TEST
those designed for d-c welding only. The three-phase A test in which a transverse section of the weld is
welding machine will showthe lowest ripple percent- located in the center of the reducedsection of the spec-
age; thatis, it will exhibit very smooth arc characteris- imen. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
tics.Rectifierweldingmachines may be divided
broadlyinto two generaltypes,according to volt- REDUCING AGENT
amperage curves and application. A deoxidizer.
Constant-Current Welding Machines. A constant-cur- REDUCING ATMOSPHERE
rent welding machine has characteristically drooping
voltamperagecurves,producingrelativelyconstant A chemically active protectiveatmosphere that will
current within a limited change in load voltage. This reduce metal oxides to their metallic state at elevated
type of welder is conventionally used with shielded temperature. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS.
metal arc welding, gas tungsten arc welding, plasma
arc welding orair carbon arc cutting. Constant current REDUCING FLAME
weldingunits,whenadjusted for full-ratedoutput, An oxyfiel gasflame with an excess offiel gas. See
shouldmaintain the currentwithin 5% of its rated STANDARD WELDINGTERMS.
value, with a variation of 1% above or below normal A reducing flame may be used to prevent oxida-
arc voltage. tion of an active metal, so that wetting is not hin-
A constant current welding machine is best suited dered or unacceptable dross is not produced. The
for most manual operations where variations in the arc reducing flame may also preclude loss of a key oxi-
length are most apt to occur because of the individual dizable alloying element, such as carbon. Specific to
technique of the operator. It may also be used, how- plain and alloyed steels, a reducing flame imparts
ever, in automatic and semi-automatic operations with carbon into the surface of the weld metal. In such
a variable electrode feed mechanism, and in operationssituations, a reducing flame is often referred to as a
in which an effort is made to maintain a constant arc carburizing flame. See also CARBURIZINGFLAME,
NEUTRAL FLAME, OXIDIZING FLAME, and REDUCING
length by automatic changes in the wire feed speed.
ATMOSPHERE.
ConstantPotential. Constant-potentialpowersup-
plies are designed specifically to power the various REDUCING VALVE
automatic welding processes which use a continuous See REGULATOR.
wire electrode that is fed at a constant speed. In this
type of weldingmachine, the arc voltage curve REFINED ZONE
approaches a horizontalline and maintains its voltage The portion or area of the basemetalbordering
within 5% of the rated full-load setting, overthe range on the fusionzone, in whichgrainrefinementhas
from open circuitto full load. takenplace as a result of the heat of welding. See
The methods of currentcontrol on rectifiertype METALLURGY.
welders vary between different equipment manufac-
turers. Among commercial designs, the means of cur- REFLOWING
rent control are movable coil transformers, movable A nonstandard
term
when
used for FLOW
core reactors,saturablereactors,magneticlinkage BRIGHTENING.
controls, and various solid-state devices.
The advantages of mechanical current controls are REFLOW SOLDERING
stability and the capacity of duplicating current set- Anonstandardterm for solderingwithpreplaced
tings. The principal advantages of electrical controls filler metal.
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 2997 07842b5 052bb02 3 T B m
ETALS 428 REFRACTORY
REFRACTORY METALS
Refractorymetals are thosewithhighmelting
points.
Popular
usage has established
2000C
(3632F)as the minimummeltingpoint. See Table
,- .4FR4$NG
R-l.
DIAPHRAGM
Table R-1
Melting Pointsof Various Refractory Metals
Melting Point
Metal "C "F

Boron3812 2100
3866
Hofnium 2130
Ruthenium 2400 4352
Niobium4379 5 241
4449
Iridium 2454
4752
Molybdenum 2622
Osmium4892 2700
5425
Tantalum 2996
Rhenium 5732 3 167 Figure R-$"Cross-Sectional Viewof a vpical
6152
Tungsten 3400 Single Stage Stem-Type Regulator
REFRIGERATED WELDING
See RESISTANCE WELDING, Refrigerated. in balance betweenthe pressure of the spring and the
pressure of the gas in the chamber; this maintains a
REGULATOR constant flow of gas through the regulator at a given
Regulators are reducing valves which are attached pressure. This pressure may be increased or
to the cylinder valves of oxygen, acetylene, and other decreased by changing the position of the adjusting
gas cylinders to reducethe pressure in the cylinder to a screw.
suitableworkingpressureatthetorch. The compo- A single-stage oxygen regulator is usually used to
nents of a regulator are: a diaphragm, a seat, a nozzle, step the pressure down from a cylinder pressure of
springs, and a suitable case, usually made of a brass 13.8 MPa (2000 psi), when the cylinder is full, to torch
forging. A cross sectionalview of atypicalsingle- pressures of from 7 to 240 kPa (1 to 35 psi), depending
stage regulatoris shown in Figure R-4. on the size of the tip in use and the type of torch. A
Regulator Types 21MPa(3000psi)gauge is attached to thehigh-
There are two general types of regulators: the sin- pressure side of the regulator and a gauge which will
gle-stage regulator and a more complex two-stage reg- reduce pressure to 1 MPa (150 psi) or less is attached
ulator. A two-stageregulatorhastwoseats,two to the low-pressure side.
nozzles and two diaphragms, with one adjusting screw. The initial reduction in a two-stage oxygen regula-
Regulator Action tor is from a maximum of 13 MPa (2000 psi) to an
When the adjusting screw is turned to the right, intermediate pressureof 1.7 MPa (250 psi), the second
pressure is applied to the spring, causing the dia- reduction is to the required torch pressure, which is
phragm and the seat carriage to force the seat away controlled by the adjusting screw.
from the nozzle, permitting gas to enter the chamber. Acetyleneregulators reduce cylinderpressures
The high-pressure gas entering the chamber increases from a maximum of about 1.7 MPa (250 psi) to torch
the pressure on the diaphragm until it overcomes the pressures not ordinarily exceeding 75 or 82 kpa (11
pressure of the large spring, permitting the seat to be or 12 psi). These are usually equipped with 2.7 MPa
closed by the small spring, or springs. The position of (400psi)gaugesonthehigh-pressure side and
the seat over the nozzle is controlled by the difference 340 kPa(50 psi) gauges onthe low pressure side.

Welding Encyclopedia SIZE WELD SEAM
RESISTANCE 429
Connections stress relief in steel welding increases as the carbon

The standard inlet threadingof the nuts and nipples content of the steel increases.
of oxygen and acetylene regulatorsis diBerent to pre-
vent attaching the regulators to the wrong cylinders. RESIDUE
The threading of the outlet nipples for the hose con- Unwanted material, usually considered a contami-
nections also differ so thathosescannot be inter- nant, that is left on a metal surface following welding,
changed. See HOSE CONNECTION STANDARDS. brazing or soldering. In brazing and soldering, residue
is a result of the flux used. It is made up of excess
REGULATOR SCREW (unaltered) flux, and reacted and spent, (decomposed
The threaded connection to the adjusting knobof a and burned) flux, known collectively as flux residue.
pressure regulator. Turning the adjusting knob to the See also RESIDUUM.
rightcausestheadjustingscrew to pushagainst a
spring button which compresses the pressure-adjusting RESIDUUM
spring. The forceof the compressed spring causes the The accumulation of water and slaked lime in the
diaphragm to flex and push against the stem, which bottom of an acetylene generator.
opens the regulatorto allow gas to flow from theinlet
chamber to the delivery chamberof the regulator.
RESISTANCE
REGULATOR, Station Theproperty of a substancewhichcauses it to
A station regulator is used to step down (reduce) oppose the flow of electricity through the substance.
pressure from a pipeline system which delivers gases Resistance is the measure of free electrons in a mate-
to the work stations of oneor more operators, usually rial. See OHM.
at 1.4 MPa (200psi). Station regulators should never
be connected to a gas cylinder because they are not RESISTANCE BRAZING (RB)
designed to handle cylinder pressures. A brazing process that uses heatfrom the resistance
to electric currentflow in a circuit of which the work-
REHEATING pieces are a part.See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS.
A term sometimes applied to postweld heating.See
HEATTREATMENT. RESISTANCE B u l l WELDING
A nonstandard term forUPSET WELDING and FLASH
REINFORCEMENT OF WELD WELDING.
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also WELD
REINFORCEMENT. RESISTANCE FURNACE
RELUCTANCE A furnace which is heated by electric current flow-
The resistance to the flow of magnetism through a ing through resistance coils.See FURNACE.
material.
RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING (RSEW)
RESIDUAL MAGNETISM A resistance welding process that produces a weld
The magnetism retained in the ironcore of an elec- at the faying surfaces of overlapped parts progres-
tromagnet after the flowof current is stopped. sively along a length of a joint.The weld may be made
with overlappingweld nuggets, a continuous weld
RESIDUAL STRESS nugget, or by forging the joint as it is heated to the
Stress present in a jointmember or material that is welding temperature by resistance to the flow of the
free of e x t e m l forces or thermal gradients. See STAN- welding current. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See
DARD WELDING TERMS. Figures H-4 and R-5. See also HIGH-FREQUENCY
Residual stresses left ina welded joint when weld- SEAM WELDING and INDUCTION SEAM WELDING.
ing has been completed are the result of thermal or
mechanical action, or both. In steel, these stresses are RESISTANCE SEAM WELD SIZE
sometimes partially prevented or relieved by preheat- See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See also SEAM
ing, hammering,orannealing. The importance of WELD SIZE.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lbb04 L70 D
SOLDERING
430 RESISTANCE (RS) Weldina EncvcloDedia
from resistance of the workpieces to the flow of the

welding current in a circuit of which the workpieces
are a part, and by the application of pressure. See
The theory of resistance welding is based on the
principlethatalow-voltage,high-amperagecurrent
flows through a heavy copper conductor, encountering
little resistanceuntil it reachesthematerial to be
~ ~~~ welded. Current flow through thegreater resistance of
Figure R-&Resistance Seam Weld. The the material being welded causes intense heat to be
Overlapping Spot Welds Provide a Leak-Tight generated,thenpressure is appliedwhichforces
Seam. together the two pieces being welded. The resulting
weldbetweenthese two pieces is as strongasthe
RESISTANCE SOLDERING(RS) weaker of the two pieces that have beenjoined.
A soldering process that uses heat from the resis- Resistancewelding is accomplishedbyclamping
tance to electric current flow in a circuit of which the the work (two or more sheets of metal) between cop-
workpieces areapart. sesSTANDARD WELDINGTERMS. per electrodes and passing an electric current through
it. The heat generated atthe point of contact between
RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING (RSW) thepiecesreduces the metaltoaplasticstate,and
A resistance welding process that produces a weld using clamping pressure, induces fusion.
at the faying sur$aces of a joint by the heut obtained Historical Background
from resistance to the flow of welding current through
The principle of resistance welding was discovered
the workpieces from electrodes that serve to concen-
trate the weldingcurrentand pressure at the weld by the English physicist, James Joule, in 1856. In his
urea. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure experiments he buried a bundleof wire in charcoal and
welded the wires by heating them with anelectric cur-
R-6. See also RESISTANCE WELDING.
rent. Thisis believed to be the first application of heat-
ingbyinternalresistance for weldingmetal. It
FAYING
remained for Elihu Thompson to perfect the process
SURFACE and developit for practical applications.
In 1877 Thompson invented a small low-pressure
resistanceweldingmachine.Weldingwasaccom-
plished with this machine by causing the internal resis-
tance in the workpiece to generate the heat required to
reach its plasticstage.Forseveralyears, little was
done with this development, since it seemed to have
FUSION I l \ 1 little commercial value. Nevertheless, resistance weld-
FUSIONINTERFACE
WELD
FACE ing was introduced commerciallyin the early 1880sas
incandescent welding.
Figure R-6-Resistance Spot Weld Modern Resistance Welding Technology
Spot, seam, and projection welding are three resis-
RESISTANCE SPOT WELD SIZE tance welding processes in which coalescenceof met-
See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See also SPOT als is producedat the fayingsurfaces by theheat
WELD SIZE. generated bythe resistance of the work to the passage
of electric current.Force is always applied before, dur-
RESISTANCE WELDER ing, and after the application of current to confne the
A resistance welding machine. weld contact area at the faying surfaces and, in some
applications, to forge the weld metal during postheat-
RESISTANCE WELDING(RW) ing. Figure R-7 illustrates the three processes.
A group of welding processes that produces coales- In spot welding, a nugget of weld metalis produced
cence of the faying surfaces with the heat obtained at the electrode site, but two or more nuggets may be

clopedia Welding RESISTANCEWELDING (RW) 431
ELECTRODES OR ELECTRODES OR ELECTRODES PROJECTION

WELDING WELDING OR DIES -I
TIPS WHEELS
WELDS 7
BEFORE AFTER
WELDING WELDING
(A) SPOT WELDING (B) SEAM WELDING (C) PROJECTIONWELDING
Figure R-7-Simplified Diagrams Showing the Basic Processes of Spot, Seam, and Projection Welding
made simultaneously using multiple sets of electrodes. coolwhileunderpressureuntil it hasadequate

Projection welding is similar except that nugget loca- strength to hold the parts together.
The current density
tion is determined by a projection or embossment on and pressure must be such that a nugget is formed, but
one faying surface, or by the intersection of parts in not so high that molten metal is expelled from the
the case of wires or rods (cross-wire welding).Two or weld zone.The duration of weld current must be suffi-
moreprojectionweldscan be madesimultaneously ciently short to preventexcessive heating of the elec-
with one set of electrodes. trode faces. Such heating may bond the electrodes to
Seam welding is avariation of spotwelding in the work and greatly reduce their life.
which a series of overlapping nuggets is produced to The heat required for these resistance weldingpro-
obtain a continuous, leak tight seam. One or both elec- cesses is produced by the resistance of the worlcpieces
trodes are generallywheelsthat rotate as the work to an electric currentpassingthrough the material.
passes between them. A seam weld can be produced Because of the short electric current path inthe work
with spot welding equipment but the operation will be and limited weld time, relatively high welding currents
much slower. are required to develop the necessary welding heat.
A series of separate spot welds may be made with a HeatGeneratlon. Inan electrical conductor, the
seam welding machine and wheel electrodes by suit- amount of heat generated depends upon three factors:
ably adjusting the travel speed and the time between (1) the amperage, (2) the resistance of the conductor
welds. Movement of the workmay or maynot be (including interface resistance), and(3) the duration of
stopped during the spot weld cycle. This procedure is current. These three factors affect the heat generated
known as roll spot welding. as expressed inthe formula
Q = 12Rt
Spot, seam,andprojectionweldingoperations
involve a coordinated application of electric current where:
and mechanical pressureof the proper magnitudes and Q = heat generated,joules
durations. The welding current mustpassfrom the I = current, amperes
electrodes through the work. Its continuity is assured R = resistance of the work, ohms
by forces applied to the electrodes, or by projections
t = duration of current, seconds
which are shaped to provide the necessary current den-
sity and pressure.The sequence of operation mustfirst The heat generated is proportional to the square of
develop sufficient heat to raise a confined volume of the welding current and directly proportional to the
metal to the molten state. This metal is then allowedto resistance and the time. Part of the heat generated is
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 07842b5 05LbbOb T 4 3
432 RESISTANCE WELDING (RW) Encyclopedia Welding
used to make the weld and partis lost to the surround- force.) This is a point of high heat generation, butthe
ing metal. surface of the base metal does not reach its fusion tem-
Thesecondarycircuitofaresistancewelding perature during the current passage, due to the high
machine and the work being welded constitute a series thermal conductivity of the electrodes (1 and 7) and
of resistances. The total resistance of the current path the fact that they are usually water cooled.
affects the current magnitude. The current will be the (3) 3 and 5 , the total resistance of the base metal
same inall parts of the circuit regardlessof the instan- itself, which is directly proportional to its resistivity
taneous resistance at any location the in circuit, butthe and thickness, and inversely proportionalto the cross-
heat generated at any location in the circuit will be sectional areaof the current path.
directly proportional to the resistance at that point. (4) 4, the base metal interface resistance at the loca-
An important characteristic of resistance welding is tion where the weld is to be formed. This is the point
the rapidity with which welding heat can be produced.of highest resistance and, therefore, the point of great-
The temperaturedistribution in theworkandelec- est heatgeneration. Since heat is also generatedat
trodes, in the caseof spot, seam, and projection weld- points 2 and 6, the heat generated at interface4 is not
ing, is illustrated in Figure R-8. There are, ineffect, at readily lost to the electrodes.
least seven resistances connected in series in a weld Heat will be generated in each of the seven loca-
thataccountfor the temperaturedistribution.Fora tions in Figure R-S in proportion to the resistance of
two-thickness joint, these are the following: each. Welding heat, however, is required only at the
(1) 1 and 7, the electrical resistanceof the electrode base metal interface, and the heat generated all at
other
material. locationsshouldbeminimized. Since the greatest
(2) 2 and 6, the contact resistance betweenthe elec- resistance is located at 4,heat is most rapidly devel-
trode and the base metal. The magnitude of this resis- oped at that location. Points of next lower resistance
tancedependson the surfacecondition of thebase are 2 and 6. The temperaturerisesrapidly at these
metal and the electrode, the size and contour of the points also, but notas fast as at 4. After about 20% of
electrode face, and the electrode force, (Resistance is the weld time, the heat gradient may conform to the
roughly inversely
proportional to
the
contacting profile shown in Figure R-8. Heat generated2 at and 6
-- 1
TEMPERATURE RESISTANCE
Figure R-&Temperature Distribution During a Resistance Spot Weld

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 H 03842b5 05Lbb07 98T m
Welding Encyclopedia GUN WELDINGRESISTANCE 433
is rapidlydissipated into the adjacentwater-cooled

electrodes 1 and 7. The heat at 4 is dissipated much
more slowly into the base metal. Therefore, while the
welding current continues,the rate of temperature rise
at plane 4 will be much more rapid than2 at and 6. The
welding temperature is indicated on the chart at the
right of Figure R-8 by the number of dots within the
drawing leadingto the matching curve.
Factors that affect the amount of heat generated in
the weld joint by a given current for a unit of weld
time are (1) the electrical resistances withinthe metal
being welded and the electrodes, (2) the contact resis-
tances between the workpieces and between the elec-
trodes and the workpieces, and (3) the heat lost to the
workpieces andthe electrodes.
A comprehensive and detailed descriptionof resis-
tance welding principles of operation, individual pro-
cesses,powersources,machines,electrodes,key
weldingparameters,weldschedules,weldingmeth-
ods, and weldability of major metals and alloys can be
found in the AmericanWeldingSociety Welding Figure R-+View of Mash Welding Electrodes
Handbook, 8th Edition,Volumes 2, 1991;and Welding Grooved to Hold the Workpieces
Handbook Volume 3,1996, Miami, Florida.
Variations in the composition, shape and thickness RESISTANCE WELDING CURRENT
of materials require different techniques to maintain The current in the welding circuit during the mak-
productivity. For example, if one of the pieces to be ing of a weld, but excluding preweld or postweld cur-
resistancespotwelded is considerablythickerthan rent.See S T A N D N WELDING TERMS. See Figure
the other, the thin piece would heat much quicker and R- 10.
melt before the thick piece reached welding tempera-
ture.One solution to this problem is to fashion a pro- RESISTANCE WELDING DIE
jection (see Figure R-7) on the thicker sheet at the A resistanceweldingelectrode usually shaped to
place to be welded. This projection concentrates the the workpiece contour to clamp the workpieces and to
heat in a small area on the thicker sheet and brings it conduct the welding current. SeeSTANDARD WELDING
up to melting temperature atthe same timeas the thin- TERMS.
ner sheet.
RESISTANCE WELDING DOWNSLOPE TIME
Mash Welding. Mash welding is the term used to The time during which the welding current is con-
describe the spot welding of two wires or rods at an tinuously decreased. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
angle to one another. See Figure R-9, which shows See Figure R- 1O.
how the electrodes are grooved to hold the stock. This
method, also calledcross wirewelding, is used to weld RESISTANCE WELDING ELECTRODE
such items as wirewastebasketsandlampshade The part of a resistance welding machine through
frames. which the welding current and, in most cases, force
are applied directly to the workpiece. The electrode
may be in the form of a rotating wheel, rotating roll,
RESISTANCE WELDING CONTROL
bal; cylindel; plate, clamp, chuck, or modification
The device, usually electronic, that determines the thereot See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS.
welding sequence and timing with regard to the weld-
ing current pattern, electrode or platen forceor move- RESISTANCE WELDING GUN
ment, and other operational conditions of a resistance A manipulatable device to transfer current and pro-
welding machine. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. vide electrodeforce to the weld area (usually in refer-
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 M 0784265 O5LbbO8 8Lb m
Refrigerated
WELDING,
434 RESISTANCE Encyclopedia Welding
FORGE DELAY TIME MAY BE
J
FORGE FORCE
INITIATED AT SOME OTHER "-"""- 1
POINT IN THE WELDING CYCLE 0
/ I
)" """""",J I
/
0 k- FORGE DELAY TIME d-. I
I
DOWNSLOPE TIME
ELD
INTERVAL -
WELD
PREWELD
INTERVAL
CYCLE WELDING *
Figure R-1&Multiple-Impulse Resistance Spot Welding Schedule
ence to a portable gun). See STANDARD WELDING variations in the welding heat becauseof variations in
TERMS. the welding contact resistance.
One of the methods used to minimize these prob-
RESISTANCE WELDING, Refrigerated lems is to circulate a refrigerated coolant through the
A process developed to overcome pickup problems electrodes. A coolanttemperatureof-12C (10F)
in the resistance welding of aluminum. was found to reduce the softening and pickup prob-
lems to the point that the electrodes could be used to
Aluminum is readily welded using the resistance
make as many as 2000 spot welds between electrode
spot welding process. However, because of the rela- dressings(witha file or emerycloth).Whilethis
tively low electrical resistance of aluminum, the cur- extended electrode service life by a factor of ten, the
rent requirements for welding are two to three times refrigerated
coolant
method
has
been
partially
the values required for welding a similar thickness of replaced by the development of (1) copper alloy elec-
carbon steel. The high welding currents required for trodes that do not deform plastically at the tempera-
aluminum result in heating of the copper weldingelec- tures encountered, and(2) small replaceable electrode
trodes and "mushrooming"of the contact tips. There is caps that resultedin discarding 14 g (U2 oz) of copper
also the problem of "pickup" of aluminumon the cop- rather than the previous 170 g (6 oz) when the tips
per electrodes duringthe welding cycle. Both of these were wornout.
phenomena result in changes in current density, and
therefore weld quality. Another problem is the oxide RESISTANCE WELDING, Stored Energy
scale which forms on aluminum. In spite of careful A fonn of resistance welding in which the electrical
cleaningmethodsprior to welding, the oxidelayer energyneededto cause Jouleheating in the work-
forms on aluminum very quickly and can cause wide pieces is obtained from a bank of capacitors or con-

densers. These machines draw power from the supply See Figure R-10. See also WELD INTERVAL, RESIS-
line over a relatively long time between welds, accu- TANCE WELDING.
mulating power to deliver to the electrodes during a Practical solutions to the successful resistance spot
short weld time.The process is also known as Capaci- welding of bare and coated steels and the non-ferrous
tor-Discharge Welding. SeeARC STUD WELDING. group of metals and alloys, particularly in dissimilar
combinations, are generally considered to be difficult
RESISTANCE WELDING,Threephase or impossible. Control of the process is crucial. Con-
Resistanceweldingwhichemploysthree-phase trol technology is continually advancing, so modern
alternating current primarilyto overcome the demands reference sources, including recently published papers,
of high-power loads on existing powerlines and are recommended. The interested reader is referred to
facilities. information on control of the resistance welding pro-
Line currents in three-phase systems require only cess in the AmericanWeldingSociety's Welding
116 to 1/4 of the current needed for single-phase Handbook, Volume 2, 8thEdition,Miami,Florida,
equipment of the same welding capacity. 1991.
Additional advantagesare:
(1) A machine power factor typically over 85% RESISTOR
(2) Identical (i.e., balanced)currentdemands on A device thathasmeasurable,controllable, or
each leg (orline) of a three-phase power source known electrical resistance, used in electroniccircuits
(3) The same secondary current regardless of the or in arc welding circuitsto regulate the arc amperes.
inductive load introduced into the throat of the weld-
ing machine RESPIRATOR
(4) Lower installation cost compared to single- An apparatus used to assure adequate oxygen for
phase life support; or, device
a worn overthe nose and mouth
From the welding viewpoint, advantages include: to protect the respiratory tract against airborne con-
taminantspresent inthe weldingatmosphere.Air-
(1) less tendency for metal expulsion; (2) longer elec-
supplied respirators or face masks are generally pre-
trode tip life; (3) less sensitivity to tip size; (4) self-
ferred, and air-supplied welding helmetsare available
regulating secondary current;(5) more utliform distri-
bution of current during projection welding;(6)easiercommercially.
welding of aluminum,brass,magnesiumandother Filter-type respirators, approvedby the U.S. Bureau
non-ferrous metals, with less electrode pickup. Refer-
of Mines for metal fumes, give adequate protection
ence: American Welding Society, Welding Handbook, againstparticulatecontaminantsthat are less toxic
8th Edition, Volume 2, Three-phase Power Sources, than lead, provided they are used and maintained cor-
Miami, Florida, 1991. rectly. Filter-type respiratorsare not recommended for
general use becauseof the difficulty in assuring proper
RESISTANCE WELDING TIMERS useandmaintenance.Theywillnotprotectagainst
See ELECTROIW CONTROLS, Resistance Welding. mercury vapor, carbon monoxide,or nitrogen dioxide.
See other references on Resistance Welding Controls, Forthesehazardsanair-suppliedrespirator,hose
e.g.,AmericanWeldingSociety Welding Handboo, mask, or gas mask is required.
8th Edition, Volume 2; Miami, Florida: 1991.
RETAINING SHOE
RESISTANCE WELDING UPSLOPE TIME
A nonstandard termfor BACKING SHOE.
The time during which thewelding current continu-
ously increasesfrom the beginningof the welding cur- REVERSE POLARITY
rent. See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. ses Figure
R- 10. A nonstandardterm for DIRECT CURRENT ELEC-
TRODE POSlTIVE.
RESISTANCE WELDING WELD TIME
The duration of welding current flow through the RHEOSTAT
workpieces in making a weld by single-impulse weld- A variableelectrical resistor for regulating currents;
ing orflash welding. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. used in arc welding to regulate the arc amperes.

. S T D = A W S JWE-ENGL L997 m 078h2b5 05LbbLO h 7 h M
436 RIBBON Welding Encyclopedia
RIBBON FLAME ROBOTIC WELDING

A narrow, ribbon-like flame produced by a welding Welding that is pegomted and controlledby robotic
torch tip with a narrow slot orifice. equipment. Variationsofthis t e m are robotic brazing,
robotic soldering, robotic t h e m 1 cutting, and robotic
RIDGE-WELDING t h e m l spraying. See STANDARDWELDING TERMS.
A modification of projection welding in which the See also ADAPTIVECONTROLWELDING,AUTOMATIC
currentisconcentratedbymeans of aridge,which WELDING,MANUALWELDING,MECHANIZEDWELD-
localizes the weld. ING, and SEMIAUTOMATIC WELDING.
Robots are used where repetitive work functions are
RIGID STRING WELDING performed. Theyare usually computer driven. Robotic
See STRINGER BEAD. equipment is especially useful where the workis per-
formed in environments that are uncomfortable or haz-
RIPPLE WELD
ardous, for example, material
handlingin the
A term describingthe appearance of a weld madein proximity of a furnace. Production welding is a good
steel with a hand torch. application for robotic equipment because it involves
RIVET WASHING
repetitive welding on parts of a givensize and shape.
Removing the heads of rivets with a cutting torch Robotic equipment requiresspecial features and
and a special tip which delivers oxygen to the rivet capabilities to successfully performarc welding opera-
head at very low velocity. tions. Arc weldingrobots are generally high-precision
The rivet headis preheated with flames surrounding machines containing electric servomotor drives and
a very large oxygen orifice. When the rivet head is red special interfaces withthe arc welding equipment.See
hot, the oxygen valveis opened andthe central portion Figure R-11.
of the rivet headis burned up, leaving theexternal ring Programming. An automatic arc weldingsystem
and a cup-shaped end to the shank. The remainder of must be programmed to perform the welding opera-
the rivet can then be backed out without damaging the tion. Programming is the establishment of a detailed
sheet. sequence of steps that the machine must follow to suc-
cessfully weldthe assembly to specifications.
ROBOTIC, adj. Developing a welding program involves the follow-
Pertaining to process control by robotic equipment. ing steps:
See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See also ADAPTIVE (1) Calibrate the automatic welding system. Cali-
CONTROL,AUTOMATIC,MANUAL,MECHANIZED, and brationinsures that futureuseoftheprogramwill
SEMIAUTOMATIC. operate from a known set point.
A robotis a mechanicaldevice capable of reproduc- (2) Establishthelocationof the assemblywith
ing motions that may resemble human activity, capa- respect to the welding machine. Often simple fixturing
ble of performing tasks in an automated way. is sufficient.
(3) Establish the pathto be followed bythe welding
ROBOTIC BRAZING
gun or torch as welding progresses. Some robots can
See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See also ROBOTIC be taught the path while other automatic welding
WELDING.
systems have to be programmed off-line.
ROBOTIC SOLDERING (4) Develop the weldingconditions to beused.
see STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See also ROBOTIC They must then be coordinated with the work motion
WELDING.
program.
(5) Refine the program by checking and verifying
ROBOTIC THERMALCUlTlNG performance.Often,aprogramrequiresediting to
See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See also ROBOTIC obtain the desired weld joint.
WELDING. There are four general geometric classifications of
industrial robots:
ROBOTIC THERMAL SPRAYING (1)Rectilinear(Cartesiancoordinate)robotshave
See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See also ROBOTIC linear axes, usually three in number, which move a
WELDING. wrist in space. Their working zone is box shaped.

~ ~~ ~~~~~~ ~~ ~
STD*AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 O5LbbLh 300 m
Welding ROBOTIC WELDING 437
Figure R-1lRobot Making Test Welds

Photo courtesy of ABB Flexible Automation, Inc.
(2) Cylindrical coordinate robots have one circular An arc welding robot requires a number of periph-
axis andtwolinearaxes.Theirworkingzone is a eral or supporting devicesto achieve optimum produc-
cylinder. tivity. The basic elements of a robotic work cell are
(3) Spherical coordinate robots employ two circular shown in TableR-2. Many variations are possible, and
axes andone linear axis to move the robot wrist.Their eachdevicecouldcontain its own controller that
working zone is spherical. would execute instructions from its program on com-
(4)Articulating (jointed arm)robots utilize rotary mand from the robot or host controller. All robot sta-
joints and motions similarto a human arm to movethe tionscan be enhanced by one or more of the
robot wrist. The working zone hasa irregular shape. componentslistedinTableR-3. These components
All four robot geometries perform the same basic help to teach the robot quickly, minimize times for
function: the movementof the robot wristto a location scheduled and unscheduled maintenance, and assure
in space. Each geometry has advantages and limita- operator and equipment safety. Also included in Table
tions under certain conditions. Articulating and recti- R-3 are severalfeatures that are not necessary for effi-
linear robots are favored designsfor arc welding. cient robot cell use but can enhance the productivity of
Robotic arc welding is applicable to high, medium, the cell.
and low volume manufacturing operations under cer- An articulating (jointed arm)robot is favored for
tainconditions. It can be applied to automation of arc welding small parts where there are long travel dis-
medium and low volume production quantities where tances between welds. The arm of this type of robot is
the total volume warrantsthe investment. capable of quick motion.This robot designis also pre-
S T D O A W S JWE-ENGL 1997 07842b5 051bb12 247 W
438 ROBOTIC WELDING Encyclopedia Welding
Table R-2 Table R-3

Elements of a RobotWork Call Supplementary Equipmentfor
Welding Robot Work Cell
Component
Recommended
Host Managesrobotmotions,weldingprocess
controller functions, and safety interlocks according
tostoredprogram.MayFunction
alsomanageor Component
direct motions of positioners, tooling, fix-
tures and material handling devices. (For MasterpartTeachestherobot.Thentests and verifies
most systems, the host controller is partof (component)program and work cellaccuracy,andiden-
the robot.) tifies changes.
Robot Manipulates welding torch as directed by Robot program Programs the robot.Then verifies work cell
controller. performance.
listing
Process Performsweldingprocessasdirected by ProgramsavePermitspermanentstorage of robotpro-
package host or robot controller. Process functions device
gram
produced by "Teach Method"
for
include shielding gas flows, wire feed, and future use.
arc voltage and current.
Positioner Manipulates workpiece to fixed positionso Torch Set-up Allowsquick Set-up aftertorchmainte-
that robot can performweld sequence. May nance
jigor replacement.
Establishes
posi-
the
also manipulate workpiece during welding tion of the pointof welding arc with respect
to provide weld motion. May be activated to the robot.
by robot controller orby a human operator.
Torch cleaningKeepsweldingtorchoperatingproperly.
Fixture and Holdworkpiececomponentsinafixed station
May
be
performedmanually by an
operator
clamping tools position relative to two or more orientation or automatically.
mounted on points on the fixture. Clamping tools may
positioner be activated by the robot controller orby a Safety screens Provide operator protection from arc flash,
human operator. andinterlockssmokeandfume,burns and heat.Prevent
physical harm from robot, tooling,or mate-
Material Movescomponentsinto work cell, and rial handling equipment.
handling removes welded assemblies fromwork cell.
May be manual, machine or automatic. Desirable
Inspection jig Enables quick inspection of products, helps

ferredfornonmovableassembliesthatrequire the to identifySet-up or program problems.
robot to reach aroundor inside a workpiece to position
the robot wrist. Cell Set-up and Permits quick detection of problems. Pro-
are favored for
For safety reasons, rectilinear robots troubleshooting vides orientationand training for new oper-
most other arc welding applications. Theyare particu- guide ators,
maintenance and supervisory
personnel.
larly suited for applications where a welding operator
is required to be in close proximity to the weldingarc. Work cell tool Keeps at hand special critical tools used in
Rectilinear robots move slower and in a more predict- kit work cell Set-up, adjustment andrepair.
able paththan articulating robots.
Axes. Arc welding robots usually have five or six Offline Enablesreprogramming,programdebug-
programming ging, and program editing withoutlost cell
axes (Figure R-12)and some may be equipped with time. Relatively new technology still under
station
seven or eight axes. A complete robotic work station development.
may contain as many as eleven axes of coordinated
motion. DownloadlinkPermitsoff-lineprogrammingstation to
RobotTransfer. Large assembliesandassemblies sendprogramsto work cell. Mayallow
thatrequiresignificant arc timecan bewelded by work cell to send programs for storage.

Welding 439
Some robots can access multiple welding stations

located in a semicircle. Rectilinear robotscan move to
welding stations that are organized in a straight line.
Positloner. A positioner can be usedtomovean
assembly under an automatic arc welding head during
the welding operation,or to reposition an assembly, as
required, for robotic arc welding. The assembly canbe
moved so thattheweldingcan be performedina
favorable position, usuallythe flat position.
There are two types of positioners for automatic arc
welding.Onetypeindexesanassembly to apro-
grammed welding position. The other type is incorpo-
rated into the welding system to provide an additional
motionaxis.Apositionercanprovidecontinuous
motion of the assembly whilethe machine is welding,
to improvecycle time. Positionerscan have fully coor-
dinated motion for positioning a weldjoint in the flat
(A) ARTICULATED ROBOT position in a robot cell.
Control Interfaces.An automatic arc welding system
requires control interfaces for component equipment.
n o types of interfaces are usually provided: contact
closures and analog interfaces.
Welding Process Equlpment. Welding power sources
andwelding wire feeders are controlledwithboth
electrical contact closure and analog interfaces. Con-
tact closures are used to turn equipment on and off.
Analog interfacesare used to set output levels.
FixturesandPositioners. Fixtures for automatic
welding are often automated with hydraulic or pneu-
matic clamping devices. The welding machine often
controls the operation of the clamps. Clamps can be
opened to permit gun or torch access tothe weld joint.
Most clamping systems and positioner movements are
activated byelectrical contact closures.
Offline Programming and Interfacing with Computer
AidedDesign. The process of teaching the robot
(B) RECTILINEAR ROBOT can be timeconsuming,utilizingproductiverobot
time. If the need of onlya few partsis forecast, robotic
Figure R-l2Robotic Motion Systems welding may not be economical.However,off-line
programmingusingcomputer-aideddesign(CAD)
moving or rotating a roboticarc welding machineinto systems can be used to program the sequence of
the welding area.This procedure is usually faster than motions of the robot and the positioner. Graphic ani-
moving the assembly, but it requires a relatively large mationprogramshelptovisualizeanddebug the
working area. motionsequence. The CADmodelcannot always
A welding robot can be transferred between multi- duplicate the actual conditions at the actual welding
ple work stations. This allows production flexibility, station. It is often necessary to edit any motion pro-
andreducesinventoryand material handlingcosts. gram generated off line.
Work stations can be left in place when not in use Each assemblyto be welded requires an investment
while the robot is utilized atother locations. in programming.Programming costs varywidely
STDaAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 M 07842b5 05LbbL4 OLT m
HARDNESS
440 ROCKWELL Weldina Encvclopedia
depending on the weldingsystembeingused, the Extremely high or low loads may be exerted on con-
experience of the programmers, andthe complexity of tact. Magnitude of output load can be adjusted pneu-
the welding process. Investmentin programming must matically, fromO to 9000 kg (O to 20 O00 pounds).
be taken into account when determining the econom-
ics of automatic welding. Once an investmentis made ROLL WELDING (ROW)
for a specific weldment the program can be stored for A solid-state welding process that produces a weld
future use. by the application of heat and suficient pressure with
Safety rolls to cause deformation at the faying sufaces. See
STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See also FORGE WELDING.
The operator of a robotic system can easily avoid
close proximity to jagged edges of parts, weld metal ROOT
expulsion, and other welding hazards. However, the A nonstandard term when used
for JOINT ROOT and
movement of the robot arm creates a dangerous envi- WELD ROOT.
ronment. Workers in the area must be prevented from
entering the working envelope of the robot. Protective ROOT BEAD
fences, power interlocks and detection devices should A weld beadthat extends into or includes part or all
be installed to assure worker safety. of the joint root. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS.
ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST ROOT BEND TEST
See HARDNESS TESTING. A test in which the weld root is on the convex sur-
face of a specified bend radius. SeeSTANDARD WELD-
ROD, Brazing ING TERMS.
See BRAZING WIREand COPPER ALLOY WELDING.
ROOT CRACK
ROD, WELDING See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.See Appendix 9.
See WELDING ROD.
ROOT EDGE
ROLL A root face of zero width. See STANDARD WELDING
See OVERLAP. TERMS. See Appendix 6.
ROLLOVER ROOT FACE

for OVERLAP. That portion of the groove face within the joint root.
See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See Appendix 6.
ROLL SPOT WELDING
ROOT GAP
A resistance welding process variation that makes
A nonstandard termfor ROOT OPENING.
intermittent spot welds using one or more rotating cir-
cular electrodes. The rotation of the electrodes may or ROOT OF JOINT
may not be stopped during the making of a weld. See See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.See JOINT ROOT.
ROOT OF WELD
ROLL PLANISHING
See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. see also WELD ROOT.
Amechanicalprocessofcold-workingweldsto
improve mechanicalproperties,
primarilyfatigue ROOT OPENING
resistance,bycorrecting surface andnear-surface A separation at the joint root between the work-
defects, introducing a compressive residual stress at pieces. See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See Appen-
the surface of the weld, and work-hardeningthe weld dixes 6 and 11.
metal.
The roll planisher is a machine consisting of two ROOT PENETRATION
rollers, diametrically opposed, whichexert pressure at The distance the weld metal extends into the joint
a small contact area on the weld. The top roller is a root. See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See Appendix
driver and the lower roller is an idler. 12.

~ ~~~ ~~ ~
~~ ~
STD*AWS JWE-ENGL L797 07842b5 05Lbb15 T5b m
GHENING,
ROTARY
Encyclopedia
Welding Thermal Spraylng 441
ROOT RADIUS ROOT SURFACE CRACK

A nonstandard term forGROOVE RADIUS. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 9.
ROOT REINFORCEMENT ROOT SURFACE UNDERFILL

Weld reinforcement opposite the side from which See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 8.
welding was done. See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See also UNDERFILL.
See Figure R-13.See also FACE REINFORCEMENT.
ROTARY ROUGHENING, Thermal Spraying
ROOT SURFACE A method of surface roughening in which a revolv-
The exposed surface of a weld opposite the side ing tool is pressed against the surface being prepared,
j b m which welding was done. See STANDARD WELD- while either the work or the tool, or both, move. See
ING TERMS. See Figure R-13. STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure R-14.
FACE
REINFORCEMENT
WELD TOE
ROOT
REINFORCEMENT
WELD ROOT
Figure R-13-Parts of a Weld

STD*AWS JWE-ENGL L997 0784265 O 5 L b b L b 992
ayingThermal
THREADING,
442 ROUGH
ROTATIONAL SPRAY TRANSFER, Arc Welding

A variation of spray transfer in which a longer elec-
trode extension and specialized gas mixtures are used
to produce a helical pattern of very fine droplets. See
ROTOR
The rotating member of an electric machine; the
armature.
ROUND-EDGE SHAPE
A type of edge shape in which the surface is curved.
See Appendix 6. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
RUNOFF WELD TAB
Additional material that extends beyond the end of
the joint, on which the weld is terminated. See STAN-
DARD WELDING TERMS.
RUST COATED ELECTRODES

Rust coated electrodes represented an early step in
the development of coated electrodes. They were bare
metal electrodes which were allowed to rust somewhat
before drawing, and when used, had a smoothsurface
and a deep rust color. This rust coating did not affect
the characteristics of the deposited metal, but served to
producemoreuniformarccharacteristicsthanbare
Figure R-14-Groove and Rotary Roughening welding wire. See ELECTRODE MANUFACTURE.
RUTILE
ROUGH THREADING, Thermal Spraying Titanium dioxide (Tio2) as found in nature. It is an
A method of sur$ace roughening that consists of important source of titanium and is used as a compo-
cuttingthreads with the sides and tops of the nent in welding electrode coatings. Titanium dioxide
threadsjagged and tom. See STANDARD WELDING is aneffectiveagentwhich forms the nonmetallic
TERMS. nucleant in weld metal to gain better toughness.

SAFE PRACTICES Also refer to National Fire Protective Association
Safety is the first consideration for thewelding (NFPA) Bulletin 53, available from NFPA, 1 Battery-
operator and for all who are associated with welding, march Park,P.O. Box 9101, Quincy, MA, 02269-9101.
cutting and allied operations. See Appendix 13. In addition, refer to Material Safety Data Sheets,
Variouspublications of theAmericanWelding provided by manufacturers of consumables; and man-
Society(AWS), 550 N.W. LeJeuneRd., Miami, FL ufacturers instructions for installation, operation and
33126,dealspecificallywithsafepracticeswhile maintenance of equipment and apparatus.
using welding processes and systems. These include Following are some general safety rules for operat-
but are not limited to the following: ing arc and oxyfuel gas welding systems, and for han-
ANSUASC 249.1 (latest edition), SafetyinWeld- dling compressed gases and combustible gases.
ing, Cutting undAllied Processes
Arc Welding
EWH3-9, Effects of Welding on Health.Series
Fl.l (latestedition), Methods for Sampling Air- (1) Protectiveclothingmade of cotton or wool
borne Particulates Generated by Welding and Allied should be wornto shield all parts of the bodyfrom the
Processes rays of the arc and from metal spatter.
F1.2 (latest edition), Laboratory Method for Mea- (2) A helmet should be worn to protect eyes and
suring Fume Generation Ratesand Total Fume Emis- face. See EYE PROTECTION.
sion for Welding andAllied Processes (3) The operator shouldbe insulated from the work-
F1.3 (latest edition),A Sampling Strategy Guidefor piece when changing electrodes.
Evaluating Contaminantsin the Welding Environment (4) Noncombustible or fire-resistant screens should
F1.4 (latest edition), Methods for Analysis of Air- be provided to protect workers or other persons inthe
borne Particulates Generated by Welding and Allied vicinity of the welding or cutting operation from the
Processes rays of the arc and weld spatter. Workers in the vicin-
F1.5 (latestedition), Methods for Samplingand ity of the operations are required to wear eye and face
Analyzing Gases fromWelding andAllied Processes protection, and protective clothing.
2.1 (latest edition), Recommended Safe Practices ( 5 ) Hot metal should be marked to remind shop per-
for Electron Beam Weldingand Cutting sonnel notto touch it.
F2.2 (latest edition),Lens Shade Selector (6) The frame orcase of a welding machine should
F3.1(latest edition), Guide for WeldingFume be connected to an earth ground. The workpiece lead
Control connecting the work to the power supply should be
F4.1 (latest edition),Recommend Safe Practices for made as short as possible.
Preparation of Welding and Cuttingof Containers that (7)Combustible material should not be used to sup-
have Held Hazardous Substances port the workpieces.
F6.1(latestedition), Method for Sound Level (8) Clear glass goggles should be worn to protect
Measurement of ManualArcWeldingandCutting the eyes when removing slag or spatter.
Processes (9) Power lines to welding machines should be run
FGW, Fumes andGases in the Welding Environment overhead and out of reach of anyone standing on the
FormandatoryFederalSafetyRegulationsestab- ground.
lished by the U.S. Labor Departments Occupational (10) Pipe lines, tanks or containers should not be
Safety and Health Administration, refer to the latest welded until they have been properly cleaned. Specific
edition of OSHASafetyandHealthStandards,29 proceduresarecontainedin ANSYAWS F4.1, Safe
CFR 1910, available from U.S. Government Printing Practices for Preparationfor Welding and Cutting of
Office, Washington,DC 20402. Containers andPiping.
443
STD.AWS JWE-ENGL L997 07842b5 05LbbL8 7b5
444 SAFEPRACTICES Welding Encyclopedia
(11) A fire extinguisher should be available during cylinders. The followingrulesapplytoboththese

any welding operation. See FIRE HAZARDSAND PRO- categories:
TECTION. General Rules
Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cutting (1) Regulators,pressuregauges,hosesor other
Cylinder Safety. Compressed gas cylinders are safe apparatusprovided for usewithaparticular gas
for the purposes for which they are intended. Serious must not be used on cylinders containing a different
accidents connected with their handling, use and stor- gas.
age can often be traced to mishandling or abuse. (2) Threadsonregulatorsorotherunions are
Only cylinders designed and maintained in accor- designed to match those on cylinder valve outlets for
dance with specifications of the U.S. Department of specific gases. Connections that do not fit should not
Transportation(DOT)maybeused in the United be forced.
States.Cylindersmustnot be filledexcept by the (3) Attemptingtomixgasesinacylinder, or
owner, or with the consent of the owner, and then onlyattempting to transfer any gas from one cylinder to
in accordance withthe regulations of the U.S. Depart- another, is prohibited.
mentofTransportation. It is illegaltoremove or (4)Never,underanycircumstances,should the
change the numbersor marks stampedinto cylinders. operator attemptto refill any cylinder.
Propernames for gasesshouldalways be used. (5) Tampering with safety devices on cylinders or
Oxygen should not be referred to as air, or acetylene cylinder valvesis prohibited. Repairingor altering cyl-
as gas. Several safety rules are specific to oxygen inders or valves should never be attempted.
and acetylene. (6) An open flame should never be used to detect
combustible gas leaks. Soapy water should be used for
Oxygen. Oxygen is not flammable, but it supports this purpose.
combustion. Oil and grease should not be allowed to (7)Connectionstopiping,regulators,and other
come in contact with oxygen cylinders, valves, regula-
appliancesshouldalwaysbekepttight to prevent
tors, gauges, or fittings. Oxygen cylinders or apparatus leakage.
shouldnotbehandledwithoilyhands or gloves
because spontaneous combustion may occur. (8) Caps should be provided for valve protection;
the caps shouldbe kept on cylinders except when cyl-
Neither oxygen nor any gas should be used as a sub-inders are in use.
stitute for compressed air to power pneumatic toolsor
similar devices. Itis dangerous to use oxygen to start a Operating Safety
diesel engine, for imposing pressure in oil reservoirs, (1) Gasesfromcylindersshouldnever be used
for paint spraying, or for blowing out pipelines. Pres- without reducingthe pressure through asuitable regu-
sure from an oxygen or gas supply should never be lator attached directlyto the cylinder.
used toclear clogged oil lines. (2) After the valve capis removed, the valve should
be opened for an instant to clear the opening of parti-
Acetylene. The cylinder valve should be fully open
cles of dust or dirt.
when the cylinderis in use. Acetylene should never be
used at a gauge pressure in excess of 103 Kpa (15 psi). (3) A pressure-reducing regulator
should be
attached tothe cylinder valve beforeit is put in use.
Acetylene cylinders should be used and stored in an
upright positionto avoid the possibility of drawing out (4)After attachingthe regulator and beforethe cyl-
acetone. The pressure in an acetylene cylinder does inder valveis opened, the adjusting screw of the regu-
not accurately indicatethe amount of gas contained in lator must be released.
the cylinder.The amount is determined by weight. (5) The cylinder valveshouldbeopenedslowly,
using only tools or wrenches providedor approved by
High-Pressure and Fuel Gas Cylinders the gas manufacturer. Thegas should never bepennit-
Gases used in oxyfuel gas welding, cutting, brazing, ted to enter the regulator suddenly.
and heating operations are oxygen, acetylene, hydro- (6) Before a regulator is removed from a cylinder,
gen, methylacetylene propadiene(MAPP), propylene, thecylindervalveshouldbe closed and all gas
methane (natural gas), and propane. released fromthe regulator.
The two main categories of cylinders usedin these (7) The operatorshouldnotuse the regulators
operations are high-pressurecylindersand fuel gas attached to cylindersas brackets to hang torches.

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05LbbL9 bTL m
Welding 445
(8) Sparks and flames from the welding or cutting WELDING, OXYACETYLENE WELDING, WELDING
torch shouldbe kept away from cylinders. FUMES, and SAFE PRACTICES. See also Appendix 13.
(9) Hot slag should not be allowed to fall on com-
bustible materials oron the cylinders. SAFETY VALVE
(10) When cylinders are not in use, valves should be A pressure-release device installed in pressure ves-
kept tightly closed. sels and pipe systems which is designed to blow out
Cylinder Storage
when the pressure rises abovea predetermined point.
(1) Do not store cylinders near flammable material, SALT BATH
especially oil, gasoline, grease,or any substance likely Immersion of steel and other metals in a salt solu-
to cause or accelerate fire. tion for temperingor heat treating.
(2) Do not store reserve stocksof cylinders contain- Salt baths may be classified in three general types:
ingcombustiblegaseswithoxygen or othergases; neutral, reducing or oxidizing.
they should be grouped separately.
Neutral Baths
(3) Store all cylinders ina well-ventilated place.
(4) All cyfinders should be protected against exces- (1) Low-temperaturebathswhichareoperatedat
sive rise of temperature. Cylinders may be stored in 150 to 595C (300 to 1100F) may be used for temper-
theopen,butinsuch cases, shouldbeprotected ing or for low-temperature heat treatments such as the
against extremes of weather. During winter, cylinders solution treatment or aging of aluminum alloys.
stored outdoors shouldbe protected against accumula- (2) Medium temperature baths, operated at 675 to
tions of ice or snow. In summer, cylinders stored out- 900C (1250 to 1650F) are used principally for heat-
doorsshouldbescreenedagainstcontinuousdirect ing steel before quenching.
rays of the sun. High-temperaturebaths,
higher
than
925C
(5) Cylinders should not be exposed to continuous (1700F),areusedprimarily for heattreatment of
dampness. high-speed steel (tool steel alloys), but may also be
(6) Full cylinders should not be stored near eleva- used for copper brazing.
tors or gangways, or in locations where heavy moving Among the precautionsto be observed in using var-
objects may strike orfall on them. ious typesof salt bath: it is important to avoid contam-
(7) Full and empty cylinders should be stored sepa- ination of neutralbathswithcyanidesalts.Another
rately to avoid confusion. precaution is to avoid overheating the bath.
Reducing Baths
Safe Handling
(1) Cylinders should never be dropped or permitted Reducing salt bathsareusedforcarburizingor
to strike each other violently. nitriding. A sufficient concentration of cyanide must
(2) A lifting magnet, ora sling rope or chain should be maintained in reducing salt baths for satisfactory
not be used when handling cylinders.A crane may be results. A carbonaceous blanket on top of a bath of this
used when a safe cradle or platform is provided to hold type not only cuts down heat loss, but also helps to
the cylinders. reduce the breakdown of cyanides in the bath.
(3) Cylinders should never be used as rollers, sup- Oxidizing Baths
ports, or for any purpose other than to carry gas. Oxidizing bathsare used for coloring steels or other
(4) Whenemptycylindersarereturned,cylinder metals and may also be used for annealing noble met-
valves should be closed before shipment. Protective als. Fused salt bathsof this type may be usedat 5 10C
capsandnuts for valveoutletsshould bein place (950F) for blackening steel, and an aqueous solution
before shipping empties. of this type may be used at 150C (300F) for the same
purpose.
SAFETY EQUIPMENT The surfacehardness of heat-treatedtoolsteel
Various items, including clothing, eye wear, head alloys may be increased by nitriding them in a high-
gear,handwear,footwear,instruments,tools,and speed casesalt bath at approximately 550C (1025F)
devices used to protect workers from injury or death for a relatively short period of time. The tendency of
when working with potentially hazardous chemicals, sharp edgesof tools treated in this manner to chip can
materials,articles,equipment,processesorsystems be reduced by a subsequent tempering operation at
associated with welding. See EYE PROTECTION, ARC 540 to 565C (1000 to 1050F).

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 M 07842b5 051bb20 313
DIP 446 SALT-BATH
SALT-BATH DIP BRAZING Repairs. Cracks in band saw and circular saw blades
A dip brazing process variation. See STANDARD canberepaired bywelding. A sectionwithbroken
WELDlNG TERMS. teeth can be cut away, and replacedwith a usable sec-
tion cut from an old blade and welded in place. How-
SANDBLAST ever, a special technique is necessary; specialjigs and
A method of discharging fine sand at high velocity anvils are required, and specific welding rods must be
to remove rust, dirt and scale from a surface before used.
welding, painting,or finishing. Bandsawsteel is made of nickel-,chrome-,or
When welding,if more than one layer of metal is to molybdenum-steel, or another alloyed steel. The car-
be deposited, the oxide and scale should be removed bon content oftenis about 0.70%. Welding rods, there-
from each layer beforethe next layeris applied. Sand- fore, should approximate this alloy, and an excellent
blasting is probably the fastest andmostefficient choice is achrome-vanadiumsteelrodcontaining
method of producing a thorough cleaning job. approximately 0.80 to 1.10% chromium, 0.15 to
A portable sandblaster consists of a sheet metal tank 0.18%vanadium and 0.40 to 0.50% carbon. There are
provided with afilling hole and a pipe T-outlet for an many other good rodsfor welding saw blades.
air-operatedsiphon. The siphonconsists of apipe Jigs for band saws are designed so that the broken
from the verticalof the T tothe bottom of the tank; the or cracked parts of the saw blade can be clampedjust
horizontal outletsof the T are fitted with a sand nozzle above the anvil and, by a movement of a foot lever,
and anair control valve.The sand nozzle tip should be brought down incontact with the anvil for hammering.
replaceable because it will wear quite rapidly. A sand- A small torch must be used, and the flame adjusted
blaster of this type will operate well with an air pres- exactly to neutral characteristics. It is very important
sure of about 620 P a (90 psi). thatnooxideorslagparticlesbeentrapped in the
Careshouldbeexercisedwhensandblastingto weld.
avoid entrapping sand in crevices or embedding sand Thecrack is weldedat its inner beginning,with
in the surfaces of soft metals and alloys. Particles of weld progression toward the open end. Only about 9.5
sand can result in contamination of subsequent weld to 13 mm (3/8 to 1/2 in.) should be welded, then the
passes, and can lead to other problems in the weld- saw blade should be brought down on the anvil while
ment. theweld is peenedwithalighthammer.Peening
should be applied only when the metalis at a forging
SAND HOLES heat.Another 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) is thenweldedand
Craters or porous holes in castings. peened. This sequence is continued until the crack is
completely welded.
SANDBERG (ln Situ) RAIL HARDENING PROCESS If the break is all the way across a band saw blade,
The Sandberg process is an application of the oxy- the first weld is made in the center of the saw blade
acetylene flame to harden rails. In this process, rails and then on each side of the center, alternately, until
alreadyinservice are heatedwiththetorch,then the weld is completed.
quenched with water. In one experiment, rails treated Circular saw bladesare usually welded in a similar
by this process remained unaffected after 360 O00 cars manner, beginning at the inside end of the crack, weld-
had passed over them, although adjoining lengths of ing about 8.5 mm (3/8 in.) on one side, then peening
untreated rails corrugated when subjected tothe same the weld. The blade is then turned over andthe oppo-
test. See also FLAME HARDENING. site side welded and peened. This is continued until
the crack is completely welded. See also BAND SAW
SAWS, MANUFACTURE AND REPAIR BY WELDING BLADE REPAIRS.
Welding is used in the manufacture of saw blades
for band saws, power hacksaws, andcircular saws. A SCALE
hard strip (or ring) containing the teeth is welded to a A term sometimes applied to a surface coating of
softer, tougher strip(or disc) to provide for safe opera- oxide on molten iron
or steel.
tionofthesawblade.Processesincluderesistance
seam andmash welding, high-frequency (resistance) SCALING POWDER
welding, and laser-beam and electron-beam welding. A flux used to dissolve the oxide that formsin cast
Brazing is also used to manufacture saw blades. iron welds.

~ ~~~ ~~ ~~~~~
Welding Encyclopedia WELD SEAM 447
SCARF GRAM, WC-1988 DIAGRAM, and ANSYAWS A5.4,

The chamfered surfaceof a joint. Specification for Stainless
Steel Electrodes for
Shielded Metal Arc Welding.
SCARF GROOVE
A weldgroove in a butt joint consisting of members SCLEROSCOPE HARDNESS
having single-bevel edge shapes. The groovefaces are See HARDNESS TESTING.
parallel. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure
S-l. SCREEN
A device usually constructed of a fine wire mesh
filter designed to prevent foreign matter from entering
the regulator or torch. Also, the wire mesh used as a
gas lens in gas tungsten arc welding torchesto pro-
vide laminar flowof the shielding gas.
SCREENS, PROTECTIVE
A moveable,oftenportable,protectivebarrier or
partition used around welders (especiallyin arc weld-
ing) to protect othersin the vicinity from sparks, spat-
ter, and arc flash. Screens may be constructed from
translucent material that blocks ultraviolet radiation,
or an opaque material.See also EYE PROTECTION and
Figure S-1-A Scarf Groove PROTECTION FOR WELDERS.
SCULPTURE
SCARFING See WELDED SCULFlWRE.
A process for removing defects and checks which
develop in the rolling of steelbillets.Scarfing is SEAL WELD
accomplished with a low-velocity oxygen deseaming Any weld designed primarily to provide a specific
torch,aspeciallydesignedtorchwithanunusually degree of tightness against fluid leakage. See STAN-
large oxygen orifice.The steel is preheated locallyto a DARD WELDING TERMS.
cherry red, and the oxygen, under low pressure and
velocity, is projected against the red-hot surface. The SEAM
steel around the defect is consumed and the defect is Anonstandardtermwhenused for awelded,
entirely burned away. brazed, or soldered joint.
Alternatively, the term scarjng is used to refer to
the process of preparing a scarf groove. SEAM WELD
A continuous weld mude between or upon overlap-
SCARF JOINT pingmembers, in which coalescence may start and
A nonstandard termfor SCARF GROOVE. occur on the faying surfaces, or muy have proceeded
from the outer surface of one rnembel: The continuous
SCHAEFFLER DIAGRAM weld may consist of a single weld bead or a series of
A diagram proposedby A. E. Schaeffler in 1956 to overlapping spot welds. See STANDARD WELDING
predict the ferrite number (FN) ofastainlesssteel TERMS. See Figure S-2. See also ARC SEAM WELD and
weld deposit. The user calculated the chromium and RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING.
nickel equivalentsof the deposit, basedon weld chem- Seamweldsaremadewithresistancewelding
istry,andwasable to plot the ferrite number.The equipmentinhigh-productionmanufacturing.Seam
Schaeffler Diagram was followedby the DeLong dia- welds are typically used to produce continuous gas-or
gram (proposed by W. T. DeLong in 1974), the Espy liquid-tight joints in sheet metal assemblies, such as
Diagram (proposed by R. H. Espey in 1982), and the automotive gasoline tanks. This process is also used to
WRC-1992 Diagram
(developed
Welding
by
a weld longitudinal seams in structural tubular sections
ResearchCouncil
Sub-committeein 1992 and that do not require leak-tight seams.A resistance seam
described in WRCBulletin342. See DELONGDIA- weld is made on overlapping workpieces andis a con-
' STDeAWS JWE-ENGL 3997 W, 0764265 05LbbZZ L9b W
448 SEAM
WELD
ELECTRON
SEAM
BEAM
(A) (B) RESISTANCE
WELD
SEAM
Figure S-2-Two Qpes of Seam Welds
tinuous weld formed by overlapping weld nuggets, by same welding current, and power demand will be only
a continuous weld nugget, or by forging thejoint as it slightly greater thanfor a single weld.
is heated to the welding temperature by its resistance A tandem wheel arrangement can reduce welding
to the welding current. time by 50%, sincebothhalves of a joint can be
In most applications, two wheel electrodes, or one weldedsimultaneously.Thus, for a joint 182 cm
translating wheel and a stationary mandrel, are used to (72 in.) long, two welding heads can be placed91 cm
provide the current and pressure for resistance seam (36 in.) apart, with the welding current path through
welding. Seam welds can also be produced using spot the work from one wheel electrode to the other. A third
welding electrodes; this requires the purposeful over- continuous electrode is used on the other side of the
lapping of the spot welds in order to obtain a leak-tight joint. The full length of the joint can be welded with
seam weld. Two variations of this processare lap seam only 91 cm (36 in.) of travel. See RESISTANCE WELD-
welding, using two wheel electrodes (or one wheel and ING (RW) and TUBE MANUFACTURE.
a mandrel) and mash seam welding, which makes lap a
joint primarilybyhigh-temperatureplasticforming SEAM WELDSIZE
and diffusion, as opposed to melting and solidification. The width of the weld metal in the plane of the fay-
In mashseamwelding,overlap is maintainedby ing surfaces. See Figure S-3 and Appendix 11.
clamping or tack welding the pieces.
The electrode wire seam welding process uses an SEARING
intermediate wire electrode between each wheel elec- An iron-cleaning application
accomplished
by
trode and the workpiece. This process is used almost adjusting an oxyacetylene torchflame to slightly oxi-
exclusively for welding tin mill products to fabricate dizing (excess oxygen), and passing it over the surface
cans. of the iron to burn off the graphite film. Searing can
Butt joint seam welding is done with the edges of also be used to preheat cast iron, which will braze
the sheets forming a buttjoint. A thin, narrow stripof more rapidly at a temperature of 90 to 150C (200 to
metal fed betweenthe workpieces and the wheel elec- 300F).
trode is welded to one or both sides of the joint. The
metal strip bridges the gap between the workpieces, SEAT
distributestheweldingcurrenttoboth sheet edges, In a regulator, the surface on which a valve disc
addselectricalresistance,andcontainsthemolten rests when fully closed.See REGULATOR.
weld nugget as the nugget forms. The strip servesas a
filler metal, and produces a flush or slightly reinforced SECONDARY CIRCUIT
weld joint. That portion of a welding machine that conducts the
Rvo seam welds can be made in series, using two secondary current between thesecondary terminals of
weld heads. The two heads may be mounted side by the welding transformer and the electrodes, or elec-
side or in tandem. Two seams can be welded with the trode and workpiece. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS.

Welding 449
Figure S-3-Arc Seam Weld Size
SECONDARY CURRENT PATH, Resistance Welding reverseresistancemust be high.Consequently,the

The electrical path through which the welding cur- voltage drop across the cell in the reverse direction
rent passes. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. must also be high. The minimum value of the reverse
voltage drop is limited by the breakdown potential of
SEGREGATION the barrier layer of the rectifier cell.
The tendency for alloy constituentsto freeze at dif- Selenium rectifiers hadthe advantage of being able
ferent temperaturesduring(real,non-equilibrium) to accept high-voltage surges without breaking down.
solidification so that there is an uneven distribution of Cooling was easily achieved, because selenium rectifi-
theseelements in the alloy. Suchsegregation can ers were usually made up of a number of plates. This
occur on either amicroscopicscale, as the natural also made it easy to add more rectifying surface if
result of solute redistribution (due to the distribution required for a specific application. The disadvantage
coeffrcient), or on a macroscopic scale as the result of the seleniumrectifierwasthat it requiredmore
improper
of (incomplete)
mixingdissimilar
of physical space in the power source. It was an impor-
metals or alloys or due to gravity effectsin alloys. See tant stepping stone in the development of solid state
METALLURGY. rectifiers.
SELECTIVE BLOCK SEQUENCE SELF-EXCITED
A blocksequence in which successive blocks are A generator in which the current in thefield coil is
completed in an order selected to controlresidual produced by the generator itself.
stresses und distortion. See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS. SELF-FLUXING ALLOY, Thermal Spraying
A surfacingmaterialthat wets the substrate and
SELENIUM RECTIFIER coalesces whenheated to its melting point, with no
Selenium rectifiers were used in d-c welding powerflux other than the boron and silicon contained in the
suppliesuntil the development of silicon,orsolid alloy. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS.
state, rectifiers. Selenium rectifiers provided a conve-
nient means of changing alternating current to direct SELF-SHIELDED FLUX CORED ARC WELDING
current. This ability was basedon the characteristic of (FCAW-S)
permitting the current to pass freely in one direction, Aflux cored arc weldingprocess variation in which
while blocking, or greatly limiting, its passage in the shielding gas is obtained exclusively from the flux
opposite direction. within the electrode. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
If the rectifier cell readily passes current in a for- See also FLUX CORED ARC WELDING.
ward direction, it indicates that the resistance to cur-
rent flow inthis direction is low. The resulting forward SEMIAUTOMATIC, adj.
voltage drop across the cell thus must also be low. Pertaining to the manual control of a process with
Conversely, if the current flow in the opposite direc- equipment that automatically controls one or more of
tion is blocked, or held to aminimumvalue, the the process conditions. See STANDARD WELDING

.STD.AWS JWE-ENGL L777 W 07842bS 051bb24 Tb9 m
BRAZING
450 SEMIAUTOMATIC
TERMS. See also ADAPTIVECONTROL,AUTOMATIC, SEMI-STEEL

MANUAL, MECHANIZED, and ROBOTIC. A name sometimes used for a metal produced by
melting and mixingscrap iron and pig iron.
SEMIAUTOMATIC BRAZING
See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See also SEMI- SEQUENCE TIME
AUTOMATIC WELDING. A nonstandardtermwhenused for WELDING
CYCLE.
SEMIAUTOMATIC SOLDERING
See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See also SEMI- SEQUENCE TIMER
AUTOMATIC WELDING. In resistance welding, a device for controlling the
sequence and durationof any or all of the elements of
SEMIAUTOMATIC THERMAL CUTTING a complete welding cycle.
See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See als0 SEMI-
AUTOMATIC WELDING. SERIES CONNECTED
Two or more electric machines or appliances con-
SEMIAUTOMATIC THERMAL SPRAYING nected so that the same electric currentwill flow
see STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also SEMI- through each one.
AUTOMATIC WELDING.
SERIES SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW-S)
SEMIAUTOMATIC WELDING A submergedarcwelding process variation in
Manual welding with equipment that automatically which the arc is established between two consumable
controls one or more of the welding conditions. See electrodes that meet just above the sugace of the
STANDARDWELDING TERMS. workpieces, which are not part of the welding current
Variations of this term are semiautomatic brazing, circuit. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
semiautomatic soldering, semiautomatic thermal cut-
ting, and semiautomatic t h e m l spraying. See also SERIES WELDING
ADAPTIVE CONTROL WELDING, AUTOMATIC WELDING, A resistance welding secondary circuit variation in
MANUAL WELDING,
MECHANIZED
WELDING, and which the secondary current is conducted through the
ROBOTIC WELDING. workpieces and electrodes or wheels in a series elec-
trical path to simultaneously form multiple resistance
SEMIBLIND JOINT spot, seam, or projection welds. See STANDARD WELD-
A joint in which one extremityof the joint is not vis- ING TERMS. See Figure S-4.
ible. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
SEMI-CONDUCTORS
Elements(likesilicon,germanium,selenium,and
others, especially in GroupIV of the periodic table)or
nn
compounds(likegalliumarsenicandindiumtellu-
rium), which exhibit electrical properties intermediate
betweenconductivemetalsandnon-conductive or
insulating non-metals. Such materialsare the basis for
modemelectronicdevicesreferredto as solid-state
devices.
These materialsare particularly interestingfor their
characteristic of allowing current flow in one direction
and not inthe other, and,so, are used for rectifying(or
converting) alternating current (ac) to direct current Figure S-&Typical Arrangements for Series
Resistance Spot Welding
(dc). See also SELENIUMRECTIFIER,SILICONRECTI-
FIER, and RECTIFIER WELDER.
SETBACK
SEMI-RIGID JOINT see STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See also CONTACT
See RIGID JOINT. TUBE SETBACK and ELECTRODE SETBACK.

RC METAL
Encyclopedia
SHIELDED
Welding (SMAW 451
SET DOWN SHIELDED METAL ARC CUlTlNG (SMAC)

for UPSET. An arc cutting process thatuses a covered elec-
trode. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS.
SHADOW MASK, Thermal Spraying
A device that partially shields an area of the work- SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)
piece, producing a feathered edge of thet h e m l spray An arc welding process with an arc between a cov-
deposit. See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. ered electrode and the weld pool. The process is used
with shieldingfiom the decomposition of the electrode
SHAPE CUTTlNG covering, without theapplication of pressure, and with
See THERMAL CUTTINGand FLAME CU?TING. filler metal from the electrode. See STANDARD WELD-
ING TERMS. See also FIRECRACKER WELDING.
SHAPE WELDING The core of the covered electrodeconsists of either
Defining a shape by using a mold or dam when a solid metal rodof drawn or cast material or one fab-
welding to build up lugs, gear teeth, or low spots. ricatedbyencasingmetalpowdersinametallic
sheath. The core rod conducts the electric current to
SHEARSTRENGTH the arc and providesfiller metal for the joint. The pri-
The characteristic of a material to resist shear. See mary functions of the electrode covering are to pro-
TORSION TEST. vide arc stability and to shield the molten metal from
theatmospherewithgasescreated as thecoating
SHEET METAL WELDING decomposes fromthe heat of the arc.
Good sheet metal welding depends the on following The shielding employed, along with other ingredi-
principal factors: ents inthe covering and the core wire, largely controls
(1) Preparation ofthe edges to be welded, including the mechanical properties, chemical composition, and
cleaning metallurgical structure of the weld metal, as well as
(2) Correct procedure inthe adjustment of the arc in the arc characteristics of the electrode. The composi-
arc welding, or adjusting the flame and using a suit- tion of the electrode covering varies according to the
able welding rod in oxyfuel welding type and purposeof the electrode.
(3) The design of the article, the location of the Principles of Operation
welds, and theuseofappropriate jigs and welding Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) is by far the
fixtures. most widely usedof the variousarc welding processes.
Resistancespot,seam or projectionwelding of It employs the heat of the arc to melt the base metal
sheet metal is commonplace, butstill demands consid- and the tip of a consumable covered electrode. The
eration of factors(1) and (3). electrode and the work are part of an electric circuit,
illustrated in Figure $5. This circuit begins with the
SHEET SEPARATION, Reslstance Welding electric power source and includesthe welding cables,
The distance between the faying surfaces, adjacent an electrode holder, a workpiece connection, the work-
to the weld, after a spot, seam, or projection weld has piece (weldment), and an arc welding electrode. One
been made. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. of the two cables fromthe power sourceis attached to
the work. The other is attached to the electrode holder.
SHERADIZE Welding commences when an electric arc is struck
A process for applying a zinc coating to steel.The between the tip of the electrode and the work. The
object tobe coated is heated to a temperature of 250 to intense heat of the arc melts the tip of the electrode
315C (500 to 600F) with zinc powder in a rotating and thesurface of the workclose to the arc. Tiny glob-
furnace. ules of molten metal rapidly form on the tip of the
electrode, then transfer through the arc stream into the
SHIELDED CARBON ARC WELDING (CAW-S) molten weld pool. In this manner, filler metal is depos-
A carbon arc welding process variation that uses ited as the electrode is progressively consumed. The
shielding from the combustion of solid material fed arc is movedovertheworkat an appropriatearc
into the arc, or from a blanket of jlux on the work- length and travel speed, melting and fusing a portion
pieces, or both. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. This of the base metal and continuously adding filler metal.
is a rarely used, obsolete process. The arc is one of the hottest of the commercial sources

Licensed by Information Handling Services ~~~~
MAW)
WELDING
ARC
452METAL
SHIELDED Welding Encyclopedia
A-C OR D-C POWER SOURCE

AND CONTROLS
7 r ELECTRODE
WORKPIECE LEAD LWORKPIECE

ELECTRODE LEAD
Figure S-!+Typical Welding Circuit for Shielded MetalArc Welding
ofheat;temperaturesabove 5000C (9000F)have Depending on the type of electrode being used, the
been measured at its center. Melting of the base metal coveringperforms one or moreofthefollowing
takes place almost instantaneously upon arc initiation. functions:
If welds are made in either the flat or the horizontal (1)Providesagastoshieldthearcandprevent
position,metaltransfer is induced by the force of excessiveatmosphericcontamination of the molten
gravity,gasexpansion,electricandelectromagnetic filler metal
forces, and surface tension. For welds in other posi- (2) Providesscavengers,deoxidizers,and fluxing
tions, gravity works against the other forces. agents to cleanse the weld and prevent excessive grain
The process requires sufficient electric current to growth in the weld metal
melt both the electrode and a proper amount of base (3) Establishes the electrical characteristics of the
metal. It also requires an appropriategap between the electrode
tip of the electrode and the base metal or the molten (4) Provides a slag blanket to protect the hot weld
weld pool. These requirementsare necessary to setthe metal from the air and enhances the mechanical prop-
stageforcoalescence. The sizes andtypes of elec- erties, bead shape, and surface cleanliness of the weld
trodes for SMAW define the arc voltage requirements metal
(within the overall range of 16 to 40 V) and the amper- ( 5 ) Provides a means of adding alloying elements to
age requirements (within the overall range of 20 to change the mechanical propertiesof the weld metal.
550 A). The current may be either alternating or direct, Functions (1) and (4)prevent the pickup of oxygen
depending on the electrode being used, but the power and nitrogen from theair by the molten filler metal in
source must be able to control the level of current the arc stream and by the weld metal as it solidifies
within a reasonable range in order to respond to the and cools.
complex variablesof the welding process itself.
The coveringonshieldedmetalarcelectrodes is
Covered Electrodes applied by either the extrusion or the dipping process.
In additiontoestablishing the arc andsupplying Extrusion is much more widely used.The dipping pro-
filler metal for the weld deposit, the electrode intro- cess is used primarily for cast and some fabricated
duces other materials into or around the arc, or both. core rods. In either case, the covering contains most of

' STDaAWS
JWE-ENGL L997 m 078112b5 051bb27 778 m
Welding Encyclopedia METAL
SHIELDED (SMAW)
ARC WELDING 453
the shielding, scavenging, and deoxidizing materials, efficient use of the arc energy. Metal powders other
Most SMAW electrodes have a solid metal core. Some than iron are frequently used to alter the mechanical
are made with a fabricatedor composite core consist- properties of the weld metal.
ing of metal powders encased in a metallic sheath. In The thick coverings on electrodes with relatively
this latter case, the purpose of some or even all of the large amountsof iron powder increasethe depth of the
metal powdersis to produce an alloy weld deposit. crucible at the tip of the electrode. This deep crucible
In addition to improving the mechanical properties helps to containthe heat of the arc and permits the use
of the weld metal, electrode coverings can be designed of the drag techniqueto maintain a constant arc length.
for welding with alternating current (ac). With ac,the When iron or other metal powders are added in rela-
welding arc goes out and is reestablished each time the tively large amounts, the deposition rate and welding
current reverses its direction. For good arc stability,it speed usually increase.
is necessary to have a gas in the arc stream that will Iron powder electrodes with thick coverings reduce
remainionizedduring each reversal of the current. the level of skill needed to weld. The tip of the elec-
This ionized gas makes possible the re-ignition of the trode can be dragged along the surface of the work
arc. Gases that readily ionize are available from a vari- whilemaintainingaweldingarc.Forthisreason,
ety of compounds, includingthose that contain potas- heavyironpowderelectrodesfrequently are called
sium. It is the incorporation of these compounds inthe drug electrodes. Deposition rates are high,but,
electrode covering that enables the electrode to oper- because slag solidification is slow, theseelectrodes are
ate on ac. To increase the deposition rate, the cover- not suitablefor out-of-position welds.
ings of some carbon- and low-alloy s t k l electrodes
containironpowder. The iron powder is another Arc Shielding
source of metal availablefor deposition, in additionto The arc shielding action, illustratedin Figure S-6,is
that obtained from thecore of the electrode. The pres- essentially the same for all electrodes, butthe specific
ence of iron powder in the covering also makes more method of shielding and the volume ofslag produced
CORE WIRE
SHIELDING
ATMOSPHERE
7
SOLIDIFIED SLAG DROPLETS
PENETRATION
BASE METAL
DIRECTION OF WELDING -b
Figure S"Schematic View of Shielded MetalArc Welding

STDmAWS J-WE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 05Lbb28 b04 I
I
WELDING
AW) ARC 454METAL
SHIELDED
vary from type to type. The bulk the of covering mate- SMAW electrodes are available to weld carbon- and
rials on some electrodes is converted togas by the heat low-alloysteels,stainlesssteels,castirons,copper,
of the arc, and only a small amount of slag is pro- and nickel, and their alloys, and for some aluminum
duced. This typeof electrode depends largely ongas- a applications.Low-meltingmetals,such as lead, tin,
eous shield to preventatmosphericcontamination. and zinc, and their alloys,are not welded with SMAW
Weld metal from such electrodes can be identified by because the intense heatof the arcis too high for them.
the incomplete or light layer of slag which covers the SMAW is not suitable for reactive metals suchas tita-
bead. nium, zirconium, tantalum, and niobium because the
For electrodes at the otherextreme, the bulk of the shieldingprovided is inadequate to preventoxygen
covering is converted to slagby the heatof the arc, and contamination of the weld.
only a small volumeof shielding gasis produced. The
Covered electrodes are produced in lengths of 230
tiny globules of metal being transferred across the arc
to 460 mm (9 to 18 in.). As the arc is first struck, the
are entirely coated with a thin film of molten slag. This
molten slag floats to the surface of the weld puddle current flows the entire length of the electrode. The
because it is lighter than the metal. The slag solidifies amount of current that can be used, therefore, is lim-
after the weld metal has solidified. Welds made with itedby the electrical resistanceofthe core wire.
theseelectrodesareidentified by the heavyslag Excessive amperage overheatsthe
electrodeand
depositsthat
completely cover theweldbeads. breaks down the covering. This, in turn, changes the
Between these extremesis a wide variety of electrode arc characteristics and the shielding that is obtained.
types, each with a different combination of gas and Because of this limitation, deposition rates are gener-
slag shielding. ally lower thanfor a welding process such as gas metal
Variations in the amount of slag and gas shielding arc welding (GMAW).
also influence the welding characteristics of covered Operator dutycycle and overall depositionrates for
electrodes. Electrodes which produce a heavy slag cancovered electrodes are usually less than provided with
carryhighamperageandprovidehighdeposition a continuous electrode process such as flux cored arc
rates, making them ideal for heavy weldments in the welding (FCAW). This is because electrodes can be
flat position.Electrodeswhichproducealight slag consumedonlytosomecertainminimumlength.
layer are used with lower amperage and provide lower When that length has been reached, the welder must
deposition rates. These electrodes produce a smaller discardtheunconsumedelectrode stub andinserta
weldpooland are suitable for makingweldsinall new electrode into the holder, In addition, slag usually
positions. Because of the differences in their welding must be removed at starts and stops and before depos-
characteristics, one type of covered electrode usually itingaweldbeadadjacentto or onto apreviously
will be best suitedfor a given application. deposited bead.
SMAW Capabilities and Limitations
Equipment
Shielded metalarc welding is the most widely used
process,particularly for shortwelds in production, PowerSources. Eitheralternatingcurrent(ac) or
maintenance and repair work, and for field construc- directcurrent(dc)maybeemployed for shielded
tion. The following are advantages of this process: metal arc welding, depending on the welding power
(1) The equipmentis relatively simple, inexpensive, supply and the electrode selected.The specific type of
and portable. current employed influences the performance of the
(2) The filler metal, and the means of protecting it electrode.Eachcurrenttypehas its advantagesand
and the weldmetal from harmfuloxidationduring limitations, and these must be considered when select-
welding, are provided by the covered electrode. ing the type of current for a specific application. Fac-
(3) Auxiliary gas shielding or granular flux is not tors which need to be considered are as follows:
required. (1) VoltageDrop.Voltage drop in the welding
(4)The process is less sensitive to wind and draft cables is lower with ac. This makes ac more suitable if
than gas shielded arc welding processes. the welding is to be done at long distances from the
( 5 ) It can be used in areas
of limited access. power supply. However, long cables which carry ac
(6) The process is suitable for most of the com- shouldnotbecoiledbecause the inductivelosses
monly used metals and alloys. encountered in such cases can be substantial.

~~
:STDeAWS JWE-ENGL L997 9 07842b5051bb29540 W
RC METAL
Encyclopedia
SHIELDED
Welding 455
(2) LowCurrent.Withsmalldiameterelectrodes power source. Even though the difference in the slope
and low welding currents,dc provides better operating of the various curves is substantial, the power source is
characteristics anda more stable arc. still considered a constant-current power source. The
(3) Arc Starting. Striking the arc is generally easier changes shown in the volt-ampere curve are accom-
with dc, particularly if small diameter electrodes are plishedbyadjustingboththeopen circuit voltage
used. With ac, the welding current passes through zero(OCV) and the current settings on the power source.
eachhalf cycle, andthispresentsproblems for arc
Voltage. Open circuit voltage, which is the voltage
starting and arc stability. set on the power source, does not referto arc voltage.
(4) Arc Length.Weldingwith a short arc length
(low arc voltage)is easier with dc than with ac. This is
Arc voltage is the voltage between the electrode and
theworkduringweldingand is determined by arc
an important consideration, except for the heavy iron length for any given electrode. Open circuit voltage,
powderelectrodes.Withthoseelectrodes,thedeep ontheotherhand, is thevoltagegeneratedbythe
crucible formed by the heavy covering automatically weldingmachinewhennowelding is beingdone.
maintains the proper arc length when the electrode tip Open circuit voltages generally run between 50 and
is dragged on the surface of the joint. 100 V, whereas arc voltages are between 17 and 40 V.
(5) Arc Blow. Alternating current rarely presents a The open circuit voltage drops to the arc voltage when
problem with arc blow because the magnetic field is the arc is struck and the welding load comes on the
constantly reversing(120 times per second). Arc blow machine.Thearclengthandthetype of electrode
can be a significant problem with d-c welding of fer- being used determinejust what this arc voltage will be.
ritic steel because of unbalancedmagnetic fields If the arc is lengthened, the arc voltage will increase
around the arc. and the welding current will decrease. The change in
(6) Welding Position. Direct current is somewhat amperage which a change in arc length produces is
better than ac for vertical and overhead welds becausedeterminedbytheslopeof the volt-amperecurve
lower amperage can be used. With suitable electrodes, within the welding range.
however, satisfactory welds can be made in all posi-
tions with ac. Some power sources do not provide for control of
(7) Metal Thickness. Both sheet metal and heavy the opencircuitvoltagebecausethiscontrol is not
sections can be welded using dc. The welding of sheet needed for all welding processes. It is a useful feature
metal withac is less desirable than with dc. Arc condi- for SMAW, yet it is not necessary for all applications
tions at low current levels required for thin materials of the process.
are less stableon ac powerthan on dc power. Power Source Selection. Several factors need to be
Constant-voltage power sourcesare not suitablefor considered when a powersourceforSMAWis
SMAW becausewiththeirflatvolt-amperecurve, selected:
even a small change in arc length (voltage) produces a (1) The typeof welding current required
relatively large change in amperage. A constant-cur- (2) The amperage range required
rentpowersource is preferred for manualwelding,
(3) The positions in which welding will be done
because the steeper the slopeof the volt-ampere curve
(within the welding range), the smaller the change in (4) The primary power available at the work station
current fora given change in arc voltage (arc length). Selection of the typeof current, ac, dc, or both, will
For applications that involve large diameter elec- be based largely on the types of electrodes to be used
trodes and high welding currents,a steep volt-ampere andthekindofweldstobemade.For ac, a trans-
curve is desirable. former or an alternator type of power source may be
Where more precise control of the size of the mol- used. For dc, transformer-rectifier or motor-generator
ten pool is required (out-of-position welds and root power sources are available. When both ac and dc will
passes of joints with varying fit-up, for example), a be needed, a single-phase transformer-rectifier or an
flatter volt-ampere curveis desirable. This enables the alternator-rectifier power source may be used. Other-
welder to change the welding current within a specific wise, two welding machines will be required, one for
range simply by changing arc length. In this manner, ac and one for dc.
the welder has some control over the amount of filler The amperage requirements will be determined by
metal that is being deposited. Figure S-7portrays these the sizes and types of electrodes to be used. When a
differentvolt-amperecurves for a typicalwelding variety will be encountered, the power supply must be

456METAL
SHIELDED ARC WELDING ISMAW Weldina Encvclooedia
1oa
MAXIMUMOCV
W
S
5 50
9
32 -
27 - ARC VOLTAGE
22 -SHORT ARC
4
CURRENT, A Ibo 15
I
200
I
NOTE: LOWER SLOPE GIVES A GREATER CHANGE IN WELDING CURRENT

FOR A GIVENCHANGE IN ARC VOLTAGE.
Figure S-7-The Effect of Volt-Ampere Curve Slope on Current Output with a Change
in Arc Voltage

Welding Encyclopedia (SMAW)
WELDING
ARC METAL
SHIELDED 457
capable of providing the amperage range needed.The

duty cycle must be adequate.
The positions in which welding will be done should
also be considered. If vertical and overhead welding
are planned, adjustmentof the slope of the V-A curve
probably will be desirable (See Figure S-7).If so, the
power supply must provide this feature. This usually
requires controls for both the output voltage and the
current.
A supply ofprimary power is needed. If line
power is available, it should be determined whether
the power is single-phase or three-phase. The weld-
ing power source must be designed for either single-
or three-phase power, and it must be used with the
one it was designed for. If line power is not available,
an engine-driven generator or alternator must be
used.
Accessory Equipment
Electrode Holder. An electrode holder is a clamping
device which allowsthe welder to hold apd control the
electrode, as shown in Figure S-8. It also serves as a
device for conducting the welding current from the
welding cable to the electrode. An insulated handle on
the holder separates the welders hand from the weld-
ing circuit. The current is transferred to the electrode
through the jaws of the holder. To assure minimum
contactresistanceand to avoidoverheatingof the
holder, the jaws must be kept in good condition. Over-Figure S-+Using the Shielded Metal Arc Process
heating of the holder not only makesit uncomfortable to Weld a Structure
for the welder, but also it can cause excessive voltage
drop in the weldingcircuit.Both can impair the
welders performance and reduce the quality of the
weld. The holder must grip the electrode securely and
hold it in position with good electrical contact. Instal- duty, a spring-loaded clamp maybe suitable. For high
lation of the electrode must be quick andeasy. The currents, however, a screw clamp may be needed to
holder needs to be light in weight and easy to handle, providea good connectionwithoutoverheating the
yet it must be sturdy enough to withstand rough use. clamp.
Most holders have insulating material around the jaws Welding Cables. Welding cables are used to connect
to prevent grounding of the jaws to the work. Elec- theelectrodeholderand the ground clamp tothe
trode holders are produced in sizes to accommodate a power source. Theyare part ofthe welding circuit(See
range of standard electrode diameters. Each size of Figure S-S).The cable is constructed for maximum
holder is designed to carry the current requiredfor the flexibility to permit easy manipulation, particularlyof
largest diameterelectrode that it will hold. The small- the electrode holder.It also must be wear and abrasion
est size holder that can be used without overheatingis resistant. A welding cable consists of many fine cop-
the best one for the job. It will be the lightest, and it per or aluminum wires stranded together and enclosed
will provide the best operator comfort. in a flexible, insulating jacket. The jacket is made of
Workpiece Connection. A workpiece connectionis a synthetic rubber or of a plastic that has good tough-
device for connecting the workpiece leadto the work- ness, high electrical resistance, and good heat resis-
piece. It should produce a tight connection, yet be able tance. A protective wrapping is placedbetweenthe
to be attached quickly and easilythe to work. For light stranded conductor wires and the insulating jacket to

~~
STDeAWS JWE-ENGL 3497 m 07842b5 05Lbb32 035 D
MAW)
WELDING
ARC
458METAL
SHIELDED Welding Encyclopedia
permitsomemovementbetweenthemandprovide dirt, slag,andany other foreignmatterthatwould

maximum flexibility. Welding cable is produced in a interfere with welding.To accomplish this, the welder
range of sizes from about AWG 6 to 4/0.The size of should havea steel wire brush,a hammer, a chisel, and
the cable required for a particular application depends a chipping hammer. These tools are used to remove
on the maximum amperageto be used for welding, the dirt and rust from the base metal, cut tack welds, and
length of the welding circuit (welding and work cables chip slag fromthe weld bead.
combined), and the duty cycle of the welding machine. The joint to be welded may require backing to sup-
Table C-1 showstherecommended size of copper port the molten weld pool during deposition of the first
welding cable for various welding currents and circuit layerofweldmetal.Backing strips or nonmetallic
lengths. When aluminum cable is used, it should be backing materialsare sometimes used, particularlyfor
two AWG (American Wire Gauge) sizes larger than joints which are accessible from only one side.
coppercable for the application.Cablesizes are Materials
increased as the length of the welding circuit increases Base Metals. The SMAW process is used in joining
to keep the voltage drop and the attendant powerloss and surfacing applications on a variety of base metals.
in the cable at acceptable levels. The suitability of the process for any specific base
If long cables are necessary, short sections can be metal depends on the availability of a covered elec-
joined by suitable cable connectors. The connectors trode whose weld metal has the required composition
must provide good electrical contact with low resis- and properties.Electrodes are available for the follow-
tance, and their insulation must be equivalent to that ing of base metals:
the cable. Lugs, at the end of each cable, are used to (1) Carbon steels
connect the cables to the power source. The connec- (2) Low-alloy steels
tion between thecable and a connectoror lug must be (3) Corrosion-resisting steels
tight with low electrical resistance. Soldered joints and (4)Cast irons (ductile and gray)
mechanicalconnections are used.Aluminum cable ( 5 ) Aluminum and aluminum alloys
requires a good mechanical connectionto avoid over- (6) Copper andcopper alloys
heating.Oxidation of the aluminumsignificantly (7) Nickel and nickel alloys
increases the electrical resistance of the connection. Electrodes are available for application ofwear,
This of course,canleadtooverheating,excessive impact, or corrosion resistant surfaces to these same
power loss, and cable failure. Care must be taken to base metals.
avoid damage to the jacket of the cable, particularly Covered Electrodes
for the electrode cable. Contact with hot metal or sharp
edges may penetrate thejacket and ground the cable. Covered electrodes are classified according to the
requirements of specifications issuedby the American
Helmet. The purpose of the helmet is to protect the WeldingSociety(AWS).Certainagenciesof the
welders eyes, face, forehead, neck, andears from the Department of Defense also issue specifications for
direct rays of the arc and from flying sparks and spat- covered electrodes. The AWS specification numbers
ter. Some helmets have an optional flip lid which and their electrode classifications are shown in Table
permits the dark filter plate over the opening in the S-l. The electrodes are classified on the basis of their
shield to be flipped up so the welder cansee while the chemical composition or mechanicalproperties, or
slag is being chipped fromthe weld. This protects the both, of their undiluted weld metal. Carbon steel, low-
welders face and eyes fromflyingslag. Slag can alloy steel, and stainlesssteel electrodes are also clas-
cause serious injury if it strikes a person, particularly sified according tothe type of welding current they are
while it is hot. It can be harmful tothe eyes whether it suited for and sometimes accordingto the positions of
is hot or cold. welding that they can be used. See ELECTRODE CLAS-
Helmets are generally constructed of pressed fiber SIFICATION. See also Appendix 17.
or fiberglass insulating material. A helmet should be Electrode Condltloning
light in weight and should be designed to give the SMAW electrode coverings are hygroscopic (they
welder the greatest possible comfort. readily absorb and retain moisture). Some coverings
Miscellaneous Equipment. Cleanliness is important are more hygroscopic than others. The moisture they
in welding. The surfaces of the workpieces and the pick up on exposure to a humid atmosphere dissoci-
previously deposited weld metal must be cleaned of atestoformhydrogen and oxygenduringwelding.

Licensed by Information Handling Services ~ ~ ~~~ ~~~
RC METAL
Encyclopedia
SHIELDED
Welding 459
Materials. The SMAW process can be used to join

Table S-1
AWS Specifications for Covered Electrodes mostof the commonmetalsandalloys. The list
includescarbon steels, low-alloy steels,
stainless
AWS Specification IIspe of Electrode steels, and cast iron,as well as copper, nickel, and alu-
minum and their alloys. Shielded metal arc welding is
A5.1 Carbon steel also usedto join a wide rangeof chemically dissimilar
A5.5 steel
Low alloy materials.
A5.4 Corrosion resistant steel
A5.15 Cast iron The processisnotusedformaterialsforwhich
A5.3 Aluminum and aluminum alloys shielding of the arcby the gaseous products of an elec-
A5.6 Copper and copper alloys trode covering is unsatisfactory. The reactive (Ti, Zr)
A5.11 Nickel and nickel alloys and refractory (Cb, Ta, Mo) metals fall into this group.
A5.13 and A5.21 Surfacing Thicknesses. Theshieldedmetalarcprocessis
adaptable to anymaterialthicknesswithincertain
practical and economic limitations. For material thick-
The atoms of hydrogen dissolve in the weld and the nesses less thanabout1.6 mm ( M 6 in.),thebase
heat-affected zone and may cause cold cracking. This metal will melt through and the molten metal willfall
type of crack is more prevalent in hardenable steel away before a common weld pool can be established,
basemetalsandhigh-strengthsteel weld metals. unlessspecialfixturingandweldingproceduresare
Excessive moisture in electrode coverings can cause employed. There is no upper limit on thickness, but
porosity in the deposited weld metal. other processes such as submerged arc welding (SAW)
To minimizemoistureproblems,particularlyfor or flux cored arc welding (FCAW) are capable of pro-
low-hydrogen electrodes, they mustbe properly pack- viding higher deposition rates and economies for most
aged, stored, and handled. Such control is critical for applications involving thicknesses exceeding 38 mm
electrodes which are to be used to weld hardenable (1-1/2 in.). Most of the SMAW applications are on
base metals. Control of moisture becomes increasingly thicknesses between 3 and 38 mm (1/8 and 1-112 in.),
important as the strengthof the weld metalor the base except where irregular configurations are encountered.
metalincreases.Holdingovens are used for low- Such configurations put an automated welding process
hydrogen electrodes once those electrodes have been at an economic disadvantage. In such instances, the
removed from their sealed container and have not been shielded metal arc process is commonly used to weld
used withina certain periodof time. This period varies materials as thick as 250 mm (10 in.).
from as little as half an hour to as much as eight hours, Welding Positlon
depending on the strengthof the electrode, the humid- One of themajoradvantagesof SMAW is that
ity during exposure, and even the specific covering on welding can be done in any position on most of the
the electrode.The time which an electrode can be kept materials for which the process is suitable. This makes
out of an oven or rod warmer is reduced as the humid- the process useful on joints that cannot be placed in
ity increases. the flat position. Despite thisadvantage, welding
The temperature of theholdingovenshouldbe should be done in the flat position whenever practical
within the range of 65 to 150C (150 to 300F). Elec- because lessskillisrequired,andlargerelectrodes
trodes that have been exposed too long require baking with correspondingly higher deposition rates can be
at a substantially higher temperature to drive off the used.Welds in the vertical andoverheadpositions
require more skill on the welders part and are per-
absorbed moisture. The specific recommendations of
formedusing smallerdiameter electrodes. Joint
the manufacturer of the electrode need tobe followed
designs for vertical and overhead welding may be dif-
because the time and temperature limitations can vary
ferent from those suitable for flat position welding.
frommanufacturer to manufacturer,evenforelec-
trodes within a given classification. Excessive heating Location of Weldlng
can damage the covering on an electrode. The simplicity of the equipment makes SMAW an
extremely versatile process with respect to the location
Applications andenvironment of theoperation.Weldingcanbe
Shielded metal arc welding is the most widely used done indoors or outdoors, on a production line, a ship,
of the arc welding processes. a bridge, a buildingframework,an oil refinery, a

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 4397 m 078q2b5 05Lbb34 908
460 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW) Welding Encyclopedia
cross-country pipeline, or any such type of work. No

gas or water hoses are needed and the welding cables
can be extended quite some distance from the power
source.Inremoteareas,gasoline or diesel powered
units can be used. Despite this versatility, the process
should always be used in an environment which shel-
ters it from the wind, rain, and snow.
Weld Backing
When full penetration weldsare required and weld-
ing is done from one side of the joint, weld backing (A) BACKING STRIP
may be required. Its purpose is to provide something
on which to depositthe first layer of metal and thereby
prevent the molten metal in that layer from escaping
through the root of thejoint.
Four typesof backing are commonly used:
(1) Backing strip
(2) Backing weld
(3) Copper backing bar
(4) Nonmetallic backing
BackingStrip. A backing strip is a strip of metal
placed onthe back of thejoint, as shown inFigure S-9
U
(A). The first weld pass ties both members of the joint
together and to the backing strip.The strip may be left (B) STRUCTURE
in placeif it will not interfere with the serviceability of BACKING
the joint. Otherwise, it should be removed, in which
case the back side of the joint must be accessible. If Figure S-%Fusible Metal Backing for a Weld
the back side is not accessible, some other means of
obtaining a proper root pass must be used. method of cooling, the arc should not be allowed to
The backing strip must always be made of a mate- impinge on the copper bar,for if any copper melts,the
rial that is metallurgically compatible with the base weldmetalcanbecomecontaminatedwithcopper.
metal and the welding electrode to be used. Where The copper bar may be grooved to provide the desired
design permits, another member of the structure may root surfacecontour and reinforcement.
serve as backing for the weld. Figure S-9 (B) provides
an example of this. Inall cases, it is important that the Nonmetallic Backing. Nonmetallic backing of either
backing strip as well as the surfaces of the joint be granular flux or refractory material is also a method
clean to avoid porosity andslag inclusions inthe weld. that is used to produce a sound first pass. The flux is
It is also important that the backing strip fit properly. used primarily to support the weld metal and toshape
Otherwise, the molten weld metalcan run out through the root surface. A granular flux layer is supported
any gap between the strip and the base metal at the against the back side of the weld by some method such
root of the joint. as a pressurizedfire hose. A system of this type is gen-
CopperBackingBar. Acopperbar is sometimes erallyused for production linework,and it is not
used as a means of supporting the molten weld pool at widely used for SMAW.
the root of the joint. Copper is used becauseof its high Refractorytypebackingconsists of aflexible,
thermalconductivity.Thishighconductivityhelps shaped form that is held on the back side of the joint
prevent the weld metal from fusing to the backing bar. by clamps or by pressure-sensitive tape. This type of
Despite this, the copper bar must have sufficient massbacking is sometimes used with the SMAW process,
to avoid melting during deposition of the first weld althoughspecialweldingtechniques are required to
pass.Inhighproductionuse,watercanbepassed consistentlyproducegoodresults.Therecommen-
through holes in the bar to removethe heat that accu- dations of the manufacturer of the backing should be
mulates during continuous welding. Regardlessof the followed.

STD*AWS JWE-ENGL 1997
07842b5
051bb35 844 W
LDING Welding Encyclopedia 461
Backing Weld. A backing weld is oneor more back- The filter plate needs to be protected from molten
ing passes in a single groove weld joint. This weld is spatter and from breakage. This is done by placing a
deposited on the backside of the joint before the fust plate of clear glass, or other suitable material, on each
pass is deposited on theface side. The concept is illus- side of the filter plate. Those whoare not welders but
trated in Figure S-10. After the backing weld, all sub-work near the arc also need to be protected.This pro-
sequent passes are made in the groove from the face tection usually is provided by either permanent or por-
side. The root of the joint may be ground or gouged table screens. Failure to use adequate protection can
after the backing weld is made to produce sound, clean result in eye burn for the welder orfor those working
metal on which to deposit the first pass on the face around the arc. Eye burn, whichis similar to sunburn,
side of the joint. is extremely painful for a period of 24 to 48 hours.
Unprotectedskin,exposed to thearc, may also be
burned. A physician should be consulted in the case of
severe arc burn, regardlessof whether it is of the skin
or the eyes.
If welding is being performed in confined spaces
with poor ventilation, auxiliaryair should be supplied
to the welder. This should be done through an attach-
ment to the helmet.
The methodusedmustnotrestrictthewelders
manipulation of the helmet, interfere with the fieldof
vision, or make welding difficult. Additional informa-
tion oneye protection and ventilation is given in ANSI
249.1, Safety in Welding andCutting, published by the
American Welding Society.
From time to time during welding, sparks or glob-
L BACKING WELD ules of molten metal are thrown out from the arc.This
is always a point of concern, butit becomes more seri-
Figure S-10-A vpicai Backing Weld ous whenwelding is performed out of positionor
when extremely high welding c m n t s are used. To
ensure protection from bums under these conditions,
Safety Recommendatlons the welder should wear flame-resistant gloves, a pro-
The operator must protect eyes and skin from radia- tective apron, and a jacket (See Figure S-8). It may
tion from the arc. A welding helmet witha suitable fil- also be desirable to protect the welders ankles and
terlensshould beused, as wellasdarkclothing, feetfromslagandspatter.Cufflesspantsandhigh
preferably wool, to protect the skin. Leather gloves work shoes or bootsare recommended.
and clothing should be worn to protect against burns To avoidelectricshock,theoperatorshouldnot
from arc spatter. weld whilestandingon a wet surface.Equipment
should be examined periodically to make sure there
Welding helmets are provided with filter plate win- arenocracksorwornspots on electrode holder or
dows, the standard size being 51 by 130 mm (2 by 4-1/ cable insulation.
8 in.). Larger openings are available. The filter plate
should be capable of absorbing infrared rays, ultravio- SHIELDING GAS
let rays, and most of the visible rays emanating from Protective gas used to prevent or reduce atmo-
the arc.Filter plates thatare now available absorb99% spheric contamination of a weld, especially by oxygen
or more of the infrared and ultraviolet rays from the andnitrogen.See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See
arc. also PROTECTIVE ATMOSPHERE.
The shade of the filter plate suggested for use with The arc is said to be shielded when the metal from
electrodes up to 4 mm (5/32 in.) diameter is No. 10. the electrode, asit passes through the arc, is protected
For 4.8 to 6.4 mm (3/16 to 1/4 in.) electrodes, Shade from contact with the oxygen and nitrogen of the air.
No. 12 should be used. Shade No. 14 should be used With a shielded metal arc electrode, the shielding is
for electrodes over 6.4mm (1/4 in.). usually accomplished by using a heavily coated elec-
STD.AWS
JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 05bbb3b 780
462 SHIP
trode. The coating, in some instances, produces carbon Oxyfuel Gas Welding. Shielding gases in one form or
monoxide and hydrogen as it burns, and also forms a another have always been utilized as a means of pre-
crucible, or hollow shell, extending beyondthe end of venting contactof the surrounding air with the molten
the electrode. A slag is also formed over the molten weld metal during a welding operation. In oxyhydro-
metal, protecting it fromthe air and slowing down the gen or oxyacetylenewelding, the shielding gas is
rate of cooling. By this means, varying in detail with inherent and usually consists of a mixture of several
differentelectrodes, the air surroundingthearc is gaseousproducts of combustion,such as hydrogen,
deoxidizedandthemetal is protected, or shielded, watervapor,carbonmonoxide,andcarbondioxide.
from the oxygen and nitrogen which would otherwise Though these gases are chemically active at welding
be present. The result is greater tensile strength and temperatures, the overall effect of the shielding gas
ductility of the weld metal. mixture can be oxidizing, neutralizing,or reducing, as
The primaryfunction of ashielding gas is to needed, by adjusting the oxyfuel-gas ratio.This makes
exclude the atmosphere from contact with the molten it is possible to weld a variety of materials with the
weldmetal.This is necessary because most metals, oxyfuel gas flame.
whenheatedtotheirmeltingpoint in air, exhibit a Historical Background
strong tendency to form oxides, and to alesser extent,
nitrides. Oxygen willalso react with carbonin molten The fact that argon and helium would make ideal
steeltoformcarbonmonoxideandcarbondioxide. shielding gasesfor all types of welding operations had
The various products of these reactions may result in been known for many years. However, the problem of
weld deficiencies, such as trapped slag, porosity, and introducing these gases into the welding area, as well
weld metal embrittlement. Reaction products are eas- as the problem of high cost, precluded their use. In the
ily formed by exposure to the atmosphere unless pre- early
development of gas
tungstenarc
welding
cautions are taken to exclude nitrogen and oxygen. (GTAW), argon or helium, or a mixture of the two,
were used. Not onlydid these inert gases provide pro-
In addition to providing a protective environment,
tective atmospheresfor all materials, but they also pro-
the shield gas and flow rate also have a pronounced
effect onthe following: videdprotection for the nonconsumabletungsten
electrode.
(1) Arc characteristics
(2) Mode of metal transfer With the developmentof the gas metal arc welding
(GMAW) process,it became evident that the composi-
(3) Penetration and weld bead profile
tion of the inert shielding gases could be tailored to
(4)Speed of welding specific applications by adding small amounts of an
(5) Undercutting tendency active gas, such as oxygen or carbon dioxide,to argon
(6)Cleaning action or helium. Later refinements, particularly in the area
(7) Weld metal mechanical properties of welding steel, made it possible to use carbon diox-
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW). In SMAW, gas ide or carbondioxide-argonmixtures for effective
shielding is achieved by using covered electrodes with shielding. Formerly called Mig welding,the term gas
certain organic products in the electrode coating mate- metal arc welding evolved because it is a more accu-
rial. This material decomposes at arc temperature to rate description of the gases used in the process. See
produce an atmosphere consisting mainly of carbon ARGON, HELIUM, and CARBON DIOXIDE.
dioxide (COZ) andcarbonmonoxide (CO), with or
withoutsmallamounts of hydrogen.Thesegases, SHIP WELDING
while primarily shielding, also contributeto the stabi- Several welding processes are required for the var-
lization of the arc andthe general improvementof the ied and specialized requirementsof ship construction.
arc characteristics. Present day shipsare larger andare designed for weld-
Generally, the shielding gases developed by elec- ing, with consideration given to vessel weight, weld-
trode coatings are most effective when welding ferrous ing processes, practices and procedures, and shipyard
materials,buttheyare also useful for some of the facilities. Hull designsof tankers have changed to pro-
hard-to-weld materials, such as aluminum- and cop- vide increased protection against accidental oil spills
per-basealloys. Specific fluxes are usedwiththese after collisions with reefs, rocks or other ships.
electrodes to form fusible metal oxide slags which do The OilPollutionAct of 1990 mandateddouble
not interfere withthe welding operation. hulls by the year 2010 on all tankers entering United

Licensed by Information Handling Services ~ ~~~ ~
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 1997
07842b5
051bb37
b17 m
Welding Encyclopedia SHIP WELDING 463
States waters. As a result, the shipbuilding industry is strength steels, the plates do not have to be as thick,
investigatingprocedurestomanufactureshipswith again limiting the application for electrogas and elec-
double hulls. One approach employs curved hull plat- troslag welding. Figure S-11 shows the completion of
ing and the electrogas welding (EGW) process. a 3 m (10 ft) high vertical electrogas weld ina 16 mm
(Y8 in.) thick steel barge hull.
Weldlng Processes. Ingenious modifications of the
shielded metal arc welding process have been adopted
in shipyards to improve productivity andto reduce the
schedule times. The useof a sliding tripod to feed the
electrode along the joint, after arc initiation, permits
one welder to operate as many as six large-diameter
welding electrodes simultaneously.This version, com-
monly calledgravity welding, is used in many yardsin
the world. A less frequently used variationis a method
called firecracker welding, which requires the elec-
trode to be placed on the workpiece along the joint.
Once the arc is established, the weld proceeds down
the length of the electrode until the filler material is
consumed. Both of these processesare effectively lim-
ited to the horizontalfillet weld position.
To aid in achieving higher deposition rates, the sub-
merged arc welding(SAW) process was developedfor
the shipbuilding industry. Manyof the deck plates and
hull plates are flat and have long butt joint connec-
tions. Because of the size of the plates, much work is
performed outdoors. The submerged arc process is
ideal for the combinationof these conditions. Portable
self-propelled tractors thatcan carry the welding flux,
a spool of welding electrode and the process control
unit have been designed to implement the process in
both the shop andfield.
Multiple electrode SAW systems can provide very
highdepositionrates for the joining of thickplate
assemblies. A uniquearrangement of the electrical
connections for seriesarc ,SAW produces a weld
deposit that is effectively used for one-side butt weld-
ing of the plates. The need toturn the very large plate
assemblies is eliminated, because there is no second- Figure S-1l-Electmgas Weldlng of a Vertlcal Hull
Joint
side welding required.This provides shipbuilders with
a very effective method of fabrication for the most
fundamental form of ship design, the construction of Flux cored arc welding (FCAW) has become the
the deck and shell plate blankets. most popular welding method for shipbuilding appli-
Electrogas (EGW) and electroslag (ESW) welding cations. Even though shipbuilders attempt to utilize
have been usedto join many ships having long vertical the flat position or horizontal fillet weld position as
butt joints in the hull design. These processes make the much as possible, a high percentage of the welding
vertical connections automatically, and the deposition required in ship construction must be done in the
rates for these processes are high. With the incorpora- vertical, horizontal and overhead positions. The
tion of higherstrengthsteelsinship designs, these development of small-diameter flux cored welding
methods are not as popular because the high heat inputelectrodes with excellent mechanical properties has
inherent in the weld zone can have an adverse effect accelerated the use of this process in shipyards
on the heat-affected zone properties. Also, with higher around the world.
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 078Y2b5 05Lbb38 553 W
464 SHIP WELDING Encyclopedia Welding
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is also used for inverted position on movable gantries which span the
shipconstruction.Althoughnot as commoninthe assembly, permitting access using the arm reach of the
United States as elsewhereintheworld,gasmetal robot andthe positioning capabilityof the gantry.
arc welding is used for hull and superstructure con- Materials. The principle material usedfor shipbuild-
struction. The flexibility of the process permits high ing is low-carbon steel. Many other materials are used
deposition rates using spray transfer in the flat and for hulland structural components,includinghigh-
horizontal fillet positions while also having a pulsing strength steel and high-strength,
low-alloy steel,
transferavailable for out-of-positionwork.Figure quenchedandtemperedsteel,andaluminum.Other
S-12 shows the GMAW process being used to weld a materialssuch as carbon steel, austenitic stainless
section of aluminum superstructure. steel, copperalloys,nickelalloysandtitanium are
used for the service distribution systems. The assort-
ment of materials that may be used in a ship design
results in many challenges for the correct selection of
filler materials and welding processes.
Operating Systems. A ship is much like a moving
city. Each ship requires installation of equipment for
propulsion,waterand electrical distribution, waste
disposal, food preparation and the manyother aspects
of services required for the operation of the ship and
the life of the crew. The equipment is manufactured
from many welded components. Because of this vari-
ety of systems, shipbuilding requires the implementa-
tion of welding for structural, piping, pressure vessels
andsheetmetal applications.Considering also the
diversity of materials that are incorporatedin the
designs of shipsforstrength,corrosionresistance,
weightand fatigue life purposesmakesshipsan
Figure S-12-Mechanized Gas Metal Arc Welding extraordinary welded product. Figure S-13 shows an
Aluminum Superstructurein a Shipyard Arleigh Burkeclass Aegis destroyer being fitted out.
Photo courtesy of lngalls Shipbuilding Historical Background
Welding has been an important fabrication process
for shipbuilding since WorldWar I. It was during this
In addition tothe hull structure, ships require exten-
era that the value of welding for the repair and con-
sive use of piping and ventilation ducting to operate
struction of ships was recognized. It was essential for
properly at sea. A common process for these applica- the war effort to transport troops and supplies by sea,
tions is gs tungsten arc welding (GTAW). The precise and the demand for ships became critical. The use of
control of the welding arc is ideally suitedfor many of welding made it possible to provide the ships required
the pipe and duct joints. To enhance the productivity by the United States to effectively support the battle
of the outfitting shops, automated systems are com- fronts in Europe. The government established a com-
monly usedfor welding these components. mittee to investigate the accelerated useof electric arc
An innovation in shipbuilding technologyis the use weldingin
shipbuilding to supportthe
national
of welding robots. Robotic arc welding has been used defense. It was fromthe formation ofthis body that the
in limited applications, however, with further develop-American Welding Society was created in1919.
ments in the software systems and hardware configu- As welding came into use in shipbuilding, its first
rations,
the
number of robots
being
used
in application was to barges. The hull of the barge is a
shipbuildingincreasesannually.Themostcommon simple box structure in which the stresses are easily
application for an arc welding robot is the joining of calculable. Thisis not the case with ships inOcean ser-
two structures using fillet welds. While some robots vice, such as cargo vessels and tankers. Theyare sub-
are portable enough to be placed on the assembly for ject to high stresses due to wind and wave action, as
access to the weld path, robots can be installed in the well asto possible stresses causedby cargo weight dis-
STD=AWS
3WE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 051bb39 4 9 T 9
Welding
Encyclopedia
SHORT
CIRCUIT WELDING
METAL
ARC
(GMAW-S)
GAS 465
be used in all positions. In addition to having accept-

able operating characteristics in the various welding
positions, the introduction of iron powder to the coat-
ings increased the deposition ratefor the welding pro-
cess. Since weldingrepresents one of thelargest
proportions of skilledtrademan-hoursin ship con-
struction, increases inthe deposition ratesof a process
can have a significant effect on the selection of the
welding methods.
Tankers. In the 1940s, Sun Shipbuilding Company
built the U? I. Van Dyck, then the worldslargest
ocean-going tanker. It was 159 m (521 ft)long and
12 m (40 ft) high, with a beam of 21 m (70 ft), and a
gross weight of 10 590 metric tons (1 1 650 tons). The
building of this tanker constituted a landmark in ship-
building,notonlybecause of thesize of a ship to
which welding was applied, but also because this craft
represented the first large-scale useof automatic weld-
Figure S-13-Fitting Out an Arleigh Burke Class ing in shipyard work.
Aegis Destroyer In a Shipyard In 1973, two supertankers rated at 476 025 DWT
were built. These super tankers, theGlobtik Tokyo and
Photo courtesy of lngalls Shipbuilding the Globtik London, aretwo-and-a-halftimes the
length of the V m Dyck, three times as wide, and six
times as high; the dimensions are 379.2 m (1244 ft) in
tribution. The challenges encountered in the design of
floating structures are very different from those facing length, 75.0 m (246 ft) high, with a beam of 62.2 m
the designers of bridges, buildings or other land struc- (204 ft). The cargo tanks hold 153 million gallons of
tures. Weld joint designs also must meet the require- crude oil, or more than three million barrels. These
ments of this rigorous servicelife. ships, like all of the super-tankers and most modern
ocean-going vessels,are of all-welded construction.
Submarines were welded in 1918 and 1919, and in
the 1920s, welding was used to build the tanker, the
SHORE SCLEROSCOPE HARDNESS
Poughkeepse Socony. It was 77 m x 12 m x 4.3 m
(252 ft X 40 ft X 14 ft), with a gross weight of 882 met- See HARDNESS TESTING.
ric tons (1235 tons).
SHOT BLASTING
Although there have been many claims about the
first all-welded ship, it is known that welding was A cleaning operation similar to sandblasting, except
used in constructing many ships during the first thirty steel shot orgrit is used insteadof sand.
years of the twentieth century. These early ships were
both welded and riveted, as the industry was in transi- SHORT ARC
tion between these methods of joining the steel hulls A nonstandard term when used for SHORT CIRCUIT
and decks. It was not until the late 1930s that a large GAS METAL ARC WELDING(GMAW-S) or SHORTCIR-
ship was designedto be completely welded, using butt CUITING TRANSFER.
welded joints to connect the hull plating. Priorto that
time, ship designs relied onlap welded plates that may SHORT CIRCUIT GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW-S)
or may not have required rivets. A gas metal arc welding processvariation in which
Developments in the coating systems for shielded the consumable electrode is deposited during repeated
metalarcweldingelectrodesexpandedtheuse of short circuits. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
welding for ship applications. As the welding charac- A short circuiting arc is a method of metal transfer
teristics of electrodes were improved, arc welding was ingasmetalarcwelding (GMAW). This process is
introduced to additional shipbuilders. Due to the size sometimes referred to as short arc or dip transfer. It
of the structures, it was necessary that the electrodes can be used with most metals, providing the welding
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 0536640 303 m
466 WELDING
SHORT
METAL
CIRCUIT
ARC
GAS
(GMAWS) Welding Encyclopedia
wire,which is aconsumableelectrode,hasagood The arc voltage and arc current patterns during a
burn off characteristic, and the correct shielding gas typical short circuiting welding cycle are traced by
and welding machineare used. means of an oscillograph; an example is shown in
Shortcircuiting GMAW hasgainedwideaccep- Figure S- 14. Each short circuit should produce a defi-
tance in industryfor welding thin materials in all posi- nite controlled current surge sufficient to recreate the
tions, and someheaviergaugesin the verticaland arc without an undesirable high surge or blast. The
overhead positions. It has proven useful for applica- complete fusion cycle associated withshort circuit
tions that require welding large gaps. metal transfer, followed by the reestablishment of the
Short circuiting metal transfer is most widely used arc is pictured in the bottom portion of Figure S-14.
in welding carbon steels and low-alloy steels. Stainless The shorting action is shown in steps A through D. In
steels and light gauge aluminum are also being welded E the pinch effect has been completed, and the arc is
with this process, but to a lesser degree. Short circuit- reignited to start the cycle over, as shown in E
ing metal transfer is done at low currents, generally through H. At I, the short circuit is againextinguish-
from 50 to 225 amperes,andlowvoltage,12to ing the arc, then the steps are repeated. The cycle is
22 volts, using small diameter wires, usually with0.8, a complete round of events from one short circuit
0.9 and 1.1mm (0.030,0.035, and 0.045 in.) diameters. until the wire is again shorted by touching the weld
The outstanding characteristic of the short circuit- puddle.
ing arcis the frequent shortingof the wire tothe work- Special machines of theconstant.potentialtype are
piece. All metal transfer takes place when the arc is used for this welding method. They have appropriate
extinguished. This happens at a steady rate from 20 to induction or voltage-ampere slope control,or both, for
over 200 times a second. This results in a very stable producing the specific current surges needed to imple-
arc of low energy and heat input. The low heat input ment short circuit metal transfer for its full range of
minimizes distortion and metallurgical effects. most metals.
ZERO
A B C D E F G H I
Figure S-1-hematic Representation of Short CircuitingMetal Transfer

~~ ~~ ~~ - -
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 H 078112b5 05Lbb4L 048 m

Welding Encyclopedia SILICON 467
Equipment. Short circuit metaltransfercanbe SHRINKAGE VOID

accomplished on basic GMAW equipmqnt. The wire A cavity-type discontinuity normally formed by
feedsystemshould be of a constant speed design, shrinkage duringsolidification. See STANDARD WELD-
using either a mechanical oran electronic governor.A ING TERMS.
wire feed range of 12 to 340 m m / s (50 to 800 idmin)
will make it adequatefor nearly all applications, SHUNT
The weldingmachineshould be a direct-current A parallel electrical circuit;a by-pass circuit.
type designed for short circuiting metal transfer, usu-
ally with a 200- or 300-ampere capacity. SIDE BEND TEST
The GMAW torch may be eitherair cooled or water A test in which the side of a transverse section of the
cooled, with a straight or curved nozzle. The curved weld is onthe convexsurface of a specified bend
nozzle is the most popular design for welding in the radius. See STANDARD WUDING TERMS. See also
short circuiting metal transfer mode. BEND TEST.
Shielding Gases. Many of the shielding gases react SIDEWALL
favorablywithshortcircuitingmetaltransfer.Pure A nonstandard term when used for
GROOVE FACE.
argon and helium, or mixtures of both, are used on thin
aluminum. For carbon and low-alloy steels, the gases SIEVE ANALYSIS
generallyused are carbondioxide,ormixtures of A method of determining particle size distribution,
argon and carbon dioxide, or argon and oxygen. usually expressed as the weight percentage retained
Shielding gas flow rates range from 7 to 12 Umin upon each of a series of standard screens of decreas-
(15 to 25 cfh). This is less than required for spray arc ing mesh size. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
welding,because a much smaller weld puddle is Inwelding,sieveanalysisisconductedonpow-
involved. See also FINE WIRE WELDING and DIP dered or particulate materials;for example when these
TRANSFER. materials are added to electrode coatings or cores, or
for particulatesizespecification for submergedarc
SHORT CIRCUITING ARC WELDING welding flux.
A nonstandard term for SHORT CIRCUIT GAS METAL
ARC WELDING. SIGMA WELDING
An acronym for shielded inert gas metal arc weld-
SHORT CIRCUITING TRANSFER, Arc Welding ing, formerly used for metal inertgas (MIG) welding,
Metal transfer in which molten metal from a con- now standardized as gas metal arc welding(GMAW).
sumable electrode is deposited during repeated short
circuits. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure SILENT ARC
S-14. See also GLOBULAR TRANSFER and SPRAY A termusedinatomichydrogenwelding to
TRANSFER. of 20 to
describe a short arc witha voltage in the range
hiss-
40 volts, which fails to produce the characteristic
SHOULDER ing sound ofan arc. See ATOMIC HYDROGEN WELDING.
ROOT FACE.
SILENT MELTING
SHRINKAGE A term applied to aluminum, magnesium or other
Shrinkage refers to a reductioninany of the materials which give no indication of melting until the
dimensions of a material caused by contraction dur- metal suddenly becomes liquid. Silent-melting materi-
ing cooling as the result of the materials coefficient als melt before attaininga red heat.
of thermal expansion (or contraction), or a reduction
in specific volume as the resultof a change to a more SILICON
dense phase on cooling (e.g., solid formed from liq- (Chemicalsymbol:Si). A non-metallicelement
uid). See DISTORTION. resembling graphite in appearance, used extensively in
alloys. Siliconis not found free in nature but in combi-
SHRINKAGE STRESS nationwithotherelementsand is probablymore
A nonstandardtermwhenusedfor RESIDUAL widely distributed in the solid matterof the earth than
STRESS. any other element except oxygen. Silicon is usually

~~~
~
~~
STD.AWS JWE-ENGL Iss? m 0 ~ 4 z b s051" TWI
468
found in the oxide(silicate)form.Atomicweight, SILICON STEEL

28.06; melting point, 1410C (2570F); specific grav- An alloy steel with low hysteresisand eddy current
ity, 2.42. loss, used in transformer cores. Also, a high grade of
In a molten steel bath, silicon acts to promotefluid- structural steel.
ity by effecting a control over the oxygen content of
SlLlCOSlS
the steel. High percentages of silicon are added to steel
toreducecertainmagneticcharacteristics of steel A respiratory condition or disease caused by inhala-
when it is used inelectrical and magnetic applications. tion of fine particles of silicon or silicon dioxide that
Adding silicon tends to improve oxidation resistance may be contained in dust and in welding fumes. See
'and increase the hardenability of steels carrying non-

graphitizing elements. Silicon also contributes to the
strength of low-alloy steels. It increases hardenability
WELDING FUMES.
SILVER
A pure white metallic element used as an alloy to
and performs a valuable function as a deoxidizer, elim- enhance corrosion resistance. Native silver often has
inating occluded gas. variable admixturesof other metals, suchas gold, cop-
per and sometimes platinum. Silver is used extensively
SILICON BRONZE inalloysusedtomakecontainers for the food and
A bronze or brass containingsilicon, which gives it chemical industries, where other metals fail to with-
toughness and strength.See COPPER ALLOY WELDING. stand corrosion. Atomic weight, 107.88; specific grav-
ity at 20C(68"F),
10.5;melting
point,
960C
SILICON CARBIDE (1760F); Brinell hardness37.
See GRINDING MATERIALS.
SILVER ALLOY BRAZING
SILICON RECTIFIER A nonstandard term for brazing with a silver-base
filler metal.
A silicon diode that changes alternating current to
directcurrent.It is atwo-elementrectifierthathas SILVER-BASE FILLER METAL BRAZING
become the mostwidelyusedrectifier for welding Silver-base filler metals (AWS Classification BAg)
power sources. A silicon rectifier performs the same are used extensively in brazing both ferrous and non-
basicfunction as seleniumrectifiers;bothmaterials ferrous metals and alloys, except aluminum and mag-
are used as semiconductors. nesium. This classification includes a range of silver
Themostcommonlyusedsiliconrectifiers, or based filler metal composition which may have vari-
diodes, are the 150-ampere diode with a 9.5 or 13 mm ous additions such as copper, zinc, cadmium, tin, man-
(3/8 or 1/2 in.) diameterstud,and the 275-ampere ganese, nickel and lithium. Table S-2 lists chemical
diode with a 19mm (3/4 in.) diameter stud. compositionrequirements for silver brazing fdler
Silicondiodes are stackedintosingle-phaseand metals.
three-phase bridge rectifiers in much the same manner Silver brazingalloys are generallyused in those
as the selenium cells are used. Fewer silicon diodes, caseswherestrengthandresistance to shock are
however, are required for a given rectifier amperage required. Examples of silver brazing applications are
rating. joining band saws, shrouds, and lacing wire for turbine
blades,andinthefabrication of equipmentwhere
Silicon diodes must be carefully installed to insure appearance as well as strength is important. Silver
that no strain is placed on the copper pigtail lead. A brazing alloys usually contain varying percentages of
stress couldbeintroducedintothestructure of the silver, copper and zinc, andare often called silver sol-
diode assembly that could possibly fracture the silicon ders. Thesecompositionshavemeltingpoints from
wafer. 700 to 870C(1300 to 1600"F), depending on the pro-
Silicon diodes must be carefully matched for volt- portions of the different metals, or a range below that
age and ampere characteristics when they are installed of base metal brazing alloys or copper welding rods,
in a main power source. Diodes may be used in paral- which require from 870 to 1090C (1600 to 2000F).
lel to achieve ampere ratings of 1000 amperes or more. Table S-3 lists the brazing temperature ranges for the
See SELENIUM RECTIFIER. various silver brazingfiller metals.

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 0516643 '310 m
Welding Encyclopedia BRAZINGMETAL FILLER
SILVER-BASE 469
Tabk 5-2
Chemical Composition Requirements for Silver Filler Metals
Composition, Weight Percent
Other
AWS UNS Elements,
Cldkatiion NumberP Ag Cu Zn Cd Ni Sn Li Mn Totalb
BAg-1 PO7450 44.0-46.0 14.0-16.0 14.0-18.0 23.0-25.0 - O. 15

BAg- 1 a PO7500 49.0-51.0 14.5-16.5 14.5-18.5 17.0-19.0 - O. 15
BAg-2 PO7350 34.0-36.0 25.0-27.0 19.0-23.0 17.0-19.0 - O. 15
BAg-2a PO7300 29.0-31.0 26.0-28.0 21.0-25.0 19.0-21.0 - O. 15
BAg-3 PO7501 49.0-51.0 14.5-16.5 13.5-17.5 15.0-17.02.5-3.5 O. 15
BAg-4 PO7400 39.0-41.0 29.0-31 .O 26.0-30.0 - 1.5-2.5 O. 15
BAg-5 PO7453 44.0-46.0 29.0-31.0 23.0-27.0 - - O. 15
BAg-6 PO7503 49.0-51.0 33.0-35.0 14.0-18.0 - - O. 15
BAg-7 PO7563 55.0-57.0 21.0-23.0 15.0-19.0 - - O. 15
BAg-8 PO7720 71.0-73.0 Remainder - - - 0.15
BAg-8a PO7723 71.0-73.0 Remainder - - - 0.15
BAg-9 PO7650 64.0-66.0 19.0-21.0 13.0-17.0 - - O. 15
BAg- O1 PO7700 69.0-71.0 19.0-21.0 8.0-12.0 - -
BAg-13 PO754053.0-55.0
Remainder4.0-6.0 - 0.5-1.5 O. 15
BAg- 13a PO7560
55.0-57.0
Remainder - - S-2.51 O. 15
BAg- 18 PO7600
59.0-61.0
Remainder - - 0.15
BAg-19 PO7925
92.0-93.0
Remainder - - - O. 15
BAg-20 PO7301
29.0-31.0
37.0-39.0
30.0-34.0 - - O. 15
B Ag-2 1 PO7630
62.0-64.0
27.5-29.5 - - 2.0-3.0 O. 15
BAg-22 PO7490
48.0-50.0
15.0-17.0
21.0-25.0 - 4.0-5.0 O. 15
BAg-23 84.0-86.0
PO7850 - - - - O. 15
BAg-24 PO7505
49.0-51 .O 19.0-21.0
26.0-30.0 - S-2.5
1 O. 15
BAg-26 PO7250
24.0-26.0
37.0-39.0
31.0-35.0 - S-2.5
1 O. 15
BAg-27 PO7251
24.0-26.0
34.0-36.0
24.5-28.5
12.5-14.5 - 0.15
BAg-28 PO7401
39.0-41.0
29.0-31.0
26.0-30.0 - - 0.15
BAg-33 PO7252
24.0-26.0
29.0-31.0
26.5-28.5
16.5-18.5 - 0.15
BAg-34 PO7380
37.0-39.0
31.0-33.0
26.0-30.0 - - O. 15
a. SAEJASTM Unified Numbering Systemfor Metals and Alloys.
b. The brazing filler metal shall be analyzed for thosespecific elements for which values are shown in this table. If the presence of other
elements is indicated in the course of this work, the amount of those elements shall be determined to ensure that their total does not
exceed the limit specified.
Selecting Silver Filler Metals metals. Cadmium oxide present in brazing fumeis poi-
Silver, alloyed with copperin a proportion of 72% sonous, and cadrnium-free filler metals should be uti-
silver, 28% copper, forms a eutectic with a melting lized wherever possible. Tin can effectively reduce the
point of 780C (435F).This filler metal (BAg-8) can brazingtemperature,and is used to replace zincor
be used to furnace braze nonferrous base metals in a cadmium in filler metals. Nickel is added to assist in
protective atmosphere. This alloy, however, does not wetting tungsten carbides and provides greater corro-
easily wet ferrous metals. The addition of zinc lowers sion resistance. Brazing alloys containing nickel are
the melting temperature of the silver copper binary especiallyrecommendedfor joining stainless steels
alloys and helps wet iron, cobalt,and nickel. Cadmium because they reduce susceptibility to interfacial corro-
is also effective in loweringthe brazing temperatureof sion. Manganese is sometimes added to improve wet-
these alloys and assists in wetting a variety of base ting on stainless steel, other nickel-chromium alloys,

AZINGMETAL
470FILLER
SILVER-BASE
Table S-3
for Silver FillerMetals*
Solidus, Liquidus, and Brazing Temperature Ranges
Solidus Liquidus Brazing Temperature Range
AWS Classification "C "F "C "F "C "F

BAg-1 607 1125 618 1145 6 1 8-760 1145-1400
BAg-la 627 1160 635 1175 635-760 1175-1400
BAg-2 607 1125 702 1295 702-843 1295-1550
BAg-2a 607 1125 710 1310 7 10-843 1310-1550
BAg-3 632 1170 688 1270 688-8 16 1270-1500
BAg-4 671 1240 779 1435 779-899 1435-1650
BAg-5 663 1225 743 1370 743-843 1370-1550
BAg-6 688 1270 774 1425 774-87 1 1425-1600
BAg-7 618 1145 652 1205 652-760 1205-1400
BAg-8 779 1435 779 1435 779-899 1435-1650
BAg-8a 766 1410 766 1410 766-87 1 1410-1600
BAg-9 67 1 1240 718 1325 7 18-843 1325-1550
BAg- 10 691 1275 738 1360 738-843 1360-1550
BAg- 13 718 1325 857 1575 857-968 1575-1775
BAg-13a 77 1 1420 893 1640 893-982 1600-1 800
BAg- 18 602 1115 718 1325 7 18-843 1325-1550
BAg- 19 760 1400 89 1 1635 877-982 1610-1800
BAg-20 677 1250 766 1410 766-87 1 1410-1600
BAg-21 69 1 1275 802 1475 802-899 1475-1650
BAg-22 680 1260 699 1290 699-830 1290-1525
BAg-23 960 1760 970 1780 970-1038 1780-1900
BAg-24 660 1220 750 1305 750-843 1 305- 1550
BAg-26 705 1305 800 1475 800-870 1475-1600
BAg-27 605 1125 745 1375 745-860 1375-1575
BAg-28 649 1200 710 1310 7 10-843 1310-1550
BAg-33 607 1125 682 1260 682-760 1260-1400
BAg-34 649 1200 72 1 1330 72 1-843 1330-1550
for the nominal composition in each classification.
*Solidus and liquidus shown are
and cemented carbides. Lithiumis effective in reduc- paste, powder, and strip. Several filler metals are avail-
ing oxides of refractory metalsto promote filler metal able as a clad or "sandwich" strip with filler metal
wetting, and improve flow on stainless steels furnace bonded to both sides of a copper core. This clad strip is
brazed in protective atmospheres. popular in brazing carbide tool tips. The copper core
Flux is required when torch brazing with these filler absorbsstresses set up by differences in thermal
metalsinanoxidizingenvironment.Mineral fluxes expansion between the carbide and base metal, thus
conforming to AWS Fl33A, or other classifications, in helping to prevent cracking.
powder, paste,or slurry formare generally used.Vapor BAg-1 brazing filler metal has the lowest brazing
flux introduced through a torch flame also is suitable temperature rangeof the BAgfiller metals. Becauseof
although filler metal capillary action may be limited this, it flows freely into tight capillary joints. Its nar-
with this type application. Vapor (gas) fluxis normally row melting range is suitable for rapid or slow meth-
used as a supplementto mineral flux types,to improve ods of heating. This fdler metal also contains
protection, wetting and flow. cadmium, and toxic fumes may be formed when it is
Silver brazing filler metals are available in numer- heated.Precautionsmust be takento assure proper
ous formsincluding:wire,rod,pre-formedshapes, ventilation of the brazing area to protect brazingper-

~~~ .~
.STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1797 m 07842b5 05Lbb45 793 m

ILVER-BASE
EREncyclopedia
Welding BRAZING 471
sonnel. BAg-la brazing filler metalhasproperties (3) Improving color match where thesite color will
similar to BAg-l. Eithercompositionmay be used blend withthe base metal
where low-temperature, free-flowing filler metals are BAg-8 brazing filler metal is suitable for furnace
desired. This filler metal also contains cadmium, and brazing in a protective atmosphere without the use of a
fume hazards mustbe eliminated. flux, as well as for brazing procedures requiring a flux.
BAg-2brazing filler metal, like BAg-1, is free- It is usually used on copper or copper alloys. When
flowing andsuited for generalpurposework. Its molten, BAg-8is very fluid and mayflow out over the
broader melting rangeis helpful where clearances are workpiece surfaces duringsome furnace brazing appli-
wide or not uniform. Unless heating is rapid, care must cations. It can also be used on stainless steel, nickel-
be taken that the lower melting constituents do not basealloysandcarbonsteel,although its wetting
separate by liquation. This filler metal contains cad- action on these metalsis slow. Higher brazing temper-
mium and fumes are toxic. Refer to Appendix 13 for atures will improve flow and wetting.
safety informationon use ofthe product. BAg-Sa brazing filler metal is used for zinc in a
BAg-2a brazingfiller metal is similar to BAg-2, but protective atmosphere andis advantageous when braz-
is more economical than BAg-2 since it contains 5% ing precipitation hardening and other stainless steels in
less silver. This filler metal contains cadmium,and the 760 to 870OC (1400 to 1600F) range.The lithium
fumes formed on heating are toxic. Referto Appendix content serves to promote wetting and to increase the
13 for more information. flow of the filler metal ondiffkult-to-braze metals and
BAg-3brazing filler metal is amodification of alloys. Lithium is particularly helpful on base metals
BAg-la; i.e., nickel is added. It has good corrosion containing minor amountsof titanium and aluminum.
resistance in marine environments and caustic media BAg-9 and- 1O filler metals are used particularlyfor
and when used on stainless steel will inhibit crevice joining sterling silver. These filler metals have differ-
(interface) corrosion.
Because its nickelcontent ent brazing temperatures, andso can be usedfor step-
improves wettability on tungsten carbide tool tips,the brazing of successive joints. The color, after brazing,
largest useis to braze carbide tool assemblies. Melting approximates thecolor of sterling silver.
range and low fluidity make BAg-3 suitable for form- BAg- 13 brazing filler metal is used for service tem-
ing larger fillets or filling wide clearances. This filler peratures up to 370C (700F). Its low zinc content
metal contains cadmium, and toxic fumes are formed makes it suitable for furnace brazing.
when it is heated.ConsultAppendix 13 for safety BAg-13a brazing filler metal is similar to BAg-13,
information. except that it contains no zinc, which is advantageous
BAg-4brazing filler metal, like BAg-3, is used wherevolatilization is objectionablein
furnace
extensively for carbide tip brazing, but flows less brazing.
freely than BAg-3. This filler metal does not contain BAg-18 brazing filler metal is similar to BAg-8 in
cadmium. its applications. Its tin content helps promote wetting
BAg-5 and -6 brazing filler metals m frequently on stainless steel, nickel-basealloys, and carbon steel.
used for brazing in the electrical industry. They are BAg-18 has a lower liquidus than BAg-8 and is used
also used, along with BAg-7 and-24, in the dairy and in step-brazing applications and where fluxless braz-
food industries where the use of cadmium-containing ing is important.
filler metals is prohibited. BAg-5 is an excellent filler BAg-19 brazing filler metal is used for the same
metal for brazing brass parts (suchas in ships piping, applications as BAg-Sa.BAg-19 is oftenusedin
band instruments, or lamps. Since BAg-6 has a broad higher brazing temperature applications where the pre-
melting range andis not as free flowing as BAg-1 and cipitationhardeningheattreatment and brazing are
-2, it is a betterfiller metal for filling wide joint clear- combined.
ances or forming large fillets. BAg-20 brazingfiller metal possessesgood wetting
BAg-7 brazing filler metal, a cadmium-free substi- and flow characteristics and has a brazing temperature
tute for BAg-1, is low-melting with good flow and range higher thanthe popular Ag-Cu-Zn-Cd composi-
wetting properties. Typical applications include: tions. Due to its goodbrazingproperties,freedom
(1) Foodequipmentwherecadmiummustbe from cadmium, and a more economical silver content,
avoided new usesfor this filler metal are being developed.
(2) Minimizing stress corrosion cracking in nickel BAg-21 brazingfiller metal is used in brazing AISII
or nickel-base alloys at low brazing temperatures 300 and 400 series stainless steels, as well as the pre-

,STD.AWS JWE-ENGL L797 07842b5 05Lbb4b
b2T m
METAL
472 FILLER
SILVER-BASE BRAZING Encyclopedia
Welding
cipitation hardening nickel and steel alloys. BAg-21 is BAg-34brazing filler metal is acadmium-free
particularlysuited to protectiveatmospherefurnace material with free-flowing characteristics. The brazing
brazing because of the absence of zinc and cadmium. temperaturerange is similarto that ofBAg-2 and
It does not require a fluxfor proper brazing unlessthe BAg-2a, making it an ideal substitute for these filler
temperatures are low. It requires a rather high brazing metals.
temperature, and it flows in a sluggish manner. The The silver copper eutectic (BAg-8), whichcontains
nickel content makes it immune to crevice corrosion, 72% silver and 28% copper, melts at 780C (1435F)
particularlyon the 400 seriesstainless steels, by and is used when zinc inthe alloy would give trouble.
imparting a nickel-rich layer along the fillet edge. It Alloyscontainingsilver,copper,manganese,and
has been used for brazing stainless steel vanes of gas those with a further addition of nickel and silicon are
turbine aircraft engines. used for similar purposes. Zinc or zinc and cadmium
BAg-22 is a low-temperature, cadmium-free filler combined with relatively high percentages of silver
metalwithimprovedstrengthcharacteristicsover provide a series of alloys that melt at temperatures
BAg-3, particularlyin brazing tungsten carbide tools. between 700 and 760C (1300 and 1400"F), have a
BAg-23 is ahigh-temperature,free-flowing filler white color, andare used in applications where copper
metal usable bothfor torch and protective atmosphere would be objectionable. An alloycontainingsilver,
furnace brazing. This filler metal is mainlyusedin copper,zincandcadmium (BAg-la), whichflows
brazingstainlesssteel,nickel-base and cobalt-base freely at 635C (1175F) is used extensively for join-
alloys for high temperature applications. If this filler ing both ferrous and non-ferrous metals and alloys,
metal is used in a high-vacuum atmosphere, a loss of because it makes strongjoints.
manganese will occur due to its high vapor pressure. Conductivity. Silver brazingalloyshaveahigher
Thus a partial pressure vacuum is desirable. electrical conductivity than base metal brazing alloys,
BAg-24 brazing filler metal is low-melting, free- andthereforetheiruse is particularly desirable for
flowing, cadmium-free, and suitablefor use injoining brazing parts of electrical apparatus where the highest
lowcarbon300seriesstainlesssteels(particularly conductivity is required. Zinc tends to lower the con-
food handling equipment and hospital utensils), and ductivity,and the silvercopper eutectic previously
small tungsten carbideinserts for cutting tools. mentionedhasabout70%of the conductivity of
BAg-26brazing filler metal is alow-silvercad- copper.
mium-free material suitable for carbide and stainless Corrosion. Any of the standard silver brazing alloys
steel brazing, The low brazing temperature and good are resistantto most of the common types of corrosion.
flow characteristics make it well suited for moderate When unusual conditions have to be met, it is desir-
strength applications. able to make up specimens and subject them to the
BAg-27 brazingfiller metal is similar to BAg-2, but actual conditions of use in orderto determine the best
has lower silver andis somewhat more subject toliq- alloy. Galvanic corrosion is a problem, but since it is
uation due to a wider melting range. This filler metal generally in proportion to the areas exposed to attack,
contains cadmium. Toxic fumes are formed on heat- a cathodicjoining alloy would givethe best result. Sil-
ing. Refer to Appendix13 for safety information. ver alloys with high percentagesof silver are cathodic
BAg-28brazing filler metalhasalowerbrazing to many metals and alloys used to resist corrosive con-
temperature with a relatively narrower melting range ditions, therefore they are satisfactory for use under
than other cadmium-free classifications with similar such conditions. For example, these high-grade silver
silver content. BAg-28 also has free-flowing charac- alloys are cathodic to nickel-copper alloys and stain-
teristics. less steel under many corrosive conditions for which
BAg-33brazing filler metalwasdeveloped to these metals are used. They should notbe used, how-
minimize brazing temperature for a filler metal con- ever, for joining stainlesssteelwhenthe joints are
taining 25% silver. It has a lower liquidusand, there- likely to be attacked by nitric acid.
fore, a narrower melting range than BAg-27. Its higher The question of color match with different metals
totalzincpluscadmiumcontentmayrequiremore and alloys is often raised. Those silver brazing alloys
care during brazing. Refer to Appendix 13 for infor- with low percentagesof silver are yellow andthe color
mation about safety requirements when brazing with becomes whiter as the silver is increased. Alloys with
cadmium-bearing alloys. high silver and without any copper the are whitest, but

Welding Encyclopedia BRAZINGMETAL FILLER
SILVER-BASE 473
in a properly fitted joint, the band of brazing alloy When joining flat members, either with lap or butt
which is visible is so narrow that any slight difference joints, it is desirable to grind or machine the surfaces
in color is generally a negligible factor. of the joint so that they maybe held parallel and equi-
distant to each other. If thin sheet inserts are used, the
Flttlng, Cleanlng, and Assembling
parts should be clamped together with enough pres-
Silver brazing alloys flow freely into narrow open- sure to hold them f d y together after the alloy has
ings, and clearances in the range of 0.05 to 0.10 mm melted.
(0.002to 0.004 in.) should be maintained to produce After the members have been properly cleaned and
the strongestjoints. Figure S-15 illustrates the effect
of fitted, the joint surfaces should be protected with a
joint clearance on strength. The surfaces of the joint film of flux. This flux must be fluid and chemically
should be clean, and free from all grease, dirt and active at the melting point of the brazing alloy and
oxide scale. Any film that prevents the wetting of the should be spreadoverthe entire surface. It is also
joint surfaceswillkeep a strongbondfrombeing advisable to protect the brazing alloy with flux when it
made. After all contaminants have been removed, the is fed into the joint.
surface can be cleaned with emery cloth, washed with Borax, or combinations of borax and boric acid are
anappropriatecleaningsolution,orpickledwith a used, but specially prepared fluxes that are fluid and
suitable solution to remove any scale or highly pol- active at lower temperatures are available, and are pre-
ished surface that has resulted from rollingor drawing. ferred for the lower melting point alloys. These propri-
A slight roughening ofhighlypolishedsurfaces by etary fluxes are composed of chemicals that dissolve
eithermechanicalorchemicalmeanswillassistin refractoryoxidesreadily,andshould be usedwhen
good bonding. brazing stainless steels.
THICKNESS OF JOINT, in.

.O03 .O06 .O09
.O21
.O18
.O15
.O12
140
120
3
I'
100
W
K
b
60
Y
5I-
' 60
I I I I I I I 40
275 I I I I I '
O .15 .30 .45 1

THICKNESS OF JOINT, mm
for a Stainless Steel Joint Brazed with

Figure S-IS-Relationship of Tensile Strength to Joint Clearance
BAg-la Filler Metal

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 .m. 07842b5 05Jbb38 YT2-~-
NG 474 SILVER Welding Encyclopedia
FurnaceBrazing. Furnacebrazing is extensively In the manufactureof electric motors,end rings are

used with silver-base filler metals. Either continuous bonded to rotor bars; and many small parts in the man-
or batch furnaces are used, and the heating may be ufacture of electrical equipment are brazed with silver
supplied by gas or electricity. The atmosphere in the alloys. Lacing wires and shrouding are joined to tur-
furnace is controlled to prevent oxidation by the use of bine blades, andin certain types of turbines, the blades
various typesof reducing or non-oxidizing gases. are silver-alloy brazedto packing pieces.
Aconsiderableamount of brazing is donewith
Refrigerators and Air Conditioning. One of the larg-
induction and resistance heating.
est uses of silver brazing alloys is in the manufacture
DipBrazing. Dip brazing is anothersuccessful of refrigeration units, for both household and indus-
method of brazing.The metal bathform of dip brazing trial plants. The low temperature at which they melt
is principally usedfor dipping small partslike terminal and the strong corrosion-resistant joints make them
wires. Salt bath brazing has been applied to different particularly desirablefor joining the light metal sheets
types of assemblies wherethe silver brazing alloycan and tubing whichare used inthis industry.
be pre-placed, and the component parts jigged in a sat-
isfactory manner. Piping. Standard pipe and fittings up to 25 cm (10
in.) or more in diameter are joined with these alloys,
Gas Brazing. Gas brazing includesall combinations
and tests on joints show no failure in the pipeor fitting
of torch brazing, such as oxyacetylene, oxyhydrogen, when the work is done properly. Special fittings are
oxygen and natural gas, and butane or propane; also
being made with rings of silver brazing alloy fitted
air with thesefuel gases. The air-gas and air-acetylene
torcheswillproducesatisfactoryresultswithsmall into grooves cut in the fittings, and this type of joint
parts,and the largetorches or those withmultiple has been specified for marine and navy piping, and
flames may be used on fairly large workpieces. piping in buildings.
In order to obtain the full benefit from these low- Other Uses. Articles for home,such as cooking
temperaturesilverbrazing filler metals, the brazer fur-
utensils, hot water tanks, water heaters, and metal
should be trained to observethe rate at which different niture are brazed. Industrial equipment suchas chemi-
metals become heatedto the brazing temperature, and cal equipment and containers, dairy equipment, and
to give particular attentionto the relative massof each innumerable products inthe electrical, automotive and
of the members being brazed. Metals of high heat con-aerospace industries are brazed with silver-base metal
ductivity, such as copper, should be preheated some fillers. See also BRAZING, FURNACES,INDUCTION
distance from the joint. If there is much difference in HEATING, and SALT BATH.
the size of the parts, then the one with largest cross
section shouldbe given the most heat. SILVER SOLDERING
Eventhoughsilver-basebrazing filler metals are A nonstandard term for brazing with a silver-base
more expensive thansoft solder, theyare used for two
filler metal.
reasons: (1) thedemand of industry for betterand
quicker methodsof joining and fabricating articles and
equipment from sheet metal and tubing, and (2) the SINGLE-BEVEL EDGE SHAPE
comparatively low melting points of these alloys, their A type of bevel edge shape having one prepared
free-flowing properties and the strength of joints made su@ace. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appen-
with them. dix 6.
Applications
SINGLE-BEVEL-GROOVE WELD
Electrical. Transformerleads and taps are brazed
with silver alloys because of the low temperatures at A type of groove weld. See STANDARDWELDING
TERMS. See Appendix 6.
which strong, shock-resistant joints of high conductiv-
ity can be made. Joints in bus bar installations of all
kinds are made with these alloys because of the high SINGLE-FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE WELD
strength, corrosion resistance, and elimination of volt- A weld in a groove formed by a member with a
age drop. Ground connections and cable joints are also curved surjace in contact with a planar member. See
made with this process. STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See Appendix 6.

~~~~~ ~ ~
STD*AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lbb47 339 m
a Welding 475
SINGLE-FLARE-V-GROOVE WELD SINGLE PHASE

A weld in a groove formed by two members with only one alternating-
A generator or circuit in which
curved su?$aces. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See current voltage is produced.
Appendix 6 .
SINGLE-PORT NOZZLE
SINGLE-GROOVE WELD, Fusion Weldlng A constricting nozzle of the plasma arc torch that
A groove weld that is made from one side only. See contains one orifice, locatedbelowand concentric
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 6. with the electrode. SeeSTANDARD WELDING TERMS.
SINGLE IMPULSE WELDING SINGLE-SPLICED BUlT JOINT

A resistancewelding process variation inwhich See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure S-16.
spot, projection, or upset welds are made with a single See also SPLICED JOINT.
pulse. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure
H-6. SINGLESPLICED JOINT
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure S-16.
SINGLE4 EDGE SHAPE See also SPLICED JOINT.
A type of J-edge shapehavingoneprepared
su?$ace. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appen- SINGLE-SQUARE-GROOVE WELD
dix 6. A type of groove weld. See STANDARD WELDING
SINGLE-J-GROOVE WELD
A type of groove weld. See STANDARD WELDING SINGLE-U-GROOVE WELD
TERMS. See Appendix 6. A type of groove weld. See STANDARD WELDING
SINGLE-OPERATOR WELDING POWER SUPPLY
A motorgenerator,ortransformer typewelding SINGLE-V-GROOVE WELD
power supply which will provide current for only one A type of grooveweld. See STANDARD WELDING
arc welding circuit ata time. TERMS. See Appendix 6.
JOINT MEMBER
Figure S-"Single-Spliced Butt Joint

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07642b5 05Lbb50 O50 m
Welding Fuslon
476 SINGLE-WELDED
JOINT,
SINGLE-WELDED JOINT, Fusion Welding 6GR

A joint that is welded from one side only. See STAN- A welding test position designationfor a circumfer-
DARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 6. ential groove weld applied to a joint in pipe, with its
axis approximately 45" from horizontal, in which the
SINTERING weld is made in the gat, vertical, and overhead weld-
Aprocess of compactingamassofmetallic(or ing positions. A restriction ring is added, adjacent to
ceramic) powder into solid form by heat, withor with- the joint,to restrict access to the weld. The pipe
out pressure, and with or without melting. If intimate remains jxed until welding is complete. See STAN-
contact can be established by the particles, and if the DARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 4.
temperature is sufficiently high,they
will
grow
togethereveninthesolidstate;that is, there is an SIZE OF WELD
actual union and growth of grain structure by diffu- See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See also WELD
sion. This phenomenon makes it is possible to make SIZE and Appendix 11.
solid blocks of metals with high melting points. Sinter-
SKATE WELDER
ing is used extensively to join hard particles of tung-
sten and tantalum carbides for making tool bits, the A lightweight, motorized travel carriage on which
cement being metallic cobalt. seam tracking equipment, a wire feed system and auto-
The temperature usedin sintering maybe far below matic headare mounted.
Straight or curvedtracksections are attached
the normal melting pointof the metal, and thejoining
directly to the workpiece, either by suction cups or
occurs by the action of surface cohesive force of the
bolting. This permits movement of the welding car-
solid particles and not by partial fusion.
riage in a continuous path along the weld seam. The
Sintered metals are often porous, but can be made skate welder makes it possible to do precision welding
nearly 100%dense compared tothe theoretical density on massive structures that cannot be handled on con-
of the solid if high pressures are used during solid- ventional rotating positioners and longitudinal seam-
phase sintering, or if a liquid phase, even if transient, ers. Skate carriages can be operated in horizontal and
is formed. The porosity depends strongly on the screen vertical directions to make out-of-position welds.
analysis of the powder and the presence or absence of
vibration during packing of the mold.Thepressure SKIP CUTTING
used before or during sintering also affects porosity. A method of splitting narrow materials, such as flat
Although they may be very hard, sintered masses are bar stock and structural 1-beams and channels to pre-
usually not very strong, that is, the usual hardness-ten- vent warpage. In this method, the cut is made at sev-
sile relationship associated with steel does not hold. eral intervals, depending onthe width of the material,
See POWDER METALLURGYand FRITTING. leaving a seriesof uncut sections alongthe line of cut,
each about 12 to 25 mm (U2 to 1 in.)long.These
6F
uncut ligaments hold the materialin line until cooled,
A welding test position designation for a circum- then the material is cut throughto separate the pieces.
ferential fillet weld applied to a joint in pipe, with
its axis approximately 45" from horizontal, in which SKIP SEQUENCE
the weld is mude in flat, vertical, and overhead See SKIPWELDING.
welding positions. The pipe remains fixed until weld-
ing is complete. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See SKIP WELDING
Appendix 4. A welding technique in which a series of tack welds
are made at intervals a few inches apart.The operator
6G welds the first interval, skips tothe fourth, then to the
A welding test position designationfor a circumfer- seventh, continuing this sequence until the end of the
ential groove weld applied to a joint in pipe, with its joint is reached. Thenthe welder goes back to the sec-
axis approximately 45" from horizontal, in which the ond, fifth, eighth, and so on. This method allows the
weld is made in the flat, vertical, and overhead weld- welding to be done on a comparatively cool area of the
ing positions. The pipe remains fixed until welding is workpiece, andthe distortion causedby expansion and
complete. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See contraction is greatlyreduced. See INTERM-
Appendix 4. WELD.

;STD*AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lbb5L T97 m
Welding Encyclopedia SIZE WELD SLOT 477
SKULL SLOPE
The unmelted residue from a liquated filler metal. A termdescribingtheshape of thestaticvolt-
See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. ampere curveof a constant potential welding machine.
Slope is caused by impedance and is usually intro-
SLAG duced by addingsubstantialamounts of inductive
A nonmetallic product resulting from themutual reaction to the welding power circuit. The amount of
dissolution offlux and nonmetallic impurities in some slope can be controlledby a variable reactorin the a-c
welding and brazingprocesses. See STANDARD WELD- portion of the welding. It should be remembered that
ING TERMS. a reactor inherently opposes change inthewelding
This term is used to describe the oxides and nonme- current.
tallicsolidsthatsometimes are entrapped inweld As more reactance is added to a welding circuit,
metal, between adjacent beads, or between the weld there is a steeper slope to the volt-ampere curve. The
metal and the base metal. During deposition and sub- addition of reactance does two things:(1) it limits the
sequent solidification of the weld metal, many chemi- available short circuit current and(2) it slows the rate
cal reactionsoccur.Some of theproducts of these of response of the welding machine to changing arc
reactions are solid nonmetallic compounds which are conditions. These factors assist in decreasing the cur-
insoluble in the molten metal. Because of their lower rent surge when the electrode makes short-circuiting
specific gravity, these compounds will rise to the sur- contact with the base metal. The result is decreased
face of the molten metal unless they become entrappedspatter from the welding arc.
within the weld metal. It makes no difference whether the reactor is in the
In shielded metal arc welding, flux cored arc weld- primary or secondary a-c circuit,since there willbe no
ing, and submerged arc welding,a slag is also formed significant change in the performance characteristics
over the molten metal, protecting it from the air and either way. Resistance may be added to either the a-c
slowing down the rate of cooling. By this means,vary- or d-c circuit to accomplish the same purpose, but it is
ing in detail with different electrodes and fluxes, the a more expensive method. Resistance will introduce
air surrounding the arc is deoxidized and the metal is more slope with less slow-downof response time.See
protected, or shielded, from the oxygen and nitrogen CONSTANT VOLTAGEPOWER SOURCE.
whichwouldotherwise be present. The result is
greater tensile strength and ductilityof the weld metal. SLOT WELD
This term is also applied to the scale blown out of A weld made in an elongated hole in onemember of
the kerf whencutting witha torch. a joint fusing that member to another member The
hole m a y be openat one end.A fillet welded slot is not
SLAG-COVERED ELECTRODE to be construed as conforming to this definition. See
The electrode heavilycoatedwithslagusedin STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See Figure S-17.
shielded metal arc welding. The slag covers the weld
and cools in the form of a brittle mass, which can be
chipped off when the weldis completed.See COVERED
ELECIRODE.
SLAG (CHIPPING)HAMMER
A hammer with a chisel point used to remove slag
from a weld deposit.
SLAG INCLUSION
Figure S-17-Slot Welds
Nonmetallicmaterialentrappedin a weld. See
SLAG.
SLOT WELD SIZE
SLAKED LIME The width and lengthof the weld metal in theplane
in an acet-
The residue calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)* of the fuying surfaces. See STANDARD WELDING
ylene generator.See CALCIUM CARBIDE. TERMS.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 D 07842b5 05Lbb52 923
478 SLUDGE Welding Encyclopedia
SLUDGE SOLDERING (S)

A term often appliedto the accumulation of slaked A group of welding processes that produces coales-
carbideandwater in thebottom of anacetylene cence of materials by heating them to the soldering
generator. temperature and by usinga filler metal having a liqui-
dus not exceeding 450C (840F) and below the soli-
SLUGGING
dus of the base metals. The filler metal is distributed
Theunauthorized addition of metal, such as a between closely fitted faying surfaces of the joint by
length of rod, to a joint before welding or between
capillary action. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
passes, ojlen resultingin a weld with incomplete
fusion. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. The soldered joint is generally considered to be a
Slugging is a dishonest welding technique used to metallurgical bond betweenthe solder filler metal and
simulate increased production. the base metals beingjoined. Strength of the joint can
be enhanced by mechanical configuration of the joint.
SMOOTHING BEAD Some solder joints do not have a metallurgical bond,
A weld bead made to correct an undesirable weld but are held together by adhesion properties of the
profile, butnot to enhanceweldappearance.See interface.
STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. Set?ah0 COSMETIC PASS. The metallurgical solder joint is produced by reac-
tion of the base metals andthe filler metal. The solder
SMOOTHING PASS
alloy is applied as a liquid metal that wets and spreads
A weld pass that results in a smoothing bead. See in the joint, and generallyforms a layerof an interme-
talliccompoundwithasmallamountof the base
SODIUM SILICATE(Waterglass) metal. On solidification, the joint is held together by
A binder used in the manufacture of welding elec- the same attraction between adjacentatoms that holds
trode coatings. It holdsthe particles of electrode coat- a piece of solid metal together.
ing material on the rod until melted in the heat of the A sound solderedjoint is achieved by the selection
arc. and use of specific materials and processes.There are
many soldering filler metals, processes, methods, pro-
SOFT SOLDER cedures,andtypesofequipment,andmanymetal
A nonstandard termfor SOLDER. alloys that can bejoined. Specific applications require
consideration of all these factors to obtain the opti-
SOLDER mum manufacturing and service results. Filler metal
The metal or alloy used as a filler metal in solder- selection, joint design, metal cleaning, heating meth-
ing, whichhas a liquidus not exceeding 450C ods, fluxes, and joint properties are variables. Temper-
(84OOF)and below the solidus of the base metal. See ature ranges of commonly used soldering alloys are
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. comparedwithbasemetalmeltingpointsinFigure
Solders are generally referred toas being hard or S-18.
soft. These terms do indicate relative hardness (or
strength), but more generally indicate relative melting
points; with the hardsolders melting at higher temper- SOLDER INTERFACE
atures,oftenabove 450C (840F),therebymaking
them actually braze fillers.
Solders are based on low-melting metals such as
lead, cadmium, bismuth, zinc, indiumor tin, and their
low-melting(virtuallyalways eutectic) alloys. See
SOLDERING.
SOLDERABILITY
The capacity of a material to be soldered under the
imposed fabrication conditions into a specific, suitably
designed structure andto performsatisfactorily in the
intended service. SeeSTANDARD WELDING TERMS. Figure S-1H o l d e r e d Joint

Welding SOLDERING (S) 479
Advantages of Soldering. A major factorin the pop- present that needsto be removed to prevent earlyjoint
ularity of soldering is that it is a low-temperature pro- deterioration.
cess and therefore has minimum effecton base metal Physical problems affecting wetting, spreading, and
properties. The low temperatureusedfor joining capillaryactioncanresultinunsatisfactory joints.
requires little energy input and allows precise control They generally result from poor surface condition or
of the process. A wide range of heating methods can improper flux. Some metals, for example, chromium,
be adopted, giving flexibility in design and manufac- cannot be readily wet by most known solder filler met-
turing procedures. Modern automation produces large als. De-wettingis the retractionof solder onan already
numbers of joints in electrical and electronic circuits. wetted surface which leaves areasof incomplete cov-
Highly reliable joints can be obtained with carefully erage. Inadequate cleaning, poor flux selection,and
controlledprocedures.Theoccasionaldefectivesol- wrong solder composition are the main causes of de-
dered joint can easilybe repaired. wetting.
Chemistry,physics,andmetallurgyarethemain Basic Steps
disciplines involved in soldering. Wetting and spread-
ing solder filler metals on metallic surfaces are condi- Base Metal Selection. Basemetals are usually
tioned by the
surfacetension
propertiesof the selected for specific properties thatare needed for the
materials involved and the degree of alloying taking component orpart design.These include strength,
place during the soldering action. Soldering normally ductility, electrical conductivity, weight, and corrosion
requires the presence of a flux. The flux cleans the resistance. The solderabilityof the base materials must
metal to be joinedandlowers the surfacetension also be considered because the selection of flux and
between the molten metal and the solid substrate. The surface preparation will depend on the base materials.
flux improves the wetting and spreadingof the solder Solder Selection. The solder is selected to provide
metal. good flow, penetration and wetting capability in the
Wetting takes place when the solder leaves a contin- soldering operation, and the desired joint properties in
uous permanent film on the base metal surface. Alloy- the finished product.
ing dependsonthesolubility of thebasemetalin
Flux Selection. Flux is intended to enhance the wet-
molten solder metal. A high level of alloying between
the base metal and solder metal can retard spreading, ting of base materials by the solder by removing tar-
therefore,goodsolderfillermetalsusuallydissolve nish films from precleaned surfaces, by andpreventing
only a moderate amount of metal. Intermetallic com- oxidation during the soldering operation. The selection
of the type offlux usually depends on the solderability
poundsmayform,depending of themetalsystems
of the base materials. Rosin fluxes are used with base
involved.
metals in electrical and electronic applications, or with
Many solder joints aredesignedwithgapsthat metalsthatareprecoatedwith a solderable finish.
require capillarity between the solder and base metal. Inorganic fluxes are often used in industrial soldering
Capillary action is improved by lowering surface ten- such as plumbingandvehicleradiators.The flux
sion, narrowing the gap in the joint, and usinga highly requirementsforsoldering a number of alloysand
compatible displacementflux. metals are indicated in TableS-4.
Surfaces of thematerials to bejoinedmust be
cleaned of dirt, oxides, or other contaminants. One Joint Design. Joints should be designedto fulfill the
function of a flux is to provide a final cleaning by requirements of the finished assembly and to permit
chemical reaction with the metal surface. This attack application of the flux and solderby the soldering pro-
shouldbeslightbuteffective.Coveringthesurface cess that will be used. Joints should be designed so
with flux is no substitute for prior cleaning. thatproper clearance is maintained during heating.
Special fixtures may be necessary, or the components
When heated, the flux is activated; it cleans con- can be crimped, clinched, wrapped, or otherwise held
tactedsurfacesandprotects the cleanedareasfrom together.
oxidation during soldering. The solder filler metal is
applied when thejoint has been heated to the soldering Precleaning. Allmetalsurfaces to besoldered
temperature. The surfaces are protected by the acti- should be cleaned before assembly facilitateto wetting
vated flux duringsolderingaction.Whensoldered of the base metal by the solder. Flux should not be
joints have been cooled, some residual flux may be considered as a substitute for precleaning. Precoating
480 SOLDERING (S) Welding Encyclopedia
Table S-4
Flux Requirementsfor Metals, Alloys, and Coatings
Special
Base Metal, Alloy, Flux Soldering Not
or Applied Finish Recommended*
Solder
Inorganic
Organic
and/or
Rosin
Aluminum - - - X -
Aluminum-bronze - - - X -
Beryllium - - - - X
Beryllium-copper - X X - -
Brass X X X - -
Cadmium X X X - -
Cast - - - X -
Chromium - - - - X
Copper X X X - -
Copper-chromium - - X - -
Copper-nickel X X X
Copper-silicon - - X
Gold X X X
Inconel - - -
Lead X X X
Magnesium X
Manganese-bronze X
(high tensile)
Monel X X
Nickel X X
Nickel-iron X X
Nichrome - - - X
Palladium X X X -
Platinum X X X
IUlOdiWn - - X
Silver X X X
~~ ~~~~~ ~ ~
Stainless steel - - X - -
Steel - - X - -
Tin X X X - -
Tin-bronze X X X - -
Tin-lead X X X - -
Tin-nickel - X X - -
Tin-zinc X X X - -
Titanium - - - - X
Zinc - X X - -
Zinc die castings - - - - X
*With proper procedures, such as precoating, most metals can be soldered.

ISTD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07B42b505lbb55 632 m
Welding SOLDERING (S) 481
may be necessary for base materials that are difficult Hard solders are called spelter, and hard soldering
to solder. is called brazing. Brazing produces greater strength
than soldering with the soft solders. Hard solders will
Soldering Process. The soldering process shouldbe
also withstand more heat than soft solders. Hard sol-
selected to provide the proper soldering temperature,
ders contain metals suchas copper, zinc,or silver, and
heatdistribution,andrate of heatingandcooling
require a red heat to melt them.
required for the product being assembled. Application
of the solder and flux will be dictated by
the selection Soft solders are made of such metals as lead, tin, or
of the soldering process. bismuth. They are used for applications in which the
articles to be soldered must be air-or water-tight, but
Flux ResidueTreatment. Flux residueshouldbe are notexposedtohightemperatures,andwhen
removed after soldering unless the flux is specifically strength is not a factor.It is a much simpler operation
designed tobe consumed duringthe process. to join metals with soft solder than with hard solder,
Solders
and soft soldering is used when possible in place of
brazing.
Solders have melting pointsor melting ranges gen- The ordinary good grade of solder is made of tin
erally below 425C (800F). A wide range of solder and lead in equal parts. Fine solder: two parts tin, one
filler metals designedfor use with most industrial met- part lead;cheap solder: one part tin, two parts lead.
als and alloys are commercially available. These gen-
erally flow satisfactorily with the appropriatefluxes to MixingSolders. By varying the proportionsand
produce good surface wetting, and result in joints with adding bismuth,a solder can be made that will melt in
satisfactoryproperties.Tin-leadalloys are the most boiling water. In mixing solders, the least fusible metal
widely usedsolder filler metals. should be melted first andthe more easilyfusible met-
als added. Mixing soft solders should be done under
Historical Background melted tallow and agitated by thrusting a stickof green
Soldering is a technology that has been in continu- woodorrawpotatounder the moltenmetal. The
ous development from ancient times. Many artifacts escaping steam stirs and mixes the metals very thor-
discovered in archeological excavations were joined oughly. They can be then run out in .molds. A small
by soldering. The technology seems to have existed channel of angle iron will serve in mixing hard sol-
for several thousand years, with changes as metallurgi- ders. They should be melted under a coating of pow-
cal knowledge and new metals were discovered. dered charcoalor borax. Hard solders maybe reduced
Copper and lead alloys were the first to be joined. to granulated form (the most convenient formfor use)
Earlymetallurgistslearnedtoidentify eutectics in by casting into small strips or ingots and filing with a
binary systems. The use of eutectic alloys permitted coarse file.
soldering to join simple shapes into complex items of Silver solder should be rolled or hammered into
jewelry andutensils. The industrialrevolutionpro- thin strips or sheets and cut to suitable size. A silver
moted widespread use of soldered joints. Advance- coin hammered thin makes a very satisfactory solder
mentsinalloy joining, processingtechniques,and for iron, copper and hard brass. Copper to which is
applications continue today. Soldering is now used in added10%ofsilver is suitable for solderingsheet
industrial applications,satellite communications, com- steel.
puters, andthe space program. Soldering
The followingis excerpted from the Welding Ency- To prepare for soldering, the surfacesmust be
clopedia,FirstEdition,editedby L. B. Mackenzie, cleaned, either by scraping or filing, or by using a suit-
WeldingEngineerPublishingCompany,Chicago, able acid, or a combination of both. In the case of
1921. sheet iron covered with scale,one method is to scrape
Fusible alloysare used to join metals by soldering. or file the surface, or scratch it with a wire brush and
The types of soldering are distinguishedbyself- coat it with strong muriatic (hydrochloric) acid, letting
descriptive names: hard, soft, silver, gold, aluminum, the acid actfor 5 or 10 minutes, and then wiping it dry
copper,tin,pewter,andspelter. The kindofsolder and applying cut acid (hydrochloric acid to which an
used depends on the metals to be joined; in all cases, excess of zinc has been slowly added).
the solder should be more fusible than the metals to be In the soldering process, the metals must be heated
joined. above the melting point of the solder, andsince metals
~~~ ~ ~~~
WPIPE 482 SOLDERING Welding Encyclopedia
readily oxidize when heated, a flux is necessary to coat tubes, a proportionof 10 parts solderto one part burnt
the surfaces after they are cleaned, to prevent their oxi- borax is used. Other mixtures are used for other met-
dation. Cast iron may be soldered by using a flux als. The melting points of the metals being soldered
made
by adding zinc chloride to melted tallow and heating must be taken into account in selecting the grade of
until it foams andturns a reddish brown.Zinc chloride solder to be used.
solution also is satisfactory. It is very important, how-
ever, to clean the surface very thoroughly and solder SOLDERING BLOWPIPE
immediately after cleaning. A device used to obtain a small, accurately directed
flame forfine work. A portion of any flame is blown to
Selection of Flux. For hard soldering, borax is used
the desired location by the blowpipe, which is usually
as a flux. For silver soldering, finely powdered borax
mixed with water to the consistency of paste is very mouth operated. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS.
effective. However, this flux shouldbe allowed to dry SOLDERING FLUX
afterapplying.Forsolderinggalvanizediron,raw
A compound that dissolves the oxide from the sur-
hydrochloric acidis used as a flux.
face being soldered. Flux enhances
the wetting of base
For soldering copper, brass,or gunmetal, a flux of materials bythe solder by removing tarnishfilms from
zinc chloride, ammonium chloride, or rosin is used. precleaned surfaces, andby preventing oxidation dur-
For soldering zinc, galvanized iron and steel, hydro- ing soldering.See SOLDERING, Flux Selection.
chloric acid or ammonium chloride (Sal-ammoniac) is
used. For soldering tinware, pewter or lead, a flux of SOLDERING GUN
rosin, turpentine,or Russian tallowis used. An electrical soldering iron with a pistolgrip and a
Jewelry Soldering quick-heating, relatively small bit. See STANDARD
If acids are used to clean the soldered joint, it WELDING TERMS.
should be thoroughlywashedtoremove all excess
acid to prevent subsequent corrosion. When soldering SOLDERING IRON
jewelry, zinc chloride should be used. For soldering A soldering tool having an internally or externally
small pieces, tin foil cut to size and moistened with a heated metal bit usually made of coppel: See STAN-
solution of Sal-ammoniac placed between the pieces DARD WELDING TERMS.
to be soldered maybeused. The pieces shouldbe The soldering iron accomplishes several tasks:
made flat and smooth at the joint, the tin foil inserted (1) Provides a source of heat the
to joint to melt the
and the pieces gently heated. For soldering gold arti- solder
cles, a solder made of two grams silver, one gram cop- (2) Provides a means of transporting molten solder
per,andonepennyweightgoldmaybeusedwith to the joint, if needed
success.Agoodsolder for generalusecontains 18 (3) Provides a means of withdrawing excess solder
partsgold, 4 partssilver,sixpartscopper,andtwo from the joint, if required.
parts zinc.
Antimony, arsenic, tin and lead should not be used SOLDER INTERFACE
in soldering gold. The interface between solder metal and base metal
in a soldered joint. See STANDARDWELDING TERMS.
Burnt Borax Flux. The flux used is usually borax,
See Figure S- 18.
but it should be properly prepared. This is done by
covering the bottom of a pan with a thin, even layer of SOLDERING PASTE
ordinary commercial borax and heating it over a slow
A soldering flux in paste form, or, alternatively, a
fire until it will crumble in the fingers to a fine dry
paste consisting of a mixtureof flux and powder sol-
powder. An hours heating should be sufficient.
deralloy. The latter is oftencalled solder paste or
Brazing Solders. The brazing solder and the burnt paste solder.
borax are thorough mixedin suitable proportions, and
water is added to bring the supply,for later use, to the SOLENOID
consistency of putty. This is mixed with more water, as A coil of insulated wire wound in the form of a
required, to a mixture like grout in cement work, and spring or on a spool, used to induce a magnetic field to
applied to the parts to be soldered.For brass and steel cause an action, such openingor closing a switch.

Licensed by Information Handling Services ~~ ____~
~~
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 3337 m 0784265O536657405 D
Welding Encyclopedia TEST SPARK 483
SOLDER METAL SPACER STRIP

That portion of a soldered joint thathasbeen A metal strip or bar prepared for a groove weld and
melted during soldering. See STANDARD WELDING inserted in the joint root to serve as a backing and to
TERMS. maintain the root opening during welding. It can also
bridge an exceptionally wide root opening dueto poor
SOLID-PHASE WELDING fit. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure S-19.
A non-fusion welding process that produces welds
by applying heat, usually with pressure, to the base
metal, at a temperature belowthe melting point ofthe
base metal, withor without filler metal. Also known as
non-fusion welding.See SOLID-STATE WELDING.
SOLID-STATE WELDlNG(SSW)
A group of welding processes that produces coales-
cence by the application of pressure at awelding tem-
perature below the melting temperatures of the base
metal and the filler metal. See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS.
Examples of solid state welding are friction weld-
ing, explosion welding, diffusion welding and ultra-
sonic welding.
SOLID SOLUTION
STRIP
\ I
An alloy in whichin the solid state the items of the
various component metals are formed with a single
lattice. See METALLURGY.
SOLIDUS Figure S-19-Spacer Strip Used to Maintain the

Root Opening During Welding
Thehighesttemperature at which a metal or an
alloy is completely solid. See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS. SPARK LIGHTER
See LIGHTER.
SORBITE
SPARK SHIELD
A late stage in the tempering of martensite when the
A nonstandard termfor a safety shield.
carbideparticleshavegrown to the extent that the
structure has a distinctly granular appearance. Further SPARK TEST
tempering causes globular carbides toappear. See An elementary butfairly accurate test for the identi-
METALLURGY.
fication of steel by observation of the spark pattern
produced during grinding.
SPACE-LATTICE
When asteel bar is held against an emery wheel, the
When a liquid solidifies,or freezes, the atoms are end of the bar is heated by friction. As the small parti-
no longer free to move, but arrange themselves in reg- cles, or sparks, are thrown from the wheel, they will
ular patterns or definite forms. These forms consist of followastraight line whichbecomesbroaderand
athree-dimensionallatticework (spacelattice) of more luminous some distance from the source of heat
imaginary lines connecting the atoms. before disappearing.This is probably due to the expo-
sure of the heated particles to the oxygen in the air,
SPACER which requires some time to react. Note: Touch the
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also JOINT material lightlyto the wheel; observe individual spark.
SPACER and SPACER STRIP. Use black background.
STD-AWSJWE-ENGL L997 0784265 05lbb58 3 4 3 , -
484 SPATTER
SPATTER SPHEROlDlZlNG
The metal particles expelled during fusion welding Long-term heating of high-carbon steelsat or near
t h t do not form a part of the weld. See STANDARD the critical temperature,followedbyslow cooling
WELDING TERMS. throughout the upper part of the cooling range,for the
Causes of spatter:The inherent propertiesof certain purpose of spheroidizingthe cementite in the steel.
electrodes; excessive welding current; the typeor
diameterofrodused;anexcessivelylong arc; arc SPIKING, Electron Beam Welding and Laser Beam
blow. Welding
Corrections: Use correct type of electrode; check A condition where the joint penetration is nonuni-
for correct welding current and arc length; reduce arc form and changesabruptly over the lengthof the weld.
blow; use anti-spatteron parts adjacent to the weld to See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS.
prevent spalls from adhering to the work.
The cause of spiking is the intermittent and random
SPAlTER LOSS
loss of the vapor cavity producedin the keyhole mode
usedinprocesseswithhighenergydensity.Liquid
Metal lost due to spattel: See STANDARD WELDING falling back into the vapor cavity causes a momentary
TERMS.
loss of penetration whenit briefly blocks beam energy.
Spatter loss can be determined from the difference
in weight between the weight of the electrode actually
SPINNING
deposited onthe workpiece andthe weight of the elec-
trode consumed (melted). A mechanical process for shaping shallow vessels
from metal disks by rotating a lathe while pressing a
SPECIFICATIONS tool against the peripheral zone. It is sometimes neces-
Documents which clearly and accurately describe sary to carry out this process in several stages, due to
all of the pertinent technical information necessary for work hardening. If this occurs, an annealing operation
a material, product, system, or service, then ascertain is undertaken between spinning stages.
that the requirements have been met.See STANDARDS,
Welding. SPIT
A nonstandardtermwhenused for FLASH and
SPECIFIC GRAVITY EXPULSION during resistanceweldingbyvarious
The relative density of materials, i.e., the weight as processes.
compared with an equal volume of some other mate-
rial.Solidsandliquids are usuallycomparedwith
SPLICE
water, and gasesare usually compared with air.
A nonstandardtermwhenused for awelded,
SPECIFIC HEAT brazed, or soldered joint.
The ratio of the quantity of heat required to raisethe
temperature of a material one degree to that required SPLICED BUTT JOINT
to raise the temperature of an equal mass of water one See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See SPLICED
degree. The heat in caloriesrequiredto raise the JOINT. See Figure S-16.
temperature of one gram of a substance one degree
Centigrade. SPLICED JOINT
SPECIFIC RESISTANCE A joint in which an additional workpiece spans the
The electrical resistance of a one-centimeter cube of joint and is welded to each joint membel: See STAN-
any material. DARDWELDINGTERMS. See Figure S-16. See also
SPLICE MEMBER.
SPEED CONTROL VALVE
A combination check valve and needle valve which SPLICE MEMBER
restricts the flow of air or liquid in one direction, and The workpiece that spans the joint in a spliced joint.
allows unrestricted passagein the opposite direction. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See Figure S-16.

~~ ~~~ ~ ~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 05Lbb59 288 m

dia Welding 485
SPLIT LAYER TECHNIQUE of one membel: The weld crass section (plan view) is
A welding technique in which more thanone weld is approximately circulai: See STANDARD WELDING
applied to a singlelayel:See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See Figure S-21. See also ARC SPOT WELDand
TERMS. RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING.
SPLIT PHASE SPOT WELDING
An electrical circuit arrangement in which currents A resistance welding process in which the fusion is
of different phases are obtained from a single-phase confined to a relatively small area, approximating the
source by using reactances of different values in paral- shape or contour of one or both welding electrodes. This
lel circuits. is generally a small portion of the lapped surfacesof the
SPLIT PIPE BACKING workpieces being joined. See RESISTANCE WELDING.
A pipe segment used as a backing for welding butt
joints in round bars. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. SPOT WELDING, INERT ARC
See Figure S-20. A variation of the gas tungsten arc welding process,
often done manually with a pistol-like holder that has
SPOOL avented,water-cooled gas nozzle,atungstenelec-
A filler metal package consisting of a continuous trode that is concentrically positioned relative to the
length of welding wire in coil form wound on a cylin- gas nozzle,andatriggerswitch for controllingthe
der (called a barrel), which is flanged at both ends. operation. Figure S-22 illustrates manual gas tungsten
Theflange contains a spindle holeof smaller diameter arc spot welding.
than the inside diameter of the barrel. See STANDARD Spot weldingmay be done with either ac or DCEN.
WELDING TERMS. Sequencing controls
automatically
establish the
SPOON preweld gas and water flow, start the arc, time the arc
A small instrument or flatter used in finishing the duration, and provide the required postweld gas and
surface of an aluminum weld. water flow.
SPOT WELD SPOT WELD SIZE

A weld made between or upon overlapping mem- The diameter of the weld metal in the plane of the
bers in which coalescence may start and occur on the faying surfaces. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. see
faying surfaces or may proceedfrom the outer surface Appendix 11.
Figure S-SO-Split Pipe Backing

' STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 051bbb0 TTT m
486 SPRAY
RESISTANCE
(A) SPOT WELDS (B) ARC SPOT WELDS
Figure S-21-Types of Spot Welds
TORCH CABLE
AND HOSES SHIELDING
GAS
I I
T
I
TRIGGER
I
c
CONTROLS
FOR TIMING
CURRENT FLOW,
SHIELDING GAS,
COOLING WATER,
AND
HIGH FREQUENCY
TUNGSTEN ELECTRODE e
- SLOlTED GAS NOZZLE
I'
WELD NUGGET
Figure S-22-Schematic of Manual Gas Tungsten Arc Spot Welding
SPRAY ARC SPRAYER

A nonstandard term for SPRAY TRANSFER. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See also THER-
MAL SPRAYER.
SPRAY DEPOSIT
SPRAYING BOOTH
See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See THERMAL
An exhaust booth where t h e m 1 spraying is per-
SPRAY DEPOSIT.
formed. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
SPRAY DEPOSIT DENSITY RATIO SPRAYING OPERATOR
See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See THERMAL See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also THER-
SPRAY DEPOSIT DENSITY RATIO. MAL SPRAYING OPERATOR.

~~
STDOAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 W 07842b5 053bbb1 936

Welding Encyclopedia CUTTING STACK 487
SPRAYING RATE, Thermal Spraying (GMAW)process,spraytransfer is the result of a

The rateat
which
surfacing
material passes pinch g e c t on the molten tip of the consumable weld-
through the gun. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. ing wire. The pinch effect physically limitsthe size of
the molten ball that can be formed on the end of the
SPRAYING SEQUENCE, Thermal Spraying welding wire,and therefore onlydroplets of metals are
The order in which layers of materials are applied, transferred rapidly through the welding arc from the
such as overlapped, superimposed, or at various wire to the workpiece. The droplets produced in the
angles. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. spray transfer methodare equal to or smaller than the
diameter of the wire being used. See PINCH EFFECT',
SPRAY TAB, Thermal Spraying GLOBULAR TRANSFER, and GAS METAL, ARC WELDING.
A small piece of additional material that is ther-
mally sprayed concurrently.with the workpiece, and SPRAY WELDING
used to evaluate the quality of the t h e m l spray A group of thermal spraying processes used prima-
deposit. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. rily for surfacing,but also for producing shapes in
molds.Theseprocesses involve sprayingafinely
SPRAY TRANSFER, Arc Weldlng divided material (e.g., particles of metal, ceramic, or
Metal transfer in which molten metal from a con- polymer) through a heat source and depositingit on a
sumable electrode is propelled axially across the arc surface using the kinetic energy of the particle. See
in smalldroplets.See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. THERMAL SPRAYING.
See Figure S-23. See also GLOBULAR TRANSFER and
SHORT CIRCUITING TRANSFER. SQUARE EDGE SHAPE
A type of edge shape in which the prepared surface
lies perpendicular to the material surface. See STAN-
DARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 6.
SQUARE-GROOVE WELD
A type of grooveweld.See STANDARDWELDING
SQUEEZE TIME, Resistance Weldlng

The time between the initiation of the welding cycle
andfirst application of current in spot, seam, or pro-
jection and some types of upset welds. See STANDARD
WELDING TERMS. See Figure H-6.
STACK CUTTING
T h e m 1 cutting of stacked metal plates arranged
so thatall the plates areseveredby a single cut.
See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See also THERMAL
CUTTING.
The stackcuttingtechnique is oftenused to cut
sheet materialthat is too thinfor ordinary oxyfuelcut-
ting methods. Sheet thicknessesof 0.9 mm (20 gauge)
and overare the most practical.Stack cutting is used in
place of shearing or stamping, particularly where vol-
ume does not justify expensive dies. The flame cut
edges are square andfree of burrs.
Figure S-23-Axial Spray Transfer
Stack cutting is usually limitedto sheet and plate up
to 13 mm (U2 in.) thick because of the difficulty in
When using argon,or an argonand oxygen mixture, clamping heavier materialin a tight stack.A stack cut-
as ashielding gas with the gas metal arc welding ting operationis shown in Figure S-24.
WELDINTERMITTENT
488 STAGGERED Welding Encyclopedia
with respect to those on the other side. See STANDARD

WELDING TERMS. See Figure S-25.
Figure S-25-Staggered Intermittent Fillet Weld
STAINLESS STEEL
Figure S-24Typical Stack Cutting Operation with Stainlesssteels are alloys of ironbasemetals,
the Plates Clamped by Vertical Welds highly resistant to acids, except sulfuric and hydro-
chloric acids. They are also resistant to oxidation and
Successful stack cutting requiresclean, flat sheet or scaling at high temperatures and retain their physical
plate. Dirt, millscale, rust, and paint may interrupt the properties well under heat.Stainless steels are used in
cut and reducecut quality. The stack mustbe securely the chemical, oil, dairy, food, paper and other indus-
clamped,particularly at thecutlocation,withthe tries requiring material with unusual resistance to cor-
edges aligned at the point where the iscut to start. rosion and heat. The stainless steels are supplied in
Piercing of stacks with the oxyfuel torch to start a plates,sheets, bars, strip, tubing,bolts,nuts,rivets,
cut is impractical. Holes must be drilled though the and wire, and can be rolled, drawn,
formed, or worked
stacks to start an interior cut. into almost any specific shape
or apparatus, merely by
following the correct procedurefor the particular alloy
The total thickness of the stack is determined by the
at hand.
cutting tolerance requirement and the thicknessof the
Usually, the resistance of stainless steels to corro-
top piece. With a cutting tolerance0.8 ofmm (1/32 in.), sive attack is primarily due tochromiumcontent,
stack height should not exceed 50 mm (2 in.); with a
which is 10% or higherin most typesof stainless steel.
1.6 mm (U16 in.) tolerance, the thickness may be up to
Nickel is also used as an alloying element, ranging in
100 mm (4in.). The maximum practical limitof thick-
contentfrom2to35%.Consequently the stainless
ness is about 150 mm(6 in.).
steels are grouped into two main categories: straight
When stack cutting material less than 4.8 mm (3/16 in.)
chromium (or nearly so) and chromium-nickel (with
thick, a waster plate 6 mm (1/4 in.) thick is used on the remainder essentially iron).
top. It insures better starting, a sharper edge on the top Thestraightchromium alloys containabout12%
production piece, and no buckling of the top sheet. chromium. Variousotherscontain
chromium in
Plasma Arc Cutting (PAC). The plasma process has increasing amounts, but the majorityare the austenitic
been used for stack cutting of carbon steel, stainless class, consisting of iron alloyed with about 18% chro-
steel, and aluminum.The plates to be stack-cut should mium and 8% or moreof nickel,
preferablybeclampedtogether. PAC cantolerate In addition to the recognized corrosion resistance,
wider gaps between plates thanOFC. certain typesof stainless steels have a number of other
useful properties, such as toughness at sub-zero tem-
STAGGERED INTERMllTENT WELD peratures, good strength at elevated temperatures, and
An intermittent weld on both sides of a joint in the ability to remain nonmagnetic under a variety of
which the weld increments on one side are alternated conditions. Some alloys are hardened by simple, low-

' STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1977 07842b5 051bbb3 709
clopedia Welding Brazing 489
temperature precipitation heat treatments, thus avoid- tion.AmericanWeldingSociety, Miami, Florida.

ing quenching operations. The reasons for selecting a 1994.
stainless steel must justify its higher cost. However,
when all aspects of fabricating, treating, and service STAINLESS STEEL, Brazing
performanceareconsidered,stainless steel compo- Stainless steels may be brazed by all processes, but
nents are often incorporated inmany kinds of welded with tighter process controls than required to braze
construction. carbonsteels.Themostrigorousrequirementsare
The American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) stan- imposed by inherent chemical characteristics of the
dards for stainless steels, theirtype numbers and com- stainless steels and the generally more arduous service
position ranges for the 300 Series stainless steels are environments. Success in brazing stainless steel com-
shown in TableS-5. ponents depends on a knowledge of the properties of
Stainless steels in the form of castings have been stainless steels and rigid adherence to the appropriate
process controls.
givendesignationsandcomposition limits by the
AlloyCastingInstitute (ACI), a division of Steel Base Metals. Stainless steels may be grouped into
Founders Societyof America (SFSA). Reference: Lin- five categories: (I) austenitic (nonhardenable) steels,
nert, George E, Welding Metallurgy, Vol. 1, 4th Edi- (2) ferritic (nonhardenable) steels, (3) martensitic
~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~
Table S-5
Stainless Steel Chemical Requirements Composition,%a
UNS Manga- Phos- Molyb- Other
Designation Type Carbonb nese phorus Sulfur Silicon
Chromium
Nlckel denum Nitrogen
Copper
ElementsC
S30100 301 0.15 2.00 0.045 0.030 0.75 16.00-18.006.00-8.00 ... o. 10 ... ...
S30200 302 0.15 2.00 0.045 0.030 0.75 17.00-19.008.00-10.00 ... o.10 ... ...
S30400 304 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 0.75 18.00-20.008.00-10.50 ... 0.10 ... ...
S03403 304L 0.030 2.00 0.045 0.030 0.75 18.00-20.008.00-12.00 ... 0.10 ... ...
S30500 305 0.12 2.00 0.045 0.030 0.75 17.00-19.00 10.5&13.00 ... ... ... ...
S30815 308 0.05-0.10 0.80 0.040 0.030 1.4&2.00 20.00-22.00 10.00-12.00 ... o. 14-0.20 ... Ce 0.03-0.08
S30908 309s 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 0.75 22.00-24.00 12.00-15.00 ... ... ... ...
S30909 309H 0.04-0.10 2.00 0.045 0.030 0.75 22.00-24.00 12.00-15.00 ... ... ... ...
S30940 309Cb 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 0.75 22.00-24.00 12.00-16.00 ... ... .*. Cb 10 x C min,
1.lOmax
S31008 310s 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030
1.50 24.00-26.00
19.00-22.00 ... ... ... ...
S31009 0.04-0.10
310H 2.00 0.045 0.030
0.75 24.00-26.00
19.00-22.00 ... ... ... ...
S31040 31OCb 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 1.50 24.00-26.00
19.00-22.00 ... ... ... Cb lOxC
S3 1050310MoLN 0.030 2.00 0.030 0.010 0.50 ...
24.00-26.00 21.00-23.00 2.00-3.00 0.10-0.16 ...
S3 1600316 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030
0.75 16.00-18.00 10.00-14.00 2.00-3.00 0.10 ... ...
S3 0.030
1603316L 2.00 0.045 0.030
0.75 16.00-18.00 10.00-14.00 2.00-3.00 0.10 ... ...
S31635 316Ti 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 0.75 16.00-18.0010.00-14.002.0-3.00.10 ... TiSx(C+N)
min, 0.70max
S31640 316Cb 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 0.75 16.00-18.00
10.00-14.00
2.0-3.0
0.10 ... Cb IOxCmin,
1.10max
S31700 317 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 0.75 18.00-20.00 11.00-15.00 3.00-4.000.10 ... ...
S3 1703317L 0.030 2.00 0.045 0.030 0.75 18.00-20.00 11.00-15.00 3.00-4.000.10 ... ...
S32100 321 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 0.75 17.00-19.00 9.00-12.00 ... o. 10 ... Ti5x(C+N)
min, 0.70 max
S34700 347 0.08 2.00 0.045 0.030 0.75 17.00-19.00
9.00-13.00 ... ... ... Cb X10 C min,
1.00max
S34709 0.04-0.10
347H 2.00 0.045 0.030
17.00-19.00
0.75 9.00-13.00 ... ... ... Cb 8 x C min,
1.00rnax
a. Maximum, unless range or minimum is indicated.
b. Carbon analysis shallbe reported to nearest 0.01% except for the low-carbon types, whichshall be reported to nearest0.001%.
c. The terms Columbium (Cb)and Niobium (Nb)both relate to the same element.

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 1777 .m 0784.265 054bbb4 b45
STEEL,490 STAINLESS
(hardenable) steels, (4)precipitation hardening steels, brushing shouldbe avoided, butif necessary, stainless
and (5) duplex stainless steels. All these alloys are iron steel brushes should be used. Cleaned surfaces should
based and contain chromium, the basic element that be protected to prevent soiling by dirt, oil or finger-
imparts corrosion resistance. The corrosion resistance prints. The parts should be brazed immediately after
of the stainless steels varies fromone alloy to another, cleaning. When this is not practical, the cleaned parts
and for anygivenalloy,varies from one corrosive should be enclosed in containers such as sealed poly-
medium to another. If doubt exists about the correct ethylene bags or desiccator jars to exclude moisture
stainless steel to use in a given environment, standard and other contaminants untilthe part can be brazed.
referenceworks or manufacturersrepresentatives
should be consulted. Fluxes and Atmospheres. Stainless steel assemblies
are routinely furnace brazedinatmospheres of dry
Filler Metals. Factors to be considered in selecting a hydrogen,argon,helium,dissociatedammonia, or
filler metal for aparticularapplicationinclude the vacuum, .without the aid of flux. Whenfluxes are
following: required, there are a number of special compositions
(1) Service conditions, including operating temper- available for use with stainless steels. There are many
ature, stresses, and environment special requirements for brazing stainless steels;
(2) Heat treatment requirements for martensitic or
appropriate references should be consulted.
precipitation hardeningsteels
(3) Brazing process PostbrazeOperations. The majorstainless steel
(4) cost postbraze operations
that
maybe
necessary are
( 5 ) Specialprecautions,suchassensitization of removal of flux or stopoff residues, and any required
unstabilized austenitic steels at certain temperatures. postbraze heat treatment.
Commercially available brazing filler metals used Depending on the materials used, flux or stopoff
for joining stainless steels are commonly the copper, residues can be removed by water rinsing, chemical
silver,nickel,cobalt,platinum,palladium, and gold cleaning, or mechanical means. With abrasive clean-
based alloys. ing, the grit shouldbesand or anothernonmetallic
ProcessandEquipment. Stainlesssteelscan be material.Metallic shot, other thanstainlesssteel,
brazedwithanybrazingprocess.Muchcontrolled- shouldbeavoidedbecauseparticlesmaybecome
atmospherebrazing is performed on stainlesssteels, embedded in the stainless steel surface and cause rust-
and the acceptability of this technique is attributed to ing or pitting corrosion in service.
the ready availability of reliable atmospheres and vac- Unless the brazing cycle is compatible withthe heat
uum furnaces. The primary requirements are that the treating requirementsof the base metal, heat treatment
furnaces have good temperature control, plus or minus after brazingwill be required for assemblies whichare
8C (15F), at brazing temperature and be capable of
madewithmartensitic or precipitationhardening
fast heating and cooling. All gases used in atmosphere
stainlesssteels. Since treatmentsvary so widely,no
furnaces must be of high purity (>99.995% pure). Com-
general rules can be made exceptthat supplier recom-
mercial vacuum brazing equipment operates at pres-
sures varying from 0.0015 to 13.5 (Pam 5 to lo torr). mendations shouldbe followed.
The necessary vacuum level depends on the particular RepairMethods. When furnace brazed assemblies
grade of stainless steel, with those containing titanium contain manyjoints, minor defects mayoccur that are
or aluminum requiring better vacuums. beyond acceptance limits, but whichare not economi-
Precleaning and Surface Preparation. Stainless steels cally or technically feasible to repair by rebrazing the
require more stringent precleaning than carbon steels. entire assembly. In some cases, repairs can be made by
During the heating cycle, residual contaminants often localized rebrazing using oxyacetylene or gas tungsten
form tenacious films which are difficult to remove by arc torches. The manual gas tungsten arc method is
fluxes or reducing atmospheres.These films form as a useful for braze fillet repairs on applications like tur-
direct reaction between the contaminant and stainless bine engine stators. Filler metalis added, as required.
steel surface. Prototype work on a mock-up with proper evaluation
Precleaning for brazing shouldinclude a degreasing prior to actual repair work is recommended.Refer-
operation. The joint surfaces should also be cleaned ence: American Welding Society, Brazing Handbook,
mechanically or with an acid pickling solution. Wire 4th Edition, Miami, Florida. 1991.

~~
~~
~~
~ ~ ~~ ~~~~
STD-AUS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 05ltbbb5 5 8 1 W

opedia Welding 491
STAINLESS STEEL, Cutting 260C (400 or 500"F), some bending will occur before
See OXYFUEL GAS CUTTING, METAL POWDER CUT- breaking. These factors should be considered before
TING, and PLASMA ARC CUTTING. welding straight chromium steels.
STAINLESS STEEL, Silver Brazing Chromium-NickelStalnless Steels. The chromium-
Stainless steel canbe satisfactorily brazed using sil- nickel group is highlyrecommended for welding.
ver brazing filler metal with the proper fluxes. Ordi- These metals,beingofanausteniticnature, are
nary steel flux or borax will not successfully remove extremely tough and ductile in the as-welded condi-
the scale formed on the surface when heated, and so tion. A straight chromium weld will probablysnap as
will prohibit any bond between the braze material and soon as it is bent, but a chromium-nickel weld will
the steel. The filler metalwillballup,resembling bend backflat on itself with no sign of fracture.
water drops on an oiled surface, and will not adhere. Chromium-nickel alloys can be welded with any of
Special fluxes for stainless steel are available which, the commonly used processes, such as gas metal arc
when used dry or in a water paste applied to the sur- welding (GMAW), shielded
metal arc welding
face beforeheating,will eliminate this difficulty (SMAW) or gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW). Forge
because theyfuse and protectthe steel from the forma- welding is not recommended because scaleis formed
tion of an oxideon the surface. on the surface and prevents proper fusion.
Low-meltingsilverbrazealloy is preferredover In addition to being very fluid in the molten state,
those melting at
higher
temperatures because it the 18-8 type has a high thermal expansion, about 60%
reduces the tendency to form scale and also reduces more than that of carbon steel; a low heat conductivity
warping. It is advisable to heat the rod and apply dry (about 1/3 to 1/2 that of carbon steel), and a lower
flux in addition to the original paste ordry powder on melting point. These same characteristics applyto the
the steel itself. When brazing sheet metal, overheating straight chromium type, except that the coefficient of
the metal must be carefully avoided, because copper expansion is about 10% less than that of carbon steel.
brazing alloys will penetrate entirely through the sheet These factors should be considered in the design of
following the grain boundaries, resulting in checks or anyweldedequipment to prevent difficulties which
cracks upon cooling.See SILVER ALLOY BRAZING. might arise from undue strains, or warpage.
Carbide Precipitation. While welds in alloys of the
STAINLESS STEEL WELDING chromium-nickel groupare far more satisfactoryfrom
When welding stainless steels the process and pro- the standpoint of physical tests, they do, under certain
cedures must be selected in consideration of the alloy-conditions, exhibit a tendency toward"weld decay," or
ing elementsof the two general typesof steels: straight lack of corrosion resistance. When an 18-8 stainless
chromium, and chromium-nickel. steel with more than 0.08% carbon is heated between
StraightChromiumStainless Steel. These steels, 540 and 800C (lo00 and 1500F) and cooled slowly,
especially those containing 18% chromium or more, excess carbon is precipitated, or segregated out of
are subject to a rapid grain growth when heated to a solution, and deposited along the grain boundaries in
high temperature, and do not respond satisfactorily to the form of carbides. These carbides are less resistant
heattreatment.Theycanbesoftened to acertain to corrosion thanthe iron-chromium-nickel alloy, with
extent,providedpropercontrol is maintainedafter the result that wherever they are present, more rapid
welding by annealing for eight hours or so at about attackwill occur when exposed to corrosive
790C (1450F).This may or may not be not be satis- conditions.
factory, as much depends on the actual welding. As a In making a weld, the metal deposited and thejoint
rule,numeroussmallbeadswillproduce the best itself are heated to the melting or fusing temperature,
results when followedby annealing. which is around 1475C (2690"F), and the body of the
These alloys, when welded, have very little ductil- work remains cold. Hence, there will be a zone near
ity; the welds are likely to crack on deformation, or the weldandparallel to it whichwillbeheated
bending. Therefore they are not recommended when between 540 and 800C (1000 and 1500"F), and in
the product willbe subjected to movement or shock at which area carbides will be precipitated. This region
room temperature. However,if a little heat is applied, may be wide or narrow, near or some distance from the
or the operating temperatureis about 95C (200F) or weld, depending on the type of joint and method of
more, the welds will be much tougher, and at 200 or welding, which determines the total amount of heat
STD-ANS JWE-ENGL 37.97 07842b5 05Lbbbb 418 m
STEEL
492 STAINLESS Welding Encyclopedia
applied. If welding is rapid, the zone will be narrow Welding Processes, 1992; and Volume 3, 8th Edition,
and close; if welding is slow, it will be wide and fur- MaterialsandApplications,1996;publishedby the
ther away. This carbide can be put into solution again American Welding Society,Miami, Florida.
by heating to a temperature about 480C (900F) or Arc Welding
higher, and cooling rapidly throughthe critical range. Arc welding produces highly satisfactory results on
Air cooling will be sufficiently rapid if the weldment stainlesssteels.Directcurrent,electrodepositive
is thin, 1.6mm (1/16 in.)or less, but a water quenchis (DCEP) shouldbe used, the sameas when welding the
advised if the weldment is thick. If the material con- non-ferrous metals suchas bronze, aluminum, or cop-
tains less than 0.08% carbon, such as a modified Type per, and similar tothe practice followed when welding
302, this carbide skgregation will be practically negli- carbon steel with heavy flux-coated electrodes. While
gible, simply because thereis not much carbon present direct current electrode positive (DCEP) will generally
and the small amount available remainsin solid solu- give best results, it cannot be considered a hard-and-
tion in the alloy itself. This carbide precipitation will fast rule.Insomeinstances,especiallywhenheavy
notseriouslyaffect the physicalpropertiesuntil it plates were involved, direct current electrode negative
becomes quite extensive, but it will reduce the corro- (DCEN) produced better fusion and penetration.
sion resistance considerably, if present even in small
quantities. For this reason, only a modified Typeis 302 Plate Preparation. Scarfing the edges is not neces-
recommended for welded equipment which is to be sary on plate up to 3.2 mm (U8 in.) thickness. For
subjected to highly corrosive attack and which cannot 4.8 mm (3/16 in.), if only one bead is to be laid from
be conditioned after welding. It is also recommended one side, it is advisable to scarf the edges on a 45"
for equipment operating at elevated temperatures, such angle to within 1.6 to 2.4mm (U16 to 3/32 in.) of the
as 540C (1000F) or higher. While reducing the car- bottom. With 6 mm (1/4 in.) or heavier, it is best to use
bon content to below 0.07% will practically eliminate two or more beads, scarfing from either one or both
precipitation of carbides during the short time of weld- sides and leaving about mm
2.4 (3/32 in.) unbeveled at
ing, it will not necessarilystop this condition in equip- either the bottom or center,
as the case may be.
mentoperatingcontinuouslybetween 540 to 815C The 18-8 stainless has a high coefficient of expan-
(1000 to1500F).Additions of suchalloysasnio- sion, about 60% greater than mild steel. In setting up
bium,titanium, or molybdenumto the lowcarbon any job, allowance must be made for this expansion.If
stainless steel willfurther reduce this tendency. Where automatic arc welding is used, the edgesshouldbe
only heatingis the factor, niobiumor titanium is satis- clamped parallel in the same way as carbon steel, with
factory. If corrosion resistance is of most importance, extra allowance made only when movement is calcu-
then molybdenum is preferred. This intergranular cor- lated. If a ring is to be welded to a flat circular sheet
rosion is characteristic of the chromium-nickel alloys and acomer weld used,the sheet will bulge at the cen-
ofhigheralloycontent as wellasthosecontaining ter due to contraction around the outside on cooling.
only18-8,providedthecarbon is over0.08.While For this reason, it is more important than with steelto
corrosion will occur under highly corrosive conditionsturn a 25 or 50 mm (1 or 2 in.) flange around the sheet
such as would be produced by an acid attack com- and then butt weld the ring or shell to it; this permits
monly found in the chemical industries, it should not the weld to move slightly without producing a buckle.
be assumed that low-carbon alloysare essential for all For the same reason,it is advisable to have proper fix-
welded products. Alloys with medium carbon content tures for holding the work in place while welding to
haveprovenentirelysatisfactory in manufacturing prevent localized strains pulling at joints the and draw-
other products, suchas food handling apparatus, dairy ing them out of line. This
is almost sure to happen if an
equipment, architectural trim, or heat-resisting units. attempt is made to weld a curved seam without sup-
Hence,unless the serviceenvironment is severely port from a
jig or fixture.
corrosive, the regular 18-8 type will be found to be Welding Current. The 18-8 alloycan be welded with
satisfactory. alowerweldingcurrentthanrequired for steel,
No attempt will be made here to comprehensively because this alloy has lower heat conductivity and a
cover the subject of stainlesssteelweldingand lower melting point than steel. These characteristics
brazing;however,somegeneralinformation is pro- tend to keep the heatof the arc localized atthe point of
vided.Suggestedreferences are the Welding Hand- contact rather than allowing it to travel rapidly back
book: Vol. 1, 8th Edition, 1987 Volume 2, 8th Edition, into the plate,so less heatis required for the same size

Licensed by Information Handling Services ~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~ ~~
~~
STD=AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b505Lbbb7 354 W
Welding Encyclopedia WELDING STEEL STAINLESS 493
plate and wire thanis ordinarily used. For example,if warpage is likely to occur, due toits lower expansion,
110 to 120 amperes were used with 3.2 mm (1/8 in.) and the welds will be hard and comparatively brittle,
steel wire, only about 90 to 100 amperes would be due toits martensitic structure.In the lower chromium
needed for 18-8stainless steel. Stainless will penetrate alloys, for example, 12% chromium, the welds can be
much better than steel because it is very fluid when toughened by annealing, but in the higher alloys with
molten, while ordinary carbon steel tends to be more 18% or more chromium, they do not respond satisfac-
viscous and sluggish. torily to annealingorheattreating.However, if a
properweldingprocedureisfollowed,theycan be
flux Coating on Electrodes. Chromium and nickel
softened to some extent by annealing for eight hours
are the chief elements in the stainless steel alloys; the or so at 790C (1450F).These alloys are so brittle at
balance is iron. These alloys are highly resistant to
room temperature in the as-welded state that they will
heat, that is, they will not scale appreciably at high
snap at the slightest deformation.
temperatures as longas they remain in solid form, but
will oxidize as soon as molten if exposed to the air. Discoloration. Thehightemperatureemployedin
The iron and nickel will remain practically unaffected, welding,whetheronchromium steel or chromium-
but chromium will oxidize rapidly, so it is necessary to nickel steel, will discolor the metal for a short distance
protect the molten metal from contact with the air. In on each sideof the weld. Thisis an oxide andis only a
shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), this is accom- surface condition; that is, the oxide on the surface does
plished by applying a flux coatingon the outsideof the not affect the metal beneath it. The discoloration can
electrode which will fuse along with the wire. This be removed easily by some form of pickling, or by
protectsthemetalwhilegoingthroughthearcand grinding and polishing with abrasive wheels and grits.
covers overthedepositedmetal,excludingany air Aftergrindingandpolishing,themetalunderneath
until the weld has solidified. If the typeof flux coating will be in the same condition as before welding.this If
does not afford the required protection, an imperfect oroxide is not removed and the surface becomes wet and
badly oxidized weld will result. dry, it willchangefrom a bluecolorto a brown,
In addition to protecting the metal, theflux coating resembling iron rust, along these areas. This is also a
should also have a stabilizing effect to assistin main- surface condition only.
taining a steady arc.As the weld cools, this slag cover- Oxyfuel Gas Welding
ing willcrack offto a large extent, due to the Oxyfuel gas welding with acetylene can be used on
differenceincontractionratesbetween it andthe stainless steel, especially in the lighter gauges, such as
metal. However, if a weld of more than one beadis to 18 gauge or thinner. Gas welding,of course, is slower
be made, all slag should be removed with an air-oper- than the electric arc method and therefore apt to pro-
ated cleaning tool, or by a similar method, to guard duce considerably more buckling and warping.
against slag which might be entrappedby further lay-
ers. The flux has a low melting point, and any small Neutral Flame. A neutral flame should be used for
particles remaining will generallybe fused and floated welding stainless steel; the flame should be as small as
to the surface by the heat of the next beads, but this possible, supplying only sufficientheat to produce
does not always happen.This cleaning procedure will good fusion. Any excess heat will simply aggravate
produce welds which will not show any blowholes, buckling.
gas pockets or slag inclusions on a ground and pol- Flux. Althoughtheneutralflamewillprotectthe
ished specimen. upper side of the weld, it will have no effect on the
Whenweldingstainlesssteels,theweldingrod underside. It is necessary, therefore, to apply a flux
should have higher chromium and nickel content than along the underside near the edges. Theflux may also
the plateto be welded, to compensate for alloyingele- be applied onthe top of the weld as well as onthe bot-
ments lost across the arc. This will provide similar cor- tom, or on the wire itself. However, it has been found
rosion, physical and chemical characteristics between that the best resultsare obtained by applying it only to
the two. the underside, using asa filler roda bare wire withthe
In the straight chromium field, the alloy containing same analysis as the plate.
18% chromiumisthemostcommon.Thistype The flux is generally easiest to apply if it is mixed
requires the same procedure in welding as the chro- with water and madeinto a paste about the consistency
mium-nickelvariety,thedifferencesbeingthatless of molasses.Afterapplyingthepaste, it shouldbe
LSTD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b505Lbbb8.290 m
STEEL494 STAINLESS Encyclopedia Welding
allowed to dry long enough to permit it to become generated. The pressuregenerallydetermines the
fairlysolidbeforewelding. As soon as theheat is amount of upset displacement directly following the
applied, this flux will fuse, forming a sort of molded fusing period, producing an indentation on each side
cover for the bead and protecting it on the underside. of the welded sheets.In addition to these variables, the
This willproduceasmooth,neat-appearingbead; time of current flowis of great importance.Too long a
without the flux it will be rough and irregular, and will period gives the same result as too much heat. Too
generally present a burned or bad appearance. short a period will produce no weld.
Resistance Welding It is evident, therefore, that spot welding depends
Stainlesssteels are particularlyadaptedtoresis- on the following four variables:
tance welding because the inherently high electrical (1) Current
resistance is a fixed propertyof the steel andis a con- (2) Diameter of electrode contact points
stant. Stainless steels present a clean surface, free from (3) Pressure(controlled by spring or pneumatic
oxide and scale, and unlike plate stock, there is no zinc pressure)
or lead coating. This tends to reduce the contact resis- (4)Length of time the currentis allowed to flow.
tance. Contact resistance varies with the pressure, the If both electrodes are the same diameter, a depres-
condition of the electrodes, and the condition of the sionwilloccuronbothsides.Whilenotserious
surfaces of the materials to be welded. The inherent when a pickle finish is used, the depression can be
resistance of the steel itselfis high, so that this propor- objectionable on a polished surface. This depression
tion ofthe total resistanceis higher thanin other weld- canbereducedbyplacingacopperblockabout
able materialS.Thus, the variable portions of the total 23 mm (U2 in.)thickand 50 mm (2 in.)square
resistance are reduced to a minimum and welding con- between theelectrode and the polishedside,thus
trol is greatly simplified. putting the major depression on the underside. An alu-
The capacity of the welding machine required to minum block 3.2 6.4
to mm (1/8 to 1/4 in.) thick works
make a weld in stainless steel is likewise materially well in some cases, butdue to the lower melting point
reduced. Thisis due to the high resistanceof the metal of aluminum, will tend to pit if a slight arc is drawn.
and its low heat conductivity. Low heat conductivity This procedure will reducethe depression but will not
prevents too rapid a dissipation of heat and allows a eliminate it entirely, because the depression is due to
greater proportion of the heat to go tothe weld. shrinkageof the moltenmetal in the centerof the
weld,whichpullsthebasematerial from both sur-
Spot Welding. Spotwelding,inprinciple, is pro- faces. If the work is tobepolished, the remaining
duced by holding two sheets in close contact between indentation will haveto be ground out.
two copper electrodes, and passing a low-voltage, high Spot welding, like any other type of welding requir-
current through the circuit for a short period of time.
ing a high temperature, will cause a blue oxide to be
Fusionimmediatelytakesplacebetweenthetwo
formed on the surface which will change to a brown
sheets, while the excess heat is rapidly carried away
colorresemblingrustifexposedtotheweather or
from the outside surfaces by water-cooled electrodes.
moistconditions.This is onlya surface condition,
See RESISTANCE WELDING.
affecting theoriginal oxide only. If the weldsare to be
While the total heat applied will be determined by exposedtotheatmosphere,theyshould be cleaned
adjusting the welding control,the area of the electrode with acid, as in pickling. In the ground and polished
points should be maintained as constant as possible. state, spot welds have withstood several hundred hours
Any increase in area will tend to reduce the heat per of salt spray without the least sign of attack.
unit area, resulting in an improperly or poorly fused
joint. A decrease in area will increase the unit heat and Shot Welding. Shot welding is also a form of spot
will usually burn a hole entirely or partly through the welding, but uses a higher voltage and shorter time,
sheet to be welded, other factors remaining constant. which produces less heat on the surface. It tends to
The pressureexertedbytheelectrodes is generally confine the heat more completely to the junction of the
produced by the compression of helical springs, and two sections being welded, with the result that thereis
can be adjusted by a lock nut on a shaft through the less oxide or discoloration on the surface than that pro-
center of the spring. Variable pressures willalso affect duced with spot welding.
the qualityof the weld. Too much pressure will reduce SeamWelding. S e a m welding is similar to spot
the resistanceof the joint and tend to decrease the heat welding in principle. Instead of using two electrodes in

making one weld at a time, rollers are substituted for tubes,cylinders, or flat sheets,and are availablein
electrodes and the work is fed between these, and a models capable of producing welds from 0.6 to 3.65 m
continual series of intermittent weldsis produced. Var- (24 to 144 in.)inlength.Theyproducefusionbutt
ious machines employ different methodsof producing welded joints free of meltout,burnbacks,extreme
this intermittent effectbut in nearly all cases the result- shrinkage or distortion.
ing weld is a series of overlapping spot welds,as can
be noted by a stitch effect on the surface. The adjust- STANDARD RESISTANCE
ment or manipulation is similar to that for spot weld- Known resistance that is used for comparison with
ing. It should be remembered, however,that the range unknown resistance.
for welding the chromium and chromium-nickel stain-
less steels is considerably narrower than for common STANDARDS, Welding
steel and because ofthis, a closer adjustment is of vital The term Stundurd appliescollectively to codes,
importance. specifications, recommended practices, classifications,
methods, and guidesfor a welding processor applica-
Flash Welding. Stainless steel can be flash welded tion that have been preparedby a sponsoring commit-
much like ordinarysteelproducts,providedcertain tee of the AmericanWeldingSociety(AWS),and
conditionsnotedpreviously are observed.In flash approved and adopted in accordance with established
welding, the two sheetsor bars to be joined are held in procedures.Standards for welding are publishedin
clamps approximately12.3 mm (U2 in.) or so from the cooperationwith the AmericanNationalStandards
edges, depending on the section.The current is turned Institute (ANSI).
on, the edges brought together and a certain amount The AmericanWeldingSocietymaintainsmore
flashed off, during which time the temperature of the than 125 technicalcommitteesandsub-committees
metal is rising to welding heat. At the proper time, the which prepare and publish approximately 140 docu-
current is shut off and the two edgessqueezed ments to serve the welding industry. All AWS stan-
together, or upset, producing a burr along the outside dards are voluntary consensus standards because they
which,whenground or chipped off, showsasolid are adoptedvoluntarilybyusers.Volunteersfrom
weld beneath. everysector of the weldingindustrypooltheir
In producing the actual upset, the first stage should knowledge and expertise to produce these standards,
be very rapid, followed by a slower movement than which are essential toindustryandtheprogressof
with steel. This will keepthe very fluid, nearly molten technology.
metal from dropping away atfirst, and the slower and Code. A code is a standard consisting of a set of
final movement will allow the metal to upset evenly conditionsandrequirementsrelating to aparticular
instead of crawling irregularly from one side to the subject,andindicatingappropriateproceduresby
other.Whenconditions are right, this joint willbe which it can be determinedthat the requirements have
solid. It is necessary, therefore,that all stages are auto- been met. It is a standard that is suitable for adoption
matically controlled. The two edges along the joint by a governmental authority as a part of a law or regu-
should be as uniform and straight as possible in order lation, or as specified by other mandatory documents.
to start heating or flashing along the entire section A code is intended to be mandatory, and it should be
simultaneously. This will prevent overheating or loss usedwhen so required by a governmental authority
of metal at any one point, as would be the case if con- or specifiedby other mandatorydocuments.Other
tact were made at one end of the joint much earlier mandatory documents could be documents issued by
than at the other. The grips should also be in good agencies such as purchasing departments, trade asso-
mechanical condition to prevent climbing, especially ciations, or insurance companies.
with thin sections. In general, as in spot welding, less Specification. A specification is astandard that
heat or shorter time will be required than with com- clearly and accurately describesthe essential technical
mon steelof the same section. requirements for a material, product, system or ser-
vice. It indicates the procedures, methods, qualifica-
STAKE WELDER tions, or equipment by whichit can be determined that
A longitudinal fixture designed for straight-line the requirementshavebeenmet. A specification is
welding applicationson metal from0.13 mm (0.005 in.) intended to be mandatory when referenced by other
and thicker.These fixtures are used for welding cones, mandatory documents, such as those for procurement
: STD AW.S. JWE-ENGL 4997 07&.42_b$.nSlbb70 949 W ~
496 STANDARD
WELDING
PROCEDURE
SPECIFICATION
Welding
(SWPS)
Encyclopedia
purposes, or when mutually agreed upon by

the parties the Technical Activities Committee, whichconsists of
involved. the chairmen of all of the technical committees, and
Recommended Practice. A recommended practiceis three at-large members. Members ofthe TAC vote on
a standard that describes general industry practicefor two aspectsof the document:
someparticularprocess,
material,
technique, or (1) Conformance with the rules for preparation of
method, as well as other factors and items that should the Standard
beconsideredbeforeusingthatprocess,material, (2) Adequacy of thetechnical content of the
technique, or method. document.
The next step is review by the Technical Council,
Classification. classification
A is standard
a which consists of ten members of the AWS Board of
intended primarily to establish an arrangement or divi- Directors. Technical Council members verify by vote
sion of materials or products into groups based onsim- that ANSVAWS rules and procedures were followed
ilar characteristics such as origin, composition, during the preparation and balloting of the document.
properties, or use. TechnicalCouncilmembersmaycommenton the
Method. A method is a standard consisting of a set technical content of a document, but theydo not vote
of requirements relating tothe manner in which a par- on technical content.
ticular kind of test, sampling, analysis, or measure- When the Standard is submitted to the Technical
ment is conducted to
determine the properties, Council, it is opened to public review. Availability of
composition, or performance of some item. A method the document for review is advertised in the Welding
does not include numerical limits for the properties, Journal andANSIspublication, Standards Action.
composition, or performance, and is invoked, not by Anyone concerned with the document has 60 days to
itself, but by other standards. obtainacopyandmakecomment.Allcomments
Guide. A guide is a standard that provides informa- received are considered and the commentator is noti-
tion to the user as to the best practical methods to fied of the results. If there are no negative responses to
accomplish the task described. A guide usually pro- the draft, or whennegativeresponseshavebeen
vides several different methods. resolved,ANSIs
Board of Standards Review
approves the documentas an American NationalStan-
Standards Development
dard andit is published.
The Technical Activities Committee (TAC) of the Standardsdevelopmentandmaintenance is an
American Welding Society has oversight of the techni- ongoingprocess.Every five yearsthesedocuments
calcommitteesandsubcommitteesresponsible for must be revised, reaffirmed or withdrawn to comply
writing standards. with ANSI requirements.See Appendix 16.
AWS subcommittees consist of volunteers who pro-
vide the technicalinput to the documents and prepare STANDARD WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION
the standards.Committeemembershipmustbebal- (SWPS)
anced to ensure that all interests are properly repre- A welding procedure specification( W S ) prepared
sented.Acommitteeideallyconsistsofone-third by theWeldingResearchCouncil ( W C ) Welding
suppliers (producers or distributors of any product or Procedures Committee.The committee uses procedure
service specified in the Standard), one-third consum- qualificationreports(PQRs)whichitdevelops or
ers (those directly concerned withthe use of any prod- those developed by industries and donated. After the
uctspecifiedin
the
Standard,
but
not
with its standardweldingprocedurespecifications are pre-
production or distribution),andone-thirdgeneral paredby the WRCcommittee,they are sent to the
interest members, (others who are interested, i.e., the American Welding Society (AWS) B2 Committee on
academic community). Qualification.Thedocumentsthenproceedthrough
Committee meetings are open to the public; com- the AWS ballot sequence, and after approval at all lev-
mittee meeting schedulesare published in theWelding els, become American National Standards. See also
Journal each month. Appendix 16.
After subcommittee agreement on the content of the
document,it is reviewed by the specifictechnical STANDARD WELDING TERMS
committee to which the subcommitteereports. The A glossary of terms and definitions developed by
draft approved by the technical committee is sent to the American Welding Society (AWS) to standardke

~~ ~~~ ~ ~~~
~~~~~ ~
I STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 0764265 051bb7L 885 m
Welding Encyclopedia 497
the oral and written communication of the details of START TIME

welding,brazing,soldering,thermalspraying,and The time interval prior to weld time during which
thermal cutting processes and applications. arc voltage and current reacha preset value greater or
Standard terms anddefinitions are identified in this less thanwelding values. See STANDARDWELDING
editionof the WeldingEncyclopedia.Allstandard TERMS. See Appendix 19.
terms are referenced to STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
The standarddefinitionsare in italics. Nonstandard STATIC ELECTRODE FORCE
terms are identified assuch, The force exerted by electrodes on the workpieces
in making spot, seam, or projection welds by resis-
The AmericanWeldingSocietypublishesthis
tance welding under welding conditions, but with no
glossary of the technical terms used in the welding
current flowing andnomovement in the welding
industry in the document, ANSI/AWS A3.0, Standard
machine. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS.
Welding Terms and Definitions.This document, in dic-
tionary form, was prepared by the AWS Committee on STATIONARY SHOE
DefinitionsandSymbols,and is acomprehensive A backing shoe that remainsin a@ed position dur-
compilation of weldingterminology. The document ing welding. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
establishes each term as standard or non-standard to
reflect the accuracy of the term. Nonstandard terms are STATOR
also included because of common usage. The docu- The stationary partof an induction motoror genera-
ment is an American National Standard, developed in tor on whichthe field windings are placed.
accordance with the rules of the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI). STEEL
There are 1253 terms and definitions in A3.0-94, Ahard,strong, durable iron-carbonalloywhich
with 53 illustrations to support and clarify the defini- mayormaynotcontainotheralloyingelements
tions, as wellasclassificationchartsandcorollary besides those which appear as impurities. Steel always
information for the welding processes.To preserve an contains less than1.7%carbon. Steel is malleable
understanding of old documents and literature, weld- when suitable conditions are provided.
ing terms believed to be no longer significant in the
welding industryare included in A3.0. Obsoleteor sel- STEEL, Acid
dom used processesare listed separately. Steel melted under a slag which has an acid reaction
The first AWS document containing welding defini- and in a furnace with an acid bottom and lining. See
tions was published January 18, 1940.The latest pub- STEEL, Basic.
lication, ANSYAWS3.0-94,was published May 23,
1994. STEEL, Alloy
A plaincarbonsteel to whichanotherelement,
STANDOFF DISTANCE other than iron and carbon, has been added in a per-
The distance between a noule and the workpiece. centage large enough to alter the characteristics and
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.See Appendix 10. properties of the steel. These elements may be chro-
mium, manganese, nickel, tungsten,or vanadium, and
START CURRENT
are added to produce or increase certain specific phys-
ical properties, such as hardness, toughness, ductility,
Thecurrentvalueduring start time interval. See strength, resistanceto corrosion or resistance to wear.
STANDARD WELDING TERMS.See Appendix 19. The various kinds of steel are most often identified
by a type designationor a specification number.
STATIC ELECTRODE FORCE SAE (formerly Society for Automotive Engineers)
See ELECTRODE FORCE. and the American Society for Testing Materials devel-
oped aunifiedsystemfordesignatingmetalsand
STARTING WELD TAB alloys. See UNIFIED NUMBERINGSYSTEM.
Additional material that extends beyond the begin- The AmericanIronand Steel Instituteand SAE
ning of the joint, onwhichthe weld is started. See published a system for designating carbon and alloy
STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. steels using theUNS identifications. See Table $6.

'STD-AWS JW-ENGL L797 078~4.2b5 053bb72 7 3 m
~
498 STEEL,Austenitic Welding Encyclopedia
Table S-6
AISI-SAE System for Designationof Carbon andAlloy Steels*
ation
AISI-SAE
Description UNS Identifier Number**
Low-Carbon Steels for WireGl00XO
and Rods looX
Carbon Steels GlOXXX l0XX
Carbon Steels, Resulfurized (Free Machining) llXX lXXX G1
Carbon Steels, Resulfurized
and Rephosphorized 12XX G121XX
Manganese Alloy Steels withG13XXX
Mn1.60 to 1.90% 13XX
G15XXXover1.0%
Manganese Steelswith Mn Maximum 15XX
Nickel Alloy Steels 2xxx
Nickel-Chromium Alloy Steels 3 1XX G3 1XXX
High Nickel-Chromium AlloyG33XXX
Steels 33XX
Carbon-Molybdenum Alloy Steels
G40XXX 40XX
Chromium-Molybdenum Alloy Steels G4 41XX lXXX
Chromium-Nickel-Molybdenum Alloy Steels 43xx G43XXX
Nickel-Molybdenum Alloy Steels
G46XXX 46XX
Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum Alloy Steels 47XX G47XXX
High Nickel-Molybdenum AlloyG48XXX
Steels 48XX
Low-Chromium Alloy Steels 50XX G5OXXX
Chromium Alloy Steels 51XX G5 lXXX
High-Carbon Chromium Alloy Steels G5 5 1x00 1986
High-Carbon Chromium AlloyG52986
Steels 52100
Chromium-Vanadium Alloy Steels
G61XXX 61XX
Chromium-Vanadium-Aluminum Alloy Steels 1406 G7 E7 1400
Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum-Boron Alloy Steel G8 81B45 1451
Low Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum
G86XXXAlloy Steels 86XX
Low Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum Alloy Steels 87XX G87XXX
Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum
G88220Alloy Steels 8822
Silicon-Manganese Spring Steels
G92XXX 92XX
Spring Steels
Silicon-Manganese-ChromiumG92XXX 92XX
Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum G93XXX
Alloy Steels 93XX
Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum Alloy Steels 98XX G98XXX
Boron Containing Steels XXBXX
Boron-Vanadium Containing Steels XXBVXX
Lead Containing Steels (Free Machining) XXLXX
*Categories of Composition, Ranges, and Limits
for Elements
the alphabetical identificationof each series are replaced by a digit when
**All " X marks shown in the UNS Identifier Number following
a specific steel in the series is singled
out.
STEEL, Austenitic lining and the slag used in a process.Most of the non-
See MANGANESE STEEL and STAINLESS STEEL. metallic compoundsthat are used in making refractory
furnace linings or employed as a flux or slag can be
STEEL, Basic classified as having either acid or basic (alkaline char-
Steel melted under a slag with a basic reaction, and acteristics when heated to the temperatures encoun-
in a furnace with a basic bottom and lining. tered in steelmaking. A material is classified by noting
In specific steelmaking processes,
the matter of acid any tendency on its part to react with a strongly basic
versus basic steelmaking should be examined, becausematerial like lime (Cao) or a decidedly acid material
an understanding of these two termsis metallurgically like silica (SiOJ. Dissimilarmaterialswillreact or
important to both steelmaking and welding. The terms attack each other while similar materials will not. A
acid and basic are derived from the kind of refractory furnace operating with a basic-type slag will have a

i STD. AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5051bb73b58 D
Welding Encyclopedia Alloy LowStrength
HighSTEEL, (HSLA) 499
refractory lining made of basic materials, whereas a Fatigue Failures. Cast steel is generally presumedto
furnace using an acid-type slag will have a lining of have less resistance to fatigue than rolled steel. Cast-
acid materials. If an acid slag is used in a basic-lined ings subjected to alternating stresses of tension and
furnace, the slag would quicklyattack and damagethe compression will provide servicefor a given length of
furnace lining. The common acid materials involved in time but may eventually fail.The initial failure due to
steel-melting are silica (Sioz) and phosphorus pentox- breakage may be repaired by welding, but in a com-
ide (P20s), while the basic materials are lime (Cao), paratively short length of time, another failure may
burnt dolomite (MgO, Cao), iron oxide (Feo), and occur in some other part of the casting.One explana-
manganese oxide (MnO). tion for this reaction is that at the time of initial failure,
The important difference between acid and basic the metal of the castinghadundergone its limit of
steelmaking processes is in their respective ability to fatigue. If the casting had been annealed, thelater fail-
rid the molten metal bath of residual phosphorus and ures would probably have been eliminated. Frequently
sulfur. In the acid steelmaking furnace, thereis no sig- steel castings which have been repeatedly subjected to
nificant removalof phosphorus andsulfur because the high temperatures cannot be welded.This occurs par-
acid slag cannot react chemically with these two ele- ticularly in the case of annealing pots and annealing
ments. The charge of raw materials as a whole must boxes. In such a case it is impossible to get a reason-
meet the same maximum requirements specified for able degree of fusion betweenthe added metal andthe
these two elements in the finished steel. This means metal of the original piece.
high-grade ore and steel scrap must be used. For the
most part, an acid-lined furnace functions mainly as a STEEL, Clad
furnace to melt a charge, remove carbon, and hold the A thin solid overlay section bonded to the surface of
moltenbathwhilenonmetallicsrisefrom it and a heavier section of steel plate to provide corrosion
become part ofthe slag. resistance or an improved mechanical property. Steel
plate can be cladby overlay welding, explosion weld-
STEEL, Capped ing, or by rollwelding two ormoresolidsections
See STEEL, Rimmed. together. See STAINLESS STEEL WELDING.
STEEL, Carbon STEEL, High-Alloy

&?e CARBON STEEL. A steel alloy with a content
of chromium, nickel,or
manganese of 10% or higher.
STEEL, Cast
STEEL, High-Carbon
Cast steel can be welded using the same electrodes
and procedures usedto weld wrought steel. Steel containing 0.45% or more carbon.
In a very complicatedor thin cast steel section,the STEEL, High-speed
heat should be distributedas widely as possible, and in
extreme cases the welding operation shouldbe carried A namecommonlyappliedtocertaintool steel
on intermittently to allow the heat to be distributed alloys. The mostcommonofthese are the 18-4-1
over the workpiece, so that a sufficient amount of heat steels, with a chemical composition of 18% tungsten,
4% chromium, and 1% vanadium. Molybdenum high-
is not concentrated at one point to cause undue or
harmful expansionof the metal. speed steels are another type. They are usually com-
posed of approximately 9% molybdenum, 4% chro-
Wear-Resistant Surtace. For a manganese steel cast- mium, 1.6% tungsten, and 1% vanadium. High-speed
ing used, for example in railway crossovers, satisfac- steels usually containfrom .75 to 30% carbon, andfor
toryweldingcanbe done usinga12%manganese this reason are difficult to weld by processes
other than
steel electrode. arc welding.See also TOOL BRAZING.
Wherever possible, a weld made in a steel casting
should be reinforced so that the section of the weld is STEEL, High Strength LowAlloy (HSLA)
largerthan the original adjacentsection. This is Steels with less than 0.25% carbonandwithan
needed due to the low degree of ductility compared alloycontentlessthan 5% are consideredhigh-
with the ductility of the original casting. strength, low-alloy steels.

~ ~~~~
-STD.AWS JWE-ENGL 1977 0784265 05bhb74 574
500 STEEL, Welding Encyclopedia
STEEL, Killed STEEL, Stainless

Killed steel is made by removing or tying up the See STAINLESS STEEL.
oxygenthatsaturates the moltenmetalpriorto its
solidification to preventeffervescence or rimming STEEL, Structural
action during cooling. The molten steel is held in the See STRUCTURAL WELDING.
ladle, furnace or crucible,(andusuallytreatedwith
STEEL, Zinc Coated
aluminum, silicon,or manganese), until no moregas is
evolved and the metal is perfectly quiet. See GALVANIZED IRON, Welding.
STEPBACK SEQUENCE
STEEL, Low-Carbon
A nonstandard termfor BACKSTEP SEQUENCE.
A classification of carbon steel with a carbon con-
tent less than 0.15%. Only residual quantities of other STEP BRAZING
elements are present, exceptfor small quantities of sil- The brazing of successive joints on a given part
icon and manganese which are added for deoxidation with filler metals of successively lower brazing tem-
during the steel making process. peratures so as to accomplish the joining without dis-
turbing the joints previously brazed. See STANDARD
STEEL, Manganese WELDING TERMS.
See MANGANESE STEEL.
STEP DOWN
STEEL, Medium Carbon The reducing of electric current or voltage from a
0.30 and 0.45% carbon.
Steel that contains between higher to a lower value.
STEELPLATE STEP SOLDERING

A term applied to steel that is more than 3.2 mm The soldering of successive joints on a given part
(U8 in.) thick. with solders of successively lower soldering tempera-
ture so as toaccomplish the joining without disturbing
STEEL, Rimmed the joints previously soldered. See STANDARD WELD-
An incompletely deoxidized steel usually contain- ING TERMS.
ing less than 0.25% carbon and having the following
STEP UP
characteristics:
Increasing or changing electric current or voltage
(1) During solidification, an evolutionof gas occurs from a lower to a higher value.
sufficient to maintain a liquidingot top (open steel)
until aside and bottomrim of substantial thickness has STETHOSCOPIC TESTING
formed. If the rimming action is intentionally stopped A technique used during the late 1920s for testing
shortly after the mold is filled, the product is termed welds for porosity by evaluating the sound produced
capped steel. with the tapping of a hammer. A stethoscope with a
(2) After complete solidification, the ingot consists rubber tip made contact on the surface of the plate.
of two distinct zones:A rim somewhat more pure than This apparatus excluded extraneous sounds and mini-
when poured, and a core containing scattered blow- mized damping of the oscillations at the contact point
holes, with a minimum amount of pipe, and having an on the metal. The drum, pipe or plate being tested is
average metalloid somewhat higher than when poured, tapped with a small hammer at the spot to be tested.
and markedly higher in the upper portion of the ingot. The presence of a serious defect in a vessel could often
be determined by its ring. A flat or dull sound indi-
STEEL, SAE cated tothe trained earthe presence of a defect.
Steels which conform to the specifications of the In past times, blacksmiths used this principle when
Society of Automotive Engineers. hammeringmetalcoldonthe anvil totestit.In
sounding a tank, however, this technique was diffi-
STEEL, Sheet cult due to the forced and natural vibrations of the
A term usually applied to steel under3.2 mm (U8 in.) tank,and the tendency for the natural vibration to
thick. See SHEET METAL WELDING. drown out all other sounds. This technique has been

Licensed by Information Handling Services ~~~ ~ ~
S T D O A W S JWE-ENGL L797 m 0784265 05Lbh75 420 m
Welding 501
superseded by radiographic and other nondestructive STRAIN AGING

testingtechnologies,exceptperhapsin cases where See AGING.
this equipment is not available.
STRAIN HARDENING
STICK ELECTRODE An increase in elastic limit, hardness, and tensile
A nonstandard termfor COVERED ELECTRODE. strength of metalsproducedbystraining.Further
increases, particularly in elastic limit, occur on aging
STICK ELECTRODE WELDING
at ordinaryor slightly elevated temperatures.For mild
Anonstandardterm for SHIELDEDMETALARC steel, the maximum agingeffects are obtained by heat-
WELDING. ing between200 to 300C(390 to 5 7 O O F ) .
This term is often appliedto manual arc welding, in
which a bareor coated electrode,often referred to as a STRAIN GAUGE
stick, is used. An instrument used to measure a materials elastic
STICKOUT, Gas Tungsten Arc Welding deformation produced by stresses created when loads
are applied tothe material.
Thelength of the tungsten electrode extending
beyond theend of the gas nozzle. See STANDARD A popular type of strain gauge is the Berry strain
WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 10. gauge, a hand-held instrument with a prepared gauge
showinglength before andafteraknownload is
STICKOUT, Gas Metal Arc Welding and Gas Shielded applied.Basedon the relationship of the strain of
Flux CoredArc Weldlng deformation to the stress in the test material,the stress
The length of unmelted electrode extending beyond in the test structure is determined when the difference
theend of the gas nozzle. See STANDARDWELDING in gauge lengthis found.
TERMS. See Appendix 10. The usual gauge lengthis 50.8 mm (2 in.) for stan-
dard test specimens. Instruments adjusted to 203 mm
STITCH WELD (8 in.) are almost as common, and for structural tests
A nonstandard termfor INTERMITTENT WELD. on long members, a 508 mm (20 in.) instrument is
used.Allofthemindicatechangesoflengthin
STOPOFF 0.025 mm (.O01 in.).
A material usedon the surfQces adjacent to the joint
to limit the spread of soldering or brazingfiller metal. STRANDED ELECTRODE
See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. A composite filler metal electrode consisting of
stranded wires that may mechanically enclosemateri-
STORED ENERGY WELDING
als to improve properties, stabilize the arc, or provide
A resistance weldingprocess variation in which shielding. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
welds aremade with electrical energyaccumulated
electrostatically, electromagnetically, or electrochemi- STRANDED WIRES
cally at arelatively low rate and madeavailable at the
required
welding rate. See STANDARD WELDING
Wires or cables composed of a number of small
wirestwisted or braidedtogether. See CABLEAND
TERMS.
CABLE CONNECTORS.
STRAIGHT POLARITY
Anonstandardterm for DIRECTCURRENTELEC- STRAP WELD
TRODE NEGATIVE (DCEN). Areinforcementband(oranyshape)ofmetal
This termdescribes the arrangement of welding welded across two adjoining plates or surfaces on the
leads in which the electrode is the negative pole and underside of the plate or joint to add strengthand sta-
the workpiece is the positive pole of the arc circuit. bility. After welding the underside reinforcements,the
See DIRECT CURRENT ELECTRODE NEGATIVE. two edges on the upper side of the reinforcement are
then welded.
STRAIN
Distortion or deformation of a metal structure due STRENGTH
to stress. See DISTORTION. The ability of a materialto resist strain.

STRESS Stress Corrosion Cracking in Stainless Steel. Experi-
Force producing or tending to produce deforrnation mental data indicates that as little as 5 ppm of avail-
of a metal.See DISTORTION. able chloride is suficient to cause stress corrosion
cracking in stainless steel.To minimize the possibility,
STRESS-CORROSION CRACKING every precaution must be taken to ensure thatall possi-
Failure of metals by crackingundercombined ble sources of halogen contamination are kept away
action of corrosion and stress, residual or applied. In from the base metal. Materials used in purging dams
brazing, the term applies to the cracking of stressed and related items should be only those known to be
base metal due to the presence of a liquidfillermetal. free of halogens. Several types of commercially avail-
see STANDARD WELDING TERMS. able metal marking pens
are known to contain signifi-
cant quantities of available halogens and are capable
Stress-corrosion cracking was once and is still occa-
sionally calledchloride ion cracking, halogen-induced ofcausingcracking.Perspiration from handprints
sometimescontainssufficientavailable chloride to
stress cracking, or halide contamination cracking.
cause stress corrosion cracking,so clean cottongloves
There are believed to be two differentsets of condi- should be used in handling stainless steel.
tions present in a material in which stress corrosion
cracking occurs: active path corrosion and hydrogen STRESS-RELIEF CRACKING
embrittlement.In active pathcorrosion,cracking is Intergranular cracking in the heat-afected zone or
caused by localized corrosion at the crack tip, which weld metal as a result of the combined action of resid-
then proceeds along a path which is electrochemically ual stresses and postweld exposure to an elevated tem-
active with respect to the surrounding metal. In hydro-perature. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
gen embrittlement, cracking results from the entry of This phenomenon is most prevalent in age-harden-
hydrogen into the metal, which reduces the capability able alloys. It is also referred to as reheat cracking or
of the metal to deform plastically. strain age cracking.
The following conditions promote corrosion crack-
ing: (1) asusceptiblemetal, (2) aspecificenviron- STRESS-RELIEF HEAT TREATMENT
ment, and (3) a tensile stress. Metal susceptibility and Uniform heating of a structure or a portion thereof
environmentspecificitydependon the particular to a suficienttemperature to relieve the major portion
metal-environment combination.A metal may be sus- of the residual stresses, followed by unifomz cooling.
ceptible to stress cofrosion cracking in only a few spe-See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
cific environments, and
conversely,
particular
a The mechanism of stress relief is yield(with or
environment may induce cracking in only certain met- without some degreeof creep) by residual stresses that
als. Usually, the tensile stress must exceed a specific exceed the flow (or creep) strength of the material at
level, depending on the particular metal-environment the heat treating temperature. Stress relief is the most
combination, to produce stress corrosion cracking. common reason heat treatmentis used in welding.See
The sequence of events generally leading to failure HEAT TREATMENT.
of a metal by stress corrosion cracking begins with A gas-fired car bottom furnace used for stress-
localized chemical attackof the metal surface.A crack relieving steel forgings is shown in Figure S-26. The
theninitiates at asharpintrusionproduced by this furnace is 1.5 m (5 ft) wide by 3 m (10 ft) deep by
attack, and grows slowly. When the crack reaches a 1.5 m (5 ft) high. The furnace door is pneumatically
size at which the metal canno longer supportthe load, lifted overhead to gain entrance to the furnace cham-
rapid fracture occurs. If a crack-like flaw is already ber. The car is electrically driven.
present in the metal surface, localized attack is not
necessarilythecause;slow crack growthproceeds STRIKE
from the flaw. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. see also ARC
The process of stress corrosion cracking involves a STRIKE.
complexinteractionofmetallurgical,chemical,and
mechanicalfactors. Since thesethreefactorscorre- STRINGER BEAD
spondtothethreeconditionswhichproducestress A type of weldbead made without appreciable
corrosion cracking,the role of each factor in this phe- weaving motion. SeeSTANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See
nomenon must be considered. also WEAVE BEAD.

Welding 503
struction project: design, fabrication or erection, and

inspection.
StructuralDesign. Designtypicallyinvolvesthe
arrangement of structural elements to adequately resist
externalloads. A majoraspect of designtherefore
involves the calculation of stresses andsizing of
members and connections. Computer models and hand
calculations, used in conjunction with design specif-
cations, are used by the structural engineer to accom-
plish this task. An additional aspect of design that is
important to thestructuralengineer, fabricator and
erector is the selection of base metal. The engineer
should be aware of several properties necessary for
adequate service and construction qualities.
Constructlon Steels. Yield strength is the property
of most interest to engineers. A steels yield strength
primarily depends onits carbon content, alloy content,
heat treatment, mechanical processing, or any combi-
nation of these. High carbon or alloy content can pro-
duce steel with high hardenability, which can result in
Figure S-26-A Gas-Fired Car Bottom Furnace hydrogen cracking.
Used for Stress-Relieving Steel Forgings up to a This susceptibility can necessitate special welding
Maximum Operating Temperature of 1000C requirements, such as high preheat andinterpass tem-
(1800F) peratures or even postweld heat treatment. The con-
Photo courtesy of Lindberg Unitof General Signal Company ventional constructionsteels, such as ASTM A36 and
ASTM A572 Grade 50, have an excellent history of
STRIP WELDER readyweldabilitywhenweldedinaccordancewith
prescribed limits, suchas are found in the ANSYAWS
A flash-butt welding machine used in steel mills to Dl. 1, Structural Welding Code-Steel. Such steels use
join the ends of sheet steel to produce a continuous carbon or low alloys (such as vanadium) or both to
strip. provide strength in the as-rolled or normalized condi-
tion. Modem steelmaking techniques have created a
STRONGBACK
new generation of steelswithoptimumweldabifity,
A device attached to both sides of a weld joint to because of low carbon and alloy contents. In orderfor
maintain alignment of the members during welding. such steels, such as ASTM A841, ASTMA913 or API
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. ZW, to achieve thestrength levels expected of the
more traditional construction steels, controlled rolling
STRUCTURAL WELDING and thermal processing (i.e., thermomechanical pro-
Any welded assembly requiring resistance to exter- cessing) are used in thesteel mill to finish the wrought
nally applied forces or moments but not intended to material. Weldability of the materials, as measured by
resist pressures above 103 kPa (15 psig) and requiring theirrelativelylowhardenability,and resistance to
resistance to externally applied forces or moments is hydrogen cracking, is excellent; low preheat is
considered a structure. required(orfrequentlynone)toproducehighyield
Structural welding has progressed from its original strength welds with excellent notch toughness and low
application in the building and bridge industries to a cracking sensitivity.
widespectrum of industrial uses.Fabrications as Whileweldabilityandyieldstrength are always
diverse as offshore oil and gas platforms, grain silos, considerations for any type of welded structure, notch
missile launchers, crane booms, and amusement rides toughness typically is a primary concern for dynami-
depend on welding for strength and integrity. There cally loaded structures. Dynamic loads can range from
are three essential phases to any engineering and con- low stress cyclically applied over a long periodof time
:STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 051bb78 L3T
504 STRUCTURALWELDING Welding Encyclopedia
to a single impact at high velocity. Bridges and off- However,evenfracturemechanicsmethodscannot

shore platforms exemplify the first category, making exactly replicate actual service conditions. The engi-
fatigue a primary consideration in design. In order to neer must still use judgement in assessing how much
minimize the probability of fracture under dynamic toughness is adequate for any given application.
stress and in the presence of a discontinuity, a speci-
fied notchtoughness is usuallyrequiredforbase Service Environments. Thebridgeandoffshore
metal, filler metal, deposited weld metal, base metal industrieshavelonghistorieswiththeirparticular
heat-affected zone (HAZ) or any combinationof these. structures and dynamic loading environments; there-
Base metal notch toughnessis a metallurgical prop- fore, the incidences of brittle fracture that occur now
ertyusuallyobtainedthroughcontrolofchemistry, in these applications are usually due to poor design
deoxidizing(killing),heattreatment(e.g.,normaliz- details or fabrication that allows severe stress concen-
ing), or thermomechanicalprocessing.Fillermetals tration
sites for cracking to initiate. Until the
usually rely on alloys, such as nickel, for enhancing Northridge, California, andGreatHanshin (Kobe),
toughness as demonstrated by the electrode manufac- Japan,earthquakes of 1994 and 1995, respectively,
turer's certification tests. steel moment frame buildings designed to resist seis-
For deposited weld metal and the heat-affected zone mic loading had a flawless track record of fracture-
(HAZ), a filler metal and base metal with a specified free survivability.However,these two earthquakes
notchtoughnessobviouslymustbeemployed,but severely undermined confidence in many assumptions
technique also becomes importantin ensuring that the aboutseismicstructuraldesign,materialproperties
fused joint has the required minimum toughness. This and testing methods.
is demonstrated inthe welding procedure specification Many welded connection and base metal fractures
(WPS) qualificationtest.Typicaltechniquesinclude wereobserved in buildings,thoughno fracture
low heat input and the use of small weld beads that resulted in structural collapse. As a result, extensive
temper or grain-refine previously deposited passes. research anddebate continues as to the best method of
Although the science of fracturemechanicshas resisting fracture in a seismic event. Earthquakes, rep-
introduced mathematical rigor to the subject of frac- resentingnature'spowerat its mostawesome,will
ture resistance, the Charpy-V notch test remains the continue to challengeall assumptions and predictions.
method of choice for assessing notch toughness. Typi- However, the performance of welded steel structures,
cally expressed as impact energy required for speci- while also not conforming to predicted behavior, have
men fracture at a specified test temperature, Charpy succeeded in their most vital requirement, the preser-
V-notch values ire qualitative
a assessment of vation of human life. In comparison to structures of
toughness. other materials that collapsed and did result in deaths,
It is important for designers to understandthe welded steel is still viewed by many as the optimum
relativenatureofthesevalues;whereas it canbe seismic material.
statedwithconfidencethatmaterial
a testedat
27 joules at -18C (20 ft-lbs at 0F) is tougher than a Material Selection. Though steel constitutes the bulk
material tested at27 joules at 21C (20 ft-lbs at 70"F), of structural metal used by industry, aluminum is the
itwouldnotbeappropriatetoassumethat the second most
popularstructural
metal,
primarily
27 joules at-18C (20 ft-lb at 0F) material could because of its low weight to strength ratio and resis-
successfully resist an impact of 27 joules at-18C tance to corrosion. The marine and aerospace indus-
(20 ft-lb at 0F) in actualservice.This is because triesinparticular find weldedaluminumtobean
several factors influence notch toughness which are attractive alternative to steel. Alloys such as 6061 are
not accurately reflected in the Charpy V-notch test. readily weldable and frequently used inthe as-welded
Temperature, loading rate, severityof stress risers and condition, even though the joint strength is less than
degree of restraintagainstplasticflow are allkey the base metal strength. When higher strengths as well
factors in degrading fracture resistance, and it is the as corrosion resistance are requirements, stainless steel
interaction of thesefactorsthat is critical to this competes with other metals such as nickel and tita-
property. nium. These metals have their own peculiar weldabil-
Fracturemechanicshasattempted to rationalize ity
requirementsthat
challengeengineers
and
these factors through the use of formulae and tests, fabricators. Other materials may be introduced into the
which are generally expensive and time-consuming. structuralmarkets of thefuture,posingfabricators

~ ~~~
Welding 505
with the challenge of weldingwithavarietyof ing within prescribed limits which could constrain a
processes. fabricatorfrommaximizingproductivity.It is fre-
WeldingProcesses. Process selection is, in fact, a quently more efficient to take the expense of qualify-
vital concernof fabricators faced with production and ing a W S in order to use parameters that are more
quality demandsas well as the need to control costs.In productive than permittedfor W S prequalification.
the past, the flexibility offered by the SMAW process Welder
Qualification. Whereas W S tests are
made it an overwhelming favorite for shop, field and intended to demonstrate metallurgical and mechanical
repair welding alike. Although the cellulosic and rutile compatibility between base metal and filler metal, per-
SMAW electrodes(e.g., E6010) havetraditionally sonnel qualificationtests the welders skill and compe-
been popular for their contribution to weldability, the tence to deposit sound weld metal. Qualified personnel
large quantity of diffusible hydrogen contained within are the first line of defense against welding defects.
theirdepositedweldmetal can promotehydrogen Fabricators can benefit by ensuring that their welding
cracking unless strictly controlled. personnel are well trainedfor their job function.
With the productivity improvements made in auto- Inspection. Inspectionoccursbefore,duringand
matic and semi-automatic processes,the popularity of after weldingto ensure conformancewithcontract
shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) has declined sig- requirements (e.g.,
drawings,specifications). The
nificantly. Shop weldingprovidesan ideal environ- owner of a structure may choose to select a verifica-
ment to make the gas metal arc welding (GMAW) and tion inspector, whois typically a third party agency, to
flux cored arc welding (FCAW) processes popularfor oversee a fabricators work.The fabricating company
welding sheet steels as well as structural thicknesses, willhave its owninspectorstosupervisequalifica-
3.2 mm (O. 125 in.)and up. tions,materialcertifications, joint fit-ups,electrode
Thick materials, on the order of 50 nun (2 in.) and andbasemetalpreparation,and all otheractivities
greater, are more efficientlyshop welded with the sub- required todeliver a quality product.
merged arc welding (SAW), electroslag
welding Inspection is sometimes an area much neglected by
(ESW) or electrogas welding (EGW)processes. The engineers, who should take into account the diversity
ESW process offersthe highest potential productivity, of available inspection methods. The engineer should
but extra care must be taken to avoidmid-welding ascertain prior to bid document release what kindsof
stoppages and excessive HAZ graingrowth.While weldsrequirewhichtype of inspections. vpically,
SMAW is still frequently usedin shop welding,its use critical connections subjectto tension require a nonde-
is declining for general production welding. structive testing (NDT) method suitable for probing
Field welding, withits exposure to wind and differ- below the weld surface. Radiographic testing (RT) and
ingaccessibilitysituations, limits the processtypes ultrasonic testing (UT) are the most popular methods
available to a contractor. Here again SMAW has been for this task, with RT competing with UT in the shop
the process of choice and remains popular; however, environment, but with UT being overwhelmingly pop-
the improved reliability, productivity and portability of ular in the field. Both methods can detect discontinui-
the FCAW-S process have made significant inroads ties within the volume of the weld,throughvisual
into SMAWs popularity. The self-shielded flux core indications on exposed film (RT) or acoustic reflec-
process is, in fact, very often selected in the building tions displayedon a screen(UT).
andmarineindustriesbecauseof its high arc duty For less critical connections, suchas joints in com-
cycle, high productivity and lower defect rejectionrate pression or shear,surfaceNDTmethods are less
than SMAW. Repairweldingremains the one area expensive and easier to implement. Magnetic particle
where SMAW will probably maintainits popularity. testing (MT) and liquid penetrant testing (IT)are the
ProcedureQualification. Qualification of welding preferred methods, though MT is limited tosteels with
procedure specifications ( W S ) and personnel (weld- a predominantly ferritic ormartensiticmicrostruc-
ers, welding operators and tack welders) is an essential tures. Only surface or near-surface discontinuities are
aspect of any fabricators quality assurance and qualityvisuallydetectable, but since it is usually surface
control (QNQC) program. Fabricators can economize defects that result in crack initiation, these NDT meth-
by promoting the use of prequalified WPSs whichare ods are adequate for non-tension welds.
exempt from mechanical testing when performed in Repair welding is necessitated when unacceptable
accordance withANSYAWS D1.l. This requires stay- discontinuities are discovered by the inspection. If the
Licensed by Information Handling Services ~~ ~~~~~ ~~~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~
;STD*AWSJWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b505Lbb80 898 m
506 STUB
EngineerofRecordrefusestoaccept the defective STUD ARC WELDING

weld, gouging out of the offending discontinuity is A nonstandard termfor ARC STUD WELDING.
required,followedbycleaning of thegougedarea,
rewelding and reinspection. However,it is always the STUD WELDING
Engineersprerogative to acceptaCode-defective A general tem forjoining a metal stud or similar
weldment if theintendeddesignapplication is not part to a workpiece. Welding may be accomplished by
adversely affected. Frequently, the prospects of suc- arc, resistance,fiction, orother process with or without
cessfully rewelding are poor, and this may influence extemal gas shielding. SeeSTANDARD WELDINGTERMS.
the Engineers decision. The threecommonstudweldingmethods are
Fitness-for-purposemethods are available that electric
arc,
capacitor-discharge,and
drawn-arc/
attempttocoupletheNDT-detecteddiscontinuities capacitor-discharge.All are adaptable toautomatic
withfracture-mechanicsanalysestoascertain crack and semiautomatic uses.See also ARC STUD WELDING
sensitivity. Since many codes, suchas ANSIIAWS and CAST IRON STUDDING.
Dl. 1, are primarily workmanship-based rather than STUDDING, Cast Iron
service load-based, requirements that are not complied Distributing steel studs along the face of cast iron
with in construction do not necessarily imply that a parts to be welded withthe shielded metalarc process
weld will not adequately resist their design loads. Itis so that the weld cannot pull away from the cast iron.A
up tothe Engineer to determine this acceptability if he steel electrodeis used.See CAST IRON STUDDING.
or she so chooses. Otherwise, Code requirements pre-
vail and potentially costly weld repair will be required. SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)
Cost and Structural Integrity. Economy is an impor- An arc welding process that uses an arc or arcs
tant factor in any engineering project, of course, but between a bare metal electrode or electrodes and the
the Engineers. primary concern is structural integrity weld pool. The arc and moltenmetal are shielded by a
and safety, reflected by adherence to quality require- blanket of granularflux on the workpieces. The pm-
ments. It is the harmonious marriage of these virtues cess is used without pressure and withfiller metal from
that make structural welding such a popular method of the electrode and sometimes from a supplemental
providing civilization with safe, affordable structures source (welding rod, flux, or metal granules). See
withinwhichwecanwork,playandenjoy life in STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also HOT WIRE
general. WELDING and SERIES SUBMERGED ARC WELDING.
In submerged arc welding, the arc is covered by a
References. Specificinformation on
structural flux. This flux plays a main role in that (1)the stability
welding is available from the American WeldingSoci- of the arc is dependent on the flux, (2) mechanical and
ety(AWS)in its document,ANSIIAWS Dl.1-96, chemical properties of the final weld deposit can be
Structural Welding Code-Steel. Computerized access controlled byflux, and (3) the quality of the weld may
to this documentis available on a compact disk, (CD- be affected bythe care and handlingof the flux.
ROM), and one version includes full-page images of Submergedarcwelding is aversatileproduction
the 25 AWS publications referenced in the document. welding process capable of making welds with cur-
rents up to 2000 amperes, ac or dc, using single or
STUB multiple wires or strips of filler m e d . Both a-c and
The short length of filler metal electrode, welding d-c power sources may be used on the same weld at
rod, or brazing rod that remains afer its use for weld- the same time.
ing or brazing. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. Principles of Operation
In submerged arc welding, the end of a continuous
STUBBING bare wire electrode is inserted into a mound of flux
A condition in a gas metal arc welding machine in that coversthe area or joint to be welded.An arc is ini-
which the electrode dips into the weld puddle and thentiated using one of six arc-starting methods (See ARC
is frozen in place, due to the lack of short circuit cur- STARTING METHODS). A wire-feeding mechanism then
rent. This produces a definite weld defect that may be begins to feed the electrode wire toward the joint at a
minimized by using
constant
a voltage
welding controlled rate, and the feeder is moved manually or
machine. automatically along the weldseam.Formachine or

MERGED
Encyclopedia
Welding ARC WELDING (SAW) 507
automatic welding,the work may be moved beneath a the predominant heat source. The flux blanket on the
stationary wire feeder. topsurface of theweldpoolpreventsatmospheric
Additional flux is continually fed in front of and gasesfromcontaminating the weldmetal,and dis-
around the electrode,andcontinuouslydistributed solves impurities in the base metal and electrode and
over the joint. Heat evolved by the electric arc pro- floats them to the surface. The flux can also add or
gressively melts some ofthe flux, the end of the wire, remove certain alloying elements to or fromthe weld
and the adjacent edges of the base metal, creating a metal.
pool of molten metal beneath a layer of liquid slag. As theweldingzoneprogressesalongtheseam,
The melted bath near the arc is in a highly turbulent the weld metal and thenthe liquid flux cool and solid-
S-. Ga+bubbles are quickly swept to the surface of ify, forming a weld bead and a protective slag shield
the,pl. The flux floats on the molten metal and com- over it.
pl&ely shields the weldingzone from the atmosphere. It is important that the slag is completely removed
The liquid flu.,may conduct some electric current before making another weld pass. The submerged arc
between the wirehnd base metal, but anelectric arc is process is illustrated in FigureS-27.
TO AUTOMATIC
WIRE FEED
TO WELDING TOFLUX .
POWER SOURCE ' HOPPER
BACKING
PLATE
Figure S-274chematic View of Submerged Arc Welding Process

508 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING
(SAW) Encyclopedia
Welding
Factors that determine whether to use submerged Automatic Welding. Automatic weldingis done with
arc welding include: equipment that performs the welding operation with-
(1) The chemicalcompositionandmechanical out requiring a welding operator to continually moni-
properties required of the final deposit torand adjust the controls. The expense ofself-
(2) Thickness of base metal to be welded regulating equipment can be justified in order to
achieve high production rates. Automatic submerged
(3) Joint accessibility
arc hardfacing of a caster roll is shown in Figure S-29.
(4) Position in which the weld is to be made
(5) Frequency or volume of weldingbetoperformed.
Submerged arc welding can be applied in three dif-
ferent modes: semiautomatic,automatic, and machine.
Each method requires that the work be positioned so
that the flux and the molten weld pool will remain in
place until they have solidified. Many types of fixtures
and positioning equipment are available or can be built
to satisfy this requirement.
SemiautomaticWelding. Semiautomatic welding is
done withahand-heldweldinggun,which delivers
both flux and the electrode. The electrode is driven by
a wire feeder. Flux may be supplied by a gravity hop-
per mounted on the gun or pressure fed through a hose.
This method features manual guidance using relatively
small diameter electrodes and moderate travel speeds.
The travel may be manual or driven by a small gun-
mounted driving motor.See Figure S-28.
Figure S-29-Automatic Dual-Head-Submerged
Arc Hardfacingof a Caster Roll
Photo courtesy of Lincoln Electric Company
Machine Welding. Machine welding employs equip-

ment that performs the complete welding operation.
However, it must be monitored by a weldingoperator
to position the work, start and stop welding, adjust the
controls, andset the speed of each weld.Atypical
machine weldingoperation is shown in Figure S-30.
Process Variations
Submerged arc welding lends itself to a wide vari-
ety of wire and fluxcombinations, single and multiple
electrode arrangements, and use of a-c or d-c welding
power sources.The process has been adapted to a wide
range of materials and thicknesses. Various multiple
arc configurations maybeused to control the weld
profile and increase the deposition rates over single
arc operation. Weld deposits may range from wide
beads with shallow penetration for surfacing, to nar-
row beads with deep penetration for thick joints. Part
of this versatility is derived from the use of a-c arcs.
Figure S-28-Hand-Held Submerged Arc Welding The principles which favor the use of ac to minimize
Gun. Note Flux on Plate. arcblowin single arc welding are oftenapplied in
P C Constant-Voltage Power Sources. D-C constant-
voltage power supplies range in size from 400 A to
1500 A models. The smaller suppliesmay also be used
for GMAW and FCAW. These power sources are used
for semiautomatic SAW at currents ranging from
about 300 to 600 A with 1.6, 2.0, and 2.4 mm (1/16,
5/64, and 3/32 in.)diameterelectrodes.Automatic
welding is done at currents ranging from 300 to over
lo00 A, with wire diameters generally ranging from
2.4 to 6.4 mm (3/32 to 1/4 in.). However, applications
for d-c welding at over lo00 A are limited because
severe arc blow may occurat such high current.
A constant-voltage power supply is self-regulating,
so it can be used witha constant-speed wire feeder.No
voltage or current sensing is required to maintain a sta-
ble arc, so very simple wire feed speed controls may
be used. The wire feed speed and wire diameter con-
trol the arc current, and the power supply controls the
arc voltage.
Constant-voltage d-c power supplies are the most
Figure S-3O"echanized Submerged Arc Weld commonly used supplies for submerged arc welding.
Made on a Vessel Head They work well for most applications where the arc
current does not exceed lo00 A, and may work with-
multiple arc welding to create a favorable arc deflec- out a problem at higher currents. The CV d-c power
tion. The current flowing in adjacent electrodes sets supply is the best choice for high-speed welding of
up interacting magneticfields that can either reinforce thin steel.
or diminish each other. Inthe space between the arcs, Constant-CurrentPowerSources. Constant-current
thesemagnetic fields are used to produce forces d-c power sources are available in both transformer-
that will deflect the arcs (andthus distribute the rectifier and motor-generator models, with rated out-
heat) in directions beneficial to the intended welding puts up to 1500 A. Some CC d-c power sources may
application. also be used for GTAW,SMAW, and air carbon arc
Equipment
cutting. With the exception of high-speed welding of
thin steel, CC d-c sources can be used for the same
The equipment required for submerged arc welding range of applications as CV d-c supplies.
consists of (1) a power supply, (2) an electrode deliv- Constant-current sources are not self-regulating, so
ery system, (3) a flux distribution system, (4) a travel they must be used with a voltage-sensing variable wire
arrangement,and (5) a process control
system. feed speed control. This type of control adjusts the
Optionalequipmentincludes flux recoverysystems wire feed speed in response tochanges in arc voltage.
and positioning or manipulating equipment. The voltage is monitored to maintain a constant arc
Power Sources length. With this system, the arc voltage is dependent
Several types of power suppliesare suitable for sub- upon the wire feed speed and the wire diameter.
merged arc welding. A d-c power supply may provide Combination Power Sources. Power sourcesthat can
a constant voltage (CV), constant current (CC), or a be switched between CV and CC modes are also avail-
selectable CV/CC output. A-Cpowersuppliesmay able. Sources rated at up to 1500 A are available, but
provide either a CC output or a CV square wave out- machines rated at 650 A or less are much more com-
put. Because SAW is generally a high-current process mon. The value of these power sources lies in their
withhigh-duty cycle, a powersupply capable of versatility, since they can be used for
SMAW, GMAW,
providinghighamperage at 100% duty cycle is GTAW, FCAW, air carbon arc cutting, and stud weld-
recommended. ing, in addition to submerged arc welding.
ISTD-AWS JWE-ENGL I1977 m 07842b5 05Lbb84 4 3 3 m
WELDING 510
ARCSUBMERGED Welding Encyclopedia
Alternating-Current
PowerSources. Alternating- row-gap welding, and applications where arc blow is a
current welding powersources rated for 800 to 1500 A problem.
at 100% duty cycle are available. If higher amperages Controls
are required,thesemachinescanbeconnectedin The state-of-the-art wire feeders usedfor automatic
parallel. SAW, such as the one showninFigure S-32, have
Conventional a-c power sources are the constant- microprocessor-based digital controls. These controls
current type. The output of these machines drops to have feed-back loops interfaced with the power supply
zero with each polarity reversal,so a high opencircuit and wire feed motor, to maintain the welding voltage
voltage (greater than 80 V) is required to ensure re- and wire speed at preset values. The great advantage
ignition of the arc. Evenat that high open circuit volt- of digitd controls is their precise control of the weld-
age, arc re-ignition problems are sometimes encoun- ing process. The disadvantages are that the controls
tered
with
certain
fluxes.
Becausethese
power are not compatible withsome power supplies, and they
supplies are the constant-current type, the speed con- are not as rugged as most analog controls.
trols must be voltage sensing, variable wire feed type.
The constant-voltage square wave a-c power source
is a relatively new type. Both the output current and
the outputvoltagefromthesesuppliesapproximate
square waves. Because polarity reversals are instanta-
neous with square wave supplies, as is shown in Fig-
ure S-3 1, arc re-ignition problemsare not as severe as
thoseencounteredwithconventionala-csupplies.
Hence,somefluxesthat do notworkwithconven-
tional a-c sources will work with square wave a-c sup-
plies.Relativelysimpleconstantwirefeedspeed
controls can be used with square wave supplies, since
they supply constant voltage.
Figure S-32-Digital Control for Two-Wire

Submerged Arc Welder
Weld Heads and Torches

A submerged arc welding head comprises the wire
Figure S-31-Square Wave AC Waveforms feed motor and feedroll assembly, the torch assembly
and contact tip, and accessoriesfor mounting and posi-
tioning the head. A flux nozzle is usually mounted on
The most common uses of a-c power for SAW are the weld head, to depositthe flux either slightly ahead
high-current applications, multiwire applications, nar- of or concentric withthe welding wire.

S T D . A W S JWE-ENGL 1,997 m 0 7 w 0~5 w m 3 7 m
~
SUBMERGED
Encyclopedia
Welding ARC WELDING (SAW) 511
Wire feed motors are typically heavy duty, perma- Accessory Equipment
nentmagnet-typemotorswithanintegralreducing Accessoryequipmentcommonlyusedwith SAW
gearbox, feeding wire at speeds in the range of 8 to includes travel equipment, flux recovery units,fixtur-
235 mm/sec (20 to 550 inhin.). ing equipment, and positioning equipment.
The feed roll assembly may have one drive andone
Travel Equipment. Weld head travel in SAW is gen-
idler roll, twodrive rolls, or four drive rolls. Four-roll
erally provided by a tractor-type; carriage,side a beam
drive assemblies are reported to provide positive feed-
carriage, or a manipulator.
ing with the least wire slippage. Feed rolls may be
knurled-V or smooth-V type; knurled-V rolls are the A tractor-type carriage, as shown in Figure S-33,
most common. In some cases, wherethe wire is being provides travel along straight or gently curved weld
pushed through a conduit, smoother feeding will result joints by riding on tracks set up alongthe joint, or by
if smooth V-groove rollsare used. riding on the workpieceitself.Tracklessunitsuse
The torchassemblyguides the wire through the guide wheels or some other type of mechanical joint-
contact tip to the weld zone, andalso delivers welding tracking device. The weld head, control, wire supply,
power to the wireat the contact tip. and flux hopper are generally mounted on the tractor.
Specialequipment is needed for narrowgroove Maximum travel speedspossiblewithtractors are
about 45 m m / s (100 i n h i n ) . Tractors find the most
(SAW-NG)and strip electrode SAW. Parallelwire
SAW uses special feed roll and torch assemblies that use in field welding where theirrelative portability is
providepositive feeding of two wiresthrough one necessary becausethe workpiece cannot be moved.
torch body..Strip electrode SAW also requires a special
feed roll and torch assembly. Torches that feed strip
are generally adjustableto accommodate several sizes
of strip, typically 30, 45, 60, 90 mm (1.2, 1.8, 2.4,
3.5 in.) wide, and up to 1 mm thick (0.04 in.) thick.
The assemblies for parallel wire and strip electrode
SAW are generally designedfor mounting on standard
welding heads withlittle or no modification.
The special SAW-NG equipment has long narrow
torchassembliesandlongnarrow flux nozzles to
deliver the flux and wireto the bottom of deep narrow
grooves. These systems mayalso have some meansto
bend the wire to assure good side wall fusion in the
narrowgroove. Simple SAW-NGadaptorscan be
mounted directly on standard weld heads; more com-
plexsystems are available as completeweldhead
assemblies.
For semiautomatic SAW, the weld head may be a
GMAW-type wire feeder that pushes the electrode
through a conduit to the torch assembly. Such wire
feeders accept anyof the drive roll systems previously ~~
described, and are generally capable of feeding wire Figure S-33-Submerged Arc Welding Head,
Control, Wire Supply, and Flux Hopper Mounted
up to 2.4 mm (3/32 in.) in diameter at wire feed speeds on a Tractor Type Carriage
over 235 m m / s (550 in./min). The torch-conduit
assembly allows for welding up to 4.6 m (15 ft)from
the wire feeder. Flux feed is provided eitherby a small Side beam carriages provide linear travel only, and
1.8 kg (4 lb) gravity feed flux hopper mounted on the are capable of travelspeedsin excess of 85 m m / s
torch, or from a remote flux tank that uses compressed(200 in./min). Because side beam systems are gener-
air to convey the flux to the weld zone. In both cases, ally fixed and the workpiece must be brought to the
the flux is delivered throughthe torch surroundingthe weld station, their greatest use is for shop welding.
welding wire. A typical semiautomatic SAW system is The weld head, wire, flux hopper, and sometimes the
shown inFigure S-28. control are mounted on the carriage.
STD*AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 .m 07842b5 052bbBb 20b m
512 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW) Encyclopedia
Welding
Manipulators are similar to side beams, in that they increase operating efficiency and
eliminate end-of-coil
are fixed and the workpiece must be brought to the waste.
welder.Manipulators are moreversatilethan side Submerged arc welding electrodesvary in size from
beams in that theyare capable of linear motion in three 1.6 to 6.4 mm (1116 to 1/4in.) in diameter. General
axes. The weld head, wire, flux hopper, and often the guidelines for amperage range selection are presented
control and operator ride onthe manipulator. in Table S-7.The wide amperage rangesare typical of
Flux Recovery Units submerged arc welding. Refer to ANSI /AWSA5.17,
Flux recovery units are frequently used to maxi- Specificationfor Carbon Steel Electrodes and Fluxes
mize flux utilization and minimize manual clean-up. for Submerged Arc Welding.
Flux recovery units may do any combination of the
following: Table S-7
(1)Remove unfused flux and fused slag behind the Submerged Arc Wires-
weld head Diameters vs. Current Range
(2) Screen out fusedslagand other oversized Wire Diameter
material Current Range
(3) Remove magnetic particles mm in. (Amperes)
(4)Remove fines
(5)Recirculate flux backto a hopperfor reuse 2.3 5/64 200-500
(6)Heat fluxin a hopper to keep it dry. 3/32 2.4 300-600
Pneumatic flux feeding is commonly used in semi- 3.2 1/S 300-s00
automatic SAW and frequently in automatic SAW. 4.0 5/32 400-900
4.8 3/16 500-1200
Positioners and Fixtures.Because SAW is limited to 5.6 7/32 600-1300
flat position welding, positioners and relatedfixturing 6.4 114 6 0 - 1 600
equipment find widespread use. Commonly used posi-
tioners include:
(1) Head-tailstock units, turning rolls, or both, to Welding Fluxes
rotate cylindrical parts under the weld head
Fluxes are granular mineralcompoundsmixed
(2) Tilting-rotating positioners, to bring the area to
according to variousformulations.Based on the
be welded on irregular parts into the flat position
choice of several manufacturing methods,
the different
Custom fixturing often includes positioners to aid in
typesof fluxes are fused, bonded (also known as
setting up,positioning,andholdingtheworkpiece.
agglomerated), and mechanically mixed.
Turnkey systems are available.
Materials Fused Fluxes. The raw materials of a fused
flux are
Submerged arc welding is used to fabricate most mixed dry and meltedinan electric furnace.After
materials in general use, from plain carbon steelsto melting, the furnace charge is pouredandcooled.
exotic nickel-base alloys. Most steels and alloys are Cooling may be accomplished by shooting the melt
readilyweldablewithcommerciallyavailablewires through a stream of water or by pouring it onto large
and fluxes. chill blocks. The result is a productwithaglassy
appearance which is then crushed, screened for size,
Electrodes and packaged.
Submerged arc electrodesproducewelddeposits Fused fluxes have the following advantages:
matching carbon steel, low- alloy steel, high-carbon
(1) Good chemical homogeneity
steels,specialalloysteels,stainlesssteels,nickel
alloys, and special alloys for surfacing applications. (2) Easy removal of the fines without affecting the
These electrodesare supplied as bare solid wire and as flux composition
compositemetal-coredelectrodes(similar to flux- (3) Normally will not absorb moisture, which sim-
cored arc welding electrodes). plifies handling, storage, and welding problems
Electrodes are normally packaged ascoils or drums (4)Readily recycled through feeding and recovery
ranging in weight from 11 to 454 kg (25 to 1000 lb). systems without significant change in particle size or
Large electrode packagesare economical because they composition.

S T D - A W S JWE-ENGL 1997 m 0 7 ~ 4 2 o 7 m
1 ~ ~ b b 81,42
Welding
SUBMERGED
Encyclopedia ARC WELDING (SAW) 513
Their main disadvantage is the difficulty of adding Fluxes are identified as chemically basic, chemi-
deoxidizers and ferro-alloys to them during manufac- callyacid, or chemicallyneutral. The basicoracid
ture without segregation or extremely high losses. The quality of a flux is related to the ease with which the
high temperatures needed to melt the raw ingredients component oxides of the flux ingredients dissociate
limit the rangeof flux compositions. into a metallic ion with a positive charge and a nega-
Bonded Fluxes. To manufacture a bonded flux, the tively charged oxygen ion. Chemically basic fluxes are
raw materials are powdered, dry mixed, and bonded normally high in Mg0 or Cao, while chemically acid
with either potassiumsilicate,sodiumsilicate, or a fluxes are normally high in Sioz.
mixture of the two. After bonding,the wet mix is pel- The basicity or acidity of a flux is often referred to
letized and baked at a temperature lower than that used as the ratio of C a 0 or Mg0 to SiO2. Fluxes having
for fusedfluxes. The pellets are thenbrokenup, ratios greater than one are called chemically basic.
screened to size,andpackaged. The advantages of Ratios near unity are chemically neutral. Those less
bonded fluxes include the following: than unity are chemically acidic.
(I) Easy addition of deoxidizers and alloying ele-
Welding of Carbon Steel Materials
ments; alloying elements are added as ferro-alloys or
as elementalmetals to producealloysnotreadily Carbon steel materials are usually welded withelec-
available as electrodes,ortoadjustweldmetal trode andfluxcombinationsclassifiedunder AWS
compositions Standard A5.17, Carbon Steel Electrodes and Fluxes
(2) Usable with thicker layer of flux when welding for SubmergedArcWelding. Qpical steelsthat are
(3) Color identification weldedwiththeseconsumables are listed in A N S I /
The disadvantages are the following: AWS D l .I ,Structural Welding Code-Steel, as Group I
(1) Tendency for some fluxes to absorb moisture in and II classifications. These steels includeASTM
a manner similar to coatings on some shielded metal A106 Grade B, A36, A516 Grades 55 to 70, A537
arc electrodes Class 1, A570 Grades 30 to 50, A P I 5LX Grades X42
(2) Possible gas evolution fromthe molten slag to X52, and ABS Grades A to EH36. Thesesteels are
(3) Possible changein flux compositiondue to seg- usuallysuppliedin the as-rolled or the normalized
regation or removal of fine mesh particles. condition.
Mechanically Mixed Fluxes. To produce a mechani- Table S-8 lists minimum mechanical properties for
cally mixed flux, two or more fused or bonded fluxes various wirdflux combinations. When selectingSAW
are mixed in any ratio necessary to yield the desired consumables, it is required that both the minimum ten-
results.The advantage of mechanically mixed fluxes is sile and minimum yield strengths as well as the notch
thatseveralcommercialfluxesmaybemixed for toughnessproperties(whenrequired) of theweld
highly critical or proprietary welding operations. The metal be matched with the base metal. AWS FiZler
following are disadvantages of mechanicallymixed Metal Comparison Charts show the commercial prod-
fluxes: ucts that meet the AWS wire-flux classifications listed
(1) Segregation of the combinedfluxes during ship- in Table S-8. In special applications, particularly car-
ment, storage, and handling bonsteelweldmentssubjecttolongtermpostweld
(2) Segregation occurringin the feeding and recov- heat treatment, low-alloy submergedarc welding con-
ery systems during the welding operation sumablescovered byANSYAWSA5.23, Specijca-
(3) Inconsistencyin the combined flux from mix to tions for Low Alloy Steel Electrodes and Fluxes, may
mix be required to meettensileproperties of the base
Flux Usage. Inapplicationswherelowhydrogen metal. Table S-9 shows the classification system for
considerations are important, fluxes mustbe kept dry. flux-electrode combinations. Fluxes are classified on
Fused fluxes do not contain chemically bonded H20, the basis of weld metal properties obtained when used
but the particles hold surface moisture. Bonded fluxes with specific electrodes.
contain chemically bondedHzO,and may hold surface ANSYAWS A5.23 lists welding consumables used
moisture as well. Bonded fluxes need to be protected with carbon steel base materialsto meet special notch
in the same manner as low-hydrogen shielded metal toughness requirements. Actual mechanical properties
arc electrodes.The user should follow the directionsof obtained may significantlyexceedminimumvalues
the flux manufacturerfor specific baking procedures. shown.

Licensed
~- by Information Handling Services ~~ ~~ ~
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 051bb88 O89 R
514 SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW) Welding Encyclopedia
Table S-8
Minimum Mechanical Properties with Carbon Steel Consumables Covered by A 5 1 7
AWS
Tensile
Strength
Strength
Yield Yo Charpy Impact Values
AWS
Classification
Condition MPa ksi MPa ksi in 2 inches (Joules) (Ft-Lbs) Test Temp.
~~ ~ ~~ ~
F6A2-EL 12 33 AW 60 27414 22 48 1 20 -29C (-20F)

F6A6-EL12
-51C33 20AW60 27 414 22 48 1 (-6OOF)
12F7A2-EL 400 AW70 483 (-20F)

-29C 20 58 27 22
22 48F6P4-EM12K
1 33 SR 60 414 40C (40F)
F7A2-EM12K AW70 483 400 5827 22 20 -29C (-20F)
27 22MA6-EM12K
58 400 AW70 483 20 -51C ( - 6 O O F )
14F7A2-EH AW 70 483 (-20F)
-29C
400 20 58 27 22
1. Actual mechanical properties obtained may significantly exceed minimum values shown.
2. 'Qpe of welding flux (manufacture) greatly influencesCVN impact propertiesof the weld metal.
3. Caution shouldbe used when these weld deposits are stress relieved, they may fall below base metal strengths.
4. Test data on25.4 mm (1 in.) thick plate (ASTh4A36 plate).
5. Stress relieved condition:620C (1 150F)for 1 hour.
The type of weldingflux(manufacture)greatly (5) Duplex or ferritic-austenitic.

influences CVN impact properties of the weld metal. Filler metals for fabricating these steels are speci-
Caution should be used when these weld depositsare fied in ANSYAWS A5.9, Specificationfor Corrosion-
stressrelieved;theymay fall belowbasemetal Resisting Chromium and Chromium-Nickel Steel Bare
strengths. and Composite Metal Cored andStrandedWelding
Special Service Conditions.Some carbon steel com- Electrodes and WeldingRods.
ponents that are submerged arc weldedwill be used in Not all stainless steels are readily weldable by the
special service conditions where the hardness of the submerged arc process, and some require that special
weldmetal,heat-affectedzone,and plate mustnot considerationsbefollowed.Instainlesssteelsand
exceedaspecifiedmaximumlevel.This is usually nickel base alloys the main advantage of submerged
required in the oil industry, wherethe component will arcwelding(itshighdepositionrates),sometimes
be exposed to wet hydrogen sulfide gas. It has been becomes a disadvantage.As deposition rates increase,
found that if the hardness is kept below a prescribed
so does heat input, and in stainless alloys high heat
level, depending on the type of material and the ser-
inputs may cause deleterious microstructural changes.
vice conditions, stress corrosion cracking will gener-
ally not occur. Comments abouteach class of stainlesssteels and per-
tinent welding considerationsare presented in Volume
Stalnless Steels 4 of the Welding Handbook, 8th Edition, published by
Stainless steelsare capable of meeting a wide range the American Welding Society, Miami, Florida.
of properties, such as corrosion resistance, strength at
elevatedtemperatures,andtoughnessatcryogenic Stainless Steel Electrodes and Fluxes
temperatures, and are selected for a broad range of ANSYAWS A5.9 covers filler metals for welding
applications. corrosion or heat resisting chromium and chromium-
The stainless steels most widely used for welded nickelsteels. This specificationincludes steels in
industrial applicationsare classified as follows: whichchromiumexceeds 4% andnickel does not
(1) Martensitic exceed 50% of the composition. Solid wire electrodes
(2) Ferritic are classified on the basisof their chemical composi-
(3) Austenitic tion, as manufactured, and composite electrodeson the
(4) Precipitation hardening basis of the chemical analysis of a fused sample.The

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b505Lbb89 TL5 m
Welding Encyclopedia SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW) 515
Table S-9
Classification System for Flux-Electrode Combination
See AWS PublicationA5.17 (Latest Edition) for Additional Information
Indicates flux
Indicates the minimum tensile strength [in increments 69 of MPa (10 O00 psi)] of weld
metal made in accordance with the welding conditions given, and usingflux thebeing clas-
sified and the specific classification
of electrode indicated.
Designates the condition of heat treatment in which the tests were conducted:
A for as-
welded and Pfor postweld heat treated. The time and temperature of the PWHT are as
specified.
Indicates the lowest temperature at which the impact strength of the weld metal referred to
above meetsor exceeds 27 J (20 ft-lb).
E indicates a solid electrode;
EC indicates a composite electrode.
E X X X - E X X X
I Classification of the electrode used in producing the weld referred to above.
Examples
F7A6-EM12K is a complete designation. It refers toflux
a that will produce weld metal which, in the as-welded condi-
tion, will have a tensile strength no lower than
480 MPa (70 O00 psi) and Charpy V-notch impact strength of at least
27 J
(20 ft-lb) at-51OC (40F)when produced with an EM12K electrode under the conditions called for in this specification.
FVA4-EC1 is a complete designation for a flux when the trade name of the electrode used in classification is as
indicated
well. It refers to
a flux that will produce weld metal with that electrode, which in the as-welded condition, will have a
sile strength no lower than480 MPa (70 O00 psi) and Charpy V-notch energy of at least
27 J (20ft-lb) at40C (-40F)
under the conditions called for this
in specification.
American Iron andSteel Institute numbering systemis General Process Applications

used for these alloys. SAW is used in a wide range of industrial applica-
Fluxes for stainless steel SAW are proprietary. tions. High weld quality, high deposition rates, deep
Manufacturers of fluxes should be consulted for rec- penetration,andadaptability to automaticoperation
ommendations. Submerged arc fluxes are available in make the processsuitable for fabricationof large
fused and bonded types for welding stainless alloys. weldments. It is used extensively in pressure vessel
Some bonded fluxes contain chromium,
nickel, fabrication, ship and bargebuilding, railroad car fabri-
molybdenum, or niobiumtoreplaceelements lost cation,pipemanufacturing,and the fabrication of
across the arc. The newer chemically basicfluxes have structuralmemberswherelongwelds are required.
shown more consistent element recovery than earlier, Automatic SAW installations manufacture mass pro-
less basic or acidtypes.Performance of fluxes for duced assembliesjoined with repetitive short welds.
stainless steel weldments may depend on the users The process is used to weld materials rangingfrom
care in flux handling and reuse. Over-recycled fluxes 1.5 mm (0.06 in.) sheet to thick, heavy weldments.
will become depleted in compensating elements. ReferSubmerged arc welding is not suitable for all metals
to the manufacturersrecommendation for handling and alloys. It is widely used on carbon steels, low-
and recycling of flux. alloy structural steels,andstainlesssteels.It joins

(SAW)
516 SUBMERGED
WELDING ARC Welding Encyclopedia
somehigh-strength structural
steels,
high-carbon Travel Speed.With any combination of welding cur-
steels, and nickel alloys. However, better joint proper- rentandvoltage, the effects of changingthetravel
ties are obtained with these metals by using a process speed conformto a general pattern.If the travel speed
with lower heat input to the base metal, such as gas is increased, (1) power or heatinput per unit length of
metal arc welding. weld is decreased, and (2) less filler metal is applied
Submerged arc welding is used to weld butt joints per unit length of weld, resulting in less weld rein-
in the flat position, fillet welds in the flat and horizon- forcement. Thus, the weld bead becomes smaller.
talpositions,and for surfacing in the flat position.
Electrode Size. Electrode size affects the weld bead
With special tooling and fixturing, lap and butt joints
shape and the depth of penetration at a fixed current.
can be welded inthe horizontal position.
Smalldiameterelectrodes are usedwithsemiauto-
Operating Variables matic equipment to provide flexibility of movement.
Control of the operating variablesin submerged arc They are alsoused for multipleelectrode,parallel
welding is essential if high production rates and welds power equipment.Where poor fit-up is encountered, a
of good quality are to be obtained. These variables, larger diameter electrode is better than small ones for
intheirapproximateorderofimportance, are the bridging large root openings.
following: Electrode size also influences the deposition rate.
(1) Welding amperage At any given current, a small diameter electrode will
(2) Type of flux and particle distribution have a higher current density and.a higher deposition
(3) Welding voltage rate than a larger electrode. However, a larger diameter
(4) Welding speed electrode can carry more current than a smaller elec-
(5) Electrode size trode, and produce a higher deposition rate at higher
(6) Electrode extension amperage.
(7) Type of electrode
(8) Width and depthof the layer of flux. Electrode Extension
WeldingAmperage. Weldingcurrent is the most In developing a procedure, an electrode extension

influentialvariablebecause it controls the rateat of approximately eight times the electrode diameter
which the electrode is melted and thereforethe deposi- is a goodstartingpoint.Atcurrentdensities above
tion rate, the depth of penetration, and the amount of 125 Nmm2 (80 O00 Nin.*), electrode extension
base metal melted.If the current is too high at a given becomes an important variable. At high current densi-
travel speed,the depth of fusionor penetration willbe ties, resistance heating of the electrode between the
too great. The resulting weld may tend to melt through contact tube and the arc increases the electrode melt-
the metalbeing joined. Highcurrent also leadsto ing rate. The longer the extension, the greater is the
waste of electrodes in theform of excessive reinforce- amount of heating andthe higher the melting rate. This
ment. This over welding increases weld shrinkage and resistance heating is commonlyreferredto as I2 R
causesgreaterdistortion. If the current is toolow, heating.
inadequatepenetration or incompletefusionmay Deposition rates can be increased from 25% to 50%
result. by using long electrode extensions with no change in
Welding Voltage. Welding voltage adjustment varies
welding amperage.With single electrodeautomatic
SAW, the deposition rate mayapproachthat of the
the length of the arc between the electrode and the
two-wire method withtwo power sources.
molten weld metal. If the overall voltageis increased,
the arc length increases; ifthe voltage is decreased, the Width and Depthof Flux. The width and depth of the
arc length decreases. layer of granular flux influence the appearance and
Voltage has little effect on the electrode deposition soundness of the finished weld as wellas the welding
rate,which is determinedbywelding current, The action. If the granular layer is too deep, the arc is too
voltage principally determines the shape of the weld confined and the weldwillhavearough,rope-like
bead cross section and its external
appearance. appearance. The gases generated during welding can-
Increasing the welding voltage with constant current not readily escape, andthe surface of the molten weld
and travel speed 'will: metalbecomesirregularlydistorted.If the granular
(1) Produce aflatter and wider bead layer is too shallow, the arc will not be entirely sub-
(2) Increase flux consumption. merged in flux. Flashing and spatteringwill occur,The

,STD.AWS JWE-ENGL L997 07842h5 O5LhhSL h73 W
Encyclopedia
Welding (SAW) WELDING ARCSUBMERGED 517
weldwillhaveapoorappearance,anditmaybe the electrode into the puddle and applying the welding
porous. current. This method is regularlyused in multiple-
An optimumdepth of flux exists for anysetof electrode welding. When two or more welding elec-
welding conditions. This depth can be established by trodes are separately fed into one weld pool,it is only
slowly increasing the flowof flux until the welding arc necessary to start one electrode to establish the weld
is submerged and flashingno longer occurs. pool. Then theother electrodes will arc when theyare
Inclination of Work fed intothe molten pool.
The inclination of theworkduringweldingcan Wire Retract Start. Retract arc starting is one of the
affect the weldbeadshape.Mostsubmerged arc mostpositivemethods,buttheweldingequipment
welding is done in the flat position, However, it is must be designed for it. It is cost effective when fre-
sometimesnecessary or desirable toweldwiththe quent starts have to be made and when starting loca-
workslightlyinclined so that the weldprogresses tion is important.
downhill or uphill. For example, in high-speed weld- Normal practiceis to movethe electrode down until
ing of 1.3 mm (0.050 in.) steel sheet, a better weld it lightly contacts the workpiece. Then the end of the
results when the work is inclined 15 to 18" and the electrode is covered withflux, and the welding current
welding is donedownhill.Penetration is less than is turned on. The low voltage between the electrode
when the sheet is in a horizontal plane. The angle of and the work signals the wire feeder to withdraw the
inclinationshould be decreased as platethickness tip of the electrode fromthe surface of the workpiece.
increases toincrease penetration. An arc is initiated as this action takes place.As the arc
Arc Starting Methods voltage builds up,the wire feed motor quickly reverses
The methodused to start the arc in aparticular direction to feed the welding electrode towardthe sur-
application will depend on such factors as the time face of the workpiece. Electrode feed speeds up until
required for startingrelative to the totalsetup and the electrode melting rate and arc voltage stabilize at
welding time, the numberof pieces to be welded, and the preset value.
the importance of starting the weld at aparticular If the workpiece is light gauge metal,the electrode
place on the joint. There are six methodsof starting: should make only light contact, consistent with good
electrical contact. The welding head shouldbe rigidly
Steel Wool Ball Start. A tightly rolled ball of steel mounted. The end of the electrode must be clean and
wool about 10 mm (3/8 in.) in diameter is positioned free of fused slag. Wirecutters are used to snip off the
in the joint directly beneath the welding electrode. The tip of the electrode (preferablyto a point) before each
welding electrode is lowered onto the steel wool until weld is made. The electrode size should be chosen to
the ball is compressed to approximately one-half its permit operation with high current densities since they
original height.The flux is then applied and welding is provide more reliable starting.
started. The steel wool ballcreates a current pathto the
work, butit melts rapidly while creating an arc. High-Frequency Start. This method requires special
equipment but requires no manipulation by the opera-
Sharp Wire Start. The welding electrode, protruding tor other than closing a starting switch. It is particu-
from the contact tube, is snipped with wire cutters to larlyuseful as astartingmethod for intermittent
form a sharp, chisel-like configuration at the end of the welding, or for welding at high production rates where
wire. The electrode is thenlowereduntil the end many starts are required.
slightly contacts the workpiece. The flux is applied When the welding electrode approaches to within
andwelding is commenced. The chisel pointmelts approximately 1.6mm (1/16 in.) above the workpiece,
away rapidly to start the arc. a high-frequency, high-voltage generator in the weld-
ScratchStart. Theweldingelectrode is lowered ing circuit causes a spark jump to from theelectrode to
until it is in light contact with the work, andthe flux is the workpiece. This spark produces an ionized path
applied. Next, the carriage is started and the welding through which the welding current can flow, and the
current is immediately applied. The motionof the car- welding action begins.
riage prevents the weldingwirefrom fusing to the Run-on and Run-OffTabs
workpiece. When a weldstarts and finishes at the abrupt endof
Molten Flux Start. Whenever there is a molten pud- a workpiece,it is necessary to provide a means of sup-
dle of flux, an arc may be started by simply inserting porting the weld metal, flux, and molten slag so that

~
~~
spillagedoesnotoccur.Tabs are themethodmost restoring the clad section in a fashion similar tojoin-
commonly used. An arc is started on a run-on tabthat ing two clad plates.
is tack welded to the start end of the weld, and it is Safety Recommendations
stopped on a run-off tab at the finish end of the weld. For detailed safety information, refer to the equip-
The tabs are large enough so that the weld metalon the mentmanufacturersinstructionsand the latest edi-
work itself is properly shaped at the ends of the joint.tions of ANSI 249. l,. Safety in Welding and Cutting.
When the tabsare prepared, the groove should be sim- For mandatory federal safety regulations established
ilar to the one being welded, and the tabs must be wide by the U.S. Labor Departments Occupational Safety
enough to supportthe flux. and Health Administration, refer to the latest editionof
A variationof the tab is a copper dam that holds the OSHA Standards, Code of Federal Regulations, Title
flux, which in turn supportsthe weld metal at the ends 29 Part 1910, availablefrom the Superintendentof
of the joint. Documents, U.S. PrintingOffice,Washington,DC
Slag Removal 20402.
Onmultiplepasswelds,slagremovalbecomes Operatorsshouldalways wear eye protectionto
importantbecause no subsequentpassesshouldbe guard against weld spatter, arc glare exposure, andfly-
made where slagis present. The factors thatare partic- ing slag particles.
ularly importantin dealing with slag removalare bead Power supplies and accessory equipment such as
size and bead shape. Smaller beads tend to cool more wirefeedersshouldbeproperlygrounded.Welding
quickly and slag adherenceis reduced. Flat to slightly cables should be kept ingoodcondition.
convex beads that blend evenly with the base metal Certainelements,whenvaporized, can be poten-
make slag removal much easier than very concave or tiallydangerous.Alloysteels,stainlesssteels,and
undercut beads. Forthis reason, a decrease in voltage nickelalloyscontainsuchelements as chromium,
will improve slag removal in narrow grooves. On the cobalt,manganese,nickel,andvanadium.Material
frst pass of two-passwelds,aconcavebeadthat safety data sheets should be obtainedfrom the manu-
blends smoothly to the top edges of the joint is much facturers to determine the content of the potentially
easier to clean than a convex bead that does not blend dangerous elements and their threshold limit values.
well. The submerged arc process greatly limits exposure
Weld Surfacing of operators to air contaminants because few welding
The term sut$acing, as used withSAW, refers to the fumes escape from the flux overburden.Adequate
application by welding of a layer of material to a sur- ventilation will generally keep the welding area clear
face toobtaindesiredpropertiesordimensions, as of airborne hazards.The type of fan, exhaust, or other
opposed to making joint.
a air movement system will be dependent on the work
The SAW process is often used to surface carbon area to be cleared. The various manufacturers of such
steel withstainless steel as an economical way to equipment should be consulted for a particular appli-
obtain a corrosion resistant layer on a steel workpiece.cation.
To end up with an overlay. of specified composition, Basicinformationabout this equipmentcanbe
the filler metal must be enriched sufficiently to com- found in Chapter 10 of the Welding Handbook, Vol-
pensate for dilution. ume l (8th Edition), published by
the American Weld-
ing Society, M i a m i , Florida.
Clad Steels
Stainless clad carbon- or low-alloy steel plates are SUBSTRATE
sometimes welded with stainlessfiller metal through- Any material to which a t h e m 1 spray deposit is
out the whole plate thickness, but usually carbon or applied. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
low-alloy steel filler metal is used on the unclad side,
followed by removal of a portion of the cladding and SUCK-BACK
completion of the joint with stainlessfiller metal. Anonstandardterm for UNDERFILL at the root
Inexperienced fabricators shouldconsult the manu- surface.
facturer of thecladsteel for recommendations of
detailed welding procedures and subsequent postweld SULFUR
heat treatments. Joining clad steelto unclad steel sec- (Chemical symbol:S). A pale yellow, odorless, brit-
tionsnormallyrequiresmakingthebuttweldand tle, nonmetallic element found underground either in

S T D - A W S ,JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 05Lbb93 446
pedia Welding 519
the solid state or as molten sulfur. Sulfuris insoluble in attention be given to cleaningbeforeapplyingheat
water but is soluble in carbon disulfide. from any source. Unless provensafe, all foreign mate-
Sulfur is an impurity which appears in steel. It is rialmust be consideredharmfulinthepresenceof
harmful because it produces hot shortness, althoughit heat.
is frequentlyaddedtostainlesssteel to improve
machining qualities.Sulfur is also used in gunpowder, SURFACE ROUGHENING
in the vulcanization of rubberand in industrial chemi- A group of methods for producing irregularities on
cals.Atomicweight,87.63;meltingpoint,900C a surjace. See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See also
(1652F); specific gravity,2.64. DOVETAILING,GROOVE AND ROTARYROUGHENING,
SULFURIC ACID(HnSOa)
ROTARY
ROUGHENING,ROUGH
THREADING, and
THREADING AND KNURLJNG, Thermal Spraying.
Vitriol, or oil of vitriol. Sulfuric acidis used to sen-
sitizestainlesssteeland is also used as anetching
SURFACE TENSION
agent in metallography.
A phenomenon which causes liquids in contact with
SURFACE CHECKING their own vapors to reduce to minimum area,as if cov-
Aconditionconsisting of shallowsurface cracks ered by an invisible membrane. This effect is attrib-
that sometimesdevelopsoncoolingafterheat is uted to forces that arise across the surface of the liquid
applied to the material. This condition usually occurs because the atoms or molecules at the exposedsurface
in high-carbon steels following a quenching operation. are subject to interatomic forces from within the liq-
uid. Surface tension is measured in ergs/cm2.
SURFACE CLEANING
See FLAME CLEANING. In welding, the phenomenonofsurfacetension
comes into play when filler metal and slag globules
SURFACE EXPULSION come close to or in contact withthe molten base metal
Expulsion occurring at an electrode-to-workpiece in the weld crater, with or without the aid of gravity.
contact rather than at the faying surface. See STAN- Surface tension not onlyattracts the liquid filler metal
DARD WELDINGTERMS. and slag globules into the liquid crater, but makes it
possible to deposit weld metal in a horizontal, vertical
SURFACE HARDENING or overhead position. At the same time, the surface
Heating the surface layer(case) of a metal to a suit- tensiondetermines the shape ofweld contours. If
able temperatureandcooling it so thatthesurface it were not for surface tension,it would be impossible
layer is harder than the core metal. Qpical processes to deposit weld metal in any position other than flat.
for surface hardening are cyaniding, nitriding, heating See OVERHEADWELDINGPOSlTION and GLOBULAR
by flame or induction, and carburizing. TRANSFER.
SURFACE PREPARATION SURFACING

The operations necessary to produce a desired or The application by welding, brazing, or t h e m 1
specified surface condition. See STANDARDWELDING spraying of a layer of material to a surjace to obtain
TERMS. desired properties or dimensions, as opposed to mak-
Cleanliness is extremelyimportantinwelding ing a joint. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also
applications.Foreignmaterial,oxide,oil or grease BUILDUP, B m R I N G , CLADDING, and HARDFACING.
must be carefully removed from the surface prior to
welding. Combustionsurfacingprocessesincludesubsonic
Nickel (also cobalt) alloys are embrittled by sulfur, flame spraying and hypersonic flame spraying. Elec-
phosphorus, and metals with low melting points such tric processes include arc spraying and plasma spray-
as lead, zinc, and tin.Leadhammers,soldersand ing. See also THERMAL SPRAYING.
wheels or belts loaded with these materials are fre-
quent sources of contamination. Detrimental elements SURFACING MATERIAL
are often present in oils, paint, marking crayons, cut- The material that is applied to a base metal or sub-
ting fluids, and shop dirt. When welding nickel (also strate duringsurfacing.See STANDARD WELDING
cobalt) alloys, Itis particularly important that adequate TERMS.

STJ).AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 W .O784265 05ltbb94 3 8 2 . m
L 520 SURFACING
SURFACING METAL SWING GRINDER

The metal or alloy that is applied to a base
metal or A semi-portable grinder which is usually suspended
substrate during surfacing. See STANDARDWELDJNG from a crane, ceiling, or from afixture to provide flex-
TERMS. ibility in grindingoperations. The conventional type of
swing grinder uses a snagging wheel which makes it
SURFACING WELD possible to remove considerable metal very rapidly.
A weld applied to a surface, as opposed tomaking a One of thedisadvantages of the swing grinder fitted
joint, to obtain desired properties or dimensions. See with a snagging wheel is that it is difficult to obtain a
STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. smooth surface. Abrasivebeltswing grinders are
available which combine the rapid moving features of
SWEATING the snagging wheel withthe even surface grinding fea-
When steel is heated with a carburizing flame, it tures of a disk grinder. An abrasive belt swing grinder
becomes red, and as the heating continues, the color of removesa specific amount of metal, as required,
the steel becomes progressively lighter, until the thin resulting in a smooth and even surface. The abrasive
carbonized surface layer begins to melt. This takes belt is electrostatically coated with an aluminumoxide
place atapproximatelyawhite heat, about 1200C grinding material, and travels at aspeed of about
(2200F). The welding rod is then melted and flowed 1370 &min (4500 ft/min).
over this sweating surface with the flame of the torch.
No attempt should be made to puddle with the rod. It SYNCHRONOUS INITIATION
will flow and spread like solder when the surface is In spot, seam, and projection welding,the initiation
properlyheated, and will adhere to the basemetal, and termination of each half-cycle of welding-trans-
resulting in a weld that is actually stronger than the former primary current so that all half-cycles of such
alloy itself. current are identical.
SWEAT SOLDERING SYNCHRONOUS TIMING, Resistance Welding
A soldering process variation in which workpieces The initiation of each half cycle of welding trans-
that have beenprecoated with solder are reheated and former primary current on an accurately timed delay
assembled into a joint without the use of additional with respect to the polarity reversal of the power sup-
soldez See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. ply. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS.
U.S. Navy frigate underway. l h e Naval Surface Warefare Center, Bethesda, Maryland, contributes welding
technology used in the construction of these ships.

~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 0784265 05l16695 2L9 m
T
T vessels, and tubular products used in the petroleum
T: Abbreviation for temperature; t: abbreviation for industry.
time. Persons involved in tank welding should become
familiar with the ASME B&PV Code and API Stan-
lHCURVE dard 1104. Refer to American Welding Society, Weld-
Abbreviation for Time-Temperature-Transformation ing Handbook, Volume 1, 8thEdition,American
Curve. Welding Society, Miami, Florida. 1989.
TAB Tank Repair. There are many types of tanks and pip-
see STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also RUNOFF ingsystemswhichhavecontainedhazardoussub-
WELD TAB, STARTING WELD TAB, and WELD TAB. stances. All are potentially dangerous. Information on
safe practices for tank repair is found in ANSVAWS
TACKER F4.1, RecommendedSafe Practices for Preparation
A nonstandard term forTACK WELDER. for Welding and Cuttingof Containersand Piping.
Metal storage tanks commonly located at the top
TACK WELD
of buildings to supply water for privatefire protection
A weld made to hold the parts of a weldment in areweldedsubject to rulesandregulations of the
proper alignment until the final welds are mude. See American Water Works Association (AWWA) and the
STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. National Board of Fire Underwriters. These rules are
A tack weld is a short weld made at intermittent set forth in ANSVAWWA Dl00 (AWS D5.2), A W A
points to hold abutting edges together. The length of Standard for Welded Steel Tanks for Water Storage.
the weld, spacing between welds, and design of the
tack weld should always be specified. Specifications TANKS, SAFE PRACTICES
usually include the length of each tack weld and the
measurement from center to center of the tack welds.
Tanks whichcontainedflammable oil, gasoline,
vapors or gasmustbehandledwithcautionwhen
The particular design of the tack weld is often not
making repairs by welding. These tanks may contain
Specified.
sufficient air and residual fumes to cause an explosion
TACKING when mixed with the gas used witha cutting or weld-
Welding at several points on the weldingline to ing torch. The document, AWSF4.1, Recommended
hold the workpieces together and prevent the pieces Safe Practices for the Preparation for Welding and
from shifting during the actual welding operation.See Cutting Containers and Piping That Have Held Haz-
TACK WELD. ardous Substances, should be consulted.
Beforewelding or cutting a tank withanarcor
TANK WELDING torch it is essential to clean the tank thoroughly and
The AmericanSocietyforMechanicalEngineers remove all possibility of a flammable mixture remain-
(ASME)maintains a BoilerandPressureVessel ing inthe tank.
(B&PV) Code which contains material standards and
specifications that cover tanks made from carbon and TANTALUM
alloysteels.TheASMEcodesgoverndesign,con- (Chemical symbol: Ta).A ductile, gray metallicele-
struction, maintenance, and inspection of power boil- ment. It is known for itsresistance to a wide varietyof
ers, heating boilers, nuclear power plant components, acids, alcohols, chlorides, sulfates, and other chemi-
pressure piping systems, and pressure vessels operat- cals. Tantalumis used as an alloy in metals, and is also
ing at 103 kPa (15 psi) and higher. used in electrical capacitors and high-temperature fur-
The American Petroleum Institute ( N I ) has pre- nace components. Atomic number, 73; atomic weight,
pared material specifications for welding steel tanks, 181; melting point, 2910C (5270F).
521
LAY 522 TAPER Welding Encyclopedia
Although tantalum has an extremely high melting TEMPER

point,andreadilycombineswith all but the inert The degree of hardness producedin an alloy by heat
gases, this reactive metal will produce strong, ductile treatment and controlled cooling.
welds when welded by the gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW) process. Weldingis preferably donein a vac- TEMPERATURE
uum chamber.The thermal conductivityof tantalum is The level of intensity of thermal energy that exists
somewhat lower than thatof steel; the thermal coeffi- in a substance.
cient of expansion is about the same as steel. Temperaturechanges in welding are important
variables.Heat is afundamentalfactor in most of
TAPER DELAY TIME the welding processes andin thermal cutting. Cooling
Thetimeinterval after upslopeduringwhichthe rates also havesignificantconsequencesthatmust
current is constant. See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. be considered. Heat is a fundamental factor in most
See Appendix 19. welding
processes and inthermal
cutting. See
METALLURGY.
TAPER TIME
TEMPERATURE SCALES, Conversion
The
time
interval
when
current
increases or
decreases continuously from theweldingcurrent to The twotemperaturescalescommonlyusedin
jml taper current. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. metal work are Fahrenheit (F) and Celsius (C). See
See Appendix 19. Appendix 14.
On the Fahrenheit scale, the freezing pointof water
TAP EXTRACTION is 32F and boiling point of water is 212"F.On the
Celsius scale, 0C is the point at which water freezes
Removing a tap which has been broken off below
and 100C is the boiling point. Thus, 100 divisions on
the surface of the workpiece can be done using the fol-
the C scale equal 180 divisions on the F scale. This
lowing procedure:
makes 1C equivalent to915 or 180/100 of 1F.
If the hole provides clearance, a coated electrode To convert from "Cto "F: "F = 9/5 "C + 32.
can be used to build the up tap until it is above the sur-
face. This is best accomplished by dipping it in andout To convert from"F to "C: "C = 5/9 ("F- 32).
of the puddle. The coating on the electrode helps to
TEMPERATURES, Arc Welding
prevent damageto the threaded walls ofthe hole.
It has been estimated that the temperature of the
Once the tap has been built up above the surface, metal arc is approximately 3300C (6000F). The tem-
the end can be filed intoasquare,gripped by a perature of the carbon arc varies considerably and is
wrench, andthe tap backed out. dependent on the arc length and the graphite content of
the electrode. Its range is from 3790 to 5290C (6850
TAPS to 9550F). The atomic hydrogenflame has a theoreti-
Connections to a transfomer winding that are used cal temperature of4OOO"C (7250F). The heat absorp-
to vary the transformer turn ratio, thereby controlling tion due to the formation of atomichydrogen,
welding voltage and current. SeeSTANDARD WELDING however,reduces this temperature to about 2950C
TERMS. (5340F).
The temperature of the gas tungsten arc has been
TELLURIUM estimated to be 5500C (10 000F). The temperature
(Chemical symbol: Te). A silver-gray, metallicele- produced by a plasmaarc cutting torch is estimated to
ment of the sulphur group. It is a poor conductor of be 16 600C (30 0oo"F).
heatandelectricity.Telluriumformswell-defined
compounds, known as tellurides, with other elements. TEMPERATURES, Fuel Gas
It is used as an alloy in steel,lead, and ceramics, andis A number of fuel gases are used in welding and
used in thermoelectricdevices. It is used to some cutting operations,
including
acetylene,
propane,
extent in the covering of welding cables to make them methylacetylene-propadiene, propylene, natural gas
moreresistanttoabrasion.Atomicweight,147.6; and hydrogen. Table T-1 shows characteristics of the
melting point, 461C (862F); specific gravity, 6.25. common fuel gases.See also FURNACE, Temperature.

~-
~~~ ~~ ~
~~ ~~
~~
STD*AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 05Lbb97 091 m
MPER
Encyclopedia
Welding 523
Table T-1
Characteristics of the CommonFuel Gases
Flame Heat of Combustion
SpedtlcVolume to Oxygen-to- Temperature
Gravity. Weight Rade
i he. for Oxygen' Primary Secondary Total
Combustion
Fuel Gas Formule Air = 1 m3/kg M/Ib Ratiob "C "F MJ/m3 Btu/ptJ MJ/m3 B& MJ/m3 Btu/ptJ
Acetylene CZHZ 0.906 14.6

0.91 5589
3087 2.5 96319 36 507 55 1470
propane 1.52 CZH3 0.54 8.7 5 .O 45792526
2498 104 2243 1094 255
Methylacetylene- 1.48
C3H4 0.55 8.9 571
4.0 21 5301
2927 70 1889 91 2460
propadiene
Propylene 2400 89 1962 730.55
1.48(23% 438 16
8.95250
2900 4.5
Naturalgas
(methane) CH4 0.62 23.61.44 0.44600
25382.0 37 11989 37 lo00
Hydrogen
188.7 11.77 Hz 3250.07 12 0.5
4820 2660
a. At 15.6OC (60F).
b. The volume unitsof oxygen required to completelyburn a unit volumeof fuel gas.A portion of the oxygen is obtained fromthe atmosphere.
c. The temperature of the neutral flame.
d. May wntain significant amounts of saturated hydrocarbons.
TEMPER CARBON plate, The colors formed on iron and carbon steel by
The microstructure of a casting of any type of mal- progressively higher temperatures are listed in Table
leable iron is derived by controlled annealingof white T-2.
iron of suitablecomposition.During the annealing
cycle, carbon that exists in combined form, either as Table T-2
massive carbides or asa micro constituent in pearlite, Temper Colors Formed on Iron and Carbon Steel
is converted to a form of free graphite known as tem-
per carbon. Approximate Temperature
at Which Color Forms
TEMPER COLORS Color Formed
Temper colors on bare, clean, bright steel provide a on Surface "C "F
useful visual methodof estimating time and tempera- Light Straw 200 400
ture of exposure of heat-affected areas in weldments, Tan 230 450
judgingfromsurfaceappearance.When a weldis Brown 275 525
made by localized heating, temper colors ranging from Purple 300 575
shades of black, through blue,red, brown and tan will Dark Blue 315 600
run in bands parallel to the long axis of the weld after Black 425 and higher 800 and higher
the weld has cooled. These variations in color are the
effect of various thicknesses of oxide films that form
on the surface of iron and steel when heated in air. TEMPERING
Sand blastingor pickling can be used to prepare a sur-
face onwhichtempercolorsfromweldingcanbe A process for increasing the degree of hardness or
observed. Temper colors can give a rough indication resiliency of a metal; the reheating of iron base alloys
of themaximumtemperatureimposed on thebase afterhardening at a temperaturebelowthe critical
metal at varying distances from the weld. For exam- range, followed by a specified rateof cooling.
ple, if two different welds are compared for temper
colors, and the brown-purple transition is found closerTEMPER TIME, Resistance Welding
to the edge of the weld in the first plate, it can be con- The timefollowing quench time during which cur- a
cluded that the weld in the first plate was heated more rent is passed through the weld for heat treating. See
rapidly and cooled faster than the weld in the second STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure I- 1

524 TEMPLATE Welding Encyclopedia
TEMPLATE Weld Tension Test.To obtain an accurate assessment

A pattern or prototype of a part from which identi- of the strength and ductilityof welds, several different
cal copies can be made. Templates also provide a per- specimensandorientationsmaybeused. In some
manent record of thesize and shape of a part. cases, the weld reinforcement is left intact on the test
The most common template used in metalworking specimen.
is the flat template madeon heavy sheet metal. By lay- All-Weld-Metal Test. The mechanical properties mea-
ing the template on new stock and scribing around it, sured and reported an in all-weld-metal tensiontest are
additional parts can be made at any time. Templates tensile strength, yield strength, elongation, and reduc-
are frequently used for outlining partsin flame cutting tion in area. To determine the tensile properties of a
operations. See PIPE WELDING, Accessories. weld metal, the test specimen orientation is parallel to
the axis of theweld,andthe entire specimen is
TEMPORARY WELD machined from the weld metal. The chemical compo-
A weld mude to attach a piece or pieces toa weld- sition of the weld metal will be affected by the joint
ment for temporaryusein handling, shipping, or penetration.
working on theweldment.See STANDARDWELDING If the purpose of the test is to qualify a filler metal,
TERMS. then melting of the base metal should be minimized
when making the testweld. This procedure is
TENSILE STRENGTH described in AWS A5.1, Spectjcation for Covered
The resistance to breaking exhibited by a material CarbonSteel Arc Welding Electrodes, published by
when it is subjected to a pulling stress. The unit of ten- American Welding Society, Miami, Florida.
sile strength is the Pascal (lb/in.*).See TENSILE TEST.
TENSILE TESTING MACHINE
TENSILE TEST A device for accuratelydeterminingthetensile
Atesttoobtainanaccurateassessmentofthe strength of metals,particularlyweldedspecimens.
strength and ductilityof a material or a weld, or in an Tensile testingmachines are usuallypowerdriven
all-weld-metal test, to determine mechanical proper- when located in a test laboratory, however,some por-
ties suchas tensile strength, yield strength, elongation, table models availablefor field testing are operated by
and reduction in area. hydraulic pumps which apply the necessary pressure
to a piston which draws the jaws apart.
In a base metal tension test,the strength and ductil-
The laboratory machines are usually large in scale,
ity of metals are generally obtained from a uniaxial
with means for gripping the specimen, applying ten-
tensile test in which a machined specimen is subjected
sion and accurately recording the results. See Figure
to an increasing load while simultaneous observations
T-2. The machine applies tension to the specimen until
of extensionaremade.Longitudinalspecimens are
it reaches the yield point,or the point at which perma-
oriented parallel to the direction of rolling, and trans-
nent distortion begins. The yield point indicates the
verse specimens are oriented perpendicular to the roll-
elasticity of the metal, and the final breaking strength,
ingdirection. The load can be plottedagainst the
or tensile strength, is indicated on the machine when
elongation, customarily as shown in Figure T-l. The
the specimen breaks.
stress (load divided by original area) is plotted against
the strain (elongation divided by the original gauge In many tests, the specimen stretches, and the area
length). at the break is reduced. The percent reduction in area
is computed by comparing the reduced cross section
The yield strength shown by the engineering stress- with the original cross section of the specimen. The
strain curve is generally the strength at some arbitrary percent reduction in area is indicated on the machine,
amount of extension under load or a permanent plasticand the tension continues until the specimen breaks.
strain (offset).
Details of specimen preparation and test procedures TENSION TEST
for tension testsfor base metalsare described in ASTM A test in which a specimen is loaded in tension until
A370, Standard Methods andDefinitionsfor Mechani- failure occurs. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS.
cal Testing of Steel Products, published by the
American Societyfor Testing Materials,West Consho- TERMS, WELDING
hocken, Pennsylvania. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.

~~
-
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0 7 8 4 2 6 5 OSLhb99
9h4 m
Welding Encyclopedia TESTING 525
* TOTAL ELONGATION
TO FRACT~JRE-I
-a;,
STRAIN
500 I
I
I
UNIFORMELONGATION
ELASTIC I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
ULTIMATE I
-80
-
- 70
2 .
I I
TENSILE I
40- I I
I
I I
+ - --
I
I I
4'
-"" - 60
1
NECKING -
BEGINS
FRACTURE
STRESS - 50
O.ph OFFSET (BREAKING
POINT)
GTH-----------------.-
- 40
-
- 30
-
- 20
-
- 10
50 - I
-
+'L I
0.2% OF SPECIMEN GAGE LENGTH
O
- INCREASING ENGINEERING STRAIN (ELASTIC8 PLASTIC)

Figure T-l-StresdStrain Diagram for Complete History
of a Metal Tension Test Specimen from theStart
of Loading and Carried to the Breaking Point
TESTING The ideal test would be to observe the structure in

Examination of welds to determine characteristics actual service, but this is rarely practical. Therefore,
such as ductility, soundness, tensile properties, hard- standardized tests and testing procedures are used that
ness, fracture toughness, fatigue properties of welded give results which can be related to metals and struc-
structural joints, corrosion factors, or behavior at ele- turesthathaveperformedsatisfactorilyinservice.
vated temperature. Reference is frequentlymadeto ANSYAWS B4.0,
The two main types of testing are destructive and Standard Methodsfor Mechanical Testingof Welds.
nondestructive. Tensile testing, or loading in tension The problem of predicting the performance of struc-
until failure occurs, is an example of destructive test- tures from a laboratory-type test is a complexone,
ing. Visual inspectionis an example of nondestructive because the size, configuration, environment, andtype
testing. of loading in service usually differ. In welded joints,
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 03842b5 051b700 40b
526 TEST
way thatcompels failure totakeplacein the weld

metal.
A welded joint test specimen has one or more welds
and is primarily intended to compare the strength of
the welded joint with that of the base metal.
A deposited metal test specimen is one substantially
composed of deposited metal.
TEST WELD
A sample of weldingwhichhasbeenperformed
underknownconditionsandonwhichmechanical
tests areto be made.
One of the ways a welder can testa weld is to make
a specimen weld similar to the job being undertaken
andbreak it to determinethestrength of the weld
metal.
Figure T-2-Tensile Testing Machine.
Load Capacity: 54 400 kg (120 O 0 0 lb) THAWING, Pipelines
See PIPE, Thawing.
THEORETICAL ELECTRODE FORCE

the complexity is further increased by the natureof the The force, neglectingfrictionand inertia, in making
joint, which is bothmetallurgicallyandchemically spot, seam, or projection welds, available at the elec-
heterogeneous.Inaddition to theunaffectedbase trodes of a resistance welding machine by virtue of the
metal, the welded joint consists of weld metal and a initial force and theoretical mechanical advantage of
heat-affected zone. Those regions are composed of a the system. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
multitude of metallurgical structures as well as chemi-
cal heterogeneities, so a variety of properties can be THEORETICAL THROAT
expected throughout the welded joint. The distance from the beginning of the joint root
Various testing methods are regularly used to evalu- perpendicular to the hypotenuse of the largest right
ate the expected performance of welded joints. The triangle that can be inscribed within the cross section
property being tested, the test methods which may be of afilletweld. This dimension isbased onthe
used, and the application of results with special con- assumption that the root opening is eqwl to zero. See
sideration of theirrelationshiptowelded joints are STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 11.
covered in the Welding Handbook, 8th Edition, Vol-
ume l, Chapter 12; American WeldingSociety, THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
Miami, Florida; 1987. The property of a material to allow the passage of
Among the various types of tests are pressure test- heat. The units of thermal conductivity are cal/cm2/
ing, bendtest,compressiontesting,crushing, drift, cm/ "c/S.
fatigue,hydrostatictest,impact test, tensile,tube, The three mechanisms of thermal conductivity by
visualtesting, free bend test, magnetictesting,and which heat can be transmitted from a heat source to a
x-ray testing. material that aresignificant to welding are conduction,
convection and radiation. Conduction is most oftenthe
TEST SPECIMEN mechanism involved ina weldment.
A prepared sample of the workpiece on which a The amount of heat being conducted througha body
mechanical testis to be made. of matter is proportional to the cross-sectional area
A base metal test specimen is a test specimen com- and the difference in temperature or gradient between
posed wholly of base metal; a filler metal test speci- the measuring points; and it is inversely proportional
men is composed whollyof filler metal. to the distance or length between the measuring points.
A weld metal test specimenis one with oneor more These factors can be arranged in an equation with a
welds with component base metal parts shaped in a proportionality constantfor the thermal conductivity.
~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb70L 342 m

Welding Encyclopedia GOUGING THERMAL 527
Thermal conductivity values for a number of metals

Table 1-3
and other materials used in welding are listed in Table Thermal Conductivityof Metals,
T-3. As can be seen fromthe values in Table T-3, met- Alloys, and Nonmetals
als differ in thermal conductivity, butin the main, met-
als are much better heat conductors than nonmetals. Thermal Conductivity (Measured
Copper is an excellent conductor, which accounts for Near Room Temperature)
the difficulty in weldingcopper using a relatively low-
temperature heat source, like an oxyacetylene flame. substance Whnl0K* cal/cm2/cm/OC/s**
On the other hand, the good conductivity of copper Aluminum 238.5 0.57
explains its efficiency as a "heat sink" when employed
Copper
0.94 393.3
as a hold-down fixture or as a backing bar. Iron is a Iron 75.3 0.18
relatively poor conductor compared to other metals, Magnesium 0.37 154.8
which partly accounts for the ease with which steel Mercury 0.02 8.43
can be welded and thermally cut. Metals with high Nickel 0.22 92.1
heat conductivity require more heat input during weld- Silver 418.4 1 .o0
ing because the heat is conducted rapidly away from Titanium 221.8 0.53
the puddle. Tungsten 0.40 167.4
Zirconium 0.54 225.9
THERMAL CUTTER Steel, low-carbon 71.1 O. 17
One who peforms manual or semiautomatic ther- Steel, high-carbon 66.9 O. 16
mal cutting. Variations of this term are ARC CUTER Stainless Steel, 18-8 15.5 0.037
and OXYGEN CUTTER. see STANDARD WELDING Carbon (graphite) 25.1 0.060
TERMS. Glass 1 .O5 0.0025
Water 0.0014 0.58
THERMAL CUTTING(TC) Paper o. 12
0.0003
A group of cutting processes that severs or removes 1.80x 10-2 0.043x lW3
Argon
metal by localized melting, burning, or vaporizing of Carbon Dioxide 1.67x 10-2 0.040 x 10-3
the workpieces. See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See Helium 15.06 x 0.360x lC3
ah0 ARC CUTTING, ELECTRON BEAM CUTTING, LASER Nitrogen 2.59 x 10-2 0.062x
BEAM CU'ITING, and OXYGEN CUTTING. Oxygen 2.64 X 1 w 0.063 X 10-3
*To convert values in W/m/"K to BWsq ft/ft/"F/hr, multiply by
THERMAL CUlllNG OPERATOR 0.577789.
One
who operates automatic, mechanized, or **To convertvaluesincal/cm2/cm/"C/s to BWsq ftfft/"Flhr,
robotic thermal cutting equipment. Variations of this multiply by 242.08.
t e m are ARC CUlTING OPERATOR,ELECTRONBEAM
CUlTING OPERATOR,LASERBEAMCUTTINGOPERA-
TOR, and OXYGENCUTTINGOPERATOR. See STAN- stances. The rate of transfer of thermal energy is a
DARD WELDINGTERMS. characteristic physical propertyof each material
termed t h e m 1 conductivity, a factor often requiring
THERMAL FLOW analysis when setting up welding parameters. Refer-
Thermal flow will take place between substances ence: George E. Linnert, Welding Metallurgy, Vol. 1,
in contact, or in close proximity, when the tempera- 4th Edition, Miami, Florida: American Welding
ture levels differ. The transference of thermal energy Society, 1994.
always flows from the hotter substance to the cooler
substance, regardless of the quantities of thermal THERMAL GOUGING
energy held by each. The flow of thermal energy will A thermalcutting process variation thatremoves
continue in this direction, until a temperature differ- metal by melting or burning the entire removed por-
ence no longer exists. The rate of thermal flow will tion, to form a bevel or groove. See STANDARD WELD-
be determined by the extent of the difference ING TERMS. See also ARCGOUGING,BACKGOUGING,
between the levels of temperature in the two sub- and OXYGEN GOUGING.
STD.AWS JWE-ENGL L997 'm 07842b5 05Lb702 289 ,m
IENT 528 THERMAL
THERMAL GRADIENT particles as they impinge on the substrate. See STAN-

The difference in temperature between two points DARD WELDING TERMS.
which are a stated unit distance apart. For example, if
welding has been performed at a point in steela plate THERMAL SPRAYER
and the weld is at a temperature of 1500C (2732"F), One who performs semiautomatic thermal spray-
and a point in the plate 25 mm (1 in.) away from the ing. Variations of this term are ARC SPRAYER, FLAMFL
weld is at 100C (212"F), then the temperature gradi- SPRAYER, and PLASMA SPRAYER.
ent is calculated as 1500 - 100 = 1400C per 25 mm,
which is a gradient of 56"C/mm (2732 -212= 2520F THERMAL SPRAYING (THSP)
per in., whichis a gradient of 2.52"F/0.001 in.). Refer- A group of processes in which finely divided metal-
ence: George E. Linnert, Welding Metallurgy, Vol.1, lic or nonmetallic surfacing materials are deposited in
4th Edition. Miami, Florida: American Welding Soci- a molten or semimolten condition on a substrate to
ety, 1994. form a thermal spray deposit. The surfacing material
may be in the form of powdel; rod, cord, or wire. See
THERMAL SPRAY DEPOSIT STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also ARC SPRAYING,
The coating or layer of surfacing material applied FLAME SPRAYING, and PLASMA SPRAYING.
by a thermal spraying process. See STANDARD WELD- Thermal spraying canbe used to form a coating on
ING TERMS. See Figure T-3. metals, ceramics, glass, most plastics, and wood.It is
used extensively in the manufacture of original equip-
r
ment components. For example, the aerospace indus-
THERMAL SPRAYDEPOSIT try has developed hundreds of applications, including
air seals and wear-resistant surfaces to prevent fretting
andgallingatelevatedtemperatures.Inaddition,
marine, mining, food, automotive, petroleum, electri-
cal powergeneration,thermalprocessing,chemical
processing and electronic applications use thermally
sprayed coatings to achieve results that no substrate by
itself can provide.
L BOND LINE The surfacing is applied with a thermal spraying
gun, which generatesthe necessary heat by using com-
Figure T-3-Surfacing Material Applied by a bustible gases or an electric arc. As the materials are
Thermal Spraying Process heated, they change to a plastic or molten state, and
are accelerated by a compressed gas.The particles, in
THERMAL SPRAY DEPOSIT DENSITY RATIO a confined stream, are conveyed to a substrate. The
The ratio of t b density of the thermalspray deposit particles strike the surface, flatten, and form thin plate-
to the theoretical density of thesurfacing material, lets (splats) that conform andadhere to the irregulari-
usually expressedas percent of theoretical density. See ties of the prepared surface and to each other. As the
STANDARD WELDINGTERh4S. sprayed particles impinge on the substrate, they cool
and build up, particleby particle, into a lamellar struc-
THERMAL SPRAY DEPOSIT INTERFACE ture; thus acoating is formed.
Theinterfce between thethermal spraydeposit Process Variations
and the substrate. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. The basic variations of the thermal spraying pro-
cesses occur in the spray materials used, the method of
THERMAL SPRAY DEPOSIT STRENGTH heating, and the method of propelling the materials to
The tensile strengthof a thermal spray deposit.See the substrate.
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. Spray Materials. The spray materials usedare in the
form of wire, rod, cord (a continuous lengthof plastic
THERMAL SPRAY DEPOSIT STRESS tubing), or powder. Cord spraying is primarily used in
The residual stress in a thermal spraydeposit Europe. Many metals, oxides, cermets, and intermetal-
resulting from rapid cooling of molten or semimolten lic compounds,someorganicplastics,andcertain

glasses canbe deposited by one or more of the various Hypersonic Flame Spraying. Detonation and contin-
processes. uous-flame guns are two types of hypersonicspray
Processes. Thermal spraying processes can guns.
be cate-
gorizedunder two basicgroups,accordingtothe The detonation gun operates on principles signifi-
methods of heat generation. See Table T- 4. Group 1 cantly different from other flame spray methods. This
uses combustible gases as the heat source. Group method repeatedly heats and projects chargesof pow-
2
uses electric power as the heat source, such der onto a substrate by rapid successive detonationsof
as plasma,
electric arc, and induction plasma. Consumables used an explosive mixture of oxygen and acetylene in the
in Group2 are in the powder or wire form. gun chamber.
The continuous-flame hypersonic guns used in the
Table T-4 United States use a propylene-oxygenflame.The
Basic Groups of Thermal Spraying powder is brought to the torch using a nitrogen carrier.
The torchis designed to confine the powder in the cen-
Group I-Combustion Group II-Ele~trical ter of the flame. The particles leave the gun at veloci-
ties generally in excess of mach 4. This speed is far
1. Flame 1. Arc greater than achieved in most other spray methods.
a. Subsonic 2. Plasma arc
b. Hypersonic 3. Induction coupled plasma
Particle impactvelocitiesforvariousthermalspray
processes are shown in Figure T-4. The kinetic energy
released by impingement upon the substrate contrib-
utes additional heat that promotes bonding, high den-
Additional heatis generated at impact during hyper- sity, and appreciable hardness values.
sonic flame spraying, as the spray material gives its
up
kinetic energy.
VELOCITY: mlsec.
Group &Combustion
300 600 900
Subsonic Flame Spraying. In subsonic flame spray-
ing, the spray material is fed into and melted by an
I FLAME I
'I
oxyfuel gas flame. Whether the material is in the form
of wire, rod or powder, molten particles are propelled
onto the substrate by the force of the flame.
A wide variety of materials in these forms can be
sprayedwiththeflame.Materialsthatcannotbe
I
ARC I 0
I
melted with an oxyfuel gas flame, and those that burn LOW ENERGY
or become severely oxidized in the oxyfuel flame, can- HIGH ENERGY
not be flame sprayed.
O 1O00 2000 3000
Flame spray accessories in the form of air jets and
VELOCITY: Wsec.
air shrouds are available to change the flame charac-
teristics. These accessories can be used to adjust the
shape of the flame and the velocity of the sprayed Figure TGAverage Partlcle Impact Velocities for
Various Thermal Spray Processes
materials.
Materials are deposited in multiple layers, each of
which can be as thin as 130 Fm (0.0005 in.) per pass. Group Il-Electric
The total thickness of material deposited will depend ArcSpraying. Thespraymaterialsusedwitharc
upon several factors including: spraying, commonly called electric arc spraying, are
(1) m e of surfacing material andits properties metals and alloys in wire form, and powders contained
in a metal sheath (cored wire). Two continuously fed
(2) Condition of the workpiece material, including
wires are melted by an arc operating between them.
geometry
The molten metal is atomized and propelled onto the
(3) Service requirementsof the coated product substrate by a high-velocity gasjet, usually air. Recent
(4) Post-spray treatmentof the coated product work has been done using other gases. This method is
STDOAWS JWE-ENGL L997 07842b5 05Lb704 0 5 1 D
SPRAYING
530 THERMAL Welding Encyclopedia
restricted to spraying consumables that can be pro- Procedures for Sprayed Coatings
duced in continuous wire form. Success in the use of thermally sprayed coatings
relies on careful adherence to specific process prace-
PlasmaSpraying. Plasmaspraying is athermal
dures. This is a basic rule of thermal spraying, and
spraying processin which a nontransferred plasma arc
deviation from the standards for a particular applica-
gun is used to create an arc plasma that melts and pro-
tion, or inattentionto detail, especiallypreparation,
pels the surfacing materialto the substrate.
will produce an unreliable result.
The term nontransferred arc means thatthe plasma Sprayed coating systems have four basic compo-
arc is contained within the gun, and that the substrate nents: substrate type, bondcoats as necessary, coating
is not part ofthe electric circuit.The arc is maintained structure, and finish.
between a tungsten cathode and a constricting nozzle
which serves as the anode. An inert gas or a reducing Substrates. Substrates onwhichthe
thermally
gas, under pressure, enters the annular space between sprayed coatings are applied include metals,oxides,
the anode and cathode, where it becomes ionized, pro- ceramics, glass,most plastics, and wood. Allspray
ducing temperatures up to 17 0oo"C (30 000F). The materials cannot be applied to all substrates, since some
hot plasma gas passes through the nozzle as a high- require special techniques or are temperature sensitive.
velocity jet. The sdacing material, in powder form, is Substrate preparation is required for every thermal
injected into the hot gas stream,where it becomes spraying process, and is virtually the same for each
molten andis propelled ontothe substrate. process. Two important stepsare:
(1) Cleaning the surface to eliminate contamination
Plasma TransferredArc (PTA). This process is a com-
thatwillinhibit the bonding of the coatingtothe
bination of welding and thermal spraying processes. substrate.
Powder is introduced into the plasma arc stream from
where it is melted and conveyed tothe workpiece. The (2) Rougheningthesubstrate surface to create
emitted spray forms a molten puddle on the substrate, minute asperities or irregularities (anchorteeth),
which cools and solidifies as a parent metal dilution which provide agreater effective surface area to
enhance coating adhesion and bond strength.
(weldment).Ascompared to athermalspraying
deposit,a PTA deposit is generallymorelocalized, Bond Coats.Certain materials adhere to clean, smooth
denser, and metallurgically bonded to the base. The surfaces forming strong coating-to-substrate bonds, over
selection of coating materialsand suitable substratesis a wide range of conditions.A thin layer of bonding mate-
limited. rial serves as an anchor for subsequent applied coating
layers. Bond coatings are particularly applicable to sub-
VacuumPlasmaSpraying. Vacuum spraying is a strates too thin or too hard to be prepared by abrasive
variation of plasma spraying which is performed in a roughening methods. Bond coatings are used extensively
vacuum chamber. The advantage of the process is the as a substrate for ceramic materials. Bond coatings of
elimination of oxides from the deposit. This is espe- nickel, chromium, stainless steel, or the corrosion resis-
ciallyadvantageous in aircraftengineapplications. tant alloys are applied in thicknesses of 0.05 to 0.33 mm
The cost of this apparatus is about ten times that of (0.002to 0.013 in.) or mo%. The bond coating provides a
standard plasma spray equipment. Operating costs are flexible and adherent substrate for ceramic deposits.
also higher.
Thebondbetweenthecoatingand the substrate
Induction Coupled Plasma Spraying. Induction cou- may be mechanical or metallurgical.Adhesion is
pled plasma equipmentis used to create an ultra high- influenced by a combination of (1) coating material,
temperature arc region 50 mm (2 in.) in diameter by (2) sprayparticlesize, (3) substrateconditionand
150 mm (6 in.) long, into which powdersare injected. geometry, (4) degree of surface roughness, (5) surface
The powder is heated along a substantially longer path cleanliness, (6) surface temperature before,during,
than that within a comparable plasma spray gun.The and afterspraying, (7) particle impact velocity, (8)
longer powder residence time makes- possible the use type of base material, and (9) spray angle.
of larger particles, assuresthe melting of the particles, Coating Structure. Thedeposited structure and
and results in a more consistent sprayed coating. chemistry of coatings sprayed in ambient air are differ-
Because of the size of the equipment, this system ent from thoseof the same material in the wrought or
has limited torch movement and portability. pre-sprayed form.

Licensed by Information Handling Services ~~~ ~ ~~ ~~
pedia Welding THERMAL SPRAYING (THSP) 531
The differences in structure and chemistry are due are metals and alloys in the form of wire, cord, pow-
to the incremental nature of the coating, and its reac- der, and ceramics as powder, cord, or rod.
tion with the process gases and the atmosphere sur- Wire and Rod. The equipment for flame spraying
roundingthe coating materialwhile in themolten wire and rodis similar to that shown in FigureT-5. A
state. For example, when air or oxygen is used as the cross section of a typical wire thermal sprayinggun is
process gas, oxides of the spray material are formed shown in FigureT-6.
while the particles are in transit and become a part of
the coating.
Metal coatings tend tobe porous and brittle, and to
differ in hardness from the original consumable mate-
rial. The "as-sprayed" structures of coatings will be
similar in their lamellar nature, but will exhibit varying
characteristics, depending on the particular spraying
process used, process variables, techniques employed,
and thenature of the spray materialapplied.
The coating density will vary withthe particle
velocity, the heat source temperature of the spray pro-
cess, and the amount of air used. A listing of heat
source temperatures is shown in Table T-S. The den-
sity also varies with the type of powder, its mesh size,
spray rate, standoffdistance, and method of injection.
Table T-5
Heat Source Temperatures
Temperature
SoUrCe "C "F

Acetylene, oxygen 3100 5625
Arcs and plasmas 220018300 400&15 O00
Hydrogen, oxygen 2690 4875
MPS, oxygen 2870 5200
Natural gas, oxygen 2735 4955
Propane, oxygen 2640 4785
The nature of the 'bond in the "as-sprayed" condi-

tion can be modified by post spray thermal.matment.
Modification is by diffusion, chemical reaction, or
both, between the coating and the substrate. Figure T-5-Oxy-fuel Gas Wire Spray Equipment
The thermal spraying processes and related equip- Capable of Spraying Wires Ranging from Low
ment in commercial use canbe divided into two basic Melting Alloys (Babbitt) to Higher Melting Point
methods of deposition: combustionand
electric Steels. Alumlnum Wire Shownon Top Spool and
heating. Carbon Steel Wire on the BottomReel.
Combustion
Thermalsprayingwhichutilizestheheatfrom a The feedstock material is drawn by drive rolls into
chemical reaction is known as combustion, gas, or the rear of the gun. The rolls are powered by an elec-
flame spraying. Any substance which does not sub- tric motor, or an air turbine. The feedstock proceeds
lime and which melts at temperatures
less than 2760C throughthenozzlewhereitismelted by a coaxial
(5000F) may be flame sprayed. The materials used flame of burning gas.
~~
SPRAYING
532 THERMAL
GAS
SPRAYCAP AIR DEPOSIT1
BURNING GASES
PREPARED-
SUBSTRATE
Figure T-6-Cross Section of a Typical Wire Thermal Spraying Gun
One of the following fuel gases may be combined the powder is melted and carried by the flame onto the
withoxygen for use in flame spraying:acetylene, substrate.Thetypicalpowderfeedingmechanism
methylacetylene-propadiene stabilized (MPS), pro- incorporates a container and metering device which
pane, hydrogen, or natural gas. Acetylene is widely regulates the feed rate of the material into the carrier
used because higherflame temperatures are attainable. gas stream.Ahyper-velocityoxyfuel gas powder
See TableT-5.Inmany cases lowertemperature spray gun is shown inFigure T-7.
flames can be used to economic advantage. Afuel gas Fusion or metallurgical bonding to a metal substrate
flame is used for melting only, and not for propelling is accomplished by heating the deposit to its melting
or conveying the coatingmaterial. To accomplish temperature range. The fusing temperature is usually
spraying, the flame is surroundedwithastreamof in excess of 1040C (1900F), and is accomplished
compressed gas, usually air, which atomizes the mol- withanyheatingsourcesuchasaflame,induction
ten material and propelsit onto the substrate. For spe- coil, or a furnace.
cial applications inert gas may be used.
Variations in the powderflamesprayingprocess
Powder. Powder flame spraying guns are lighter and include compressed gas to feed powder to the flame,
more compact than other types of thermal spraying additional air jets to accelerate the molten particles, a
equipment. Due to lower particle velocities and tem- remotepowder feeder withaninert gas toconvey
peratures obtained, the coatings produced have lower powder through a pressurized tube into the gun, and
adhesive strength, lower overallcohesive strength, and devices for high-speed powder acceleration at atmo-
higher porosity than coatings produced by other spray sphericpressure.Suchrefinementstend to improve
processes. flow rate, and sometimes to increase particle velocity,
The powder feedstock may be pure metal, an alloy, which enhances bond strength and coating density.
a composite, a carbide, a ceramic, or any combination
of these. The process is used to apply self fluxing Oxygen Detonation Gun. The detonation gun is dif-
metallic alloy coatings. These materials contain boron ferent from other combustion spraying devices. It uses
and silicon, which serveas fluxing agents, and oxida- the energyofexplosionsofoxygen-acetylene mix-
tion is minimized.Feedstock is stored in ahopper tures, rather than a steady flame, to blast powdered
which may be integrated with the gunor connected to particles onto the surface of the substrate. The result-
it. A small amountof gas is diverted to carrythe pow- ingdeposit is extremelyhard,dense, and tightly
der fromthe hopper into the oxyfuel gas stream, where bonded.

Welding Encyclopedia SPRAYING THERMAL (THSP) 533
Figure T-'/-Hyper Velocity Oxyfuel Gas Spray Gun. Note Diamond Pattern Resulting from Supersonic
Outlet Velocity Shown Spraying nngsten Carbide Powder.
The detonation gun, shown in Figure T-8, consists high particle impingement velocity results in a strong
of a long barrel into which a mixture of oxygen, fuel bond with the substrate. Excellent finishes are achiev-
gas,andpowderedcoatingmaterial,suspendedin able, and theporosity content of the coating is low.
nitrogen, is introduced. The gas mixture is ignited by Electrlcal Heating
an electric spark several times per second, creating a
series of controlled detonation waves (flame fronts) Wire Arc Process. The wire arc spray process uses
which accelerate and heatthe powder particles as they anarcbetweentwoconsumablewires(feedstock).
movedown the barrel.Exit particle velocities of They are kept insulated from each other and automati-
approximately 760 &sec (2500 ft/sec) are produced. cally advance to meet at a point within an atomizing
After each ejectionof powder, nitrogen purges the unit gas stream. A potential difference of 18 to 40 volts
prior to successive detonations. Multiple detonations applied across the wires initiates an arc as they con-
persecondbuildupthe coating tothespecified verge, melting the tips of both wires. An atomizing
thickness. gas, usually compressed air, is directed across the arc
Temperatures above 3315C (6000F) are achieved zone,shearing off molten droplets whichformthe
within the detonation gun, while the substrate temper- atomized spray.
ature is maintained below 150C (300F) by a carbon The velocity of the gasthrough the atomizing
dioxide cooling system. nozzle can be regulated overa range of 4.0to 5.5 m/s
Coating thicknesses range between 0.05 and 0.50 mm (800 to 1100 ft/min) to control deposit characteristics.
(0.002 and 0.02 in.). The process produces a sound Molten metal particles are ejected from the arc at the
levelinexcessof 150 decibels, and is housedin a rate of several thousand particles per second.
soundproofroom. The actualcoatingoperation is In comparison with wire flame spraying, the quan-
completelyautomaticandremotely controlled. The tity of metal oxides is better controlled and spray rates
S T D - A W SJWE-ENCL 1,997 m 07842bS OS IMO^ 7 ~ m
7
EncvcloDedia Weldina
534 THERMAL SPRAYING (THSP)
figure T-8-Detonation Flame Spraying Equipment
are higher in wire arc spraying. Thus wire arc spraying

is often more economical. INSULATED SUBSTRATE
REFLECTOR
Wlre Arc Spray Gun. A schematic viewof a wire arc
spray gun is shown in Figure T-9. A welding power 7 SPRAY
supply is required to maintainthe arc between thetwo
wires.
The arc temperatures exceed the melting point of
the spray material. During the melting cycle, the metal
is superheated to the point where some volatilization
may occur, especially with aluminum and zinc. The
high particle temperatures produce metallurgical inter-
actions or diffusion zones, or both, after impact with
the substrate. These localized reactions form minute
weld spots with good cohesive and adhesive strengths. a LWIRE GUIDE
Thus the coatings develop excellent bond strengths.
Figure T-chematic view of a Wire ArcSpray Gun
Power Source. Directcurrentconstantpotential
power sources are normally used for wire arc spray- melts ata faster rate. Consequently,the particles atom-
ing; one wireis positive (anode) andthe other is nega- ized from the cathode are much smaller than those
tive (cathode).The tip of the cathode wireis heated to from the anode wire when the two wires are of the
a higher temperature than the tip of the anode wire and same diameter.

The d-c power source, providing a voltage of 18 to using the lowest possible arc voltage consistent with
40 volts, permits operation over a wide range
of metals good arc stability, and the normal spray gun-to-work
and alloys.The arc gap and spray particlesize increase distance. These conditionsensure the following:
with a rise in voltage. The voltage should be kept at (1) Fine particle size
the lowest possible level, consistent with good arc sta- (2) Minimum loss of alloy constituents
bility, to provide the smoothest coatings and maximum (3) A concentrated spray pattern
coating density. (4) High melting rate
Wire Control Unit. The wire control unit consists of Plasma Arc Spraying
two reel (or coil) holders, which are insulated from
Turbine and rocket engine componentsare exposed
each other and connected to the spray gun with flexi-
toextremeserviceconditions.Existingengineering
ble insulated wire guide tubes. Wire sizes range from
materials will not stand up to these conditions without
1.6 to 3.2 mm (U16 to 1/8 in.). Wires of larger diame-
a protective thermally sprayed coating. In many cases,
ters are usually in coil form, while smaller diameter
the spray coating consists of ceramic oxides and car-
wires are preferably level woundon reels or in barrels.
bideswhichrequiretemperatureshigherthanthose
System Operations. Wire arc spray systems can be possiblewithflameandarcprocesses.Theplasma
operated from a control console or fromthe gun. The spray process evolved to meet these needs.
control console will have the switches and regulators The plasma spray processalso stimulated the evolu-
necessary for controlling and monitoring the operating tion of a new family of materials and application tech-
circuits that power the gun and control the spray pro- niques for agreatlyexpandedrange of industrial
cedure, namely the following: applications. Plasma spraying supplements the older
(1) A direct current power source, usually of the processes of flame and wire arc spraying.
constant voltage type In the plasma spray process, gas
a or gas mixture is
(2) A dual wire feeding system passedthroughanelectricarcbetweenacoaxially
(3) A compressed gas supply with regulators and aligned tungsten alloy cathode and an orifice within a
flow meters built into the control assembly copperanode.Theprocess is illustrated in Figure
(4) Arc spray gun and related console switching T-10. The gas passing through the orifice is ionized.
After the first pass has been applied over theentire The temperature of the ionized plasma is much higher
surface of the workpiece, subsequent spraying is done than that obtained with a combustion flame.
n
TUNGSTEN
NOZZLE
PLASMA
-=-
y - -
- -
/
SPRAY STREAM
POWDER AND
L
ELECTRICAL (-) (+) 65 TO 150 m m
CONNECTION CONNECTION
AND WATER OUT WATER IN
SUBSTRATE
Figure 1-1O-Cross Section of a Plasma Arc Spraying Torch

"
~
STDDAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 0784265 05167LO 355
SPRAYING
As the plasmajet exits the gun, disassociated mole- ture without spalling. Selffluxing coatings are limited
cules of a diatomic gas recombine and liberate heat. to applications where the effects of fusing tempera-
The powderis introduced into the plasma, melted, and tures and any distortion can be tolerated. Thick coat-
propelled onto the workpiece by a high-velocity gas ings of dissimilar metals can be applied in multiple
stream. The heat content, temperature, and velocity of passes. For optimum results, the surface to be coated
the plasmajet are controlled bythe nozzle type,the arc should be cleanedof all oxide residues after each fus-
current, the mixture ratio of gases and the gas flow ing stage or layer.
rate. A properly sprayed and fused deposit will be nearly
The arc operates on direct current from a welding homogeneous, metallurgically bonded to the substrate,
type power supply. The electric power to the arc is andhavenoopenorvisibleporosity.Itwillhave
governed by a central control unit that regulates the higherhardnessthananequivalentmechanically
flow of plasma gas and cooling water, and sequences bonded deposit, and will withstand pressures envi- and
these elements to allowthe process to operate reliably ronments better than non-fused deposits.
and precisely. Either nitrogen or argon is used as the Self-Fluxing Alloys.Most self-fluxing alloysfall into
plasma forming gas.A secondary gas, either hydrogen twogeneralgroups: nickel-chromium-boron-silicon
or helium, may be added to increase the heat content alloysand cobalt-chromium-boron-siliconalloys.In
and velocityof the plasma. some cases tungsten carbide or chromium carbide par-
Controlled AtmospherePlasma Spraying. Plasma arc ticles are blendedwithanalloyfrom one of these
spraying lends itself to controlled atmosphere applica- groups.
tions. Temperature regulation of both the substrate and The boron and silicon additions are crucial elements
atmosphere are morepreciseincontrolledatmo- that act as fluxing agents and as melting point depres-
spheres. This resultsin lower oxidation of the sprayed sants. They permit fusing at temperatures compatible
materials and less porosity in the sprayed deposit. It withsteels,certainchromium-iron alloys, andsome
also produces closer control of the composition and nickel base alloys.
morphologyof the sprayedcoating.Thisresults in The hardness of fused coatings will range from 20
greaterstructuralhomogeneity,absence of oxide, to 60 HRC, depending upon alloy composition. Hard-
increased hardness, and a thicker deposit capability. ness is virtuallyunaffected by the thermalspraying
Thesebenefits are produced at a higherdeposition procedures since there is almost no dilution with the
rate. base metal.
Fused Spray Deposits In addition to cleaning, blasting, thermal spraying,
A fused spray deposit is a self-fluxing alloy depos- and work-handling equipment, some device or method
ited by thermal spraying, whichis subsequently heated is needed to fuse the sprayed deposit. Fusing may be
to coalescence within itself and with the substrate. The done with an oxyfuel gas torch, in a furnace,orby
materials wet the substrate without the addition of a induction heating.
fluxingagent,providedthesubstrate is properly Thermal sprayed deposits can be fused to a wide
cleaned and prepared to receive it. The materials are variety of substrates. Some base metals are easier to
powderednickelorcobaltalloys,andtheymaybe surfacethanothers. Those which can bereadily
appliedbypowder flame sprayingor by plasma sprayed with one or more self-fluxing alloys and then
spraying. fused are:
The application of a fuseddepositinvolves four (1) Carbon and low-alloy steel with less than 0.25%
operations: carbon
(1) Surface preparation (2)AISI300seriesstainlesssteels,exceptTypes
(2) Spraying the self-fluxing alloy 303 and 321
(3) Fusing the coating to the substrate (3) Certain gradesof cast iron
(4)Finishingthecoatingtomeetsurfaceand (4) Nickel and nickel alloys that are free of titanium
dimensional requirements and aluminum
Fused coatings are dense and nearly porosity free. Metalsthatrequirespecialprocedurestoavoid
The alloy compositions can result in hardness levels undesirable metallurgical changes are carbon and low-
greater than 50 HRC. Coating thickness is limited to alloy steels with more than 0.25% carbon, and AISI
those ranges which can be heated to melting tempera- 400 series stainless steels, except Types 414 and 431.

STD.AWS JWE-ENGL ww m I I M W ~O ~ ~ ~ 2 L9 1 m
L
opedia Welding (THSP) SPRAYING THERMAL 537
Types 414, 431, and the precipitation hardening stain- Variousotherfinishingmethods are occasionally
less steels are not recommended as base metals for used. These include buffing, tumbling, burnishing, belt
self-fluxing alloys. polishing, lapping, and honing.
Cracking of some types of fused sprayed deposits Properties of Thermal Sprayed Deposits
on hardenable steels (above 25 HRC) can be avoided The quality and the properties of thermal sprayed
by isothermal annealing of the parts from the fusing deposits are largely determined by the size, tempera-
temperature. ture, and velocityof the spray dropletsas they impinge
Post-Treatments on the substrate, and the degree of oxidation of both
the droplets and the substrate during spraying. These
Sealing. Sealing of sprayed depositsis performed to factors will vary with the method of spraying and the
lengthen the service life or prevent corrosion of the procedures employed.
substrate, or both. Sprayed deposits of aluminum or The physical and mechanical properties of a spray
zinc may be sealed with vinyl coatings,either clear or deposit normally differ greatly from those of the origi-
aluminum pigmented.The sealer may be applied tofill nal material.The deposit structureis lamellar and non-
only subsurface pores in the deposit, or both subsur- homogeneous, and its cohesion is generally the result
face pores and surface irregularities. The latter tech- of mechanical interlocking. For these reasons, spray
nique will provide a smooth coating to resist industrialdeposits should be considered as a separate and dis-
atmospheres. The vinyl coatings may be applied witha tinct form of fabricated material.
brush or spray gun. Oxide spray deposits tend to retain their physical
Epoxies, silicones, and other similar materials are properties withonlymodestlosses. The chemical
used as sealants for certain corrosive conditions.Vac- compositions of reactive type ceramics, such as car-
uumimpregnationswithplasticsolutions are also bides, silicides, and borides normally change when the
possible. materials are sprayed in air with the flame or plasma
methods.
Diffusing. A thin layerof aluminum may be diffused
intoasteel or siliconbronzesubstrateat760C Microstructure. The microstructure of a transverse
(1400F). The diffusedlayer can providecorrosion section throughaflamesprayedmetaldepositwill
protectionagainsthotgasesup to 870C(1600F). show a heterogeneous mixtureof layered metal parti-
After depositingthe aluminum, the part can be coated cles (white), metal oxide inclusions (gray), and pores
with an aluminumpigmentedbitumasticsealer or (black). A photomicrograph of atransversesection
other suitable material, to prevent oxidation of the alu- through a flame sprayed of 0.80% carbon steel
deposit
minum during the diffusion heat treatment. There are is shown in Figure T- 11. The light layered particlesare
similaraircraftapplicationswithdiffusiontempera- bonded to one another by chemical and mechanical
tures dependent upon the base material to which the interactions.
aluminum is applied. The microstructure of the polished and etched sur-
face of the 0.80% carbon steel deposit is shown in Fig-
Surface Finishing. Techniques for surface finishing ure T-12. It has an emulsified appearance becausethe
of thermal spray deposits differ somewhat from those flattenedsteelparticles(light) are separated by the
commonly used for metals. Most sprayed deposits are oxide (gray).
primarilymechanicallybonded to thesubstrates, As-sprayed,self-fluxingalloydeposits are oxida-
except for fused coatings. Excessive pressure or heat tion resistant in nature. As shown in Figure T-13, the
generated in the coating during the finishing operation microstructure of a fused nickel-chromium self-flux-
can cause damage suchas cracking, crazing,or separa- ing alloy deposit has a cast structure with some poros-
tion from the substrate. ityandinclusions. The roughness of the prepared
The selection of a finishing method dependson the substrate (bottom of figure) is also evident.
type of depositmaterial, its hardness,thecoating Hardness. The heterogeneousstructures of spray
thickness, as well as dimensional and surface rough- deposits generally have a lower macrohardness than
ness requirements. Spray deposits of soft metals are the original rod or wire supplied to the gun. However,
usually finished by machining. Hardfaced substrates the hardness of individualdepositparticles(micro-
and ceramic sprayed coatings are usually finished by hardness) may be much higher than that ofthe overall
grinding. deposit. The type of hardness test should be selected to

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1777 m 0784265 051b712 128 9
SPRAYING
Figure T-ll-Transverse Section Through a Flame Figure T-13"icrostructure of a Fused Coatingof

Sprayed AlSI 1080 Steel Deposit(X500 Reduced a Self-Fluxing Nickel-Chromium Alloy (Top) on a
on Reproduction) Substrate (Bottom)(X250 Reduced on
Reproduction)
give either the overall deposit hardness orthe particle

hardness. The thickness of the deposit must also be
considered.
The Brinell and Rockwellhardness tests can be
used to determine the hardness of fairly thick metallic
deposits. Superficial Rockwell and Vickers hardness
tests are suitable for thin metallic deposits.
Hardness tests with diamond indenters should be
avoided. Microhardness testscan be used to determine
the hardnessof individual particles.The Knoop inden-
tation hardness testis best suitedfor this.
Bond Strength. The strength of the bond between a
spray deposit and the substrate depends upon many
factors, includingthe following:
(1) Substrate material andits geometry
(2) Preparation of the substrate surface
(3) Spray angleto substrate
(4) Preheat
( 5 ) Bond layer material and its application method
and procedures
(6) Deposit material andits application method and
a
Figure T-l2"Section Parallel to the Surface of procedures
Flame Sprayed Deposit of AlSI 1080 Steel(X500 (7) Thickness of deposit
Reduced on Reproduction) (8) Post spraying thermal treatment

STD.AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 078q2b5 0516713 Ob4 D
yclopedia Welding 539
Density. Thermalsprayeddepositshavedensities spraying of copperonelectricalcontacts,carbon

less than 100% of the filler metals used because they brushes, and glass in automotive fuses, as well as sil-
are porous and contain some oxide. The densities of ver or copper contacts.
the flame sprayed deposits and the original wire for In the field of electrical insulation, various ceramic
several metalsare shown in Table T-6. deposits can be used for insulators. Magnetic shielding
of electrical components may be provided with depos-
Table T-6 its of zinc or tin zinc applied to electronic cases and
Comparison of the Densitiesof Flame Sprayed chassis.Condenserplatescanbemade by spraying
Metal Deposits and the Wire aluminum on bothsides of a cloth tape.
Density, kg/m3 (Iblin.3) Foundry. Changes in contour of expensive patterns
and match plates can be readily accomplished by the
Flame Sprayed application of thermalspraydepositsfollowed by
Metal Deposit (Wire) Wire appropriate finishing. Patternsandmoldscanbe
1100 Aluminum 27 13 (0.098) repaired with wear resistant deposits. Blow holes in
2408 (0.087)
Copper 7501 (0.271) 8968 (0.324) castings that appear during machining can be filled to
Molybdenum 9024 (0.326) 10214 (0.369) salvage the parts.
AIS1 1025 Steel 6754 (0.244) 7861 (0.284)
304 Stainless Steel BrazingandSoldering. Thermalspraying is fre-
6892 (0.249) 8027 (0.290)
Zinc 6839 (0.229) 7141 (0.258) quently usedfor the preplacement of solder or brazing
filler metals. The usual practice is to apply the filler
metal using thermal spraying techniques.
Coating Selection and Applications Aircraft and Missiles. Thermal spraying is used for
The selection of a proper coating material involves air seals and wear-resistant surfaces to preventfretting
morethanchoosing the desiredproperties of the and galling at elevated temperatures. Deposits ofalu-
deposit.Itshouldbeapproached as anengineering mina and zirconiaare used for thermal insulation.
problem by considering such items as coating function References:AmericanWeldingSociety, Theml
and service environment, in addition to the physical Spraying Practice, Theoryand Application, Miami,
and chemical properties of both the coating and the Florida: American Welding Society, 1985.
substrate. The properties of conventional materialsare
well understood, and their service performance pre- AmericanWeldingSociety, WeldingHandbook,
dictable. This is not true of thermal spray coatings. Chapter 28, Thermal Spraying, V01.2, 8th Ed. Miami,
The mechanical and corrosion resistant properties of Florida: American Welding Society, 199 1
sprayed materials differ from solid or powder metal
parts of the same chemistry. Coating material selection THERMAL SPRAYING DEPOSITION EFFICIENCY
should be based on properties related to end use and The ratio of the weight of thermal spray deposit to
service environment, plus factors involving its com- the weight of surfacing material sprayed, expressed in
patibility with the substrate. Itis not difficult to select percent. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
the proper coating for a given function after all the
pertinent factors are taken into consideration. THERMAL SPRAYING GUN
WearResistance. In the mechanical field, thermal A device for heating,feeding, and directing theflow
sprayhardfacingmaterialscanbeusedtocombat of su~acing material. See STANDARD WELDING
many types of wear. The ability of metal spray depos- TERMS.
its to absorb and maintain afilm of lubricant is a dis-
tinct advantagein many applications. THERMAL SPRAYING OPERATOR
ElectricalCharacteristics. The electricalresistance One
who operates automatic, mechanized, or
of a metal spray deposit may be 50 to 100% higher robotic thermal spraying equipment.Variationsof this
than that of the same metal in cast or wrought form. term are ARC SPRAYING OPERATOR, FLAME SPRAYING
This must be considered inthe design of spray depos- OPERATOR, and PLASMASPRAYINGOPERATOR. See
its for electrical conductors. Such applications include STANDARD WELDINGTERMS.

~~ ~~
S T D = A W S JWE-ENGL 1977 9 0784265 051671'l TT0 m
SPRAY 540 THERMAL Encyclopedia Welding
THERMAL SPRAY PASS Schmidt AG West Germany (Orgotheus Inc.USA) dis-

A single progression of the thermal spraying gun covered that
theexothermic
reaction
between
a
across the substrate su$ace. See STANDARD WELDING mixture of aluminum powder and a metal oxide can be
TERMS. initiated byan external heat source. The reaction is
highlyexothermic,andtherefore,oncestarted, it is
THERMAL STRESS self-sustaining.
Stress resulting from nonuniform temperature dis-
tribution. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. The Thermite Reaction
Thermalstress may refertostressesinawelded The thermite mixture can be ignited and brought to
joint, welded structure, or part andis produced by dif- a high temperature in one spot, and when started, the
ferences in temperature or coefficients of expansion reaction will continue throughoutthe rest of the mass.
during welding or cutting. Thisreactionoccurswhen the aluminumcombines
with the oxygen of the iron oxide to form aluminum
THERMITE, Cast Iron
oxide (slag) in a super-heated molten state while the
A thermite mixture containing additions of ferro-
iron is set free and is produced as liquid steel, also
silicon and mild steel. super-heated. The temperature created by this reaction
THERMITE CRUCIBLE is about 3150C (5650"F), but because of heat loss
The vessel in whichthethermite reaction takes through the crucible, the molten metal actually reaches
place. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also about 2400C (4350F). When steel at this high tem-
THERMITE WELDING. perature is pouredaroundandbetweentwoironor
steel sections which have been previously heated to
THERMITE FORGING red heat, they will become dissolved and will amal-
A thermitemixturewith the addition of carbon, gamate with the thermite steel. When the entire mass
manganese,nickelandmildsteel. See THERMITE cools downit forms a single homogeneous section.
WELDING. The thermite reaction is not explosive, and no dan-
ger is incurred in storing and handling the material,
THERMITE MIXTURE
since it requires the temperature of liquidsteelto
A mixture of metal oxide andjnely divided alumi- ignite it.
num with the addition of alloying metals as required.
See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. Applications
This processis not often used in production welding
THERMITE MOLD
because other processes are more efficient, but ther-
A mold formed around the workpieces to receive
miteweldingcontinues to beusedformakingbutt
molten metal. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
weldsbetweenlengths of railroad rails, for joining
THERMITE REACTION very thick sectionsof cast iron and steel castings, and
Thechemical reaction betweenmetal oxide and for joining verylargesizesteelreinforcingbars
aluminumthatproducessuperheatedmoltenmetal embeddedinconcretestructures.Circumstances can
and a slag containing aluminumoxide. See STANDARD arise where thermite weldingis the best process tofill
WELDING TERMS. special needs. Repair of massive sections that have
cracked in large machines is an application where ther-
THERMITE WELDING (TW) mite welding can be used to advantage.
A welding process thatproducescoalescence of The most common application of the processis the
metals by heating them with superheated liquid metal welding of railsectionsintocontinuouslengths to
from a chemical reaction between a metal oxide and minimizethenumber of bolted joints inthetrack
aluminum, with or without the application of pressure. structure.Incoalmines,themainhaulingtrack is
Filler metalisobtained from theliquid metal. See often welded to minimize maintenance and to reduce
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. coal spillage caused by uneven track. Crane rails are
Historical Background usuallyweldedtominimize joint maintenance and
The thermite process was developed at the end of vibration of the building as heavily loaded wheels pass
the19thcenturywhenHansGoldschmidtofGold- over thejoint.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1993 W 03842b5 053b735 933 W
Welding 541
Thermite welding is also used in the marine field

for repair of heavy sections of ferrous metal, such as
broken stem frames, rudder parts, shafts, and struts.
Worn wabblers on the ends of steel mill rolls may
also be replaced with tough thermite metal deposit that
is machinable. Thermite welding is particularly appli-
cable for repairsinvolvinglargevolumesofmetal,
where the heat of fusion cannot be raised satisfactorily
or efficiently by other means, or where fractures or
voids in large sections require large
a quantity of weld
metal.
Thermite welding can be usedto repair ingot molds
at significant savings over replacement.The blades of
large dredge cutters may be thermite welded to a cen-
ter ring. Quantities up to several thousand poundsare
poured at one time. In this case, thermite weldingis a
production toolrather than a repair method.
Safety
The presence of moisture inthe thermite mix, inthe
crucible, or on the workpieces can lead to rapid forma-
tion of steam when the thermite reaction takes place.
Steam pressure may cause violent ejection of molten
metal from the crucible. Therefore, the thermite mix
should be stored in a dry place; the crucible should be
dry, and moisture should not be allowed to enter the
system beforeor during welding.
THERMOCOMPRESSION BONDING
Figure T-14Threading and Knuriing as a
A nonstandard termfor HOT PRESSURE WELDING. Preparation for Thermal Spraying
THERMO-ELECTRICITY
3F
Electricity produced by heating metals. A welding test position designationfor a linearjllet
THERMOCOUPLE
weld applied to a jointin which the weld is madein the
vertical welding position. See STANDARDWELDING
Two different metals welded together and usedfor TERMS. See Appendix 4.
the purpose of producing thermo-electricity.
36
THERMOMETER A welding test position designation for a linear
An instrument for measuring relative temperatures. groove weld applied to a joint in which the weld is
See Appendix 14. See also PYROMETER. made in the vertical welding position. See STANDARD
WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 4.
THERMOSTAT
A device that opens and closes a circuit when the THREE PHASE
temperature changes. A generator or circuit delivering three voltages that
are 113of a cycle apart in reaching their maximum
THREADING AND KNURLING, Thermal Spraying value. Three-phase current is generally used for cir-
A method of surfaceroughening in whichspiral cuits of 220 volts or more.
threadsare prepared, followed by upsetting with a
knurling tool. See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. see THREE-PHASE WELDING
Figure T-14. See RESISTANCE WELDING.
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1 9 9 7 E 0784265 OSLb7Lb 8 7 3 m
542 THROAT
THROAT AREA shielding

rendered the
term
TIGinaccurate. To
The area bounded by the physical parts of the sec- remove that discrepancy, the term tungsten active gas
ondary circuit in a resistance spot, seam, or projection (TAG) was proposed by some. Withthat terminology,
welding machine. Used todetermine the dimensions of the welding of stainless steel with argonis referred to
a part that can be welded and determine, in part, the as a TZG welding process, andif hydrogen is added to
secondaryimpedance of theequipment.See STAN- the argon shielding gas, the welding process becomes
DARD WELDING TERMS. TAG. If the latter gas mixture is used for welding a
noble metal, the welding process would then revertto
THROAT CRACK TZG. Thus the name of the welding process depends
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 9. not only on the composition of the shielding gas but
also on the base metal composition. Logically, such
THROAT DEPTH
terminology would be comparable to making the name
Zn a resistance spot, seam, or projection welding of the shielded metal arc welding process dependent
machine, the distance from the centerline of the elec- on the type of electrode covering andthe composition
trodes or platens to the nearest point of interference of the base metal.
forflat sheets. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
The proponents of TZG correctly cite its simplicity,
THROAT HEIGHT brevity, and ease of pronunciation. However, tung-
The unobstructed dimension between the arms and sten inert gas, by itself is incomplete. Only whenthe
throughoutthethroatdepth in a resistance welding word welding is added is the term complete and may
machine. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. be logically compared with gas tungsten arc welding.
The term would be TZGW, and it would lose some of
THROAT LENGTH the cited advantages.
A nonstandard term when used for CONSTRICTING Argumentssimilar to thosemade in support of
ORIFICE LENGTH. GTAW also apply to gas metal arc welding (GMAW)
versus metal inert gas (MIG) welding. Both GTAW
THROAT OF A FILLET WELD
and GMAW are part of a coherent letter designation
See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS. See ACTUAL
systemthathasbeendevelopedby the Definitions
THROAT,
EFFECTIVE
THROAT, and THEORETICAL
Subcommittee of AWS for all of the weldingand
THROAT.
allied processes. Haphazard changes cannot be made
THROAT OF A GROOVE WELD without damage to the letter system as a whole. The
A nonstandard term for
GROOVE WELD SIZE. Definitions Subcommittee prefers the terms gas tung-
sten arc welding (GTAW) and gas metal arc welding
THROAT OPENING (GMAW), with modifiers to denote the variations of
A nonstandard termfor THROAT HEIGHT. theprocesses.Theterminologyin the document,
ANSVAWS A3.0, Standard Welding Terms and Defi-
TIG WELDING nitions, has been widely accepted by such organiza-
A nonstandard term forGAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELD- tions as the American Society for Metals, the
ING. See GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and the
TIG as a Nonstandard Term.Although the terms TZG Department of Defense, as well as theAmerican
and MZG are popularly used, they do not accurately Welding Society.See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
reflect the technology of the processes. In the docu-
ment ANSYAWS A3.0, Standard Welding Terms and TIN
Definitions, theAmericanWeldingSociety(AWS) (Chemical symbol: Sn). A silvery-white, malleable
Definitions and Symbols Committee has stated a pref- and somewhatductile metal with a low melting point.
erence for GTAW (gas tungsten arc welding) because it is
It is a crystalline structure. It takes a high polish and
is a more definitive term than TZG. used to coat other metals to prevent corrosion, since it
The gas tungsten arc process was originally used does not corrode easily in air.Tin, when addedto steel,
with an inertgas as the arc- shielding atmosphere. The slightly increases
hardnessbut
reduces
impact
term tungsteninert gas (TZG) becamepopular. The strength. Atomic weight, 118.7; melting point, 231C
later application of non-inert, i.e., active, gasesfor arc (448F); specific gravity, 5.85.

Welding 543
TINNING TITANIUM WELDING

A nonstandard term when used for PRECOATING. When heatedin air above 650C (1200"F), titanium
See PRFCOATING. tends to oxidize rapidly. At elevated temperatures it
has the propensity for dissolving discreet amounts of
TIP its ownoxide into solution.Forthesereasons, the
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also CUTTING welding of titanium requires protective shielding, such
TIP and WELDING TIP. as an inert gas atmosphere, to prevent contamination
and embrittlement from oxygen and nitrogen. The rel-
A tip, sometimes called a nozzle, is the partof a gas atively low coefficientsof thermal expansion and con-
torch from which the gas is discharged; also, the por- ductivity minimize the possibilityof distortion due to
tionofaresistancespotweldingelectrodewhich welding,
comes in contact with the workpiece. Pure titanium is quite ductile (15 to 25% elonga-
tion) and hasa relatively low ultimate tensile strength,
TIP SKID approximately 207
MPa (30 ksi).
Some limited
A nonstandard term for ELECTRODE SKID. amountsofoxygenandnitrogen in solidsolution
markedlystrengthentitanium,but embrittle it if
TITANIUM present in sufficient quantity. Carbon exerts a similar
(Chemical Symbol: Ti). A lustrous white metal of butlessintensiveeffect.Hydrogenalsopromotes
the tin group occurring naturally as titanium oxide or embrittlementwhenpresentabovespecified limits.
in other oxide forms. The free element is precipitated These elements are usually unintentionally added by
by heating the oxide with aluminumor by the electrol- contaminationwhen the metal is processed.Inten-
ysis of the solutionincalciumchloride.Atomic tionaladditions of variousalloyingelementsmay
weight, 48.1; melting point, 1668C (3034F); boiling result in tensile strengths exceeding 1380 MPa
point, 3260C (5900F); specific gravity, 4.5; density (200 ksi), but thereis a resultant sacrificeof ductility.
4.5 1g/cm3. The combination of highstrength,lowdensity,and
Titanium is highlyresistant to corrosion,has excellent corrosion resistance results in a very desir-
high-temperaturestability,andisusedinalloys to able strength-to-weightratio,up to temperaturesas
achieveexcellentstrength-to-weightratios.These high as 650C (1 200F).
propertieshaveledto its widespreaduseinthe The weld metal tensile, impact and hardness prop-
chemical, aerospace,marine,
andmedical fields. erties for titaniumandtitaniumalloyweldingelec-
Among recent applications for titanium alloys are in trodes and rods are shown in Table T-7. These data
the petro-chemical industry and in sports equipment were from multi-passgas tungsten arc welded plate of
manufacturing. 12.7 mm (0.5 in.) thickness, or greater, with plate and
filler metal of identical composition.
Titanium is used as a stabilizer in stainless steel to
prevent precipitation of carbon during welding. It has Weldability
beenused for rimmed steels, performing a valuable Titanium alloysmay be classified according to their
function in distributing sulphur in high-sulphur steels. ability to produce tough, ductile welds. One such rat-
Titanium has a strong chemical affinity for oxygen, ing is shown in Table T-8. All alloys rated A or B in
and forms a tight microscopic oxide film on freshly Table T-8 are considered usable in the as-welded con-
preparedsurfacesatroomtemperature(similarto dition for most applications. Many alloys of limited
magnesiumandaluminum). The oxidefilmmakes weldability can be subjectedto postweld annealing to
titaniumpassiveto further reactivity.Thispassivity improve ductility. All of the weldable titanium alloy
accounts, in part, for its excellent corrosion resistance grades in the annealed condition will produce joint
to aqueous saltor oxidizing acid solutions, and accept- efficiencies closeto 100%.
able corrosion resistance to mineral acids. Filler Metals
Whenweldingtitaniumandtitaniumalloys,the
TITANIUM DIOXIDE filler metal should have the same nominal composition
(Chemical symbol: Tio2). Titanium dioxide (Tio2) as the base metal. Filler metal is usually used in the
is an important compound extensively used in electrode form of bare rod or wire, depending on the welding
coatings. See RUTILE and ELECTRODE MANUFACI'URE. process and the type of operation (manual, semiauto-
STDeAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 05Lb7L8 b 4 b D
G 544 TITANIUM
B
E d 3
.H
v)
10
CI

Welding WELDING TITANIUM 545
Table T-8 and procedures that prevent contamination of the weld

Weldability of Titanium Alloys metal with carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, or hydrogen. The
quality and cleanlinessof the filler metal are important
Nominal
Composition % (balance Ti)' Rating2 considerations in the welding of titanium, Filler metal
can be a source of serious contamination of the weld
pure
Commercially (all) A
metalfrominclusions, dirt, oil,anddrawingcom-
0.15 Pd A
interstitial)
(standard
5A1-2.5Sn B poundsonthe filler metalsurfaces.Therelatively
rstitial)(low5A1-2.5Sn A large surface area-to-volume ratios of wire or rod used
0-5A1-5Sn-5Zr A make cleanliness very important. Physical defects in
0-7AI- B wire, such as cracks, seams, or laps, can entrap surface
0-7A1-2Cb-lTa A contaminants,andmaketheirremovaldifficultor
8AI-lMo-lV A impossible. The filler rod or wire should be carefully
8Mn C inspected for mechanical defects, thoroughly cleaned,
0-2Fe-2Cr-2Mo D suitablyhandled,packaged,andstoredtoprevent
0-2.5A1-16V C contamination.
MAI-4Mn D
4A1-3M0- 1V C Weld Stress Relief
5A1-1.25Fe-2.75Cr C Residual stresses in weldments are relieved during
5A1-1SFe-
1.2Mo
1.4Cr- D annealing or solution heat
treatment.
A
stress-
interstitial)
(standard
6A1-4V B relieving heat treatment might be applicable when is it
) (low 6A1-1V A notnecessarytoheat-treattheweldtoobtain the
(Fe,
6Al-6V-2Sn-1 Cu) C required mechanical properties.Weld stress relief can
7Al-lM0 bebeneficialC in maintainingdimensions,reducing
0-lA1-8V-5Fe D
3Al- 13V-11Cr B crackingtendencies,
or
avoidingstress-corrosion
1Ta- 6Al-2Cb- 1Mo A cracking in certain alloys. However, stress relieving
treatments of heat-treatabletitaniumalloys may be
l . M b s o l e t e alloys, no longer produced commercially. detrimental. Thermal stress-relieving could alter the
2. A-Excellent, B-fair to good, C-limited, for special appli- mechanical properties of the weld by an aging reac-
cations or weldedwith special treatment,D-weldingnot
recommended. tionwithheat-treatablealloys. This responsemight
reducethebeneficialeffectsexpectedfromstress
relieving because of reduced weld ductility resulting
from aging.
matic,orautomatic).Referto ANSYAWSA5.16,
Specification for Titanium and TitaniumAlloy Welding Cleaning
Electrodesand Rods. The compositions of standard Prior to welding, brazing or heat treating, titanium
titaniumweldingelectrodesandrods are shown in components must be washed clean of surface contami-
Table T-9. nants and dried, Oil, fingerprints, grease, paint, and
Whenweldingcommerciallypuretitanium,an other foreign matter should be removed using a suit-
unalloyed filler metal can tolerate some contamination ablesolventcleaningmethod.Ordinarytapwater
from the welding atmosphere without significant loss should not be used to rinse titanium parts. Chlorides
inductility. The ERTi-1,-2, -3, and -4 filler metal and other cleaning residues left on titanium can lead to
classifications are designed for thispurpose,as are stress-corrosioncrackingwhen the components are
those in AMS Specification 4951 (available from the heatedaboveabout290C(550F)duringwelding,
Society of Automotive Engineers [see Appendix 21). brazing and heat-treating. Hydrocarbon residues can
Unalloyed filler metal may be used to weld titanium result in Contamination and embrittlement of the tita-
alloyswhenweldmetalductility is moreimportant nium. Partsto be welded or brazed usually have a light
than joint strength. Joint efficienciesof less that 100% oxide coating in the vicinity of the joint. The coating
can be expected. can be removed by pickling in an aqueous solution of
For cryogenic applications where base metals with 2 to 4% hydrofluoric acid (used with proper precau-
extra-low interstitial impurities are specified,the filler tions) and 30 to 40% nitric acid, followedby appropri-
metals should also be low in those impurities. To be ate water rinsing and drying. Hydrogen absorptionby
effective, the welding must be done with equipment titanium alloys is generally not a problem at tempera-
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 3997 0764265 0536720 2 T 4 D
G 546 TITANIUM Encyclopedia Welding
Table T-9
Titanium and TitaniumAlloy Bare Welding Electrodes andRods
Chemical Composition, Percenta
AWS Classification C O2 H2 N2 AI V Sn Cr Fe Mo Nb Ta Pd Ti
03 1 ERTi- 0.012
ERTi-2 0.008
0.05 0.10 0.020
ERTi-3 0.008
0.05 0.10-0.15 0.020
0.05ERTi-4 0.15425 0.008 0.020
ERTi-0.2Pd 0.008 0.15
0.05 0.020
ERTi-3AI-2.5V 0.05 0.008

0.12 0.020 2.5-3.5 2.0-3.0 - 0.25 - - - - Bal.
ERTi-3AI-2.5V-lb 0.04 0.10 0.005 0.012 2.5-3.5 2.0-3.0 - 0.25 - - - - Bal.
ERTi-SAI-2.5Sn 0.05 0.12 0.008 0.030 4.7-5.6 - 0.40 - - - - Bal.
ERTi-5Al-2.5Snlb 0.04 0.005
0.10 0.012 4.7-5.6 - 0.25 - - - - Bal.
ERTi-6A1-2Cb-lTa-lMo 0.04 0.10 0.005 0.012 5.5-6.5 - 0.15 0.5-1.5
1.5-2.5
1.5-2.5 - Bal.
ERTi-6AI-4V 0.05 0.15 0.008 0.020
5.5-6.75 3.54.5 - - 0.25 - - - - Bal.
ERTi-6AI-4V- 1 0.04 0.10 0.005 0.012
5.5-6.75
3.5-4.5 - - 0.15 - - - - Bal.
ERTi-SAI-IMO-IV 0.05 0.12 0.008 0.03
7.35-8.35
.75-1.25 - - .75-1.25
0.25 - - - Bal.
ERTi-13V-llCr-3AI 0.05 0.12 0.008 0.03
2.5-3.5
12.5-14.5 - 10.0-12.0
0.25 - - - - Bal.
a. Single values are maximum.
b. Extra-low interstitialsfor welding similarbase metals.
tures up to 60C (140F).The part should be handled, facesfollowed bywashingwith a suitablesolvent,

after pickling and rinsing, withlint-free gloves during may be usedin lieu of pickling treatment.
assembly in the welding or brazing fixture. The fixtur-
Protection During Joining.Because of the sensitivity
ing itself should be thoroughly cleaned and degreased
prior to loading the workpieces. of titanium to embrittlement by oxygen, nitrogen, and
Oxide scale formed at temperatures above 595C hydrogen, the entire component or that portion to be
(1 100F)is difficult to remove chemically. Mechanical heated above about 260C (500F) must be protected
methods,suchasvaporblastingandgritblasting, from atmospheric contamination. Protectionor shield-
should be used for scale removal. Mechanical opera- ing is commonly provided' by a high-punty inert gas
tions are usually followed by a pickling operation to cover in the open or in a chamber, or by a vacuum of
ensure complete removalof surface contamination. 0.01 3 Pa ( lo4 torr) or lower.
To control porosity in welding operations, the sur- During arc welding,titaniummustbeprotected
faces to be joined are often given special treatments, from the atmosphere until it has cooled below about
including draw filing, wire brushing, or abrading the 425C (800F). Adequate protection can be provided
joint andadjacentsurfacespriorto fitup and final by an auxiliary inert gas shielding device when weld-
cleaning. Sheared joint edges frequently require spe- ingintheopen. For
critical applications,welding
cial treatments to remove entrapped dirt, metal slivers, should be done in a gas-tight chamber that is thor-
and small cracks because these edge discontinuities oughly purged of air prior to filling with high-purity
promote weld porosity. argon, helium, or mixtures of the two.
Reweld cleaningoperationsshouldbeaccom- The purity of the shieldinggasinfluencesthe
plished immediately prior to welding. If this is not mechanical propertiesof the weldedjoint. Both air and
practical, the parts should be stored with a desiccant in water vapor are particularly detrimental. The purityof
sealed bags or in a humidity-controlled storage room. commercial inert gases used for welding is normally
Alternatively, thorough degreasing and light pickling satisfactory,butcaremustbetakentoensurethat
of partsjust prior to weldingor brazing is strongly rec- moisture and airare not entrainedinto the gas delivery
ommended.Mechanicalabrasion of the fayingsur- system. The dew point of the gas should be measured

STD*AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 051b721 130 m
Welding 547
at the weldinglocation or as it is purgedfrom a and adjacent base metal (primary shielding), (2) the
welding chamber. A dew point of 40C (40F)at hot, solidified weld metal and heat-affected zone (sec-
the point of weld is the approximate maximum mois- ondary shielding, and (3) the back side of the weld
ture limit. Shielding gases have a dew pointof -51C joint (backing).
(40F) or lower. PrimaryGasShieldlng. primary gas shieldingis
The inert gas at the cylinder or other source must be
provided by the arc welding torch or arc welding gun
suffkiently dry to allow a margin for some moisture nozzle. The nozzle size usually ranges from 12.7 to
pickup in the delivery system. One method of check- 19 mm (0.5 to 0.75 in.). In general, the largest nozzle
ing gas purity is to weld a sample piece of titanium, consistent with accessibility and visibility should be
prior to welding the workpiece itself, then to bend it. used. Nozzles that provide laminar flow ofthe shield-
The surface appearanceand the degree of bending are ing gas are desirable because they lessen the possi-
a good indication of the gas purity. A second sample bility of turbulent gas flow where air mixes into the
should be welded and bentafter the workpiece is com- gasstreamat its periphery.Propershieldingof the
pleted to assure that the shielding was satisfactory dur-molten weld poolis critical.
ing welding.
Secondary Gas Shielding.The primary gas shielding
The color of a weld beadon titanium is often usedas advances with the arc welding gun and a secondary
a measureof the level of contamination or the shielding
inert shielding gas is necessary to protect the solidi-
gaspurity. A lightbronzecolorindicatesasmall
fied,coolingweldbeadandtheheat-affectedzone.
amount of surface contamination; a shiny blue color The hot weld zone must be shielded from the atmo-
indicates a greater amount of surface contamination.
sphere until it has cooled to a temperature where oxi-
Neither of theselevels of surfacecontamination is
dation is not a problem.The low thermal conductivity,
desirable, but may be acceptable on a single or final
and consequent slow cooling,of titanium requires that
weld pass, provided the surface layer is removed before
aconsiderablelength of thehotweldbeshielded;
the weldment is placed in service. A white, flaky layer
more than is usually provided by gas flow from an arc
on the weld bead indicates excessive contamination,
welding gun.
which is notanacceptablecondition. In multipass The common form of secondary shieldingis a trail-
groove welds, no surface contamination is acceptable
ing shield; a typical designis shown in Figure T-15. It
andmustberemovedbeforedepositingadditional
consists of a metal chamber fitted to the torch nozzle
passes. If a whiteor gray flaky oxideis present, the gas and held by a clamp. The inert gas flows through a
shielding system shouldbe inspected, and the causeof
porous metal diffuser screen over the weld area. The
contamination corrected.The contaminated weld metal
shield must be wide enough to cover the heat-affected
should be removed because it is likely to be brittle.zone oneach side of the weld bead.
When brazing or diffusion welding titanium parts, A trailing shield is used for machine or automatic
they must be protected by high-purity inert gas or pro-
welding where travelspeeds are higher. In one impor-
cessed in a vacuum.The time at temperature should be
tant application, the trailing shield, used in welding
as short as practical because hot titanium (a getter) pipe inthe horizontal-rolled position,is curved to con-
absorbs oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen by diffusion form to the pipe surface.
when available in even minute amounts. For manual welding, a largegas nozzle or an auxil-
Gas Shielded Arc Welding iary annulargas nozzle canbe used with slow welding
The three processes normally used for joining tita- speeds. Trailing gas shielding can interfere with the
nium are gas tungsten arc, gas metal arc, and plasma visibility of theweldpoolandmanipulationofthe
arc welding. manual arc welding torch.
Welding with all thre processes can be done with Secondary shielding can be incorporated into the
manual, semiautomatic,or automatic equipment. Man- fixturing, as shown in Figure T-16. Inert gas passages
ual and automatic welding canbe done in the open or are provided in the hold-down bars on both sides of
in achamberfilledwithinertgas.Semiautomatic the weld seam. Shielding gas flows from the arc weld-
welding is usually done in the open, but could con- ing torch and hold-down bars into the channel formed
ceivably be performed in a chamber. by the bars, displacingthe air from above the weld.
The main concern with welding in the openis ade- BackingGasShielding. Inert gas shielding is
quate inert gas shielding of (1) the molten weld pool required to protect the weldrootandadjacentbase
~ ~~~~ ~~~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997. D 0784265 05Lb722 077 m
Welding 548 TITANIUM WELDING
tightly fitted alongthe entire length to ensure uniform

WELDING DIRECTION weld quality.
The backing, which is often made of water-cooled
copper, can serve to remove heat from the weld and
INERT GAS acceleratecooling.Stainlesssteelbackingmay be
INLET
used when lower cooling rates are acceptable. The root
opening of the joint must be near zero to prevent the
arc from impingingon and fusingthe titanium weld to
the backing bar. Contamination of the titanium weld
metal may embrittle it, resulting in a cracked weld.
When welding pipe or tubing, the interior of the
pipe must be purged of air with inert gas. Usually a
volume of inert gas that is at least six timesthe volume
POROUS
of the pipe is required to displace the air. In large sys-
METAL tems, internal dams can be placed on both sides of the
joint to confine the backing gas to the vicinity of the
L WELD LTORCH
NOZZLE
DIFFUSION
SCREEN weld joint. Internal dams must have an inlet for the
inert gas, an outletfor the displaced air and inertgas to
Figure T-15-Torch Trailing Shield for Gas escape, and internalgas pressure must be low,50.8 or
Shielded Arc Welding of Titanium and Other 76.2 mm (2 or 3 in.) of mercury. Suitable dams are
Reactive Metals available commercially.
Weldingin a Chamber. Manytitaniumweldment
designs are not adaptable to welding in the open air;
SHIELDING GAS FLOW adequate inert gas shielding of weld joints would be
THROUGH TORCH NOZZLE
difficulttoachieve. An acceptableprocedure is to
SHIELDING GAS weld such an assembly in an enclosed chamber filled
SHIELDING
GAS PORT,
F
r DIFFUSER
HFLD DOWN
BARS
with inert gas.
Two types of weldingchambers are used:flow-
purged and vacuum-purged. The welding atmosphere
in a flow-purged chamberis obtained by flowing inert
gas through the chamber to flush outthe air. The vol-
ume of inert gas needed to obtain a welding atmo-
sphere of sufficient purity in the chamber is about six
times the chamber volume.
The appropriate inertgas flow rate andair displace-
I I ment timefor a specific chamber should be established
F L SHIELDING
F
by weldingtests.Duringwelding,inertgasflows
GAS PORT
throughthearcweldingtorchto ensure adequate
Figure T-16Secondary Inert Gas Shielding shielding of the molten weld pool. A low, positive gas
Incorporated in the Welding Fixture pressure is always maintained in the chamber to pre-
vent air fromentering. The weldingatmosphere
should be monitored during actual welding operations
metalfromatmosphericcontaminationduringweld- by running weld beads on test coupons prior to, dur-
ing.This is accomplishedusinggaspassagesin a ing, and after welding the actual assemblies. The test
backing (bar or ring) as shown in Figure T-17. The couponsshouldbeevaluatedvisuallyandmechani-
backing is incorporated into the fixturing (see Figure cally to verify that the chamber atmosphere was satis-
T-16), and containsa clearance groove under thejoint factory duringthe welding operation.
that is filled with inert gas prior to welding.The inert
When contaminationof the titanium during welding
gas pressure in the groove must be kept low to avoid must be absolutely avoided, welding is performed ina
forming a concave root surface.The backing should be
vacuum-purgedchamber.Air is removedfromthe

Weldina WELDING TITANIUM 549
chamber by a vacuum pumping system to a pressure

of usually 0.013 Pa (10"' torr) or lower. The chamber
is then back-filled with inert gas havinga dew pointof
-60C (-76F) or lower.
Accessibility to the work is through glove ports in
the chamber. The gloves, welding torchor gun, fixtur-
ing, and other material installedor placed in the cham-
ber must be impervious to air and water, and void of
volatiles that can contaminate the titanium.
Joint
Design. The weld joint designsusedfor
welding titanium are similar to those used for steels.
Actual joint design dependson
several
factors,
including the welding process, type of operation (man-
ualormachine), joint accessibility,andinspection
requirements.
Edge preparation should be done by a machining
process that does not contaminate the titanium or leave
embedded particles on the surface. As mentioned pre-
viously, root opening is important when welding with
cd
BACKING GAS
(A) FOR GROOVE WELDS temporary backing. Fixturing or tack welds should be
used to maintain uniform root opening during welding.
The design of a weldment, the types of joints, and
joint locationscanbelimitedbyshieldingrequire-
ments.Whenweldingin a chamber, positioning for
welding each joint mustbeconsideredduringthe
design phase.
PreheatandlnterpassTemperature. Preheatand
interpass temperatures must be kept low for welding in
open air toavoidsurfaceoxidation.Surfaceoxides
dissolved in the molten weld metal can cause prob-
lems when the weld solidifies.A low preheatis gener-
ally employed to drive off adsorbed surface moisture
prior to welding. Preheat and interpass temperatures
should not exceed 120C (250F). Prolonged exposure
to air at temperatures above 120C (250F) can cause
an oxidefilmtoformonthefayingsurfaces. This
oxide film must be removed witha stainless steel wire
brush or rotary carbide burrs prior to welding.
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
Gastungstenarcwelding (GTAW) is commonly
W used to weld titanium and its alloys, particularly for
BACKING GAS sheet thicknesses up to 3 mm (0.125 in.). Welding in
INLET open air is best done in the flat position to maintain
adequateinert gas shieldingwith the weldingtorch
(B) FOR CORNER OR FILLET WELDS andsecondaryshieldingdevices.Speciallydesigned
secondaryshieldingdevicesmay be requiredwhen
Figure T-17-Weld Backing Bars that Provide Inert welding in positions other than flat. Welding in posi-
Gas Shielding tions other than flat may contribute to the amount of
porosity inthe weld metal.
G 550 TITANIUM Welding Encyclopedia
Direct current electrode negative (DCEN) is nor- ticularlywiththicksections. Selecting thecorrect

mally used with Type EWTh-2 tungsten electrodes of welding conditions should produce a smoothly con-
proper size. Contamination of the weld with tungsten toured weld that blends with the base metal.
should be avoided because it embrittles the titanium. With GMAW, thedroplets of filler metalbeing
Electrodeextensionfromthe gas nozzleshould be transferred across the arc are exposed to much higher
limited to the amount required for good visibility of temperatures than the filler metal fed into a GTAW
the weld pool. Excessive extension is likely to result in molten weld pool. The combination of high tempera-
weld metal contamination. ture andfine particle size makesthe filler metal highly
When welding in open air, welding shouldtenni- be susceptible to contamination by impurities in the arc
nated on a runoff tab or the welding torch should dwell atmosphere. Consequently, the welding gun and auxil-
over the weld with a postflow of shielding gas after
iary gas shielding must be carefully designed to pre-
shutting off the welding current. When filler a metal is
added, the heated endof the welding rod must be held vent
contamination of the inert gas welding
under the gas nozzle at all times to avoid contamina- atmosphere.
tion. If the tip of the rod becomes contaminated, it Equipment. Conventional GMAW power sources
must be cutoff before continuing the weld. and control systems are satisfactory for welding tita-
Welding conditions for specific
a application nium. ConventionalGMAW guns are modified to pro-
depend on joint thickness, joint design, the weld tool- vide the necessary auxiliary gas shielding needed for
ingdesign,andmethod of welding(manual or titanium.
machine). For any given section thickness and joint
design,variouscombinations of amperage,voltage, Filler Metal Transfer. Titanium filler metal can be
welding speed, andfiller wire feed rate can be usedto transferred by all three types of metal transfer: short-
produce satisfactory welds. circuiting, globular, and spray. Globular transfer is not
Typicalweldingconditions that can be used for recommended for welding titanium because of exces-
machinegastungstenarcwelding of titanium are sive spatter and incomplete fusion inthe weld. Short-
shown in Table T-10. The welding conditions gener- circuiting transfer can be used for welding thin sec-
ally do not have to be adjusted radically to accommo- tions in all positions. When welding thick sections,in
date thevarioustitaniumalloys,however,certain positions other than flat, incomplete fusion can be a
adjustments are often made to control weld porosity. problem becauseof the inherent low heat input.
Gas Metal ArcWelding When welding thick sections in the flat and hori-
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) can be used for zontalpositions,spraytransfer is preferredtotake
joining titanium. It is more economical thangas tung- advantage of high heatinput and high deposition rates.
sten arc welding because of the deposition rates, par- Pulsedsprayweldingprovidesspraytransferwith
Table T-1O
Typical Conditionsfor GTAW Machine Weldingof Titanium
Filler Wire
Diameter
Thickness
Sheet Arc Welding 'kavel Speed
Shielding
Voltage,
Current,
mm in. mm in. mds inJmin Gas V A mds inJmin
0.008 0.203 - - - 16 -6.77 He10 14
0.762 0.030 - - - - Ar 10 25-30 10 4.23
1.524 0.060 - - - - Ar 10 10
90-100 4.23
1.524 0.060 1.587 0.062 9.31 22 Ar 120-130 10 12 5.08
2.286 0.090 - - - -10 4.23
Ar 190-200 12
2.286 0.090 1.587 0.062 9.31 22 Ar 200-210 12 5.08 12
3.175 0.125 1.587 0.062 8.46 20 Ar 220-230 12 10 4.23

lowerheatinputsthatisadvantageous for welding Ti-6A1-4V alloy that can be weldedin a single passis
thinner sections and in positions
other than flat. about 15 mm (0.60 in.).
Plasma Arc Welding When welding with a high power density, ioniza-
Plasma arc welding (PAW) is an extension of gas tion of metal vapor above the molten weld pool dif-
tungsten arc welding in that the arc plasma is forced fuses the laser beam and interferes with welding. This
through a constricting nozzle. Inert gas shielding of can be prevented by blowing the metal ions away from
the weld is provided by a shielding gas nozzle and an the weldpool withinertgas,preferablyhelium.
auxiliarytrailingshieldsimilartothatusedwith Helium-argon mixtures can also be used. At the same
GTAW and GMAW. Welding is accomplished with a time, a titanium weld must be shielded from the atmo-
transferred arc using direct current, electrode negative sphere to prevent contamination and embrittlement, as
supplied by a constant current power source. described previously for arc welding.
Argon, with a dew point -60C of (-76F) or lower, Other Processes
is generally used as the orifice gas and shielding gas, Titanium can also be welded using the diffusion,
buthelium-argonmixtures are sometimesused for friction, resistance, and flash welding processes. Refer
shielding. Hydrogen must not be added to the inert gas to American Welding SocietyWelding Handbook, Vol.
because of its embrittling effects on titanium. 2, 8thEdition.AmericanWeldingSociety,Miami,
Plasma arc welding can be done using two tech- Florida. 1991.
niques: melt-in and keyhole. The melt-in technique is
similar to GTAW. The keyholetechniqueprovides Thermal Cutting
deep joint penetration for weldingsquare-groove Titanium can besevered by oxyfuel gas cutting
joints in one pass. The two techniques can be com- (OFC) at speeds approximately three times faster than
bined for welding groovejoints in thick sections. an equivalent thickness of steel,however,the cuts
Square-groove joints in titanium alloys from about result in a contaminated and hardened surface requir-
1.6 to 12.7 mm (0.062to 0.50 in) thick can be welded ing some type of edge preparation before welding. The
with one pass with the keyhole technique. Plasma arc depth of hardening in titanium after OFC is less than
weldstendtobeundercutalongthetopedgesand 0.3 mm (0.010 in.), but the overall hardened zonecan
have convex faces unless filler metal is added during extend upto 1.6 mm (0.06 in.) deep.
welding, or when a second passis made as a cosmetic Titanium can also be cut using the plasma arc cut-
pass. ting (PAC) process.The cut face will be contaminated
Electron Beam Welding to some degree becauseof the exposureof the hot tita-
Electron beam welding (EBW) in high vacuum is nium to the atmosphere.
well suited for joining titanium; oxygen and nitrogen Safe Practices
contamination of the weld is held within acceptable The possibility of spontaneous ignition of titanium
levels. When electron beam welds are made in a vac- and titanium alloysis extremely remote.As in thecase
uum or nonvacuum, inert-gas shielding requirements of magnesium and aluminum, the occurrence of fires
are thesame as for arc welding. is usuallyencounteredwhere an accumulation of
The processvariablesareacceleratingvoltage, grinding dust or machining chips exists.Evenin
beam current, beam diameter, and travel speed. Beam extremelyhighsurface-to-volumeratios,accumula-
dispersionincreaseswithatmosphericdensity,pres- tions of clean titanium particles do not ignite at any
sure, or both. Deep joint penetration in square-groove temperature below incipient fusiontemperature of the
welds is obtained with high beam power density and a air.
keyhole inthe weld metal. However, spontaneous ignitionof fine grinding dust
Laser Beam Welding or lathe chips saturated withoil under hot, humid con-
Laser beam welds can be produced in titanium by ditions has been reported. Water or water-based cool-
the conventional melt-in technique or by the keyhole antsshould be used for allmachiningoperations.
technique.With the keyholetechnique, as much as Carbon dioxide is also a satisfactory coolant. Large
90% of the laserbeamenergycanbeabsorbed, accumulations of chips, turnings, or other metal pow-
dependingonthemetal.Absorptionefficiency is ders, should be removed and stored in closed metal
significantly lower with the melt-in technique. At an containers. Dry grinding should be done in a manner
energylevel of 15 kW, the maximumthickness of that will allow proper heat dissipation.
STD=AWS JWE-ENGL L797 07B42b5 05Lb72b 732 W
552 T-JOINT Welding Encyclopedia
Dry compound extinguishing agents or dry sand are have resulted in varied lines of tool and die welding
effective for titaniumfires.Ordinaryextinguishing electrodes,withrecommendedprocedures for their
agents such as water, carbon tetrachloride, and carbon use.Thiscombined effort hasserved to minimize
dioxide foamare ineffective and should not be used. down-time in manufacturingfacilitiesthatusetools
Violentoxidation
reaction
(explosion)
occurs and dies.
betweentitaniumandliquidoxygen or red-fuming Tool and Die Welding Electrodes
nitricacid.Reference:AmericanWeldingSociety,
Welding Handbook, Volume 3, 8th Edition; American Tool and die welding electrodescan be divided into
Welding Society, Miami, Florida. two categories: basic tool steel welding electrodes, and
alloy welding electrodes. A combination of these two
T-JOINT types is used for some applications.
A joint between two members located approxi- BasicToolSteelWeldingElectrodes. This group
mately at right angles to each other in theform of a T of coatedelectrodesincludeswater-hardening,air-
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.See Appendix 5. hardening,hot-workingandhigh-speedsteel.These
electrodes are in an annealed state, and the weld metal
TOBIN BRONZE is hardened by air quenching fromthe high heatof the
Acopperalloywithexceptionallygoodwelding arc. The weld deposits are hard-as-welded, whether
properties. It is approximately 60% copper, 39% zinc they are applied to hardened or annealed tool steel,
and1%tin.ThemeltingpointofTobinbronze is mild, medium, or high-carbon steel, or to other alloy
885C (1625F).See COPPER ALLOY WELDING. steels. The weld deposits can be annealed to facilitate
machining, then heat treated and tempered. As a gen-
TOE eral rule, weld deposits will respond to the heat treat-
See WELD TOE. ment recommended for the average tool steel in its
classification.
TOE CRACK
Alloy Welding Electrodes. Included in this group are
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendixes 8 low-alloy electrodes for plastic or zinc casting molds
and 9. and flame-hardened dies. Also in this group are the
more highly alloyed electrodes used to weld dies for
TOE OF WELD forging, drawing and forming. These electrodes pro-
See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See also WELD duce machinable weld deposits which are not affected
TOE. by heat treatment. They are available in several types,
providing a range of hardness in the weld deposits.
TOOL AND DIE WELDING Additional hardness is obtained by work hardening.
Virtually all typesof tool steel can be weldedby the
shieldedmetal arc, gastungstenarc,plasma arc, or Combination. Other alloy electrodes are sometimes
electron beam processes. Die units used for blanking, used in conjunction with tool and die welding elec-
forming, forging, drawing, embossing, coining, or hot trodes,especially for applications on cast dies for
and cold trimming can be salvaged or reclaimed using drawingorforming.Nickel-ironelectrodes,nickel
one of these processes. electrodes, and copper-nickel electrodes can be used
Tool and die welding applications can be separated as foundation on cast units, then other tool and die
into four categories: electrodes are used to finish the castings.
(1) Repairing of dies Current, Coatings, and Deposits. Generally, tool and
(2) Composite fabricationof dies die welding electrodes should be used on direct cur-
(3) Correction of designs rentelectrodepositive(DCEP). The percentage of
(4) Improvement of properties by hardfacing alloyingelementslost in the welddepositsduring
Die
Weldingand
Repair. Weldingprofessionals, weldingcanberegainedbyselecting an electrode
along with tool engineers, have developed tool die and which incorporates the required alloys in the coating.
welding and repair methods which can be economi- Mineral-alloyed coatings are preferred.
callysignificant.Research,developmentandtesting The introduction of a mineral-alloyed coating on
by weldingequipmentandelectrodemanufacturers theelectrodes also helpsproduce a desirablespray

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 0784265 0536727 6 5 9 m
cyclopedia Welding AND DIE WELDING 553
action of the arc and forms a protective slag, which is Admixture and Cooling. The admixture (dilution) of
easily removed. the deposits with the base metal produces weld metal
Tool and die welding electrodes will produce sound that is alloyed in direct proportion to the alloys con-
homogeneouswelddeposits free fromporosity.In tained in the electrodes and in the parent metal. When
manycases,laboratorytestshaverevealedweld elements such as carbon and chromium are added to
deposit structures that are superior to parent steel of steels to enhance hardenability, the percentage of these
the sameclass. elements will be directly reflected in the as-welded
Gas metal arc and flux-cored arc welding can be or as-heat treated hardnessof the deposits.
usedtoweldtoolsand dies, generallyusingsmall Rate of Cooling. The rate of cooling after welding,
diameter(lessthan 1.5 mm [0.060 in.])wires. The which is governed by the preheating temperature and
plasma arc, electron beam and laser beam processes, the size of the workpiece, affects the ultimate hard-
with or without filler metal, can also be used for tool ness. The largertheworkpiece,theslowertheair
and die welding. quench.
Factors lnfluenclng Hardness Tempering. In welding tool steel, changes take place
The hardnessdeveloped in welddepositsas- in the steel that require tempering. Hardening a tool
welded and heat-treated will vary according to the steel with heat treatment requires tempering afterward.
following principal factors: To gain the same results, weld deposits should also be
(1) Preheat treatment (i.e., the preheating temperature)tempered. Tempering yields toughness with very little
(2) Technique during the welding sequence reduction of hardness. It refinesthe grain structure and
(3) Admixture of the base metal with the deposit relieves stresses and strains set upin the welding pro-
(4) Rate of cooling and massof the workpiece cess. Tempering or drawing must suit requirements.
(5) Tempering temperature after welding. Size governs the length of time of the draw, which
should never be less than one hour. Deposits of the
Preheating. Asacrack-preventivemeasure,it is alloy type should not be tempered, but the units on
very important to preheat the workpieces to which toolwhich they are applied should be stress relieved. Par-
and die electrodes are to be applied. The degree of pre- tial repairs should be tempered according to the draw-
heat is a primary factor affecting the hardness devel- rangetemperatures of thebasemetal; full repairs
oped in welddepositsbecausepreheatingtendsto shouldbetemperedaccordingto the recommended
delay the rate of airquenching.Foragivenset of draw-range temperatures for the electrode.
weldingconditions,such as currentandwelding
Fundamentals of Welding Tool Steel
speed, the cooling rate will be faster for a weld made
withoutpreheatthanwithpreheat.Preheating also Tool steels are carbon steels to which alloys have
helpstoreduce or preventshrinkagestressesand been added in varyingquantities.Suchelementsas
deformation. carbon, manganese, silicon, chromium, nickel, tung-
sten, vanadium, molybdenum and cobalt are added to
WeldingTechnique. Welding technique affects the steeltobringaboutsuchcharacteristics as greater
hardness of the weld deposit. Direct current electrode wearresistanceandhardness,greatertoughnessor
positive(DCEP)isrecommendedbecause it mini- strength,stabilizedsizeandshapeduringchanges
mizes arc penetration, resulting in less admixture with caused by heat and cold, and red hardness, a condi-
the base metal. tion in which the steel will remain hard while red hot.
The smallest electrode adequate for the job should Because of thediversifiedcomposition of tool
be selected because it requires less heat, this
and influ- steels,heattreating is acomplexsubject.However,
ences the ultimate hardnessof the deposit. knowledge of the fundamentalsof tool steels will beof
Work positioning,travelspeed,weldingcurrent, help in setting up specifications for heat treating. In
and manipulation of the arc all exert an influence on practical tool and die welding, it is not necessary that
weld hardness. the electrode matchthe analysis of the tool steel being
Ultimate hardness and characteristics of the weld welded,but inmostcases, the weldingelectrode
deposits can be enhanced by thorough peening while should match as closely as possible the heat treatment
at forging temperatures. Extended deposits should not recommended for thattoolsteelclassification. Such
be made before peening because the metal will cool; terms as annealing, normalizing, hardening, and tem-
hot metal is more ductile. pering should be thoroughly understood.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 M 07842b5 0536728 595
AND 554 TOOL Encyclopedia Welding
The four general classificationsof tool steelsare (1) rough-grinddamagedareas to allow for auniform
water-hardening, (2) oil-hardening, (3) air-hardening depth of at least 3 mm (1/8 in.) of finished deposits.
and (4) hotworking.It is necessarytostudythe In making repairs to entire cutting edges of tool or
analysis of the composition of tool steels in order to dies, rough-grind edges to be welded to an approxi-
become familiar with their properties and characteris- mate 45" angle to allow depositsof 6 mm (114 in.) of
tics.Althoughhundredsofdifferenttoolsteelsare finished metal.
available, four generalclasses of electrodes (including On die units that require repairs over large areas,
high-speed steel electrodes) will generally sufice to prepare surfaces so that finished deposits will be at
weld them. It would be impracticalto have a welding least 3 mm (U8 in.) deep.
electrode to match each and every analysis, or exact Forrepairstodrawingandforming dies ofcast
specifications for heat treatment of this great varietyof structure, the edgesor areas to be faced shouldbe pre-
tool steels. In welding, however, it is not a question pared uniformly so that finished deposits are at least
of matching the analysis of the steel, but of matching 3 mm (U8 in.) deep. To prepare for extremely long
as closely as possible the heattreatment in its deposits, for forming edges or over large areas on cast-
classification. iron base metal, studding may be required. The studs
Recommended Welding Sequence. Tooland die should be staggered, spaced40 mm (1-1/2 in.) apart.
welding is not complicated if instructions and recom- Whenpreparingdamagedforging die blocks for
mendations are followedexplicitly. The following welding, areasto
berepairedshould bechipped,
basic principles should help to meet almost any tool ground or machined as uniformly as possible to a fin-
and die welding specifications. ished depth of about 5 mm (3/16 in.) for the inlay
deposit, or,wherenecessary, to below the heat-
(1) Identify the typeof tool steel to be welded. This checked depth.
will determine the heat treatment involved and will
governthehandling of theunitinthewelding (4) Preheat. Identification of the type of steel to be
sequence. weldedwilldetermine the drawrangetemperatures
(2) Select the correct electrode. In making partial involved. It is very important notto exceed maximum
repairs of cutting edgesor working surfaces, select the preheat temperature or exceed the maximum tempera-
electrode that will match, as closely as possible, the ture of thedrawrange for the type of steel to be
heat treatmentof the metal tobe welded. welded. Hardness will be losttheifunit is preheated to
a temperature above the draw range, because the origi-
To make full repairs to cutting edges or working nal structure of the steel will be disturbed. Maintain
surfaces, choose the electrode with characteristics best temperature under the minimum of the draw range in
suited for the type of work to which the unit will be preheating,andneverabovethemaximumfor the
subjected. Take into consideration any factors involv- interpass temperature while welding. This will retain
ing heat, abrasion, shock, and thickness of metal to be the original hardnessof the steel.
cut or formed.
For forgingdie repair, or facing castor carbon-steel (5) Welding.Generally, direct currentelectrode
dies for drawingorforming,selectalloyelectrodes positive (DCEP) is used to apply tool-steel and alloy
recommended by the manufacturerfor these purposes. electrodes. However, they mayalso be applied with ac.
Keep the temperature of the parent metal as uniform
The size of the electrode to be used for a repair will as possible during weldingto assure uniform hardness
depend on the width and depth of the damaged area.ofIndeposits.
general, a 2.4 mm (3/32 in.) diameter electrode will In welding cutting edges, position the work, if pos-
repair a damaged area 2.4 mm (3/32 in.) wide and
sible, so thatthedepositwillfloworrolloverthe
2.4 mm (3/32 in.) deep. The same relation applies to
cutting edges.
other electrode diameters. Always select the smallest
electrode, especially for sharp cutting edges, because Always try toworkslightlyupward,asgravity
causes the deposit to roll back and build up evenly.
less heat is required for welding. There is also less
chance of creating shear marks, andless grinding will Gravity also causes slag to roll out of the crater and
be necessary after welding. keep it clean. There is no need to weave the electrode
in an intricate pattern.
(3) Prepare the surface to be welded. In making par- In depositing beads, a slow travel speed is used to
tial repairsof cutting edges or workingsurfaces, secure an even deposit and to assure more uniform

~
~
STD.AWS JWE-ENGL 1,997 m 07842b5 os1,b72q 421, m
yclopedia Welding TOOL AND DIE WELDING 555
fusion of the electrode with the base metal. Keep the post-heatingservesas a temperingmedium for the
area cleanby frequent brushing. deposited metal. Postheating refines the grain structure
Thoroughlypeenalldeposits to offsetshrinkage and relieves stresses set up by welding.
and stress. Ball peen hammersare generally used, but In tempering deposits made to effect a partial repair,
small pneumatic hammersare efficient for large areas. the general rule is to temper according to the draw-
It is important not to deposit excess metal in one range temperatureof the base metal.If a unit has been
pass. On final passes, retain beadsas close as possible repaired over the entire edge or working area, temper
finished
to size. This will eliminate
excessive the deposits according to the draw range temperatures
grinding. recommended for the electrode used. All welded units
When welding cutting edges, the arc should not be should be temperedor drawn to meet requirements of
broken by rapidly pulling away the electrode. Lower- the base metal and the electrode.
ing the electrode gradually as you stop welding will The welder should seek advice from the manufac-
prevent deep craters and the searing of sharp edges turer of the unit or the electrode manufacturer on heat-
adjacent to the weld area. treating specifications as to the length of time welded
Whenrepairingparts of cuttingedges,theweld units should be drawn or tempered.
bead should first progress in one direction to within a Preheating equipment can also beused for post-
short distanceof the other end; then it should progress heating,tempering or drawing. A temperature-
in the opposite direction and overlap the first bead. controlled furnace should be used
if available.
This will prevent craters and sear marks at the extreme Composite Fabrication
end of the deposited metal. Sometimes die units can be fabricated as compos-
Whenweldingdeeplydamagedcuttingedges(or ites. Water-hardening, oil-hardening, air-hardening or
drawing and forming surfaces), start at the bottom andhot-work tool steel electrodes can be applied to a base
gradually fill up thedamagedareas.Useaslightly of amild,mediumorhigh-carbonsteel(or SAE
higher amperageon the first and second beads than on graded steel). The weld deposits are confined to cut-
finishing beads. Peening while the weld metal is in the ting edges or working areas.The result is a fabricated
forging state also eliminates sear marks at the edges of composite die constructed mostlyof inexpensive steel.
the deposits. The same basic principles can be followed on draw-
If two or three dissimilar types of tool-steel elec- ing and forming dies that are used on cast structures:
trodes are to be welded on one die unit, care must be deposit the tool steel alloy along sharp contours, belt
exercisedinapplyingtheelectrodes in sequenceto lines and radii. This prolongs the life of the forming
their draw ranges; the first electrode applied must have surfaces,helping to withstandabrasion,scoringor
the highest draw range, then the electrodes are applied fouling.
in decreasing order to the electrode with the lowest Flame-hardeningdiescanbefabricatedbyusing
draw range. This will prevent the annealing of previ- low-alloy electrodes.
ously applied deposits. Existing tool steel units can be converted into com-
To make repairs to entire cutting or forming edges posite units to meet unusual conditions by welding a
of draw rings, extrusion dies or similar circular parts, better grade of tool steel along the cutting edges or
the skip-weld method should be used to ensure even working areas.
distribution of heat. Becausedepositsmadewithtool-steelelectrodes
Warpingordistortion is offsetbypreheatingto are hardas welded, itis not necessary to post-heat treat
expand the units, and by peening to stretch welded fabricatedcompositeunitsexceptfortempering as
deposits and to offset stresses. These are mechanical recommended. To facilitate machining, however, the
problems. Shims and clamps can be used to advantage. deposit can be annealed and subsequently heat treated
Peening will relieve the stresses set up in the welding with the recommended heat treatment.
operationbystretchingthedepositedmetal. Do not The recommended welding sequence for composite
weld more than75 mm (3 in.) before peening. fabrication is similartothatusedforweldingtool
(6) Post-heat or Temper Depositsor Sections. After steel. On units with composite construction, tempering
welding, the unit is allowed to cool to approximately shouldalwaysfavorthedepositedmetal. The base
room temperature andis then tempered by reheating to metal acts only as a retaining medium for the cutting
the recommended temperature. This is important, as or working edge of the desired tool steel. For the rec-
STD=AWS JWE-ENGL L997 0784265 O536730 343
556 TOOL Welding Encyclopedia
ommendedtemperingtemperaturesofdeposits in of the upper piece wouldcause the parts to settle into

composite fabrication, refer to manufacturer's infor- intimate contact during brazing. The parts were care-
mation on each electrode. fully aligned. With irregular breaks this is seldom a
problem as the parts tendto align themselves naturally.
TOOL BRAZING
Heating. Heat was applied to the cutter with an oxy-
Although brazingas applied to toolsis generally for acetylene torch; the torch was
chosenprimarily
repairs, there are many applications in which brazing because of its speed in heating the tool steel to635C
is used to make composite tools by joining hard, tough
(1175"F), the brazingalloymeltingpoint, or flow
metaltoasofter steel. Whether the application is point.
repairing or building a tool, the same general brazing
processes are used.Brazingwithasilver-base filler When the metal glowed adull red and the flux was
metal is probably the most widely used of the pro- completely liquid and clear, the joints had to be only
cesses; thisis particularly true for high-speed steel cut- touched with silveralloywire,and the alloywas
tingtoolreclamation,and for applyingcemented pulled by capillary action throughout all joint areas.
carbide tips.See BRAZING, Carbide Tools. The alloy was fed into the
joints until it became visibly
evidentthatallbreakshadbeencompletelyfilled.
Repair Technique While every step is important, this dual heating is the
Brazing with a silver-base filler metal has been suc- payoff.Heatmustbeuniformlydistributedandthe
cessfully used to reclaim tools that had broken and torch kept moving to avoid affecting tool temper and
appeared ready for the scrap heap. An example is a setting up strains. After brazing, the cutter was cov-
gear cutter which had broken into three pieces. ered with several layers of insulating blanket and left
The equipment needed to restore this cutter con- inpositiontocoolslowly. See AmericanWelding
sisted of an oxyacetylene torch, a small length of 0.8 Society Welding Handbook, Volume 4, 8thEdition,
mm (0.031 in.) diameter silver alloy brazing wire, jara Miami, Florida: American Welding Society.
of flux, a few ounces of solvent, and a small length of
nichrome wire for holding the parts while brazing. TORCH
Cleanliness is the first lawof good brazing practice. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also AIR CAR-
In making this repair, the first step was to carefully BON ARCCUTTINGTORCH, GAS TUNGSTEN ARC CUT-
clean the pieces individually with a solvent to make TINGTORCH, GAS TUNGSTENARCWELDINGTORCH,
certainthat each piecewasscrupulouslycleanand HEATING TORCH, OXYFUEL GAS CUTTING TORCH, OXY-
bright. All surfacesof the pieces were then fluxed. is It FUEL GAS WELDINGTORCH,PLASMAARCCUTTING
important to use a silver brazing flux which is entirely TORCH, and PLASMA ARC WELDING TORCH.
liquid and activein dissolving oxides at the exact tem-
perature requiredfor silver alloy brazing. TORCH BRAZING(TB)
Precoating A brazing process that uses heat from a fuel gas
Joint surfaces of each broken piece were precoated flame. See STANDARDWELDING TERMS.
(pretinned) with a silver brazing alloy in the following
TORCH CLASSIFICATION
process:
(1) An oxyacetylene torch was used to bring the InjectorTorch. These low-pressure torches operate
surfacesto be joined tobrazingtemperature,or on an acetylene pressure of less than 7 Pa (1 psi). They
approximately 635C (1175F). The flame was kept were originally designed foruse withlow-pressure
movingtoassureuniformheatingandtoavoidhot acetylene generators where higher acetylene pressures
spots.Enoughsilverbrazingalloywasappliedto were not available. The acetylene, passing through rel-
cover the surface completely. atively large openings, is drawn into the mixer by the
(2) While the heat was maintained, the molten braz- action of the high pressure of the oxygen as it passes
ing alloy was puddled, rubbed into the surface with a through a very small orifice in the injector.
metalroduntil the surfacewascompletelycovered Balanced Pressure Torch.These torches utilize acet-
with a thin, even coat. After pretinning, all joint sur- ylene under pressures from 7 to 103 Pa (1 to 15 psi),
faces were again liberally covered with flux to get rid depending upon the size of the tip. The torch utilizes
ofoxideswhichtendtoformduring final heating. both oxygen andthe fuel gas under equal pressures.In
Pieces were then assembled uprightso that the weight this case, the ports at the entrance to the mixer are

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 9 07842b5 051b73L OBT m
cyclopediaWelding METAL WELD OF TRANSFER 557
equal in area, and under equal pressures deliver equal 550 N.W. LeJeune Rd. Miami, Florida 33126. (800)
volumes of oxygen and the fuel gas to the mixer. The 443-9353. Fax (305) 443-6445.
flow of gasesis not influenced by the mixer, as it is in
the injector torch. TRAINING QUALIFICATIONS FOR CODE WORK
Welder, welding operator, and tack welder qualifi-
TORCH SOLDERINGUS) cation tests determine the ability of the persons tested
A soldering process that uses heat from a fuel gas to produce acceptably sound welds with the process,
flame. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. materials, and procedure required in the tests.Various
codes,specifications,andgoverning rules generally
TORCH TIP prescribesimilarmethods for qualifyingwelders,
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See WELDING TIP welding operators, and tack welders. The applicable
and C m G TIP. code or specification should be consulted for precise
details and requirements.
TORSION TEST Welding operators frequently take qualifying tests
A test to determine the amount of stress caused in a to comply with the requirements of a code or specifi-
metal or material when twisted; for example, the tor- cation governing a particular type of work on which
sion strength of wire is tested to see how much twist- the operator is to be employed. TableT- 11 lists some
ing canbe applied before it will split or break. of the principal codes andspecificationscontaining
rules for qualifying welding operators. Each of these
TOUGHNESS
codes contains specific provisions governing the pro-
The resistance of a material to fracture after perma-
cedure to be followed in qualifying welding operators
nent deformation has begun.
for work under that code. The codes usually provide
Materials with the property of toughness are those for the following requirements:
that willwithstandheavyshocks or absorbalarge
(1) The manner of supervising the tests
amount of energy.
(2) The number and types of tests required
TRACER (3) The method of weldingthe specimens
A radioisotope mixed with stable
a material used to (4) The method of testingthe specimens
trace another material as it undergoes chemical and ( 5 ) The test results required
physical changes.See ISOTOPES. (6)Provision for retests inthe event of initial failure
(7) The period of time qualificationis effective
TRACK WELDING (8) The method of requalification.
The welding of railroad track prior to installation In somecases, the codes prescribea specific
and for repair of damage (e.g., wear). See RAIL JOINT method of recording the results of the qualification
WELDING. tests. Usually the method requires completing a form
covering qualifications, issuing a certificate, and filing
TRAINING these records withthe employer.
Training is essentialtotheproduction of quality No two codes are exactly alike with respect to the
welds and weldments in all processes. The American provisions for qualifying welding operators,so it nec-
Welding Society offers materials for use in training essary,whenseekingdetailedinformation as to the
courses for welding personnel. types of tests required and the method of test super-
AWS document EG2.0,Guide for the Training and vision, to consult the specific code or specification
Qzulifcation of Welding Personnel: Entry
Level governing the particular typeof work tobe done.
Welder, provides a complete curriculum for training
welders to Entry Level (Level I) requirements. The TRANSFERRED ARC
curriculum is basedonaneedsanalysisfrom 800 A plasma arc established between the electrode of
responses to a survey conducted the in United States. the plasma arc torch andthe workpiece. See STAN-
AWS/ANSI EG3.0 and EG4.0 cover qualifications DARD WELDINGTERMS.
for Level II (Advanced) welders and Level III (Expert)
welders, respectively. These documents are available TRANSFER OF WELD METAL
from the American Welding Society. Interested per- Molten metal produced at the tip or end of a con-
sons shouldcontact the AmericanWeldingSociety, sumable arc welding electrode transfers to the work-
558 TRANSFORMER
Table T-11
Typical Codes and Specifications for Welded or Brazed Products
that Require Performance or Procedure Qualification
Designation Title
AWS D1.l Structural Welding Code-Steel

AWS D1.2 Structural Welding Code-Aluminum
AWS D1.3 Structural Welding Code-Sheet Metal
AWS D1.4 Structural Welding Code-Reinforcing Steel
AWS D3.6 Specification for Underwater Welding
AWS D9.1 Specification forWelding Sheet Metal
AWS D14.1 Specification forWelding Industrial and Mill Cranes
AWS D14.2 Specification for Metal Cutting Tool Weldments
AWS D14.3 Specification for Earthmoving and Construction Equipment
AWS D14.4 Classification and Application of Welded Joints for Machinery and Equipment
AWS D14.5 Specification forWelding of Presses andPress Components
AWS D14.6 Specification for Rotating Elements of Equipment
AWS D15.1 Railroad Welding Specification
ASME Boiler and PressureVessel Code
ASME B31 Code for Pressure Piping
National Board InspectionCode
API STD 1104 Standard forWelding Pipelines and Related Facilities
piece and weld pool byone of three major modes: (1) cuits joined together by a magnetic circuit formed in
globular, (2) spray, (3) and short-circuiting.Transfer an iron core.
under pulsed current operation is often considered to
constitute a fourth mode called pulsed transfer, but TRANSFORMER EFFICIENCY
there is actually no differencein mode, but onlyin the The powerdelivered by atransformer(output)
current at which the globular mode makes transitions divided by the powerinput to it.
to the spray mode.
TRANSFORMER WELDING MACHINE
The variousmetaltransfermodes are important An alternating-current arc welding machine.
because they change the amount of heat carried to the
workpiece and weld pool, and thus the deposition rate, TRANSVERSE BEND SPECIMEN
and greatly affect control of the molten weld pool in ,see STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See als0 TRANS-
out-of-position welding. For example, welding over- VERSE WELD TEST SPECIMEN.
head is facilitated by short-circuiting transfer, where
capillary attraction helps overcome the effects of grav- TRANSVERSECRACK
ity on the molten metal. The physics underlying each A crack with its major axis oriented approximately
mode are covered in the Welding Handbook, 8th Edi- perpendicular to the weld axis. See STANDARD WELD-
tion, Volume l: Miami,Florida:AmericanWelding ING TERMS. See Appendix 9.
Society, 1989.
TRANSVERSE SEAM WELDING
See also GLOBULAR METAL TRANSFER, SPRAY
A seam weld made in a direction essentially at a
TRANSFER, ArcWelding, and SHORT CIRCUITING
rightangle to the throatdepth of aseamwelding
TRANSFER.
machine.
TRANSFORMER TRANSVERSE TENSION SPECIMEN
A device used to changealternatingcurrent from See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also TRANS-
one voltageto another. It consists of two electrical cir- VERSE WELD TEST SPECIMEN.

Welding Encyclopedia TIME DELAY START TRAVEL 559
TRANSVERSE WELD TEST SPECIMEN at its point of intersection with the extension of the
A weld test specimen with its major axis perpendic- electrode axis, in a planedetermined by the electrode
ular to the weld axis. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. axis and a line tangent to the pipe surface at the
See also LONGITUDINAL WELD TEST SPECIMEN. same point. This angle can also be used to partially
define the positionof guns, torches, rods, and beams.
TRAVEL ANGLE See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See Figure T-19.
The angle less than 90 degrees between the elec- See also DRAGANGLE, PUSH ANGLE, and WORK
trode axis and a line perpendicular to the weld axis, in ANGLE.
a plane determined by the electrode axis and the weld
axis. This angle can also be used to partially define the TRAVEL SPEED
position of guns, torches, rods, and beams. See STAN-
DARD WELDINGTERMS. See Figure T-18. See also
Rate of weld progression.
DRAG ANGLE, PUSH ANGLE, and WORK ANGLE.
TRAVEL START DELAY TIME
TRAVEL ANGLE, Pipe The time interval from arc initiation to the start of
The angle less than 90 degrees between the elec- the torch, gun, or workpiece travel. See STANDARD
trode axis and a line perpendicular to the weld axis WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 19.
DRAG ANGLE FOR

BACKHAND WELDING
PUSH ANGLE
FOR
AND
TRAVEL
ANGLE
FOREHAND WELDING
AND TRAVEL ANGLE
WORK
PUSH ANGLE FOR ANGLE
ANGLE
DRAG
ANGLE
TRAVEL
AND
FOR BACKHAND
WELDING AND
TRAVEL ANGLE
(A) GROOVE WELD
(B) FILLET WELD
Figure T-1GTravel Angle and Torch Positions

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 W 0784265 0536734 899 m
STOP560 TRAVEL Welding Encyclopedia
DRAG ANGLE FOR PUSH ANGLE FOR

BACKHAND WELDING FOREHAND WELDING
AND TRAVEL ANGLE AND TRAVEL ANGLE
-
UGENT LINE
/
.
H
PIPE WELD
Figure T-1 9-Position of Electrode, Gun, Torch,Rod, or Beam for Pipe Welding
TRAVEL STOP DELAY TIME (160F). At this temperature, the solutionis active but
The time intervalfrom beginning of downslope time there is negligible change in concentration becauseof
or crater fill time to shut-off of torch, gun, or work- evaporation.
piecetravel. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See Theprincipaldefectswhichmayappearin the
Appendix 19. etched specimen (as noted in both the API and ASME
codes) are lack of fusion, slag inclusions, gas pockets,
TREPANNING cracks and undercutting.
Amechanicalprocess for removingaspecimen
from a welded seam so that the weld metal may be TROOSITE
examined. The specimen, or plug, should include the A micro constituent of hardened or hardened-and-
entire width of the weld seam and enough of the adja- temperedsteel,which etches rapidlyandtherefore
cent parent metal to allow observation of the degree usually appears as a dark substance. It consists of a
of fusion. The plug is cut with a circular saw which very fine aggregate of ferrite cementite andis not visi-
has a pilot(drill) in the center. An electric drill, pneu- ble with the unaided eye. It can be viewed using a
matic motor, or drill press may be used to drive the high-powered microscope. Troosite usually occurs in
trepan. rounded or nodular form. See METALLURGY.
The trepanned plug is usually polished to a bright,
smooth finish and then etched. A satisfactory etching TRUE RESISTANCE
reagentforsteelspecimens is a 50% solution of Actual resistance measured in ohms as compared to
hydrochloricacidusedatatemperature of 70C counter-electromotive force.

Welding 561
TUBE MANUFACTURE TUBE TESTING

The manufacturing process for welded steel tubing Tubingistestedbyoneofseveraldestructive or
requireselaborateprecisionproductionequipment. nondestructive methods. These tests are shown in Fig-
Flat steel strip is fed continuously from coils through ure T-20.
forming rolls, which gradually shapeit into a circular
form. At the beginning of the operation, the top and Drift and Compression Tests
bottom forming rolls are opposite in contour, but the The drift test consists of placing a hardened steel
final forming rollsare of the samecontour top and bot- pin in a tube or vessel made of thin sheet metal, and
tom. From the forming rolls the butted tube is passed applyingpressurewithamanual or power-driven
through the welding section of the machine. When the hammer until the tube or vessel is split, either in the
resistance processis used, the welding unitconsists of weld or elsewhere. The compression testis a crushing
a high-amperage current supply connected to a pair of testusedwithtubing,whichforcesthetubinginto
copper alloy discs which serve as electrodes and make folds, thus indicating both strength and ductility
of the
contact with the two edgesof the formed strip. When weld metal. Both of these tests are confined to tubing
the tubing passes under the electrodes, the current is and to small sheet metal parts.
automatically applied and travels from one electrode
Hydraulic Tests
to another across the seamcleft, creating heat through
the resistance offered tothe flow of the current by the These tests are common for testing welded tanks,
edge surfaces. barrels, or cylinderswhenthey can befilledwith
The moment the current is applied, the side rolls water. The pressure is applied with a small hydraulic
exert sufficient pressureto bring the edges together to pump, as indicated in Figure T-21. This test can be
form a weldedjoint. The material atthe extreme edges applied to the destructionof the tank if so required. It
of thebutted joints, havingbeenheatedsomewhat mayalso be appliedatapressurewhichwillnot
beyond the plastic state, is squeezed outward, and the destroy the tank or strain the metal or welds beyond
union is made with unexposed metal which is in the the elastic limit. It is a relatively simple test to make;
plastic condition. No extra metal is added, since the the only apparatus required is a pump, a gauge, and a
weld is a complete union of the butted edges. The valve. Sometimes the test pressure used is three times
manufacturingprocessresultsinaweld free from the working pressure, but as a rule, weld defects in
inclusions,oxides,overheatedstructuresandsimilar tanks will be indicated when tested and hammered at
defects, and one which has the same composition as 1-1/2 times the working pressure.
the base metal. Air Pressure Tests
Air pressure should not be used for testing tanks,
The first electric welded tubingis said to have been becauseaircompressesintoasmallerspacethan
produced in 1896 in Cleveland, Ohio. The first com- water. For example, if a tank werefilled to a pressure
mercialoxyacetylene-weldedtubinginthiscountry of 550 or 690 kPa(80 or 100 psi), and the weld should
was believed to have been in 1912. The Johnson Pro- break,the air willexpandwithsuchviolencethat
cess, whichusesresistancewelding for producing injurytopersonsinthevicinitycouldoccur.Water
welded steel tubing, was patented in the early 1920s. under pressure, on the other hand, does not expand,
In1929,theNationalBureau of Standardscom- and when a tank breaks,the break occurs with a harm-
pletedaninvestigation of the properties of electric less spurtof water.
resistanceweldedsteeltubingwhichclearlyestab-
lished the integrityof the product. The results of these Tensile Test
tests were reportedin Research Paper No. 161, Bureau A portable tensile testing apparatus is a valuable
of Standards, April, 1930. piece of equipment, particularly useful in the field to
Progress in this field is evidenced by the fact that test the strength of specimens cut out of pipe or tank
welded tubing meetsthe rigid requirements and speci- welds. It consists of a hydraulic cylinder with jaws to
fications of the automotive industry, those required for clamp the specimen and a pump to increase the pres-
boilers,condensersandheatexchangers;andthe sure within the cylinder. The jaws of the clamp are
requirements of theUnited States Army,Navyand pulled apart by hydraulic pressure until the specimen
other government departments. breaks. See TENSILE TEST.

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 1 9 9 7 m 0784265 053b73b b b 3 . m
562 TUBE
DRIFT TEST
COMPRESSIOI. I u
Figure T-20-Drift and Compression Tests Used on ThinWall Tubing
HYDRAULIC PUMP
PRESSUREGAGE
WELDED TEST CYLIN
Figure T-21-Hydraulic Pump Used for Testing Welded Tubing orSmall Cylinders

Welding Encyclopedia ELECTRODE TUNGSTEN 563
TUBULAR JOINT A number of welding rods and electrodes are made

A joint between two or more members, at least one to deposit small particlesof this very hard alloyon the
of which is tubulal: SeeSTANDARD WELDING TERMS. cutting faces of tools, bits, and other parts on whichit
is embedded in amatrixofsofterweldeddeposit.
TUNGSTEN There are several methods for accomplishing this pur-
(Chemicalsymbol: W). Averyhardsteel-gray pose by using various types of rods. See HARDFACING.
metal which melts at a temperature of approximately
3400C (6150"F), the highest melting point of all met- TUNGSTEN ELECTRODE
als.Tungsten is usedinthepure state and also in A nonfiller metal electrode usedin arc welding, arc
alloys for electrodes for resistance welding and arc cutting,and plasma spraying,made principally of
welding. Its tensile strength when drawn into wire is tungsten. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
approximately 3448 MPa (500 O00 psi). As an alloy-
Pure tungsten or tungsten alloy electrodes for gas
ing element in tool steel, tungsten tends to produce a
tungsten arc welding are manufactured in a variety of
fine, dense grain when used in relatively small quanti-
sizes and lengths. TableT-12 shows specifications and
ties. When used in larger quantities, from 17 to 20%,
color codingof tungsten electrodesin accordance with
and in combination with other alloys, it produces a
the various AWS/ASTM classifications.
steelthatretains its hardness at hightemperatures.
Tungsten is also used in certain heat resistantsteels in As drawn,thetungstenelectrodeshaveadense,
which the retentionof strength at high temperaturesis black oxide coating. Before marketing, however, the
important. This element is usually usedin combination surface is cleaned, either bychemicalcleaningand
with chromiumor other alloying agents. etching, or bygrindingthesurface.Thechemically
Tungsten has a density of 19.3 g/cm3 (0.697 1b/in3). cleaned electrodes are usually a bright graycolor and
It is hard even after being heated to a red heat. Atomic have had all surface contaminants or oxides removed.
weight184.0:meltingpoint,3400C(6150F);spe- Ground electrodes have been cleaned of all surface
cific gravity, 18.7. impurities by centerless grinding, which gives them
the advantageof a bright surfaceas well as concentric-
TUNGSTEN CARBIDE ity. The ground finish allows a tighter fit in the torch
An alloy produced by exposing tungsten, heated to collet and will reduce electrical resistance losses to a
high temperatures, to carbon monoxide or other hydro- minimum.
carbon gases. Tungstencarbide is almost as hardas the Electrodesaremanufacturedaccordingto ANSU
diamond, registering between 9 and 10 on the Mohs AWS A5.12, Specifications for Tungsten Arc Welding
Scale. It is crushed and gradedinto various sizes; it is Electrodes, in which the standarddiameters of
furnished in irregular fragments for hardfacing, and is electrodes are 0.25, 0.5, 1.0,1.6,2.4,3.2,4.0,4.8
also molded into shapes to be used in place of black and 6.4 mm (0.010,0.020,0.040, 1/16, 3/32,1/8,5/32,
diamonds in cutting tools. 3/16,and 114 in.). The tolerance for the 0.25 mm
Table T-12
for Various Tungsten Electrode Alloys
Color Code and Alloying Elements
Nominal Weight or Alloying
AWS Classification COIOP Alloying
Percent
Element
Oxide
Alloying
Oxide
EWP Green - - -
EWCe-2 Orange Cerium Ceo2 2
EWLa- 1 Black Lanthanum La203 1
EWTh-1 Thorium T h o2 1
EWTh-2 ' Red Thorium T h o2 2
EWZr- 1 Zirconium Brown zfl2 .25
EWG Gray Not Specifiedb - -
a. Color may be applied in the form of bands, dots, etc., at any point on the surface
of the electrode.
b. Manufacturer must identify the type and nominal content of the rare earth oxide addition.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1977 0784265 0516738 4 3 4
CTRODE 564 TUNGSTEN
(0.010 in.)
diameter
electrode is k0.025 mm considered before selecting an electrodefor a specific
(&0.001in.); for the 0.5 mm (0.020 in.) electrode it is application.
k0.05 mm (k0.002 in.). All of the other sizes have a All tungsten electrodes will do a welding job and
diameter toleranceof k0.08 mm (k0.003 in.). may be used in a similar manner. However,each elec-
Electrodes are available in 75, 150, 180, 300, 450, trode classification contributes distinct advantages to
and 600 mm (3, 6, 7, 12, 18, and 24 in.) lengths, with operating characteristics and usability. For this reason,
the three shorter lengths havinga k1.6 mm (+U16in.) electrode selection must take into account the advan-
tolerance, while the three longer electrodes must be tages of one classificationof electrodes over another.
within k3.2 mm ( N 8 in.) of the specifiedlength. The Pure tungsten electrodes (EWP) are generally used
withalternating current, either balancedwaveor
0.25 mm (0.010 in.) diameter electrode is also avail-
continuoushigh-frequencystabilized.Thecurrent-
able incoil form.
carrying capacityof pure tungstenis lower than thatof
Tungsten Electrode Selection alloy tungsten electrodes.
Therearemanyfactorstobeconsideredwhen Puretungstenelectrodeshavereasonablygood
selecting proper tungsten electrodes for gas tungsten resistance to contamination and maintain a balled end,
arc welding. Probably the most influential factor, how- which is
preferred for aluminum andmagnesium
ever, is the type and thickness of base metal. The capa-welding with ac.
bility of a tungsten electrode to carry welding current Tungstenelectrodesalloyedwiththoria(thorium
oxide), ceria (ceriumoxide),lanthana(lanthanum
dependsonthetungstenalloyused,theelectrode
oxide), or zirconia(zirconiumoxide) are available
diameter, the type and polarityof the current, and the
commercially. The addition of these oxides makesarc
extension of the electrode beyondthe collet (the sleeve
starting easier and produces a more stable arc. Alloyed
or tube which holds the electrode). tungsten electrodesalso have abouta 50% greater cur-
An electrode of a given size will have its greatest rent-carryingcapacity for thesamediameterpure
current-carrying capacity with direct current, straight tungstenelectrode. The alloyedelectrodes(except
polarity(DCEN);lesswithalternatingcurrent,and zirconiated) are designed basically for direct current
still less with direct current, reverse polarity (DCEP). (DCEN) welding applications. They can be used on
Table T-13 listssome of thetypicalcurrentvalues alternating current welding, but considerable difficulty
which may be used with argon gas shielding. There is experienced in maintaining a satisfactory balled
are, however, other factors which should be carefully end.
Table T-13
for Various Welding Currents
Recommended Tungsten Electrodesa and Gas Cups
Current,
Direct
Diameter
Electrode -
Use Gas
Cup
I.D.,
Straight
Polarityb,
Reverse
Polarityb,
Unbalanced
Balanced
mm
0.25 0.010 1I4 up to 15 up to 15 up to 15
0.50 0.020 1I4 5-20 5-15 10-20
1.o0 0.040 318 15-80 10-60 20-30
1.6 1/16 318 70-150 10-20 50-100 30-80
2.4 3/32 112 150-250 15-30 100-160 60-1 30
3.2 1I8 1I 2 250-400 25-40 150-210 100-180
4.0 5/32 112 400-500 40-55 200-275 160-240
4.8 3116 518 500-750 55-80 250-350 190-300
6.4 1I4 314 750-1100 80- 125 325450 325-450
a. All values are basedon the use of argon as the shielding gas.
b. Use EWCe-2, EWLa-1, or EWTh-2 electrodes.
c . Use EWP electrodes.

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 07842b5
05Lb739 370 m
Welding Encyclopedia CIRCUIT TWO-PHASE 565
Zirconium alloyed tungsten (EWZr)is ideal for a-c or seldom-used process. See STANDARD WELDING
welding applications because of its high resistance to TERMS.
contamination, as wellas good arc starting characteris-
tics.Theseelectrodes are highlyrecommended for TWIN CARBON ARC WELDING (CAW-T)
those welding conditions where minute quantities of A carbon arc welding process variation that uses an
any type of foreign matter in the weldare intolerable. arc between two carbon electrodes and no shielding.
Zirconium electrodes are used for the welding of alu- See STANDARDWELDING TERMS.
minum and magnesium. Pure tungsten or zirconium-
tungsten electrodes form a hemispherical or balled TWIN-POINT WELDING
end as used. If welding conditionsare right, the balled A spot welding process employing two electrodes
end should be clean, shiny, and as reflective as a mir- and a shunt barso that two weldsmay be made at one
rored surface. time. This setup is used in push-pull welding, and is
The primary advantage of the tungsten electrode is sometimes referred to as series spot welding.
a high melting point to prevent contamination of the
weld. Melting occurs when the electrode is overheated 2F, Pipe
by excessive welding currents. For the most satisfac- A welding test position designationfor a circumfer-
tory
welding
operations,
electrode
temperatures ential fillet weld applied to a joint in pipe,
with its axis
should approach the melting point but not exceed it. approximately vertical, in which the weld is made in
After the classification of electrode is selected, the size the horizontal welding position. See STANDARD WELD-
of the electrode is selected. Usually,the electrode size ING TERMS. See Appendix 4.
selected is near the maximum current range for the
particular electrode and typeof job. If this is the case, 2F, Plate
the following must be considered: too small an elec- A welding test position designationfor a linearfillet
trode may result in the molten tip falling off to con- weld applied to a joint inwhich the weld ismade in the
taminatetheweld,andtoo large anelectrodewill horizontal welding position. See STANDARD WELDING
produce an arc that will become difficult to control.If TERMS. See Appendix 4.
the current is correct for the welding operation, the
electrode will have a hemispherical end. If the current 2FR
is too high, a ball will formon the end of the elec- A welding test position designation for a circumfer-
trode. If the diameterof this ball exceedsthe diame- entialfillet weld applied to a joint in pipe,with its axis
ter of the electrode by 1- 1/2 times, thereis a likelihood upproximately horizontal, in which the weld is made in
that it will drop off to contaminate the weld. For this the horizontal welding position by rotating the pipe
reason, the welding current should be reduced when about its axis. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See
these conditions become apparent. See GAS TUNGSTEN Appendix 4.
ARC WELDING.
2G, Plpe
T-WELD A welding test position designation for a circumfer-
A weld in which one plate is welded vertically to ential groove weld applied to a joint ina pipe, with its
another, as in the case of the edgeof a transverse bulk- axis approximately vertical, in which the weld is made
head being welded against the shell plating or deck. in the horizontal welding position. See STANDARD
This is a weld which in all cases requires exceptional WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 4.
care, and can only be used where it is possible to work
from both sides of the vertical plate. A T-weld is also 2G, Plate
used for welding a rod in a vertical position to a flat A welding test position designation for a linear
surface, such as the rung of a ladder, or a plate welded groove weld applied to a joint in which the weld is
vertically to a pipe stanchion, as in the case of water made in the horizontal welding position. See STAN-
closet stalls. DARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 4.
TWIN CARBON ARC BRAZING (TCAB) TWO-PHASE CIRCUIT

A brazing process that uses heat from an arc A circuit in which there are two voltages, differing
between two carbon electrodes. This is an obsolete by one-quarter cycle.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 05Lb740 O92 D
566 TWO-POLE Welding EncvcloDedia
TWO-POLE OF JOINT
A switch that opens or closes both sides of a circuit See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. see also JOINT TYPE.
at one time.
TYPES OF WELDS
TWO-STAGE
REGULATOR See BEAD WELD, WELD,
BUTT
FILLET
WELD,
See OXYACETYLENEWELDING and REGULATOR.GROOVEWELD,PLUGWELD, and SLOTWELD.
on these F-14fighter planes were welded with the electron beam process at the
The titanium wing boxes
Grumman plant in Bethpage, New York

~~
STD.AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 0784265 0516741 T29 m
U
U-BEND mined, and in some cases, the approximatesize of the
see BEND TEST. discontinuity can be determined.
Advantages
U-GROOVE WELD
The principal advantages of UT compared to other
A type of groove weld. See STANDARD WELDING
NDT methods are the following:
TERMS. See Appendix 6 .
(1) Discontinuities in thick sections can be detected.
ULTRASONIC COUPLER, Ultrasonic Soldering and (2) Relatively high sensitivity to small discontinui-
Ultrasonic Welding ties is exhibited.
Elementsthroughwhichultrasonic vibration is (3) Depthof
internal
discontinuities
can
be
transmitted from the transducer to the tip. See STAN- determined; size and shape of discontinuities can be
DARD WELDING TERMS. estimated.
(4) Adequateinspectionscanbemadefrom one
ULTRASONIC SOLDERING (USS) surface.
A soldering process variation in which high-fre- (5) Equipment can be moved to the job site.
quency vibratory energy is transmitted through molten (6) Process is nonhazardous to personnel or other
solder to remove undesirablesuvacefilms and thereby equipment.
promote wetting of the base metal. This operation is Limitations
usuallyaccomplishedwithout flux. See STANDARD The following limitations
apply
to
ultrasonic
WELDING TERMS. testing:
ULTRASONIC TESTING (UT)
(1) Set-up andoperationrequire
trained
and
experiencedtechnicians,
especially for manual
Anondestructivetest(NDT)methodinwhich examinations.
beams of high-frequency sound waves are introduced
(2) Weldments that are rough, irregular in shape,
into a test object to detect and locate internal disconti-
verysmall, or thin are difficult or impossible to
nuities. A sound beam is directed into the test object inspect; this includesfillet welds.
on a predictable path, and is reflected at interfaces or
other interruptionsmaterial
in continuity. The
(3) Discontinuitiesatthesurface are difficult to
detect.
reflected beam is detected and analyzed to define the
presence and locationof discontinuities. (4) A coupler is needed between the sound trans-
ducersand the weldmenttotransmittheultrasonic
The detection, location and evaluation of disconti-
wave energy.
nuities is possible because (1) the velocity of sound
through a given material is nearly constant, making (5) Reference standardsare required to calibrate the
distance measurements possible, and (2) the amplitude equipment and toevaluate the size of discontinuities.
of the reflected sound pulse is nearly proportional to (6)Reference standards should describe theitem to
the size of the reflected discontinuity. be examined with respect to design, material specifica-
tions, and heat treatment condition.
Ultrasound waveis electronically collected and pre-
sented on acathode ray tube (CRT) screenfor evalua- Equipment
tion by a qualified and certified ultrasound technician. A block diagram of a pulse-echo flaw detector is
Ultrasonic testing canbe used todetect cracks, lam- shown in Figure U- l. Most ultrasonic testing systems
inations,shrinkagecavities,pores, slag inclusions, use the following basic components:
incomplete fusion or bonding, incomplete joint pene- (1) An electronic signal generator (pulser) that pro-
tration, andotherdiscontinuities in weldmentsand duces burstsof alternating voltage.
brazements. With proper techniques, the approximate (2) A sending transducer that emits a beam of ultra-
position and depth of the discontinuity can be deter- sonic waves when alternating voltageis applied.
567
TESTING
568 ULTRASONIC Encyclopedia Welding
CLOCK
SWEEP DELAY
SWEEP LENGTH
CATHODE RAY TUBE
?- y SCREEN DISPLAY
Figure U-1-Block Diagram of a Pulse-Echo Flaw Detector
The soundwavefrequenciesused are between 1 (4)A receivingtransducertoconvert the sound

and 6 MHz, which are beyond the audible range. Most waves to alternating voltage. This transducer may be
weld testing is performed at 2.25 MHz. Higher fre- combined with the sending transducer.
quencies, i.e.,5 MHz, will produce small, sharp sound ( 5 ) An electronic device to amplify and demodulate
beams useful in locating and evaluating discontinuitiesorotherwisechangethesignalfromthereceiving
in thin wall weldments. transducer.
(3) A coupler to transmit the ultrasonic energy from (6)A display or indicating device to characterize or
the transducer tothe test piece and vice versa. record the output from the test piece.

. STD. AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb743 BTL
Welding Encyclopedia ULTRASONIC TESTING (UT) 569
(7) An electronic timerto control the operation. must be similar in acoustic qualities to the metal being
There are three basic modes of propagating sound tested.
through metals:
longitudinal,
(sometimes
called The InternationalInstituteofWelding(IIW)test
straight or compressional),transverse(alsocalled block is widely used as a calibration block for ultra-
shear wave), and surface waves (sometimes referred to sonic testing of steel welds. This block and other test
as Rayleigh waves). Inthe longitudinal and transverse blocks are used to calibrate an instrumentfor sensitiv-
modes, waves are propagated by the displacement of ity, resolution, linearity, angle of sound propagation,
successive atomsor molecules in the metal. and distance and gain calibrations.
Longitudinal wave ultrasound is generally limited Standardtestblocks are showninASTM Ela,
in use to detecting inclusions and lamellar-type dis- Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Contact Examina-
continuities in base metal. Transverse wave ultrasoundtion of Weldments, latest edition, West Conshohocken,
is most valuable in the detection of weld discontinui- Pennsylvania: American Society for Testingand
ties because of its ability to furnish three-dimensional Materials.
coordinates for discontinuitylocations,orientations, Test Procedures. Most ultrasonic testingof welds is
and characteristics. The sensitivity of shear waves is donefollowingaspecificcodeorprocedure. An
also about double that of longitudinal waves for the example of such a procedureis that containedin AWS
same frequency and search unit size. Dl. 1, StructuralWelding Code-Steel for testing
The zones in thebasemetaladjacenttoaweld groove welds in structures.
shouldbetestedwithlongitudinalwaves first, to ASTM El@, Standard Practice for Ultrasonic
ensure that the base metaldoes not contain discontinu- Contact Examination of Weldments covers examina-
ities that would interfere with shear wave evaluation tion of specific weld configurations in wrought ferrous
of the weld. andaluminumalloysto detect welddiscontinuities.
In the thirdmode, surface waves are propagated Procedures for calibrating the equipment and appropri-
along the metal surface, similar to waves on the sur- ate calibration blocksare included. Other ASTM stan-
face of water. These surface waves have little move- dards cover testing procedures with various ultrasonic
ment below the surface of a metal, therefore they are inspection methodsfor inspection of pipe and tubing.
not used for examination of welded and brazed joints. Procedures for UTof boilerandpressurevessel
Coupling. A liquid materialis used for transmission components are given in ASME Boiler and Pressure
of ultrasonic waves into the test object. Some of the Vessel Code, Section V Nondestructive Examination.
morecommoncoupling agents are water, light oil, Section XI, Inservice Inspection Requirements for
glycerine,and cellulose gumpowdermixedwith Nuclear Power Plants, gives methodsfor locating, siz-
water. ing, and evaluating discontinuities for continuing ser-
A weldment must be smooth and flat to allow inti- vice life and fracture mechanics analysis.
mate coupling.Weld spatter, slag, and other irregulari- Operator Qualifications. The reliability of ultrasonic
ties should be removed.Depending on the testing examination depends greatly on the interpretive ability
technique, it may be necessarytoremovetheweld of theultrasonictestingtechnician.In general, UT
reinforcement. requires more training and experience than the other
Calibration. Ultrasonic testingis basically a compar- nondestructivetestingmethods,withthepossible
ative evaluation. The horizontal (time) andthe vertical exception of radiographic testing. Many critical vari-
(amplitude) dimensions onthe CRT screen of the test ables are controlled by the operators. For this reason,
unit are related to distance and size, respectively. It is most standards require ultrasonic technicians to meet
necessary to establish a zero starting point for these the requirements of ASNT-TC- 1 A, Personnel Qualifi-
variables, and tocalibrate an ultrasonic unitto a basic cation and Certification in Nondestructive Testing.
standard before use. Reporting. Carefultabulation of informationina
Various test blocks are used to assist in calibration report form is necessary for a meaningful test. Report-
of the equipment. Known reflectingareas can simulate ing requirements are included in ANSYAWS Dl. 1,
typical discontinuities. Notches substitute for surface Structural Welding C o d e a t e e l . The welding inspec-
cracks, side-drilled holesfor slag inclusionsor internal tor should be familiar with the kindsof data that must
cracks,andangulatedflat-bottomedholes for small be recorded and evaluatedso that a satisfactorydeter-
areas of incompletefusion. The testblockmaterial mination of weld quality can be obtained. Standards

-
. STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1 9 9 7 m 07842b5
05Lb744
738 m
) WELDING
570 ULTRASONIC Welding Encyclopedia
for testinghavebeenpublished by theAmerican

Society for NondestructiveTesting, the American CLAMPING
Society of Mechanical Engineers, and the American FORCE
Welding Society.See Appendix 2.
Reference:AmericanWeldingSociety, Welding
Handbook, Vol. 1, 8thEdition.AmericanWelding
Society: Miami, Florida, 1987.
MASS
ULTRASONIC WELDING (USW)
A solid-state welding process that produces a weld
by the local application of high-frequency vibratory
energy as the workpieces are heldtogether under pres-
sure. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. REED
Ultrasonic welding produces a sound metallurgical
bond without melting the base metal. The basic force
inultrasonicwelding is high-intensityvibrational
energy. High- frequency electrical energy is converted
tomechanicalvibration,andacoupler(sonotrode)
transmits the vibration to the work. An anvil counters
the clamping force. SONOTROT'
SONOTRODE
This
process
involves
complex
relationships TI P
between the static clamping force, the oscillating shear TRANSDUCER
forces, and a moderate temperature rise in the weld
zone. The magnitudes of these factors requiredto
produce weld
a are functions of the thickness,
surfacecondition,and the mechanicalproperties of
the workpieces. ANVIL
Typical components ofan ultrasonic welding sys-
tem are illustrated in Figure U-2.The ultrasonic vibra-
tion is generated in the transducer. This vibration is FORCE
transmitted through a coupling system or sonotrode,
which is represented by the wedge and reed members Figure U-2-Wedge-Reed Ultrasonic Spot Welding
in Figure U-2.The sonotrode tip is the component that System
directly contacts one of the workpieces and transmits
thevibratoryenergy into it.(Thesonotrode is the industries,forfabricatingsmallmotorarmatures, in
acoustical equivalent of the electrode and its holder the manufactureof aluminum foil, and in the assembly
used in resistance spot or seam welding). The clamp- of aluminum components. Itis receiving acceptanceas
ing force is appliedthroughatleastpartofthe astructural joining method by theautomotiveand
sonotrode, whichin this case is the reed member.The aerospace industries. The process is uniquely useful
anvil supportsthe weldment and opposesthe clamping for encapsulating materials such as explosives, pyro-
force. technics, and reactive chemicals that require hermetic
Applications sealing but cannot be processed by high-temperature
Ultrasonic weldingis used to join both monometal- joining methods.
lic and bimetallic joints. The process is used to pro- The most important application of the USW process
duce lap joints between metal sheets or foils, between is the assembly of miniaturizedelectronicscompo-
wires or ribbons and flat surfaces, between crossedor nents. Fine aluminum and gold lead wires are attached
parallel wires, and for joining other types of assem- transistors,
to diodes,
and other semiconductor
blies that can be supported on the anvil, devices. Wires and ribbons are bonded to thin films
This process is being used as a production tool in and microminiaturized circuits. Diode and transistor
the semiconductor, microcircuit, and electrical contact chips are mounted directly onsubstrates. Reliable

S T D e A W S JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842h5 05Jb745 h74 m
clopedia Welding (USW) WELDINGULTRASONIC 571
joints withlowelectricalresistanceareproduced together under pressure between the sonotrode tip and
withoutcontamination or thermaldistortion of the the anvil face. The tip vibrates in a plane essentially
components. parallel to the planeof the weld interface, perpendicu-
Electricalconnections,both single andstranded lar to the axis of static force application. Spot welds
wires, can be joined to other wires and to terminals. between sheets are roughly elliptical in shape at the
The joints are frequently made through anodized coat- interface. They can be overlapped to produce an essen-
ings on aluminum, or through certain types of electri- tially continuous weld joint. This type of seam may
cal insulation. Other current carrying devices, such as containasfew as 2 to 4 welddcm (5 to 10 welds/
electricmotors,fieldcoils,harnesses,transformers in.). Closer weld spacing may be necessary if a leak-
and capacitors may be assembled with ultrasonically tight joint is required.
welded connections. Ring Welding. Ring welding produces a closedloop
Broken and random lengths of aluminum foil are weld whichis usually circular in form but may also be
welded in continuous seams byfoil rolling mills, with square,rectangular or oval. Inthisvariation,the
almost undetectable splices after subsequent working sonotrode tip is hollow, and the tipface is contoured to
operations. Aluminum and copper sheet up to about the shape of the desired weld. The tip is vibrated tor-
0.5 mm (0.020 in.) can be spliced together using spe- sionally in a plane parallel to the weld interface. The
cial processing and equipment. weld is completed in a single, brief weld cycle.
In structural applications, USW produces joints of LineWeldlng. Line welding is a variation of spot
high integrity within the limitations of weldablesheet welding in which the workpieces are clamped between
thickness. An example is the assembly of a helicopter an anvil and a linear sonotrode The tip. tip is oscillated
access door, in which inner and outer skins of alumi- parallel to the planeof the weld interface and perpen-
num alloyare joined by multiple ultrasonic spot welds. dicular to both the weld line andthedirection of
Ultrasonic welding has reduced fabrication costs forapplied static force.The result is a narrow linear weld,
some solar energy conversion and collection systems. which can be upto 150 mm (6 in.) long, produced in a
An ultrasonicseamweldingmachine,operatingat single weld cycle.
speeds up to 9 m/min (30 fdmin), joins all connectors
in a single row in a fraction of the time require for Continuous Seam Welding. In this variation, joints
hand soldering or individual spot welding. Solar col- are producedbetweenworkpiecesthatarepassed
lectors for hotwaterheatingsystemsconsisting of between a rotating, disk-shaped sonotrode tip and a
copper or aluminum tubing can be welded at signifi- roller type or flat anvil. The tip may traverse the work
cantlylowerenergycostthansoldering,resistance while it is supported on a fixed anvil, or the work may
spot welding,or roll welding. be moved between the tip and a counter-rotating or
Other applications include continuous seam weld- traversing anvil. Area bonds may be produced by
ing to assemblecomponentsofcorrugatedheat overlapping seam welds.
exchangers, and welding strainer screens without clog- The flow of energy through an ultrasonic welding
ging the holes. Beryllium foil windowsfor space radi- system begins with the introduction of 60 Hz electrical
ation counters have been ring welded to stainless steel power into a frequency converter. This device converts
frames to provide a helium leak-tight bond. Pinch-off the applied frequency to that required for the welding
weld closures in copper and aluminum tubing used in system, which is usually in the range of 10 to 75 kHz.
refrigeration and air conditioning are produced with The high-frequency electrical energy is conducted to
special serrated bar tips and anvils. one or more transducers in the welding system, where
it is converted to mechanical vibratory energy of the
Process Variations
same frequency. The vibratory energy is transmitted
There are four variations of the process, based on through the sonotrode and sonotrode tip into the work-
the type of weld produced. These are spot, ring, line piece. Some of the energy passes through the weld
andcontinuousseam
welding.In
addition,
two zone and dissipates in the anvil support structure.
variants of ultrasonic spot welding are used in micro- For practical usage,the power requiredfor welding
electronics. is usuallymeasuredinterms of the high-frequency
SpotWelding. Inspotwelding,individualweld electricalpowerdeliveredtothetransducer. This
spots are produced by the momentary introduction of power can be monitored continuously and provides a
vibratory energy into the workpieces as they are held reliable averagevalue to associatewithequipment
STD.AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 0784265 05Lb74b 500 m
WELDING 572 ULTRA-SPEED Welding Encyclopedia
performance as well as with weld quality.The product ULTRAVIOLET RAYS

of the power in watts and welding time in seconds is Light rays whichare outside of the visual spectrum
the energy, in watt-secondsor joules, used in welding. at the violet end. These raysare comparatively intense
The energy required to make an ultrasonic weld can in
be arc welding; eye protection must be worn during
related to the hardness of theworkpiecesand the welding operations.See EYE PROTECTION.
thickness of the part in contact with the sonotrode tip.
UNAFFECTED ZONE
Process Advantages and Limitations The area of the base metal outside of the zone of a
Ultrasonic welding has advantages over resistance weld in which no changes in grain size have occurred
spot welding in that little heat
is applied duringjoining due to the effects of welding.
and no melting of the metal occurs. This process per-
mits welding thinto thick sections, as well joining
as a UNBALANCED FLAME
wide variety of dissimilar metals. Welds can be made An oxyacetyleneflamewithanexcess of either
through certain types of surface coatings and platings. oxygen or acetylene; a flame that is oxidizing or
Ultrasonicwelding of aluminum,copperandother carburizing.
high-conductivitymetalsrequiressubstantiallyless
energy than resistance welding. As compared to cold UNDERBEAD CRACK
welding, the pressures used in USW are much lower, A crack in the heat-affected zone generally not
welding times are shorter, and thickness deformation extending to the surJace of the base metal. See STAN-
is significantly lower, DARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendixes 8 and 9.
A major disadvantage is that the thickness of the UNDERCUT
componentadjacenttothesonotrode tip mustnot A groove melted into the base metal adjacent to the
exceedrelativelythingaugesbecause of the power weld toe or weld root and lej? unfilled by weld metal.
limitations of present ultrasonic welding equipment. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 8.
The range of thicknesses of a particular metal that can
Causes: Excessive welding current; improper elec-
beweldeddependson the properties of thatmetal. trode technique; mismatch between electrode design
Ultrasonic welding is limited to lap joints. Butt welds and weld position.
cannot be made in metals because there is no effective
Corrections:useamoderateweldingcurrentand
means of supporting the workpiecesandapplying
proper welding speed; use an electrode that produces a
clamping force. However,ultrasonicbuttweldsare
puddle of the proper size; proper weaving technique;
made in some polymer systems.
proper positioning of the electrode relative to a hori-
Safety zontal fillet weld.
The welding machine operator should be provided The term undercut is used to describe either of two
with eye and ear protection. situations. One isthe melting away of the sidewall of a
weld groove at the edge of the bead, thus forming a
Mostultrasonicweldingequipment is designed sharp recess in the sidewall in the area in which the
with interlocks and other safety devices to prevent per- next beadis to be deposited. The other is the reduction
sonnel from contactinghighvoltages in the equip- in thickness of the base metal at the line where the
ment.Nevertheless,considerationmustbegivento beads in the final layer of weld metal tie into the sur-
operating personnel and all personnel inthe area of the face of the base metal (e.g., atthe toe of the weld).
welding operations. There must be strict conformance Both types of undercut are usually due to the spe-
to the manufacturers operating instructions and safety cificweldingtechniqueused by thewelder.High
recommendations as wellasrequirementsin ANSI/ amperageandalong arc increase the tendency to
ASC 2-49.1 (latestedition), Safety in Weldingand undercut. Incorrect electrode positionand travel speed
Cutting and applicable requirements of the Occupa- are also causes, as is improper dwell time in a weave
tional Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). bead. Even the type of electrode used has an influence.
The various classifications of electrodes show widely
ULTRA-SPEED WELDING differentcharacteristics inthisrespect.Withsome
nonstandard
A term for COMMUTATOR- electrodes,even the mostskilledweldermay be
CONTROLLED WELDING. unabletoavoidundercuttingcompletelyincertain

~~~~ ~~
~~ ~~ ~~~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 W 07842b50526747447 W

Welding 573
welding positions, particularly on joints with restricted the work.This feature is essential for underwater work
access. because of poor visibility and reduced operator mobil-
Undercut of the sidewalls of a weld groove will in ity caused by cumbersome diving suits. Slots in the
no way affect the completed weld if the undercut is shield allow the burned gases to escape. A short torch
removed beforethe next beadis deposited at that loca- is used to reduce the reaction force produced by the
tion, A well-rounded chipping tool or grinding wheel compressed air and cutting oxygen pushing againstthe
will be required to remove the undercut. If the under- surrounding water.
cut is slight,however,anexperiencedwelderwho Gases. As the depth of water at which the cutting is
knows just how deep the arc will penetrate may not being done increases, the gaspressuresmust be
need to remove the undercut. increased to overcome both the added water pressure
The amount of undercut permitted in a completed and the frictional losses in the longer hoses. Approxi-
weld is usually dictated by the fabrication code being mately 3.5 kPa (1/2 psi) for each 300 mm (12 in.) of
used,andtherequirementsspecifiedshould be fol- depth must be added to the basic gas pressure require-
lowedbecause excessive undercut can materially ments used inair for the thickness being cut.
reduce the strength of the joint. This is particularly Methylacetylene-propadiene(MPS), propylene, and
true in applications subjectto fatigue. Fortunately,this hydrogen are thebestall-purposepreheatgases,
type of undercut can be detected by visual examina- because they can be used at depths any to which divers
tion of the completed weld, andit can be corrected by can descendandperformsatisfactorily.Acetylene
blend grinding or depositing an additional bead. . must not be used at depths greater than approximately
6 m (20 fi), because its maximum safe operating pres-
UNDERFILL sure is 100 kPa (15 psi).
A condition in which the weld face or root surface No great difficultyis experienced in underwater sev-
extends below the adjacent sugace of the base metal. ering of steel plate in thicknesses from 13 mm (1/2 in.)
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 8. to approximately 101 mm (4 in.) with the oxyfuel gas
cutting torch. Under13 mm (1/2 in.) thickness, the con-
UNDERWATER CUlTlNG stant quenching effectof the surrounding water lowers
Underwater cutting is used for salvage work andfor the efficiencyof preheating. This requires much larger
cutting below the water surface on piers, dry docks, preheating flames and preheat gas flows. Cutting oxy-
and ships.The two methods most widely used are oxygen orifice size is considerably larger for underwater
fuel gas cutting (OFC) and oxygenarc cutting (AOC). cutting than for cutting in air. A special apparatus for
Technique. The technique for underwater cutting lighting the preheat flames under water is also needed.
with OFC is not materially differentfrom that used in Oxygen Lance Cutting (LOC)
cutting steel in open air. An underwater OFC torch The LOC process can also be used underwater. The
embodies the same features as a standard OFC torch lance must be lighted before it is placed underwater;
with the additionalfeature of supplying its own ambi- then piercing proceeds essentially the same as in air.
ent atmosphere. In the underwater cutting torch, fuel The process produces a violent bubbling action which
and oxygen are mixed together and burnedto produce can restrict visibility.
the preheat flame. Cutting oxygenis provided through Oxygen Arc Cutting (AOC)
the tip to sever the steel. In addition,
the torch provides
This is another underwater cutting process used to
an air bubble around thecutting tip. The air bubble is
cutferrousandnonferrousmetalsinanyposition.
maintained by a flowof compressed air around the tip.
Underwater electrodes for AOC are steel tubes with a
The air shield stabilizes the preheat flame and at the
waterproof coating. A fully insulated electrode holder
same time displaces the water from the cutting area.
equippedwith
suitable
a flash-back arrester is
Special Equipment. The underwater cutting torch required. See OXYFWEL GAS CUTTING, OXYGEN LANCE
has connections for three hoses to supply compressed CUTTING, and OXYGEN ARC CUTTING.
air, fuel gas, and oxygen. A combination shield and
spacer device is attachedat the cutting endof the UNDERWATER WELDING
torch. The adjustable shield controls the formation of Underwater welding (wet welding) is described as
the air bubble. The shield is adjusted so that the pre- welding at ambient pressure with the weldeddiver in
heat flame is positioned at the correct distance from the water with no physical barrier between the water

STD=AWS JWE-ENGL L997 M 07842b5 0536748 383
INC.
574LABORATORIES,
UNDERWRITERS Welding Encyclopedia
and the welding arc. Although it is a complex metal- Code (BPVC) covers unfired pressure vessels. These
lurgical process, wet welding closely resembles weld- includetowers,reactorsand other oilandchemical
ing in air in that the welding arc and molten metalare refining vessels, heat exchangers for refineries, paper
shielded from the environment (water or air) by gas mills, and other process industries, as well as storage
and slag produced by decomposition of flux coated tanks for large and small air andgas compressors. See
electrodes or flux cored wire. Underwater dry welding BOILER CONSTRUCTION CODE.
is done at ambient pressure in a chamber from which
water has been displaced. Depending on the size and UNIDIRECTIONAL CURRENT
configuration of the chamber, the weldeddiver may be An electrical currentthatflowsin one direction
completelyinthechamber, or onlypartiallyin the only.
chamber,andmaywork in conventionalwelders
attire, dive gear,or a combinationof both. UNIFIED NUMBERING SYSTEM (UNS)
Underwaterweldinghasbeenusedduringthe A method for cross referencing the different num-
installation of new offshore drilling structures, sub-sea beringsystemsusedtoidentifymetals,alloys,and
pipelines and hot taps, docks and harbor facilities, and welding filler metals. With UNS, it is possible to cor-
for modifications and additions to underwater struc- relate over 4400 metals and alloys usedin a variety of
tures.However,underwaterwelding is mostoften specifications,regardless of theidentifyingnumber
required for repairs to existing structures. Maintenance used by a society, trade association, producer, or user.
and repair applications include:
(1) Replacement of damaged sub-sea pipeline sec- UNS is produced jointly by the Society of Automo-
tions and pipeline manifolds tive Engineers (SAE) and the American Society for
(2) Replacement of structural members damaged by Testing and Materials (ASTM). Itcross references the
corrosion and fatigue numbered metal and alloy designations of the major
organizations and systems, including Federal and mili-
(3) Damage occurring during installation, boatcol-
tary. Over 500 of the listed numbers are for welding
lisions, or other accidental damage.
and brazing filler metals that are classified by depos-
Specifications for underwaterwelding are pub-
ited metal composition.See Table U-l.
lished by American Welding Society, Miami, Florida;
in ANSUAWS D3.6-93, Specificationfor Underwater
UNIONMELT WELDING
Welding.
See SUBMERGED ARC WELDING.
UNDERWRITERS LABORATORIES, INC.
A not-for-profit organization chartered to maintain UNIPHASE
and operate product and safety certification programs. A single-phase alternating current.
See Appendix 2.
Underwriters Laboratories carries out safety exami- UNMIXED ZONE
nation and testing of devices, systems, and materials A thin boundarylayer of weld metal, adjacent to the
againstreasonablyforeseeablerisks.Successinthe weld interface, that solidified without mixing with the
testing results in UL
a label. Founded in 1894, UL rep- remaining weld metal. See STANDARD WELDING
resentativesmakeunannouncedvisits to factories TERMS. See also MIXED ZONE.
which make products bearing the UL label to check
correct maintenanceof product integrity. UPHILL, adv.
UNDERWRITERS LABORATORIES STANDARDS Welding with an upward progression. See STAN-
Rules formulated by the Underwriters Laboratories DARD WELDING TERMS.
to assure thesafe construction of industrial equipment,
including welding apparatus. UPSET
Bulk deformation resulting from the application of
UNFIRED PRESSURE VESSELS pressure in welding. The upset may be measured as a
Unfired pressure vesselsare containers for the con- percent increase ininterJaCe area, a reduction in
tainment of pressure either internal or external. Sec- length, a percent reduction in lap joint thickness, or a
tion VI11 of theASMEBoilerandPressureVessel reduction in cross wire weld stack height.
Licensed by Information Handling Services ~ ~~~ ~ ~~
~~ ~~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 07842b5 051b749 21T 9
Welding Encyclopedia (UW) WELDING UPSET 575
UPSET WELDING (UW)

Table U-1
SAE-ASTM Unified Numbering System A resistance welding process that produces coales-
cence over the entire area of faying surfaces or pro-
UNS gressively along a butt joint by the heat obtainedfrom
Number** Metals and/or Alloys in Each Series the resistance to the flow of welding current through
the area where those surfaces are in contact. Pressure
AXXMX Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys is used to complete the weld. See STANDARD WELDING
CxXXXX Copper and Copper Alloys TERMS.See Figure U-3.
EXXXXX Rare Earth and Similar Metals and Alloys
Fxxxxx Cast Irons
GXXXXX AISI and SAFi Carbon and Alloy Steels
-
H AISI and SAE H-Steels
JxxxxX Cast Steels (except Tool Steels)
KxXXXX Miscellaneous Steels and Ferrous Alloys
LXXXXX Low Melting Metals and Alloys
MXXXXX Miscellaneous Nonferrous Metals and Alloys
NXXXXX Nickel and Nickel Alloys
PxXXXX Precious Metals and Alloys
Rxxxxx Reactive and Refractory Metalsand Alloys
SXXXXX Heat and Corrosion Resistant Steels
(including Stainless, Valve Steels, and Figure U-%Upset (Non-Fusion) Weld
Iron-Base Superalloys)
TxXXXX Tool Steels, Wrought andCast
WXXXXX Welding Filler Metals Principles of Operation. With this process, welding
zxxxxx Zinc and Zinc Alloys is essentially done in the solid state. The metal at the
joint is resistance-heated to atemperaturewhere
*Metals and alloys listedin the UNS system of SAE-ASTM
assigned to date and included in theSixth Edition, 1993, of SAE recrystallization can rapidly take place acrossthe fay-
HS-1086,and of ASTM DS-56. ing surfaces.A force is applied tothe joint to bringthe
**The five X marks represent UNS Numbers and are replaced faying surfaces into intimate contact and then upset
by five digits when they serve to identify a specific material in the metal. Upset hastens recrystallization at the inter-
the series. face and, at the same time, some metal is forced out-
ward from this location. This tends to purge the joint
of oxidized metal.
UPSET BUTT WELDING Process Variations
A nonstandard termfor UPSET WELDING. See STAN- Upset welding hastwo variations:
DARD WELDING TERMS. (1) Joining two sections of the same cross section
end-to-end (buttjoint)
UPSET DISTANCE (2) Continuous welding of butt joint seams in roll-
The total reduction in the axial length of the work- formed productssuch as pipe and tubing.
piecesfrom the initial contact to the completion of the The first variationcanalso be accomplished by
weld. In flash welding the upset distance is equal to flash welding and friction welding. The second varia-
the platen movement from the end offlash time to the tion is also done with high-frequency welding.
end of upset. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
Butt Joints. A wide variety of metals in the form of
UPSET FORCE wire, bar, strip, and tubing
can be joined end-to-end by
The force exerted at the faying sutfaces during upset welding. These include carbon steels, stainless
upsetting. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. steels, aluminum alloys, brass, copper, nickel alloys,
and electrical resistance alloys.
UPSET TIME Sequence of Operatlons. The essential operational
The time duringupsetting. See STANDARD WELDING steps to produceanupsetweldedbutt joint areas
TERMS. follows:
ELDING 576 UPSET (UW) Welding Encyclopedia
(1) Loadthe machine withthe parts aligned end-to- The contact resistance between the faying surfaces
end is a function of the smoothness and cleanlinessof the
(2) Clamp the parts securely surfaces and the contact pressure. This resistance var-
(3) Apply a weldingforce ies inversely with the contact pressure, provided the
other factors are constant. As the temperature at the
(4) Initiate the welding current joint increases, the contact resistance changes, but it
( 5 ) Apply an upsetforce finally becomes zero when the weld is formed. Upset
(6) Shut off the welding current welding differs fromflash welding in that no flashing
(7) Release the upsetforce takes place at any time during the welding cycle.
(8) Unclamp the weldment Generally, force and current are maintained
(9) Returri the movableplatenandunloadthe throughout the entire welding cycle. The force is kept
weldment(s). low at first to promote high initial contact resistance
between thetwo parts. It is increased to a higher value
The generalarrangement for upsetwelding is
shown in Figure U-4. One clamping die is stationary to upset the joint when the weldingtemperature is
and the other is movable to accomplish upset. Upset reached. After the prescribed upset is accomplished,
the weldingcurrent is turned off and the force is
force is applied through the moveable clamping die or
removed.
a mechanical backup,or both.
Equipment. Equipment for upset welding is gener-
ally designed to weld a particular family of alloys,
TO WELDING such as steels, within a size range based on cross-sec-
TRANSFORMER tionalarea. The mechanicalcapacityand electrical
characteristics of themachine are matchedtothat
HEATED
CLAMPING application. Special designs may be required for cer-
ZONE tain aluminum alloys to provide close control of the
I\ upset force.
Electric current for heating is provided by a resis-
tance welding transformer. It converts line power to
low-voltage,high-currentpower.No-loadsecondary
UPSETTING voltages range from about 0.4 to 8 V. Secondary cur-
FORCE rent is controlled by a transformer tap switch or by
electronic phase shift.
Basically, an upset welding machine has two plat-
ens, one of which is stationary andthe other movable.
L STATIONARY L MOVABLE The clamping dies are mounted on these platens. The
PART PART
clampsoperate either instraight line motion or
throughan arc aboutan axis, dependinguponthe
application. Force for upset butt welding is produced
generallybyamechanical,pneumatic, or hydraulic
system.
FINISHED UPSET WELD
Heat Balance. The upset processis generally used to
Figure U-Menera1 Arrangement for Upset
join together two pieces of the same alloy and same
Welding of Bars, Rods, and Pipes cross-sectionalgeometry.Inthis case, heatbalance
should be uniform across the joint. If the parts to be
welded are similar in composition and cross section
JointPreparation. For uniform heating, the faying but of unequal mass, the part of larger mass should
surfacesshouldbe flat, comparativelysmooth,and project from the clamping die somewhat farther than
perpendicular to the direction of the upsetting force. the other part. With dissimilar metals, the one with
Prior to welding, they should be cleaned to remove higher electrical conductivityshouldextend farther
any dirt, oil,oxidation, or other materialsthatwill from the clamp than the other. When upset welding
impede welding. large parts that do not make good contact with each

Licensed by Information Handling Services ~.
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb751 978 m
Welding Encyclopedia (UW) UPSET WELDING 577
other, it issometimesadvantageoustointerruptthe section, can be adjusted either manually or by phase-

welding current periodically to allow the heat to dis- shift heat control. FigureU-5 (B) shows a rotary type
tribute evenly intothe parts. oil-cooled welding transformer, This welding equip-
Appllcatlons. Upset welding is used in wire mills ment includes a dressing tool assembly for dressing
and in the manufacture of products made from wire. In the welding electrodes without removing them from
wire mill applications, the process is used to join wire the welding machine, and scarfing
a tool assembly that
coils to each other to facilitate continuous processing. removes the upset metal after welding. The welded
Upset welding is also used to fabricate a wide variety tube then enters the straightening and sizing section,
of products from bar,strip, and tubing stock. Wire and shown in Figure U-5 (C). Followingthis, the tubing is
rod from 12.7 to 31.8 mm (0.05 to 1.25 in.) diameter cut to the desired length.
can be upset welded. Welding can be done usingeither a-c or d-c power.
WeldQuality. Butt joints can bemadethathave
Alternating-current machines may be operatedon
about thesame properties as the unwelded base metal. either 60 Hz single-phase poweror on power of higher
With proper procedures, welds made in wires are diffi- frequencyproducedby single-phase
a alternator.
cult to locate after they have passed through a subse- Direct-current machines are powered by a three-phase
quent drawing process. In many instances, the welds transformer-rectifier unit.
are then considered partof the continuous wire. Welding Procedures. As the formed tube passes
Upset welds may be evaluated by tension testing. through the zone between the electrodes andthe pinch
The tensile properties are compared to those of the rolls, there is a variationin pressure acrossthe joint. If
base metal. Metallographic and dye penetrant inspec- no heat were generated along the edges,this pressure
tion techniques are also used. would be maximum at the center of the squeeze rolls.
A common method for evaluating a butt weld in However, since heatis generated in the metal ahead of
wire is a bend test. A welded sample is clamped in a the squeeze roll center line, the metalgradually
vise with the weld interface located one wire diameter becomes plastic andthe point of initial edge contact is
from the visejaws. The sample then is bent back and slightly ahead of the squeeze roll axes. The point of
forth until it breaks in two. If the fracture is through maximum upset pressure is somewhat ahead of the
the weld interface and shows complete fusion, or if it squeeze roll centerline.
occurs outside the weld, the weld qualityis considered
The current acrossthe seam is distributed in inverse
satisfactory.
proportion to theresistancebetweenthetwo elec-
Continuous Upset Butt Welding trodes. This resistance,for the most part,is the contact
In the manufacture of welded pipeor tubing by con- resistance between theedges to be welded. Pressureis
tinuous upset welding, coiled stripis fed into a set of effectiveinreducingthis contact resistance. As the
forming rolls. These rolls progressively form thestrip temperature of the joint increases, the electricalresis-
intoacylindricalshape. The edgesto be joined tance will increase and the pressure will decrease. A
approach each other at an angle and culminate in a very sharp thermal gradient caused by the resistance
longitudinal V at the point of welding. A wheel elec- heating atthe peaks of the a-c cycle produces a stitch
trode contacts each edge of the tube a short distance effect. The stitch is normally of circular cross section,
from the apex of theV. Current fromthe power source lying centrally in the weld area and parallel tothe line
travels from one electrode along the adjacent edge to of initial closure of the seam edges. It is the hottest
the apex, where welding is taking place, and then back portion of the weld. The stitch areais molten while the
alongthe other edge to thesecondelectrode.The area between stitches is at a lower temperature. The
edges are resistance-heated to welding temperatureby patchesofmoltenmetal are relatively free toflow
this current. The hot edgesare then upset together by a under the influence of the motor forces (current and
set of pinch rolls to accomplish the weld. magnetic flux) acting on them. Consequently, they are
Equlpment. FigureU-5showsatypicaltubemill ejected from thestitcharea. If the weldingheat is
that uses upset welding to join the longitudinal seam. excessive, too much metalis ejected and pinhole leaks
Figure U-5 (A) shows the steel strip entering the strip may result. With too little heat, the individual stitches
guide assembly andthe first stages of the forrning sec- will notoverlap sufficiently, resulting inan interrupted
tion. The heat regulator, located behind the forming weld.

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 H 0764265 05Lb752 804 H
578 UPSLOPE Encyclopedia Welding
(C) STRAIGHTENING AND SIZING SECTION
Figure U-5 (Continued)-Typical Tube Mill Using

Upset Welding for Joining the Longitudinal Seam
(A) STRIP GUIDE ASSEMBLY AND FIRST STAGES
OF THE FORMING SECTION
The longitudinal spacing of the stitches must have
some limit. The spacing is a functionof the power fre-
quency and the travel speedof the tube being welded.
With 60 Hz power, the speed of welding should be
limited to approximately 0.45 d s e c (90 fdmin). To
weld tubing at higher speeds than this requires weld-
ing powerof higher frequency.
It is desirable to close the outside corners of the
edges first as theformedtubemovesthroughthe
machine so that the stitches will be inclined forward.
This condition is known as an inverted V. The advan-
tages of using an inverted V are twofold: (1) the angle
deviation from the vertical reduces the forces tending
toexpelanymoltenmetalin the joint, and (2) the
major portion of the solid upset metal is extruded to
the outside where it is easily removed. The tubing is
normally formedso that the included angleof the V is
about 5 to 7". See also HIGH-FREQUENCY UPSET WELD-
ING und INDUCTION UPSET WELDING.
UPSLOPE TIME
See AUTOMATICARCWELDINGUPSLOPETIME und
RESISTANCE WELDING UPSLOPETIME.
(B) ROTARY TYPE OIL-COOLED WELDING TRANSFORMER URANIUM

(Chemical symbol: U). A heavy, metallic element
Figure U-&Typical Tube Mill Using Upset Welding occurring in nature, obtained from its ores as the fis-
for Joining the Longitudinal Seam sionable isotope U-235. Finely divided uranium pow-

Welding 579
der is pyrophoricandcaremust be exercised to USABILITY

prevent fires. Atomic number, 92; atomic weight, A measure of the relative ease of application of a
238.07; melting point 1132C (2070F). Uranium is welding filler metal to make a sound weld. See STAN-
used principally in nuclearapplications and research. DARD WELDING TERMS.
Ultrasonic testingof a weld section introduces beams

of high-frequency sound waves into the weid to
detect and locate internal discontinuities

STD.AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 0536754 b87 m
580 Welding
Welders set up to weld ends

of rails using the electrogas process. Thermite welding is also used to
provide continuous-welded railroad tracks.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 0784265 0536755 5L3
VACUUM BRAZING above316C (600F), which is detrimentaltotheir

A nonstandard term for various brazing processes mechanical and corrosion resistant properties.
thattakeplaceinachamber or retort below atmo- For gas tungsten arc welding, the vacuum chamber is
spheric pressure. a pressure-tight vessel in which the work, GTAW torch,
fixtures and power leads can be installed and which can
VACUUM CHAMBER be evacuatedtoarangeof0.1 to 5 microns,then
A container voided of air and other matter to pro- refilled with helium or argon at atmospheric pressure.
vide a controlled atmosphere in which highly reactive The vacuum chamber atmosphere can be further
metals such as titanium, zirconium and tantalum are purified of residual air (due to insufficient pump-down
welded. Various welding processes, such as electron or leakage during refilling)by holding an arc for sev-
beamwelding,diffusionbondingandwelding,and eral minutes on scrap a piece of the alloy to be welded.
furnace brazing are performed in a vacuum. The operation is halted when weld beads free of dis-
A vacuum chamber, sometimes called a dry box, coloration are observed.
is evacuated by a pumping system. The chamber pro- Helium, argon,or a mixture of the two may be used
vides a completely sealed enclosure which allows a as a shielding gas. The most important consideration
widevisualrange so that all stages of the welding in the choice between argon and helium as an inert gas
operation can be observed.It may also provide access for welding is their individual arc characteristics.The
ports for placing or removing parts without contami- normal GTAW weldingvoltageinanargonatmo-
nating the atmosphere, and remote control devices to sphere is from 10 to 12 volts direct current electrode
manipulate the weldment. Refinements of the system negative (DCEN), and 16 to 20 volts in helium. These
can allow placementof parts in all positions, multiple values are for similar arc lengths.
gloveopenings,automatic gas controls,and other For this reason, when all other variables are held
accessories and equipment specific to the particular constant and equal, power input is greater with helium
manufacturing requirement. at the same welding current. It is difficult to strike an
arc in helium at less than 30 amperes, whereas an arc
Applications. The nuclear power and the aerospace
can be initiated in argon at 10 amperes. For this rea-
industries have applicationsfor controlled-atmosphere son, it is generallynecessarytouseargononthin
welding
systems.
Extreme
corrosion
problems materialstopreventexcessivepenetration or burn-
encountered in the nuclear industry and the need for through.
materials with low neutron absorption characteristics The most common vacuum chamberis a cylindrical
create numerous applications in which such materials vesselwithremovableplates for loading,and for
as zirconiumandzircaloy-2mustbeweldedunder access to theoperatorsprotectiveglovesextended
ideal conditions. inside.Specifications for construction of thevessel
Ademandformaterialswithhighstrength-to- require that it have the capability to withstand vacu-
weight ratios and the capability to retain strength at ums in the order of 10-4 mm of mercury. As an alter-
high temperatures, such as titanium and beryllium, hasnate to
steel
a vessel,rigid
or flexible plastic
similarly directed aircraft manufacturers to controlled- containers have been used successfully.
atmosphere welding. While normal design procedures forGTAW can be
A basic controlled atmosphere systemis comprised followed, preference should be given those avoiding
of a vacuum chamber and pumping console, purifica- the use of filler wire to reduce possible contamination
tion trains, power supplies, travel and rotational fix- from wire surface impurities.
tures, air locks, fully automatic operational controls,
and other accessories. VACUUM PLASMA SPRAYING (VPSP)
Highlyreactivemetalsreadilyabsorboxygen, A thermalspraying process variation using a
nitrogen and hydrogen when heated to temperatures plasma spraying gun confined to a stable enclosure
58 1
STDaAWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b505Lb75b 45T m
582 VACUUM Welding Encyclopedia
that is partially evacuated. See STANDARDWELDING the acetylene passes through it. The flux in a vapor
TERMS. form is picked up bythe acetylene and carried through
the hose and torchto the point of welding. Vapor flux
VACUUM TUBE providesautomaticfluxingandaccuratelyregulates
A predecessorof solid state electronics. An electron the amount of flux used;it permits continuous welding
tube evacuated sufficiently high to allow electrons to without stoppingto reflux the rod.
move with low interaction with remaining molecules
of air or gas. VARIABLE RESISTOR
Although they have been largely replaced by solid A resistor thatcan be changedor adjusted to differ-
state electronics, vacuum tubesof interest to the weld- ent values.
ing industryare the thyratron, which changesalternat-
ing current into direct current and regulates the flow, V-BLOCK
andthe ignitron, which also changeshigh-voltage A jig made of a casting with a V-shaped notch used
alternatingcurrent into directcurrent. The ignitron to hold shafts or rods inalignmentwhilethey are
depends on the presence of liquid mercury inside the welded. Smalljobs are facilitated by using V-blocks.
tube. Some tubes, such as the ignitron, are housed in
large tanks which have running water to cool partsof VENTILATION
the tube because of the high heats that are generated. In welding, brazing, cutting,or bonding operations,
See ELECTRONIC TUBE. a systemof removing fumes, vapors, or gases from the
workplace and replacing them with fresh air. Refer to
VANADIUM ANSYASC 2-49.1 Safety in Welding,Cuttingand
(Chemical symbol: V). A rare bright white ductile Allied Processes.
metallic element usually found in nature as a com-
pound of lead or lead and copper. Itis used in the pro- VERTICAL-DOWN
duction of steel to promote control of grain size and A nonstandard termfor DOWNHILL.
providecorrosionresistanceandhardenability. The
addition of vanadiumtendstoproduce fine grain VERTICAL POSITION
structure during the heat treating process. Because of See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also VERTI-
this property, vanadium often eliminates the harmful CAL WELDING POSITION.
effects of overheating. Once used in armor plate, its
principal applicationis in high-speed steels. VERTICAL POSITION, Pipe Welding
Anonstandardterm for the 2G position in pipe
VAN STONE JOINT welding.
This is a type of bolted flange pipe joint in which
the ends of the pipeare heated and flanged outward to VERTICAL WELD
form circular contacting flanges. A gasket is placed A buttor fillet weld with its linear direction vertical
between the flanged pipe ends and the bolted flanges or inclined at an angle less than 45" to the vertical;
are slipped overthe flanged pipeends and tightenedto made by fusion welding.
draw the pipe ends tightly together.
VERTICAL WELDING POSITION
VALVE The welding position in which the weld axis, at
A device witha movable part which starts, stops, or the point of welding, is approximately vertical, and
regulates the flowof liquids or gases. the weld face lies in an approximately vertical plane.
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 4,
VALVE, Hydraulic Back-Pressure Figure C.
See WATER SEAL.
VERTICAL-UP
VAPOR FLUX A nonstandard termfor UPHILL.
A flux that is brought to the oxyfuel gas torch by
passing acetylene through a liquid flux held in a dis- V-GROOVE WELD
penser. The dispenser is connected in the acetylene A type of groove weld. See STANDARD WELDING
line between the regulator and the torch so that all of TERMS.See Appendix 6.

Licensed by Information Handling Services ~~ ~~~~ ~~ ~
STD*AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b505Lb757 39b U
Welding 583
VlCKERS HARDNESS TEST (HV) Dimensions should be confirmed by measurement.

The Vickers hardness testis an indentation testthat Base metal should be identified by type and grade.
measures a metals resistance to deformation using a Corrections shouldbe made before work proceeds.
diamondpyramidindenter.Astandardmethod for After the parts are assembled for welding, the
using this method is available in ASTM E92, Vickers inspector should check the weld joint for root opening,
Hardness of Metallic Materials. See HARDNESS edge preparation and other features that might affect
TESTING. the quality of the weld. The inspector should check the
following conditions for conformance to the applica-
VISIBLE RAYS ble specifications:
See EYE PROTECTION. (1) Joint preparation, dimensions, and cleanliness
(2) Clearance dimensions of backing strips, rings,
VISUAL INSPECTION
or consumable inserts
(3) Alignment andfit-up of the pieces being welded
The most extensively used nondestructive examina- (4) Welding process and consumables
tion of weldments. Itis a primary method of determin- ( 5 ) Welding procedures and machine settings
ing
important
information about conformity
to (6) Specified preheat temperature
specifications.Visualinspection does notnormally
require special equipment; however, the requirements Inspection During Welding. Visual inspection is the
are that the inspector is knowledgeable and has good primary method for controlling quality during weld-
vision. ing. Some of the aspects of fabrication that can be
checked include the following:
Advantages. Visualinspectionshould be the pri- (1) Treatment of tack welds
mary evaluation method of any quality control pro- (2) Quality of the root pass and the succeeding weld
gram. It can, in addition to flaw detection, discover layers
signs of possible fabrication problems in subsequent (3) Proper preheat and interpass temperatures
operations, and can be incorporated in process control (4) Sequence of weld passes
programs. Prompt detection and correction of flaws ( 5 ) Interpass cleaning
can result in significant cost savings. Conscientious (6) Root condition prior to welding a second side
visual inspection before, during, and after welding can (7) Distortion
detect many of the discontinuities that wouldbe found (8) Conformance withthe applicable procedure
later by more expensive nondestructive examination The most critical part of any weld is the root pass
methods. because many weld discontinuitiesare associated with
Equipment. Auxiliarylightingequipmentmaybe the root area. Competent visual inspectionof the root
neededtoassuregoodvisibility. If the area to be pass may detect a condition that would result in dis- a
inspected is not readily visible, the inspectormay use continuity inthe completed weld. Anothercritical root
mirrors, borescopes, flashlightsor other aids. condition exists when second-side
treatment is
Inspection of welds usually includes quantitativeas required of adoublewelded joint, This includes
well as qualitative assessment of the joint. Numerous removal of slag and other irregularities by chipping,
standard measuringtools are available to make various arc gouging, or grinding down to sound metal.
measurements, suchas joint geometry and fit-up, weld The root opening should be monitored as welding
size, weldreinforcementheight,misalignment,and of the root pass progresses. Special emphasis should
depth ofundercut.Contactpyrometersand crayons be placed on the adequacy of tack welds, clamps, or
should be used to verify thatthe preheat and interpass braces designedto maintain the specified root opening
temperatures called for in the welding procedure are to assure proper joint penetration and alignment.
being used. Inspection of successive layers of weld metal usu-
ally concentrates on bead shape and interpass clean-
Prior to Welding. Before welding, the base metal ing,sometimeswith the assistance of workmanship
should be examined for conditions that tend to cause standards. Standards show examples of joints similar
welddefects.Scabs,seams,scale, or other harmful to those in manufacture in which portions of succes-
surface conditions may be found by visual examina- sive weld layers are shown. Each layerof the produc-
tion. Plate laminations may be observedon cut edges. tion weld may be compared with the corresponding

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L397 .I
0784265 05Lb758 2 2 2
584 VOLATILE Welding Encyclopedia
layer of the workmanship standard. Each weld layer VOLT-AMPERE

should be visually checked by the welder for surface The unit of apparent power; it is the productof volts
irregularities and adequate interpass cleaningto avoid times amperes in a given electrical circuit.
subsequent slag inclusions or porosity.
VOLT-AMPERE CURVE
After Welding. The following are among the items
that can be checked by visual inspection: A plotofoutput-voltagevaluesversusoutput-
current values usually usedto describe the static char-
(1) Final weld appearance
acteristic of a welding power source.
(2) Final weld size
Static volt-ampere characteristicsare generally pub-
(3) Extentof welding
lished by the power supply manufacturer. There is no
(4) Dimensional accuracy universallyrecognizedmethodbywhichdynamic
(5) Amount of distortion characteristics are specified. The usershouldobtain
(6) Postweld heat treatment. assurance from the manufacturer that both the static
Most codes and specifications describe the type andand dynamic characteristics of the power supply are
size of discontinuities which can be accepted. Many of acceptable for the intended application.
the following discontinuities on the surfaceof a com-
pleted weld can be found by visual inspection: Constant Current
(1) Cracks Typical volt-ampere(V-A) output curves for a con-
(2) Undercut ventional constant-current power source are shown in
( 3 ) Overlap Figure V-l. It is sometimes called a drooper because
(4) Exposed porosity and slag inclusions of the substantial downward (negative) slope of the
(5) Unacceptable weld profile. curves. The power sourcemighthaveopen circuit
The weld surface should be thoroughly cleaned of voltage adjustment in addition to output current con-
oxide and slag in order to accurately detect and evalu- trol. A change in either control will change the slope
ate discontinuities. of the volt-ampere curve.
When a postweld heat treatment is specified, the The effect of the slope of the V-A curve on power
operation should be monitored and documentedby an output is shown in Figure V-1 .With curve A, which has
inspector. Items of importance in heat treatment may an 80 V open circuit, a steady increase in arc voltage
include the following: from 20 to 25 V (25%) would result in a decrease in
current from 123 to 115 A (6.5%). The change in cur-
(1) Area to be heated
rent is relatively small. Therefore, with a consumable
(2) Heating and cooling rates
electrode welding process, electrode melting rate would
( 3 ) Holding temperature and time remain fairly constant with a slight change in arc length.
(4) Temperature measurement and distribution
Setting the power sourcefor 50 V open circuit and
(5) Equipment calibration. more shallow slope intercepting the same 20 V, 123 A
Discretion shouldbe used whenjudging the quality position will give volt-ampere curve B. In this case,
of a weld from the visible appearance alone. Accept- the same increasein arc voltage from 20 to 25 V
able surface appearance does not prove careful work- would decrease the current from 123 to 100 A (19%),
manship or subsurface weld integrity; however, proper a significantly greater change. In shielded metal arc
visual inspection procedures before and during fabri- welding, the flatter V-A curve would give a skilled
cation can increase product reliability overthat based weldertheopportunitytovary the currentsubstan-
only on final inspection. tially by changing the arc length. This could be useful
VOLATILE
for out-of-position welding because it would enable
the welder to control the electrode melting rate and
Capable of vaporizing at a relative low temperature.
moltenpoolsize.Generally,however,lessskilled
VOLT welders would prefer the current to stay constantif the
A measurement of electrical potential and electro- arc length should change.
motive force calculated between two points on a con- Constant Voltage
ductingwirecarryingaconstantcurrentof one A typical volt-ampere curve for a constant-voltage
ampere, when the power dissipated between the points powersource is showninFigure V-2. Thispower
is one watt. See ELECTRICAL UNITS. source does not have true constant-voltage output. It

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 05Lb759 Lb9 m
Welding 585
80
60
40
25
20
O
O 50 1O0 150 200
CURRENT, A
Figure V-1-vpical Volt-Ampere Characteristics of a Drooplng Power Source with Adjustable Open
Circuit Voltage
40
35
30
>
25
g 20
3 15
P
10
5
O
O 50 250 1O0
200 150 300 350
CURRENT, A
Figure V-2-Volt-Ampere Output Relationship for a Constant Voltage Power Source

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb7b0 980 m
586 VOLTAGE, Welding Encyclopedia
has a slightly downward (negative) slope because inter-eficial for shieldedmetalarcwelding(SMAW)to

nal electrical impedance in the welding circuit causes assist
a starting and to avoid electrode stubbing (sticking
minor voltage drop in the output. Changing that imped-in the puddle) if a welder uses too short an arc length.
ance will alter the slope of the volt-ampere curve.
Startingatpoint B in Figure V-2,thediagram VOLTAGE, ARC
shows that an increase or decrease in voltageto A or C The voltage across the arc; i.e., the voltage across
(5 V or 25%) produces a large change in amperage the gaseous zone of the welding arc; it varies with the
(100 A or 50%). This V-A characteristicis suitable for length ofthe arc.
constant-feed electrode processes, such as gas metal VOLTAGE DROP
arc, submergedarc,and flux cored arc welding, in The difference in voltage betweentwo points in an
order tomaintainaconstant arc length.Aslight electric circuit causedby resistance opposingthe flow
change in arc length (voltage) willcause a fairly large of current.
changeinweldingcurrent.Thiswillautomatically
increaseordecreasetheelectrodemelting rate to VOLTAGE, OPEN CIRCUIT
regain the desired arc length (voltage).This effect has The voltage between the terminals of the welding
beencalled self regulation. Adjustments are some- power source when no currentis flowing in the weld-
times provided with constant-voltage power sources to ing circuit.
change or modify the slope or shapeof the V-A curve.
If done with inductive devices,the dynamic character- VOLTAGE, WELDING ARC
istics will also change. The voltage measured between the electrode holder
Combined Constant-Current and Constant-Voltage and the base metal immediately adjacent to the arc.It is
Electroniccontrolscanbedesignedtoprovide the sum of the arc-stream voltage,
the cathode drop, the
eitheraconstant-voltage or constant-currentoutput anode drop, the drop in the electrode and the contact
from a single power sourceso that it can be usedfor a drop between the electrode holder and
the electrode.
variety of welding andcutting purposes. VOLTAGE REGULATOR
Electronically controlled outputs can also provide An automatic electrical control device for maintain-
output curves that are a combination of constant curing a constant voltage supply to the primary of a weld-
rent and constant voltage, as shown in Figure V-3. The ing transformel:See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
top part of the curve is essentially constant current;
belowacertaintriggervoltage,however, the curve VOLTMETER
switches to constant voltage. This type of curve is ben- An instrument which measures voltage.
>
TRIGGER
VOLTAGE
CONSTAN1
VOLTAGE
CURRENT, A
Figure V-3"Combination Volt-Ampere Curve

~~~~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 051rb7bL 817 W
W
WARP Materials are cutcleanly,withoutragged edges
A state of being bent or twisted out of true, or out of (unless the traverse speed is too high), without heat,
alignment. The amountofwarp that occurs during and generally faster than on a band saw. A narrow,0.8
welding of sheet and plate material depends on the to 2.5 mm (0.030 to 0.100 in.), smooth kerf is pro-
amount of heat that spreads away from the weld and duced. There is no problem of thermal delamination,
through the parent metal. Some warping occurs when or deformation,whenwater jet cutting is properly
welding heatrelieves strains left in the metalafter roll- applied.
ing. Warping can be reduced by using jigs, chill bars, The wide application range and lack of heatare the
and plates to absorb excess heat. The backstep weld major advantages of water jet cutting. The versatility
sequence also helps reduce warp. See EXPANSION AND of the process is demonstrated by the simultaneous
CONTRACTION; SHEET METAL WELDING, PREHEAT, and cuts throughcarbon steel, brass,copper,aluminum,
BACKSTEP SEQUENCE. and stainless steel shown inFigure W-1 .
WASHING
Melting the surplus metal on the outer surface of a
weld to obtain anestheticallypleasingweldand to
ensure complete fusion.
WASTER PLATE
See STACK CUlTING and THERMAL CUTTING.
WATERGLASS
See SODIUM SILICATE.
WATER JET CUlTlNG

Water jet cutting, also called hydrodynamic machin-
ing, severs metals and other materials using a high-
velocity water jet. The jet is formed by forcing water
through a 0.1 to 0.6 mm (0.004 to 0.024 in.) diameter
orifice in a man-made sapphire under high pressure
(207 to414 MPa [30 O00 to 60 O00 psi]). Jet velocities
range from 520 to 914 m / s (1700 to 3000 Ws). At
these speeds andpressures the water erodes many
materials rapidly, acting like a saw blade. The water
stream, with a flow rate of 0.4 to 19 Umin (0.1 to
5 gal/min), is usually manipulated by a robot or gantry Figure W-l-Abrasive Water Jet Stack Cutting
of
system, but small workpieces may guided be manually Various Metals
past a stationary water jet.
Metals and other hard materials are cut by adding
an abrasive in powder form to the water stream. With Water jet and abrasive water jet systems compete
this method, called hydroabrasive machining or abra- with such processes as band saws, the reciprocating
sivejet machining, the abrasive particles (often garnet) knife, flame cutting, plasma, and laser cutting. They
are accelerated by the water and accomplish most of can
handlematerials
that are damaged by
heat
the cutting. Higher flow rates of water are required to fromthermalprocesses, or materials that gum up
accelerate the abrasive particles. mechanical cutting tools. In some cases, they can cost-
587
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 3777 9 0784265 0 5 l b 7 b 2 753
588 WATER
effectivelyreplacethreeoperations:rough-cutting, WATER WASH

milling, and deburringof contoured shapes. The wide The forcing of exhaust air andfumes froma spray
range of materials which maybe cut appears in Table booth through water so that the vented air is free of
W-l. thermal sprayed particles or fumes. See STANDARD
WELDING TERMS.
Table W-1 WATT
Cutting Speeds on Various Materials
with Abrasive Water Jet A unit of electric power equal to voltage multiplied
by amperage. One horsepower is equal to 746 watts.
Thickness navel Speed is a unit
Named for J. Watt, a Scottish engineer, a watt
of powerconsumptionthatstandardizesandallows
Material mm in. mm/s inJmin. comparison between different rates of consumption.
Aluminum 3.2 40O. 125 17
WATT HOUR
Aluminum 12.7 0.50 8 18
Aluminum 19.05 0.75 2 A unit of work or energy equivalent to the power of
Brass 3.2 0.125 20 8.5 one watt operatingfor one hour.
Brass 10.85 0.425 2
Bronze 25.4 1.o 0.5 1 WATT HOUR METER
Copper 1.6 35 0.063 15 An instrumentthatrecordswatt-hours of power
Copper 15.9 0.625 3 8 consumption.
Lead 50.8 2.0 3 8
steel Carbon 8 0.75
19.1 3
WAVE SOLDERING (WS)
on Cast 38.1 1.5 0.5 1
steel Stainless 2.5 25 o. 1 11 An automatic soldering process where workpieces
Stainless
steel (304)
25.4 4 1.o 2 pass through a wave of molten soldez See STANDARD
Stainless steel (304)
101.6 4.0 0.5 1 WELDING TERMS. See DIP SOLDERING.
Armor plate 19.1 0.75 4 10
Inconel 8 0.625
15.9 3 WAX PATTERN, Thermite Welding
Inconel 7 18 31.8 1.25 0.5 1 Wax molded aroundthe workpieces to the form
Titanium 0.6 600.025 25
desired for the completed weld. See STANDARD WELD-
Titanium 12.7 0.500 5 12
ING TERMS.
Tool steel 6.4 0.250 4 10
Ceramic (99.6% aluminum) 0.6 0.025 2.5 6
Fiberglass 2.5 2000.100 85 WEAVE BEAD
Fiberglass 6.4 1000.250 42 A type of weld bead made with transverse oscilla-
Glass 6.4 1000.250 42 tion. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
Glass 19.1 400.75 17
Graphite/epoxy 6.4 800.250 34 WEAVING
Graphite/epoxy 25.4 1.o 6 15
Kevlar 9.5 400.375 17
A technique of depositing weld metal in which the
Kevlar 25.4 1.o 1.3 3 electrode sweeps back and forth across the joint in a
Lexan 12.7 0.5 5 12 semi-circular motion. Weaving increasesthe width of
Metal-matrix
composite 3.2 O. 125 13 30 the deposit, decreases overlap and assists slag forma-
Pheonolic 12.7 0.5 4 10 tion.Sometimescalled wash welding. See WEAVE
Plexiglass 4.4 0.175 21 50 BEAD.
beltingRubber 7.6 2000.300 85
WELD
A localized coalescence of metals or nonmetals pro-
WATER SEAL duced either by heating the materials to the welding
A hydraulic protective device installed inan acety- temperature, with or without the application of pres-
lene pipeline to provide positive flashback protection. sure, or by the application of pressure alone and with
The liquid seal quenches flashbacks and prevents them or without the use of filler material. See STANDARD
from reaching other parts of the piping system. WELDING TERMS.

~
S T D - A W S JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 0 5 1 b 7 b 3 b 9 T

Welding 589
WELDABILITY WELD DELAY TIME

The capacity of material to be welded under the In spot and projection welding, a delay in the ,weld
imposed fabrication conditions into a specific, suitably process that ensures the proper sequence of mechani-
designed structure and to perform satisfactorily in the cal functions in relation to electrical functions.
intended service. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS.
WELDEDSCULPTURE
WELD AXIS
Art created through the use of a welding process.
A line through the lengthof the weld, perpendicular Welding is a highly adaptable and versatile medium
to and at the geometric center of its crosssection. See for the artist or sculptor. Many different materials and
STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. areas of creativity are possible. Artwork can be created
by joining material to build an object, orby removing
WELD BEAD material from larger pieces to achieve a desired effect.
A weld resultingfrom a pass. See STANDARD WELD- Many sculptors use a combination of the two tech-
ING TERMS. See also STRINGERBEAD and WEAVE niques, using both arc and oxyfuel gas welding and
BEAD. cutting.
The use of welding techniques in modem sculpture
WELD BONDING hasdevelopedgradually.Untilrecently, artists used
A resistance spot welding process variation in age-old methodsof casting to create threxdmensional
which the spot weld strength is augmented byadhesive metal figures.
at the fuying surfaces. See STANDARD WELDING Pablo Picasso was oneof the fmt artists to experis
TERMS. mentwithwelding.Throughtheages, the develop
ment of sculpture has essentially beena concern with
WELD BRAZING mass, space and volume, leaving linear expression to
A joining method that combines resistance welding the draftsman or painter. However, during th? 1930s
with brazing. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. two very distinct movements with strongly Opposed
philosophies were creating the new ideas that would
WELD CLEANING liberate sculpture fromthe restrictions of the foundry.
See EDGE PREPAMTION. Onegroup,theSurrealists,commandedthemost
immediate attention with their attemptsto suggest the
WELD CORROSION activities of the subconscious mind. The second group,
In stainless steel, a condition of lowered resistance theConstructives, achieved the
most far-reaching
to corrosion causedby carbide precipitation. technical influence with their concern for the formal
arrangement of planesexpressedthroughmodem
Whenstainlesssteelthathasnotbeenstabilized
industrial materials. Both of these schools of thought
with titanium or another stabilizing element is heated
to a temperature ranging between 500 and 900C (930 numerousandtalentedpractitioners,andthese
had
and 1650"F), which occurs during welding, chromium basic approaches continue to influencewelded
carbide precipitates along the grain boundaries, reduc- sculpture.
ing the corrosion resistance at these locations. The cor- In the past, much of the welded sculpture had been
rosion dues not occur in the weld itself but in the heat- produced with the oxyacetylene torch. Currently, the
affected zone adjacentto the weld. This loss of corro- well-equipped sculptor probably has a small SMAW
sion resistance canbe eliminated by heat treating.The or GMAW outfitinhisstudioforcreatingartwork
welded part should be heated to 1100C (2010F) and from materials such as aluminum and stainless steel,
quenched in water. as wellasthemildsteels. An example of welded
sculpture is shown in Figure W-2.
WELD CRACK
A crack located in the weld metal or heat-affected WELDER
zone. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also One who perfoms manual or semiautomatic weld-
Appendix 9. ing. See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS.
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 OSLb7bri 526 m
FICATION 590 WELDER Encyclopedia Welding
welding duringactual construction, butrather to assess

whether anindividual has a required minimum level of
skill to produce sound welds.The tests cannot foretell
how an individual will performon a particular produc-
tion weld. For this reason, complete reliance should
not be placed on qualification testing of welders. The
quality of production welds shouldbe determined dur-
ing andfollowing completion of actual welding.
Various codes, specifications, and governing rules
generally prescribe similar, though frequently some-
what different, methods for qualifying welders, weld-
ing operators, and tack welders. The applicable code
or specification should be consulted for specific
details andrequirements. See QUALIFICATION AND
TESTING.
WELDER REGISTRATION
The act of registering a welder certification or a
photostatic copy of the welder certijkation. See STAN-
DARD WELDINGTERMS.
WELD FACE
The exposed surface of a weld on the side from
which welding was done. See STANDARD WELDING
TERMS. See Figure W-3.
FACE
r REINFORCEMENT
Figure W-2-Orpheus, a Welded Bronze Sculpture

by Richard Hunt
WELDER CERTIFICATION
Written verification that a welder has produced
welds meeting a prescribed standard of welder per-
formance. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also
CERTIFIED WELDER.
Figure W-3-Certain Parts of a Weld
WELDER PERFORMANCE QUALIFICATION
The demonstration of a welder's ability to produce
welds meeting prescribed standards. See STANDARD WELD FACE UNDERFILL
WELDING TERMS. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 8,
Welder, welding operator, and tack welder qualifi- (E) and (F). See also UNDERFILL.
cation tests determine the ability of the persons tested
to produce acceptably sound welds with the process, WELD GAUGE
materials, and procedurecalled for in the tests. Quali- A device designed for measuring the shape and size
fication tests are not intendedto be used as a guide for of welds. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 07842b5 051b7b5 462
Welding ELECTRODE WELDING 591
WELD GROOVE WELDING CURRENT

A channel in the surface of a workpiece or an open- See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See also AUTO-
ing between two jointmembers that provides space to MATIC
ARC
WELDING
CURRENT and RESISTANCE
contain a weld. See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See WELDING CURRENT.
Appendix 6. Currentforwelding is controlled by awelding
WELDING power source. The typical output of a welding power
source may be alternating current, direct current, or
A joining process that produces coalescence of
both. It may be either constant current, constant volt-
materials by heating them to the welding temperature,
age or both.Itmayalsoprovideapulsingoutput
with or without the application of pressure or by the
mode. Selecting the correct power source depends on
application of pressure alone, and with or without the
the current output requiredfor each of the arc welding
use of filler metal. See STANDARDWELDING TERMS.
processes. See VOLT-AMPERECURVE.
See also Appendix 3, Master Chart ofWeldingand
Allied Processes.
WELDING CYCLE
WELDING ARC The complete series of events involved in the mak-
A controlled electrical discharge between the elec- ing of a weld. See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See
trode and the workpiece that is formed and sustained Appendix 19.
by the establishment of a gaseous conductive medium,
called an arc plasm. See STANDARDWELDING WELDING ELECTRODE
TERh4S. A component of the welding circuit through which
current is conductedandthat terminates at the
WELDING BLOWPIPE arc, molten conductive slag, or base metal. See STAN-
Anonstandardterm for OXYFUELGASWELDING DARD WELDING TERMS. See also ARCWELDING ELEC-
TORCH. TRODE,CARBONELECTRODE,COVEREDELECTRODE,
ELECTROSLAGWELDINGELECTRODE,FLUXCORED
WELDING, B u l l ELECTRODE, METAL CORED ELECTRODE, METAL ELEC-
Welding that joins metal along the edges, without TRODE, RESISTANCE WELDING ELECTRODE,und TUNG-
involving planar surfaces. See B u n WELD and WELD STEN ELECTRODE.
JOINT.
Electrodes used for welding carbon steels and alloy
WELDING CABLE steels have been standardized by the specificationsof
the AmericanWeldingSociety.ANSYAWSA5.1,
An insulated conductor, usually copper, that carries
Specificationfor Carbon Steel Electrodesfor Shielded
electric current from the welding power supply to the
Metal Arc Welding covers electrodesfor welding mild
torch and then from the workpiece back to the power
steel. Low-alloy steels appear under ANSYAWS A5.5,
supply.Cablesshouldbeinspectedperiodically to
Specificationfor Low Alloy Steel CoveredArc Welding
assure that insulation is not cracked or damaged and
Electrodes.
that fittings are tight.
The diameter or size of cable required for a given ANSVAWS A5.4, SpeciJicationfor Stainless Steel
application depends on the welding or cutting current Welding Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding
and the distance from the power supply to the work covers stainless steelarc welding electrodes with vari-
site. Recommendedcable sizes are listed in Table C- l. ous nickel and chromium contents. See STEEL, STAIN-
The use of the steel frameof a buildingin place of a LESS, Arc Welding.
copper workpiece cableis a widespread but poor prac- Copper and copper bearing alloy arc welding elec-
tice. This is especially trueif the frameof the building trodesappearunder ANSYAWSA5.7, Specijcation
is riveted. In this case there is likely to be a consider- for Copper and Copper Alloy Bare Welding Rods and
able voltage drop across riveted joints, and this drop Electrodes. See COPPER ALLOY WELDING.
will vary as the riveted connections warm up due to Aluminumarcweldingelectrodesappearunder
12R heating. Weld quality is almost certain to suffer ANSUAWSA5.3, Specification for Aluminum and
from this practice; it is far better to use a coppercable Aluminum Alloy Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc
as the workpiece lead. Welding. SeeALUMINUM. See also ELECTRODES.
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 05Lh7bb 3T9
FILLER 592 WELDING
WELDING FILLER METAL nants in the atmosphere, such as halogenated hydro-

The metal or alloy to be added in making a weld carbon vapors from cleaning and degreasing activities;
joint that alloys with the base metal toform weld metal and other factors.
in a fusion welded joint. See STANDARD WELDING Various gases are generated during welding. Some
TERMS. are a product ofthe decomposition of fluxes and elec-
trode coatings. Othersare formed by the action of arc
WELDING FITTING heat or ultravioletradiationemitted by the arc on
See PIPE WELDING, Forged Fittingsfor Welding. atmosphericconstituentsandcontaminants.Poten-
tially
hazardousgases include
carbon
monoxide,
WELDING FORCE oxidesofnitrogen,ozone,andphosgene or other
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also decomposition products of chlorinated hydrocarbons,
DYNAMIC ELECTRODE FORCE,ELECTRODE FORCE, such as phosgene.
FORGE FORCE,FRICTIONWELDING FORCE,STATIC Heliumandargon,althoughchemicallyinertand
ELECTRODE FORCE, THEORETICAL ELECTRODE FORCE,
nontoxic, are simple asphyxiants, and coulddilute the
and UPSET FORCE. atmospheric oxygen concentration to potentially harm-
WELDING FUMES
ful low levels. Carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrogen can
Welders,weldingoperators,andotherpersonsin also cause asphyxiation.
theareamust be protectedfromoverexposureto Ozone maybegeneratedbyultravioletradiation
fumesandgasesproducedduringwelding,brazing, from welding arcs. This is particularly true with gas
soldering, and cutting. Overexposure is exposure that shielded arcs, especially when argon is used. Photo-
is hazardoustohealth,andexceedsthepermissible chemical reactions between ultraviolet radiation and
limits specified by a government agency. Such recog- chlorinated hydrocarbons result in the production of
nized authorities are the U.S. Department ofLabor, phosgene and other decomposition products.
Occupational Safety
and
Health
Administration Exposure Factors. The single most important factor
(OSHA), Regulations 29 CFR 1910.1000; the Ameri- influencing exposure to fume is the position of the
can Conferenceof Governmental Industrial Hygienists welders head with respect to the fume plume. When
(ACGIH) in its publications ThresholdLimitValues the head is in such a position that the fume envelops
for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents in the the face or helmet, exposure levels can be very high.
WorkroomEnvironment. Personswithspecialhealth Therefore, welders must be trained to keep their heads
problems may have unusual sensitivity that requires to one side of the fume plume. In some cases,the work
even more stringent protection. can be positionedso the fume plume rises to one side.
Fumes and gases are usually a greater concern in Ventilation. Ventilationhasasignificantinfluence
arc welding than in oxyfuel gas welding, cutting, or on the amount of fumes in the work area, and hence
brazing because a welding arc may generate a larger the welders exposure. Ventilation may be local, where
volume of fume and gas, and greater varieties of mate- the fumes are extracted near the point of welding, or
rials are usually involved. general, where the shop air is changed or filtered. The
Protection from excess exposure is usually accom- appropriate type will depend on the welding process,
plished by ventilation. Where exposure would exceed the material being welded, andother shop conditions.
permissible limits with available ventilation, respira- Adequate ventilationis necessary to keep the welders
tory protection must be used. Protection must be pro- exposure to fumes and gases within safe limits.
vided not only for the welding and cutting personnel The bulk offume generated during welding and cut-
but also for other persons in the area. ting consists of small particles that remain suspended
Refer toIndustrial Ventilation,A Manual of Recom- in the atmosphere for a considerable time.As a result,
mended Practice, Cincinnati: American Conferenceof fume concentration in a closed area can build up over
Governmental Industrial Hygienists (latest edition). time, as can the concentration of any gases evolved or
Arc Welding. Fumes and gasesfrom arc welding and used in the process. The particles eventually settle on
cutting cannot be classified simply. Their composition the walls and floor, but the settling rate is low com-
and quantity depend on the base metal composition; pared to the generation rate of the welding or cutting
theprocessandconsumablesused;coatingsonthe processes. Therefore,fume concentration mustbe con-
work, such as paint, galvanizing, or plating; contami- trolled by ventilation.

~~~ ~~
~ ~~~ ~~ ~ ~~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 051b7b7 235 m

Welding 593
Adequate ventilation is the key to control of fumes side and inside the container should be cleared of all
andgasesintheweldingenvironments.Natural, obstacles and hazardous materials.
mechanical, or respirator ventilation mustbe provided When repairing a container in place, entry of haz-
forallwelding,cutting,brazing,andrelatedopera- ardous substances released from the floor or the soil
tions. The ventilation must ensure that concentrations beneath the container must be prevented. The required
of hazardousairbornecontaminants are maintained air-suppliedrespiratorsorhosemasks are those
below recommended levels. These levels must be no accepted by the U.S. Bureau of Mines or other recog-
higher than the allowable levels specified by the U.S. nized agency. For more complete procedures, refer to
OccupationalSafetyandHealthAdministration or AWS F4.1,Recommended Safe Practices for the Prep-
other applicable authorities. aration for Welding and Cutting Containers that Have
Respiratory Protective Equipment. Where natural or
Held Hazardous Substances. Miami: American Weld-
mechanical ventilation is not adequate or where pro- ing Society (latest edition). When welding or cutting
tection from toxic materials require a supplement to inside of vessels that have held dangerous materials,
ventilation, respiratory protective equipment must be theprecautions for confinedspacesmustalsobe
used.Respiratorswithairlines,or face masksthat observed.
give protection against all contaminants are generally Highly Toxic Materials. Certain materials which are
preferred. Air-supplied welding helmets are also avail- sometimes present in consumables, base metals,coat-
ablecommercially.Filter-typerespirators,approved ings, or atmospheresfor welding or cutting operations,
by the U.S. Bureau of Minesfor metal fume, give ade- have permissible exposure limitsof 1.0 mg/m3 or less.
quate protection against particulate contaminants that Among such materials are the following metals and
are less toxic than lead, provided they are used and their compounds:
maintained correctly. Their general use is not recom- (1) Antimony
mended, however, becauseof the difficulty in assuring (2) Arsenic
properuseandmaintenance.Theywillnotprotect (3) Barium
against mercury vapor, carbon monoxide, or nitrogen (4) Beryllium
dioxide. For these hazards an air line respirator, hose
(5) Cadmium
mask, or gas mask is required.
(6) Chromium
Special Ventilation Situations (7) Cobalt
Welding In Confined Spaces. Special consideration (8) Copper
must be given to the safety and health of welders and (9) Lead
other workers in confined places. Gas cylinders must (10) Manganese
be located outside of the confined space to avoid pos- (11) Mercury
sible contarnination of the space with leaking gasesor (12) Nickel
volatile material. Welding power sources should also (13) Selenium
be located outside to reduce dangerof engine exhaust (14) Silver
and electric shock.
( 15) Vanadium
A means for removing persons quickly in case of Base metals and filler metals that
may release some
emergencymustbeprovided.Safetybeltsandlife- of these materials as fume during welding or cutting
lines, when used, should be attached to the workers are shownin Table W-2.
body in a manner that avoids the possibility of the per-
son becoming jammed in the exit. A trained helper Manufacturers Material Safety Data Sheets should
should be stationed outside the confined space with a be consulted to determineif any of these highly toxic
preplanned rescue procedure to be put into effect in materials are presentinwelding filler metalsand
case of emergency. fluxes being used. Material Safety Data Sheets should
be requested from suppliers. However, welding filler
Welding of Containers. Welding or cutting on the metalsandfluxesarenottheonlysource of these
outside or inside of containers or vessels that have materials. They may also be present in base metals,
helddangeroussubstancespresentsspecialhazards. coatings, or other sources in the work area. Radioac-
Flammable or toxic vapors may be present, or may be tive materials under Nuclear Regulatory Commission
generated by the applied heat.The immediate area out- jurisdiction require special considerations.
STDWAWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b505Lb7b8171 m
594 WELDING Encyclopedia Welding
Table W-2
Persons should not consume food in areas where
Possible Toxic Materials Evolved During fumes that contain materials with very low allowable
Welding or Thermal Cutting exposure limits may be generated. They should also
practicegoodpersonalhygiene,such as washing
Evolved Metalsor hands before touching food, to prevent ingestion of
Base or Filler
Metal
Their Compounds toxic contaminants.
Carbon and low alloy Chromium, manganese, vanadium FluorineCompounds. Fumes and gases from fluo-
steels rine compounds can be dangerous to health, and can
bum the eyes and skin on contact. Local mechanical
Stainless steels Chromium, manganese, nickel ventilation or respiratory protection must be provided
Manganese steels and Chromium, cobalt, manganese, when welding, brazing, cutting, or soldering in con-
hardfacing materials nickel, vanadium fined spaces involving fluxes, coatings, or other mate-
rial containingfluorine compounds.
High copper alloys Beryllium, chromium, copper, When such processes are employed in open spaces,
lead, nickel the need for local exhaust ventilation or respiratory
Coated or plated steel Cadmium*, chromium, copper, protection will depend upon the circumstances. Such
or copper lead, nickel, silver protection is not necessary when air samples taken in
breathing zones indicate that all fluorides are within
*When cadmium is a constituent in a filler metal, awarning label allowable limits. However, local exhaust ventilation is
mustbeaffixedto the container or coil.Refer to ANSUASC
Z49.1, Safety inWelding and Cutting. New York: American Stan- always desirable for fixed-location production welding
dards Institute (latest edition). and for all production weldingof stainless steels when
filler metals or fluxes containing fluoridesare used.
FumesContainingZinc. Compoundsmayproduce
When toxic materials are encountered as designated symptoms of nausea, dizziness, or fever (sometimes
constituents in welding, brazing or cutting operations, called metal fume fever). Welding or cutting where
special ventilation precautions must be taken to assure zinc may be present in consumables, base metals, or
that the levelsof these contaminantsin the atmosphere coatings should be done as described for fluorine com-
are at or below the limits allowed for human exposure. pounds.
All persons in the immediate vicinity of welding or Measurement of Exposure
cutting operations involving toxic materials must be
The American Conference of Governmental Indus-
similarly protected. Unless atmospheric tests under the
trial Hygienists (ACGIH) and theU.S. Department of
mostadverseconditionsestablishthatexposure is
within acceptable concentrations, the following pre- Labor, Occupational Health and Safety Administration
cautions must be observed. (OSHA) have established allowable limitsof airborne
contaminants. They are called threshold limit values
Confined Spaces. Whenever any toxic materialsare (TLVs), or permissible exposure limits (PELS).
encountered in
confinedspaceoperations,local The TLV (a registered trade markof the ACGIH) is
exhaust ventilation and respiratory protection must be the concentration of an airborne substance to which
used. mostworkersmayberepeatedlyexposed,day after
day, without adverse effect. In adapting these to the
Indoors. When any toxic materials are encountered
working environment, a TLV-TWA (Threshold Limit
in indoor operations, local exhaust (mechanical) venti-
lation must be used. When beryllium is encountered, Value-TimeWeightedAverage)quantity is defined.
TLV-TWA is the time weighted average concentration
respiratory protectionin addition to local exhaust ven-
tilation is essential. for a normal 8-hour workdayor 40-hour workweek to
which nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed
Outdoors. Whenanytoxicmaterialsareencoun- withoutadverseeffect.TLV-TWAvaluesshouldbe
teredinoutdooroperations,respiratoryprotection used as guides in the control of health hazards, and
approved by the Mine Safety and Health Association should not be interpreted as sharp lines between safe
(MSHA) the National Institute of Occupational Safety and dangerous concentrations.
andHealth(NIOSH), or otherapprovingauthority TLVs are revised annually as necessary. They may
may be required. or may not correspond to OSHA permissible exposure

~~ .
STDOAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 II 0784265 0536769 O08 W

Welding
Encyclopedia
WELDING
OPERATOR
QUALIFICATION
Code)
B&PV
(ASME 595
limits (PEL) for the same materials. In many cases, tected from flying slag. Slag cancause serious injury if
current ACGIH values for welding materials are more it strikes a person, particularly while
it is hot. It canbe
stringent than OSHA levels. harmful tothe eyes whether it is hot or cold.
The only way to assure that airborne contaminant
levels are withintheallowablelimits is totake air WELDING HOOD
samples at the breathingzones of thepersonnel A nonstandard t e m for WELDING HELMET.
involved. An operators actual on-the-job exposure to
welding fume should be measuredfollowingthe WELDING JIG
guidelines provided in ANSYAWS Fl.l, Method for See JIG and FIXTURE.
Sampling Airborne Particulates Generated by Welding
WELDING LEADS
and Allied Processes. This document describes how to
obtain an accurate breathing zone sample of welding The workpiece lead and electrode lead ofan arc
fume for aparticularweldingoperation.Both the welding circuit. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See
amount of the fume and the composition of the fume Figure D-5.
can be determined in a single test using this method. WELDING MACHINE
Multiplesamples are recommended for increased Equipment used to perform the welding operation.
accuracy. When a helmet is worn, the sample should For example, spot weldingmachine,arcwelding
be collected inside the helmet in the welders breath- machine, and seam welding machine. See STANDARD
ing zone. WELDING TERMS.
WELDING GENERATOR WELDING MACHINE
A generator used for supplying currentfor welding. See ARC WELDER, ARC WELDING, and RESISTANCE
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. WELDING.
WELDING GROUND WELDING OPERATOR
A nonstandard and incorrect term for WORKPIECE Onewho operates adaptive control, automatic,
CONNECTION. mechanized, or robotic welding equipment. See STAN-
DARD WELDING TERMS.
WELDING GOGGLES
Goggles with tinted lenses, used during weldingor WELDING OPERATOR QUALIFICATION
oxygen cutting, which protect the eyes from harmful (ASME B&PV Code)
radiation and flying particles. See Appendix 18. Whenweldingunder the specifications of the
ASME Boilerand
Pressure
Vessel Code, each
WELDING HEAD employer is responsible for qualifying all the welders
The part of a welding machine in which a welding and weldingoperators employed by the company with
gun or torch isincorporated. See STANDARD WELDING responsibility for welding according to specifications
TERMS. of a code. However, to avoid duplicationof effort, the
employer may accept a WelderNelder Operator Per-
WELDING HELMET formanceQualification(WPQ)madebyaprevious
A device equipped with a Jlter platedesigned to be employer (subject to the approvalof the owner or the
worn on the head to protect eyes, face, and neck from agent of the owner) on piping using the same or an
arc radiation. radiated heat, spatter or other harmful equivalent procedure in which the essential variables
matter expelled during some welding and cuttingpro- are within the limits established in Section IX of the
cesses. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code.
Helmets are generally constructed of pressed fiber An employer accepting such qualification tests by a
or fiberglass insulating material. A helmet should be previous employer is required to obtain a copy of the
light in weight and should be designed to give the WPQ showingthe name of the employer by whom the
welder the greatest possible comfort. Some helmets welders or welding operators were qualified, the dates
have an optionalflip lid, a dark filter plate covering of such qualification, and evidence thatthe welder or
the opening in the shield. It can be flipped up so the weldingoperatorhasmaintainedqualificationwith
welder can see to chip slag from the weld and be pro- 4-322 of Section IX of the Code. The employer then

STD=AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 051b770 82T W
HEAD 596 WELDING, Encyclopedia Welding
prepares and signs the record accepting responsibility WELDING ROD

for the abilityof the welder or welding operator. A form of welding filler metal, normally packaged
in straight lengths, that does not conduct the welding
WELDING, OVERHEAD current. See STANDARD WELDlNG TERMS. See Appen-
See OVERHEAD WELDING POSITION. dix 10.
Welding rods, like welding electrodes,are designed
WELDING POSITION
to meetthe needs of the industry. In some instances the
The relationship between the weld pool, joint, joint same rodis suitable for use with either the GTAW pro-
members, andwelding heat source during welding. cess or oxyacetylene welding (OAW).
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 4.See
The use of a bare welding rod for either application
also FLAT WELDING POSITION, HORIZONTAL WELDING
is satisfactory,sincethemoltenweldpuddle is
POSITION, OVERHEAD WELDING POSITION, and VERTI-
shielded.Inoxyfuel gas welding, the gas envelope
CAL WELDING POSITION.
around the weld puddle may be carburizing, oxidizing,
WELDING POWER SOURCE or neutral,dependingon the gas regulation.In gas
An apparatus for supplying current and voltage tungsten arcwelding,aninertgasshieldstheweld
suitable for welding. See STANDARD WELDING puddle.
TERMS. See also CONSTANT CURRENT POWER SOURCE, Nonferrous materials such as aluminum or bronze,
CONSTANTVOLTAGE POWER
SOURCE,
WELDING when usedwith OAW, generallyrequirea flux to
GENERATOR, WELDING RECTIFIER, and WELDING shield the weld puddle and to clean the base metal to
TRANSFORMER. ensure a moresatisfactory weld. The flux may be
externallyappliedor,insomeinstances,may be
WELDING PROCEDURE applied by coating the rod with the flux.
The detailed methods and practices involved in the The American Welding Society maintains specifi-
production of a weldment. See STANDARDWELDING cations for welding rods, including those usedfor iron
TERMS. See also WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION. and steel, copper and copper alloy, corrosion-resistant
chromium and chromium nickel, aluminum and alumi-
WELDING PROCEDURE QUALIFICATION RECORD num alloy, nickel and nickel alloy, cast iron, titanium
(WPQR) and titanium alloy, magnesium alloy, and composite
A record of welding variables used to produce an surfacing.Specifications for steel rods are available
acceptable test weldment and the results of tests con- fromtheAmericanWeldingSociety in AWSA5.2,
ducted on the weldment to qualify a welding procedure Specificationfor Carbon and Low Alloy Steel Rods for
specification. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. Oqfuel Welding.
WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION (WPS) WELDING SCHEDULE
A document providing the requiredwelding vari-
A written statement, usually in tabular form, speci-
ables for a specific application to assure repeatability
fying values of parameters and the welding sequence
by properly trained welders and welding operators.
for per$orming a welding operation. See STANDARD
WELDING TERMS.
A WPS document contains all of the instructions
requiredtoproduceaweldment.Standardssuchas WELDING SEQUENCE
ANSVAWS B2.1, Specificationfor Welding Procedure
and Pefomtance Qualification; ANSUAWS D l. 1, The order of making welds in a weldment. See
StructuralWeldingCode-Steel; ASME Boiler and STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
Pressure Vessel Code, and others specify the welding
WELDING SYMBOL
variables that are required to be addressed on W the
S.
See STANDARD WELDING PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION. A graphical representation of a weld. See STAN-
DARD WELDING TERMS.
WELDING RECTIFIER Standardweldingsymbols are usedtoindicate
A device in a welding power source for converting specified welding, brazing, and nondestructive exami-
alternating current to direct current. See STANDARD nation information on engineering drawings. The sym-
WELDING TERMS. bols convey design requirements to the welding shop

in a concise manner, and provide an accurate means LocationofElements. The elements of a welding
for welding personnel to adhere to original designs. symbol have standard locations with respect to each
Aweldingsymbolcanbeused,forexample,to other. See Appendix 7.
specify the type of weld, groove design, weld size, Location Significance of Arrow. The arrow element
welding process, face and root contours, sequence of in a welding symbol in conjunction with the reference
operations, length of weld, and other information. In line determines the arrow side and the other size of a
cases where all information cannot be conveyed by a weld,asshowninAppendix 7. The arrowside is
symbolalone,supplementarynotes or dimensional always closest to the reader when viewed from the
details, or both, are sometimes required to provide the bottom of the drawing.
shop with complete requirements. The designer must The symbol depicting an arrow side weld is always
be sure that the requirements are fully presented on the placedbelowthereferenceline. The weldsymbol
drawing or specifications. depicting an other-side weldis placed above the refer-
Nondestructive
examination
requirements for ence line; i.e., away from the reader. Welds on both
weldedorbrazed joints can also bespecifiedwith sides of a joint are shown by placing weld symbols on
symbols. The specific inspection methods to be used both sides of the reference line.
are indicated on the symbols. The appropriate inspec- Some weldsymbolshavenoarrow or other-side
tion methods depend on the quality requirements with significance.However,supplementarysymbolsused
respect to discontinuities in welded or brazed joints. in conjunction with these weld symbols may have sig-
The completesystem of symbols is describedin nificance.Forexample,weldingsymbols for resis-
ANSVAWS A2.4, StandardSymbols for Welding, tance spot and
seamwelding
have no side
Brazing, and Nondestructive Examination, published significance, butGTAW, EBW, or other spot and seam
by the American Welding Society, Miami, Florida; lat- welds may have arrow and other-side significance.
est edition. This publication should be consulted when
References. When a specification, process, test, or
selecting the appropriate symbols for describing the
other reference is needed to clarify a welding symbol,
desired joint and inspection requirements.
the referenceis placed in a tail onthe welding symbol.
Nondestructivetestingmethods,procedures,and
For example,the letters CJP may be used in the tail of
the typeof discontinuities thateach method will reveal the arrow to indicate that a completejoint penetration
are contained in ANSVAWS B 1.lo, Guide for the
groove weld is required, regardlessof the type of weld
Nondestructive Inspection of Welds, Miami, Florida: or joint preparation. The tail may be omitted when no
American Welding Society;latest edition. specification, process, or other reference is required
In practice, most designers will need only a fewof with a welding symbol.
the many available symbols. The following informa-
tion describes the fundamentals of the symbols and Dimensions. Dimensions of a weldare shown onthe
how to apply them. same side of the reference line as the weld symbol.
The size of the weld is shown to the left of the weld
BasicWeldSymbols. The terms weld symbol and symbol, and the length of the weld is placed on the
welding symbol have different meanings. A weld sym- right. If a length is not given, the weld symbol applies
bol indicates the required type of weld or braze. The to that portion of the joint between abrupt changes in
welding symbol includes the weld symbol and supple- the direction of welding or between specified dimen-
mentaryinformation(seeAppendix 7). Acomplete sion lines. If a weld symbol is shown on each side of
welding symbol consistsof the following elements: the reference line, dimensions are requiredto be given
(1) Reference line for each weld, even though both welds are identical.
(2) Arrow SI units are preferred to U.S. customary units when
(3) Basic weld symbol specifying dimensions. Examplesof dimensioning for
(4)Dimensions and other data typical fillet welds are shown in Appendix7.
(5) Supplementary symbols If a weld in joint
a is to be intermittent, the lengthof
(6) Finish symbols the increments andthe pitch (center-to-centerspacing)
(7) Tail are placed tothe right of the weld symbol.
(8) Specification, process, or other references The location on the symbol for specifying groove
Allelementsneednotbeusedunlessrequired for weld root opening, groove angle, plug or slot weld fll-
clarity. ing depth, the number of welds required in joint,
a and

Licensed by Information Handling Services ~~~~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1797 m 07842b5 05Lb772 bT2
NIQUE 598 WELDING
other dimensions are shown in Appendix 7. See also which it is used. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See
WELD SYMBOL. also WELDING ELECTRODEand WELDING ROD.
WELDING TECHNIQUE WELD INTERFACE

The details of a welding procedure that are con- The interface between weld metal and base metalin
trolled by the welder or welding operatoz See STAN- a fusion weld, between base metals in a solid-state
DARD WELDING TERMS. weld without filler metal, or between filler metal and
base metal in a solid-state weld with filler metal. See
WELDING TERMS STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
Words specific to the welding industry that are used
by welders and associates through common and stan- WELD INTERVAL, Resistance Welding
dardized usage. The total of all heat and cool times, and upslope
A system of standardized welding terms has been time, used in making one multiple-impulse weld. See
developed by the American Welding Society to accu- STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure 1-1. See also
rately state and convey information. Standard welding WELD TIME.
terms are identified as such in this encyclopedia. Stan-
dard definitions following the terms are printed in ital- WELD JOINT MISMATCH
ics. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. Misalignment of the joint members. See STANDARD
WELDING TERMS. See Figure W-4.
WELDING TEST POSITION DESIGNATION
A symbol representationfor a fillet weld or a groove
weld, the joint orientation and the welding test
position. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See
Appendix 4.
WELDING TIP
I
That part of an oxyfuel gas weldingtorch from
which the gases issue. See STANDARD WELDING WELD JOINT MISMATCH
TERMS.
WELDING TORCH
See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See also GAS
TUNGSTEN ARC
WELDING TORCH,
OXYFUEL GAS
WELDING TORCH, and PLASMA ARC WELDING TORCH.
WELDING TRANSFORMER -ROOT

A transformer used for supplying current for weld- FACE WELD JOINT MISMATCH
ing. SeeSTANDARD WELDING TERMS.
Figure W-&Weld Joint Mismatch
WELDING VOLTAGE
See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See also ARC
VOLTAGE. WELD LINE
A nonstandard termfor WELD INTERFACE.
WELDING WHEEL
A nonstandard
term
for RESISTANCE
WELDING WELDMENT
ELECTRODE. An assembly whose component parts are joined by
welding. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
WELDING WIRE
A form of welding filler metal, normally packaged WELD METAL
as coils or spools, that may or may not conduct electri- Metal in a fusion weld consisting of that portion of
cal current depending upon the welding process with the base metal andfiller metal melted duringwelding.

Welding 599 *
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also MIXED metal. For example, weld metal is not usually cold-
ZONE and UNMIXED ZONE. worked.However,there are fourmechanisms for
Weld metal is an admixture of melted base metal strengthening
weldmetal,
and
where
applicable,
anddeposited filler metal,if filler is used.Typical mechanisms are additive:
weldmetals are rapidlysolidifiedandhaveafine- (1) Solidification grain structure
graindendriticmicrostructure.Inmostarcwelding (2) Solid solution strengthening
processes filler metal is added. Some welds are com-
(3) Transformation hardening
posed of only remelted base metal;for example, elec-
tron beam and resistance weldsare made without filler (4) Precipitation hardening
metal. The first mechanism is common to all welds, and the
second is applicable to any alloy type, but the third and
Microstructure. The microstructure of weld metal is
fourthapplytoonlyspecificgroupsofalloys. See
considerably different from that of the base metal of MIXED ZONE and UNMIXED ZONE.
similar composition. The difference in microstructure
is not related to chemical compositions, but to differ-
ent thermal and mechanical histories of the base metal WELD METAL AREA
and the weld metal. The area of weld metal as measured on the cross
The structure of the base metal is a result of a hot section of a weld. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
rolling operation and multiple recrystallization of the See Figure W-5.
hot-worked metal. In contrast, the weld metal has a
solidified or cast structure and has not been mechani-
callydeformed. This structure and
its
attendant
mechanicalproperties are the direct resultof the
sequence of events that occur asthe weld metal solidi-
fies. These events include reaction of the weld metal
with the gases in the vicinity of the weld and with non-
metallic liquid phases (slag or flux) during welding,
and also reactions that took place in the weld after
solidification.
Solidification. Theunmeltedportions
theheat-affectedzoneat
of grains in
the solid-liquidinterface
serve as nucleation sites for weld metal solidification.
m YEA&AFFECTED WELD METAL AREA
Metals grow more rapidly in certain crystallographic

directions. Therefore, favorably oriented grains grow Figure W-%Parts of a Weld
for substantial distances, while the growth in others
that are less favorably oriented is blocked by faster
growing grains. As a result, weld metal oftenexhibits WELD METAL CRACK
a macrostructure, describedas columnar, in which the See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Appendix 9.
grains are relatively long and parallel to the direction
of heat flow. This structure is the natural result of the WELD METAL ZONE(WMZ)
influence of favorable crystal orientation on the com-
petitivenature of solidificationgraingrowth. Weld That portion of the weld area consisting of weld
metalsolidification of
most
commercial metals metal. See Figure W-5.
involvesmicrosegregation of alloyingandresidual
elements. This action is associated with, and in large WELDOR
measure, responsiblefor the formationof dendrites. A A nonstandard term for
WELDER.
dendrite is a structural feature which reflectsthe com-
plex shape taken by the liquid-solid interface during WELD PASS
solidification. A single progression of welding along a joint. The
StrengtheningMechanisms. Practicalmethods for result of a pass is a weld bead or layel: See STANDARD
strengtheningweldmetal are fewerthan for base WELDING TERMS.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 E 07642b5 O536774 475
SS 600 WELD
WELD PASS SEQUENCE WELD SIZE GAUGE

The order in which the weld passes are made. See A gauge that measures the sizeofaweld,the
STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also LONGITUDINAL amount of convexity and the amount of reinforcement.
SEQUENCE and CROSS-SECTIONAL SEQUENCE. In Figure W-7, (A), (B), and (C) illustrate how the
weldsizegauge is usedtodetermine the various
WELD PENETRATION dimensions of a weld.
A nonstandardterm for JOINTPENETRATION and (1) To determine the size of a fillet weld, place the
ROOT PENETRATION. gauge against the toe of the shortest leg of the fillet
and slide the pointer out until it touches the structure.
WELD PERIOD ReadFillet WeldLegLengthon the face of the
The time required to completeone cycle of a resis- gauge. See Figure W-7(A).
tanceweldingoperation.Inpulsationwelding, the (2) To determine the size of a concave fillet weld,
weld period includesthe cool time intervals. place the gaugeagainst the structureand slide the
WELD POOL
pointer out until it touches the face of the fillet weld.
Read Concavity onthe face of the gauge.See Figure
Thelocalized volume of molten metal in a weld
W-7(B).
priorto its solidification as weld metal. See STAN-
DARD WELDINGTERMS.
(3) To determine the reinforcement of a butt weld,
place the gauge so that the reinforcement will come
WELD PUDDLE between the legs of the gauge andslide the pointer out
A nonstandard termfor WELD POOL. until it touchesthe face of the weld. The reinforcement
is indicatedonthe face of the gauge. See Figure
WELD RECOGNITION W-7(C).
A jnction of an adaptive control that determines
changes in the shape of the weld pool or the weld WELD SYMBOL
metal duringwelding, and directs the welding machine A graphical character connected to the welding
to take appropriate action. See STANDARDWELDING symbol indicating the type of weld.See STANDARD
TERMS. See also JOINT RECOGNITION and JOINT WELDING TERMS. See also WELDING SYMBOL.
TRACKING.
WELD TAB
WELD REINFORCEMENT Additional material that extends beyond either end
Weld metal in excess of the quantity required to fill of the joint, on which the weld is started or terminated.
a joint. See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See also See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See also RUNOFF
FACE REWORCEMENT and ROOT REINFORCEMENT. WELD TAB and STARTING WELD TAB.
WELD ROOT WELD THROAT

The points, shown in a cross section, at which the See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also ACTUAL
weld metal extends furthest into a joint and intersects THROAT,
EFFECTIVE
THROAT, and THEORETICAL
the base metal. SeeFigure W-6. THROAT.
WELD SEAM WELD TIME

A nonstandard term for JOINT, SEAM WELD, WELD, See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See also AUTO-
or WELD JOINT. MATICARCWELDINGWELDTIME and RESISTANCE
WELDING WELDTIME.
WELD, SINGLE V
See V-GROOVE WELD. WELD TOE
The junction of the weld face and the base metal.
WELD SIZE See STANDARD WELDINGTERMS. See Figure W-2.
See STANDARDWELDINGTERMS. See also EDGE
WELDSIZE,FILLETWELDSIZE,GROOVEWELDSIZE, WELD VOLTAGE
PLUG WELDSIZE, PROJECTION WELD SIZE, SEAM WELD See STANDARDWELDING TERMS. See also ARC
SIZE, SLOT WELD SIZEand SPOT WELD SIZE. VOLTAGE.

~~ ~~
Encyclopedia
Welding CORRECTIONS
AND
DEFECTS,
CAUSES
WELDING 601
LWELD ROOT
WELD ROOT
r -
WELD ROOT
LWELD ROOT
Figure W"lllustrations Showing Weld Roots
WELDING DEFECTS, CAUSES AND CORRECTIONS Porosity

Poor Fuslon Causes of porosity: Excessive arc length; insuffi-
cient puddling; unsound base metal; moisture in elec-
Causes of poorfusion:Lowweldingcurrent; trode coating.
improperweavingtechnique;
improperelectrode
diameter;poor joint preparation;hurriedwelding Corrections:Shorterarcrequired,especiallyon
speed. stainless steels; sufficient puddlingof molten metal to
allowtrappedgastoescape;properweavingtech-
Corrections: The electrode should be small enough nique; appropriate welding current; sound base metal
to reach the bottomof the joint; for a given electrode, selection; dry electrodes.
current should increase with plate thickness to prop-
erly deposit metal and penetrate the plates; weaving Incomplete Penetration
shouldsweepoutwardenoughtomeltsides of the Causes of incomplete penetration: Improper joint
joint; deposited metal should fuse into the plates, not preparation; electrode too large; insufficient welding
curl away from them. current; hurried welding speed.

CORRECTIONS
Encyclopedia
Welding
602AND
CAUSES
DEFECTS,
WELDING
Corrections: Allow proper free space at bottom of

weld; use electrodes of appropriate diameter in narrow
groove;usesufficientwelding current and proper
welding speed; use a backup bar; chip or cut out the
back of the joint and deposit a backing bead.
Brittleness
Causes of brittleness: Air-hardeningof base metal;
improper heating; unsatisfactory electrodes.
Corrections: Preheatingof medium-carbon and cer-
tain alloy steels at150 to 260C (300 to 500F); proper
preheating;controlledcooling.Multiple-layerwelds
tend to anneal hard zones; stress relieving at 600 to
c 650C (1 100 to 1200F) after welding generally soft-
ens hard areas formed during welding. Austenitic elec-
(A) MEASURING A FILLET WELD trodes are sometimes desirableon air-hardening steels;
the increased weld ductility compensates for the brit-
tleness of the heat-affected areas in the base metal.
Arc Blow
Causes of arc blow: Magnetic fields force the arc
away fromthe point at which itis directed, particularly
at the ends of joints and in corners when welding with
direct current.
Corrections: Place the workpiece connection in the
direction of arc blow; clamp the workpiece cable to
the work at two or more locations; weld toward the
directionoftheblow;holdashort arc; change the
magnetic path around the arc by using steel blocks, or
magnetic shunts; use a-c welding.
Undercutting
(B) MEASURING A CONCAVE FILLET WELD Causes of undercutting: Excessive welding current;
improper electrode technique; mismatch between elec-
trode design and weld position.
Corrections: Use a moderate welding current and
B U T WELD
REINFORCEMENT
A
I I
proper weldingspeed; use an electrodethat produces a
puddle of the proper size; proper weaving technique;
proper positioning of the electrode relative to a hori-
zontal fillet weld. See UNDERCUT.
Distortion
Causes of distortion: Improper joint preparation or
clamping; non-uniform heating of the parts; improper
welding sequence.
Corrections: Clamp or tack parts properly to resist
shrinkage;pre-form parts tocompensate for weld
shrinkage; distribute welding deposit to avoid local-
izedoverheating;preheatheavystructures;remove
(C) MEASURING THE REINFORCEMENTOF A BUTT WELD rollingorformingstrainsbeforewelding;proper
weldingsequence,determinedfromastudy of the
Figure W-7"Measuringwith a Weld Size Gage structure. See DISTORTION.

~ ~~
~ ~~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb777 L84 m

Welding Encyclopedia WELDING METAL WHITE 603
Cracked Welds Spatter

Causes of cracked welds: Joint too rigid; welds too Causes of spatter:The inherent properties of certain
small for size of parts joined; poorly executed welds; electrodes;excessivewelding current; thetypeor
improper joint preparation; unsuitable electrode. diameter ofrodused;anexcessivelylong arc; arc
Corrections:Designthestructureanddevelopa blow.
weldingproceduretoeliminaterigid joints; design Corrections: Use proper type of electrode; proper
a size weld in welding current; proper arc length; reduce arc blow;
weld size appropriate to parts; make full
short sections; develop a welding sequence that leavesuse anti-spatter adjacent to the weld to prevent spalls
the ends of the joint free to move as long as possible; from welding to the work.
proper fusion; preheating; prepare uniform joints. Warping of Thin Plates
Irregular Surface Causes of warping: Shrinkageof the deposited weld
Causes of irregular surface: Excessive welding cur- metal; local overheating at the joint; improper joint
rent; improper weaving technique; improper voltage; preparation; unsuitable clamping of the parts.
overheating of the workpiece; inherent characteristics Corrections:Selectelectrodewithhighwelding
of the electrode. speed and moderate penetrating properties; weld rap-
Corrections: Change to proper welding technique; idly to prevent over-heating of the plates adjacent to
use proper welding current; use proper voltage; use the weld; do not permit excessive space between the
proper welding speed. parts; clamp parts adjacent tothe joint; use a back-up
bar to cool them rapidly; use a welding sequence such
Irregular Weid Quality as the backstep or skip procedure; peen thejoint edges
Causes:
Wrong electrode; impropertechnique; thinner thanthe body of the plate before welding.The
excessive current; electrode used in wrong position; elongated edges will pull back to the original shape
improper joint design. when the weld shrinks.
Corrections: Prepare the joint properly; match the
electrode to the weldposition;weldwithuniform WETTING
weave,proper rate of travel,andproperwelding The phenomenon whereby a liquid filler metal or
current. flux spreads and adheres in a thin continuous layer on
Residual Stresses a solid base metal. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
Causes of residualstress: Joints are toorigid; WHIPPING
improper welding sequence. A manualweldingtechnique in whichthe arc or
Corrections: Make the weld in several passes; peen flame is manipulated to alternate backwards and for-
each deposit; stress relieve finished product at 600C wards as it progresses along the weld path. See STAN-
to 650C (1100F to 1200F) for one hour per inchof DARD WELDING TERMS.
thickness; develop procedure that permits all parts to
be free to move as long as possible. WHITE METAL WELDING
Corrosion The term white metal denotes castings that typically
Causes of corrosion:impropertype of electrode fall into three general classes according to their com-
diminishes corrosion resistance of the weld compared position: zinc, aluminum, and magnesium. Lead and
to the parent metal; improper weld deposit for the cor- tin alloy castings differ because they require soldering
rosive media; the metallurgical effect of welding; and rather than welding.
improper cleaningof the weld. The weight of the metal identifiesthe type of alloy.
Corrections: Use electrodes that provide equal or Of the three, magnesium alloyis lightest, followed by
better corrosion resistance thanthe parent metal; when aluminum alloy.Zinc alloy, nearly as heavy as iron, is
welding austenitic stainless steel the analysis of the heaviest. The commonly used aluminum and magne-
steel and the welding procedure should be correct to sium alloys melt at 585 to 645C (1080 to 1195F).
avoid carbide precipitation: this condition can be cor- The zinc alloys melt at 385C(725F).
rected by heating to 1040"C-115O"C (1900 to 2100F) Welding Zinc Alloy Die Castings
followed by quenching; proper cleaning of materials Total production of zinc alloy die castings is much
such as aluminum to prevent corrosion. greaterthanaluminum or magnesiumandtherefore
STD*AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 051b77B U10 m
STRUCTURE
604 WlDMANSTAlTEN Encyclopedia Welding
zinccastings are morecommonlyencountered.Arc much as aluminum and less than one-quarter as much
welding is not practicalfor repairing broken zinc cast- as iron or steel. The low-weight characteristicis due to
ings because the arc temperature is so much higher the high magnesium content of the alloys, which is
than the melting point of zinc. Special techniques mustusually between 90% and 98%.
be used with oxyfuelgas welding. The temperature of Oxyacetylene welds on magnesium alloys require a
aneutraltorchflame is about 3200C (5800"F), rod and a special flux. Any flux left in the weld will
although when using a considerable excess of acety- promote corrosion. After welding, the part requires a
lene, as this type of welding requires, the temperature thorough rinse with hot water and treatment with a
of the flame is somewhat lower. chrome pickle solution. It is then ready for painting.
TorchTip. Since theoxyacetyleneflame is much See MAGNESIUM ALLOYS, Weldability.
hotterthannecessary,weldingthisalloyrequiresa WIDMANSTATTEN STRUCTURE
very small weldingtip, about the size of a No. 72 drill A crystal formation inthe microstructure of a metal
bit. that occurs when a new solid phaseforms from a par-
ApplyingHeat. The excess acetylene flame should ent solid phase, such ferrite
as from austenite. The new
burn yellow but should not coat the metal with soot. phasegenerallydevelopsplatesparallelto lattice
The welding rod required is an alloy that will flow planes of a single form in the parent phase, as in the
smoothly at the right temperature. four families of octahedral planes in austenite. On the
Since the melting temperature of the alloy is rela- polished and etched surface the traces of the plates
tively low, too much heat will ruin the casting. intersect in a geometrical pattern. Needles and polyhe-
Joint Preparation. Preparation includes forming aV
dra may also form. The orientation of the lattice in the
new phase is related to the orientationof the lattice in
in the crack,or if broken all the way through, grinding
or filing the edges to an angle of about 45", and then the parent phase. This structure is frequently seen in
lining up the parts on a carbon block. Chromium- or cast steel and in overheated wrought steel that cools
nickel-plated parts requirethe removal of plating from too quickly, but may occur in any alloy in which a
the weld site. Welder's clay, used as a support under phase change occurs.
theweld,preventsthemetalfromflowingawayor WIPED JOINT
sagging. A joint made with solder having a wide melting
Applying heat to the casting will causethe metal to range and with the heat supplied by the molten solder
flow. Turn the flame parallel to the surface, and main- poured onto the joint. The solder is manipulatedwith a
tain heat with the side of the flame. Heat the welding hand-held cloth or paddleso as to obtain the required
rod tothe melting point, and touch the rodthe tojoint; size and contour. SeeSTANDARD WELDINGTERMS.
the rod should flow into the V with complete fusion.
Repeat this operation until the break fills completely. WIRE FEED SPEED
Unless the rod penetrates into the weld and breaks the The rate at which wire is consumed in arc cutting,
surface tension, the rod willlie on the surface without thermal spraying, or welding. See STANDARDWELD-
fusing. ING TERMS.
Puddling is only necessary when the operator has
piled the rod on topof the weld instead of fusing it to WIRE FLAME SPRAYING (FLSP-W)
the base metal. Heat the base metal and rod to a flow- A thermal spraying process variation in which the
ing temperature, and using a bronze rodas a puddler, sufacing materialis in wire form. See STANDARD
work the rod into the base metal. Welding these alloys WELDING TERMS. See also THERMAL SPRAYING.
requiresverycarefulmanipulationofthetorchand
patience from the welder. WIRE STRAIGHTENER
Determinewhetherthe
metal is weldable by A device used for controlling the cast and helix of
attempting a weld on a small part of the break where coiled wire to enable it to be easily fed through the
little harm will be done. wire feed system. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS.
Welding Magnesium Die Castings WIRE WELDING
Magnesium die castings are the industry's lightest A term derived from the continuous welding wire
structural metal, weighing approximately two-thirds as gas metal
that serves as an electrode in semi-automatic

~ ~~~
~~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 078YZb5 05Lb779 T57 m

Welding Encyclopedia WELDING IRON WROUGHT W5
arc welding (GMAW) and distinguishes GMAWErom WORMHOLE POROSITY

shielded metal arc welding (SMAW).See GAS METAL nonstandard
A term
when
used for PIPING
ARC WELDING. POROSITY.
WORK ANGLE WRINKLE BENDING

The angle less than 90 degrees between a line per- Wrinklebending is atechniquewhichhasbeen
pendicular to the major workpiece surface and a plane used to custom-bend sections of pipe on a job site.
determined by the electrode axis and the weld axis. In Using an oxyacetylene flame, the technique consists of
a T-joint or a corner joint, the line is perpendicular to heating one or more narrow bands of the pipe wall at
the nonbutting membe,:This angle can also be used to right angles to the pipe axis about two thirds of the
partially define the position of guns, torches, rods, and way around the pipe circumference. When these bands
beams.See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also are heatedtoaredheat,thesectionisbent to the
DRAG ANGLE, PUSH ANGLE,and TRAVEL ANGLE, desiredcurvature,eitherbyhand or withsome
mechanical means. Theforce required depends onthe
WORK ANGLE, Pipe diameter and wall thickness of the pipe. Usually one
The angle less than 90" between a line that is per- section is heated at a time and bent about 20". Addi-
pendicular to the cylindrical pipe surface at the point tional sections are heated and bent until the required
of intersection of the weld axis and the extension of the bend is obtained. When done correctly, the pipe wall
electrode axis, and a plane determined by the elec- extends outward and does not restrict the bore. See
trode axis and a line tangent to the pipe at the same PIPE WELDING.
point. In a T-joint, the line is perpendicular to the non-
butting membe,: This angle can also be used to par- WROUGHT IRON
tially define the position of guns, torches, rods, and A fibrous ferrous material consisting of approxi-
beams.See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also mately 1 to 4% by weight of a slag component dis-
DRAG ANGLE, PUSH ANGLE,and TRAVEL ANGLE. persed as elongated stringers in a matrix of low-carbon
steel or iron. The slag consists mostly of iron oxide
WORK COIL andsomesilica. The analysisoftheironmatrix is
See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See also INDUC- about 0.03%carbon, 0.05% manganese, 0.10% phos-
TION WORK COIL.
phorus, 0.020%sulfur, and 0.01% silicon; the remain-
der is iron, Wrought iron can be identified by macro-
WORK CONNECTiON
etchexamination,whichrevealsnumeroussmall
stringers of non-metallic slag throughout the metal
A nonstandard termfor WORKPECE CONNECTION. section.
The termiron is commonly used to describe a num-
WORK LEAD
ber of different ferrous materials. Wrought ironis dif-
A nonstandard term for WORKPIECE LEAD. ferent from any of the other ferrous metals, such as
commercially pure iron, steel, or cast iron. The non-
WORKPIECE
rusting slag fibers in wrought iron are responsible for
The part that is welded, brazed, soldered, thermal this difference. Pure iron, steel, and cast iron do not
cut, or thermalsprayed.See STANDARD WELDING contain slag.
TERMS.
WROUGHT IRON WELDING
WORKPIECE CONNECTION The joining of wroughtironbyfusion.Wrought
The connection of the workpiecelead to the iron can be welded using the arc, resistance, oxyfuel
workpiece. See STANDARD WELDING TERMS. See Fig- gas, and hammer welding processes.
UR D-5. In general, the procedure for welding wrought iron
is the same as for welding mild steel, with slight modi-
WORKPIECE LEAD fication. The fusion temperature of wroughtiron is
The electrical conductor between the arc welding somewhat higher than that for mild steel. Fusion weld-
current source and workpiece connection. See STAN- ingtemperaturesrangebetween1480and1540C
DARD WELDING TERMS. See Figure D-5. (2700 and 2800F).
IRON 606 WROUGHT
Arc Welding occurs when the temperature is sufficiently high for

The shielded metalarc welding (SMAW),gas metal fusion. In wrought iron, however, a greasy appearance
arc welding (GMAW) and gas tungsten arc welding occurs initially,due to the fluxing action of the slag, at
(GTAW) processes can be used to weld wrought iron. temperaturesbetween1150 and 1200C (2100 and
The higher temperatures
necessary for welding 2200F). These temperatures are below the fusion
wrought iron are attainable by slightly decreasing the temperature of the base metal and are too low for the
welding speed belowthat used for mild steel welding. application of filler metal. After the greasy surface
At the reduced speed the pool of molten metal imme- appears, therefore, the process requires continued
diately following the arc remains molten for a longer heating to raise the base metal tofusion temperature.
period of time, which allows better degasification and Consistent maintenance of puddle
a of molten metal
affords removal of the entrained slag. This results in is required for fusion welding. The end ofthe rod stays
sound weld metal. immersed as metal is deposited. The edges of the mol-
ten puddle and the surrounding colder metal fuse to
Oxyfuel Gas Welding
form asolid joint. Metal deposition occurs only viathe
Wrought iron has inherently superior weldingchar- molten puddle, not directly from the rod. To obtain a
acteristics because of the self-fluxing action of
the iron sound weld without the oxides that produce porosity,
silicate, or slag.This self-fluxing action provides the moltenpuddlemustbeundisturbed. Excessive
protection during heating, providing an environment puddling or agitation of the molten pool causes undue
conducive to a strong, uniform weld, exposure of the moltenmetalto the atmosphere,
During the oxyfuel gas welding of most other fer- resulting in the formation and entrapment of oxide in
rous metals,a fluxed or greasy-appearing surface the weld.
a water shroud on the torchnozzle

Plasma arc cutting using
Photo
COPYRIGHT courtesyWelding
American of Hypertherm, Inc.Inc.
Society,
~~ ~~ ~~
XENON
Table X-1
(Chemicalsymbol:Xe).Arare,heavy,colorless, Approximate Thickness Limitations
inert gas. Xenon is present in the atmosphere to the of Steel for X-Ray Machines
extent of one part in twenty million by volume. It is
used in electronic control components. Atomic num- Approximate Maximum
ber, 54; atomic weight, 131.30. Thickness
X-RAY Voltage, k v mm in.

A form of radiant energy derived from the bom-
100 8 0.33
bardment of a material by electrons in a vacuum at a 0.75150 19
high voltage. The wave lengthof these rays is between 200 25 1
10-" and 10-8cm. 250 50 2
400 75 3
X-RAY TESTING OF WELDS 1000 125 5
Anondestructiveradiographictestingprocedure 200 2000 8
whichusesX-rays or gammaraystopenetratethe
weldment or brazement todetect and indicate disconti-
nuities. An image is rendered on photographic film, Table X-2
sensitized paper, a fluorescent screen,or an electronic Approximate Thickness Limitations
radiation detector. of Steel for Radioisotopes
Photographic film is normally used to retain a per-
Approximate Useful Thickness
manent record of the test. The print from the devel-
Range Equivalent
oped filmis known as a radiograph, and the science of X-Ray
making and interpreting such photos is called radiag- Radioisotope
Machine,
kV mm in.
raphy. A radiograph produced by X-rays is called an
exograph. Iridium-192 800 12-65 0.5-2.5
X-rays mostsuitable for welding inspectionare pro- Cesium-137 lo00 0.5-3.512-90
duced by high-voltageX-raymachines. The wave- Cobalt-60 20002.0-9.0 50-230
lengths of the X-radiation are determined by the
voltage applied between elements in the X-ray tube.
HighervoltagesproduceX-raysofshorterwave The advantages and limitations of the sources of
lengths and increased intensities, resulting in greater radiation are shown in Table X-3.
penetrating capability. 'Qpical applications ofX-ray Historical Background
machines for various thickness of steel are shown in In 1895 Professor Konrad Roentgenof the Univer-
Table X-l. The penetratingability of themachines sity of Wurtzburg, Bavaria, first observed the effects
may be greater or lesser with other metals, depending of X-radiationwhilepassingan electric current
on the X-rayabsorptionproperties of the particular through a vacuum tube. The Roentgen rays, as they
metal.
X-ray
absorptionproperties are generally wereofficiallynamedafter the discoverer,quickly
related to metal density. became known as X-rays because of their enigmatic
The use of X-raymachines for examination of origin and qualities.
welds has been largely supplantedby various isotopes The importance ofX-raysin the medical field is
thatprovidearadiationsource.Amongthem are well known. Industrial X-ray applications lagged con-
Cobalt-60, Cesium-137, and Iridium-192. The approx- siderably behind medical, but by the 1930s, radiogra-
imate thickness limitations in steelfor these radioiso- phy had begun to grow into a powerful metalworking
topes are shown in Table X-2. inspection tool.
607
608 X-RAY TESTING OF WELDS EncyclopediaWelding
Table X-3
Advantages and Limitationsof Radiation Sources
Radioisotopes X-Ray
Advantages
(1) Small and portable (1) Radiation can be shut off
(2) No electric power required (2) Penetrating power(kv) is adjustable
(3) No electrical hazards (3) Can be used on all metals
(4)Rugged sensitivityand contrastgood(4)have
Radiographs
( 5 ) Low initial cost
(6) High penetrating power
(7) Access into smallcavities
(8) Low maintenance costs
Limitations
(1) Radiation emitted continuously by the isotope (1) High initial cost
(2) Radiation hazard if improperly handled (2) Requires sourceof electrical power
(3) Penetrating power cannot be adjusted (3) Equipment comparatively fragile
(4)Radioisotope decaysin strength, requiring recalibrationand (4)Less portable
replacement ( 5 ) Tube head usually large in size
( 5 ) Radiographic contrast generally lower
than with x-rays (6) Electrical hazardfrom high voltage
(7) Radiation hazard during operation
In1918,steelof25 mm (1 in.)thicknessrepre- plane. The rays penetratethe metal without damaging

sentedtheabsolutelimit ofX-raypenetration. As it, and the entire weld maybe readily inspected.
equipmentmanufacturersimprovedtheprocess by Fundamentals
raising the voltage acrossthe tube elements, however,
X-rays are produced in an evacuated tube through
increased thicknessof metal could be radiographically
the impact of ahigh-velocityelectronstreamona
examined.
metal plate, or target, atthe anode (positive electrode)
H. H. Lester, a physicist at the Watertown Arsenal, of the tube. The electrons are boiled from the cath-
Watertown, Massachusetts, was oneof the pioneers in ode (negative electrode)by means of a heated filament
the radiography of metal sections. In 1924, Lester con- and are accelerated by impressing an extremely high
ducted radiographic examinations of castings which potential (onthe order of hundreds of kilovolts) across
were to be installed inthe United Statesfirst 8.3 MPa the tube. X-ray voltages may reachas high as one mil-
(1200 psi) steam pressure power plantfor the Boston lion volts. The currents however, are extremely low,
EdisonCompany,Radiographicinspectionof the usually onthe order of 6 to 25 milliamperes.
welded joints of pressure vessels soon followed, In
Since they are much shorter in wave length than
1930, the United States Navy specified that X-ray testsvisible light, X-rays can penetrate solid objects. They
must be made of the main longitudinal and circumfer-
do not, however, penetrateall objects with equal facil-
ential joints of welded boilerdrums. Subsequently, the ity,but are absorbedtoadegreedepending on the
1931 ASME Boiler Code made X-ray examination of
thickness and density of the material. Since density is
welded seams mandatory for power boiler drums and a function of atomic weight, the heavier metals offer
otherpressurevesselsdesigned for severeservice
the greatest resistanceto the passage of X-rays. Lead,
conditions. Other code requirements for X-ray testing a substance withthe high atomic weightof 207.20, has
followed.
a very high degree of X-ray absorption and so is used
Applications as shielding against X-rays.
X-ray weld testingis particularly well suited to butt Like visible light, X-rays will travel in straight limes
joints, where weld and parent metals lie in the same unless deflected.As a result,the projected image of an

STD.AWS JWE-ENGL 1777
07842b5
05lb783 488 m
Welding Encyclopedia TESTING X-RAY OF WELDS 609
object will be accurate in size and shape. When the onthe side closestto the defectandremove,then
image is recorded on film, it becomes a replace, a minimumof weld metal.
shadow picture dependent on the thickness and den-
X-ray Diffraction
sity of each partthrough which the rays travel.
X-raysdarkenaphotographic film in much the X-ray equipment canalso be used to investigate the
same way as visible light. The less dense regionsof a properties of weld metals by creating and examining
weld offerthe least resistanceto the passage of X-rays. diffraction patterns. These are produced by localizing
These portions, consequently, will show darkest when a narrow beam of X-rays through a tube, passing the
theweld is radiographed.Denserregions,offering X-raysthroughpinholes,thenthroughasmall,thin
greater X-rayresistance,willpermit fewer raysto sample of the material to be investigated.A film held
reach the film and will show as areas of comparative behind the sample will show a dark central spot sur-
whiteness. The process based on this principle permits rounded by a collection of rays, rings, and spots. This
the quick detection ofweldfaults.Suchwelding is called thedifSractionpattern, and its analysis makes
defects as porosity,slaginclusion,cracks,lackof it possible to peer intothe molecular structure of mat-
fusion, gas pocketsandblowholes all showupin terandvisualize the arrangement of themolecules
radiographs as dark areas. themselves. Diffraction analysis is very important in
The most important factor of any nondestructive the steel and alloying industries, where stresses and
weld test method is the ability of the inspector to cor- strains are a vital factor.
rectly interpret the indications of discovered defects. X-ray diffraction patterns can indicate the ductility
Onlythroughcarefulstudy ofmany radiographs of the weld metal or parent metal, and also the pres-
exhibiting known defects can such ability be gained. ence of strained areas. In practice, it is customary to
The common welding faults revealed by radiographs make a number of patterns to determine the condition
are (in order of frequency): porosity, entrapped slag, of various areasof the metal: inthe center of the weld,
cracks and lackof fusion. at the edge of the weld near theline of fusion, theedge
Whenthere are defectsandtheweldmust be of the parent metal near theline of fusion, two or more
chipped out, finding the exact location and depth of points in the parent metal which have undergone con-
the defectwill facilitate thetask of the welderor siderable changes in temperature during welding, and
gouger. This can be done with doubleexposure radia- finally, a point in the parent metal far enough removed
tion. Inthis method, exposuresare made from two dif- from the weld so that it can safely be assumed to be
ferent angles on the same film or on separate films. unaffected by the heat. It should be noted that although
The distances are measured between the two positions only very small specimens are needed for investiga-
of the radiation source and between each position of tion by meansofdiffractionpatterns,considerable
the identification markerson the surfaces of the plate. care must be exercised in preparing specimens to be
Images of both the marker and the defect are projected sure that the patterns will not show conditions intro-
on the film. By comparing the known distances and duced by the method of preparation itself, which were
solving similar triangles,the exact locationof the fault notoriginallypresentinthespecimens. See RADIO-
is readily found.This enables the welder to begin work GRAPHIC EXAMINATION. See also RADIOGRAPHY.

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 051b784 314
61O Welding Encvclowdia
Submerged arc weldingin ashipyard

Photo courtesyof lngalls Shipyard
Fume extracting welding gun removes a significant volume of fume from the welders breathing zone
Y
Y-CONNECTION which a material exhibits a specific limiting perma-
A star connection; thejoining together of one end of nent set.
each phaseof a three-phase electrical machine.
YOUNGS MODULUS
YELLOW BRASS See MODULUS OF ELASTICITY.
Common brass usually containing about 70% cop- YTTRIUM
per and 30%zinc. See COPPER ALLOY WELDING. (Chemical symbol: Yt).A rare earth. Yttrium isa sil-
very metallic element that is used in thermal spraying
YIELD POINT
processes, andis of strategic value in high-temperature
The load in Pascals(poundsper square inch) at alloys. It is added to magnesium and aluminum alloys
which an increase in deformationoccurs and increases to increase strength. Atomic number, 39;atomic weight
without an increase in load during a tensile test. Onlya 88.92,density 5.5 1 g/cm3 (O. 199 lb/in.3), witha melting
few materials have a specific yield point; steel is one point of approximately 1538C (2800OF).
of these materials.
YTTRIUM-ALUMINUM-GARNET (YAG)
YIELD STRENGTH A rod-like crystal medium thatemits coherent radi-
The stress level at which metal exhibits a specified ation by stimulated electronic or molecular transitions
elongation underload, or deviation from proportionate to lowerenergylevels. It is usedwithneodymium
reaction to stress and strain. Yield strengthis the stress (Nd-YAG) in laser beam welding, cutting and related
level, expressed in Pascals (pounds per square inch), at processes. See LASER BEAM WELDING.
A technician checks a
robotic welding system
611
S T D ~ A W SJWE-ENGL 1997 m o s w a b 197
0 7 8 4 ~ m
612 Welding
Robot-mounted laser cutting a car door frame

ZERENER PROCESS 150C (212 and 302F) this metal becomes malleable
This early (circa 1885) process employed two car- and can be rolled into sheetsor drawn into wire. Zinc
bon rods fastened in a holder so that their ends con- is capable of a high surface polish; it oxidizes slowly
verged. An arcwasdrawnbetween the converging in air. When molten zinc solidifies, it expands some-
ends and causedto impinge on the work by means of a what, so that when it is used in die casting, sharp, well
powerful electromagnet. This was also known as the definedcastingscanbeproduced.Zinc is readily
"electric blowpipe" method of welding. It required so attacked by mineral acids, and dissolves when boiled
much skill that it was impractical
for general use. with causticsoda or potash solution.
ZERO POTENTIAL ZINCATE
Aconditionexistingin an electriccircuitwhenAmaterialcompounded or formed by thereaction
there is no voltage present. of zinc or zinc oxide with alkaline solutions.
ZERO
Atermsometimesusedtodescribearesistance See GALVANIZED IRON,
WELDING.
welding procedure, which uses refrigerated electrodes
for weldingaluminum. The processinvolveswelding ZINCFUMES
withelectrodeschilledto-17C (O'F), whichAgrayishpowdergiven off during the welding of
improves the operating life of theelectrode. See brass,bronze or galvanizedmaterial.These fumes pro-
REFRIGERATED
WELDING. nausea.
duce See WELDING FUMES.
ZINC ZIRCONIUM
(Chemicalsymbol:Zn).Alustrous,bluish-white (Chemicalsymbol: Zr). A lustrous,
steel-gray,
metallic element alloyed with copper to form brass, somewhat brittle metal with a high melting point.It is
and is also used in solders. Zinc is used in protective used as an alloying agent in iron and aluminum, and is
coatings on galvanized iron and other metals. Atomic alsoused in nuclearreactors.Atomicnumber, 40;
number,30;atomicweight,65.37;meltingpoint, atomic weight, 91; melting point, 2350C (4262F);
419.4"C (786.9"F). Specific gravity ranges from 7.0 to specific gravity, 6.25.
7.2. Zirconium is very hard and is sometimes used in
Purezinc is ductile;incommercialform,zinc is hardfacing material becauseof its resistance to corro-
brittle at room temperature, but becomes ductile when sion. When steelis alloyed with small amountsof zir-
slightly heated. At a temperatureof 200C (392"F), it conium, fine grain size is produced, and no aluminum
can be powdered. At temperatures between 100 and additions to steel are required.
613
' S T D O A W S J W E - E N G L L977 m 0 7 8 4 t b 5 0 5 L b 7 B B TbT W
614 Welding
Automatic roll spot seam welding systems designed to weld roofs of van bodies for an automobile
manufacturer produce welded roofs at the rate of 72/hr/station. There are four roll spot welding units
per station.
Photo courtesy of Newcor

Appendix 1
History of Welding and Cutting
One of the earliest references to metalworking and 1895 - LeChatelier (France) credited with discover-
the metalworkers name appears in the Old Testament ing the oxygen-acetylene flame.
of the Bible. Genesis 4, verse 22, KingJames version 1896 - Reports of the first electric-welded tube pro-
states ...andZillah,shealsobareTubal-Cain,an duction in Cleveland, Ohio.
instructor of every artificer in brass and iron. The Circa1900 -Hans Goldschmidt,Goldschmidt AG
New Internationalversionstates,Zillahalsohada West Germany (Orgotheus Inc. USA) discov-
son, Tubal-Cain, who forged all kinds of tools out of ered that the exothermic reaction between a
bronzeandIron. The LivingBiblestates, To mixture of aluminumpowderandametal
Lamechs other wife Zillah, was bom Tubal-Cain. He oxidecan be initiated byan externalheat
opened the fmt foundry, forging instruments of bronze source for thermite welding.
and iron. A welded iron headrest for Tutankhamen, 1900 - The first oxyacetylene torches were madeby
believed to be from Syria, was crafted in 1350 BC. Fouche and Picard (France).
Milestones 1901 - The oxygen lance was invented by Menne
1836 - Acetylene gas discovered by Edmund Davy. (Germany).
1856 - The principle of resistance welding believed 1904 - Avery (USA) invented a portable cylinder for
tobediscoveredbyphysicistJamesJoule, acetylene-powered auto headlights; produced
England. by the ConcentratedAcetyleneCompany
1862 - Woehler produced acetylene gas from cal- (CAC).
cium carbide. 1906 - CAC bought by Prest-O-Lite, forerunner of
1876 - JohnA.Tobin(USA),patented the alloy Linde Division, Union Carbide Corporation.
known as Tobin Bronze, high-strength
a 1907 - Acetylene cutting used to demolish the old
copper-tin-zinc bronze. GrandCentralStationinNewYork;com-
1881 - One of the earliest carbonarcwelding pleted at 80% below projected cost.
machines invented by De Meritens (France). 1907-10 - Coated electrodes developedby O. Kjell-
1881 - Dr. R. H. Thurston (United States) completed berg (Sweden).
a six-year study and exhaustive tests on the 1909 - Plasma arc system using a gas vortex stabi-
strength and ductility of a series of copper- lized arc inventedby Schonherr.
zinc bronzes. 1911 - The first oxyfuelgasweldedpipeline, 11
1882 - Patent grdted to Robert A. Hadfield miles long, constructed by Philadelphia and
(England) for austenitic manganesesteel Suburban Gas Company.
which he calledHadfield Steel. 1912 - Production of the first commercial oxyacety-
1885 - Elihu Thompson (USA) awarded a patent on lene welded tubing in this country reported.
a resistance welding machine. 1912- Firstall-steelautomobilebody joined by
1885 - Carbon arc welding developed by Benardos resistance
spot
weldingproduced at the
& Olszewski (Russia). Edward G. Budd Company, Philadelphia.
1889-90 -First arc welding with bare wire electrodes Circa 1912 - Ford Motor Company developed weld-
by C. L. Coffin (USA). ing techniques in plant laboratory for Model
1890 - Concept of welding in an oxidizing medium T production.
originated by Coffin (USA). 1913 - Acetylene cylinder developed by Avery and
1890 - Firstoxyfuelgascuttingbankrobbery Fisher (Indianapolis).
attempted by a Mr. Brown (England). 1917 - ArcweldingusedduringWorld War I to
1892 - CalciumcarbidemanufacturedbyWillson repair engines in 109 captured Germanships;
and Morehead (USA). after repairs, ships were used to send500 O 0 0
1895 - KonradRoentgen(Bavaria),observed the U.S. troops to France.
effects of X-radiation while passing an elec- 1917 - Webster & SouthbridgeGasandElectric
tric current through a vacuum tube. Company, Massachusetts, welded 11 miles of
615
STD.AWS JWE-ENGL 1777 m 0 7 8 4 2 b 50 5 L b 7 9 0b I 8 m
616 Appendix 1 Encyclopedia Welding
3-inchpipe
with
electric
arc
welding 1931 - Welded steel structureof Empire State Build-
machines. ing completed.
191 9- American Welding Society founded by Com- 1933 - First arc-weldedpipeline joined without
fort A. Adams. backing rings constructed by H.C. Price from
1920 - First all-welded-hull ship, the steamer Fula- Oklahoma City to Thall, Kansas.
gar, launched (England). 1933 - Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco, worlds
Circa 1920- The Johnson Process for producing elec- highest
suspension bridge (incorporating
tric resistance welded steel tubing patented. 87 750 tons of welded steel) openedto traffic.
Circa 1920 -The firstweldedtanker,the Pough- 1934 - Unfired Pressure Vessel Code issued jointly
keepsie Socony, was launched (USA). by API-ASME (USA).
Circa
1920 -Flux coredwires for hardfacing 1935 - Submerged arc welding developed by Linde
introduced. Air Products Co. (USA).
1922 - Prairie Pipeline Company completed an 8- 1940 - First all-welded ship built in United States,
inch, 140-mile line carrying crude oilfrom the Exchequer, launched from Ingalls
Mexico to Jacksboro, Texas, using oxyacety- Shipyard.
lene welding. 1941 - GasTungstenArcWelding,(Heliarc)
1923 - First storage tank floating roof completed; invented by Meredith (USA).
designed to float welded roof on stored petro- 1941 - First American 60-ton tank completed; weld-
leum or chemicalproduct,withtankwalls ingbecomescriticaltotheproduction of
designed to telescope to increase or decrease ships, planes, armored tanks and weapons in
tank size. World WarII.
1924 - All-welded natural gas pipeline14 miles long 1943 - Curtiss-Wright welds hollow steel propeller
built by MagnoliaGas Company (USA) using bladesusingatomichydrogen,submerged
acetylene welding. arc, and shielded metal arc processes.
1924 - Radiography usedby H. H. Lester to examine 1943 - Vera Andersonnamednationalchampion
castings to be installed in the United States woman welder of the United States in a con-
first8.3MPa(1200psi)steampressure test held at Ingalls Shipbuilding, Pascagula,
power plant for the Boston Edison Company. Mississippi.
1926 - Solid extruded coatingfor shielded metal arc 1949 - The first all-weldedFordautomobilewas
welding electrodes introduced by A. O. Smith produced using arc and resistance welding.
Co. (USA). 1950 - First spray transfer patent for gas metal arc
1926 - First patents for flux cored wire granted to welding,byMuller,Gibson and Anderson,
Stoody (USA). marketed by Air Reduction Sales Company
1926 - M. Hobart and P. K. Devers issued separate (USA).
U.S. patents for developments in arc welding Circa 1950 -Electroslag welding first used for pro-
using heliumas a shielding gas. duction in Russia.
1927 - Firstsolotransatlanticflightachievedby 1953 - Patent for constricted plasmaarc torch issued
Lindberg in Ryan monoplane; fuselage based to R.M. Gage (USA).
on structureof all-welded steel alloy tubing. 1954 - Self-shielded flux cored wire introduced by
1928 - Firststructuralweldingcode, Code for Lincoln Electric (USA).
Fusion Welding and Gas Cutting in Building 1954 - Firstatomicsubmarine, The Nautilus, is
Construction published by American Weld- placed in U.S. Naval service.
ing Society; forerunner of D.l.l, Structural 1955 - Constricted arc (plasma arc) developed and
Welding Code-Steel. introduced by Linde Division, Union Carbide
1930 - Continuousweldedrailintroducedbythe Corporation (USA).
CentralGeorgiaRailroad for trackthrough 1956 - Friction welding invented (Russia).
two tunnels. Welded rail used in open track Circa 1957 -Carbon dioxide (CO2) used for short
two years later. circuitingtransfer,gasmetalarcwelding
Circa 1930- Atomic hydrogen welding developed as (USA, Britain, and Russia).
method of welding metals other than carbon 1960 - First laser beam produced using a ruby crystal
and low-alloy steels. (USA).

~~
~~~ ~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 07842b5 05Lb791 554 m

Welding Appendix 1 617
1960s -Pulsed power gas metal arc welding intro- 1984 - Edison Welding Institute established by the
duced by Airco (USA). State of Ohio to improve welding technology
1961 - First public disclosure of electron beam weld- used in manufacturing.
ing by Stohr,FrenchAtomicEnergyCom- 1990s -Inverter technology dominates power supply
mission (France). designs. Reduced size and weight of equip-
1962 - Electrogas welding patent issued, assigned to ment is the result (world wide).
Arcos (Belgium). 1991 - Friction stir welding introduced and used suc-
1964 - Hotwireweldingprocessesandone- cessfully to weld the 2000, 5000, and 6000
knob (Synergic Control)gas
metal
arc series of aluminum sheet alloys.
weldingprocesscontrolpatentedbyManz
(USA). 1993 - Robotically controlled CO2 laser beam pro-
1965 -The St. Louis Arch built from 142 welded cess used to weld U.S. Armys Abrams Main
stainless steel sections and erected as a tribute Battle Tank.
to the cityandamemorial to westward Historical Perspectives
expansion. The following is an abridgement of an article, Zn
1965 - Welded space craft, Apollo 10, launched to the Beginning, written by Hal Stacey, and published
the moon (USA). in the Welding Journal, Volume 73, by the American
1967 - Worlds first undersea pipeline hot tap engi- Welding Society, Miami, Florida, June, 1994.
neered and welded by Frank Pilia (USA) for
Linde Division, Union Carbide Corporation, Welding is an ancient science, so old that its roots
in the Gulf of Mexico. have been lost in antiquity. One of the principles of
1968 - Development and manufacture of HY-130 metalworking that seems to have been passed down
steel for pressure vessels and ship hulls com- over the centuries, however, is that when iron is soft-
pleted as aresult of$2.3 millionresearch ened and rendered plastic by heating in a fire, it will,
effort byU.S. Steel aidedbyNaval Ship under suitable conditions,unite or weld.Because
Engineering Center. few implements or articles of iron or steel can survive
1968 - Critical comer pieces welded in place in the the attack ofrust indefinitely, little directevidence
first 22 floors of the John Hancock Center, remains asto exactly when welding originated. The art
Chicago;thissteelstructureconsequently of working and hardening steel, an advanced stage in
welded to a height of 1107 feet. metalworking that doubtless took centuries to reach,
1969 - Plasma arc
hot-wirecladding process was commonly practiced 30 centuries ago in Greece
introduced by Linde Division, Union Carbide and is mentioned by Homer.
Corporation. It is probable that the principles of welding were
1970s -Transistor-controlled inverter welding power discovered, lost
andrediscovered repeatedly by
introduced (world wide). ancientpeoples the worldover,since it hasbeen
1977 - Alaska Pipeline completed; 2500 tons of filler proven that primitivetribes on differentcontinents,
metals used in 100 O00 welds, spanning 798 with no apparent means of communicating with one
miles fromPrudhoe Bay to Valdez. another, developed and used the same basic methods
1980s -Semiconductor circuits and computer circuits of smelting, shaping and treating iron.
used to control welding and cutting processes By the time of the Renaissance, welding with fire
(world wide). had become an established practice, andthe craftsmen
1980s -Vapor phase reflow soldering used for printed of that period were highly skilled in the art. The parts
circuit boards. to be joined were properly shaped and then reheated to
1983 - AmericanWeldingInstitute(AWI)estab- the correct temperature in a forge or furnace before
lished
as
American Welding Technology being hammered, rolled or pressed together. Biringuc-
Application Center. cios Pyrotechnia, published in 1540, contains several
1983 - Spaceship Earth, 160-ft. diameter geodesic references to such operations. In one case, a square
dome at Epcot Center constructed with sub- piece of steel was weldedto the end of an iron rod for
mergedarcandshieldedmetal arc welding use in turning cannon bores. In another, cracked bells
processes;
inspectedwith
approximately were made whole again by a method of welding. It is
4000 radiographs. obvious that Biringuccio was intrigued by the latter

Licensed by Information Handling Services 1- ~
application, for he wrote, This seems to me an inge- werefiledonthisprocessinPetrograd,Russia, on
nious thing,little used, but of great usefulness. December 3,1885, and issued May17,1887. Benardos
Forge weldingof iron developedinto an industry of andStanislavOlczewskireceivedaGermanpatent
considerableproportionsand,untilabout1890,was coveringweldingwithasinglecarbonarc.In this
the only method available. When the two iron parts process,fusionwasobtained by drawinganarc
reachedthepropertemperature,theywereforced between a carbon electrode and the work to be welded.
together by variousmeans,oftenbeinghungfrom Metal was added from an auxiliary source and fed into
cranes to facilitate the operation. Then, with the heat the arc or molten pool.
maintainedatacertaintemperature, the endswere In 1889, Zerener introduced the process that con-
struck repeatedly with a sledge hammer for adefinite sists of drawing an arc between two carbon electrodes
period. That done, the part was withdrawn from the positioned at about 60 to each other and deflecting
fire and finished onan anvil. Forge welding is still the arc outward by means of an electromagnet placed
practiced to some extent today. between the electrodes. This method did not come into
The Electric Arc. Credit for the concept of modern much commercial use because the heat was less con-
welding is generallygivento Sir HumphreyDavy centrated and there was less available heat in propor-
because of his discovery of the electric arc. In 1810, tion tothe energy consumed.
whileexperimentingwith the emergingscience of Research was going on concurrently in the United
electricity, Davy discovered that an arc could be cre- States, as evidenced by the patent for an arc welding
atedbybringingtwoterminalsofacomparatively process granted in 1889 to Charles Coffin of Detroit.
high voltage electric circuit near one another. This arc, This was the beginning of a great era in the welding
which cast a bright light and gave off a considerable industry, since the metal electrode suggested by Coffin
amount of heat, could be struck and maintained at will, supplied notonlyfusionheatto
the metalbeing
and its length and intensity could be varied within lim- welded, but also the extra weld metal necessary for a
its determined by the voltage of the circuit and the good joint. In this process, the filler metal was sup-
type of terminals utilized. At that time it was regarded plied by excess metal alongthe weld lineor by a metal
as a curiosity with no practical use; Sir Davy did not rod held in the welders hand.
apply the name arc to his discovery until 20 years In England, Slavianoffs workon a similar process
later. culminated in a patent awarded to him in 1889. How-
The arc was put to its first practical use in 188 1, ever, there was little use for Slavianoffs method for
when carbon-arcstreet lamps were introduced. Shortly several years because suitable metal electrodes were
after, the electric furnace madeits appearance. One of difficult to obtain. For this reason, industrial of use
the
theearliestfurnaceswasinstalled by theCowles carbon arc was limited during the years up to 19 10,
Brothers in 1886 at Milton Staffordshire, England. when the development of covered electrodes by O.
Arc welding experiments were first undertaken by Kjellberg of Sweden opened up a wide variety of com-
DeMeritens in 188 l. In his experiments the various mercial applications.
parts of a lead battery plate were welded using a car- Welding and World WarI
bon arc as the heat source. UnitedStatesentryinto WorldWar I in Europe
In the early 1890s, Lloyd and Lloyd of Birming- posed a problem: how to produce the ships needed to
ham, England, established an arc welding shop, very transport the materials of war, Seeking a solution, the
well equippedfor that era, which was capable of weld- governmentsetup the U.S. ShippingBoard,Emer-
ing wrought iron pipes up to a foot in diameter. In gency Fleet Corporation to cope with the demand for
1902, the Baldwin Locomotive Works established an shipping.ProfessorComfortA.Adams ofHarvard
extensiveweldingshopinPennsylvania for loco- was appointed to head a committee to investigate the
motive repair and maintenance, using the carbon arc situation. The committee met for the first time in July,
process on a largescale. 1917.
Patent Records Adams committee visited England and discovered
Patent literature may be the most authentic source that the British were using arc welding to an increas-
of information about the early history of electric arc ing extent. Gas shortages had forced themcuttodown
welding. Nickolas Von Benardos perfected
and on gas welding, and so they were using arc welding
patentedacarbonarcweldingprocess.Thepatents with both bare and flux-covered electrodesin the pro-

~~ ~~ ~~
~~ ~
S T D - A W S JWE-ENGL 1997 m o ~ ~ w b0516793

5 327 m
Welding Encyclopedia Appendix 1 619
duction of bombs, mines and torpedoes. Also, they hadduced that year. Just four years later, wire production
initiated the constructionof a ship with an all-welded- had jumped to 111 million pounds. In 1940, 199 mil-
hull. This steamer,the Fulagar, wasbuiltat the lion pounds were produced, and in 1943, wire produc-
Commell-Lairds shipyard and launched in 1920. tion reached a wartime peak of over a billion pounds.
Havingviewed all this, the Americancommittee Arc welding has grown into very a large and impor-
became enthusiastic converts to welding as a produc- tant industry. Itis used not onlyfor the manufacture of
tion tool, returned to the United States, and began to almost everything madeof metal, but it is the mainte-
set up welding production methods for the necessary nancetoolwhichkeepsrailroads,truckfleets,steel
war materials. During this flurryof industrial activity, mills, power plants, waterworks, refineries, and other
the production campaign itself seemed to turn into a vital national industries functioning.
battlebetweentheproponentsofgas,arcandspot Welding and Shipbuildlng
welding, with skirmishes over the relative merits of
carbon and metallic electrodes, fluxed and bare metal During World War I,welding was involved in a his-
electrodes, and direct and alternating current. tory-making episodeconcerning109Germanships
The Emergency Fleet Corporation and its subcom- that were in American ports when warfirst broke out.
mittee on welding had accomplished much toward the The German high command issued an order to the cap-
use of welding in ship construction. The war emer- tains of those ships to sabotage the vessels, especially
gency also resulted in the use of welding for many the boilers. The Germans reasoned that the Americans
applicationspreviouslyconsideredinadvisable. By would not have enough timeto repair them before the
this time, improvements in electrical equipment, weld- wars end.
ing electrodes and process controls were developed so Welding was used to repair all of these ships, and
that welding could be safely and economically used the job wascompletedwithin eight months. These
for general manufacturing of most metal products and same shipswereusedlatertotransport 500 O00
an increasing numberof structural projects. doughboys to France. The repairs resulted in savings
Severalnotableuses of weldinginconstruction to the taxpayers of $20 million.
includedthethree-span, 500-fOOt, all-weldedbridge Reference:ExcerptedfromIrving,Bob, What
erected in 1923 in Toronto, Canada. As the economy, Welding Accomplished Way Back When, Volume 73,
strength and tightness of arc weldedjoints became bet- (I), Welding Journal,American WeldingSociety,
ter known, arc welding was used to construct storage Miami, Florida. 1994.
tanks for fuel oil, gasoline and distillate. An example AfterWorldWarIended, the weldingindustry
was the monumental job undertakeninLancaster, turned its attention to domestic affairs. The American
Pennsylvania, in erecting a l-million gallon capacity Welding Society, founded by ComfortA. Adams, was
standpipe, which towered 127 feet high over the sur- formally organized in 1919. In the 1920s, oxyacety-
rounding countryside. lene welding continuedto be an important and popular
After the London Naval Treatyof 1930, the United process, but arc welding was beginning to be used in
States Navy, which had contributed greatly to welding suchapplicationsaslong-distancepipelines. The
research, turned to welding more and more often in Johnson process was patented for electric resistance
order to reduce weight and stay within the Treaty limi- welded steel tubing. Flux cored wires for hardfacing
tations. Also,aweldedmerchantshipwasbuilt in was introduced. Significant developments were made
Charleston, South Carolina in 1930. It was the fore- shieldedin metal arc
welding
processes
and
runner of hundreds of welded ships that would be built electrodes.
for use in World War II. The severe economic depressionof the early 1930s
During the 1930s, the United States Army became was felt worldwide. As a result, many welding appli-
interested in welding, and much of Ordnances mate- cations involved the salvage, repair, and maintenance
rial was redesigned at the Watertown Arsenal for proof existing equipment. In spite of difficult economic
duction by welding. Ingalls Shipbuilding Corporation conditions, however, progress in welding technology
added to these the first all-welded ship built in Amer- continued. In the early 1930s, atomic hydrogen weld-
ica, the Exchequer; launched in October, 1940. ingwasdeveloped as amethod of weldingmetals
The year 1932 was established as a reference stan- other than carbon and low-alloy steels, and in 1935,
dard by manufacturers of welding wire in the United submerged arc welding was developed and made com-
States. Approximately 18.3 million pounds were pro- merciallyavailable.During the 1930s,continuous
~~
STDeAWS JWE-ENGL L997 07842b5 0536794 263 m
welded rail was introduced in still at sea. As a result, the chances of U.S. maritime
the railroad industry and
shortly became standard practice ships makingit through this one-two-three punch were
for rail lines. Notable
examples of welded steel structures built during the about one out of two.
1930swere the EmpireStateBuildingand the San In what could have been interpreted as a warning, a
Francisco Bay Bridge. Welding was used in thefabri- WeldingResearchCouncilCommitteein the late
cation of automobiles,ships,aircraft,railcarsand 1930s had determined that steel plate had to have the
track;boilers,pressurevessels,pipingandtubing, followingchemicallimitations in order to assure
tanks,containers,andcountlessindustrial,commer- sound weldability: 0.26% carbon, 1 .OO% manganese,
cial, and household products. 0.04% sulfur, and 0.04% phosphorus. Several major
The end of World War I did not assure the antici- steel companies said they could not make a steel with
pated era of peace. The political adjustments and eco- this chemistry; there was no precedent for doing so.
nomic aftermath of the World War led to instability In 1944, our yards began to build the larger and
and unrest in almost every nation and in some coun- faster Victory ships (see Figure 1-1). A total of 53 1 of
tries, dictatorswereabletotakeovergovernments. these ships were built. Five hundred and twenty five
Afteronlytwentyyears,whenGermanyinvaded T-2 tankers werealso built duringthe war, andit was a
Poland on September 1, 1939, the world was again at T-2 tanker named Schenectady that made the naval
war. The UnitedStatesenteredWorldWar II on
history books. Tied up after sea trials at an outfitting
December 7, 1941, when Pearl Harbor was attacked dock in Portland, Oregon, the Schenectady broke into
by Japan. Again the welding industrys priority was two pieces.
production of ships, aircraft, armored tanks, weapons,
and equipmentfor the war effort. In March, 1941, Senator Harry Truman, a Demo-
crat from Missouri, was appointed chairman of the
World War II Senate Special Committee to Investigate the National
The following is an abridgementof an article writ- Defense Program. Known as the Truman Committee,
ten by Bob Irving, What Welding Accomplished Way this seven-man group of senators was formed to look
Back When, published in Volume 73 (1) of the Weld- into manufacturing problems in the defense industry,
ing Journal by the American Welding Society, Miami, and the Schenectady was high on its agenda. Accord-
Florida; 1994. ing to a report of an investigation conducted by the
Shipbuilding American Bureau of Ships, some of the steel used in
Weldingreached its zenithduring WorldWarII this ship was of a very poor quality and was most
with the enormous U.S. effort in shipbuilding. A total directly responsible for the failure of the T-2 tanker.
of 2710 Liberty ships were built to American Bureau About 5% of the steel delivered to the shipyard
of Shipping (ABS) class. Eighteen new shipyards were for the construction of the Schenectady was out of
established to build these badly needed vessels. The spec because of its high sulfur and phosphorus
productionspeedinmanyofthesenewyardswas contents.
unprecedented. The recordsetforfabricatingone In a special hearing on the matter, Senator Homer
complete Liberty ship was four days, 15 hours, and Ferguson, a Republican and a member of the commit-
30 minutes. tee, askedthe president of the steel company responsi-
In the early years of WorldWar II, a great number ble for delivering the steel the following question: If
of Libertyshipsand T-2 tankerssailedinconvoys a customer asks you for a strength of 60 O00 pounds,
across the Atlantic Ocean, through the Norwegian Sea, breakingpointonatest,andyou
the give hima
then through the Barents Sea to the port of Murmansk product of 57 O00 pounds, but you represent to him
in the former Soviet Union, delivering military equip- infigures thatyouhave tested it andit
did test
ment and supplies to the Russian (Red) Army. If the 60 O00 pounds, is that a misrepresentation of a mate-
ships could makeit through the attacks from the Ger- rial fact?
man Luftwaffe and the torpedoes from the U-boats, Yes, sir, the company president replied.The hear-
both of which were based in Norway, there was also a ing lasted five hours. At the end, the steel company
third obstacle: the notches formed by welds that hadnt presidentpromised the members of the Truman
been ground off. These notches often acted as crack Committeethatsomeonewouldwalk the plank
starters, and the extreme coldof that part of the world withinhisorganizationoverthisbusiness of false
caused many cracks to propagate while the ships were representation.

~~~~ ~~
Welding 1 621
Figure l-1-h 1944, U.S. Shipyards Started to Build the Victory Class
of Ships
Photo courtesy of the American Bureauof Shipping
Investigation lo00 ships suffered major cracks. Although everyone

Cracking in ships became such a problem that, in talked about the problem of brittle fracture and how it
April 1943, the Secretary of the Navy established a triggered long, severe cracks in many of those ships,
board of investigation to inquire into the design and brittle fracture was also the cause of failure in a num-
methods of constructionofweldedsteelmerchant ber of vessels in Boston in 1919, and those vessels
ships.Intheboardsthirdand final report, it was were riveted.
recorded: Impact tests of steel samples taken from In orderto better understand brittlefracture, George
vessels which had sufferedfractures indicated that, in Irwin of the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) intro-
many cases, the steel was notch sensitive, i.e., thatits duced the theoryoffracturemechanics.Developed
ability to absorb energy in the notched condition, and largely to overcome the kinds of brittle fracture that
especiallyatlowtemperature,wasinadequate.In tookplaceonLibertyShipsduring WorldWar II,
addition, it was found that some samples of the steel Irwins theory was soon put into practice by two other
furnished to shipyards under existing physical require- NRL engineers, P. P. Puz& and Bill Pellini.The devel-
ments werealso notch sensitive. opment of fracture mechanics achieved international
stature. Irwins work laid the foundation for the frac-
Brittle Fracture ture mechanics methods that are used for the design
The incidentsinvolvingcrackingduringWorld and operation of fracture-critical structures over the
War II caused a lot of people to think about brittle entire world, andis one of the most enduring contribu-
fracture. A 1954 report indicated that 80 ships built tions to science and engineering made by the Naval
during the waractuallybroke in halfandanother Research Laboratory.
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 3997 0784265 0536796 036 m
622 Appendix 1 Welding Encyclopedia
Inthe late 1950s,Pelliniconducted the critical DI: Adams has achieved an outstanding record
experiment that led tothe decision to use HY-80 steel of public service and has won the abiding esteem
in pressure hull submarine construction, when he dem- and affection of his fellows in the engineering
onstrated that the fracture safety of HY-80 was supe- profession. Hiscareer is an inspiration and a
rior to that of T-1 steel. Using explosives to deform a challenge.Dwight D. Eisenhower, President,
two-inch-thicksampleconsisting of thetwosteels United States of America.
welded together, he showed that the T-1 had a ten-
It was fitting thatthe official nameof the 1957 con-
dency to fracture in the heat-affected zone near the vention was the AWS Adams National Meeting. At a
weld. The impact was entirely visual. No analysis was banquet in his honor, Dr. Adams reminisced about his
necessary. days during World War I when he was appointed by
In its work with high-strength steels for submarines, President Woodrow Wilson to serve as chairman of the
the NavalResearchLaboratorysWeldingSection, Welding Committeeof the Emergency Fleet Corpora-
headed at the time by Puzak, did much to call attention tion. A goal of the corporation was to provide welded
to the effectsof hydrogen and certain combinations of ships for the war effort. The goal was not met in time.
alloyelements inweldmetaland its effect on the At the banquet,Dr. Adams smiled and said, Its prob-
crackingtendency ofweld metalsandtheheat- ably just as well.
affected zones of base metals. Puzak worked closely
with the weldingengineers in shipyardstodevelop Tankers and Supertankers
anddocumentfabricationprocedureswhichwould As shipbuildingmovedintothe1960s,several
minimize the cracking of HY-80 welds during fabrica- unusually great demands were placed on oceangoing
tion. Such documentation was needed because of the vessels. Two examples were the liquefied natural gas
crackingincidentsthathadbeenoccurringonsub- (LNG) tanker (see Figure 1-2) and the supertankers.
marinesfabricatedfromHY-80steel.Atonetime, Different designs ofLNG tankers featured tanks or
Admiral Hyman Rickover tried to convince the Navy compartmentsweldedfromstainlesssteel,Invar, or
to return to the steel formerly used, but Pellini argued aluminum. A special facility was constructedby Gen-
the case successfully for HY-80 steel. eral DynamicsCorporation outside of Charleston,
Presidential Commendation SouthCarolina,wherehugealuminumhemispheres
President Franklin Roosevelt had many good things were joined together by mechanized gas metal arc
to say about welding in a letterhe wrote Prime Minis- welding. As each sphere was completed,it was loaded
ter Winston Churchill in the early years World War II. on a barge, then delivered up the coast to the main
Churchill is said to have read a part ofRoosevelts shipyard in Quincy, Massachusetts, where the ship was
letter to the membersof the House of Commons: being built. The barge then returned to Charleston to
pick up the next spherefor delivery. The tankers were
Here there had been developed a welding tech- designed to housefive spheres.
niquewhichenablesus to construct standard Storage tanks were also being built to contain the
merchant ships with a speedunequaledinthe gas onshore. The alloy of choice in this application
history of merchant shipping.
was 9%nickel steel, a metal that wasalso selected for
The techniquethePresidentwasreferringtowas liquid gas cylinders.Theweldsweremadeusinga
undoubtedlysubmergedarcwelding(SAW).The high-nickel filler metal.
Linde Air Products Companys version of this process
was first introducedtoindustry in 1937.Thesub- Supertankers. The closing of theSuezCanal in
mergedarc, or Unionmeltprocess,wascapableof 1956 triggered a boom in oil supertankers. In 197
1, the
joining steel plate as much as20 times faster than any Nisseki Maru, a 367 000-ton-deadweight tanker was
other welding method. launched from a Japanese shipyard. At the time, the
Roosevelt was not the only president who publicly Nisseki Maru was believed to have been the largest
expressed appreciationfor the welding industry. Presi- tanker the world. Larger tankers were to follow.
dent Dwight D. Eisenhower commended the founder The OffshoreOil Industry. The vessels needed for the
of the American Welding Society, Dr. Comfort Avery exploration of underseahydrocarbonswerenatural
Adams.OnApril 8, 1957,thePresidentsentDr. offshoots of shipbuilding. The first mobile, offshore
Adams a congratulatory telegram on the occasion of drilling rig, a pontoon-supported unit known then as a
the 38th Annual Meeting ofAWS in Philadelphia: submersible, began operatingin 1949,

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 078426505Lb797T72 m
Figure l-24omplete with Welded5083 Aluminum Tanks to Contain Llquified Natural Gas, the LNG
Leo
is Shown Here
Photo courtesy of the American Bureauof Shipping
Later, the North Sea becametheprovingground joints by the oxyfuelprocesswasona17.7-km

for thickweldscapableofsustaininghighimpact (1 1-mile) line constructedby the Philadelphia & Sub-
loads at low temperatures. Huge platforms were fabri- urbanGasCompanyin1911.In1917,Webster &
cated in Scotland and in Norway toreap the rewards of Southbridge Gas and Electric Companyof Massachu-
oiland gas in such areas as the Ekofiskandthe setts used an electric machine to weld 11 miles of 3-in.
Brent fields. Structures had to stand upto waves 15 m diameter pipe. An early name in the electric welding
(50 ft) in height and winds of 112 to 210 km/h (70 to of pipelineswasElectraWeldingCompany.(This
130 milesh). company has grown to become one of the largest pipe-
Interest in North Sea oil and gas was strong, but linecontractors in theUnitedStates as H.C. Price
when the 1973 oil crisis hit, the rush became a roar. Company.) In 1922, an Electra Welding crew traveled
The search for oil and gas offshore increasedto such a to Caney, Kansas, where it worked on a field pipeline
degree that by the end of 1974, the ABS had classed and repaired a large oil field tank bottom for Empire
145 mobile offshore drilling units. Drill ships and sub- Pipeline Company, using electric welding.
mersibles werealso being classed. In 1924, Magnolia Gas Company of Dallas, Texas,
Earlier in time, in September, 1950, the seesaw bat- completed whatis described asthe first long-distance,
tle between oil tankers and pipelines tiltedin the direc- all-weldednatural gas pipeline.Itextended for
tion of pipelines with the completion of the 1670-km 344 km (214 miles), and ran from the Webster Parish
(1040-mile) Trans-Arabian Pipeline or Tapline in the field in Louisiana to Beaumont, Texas. The line con-
MiddleEast. This pipelinewasdesignedtoreplace sisted of 41- and 46-cm (16- and 1 %in.) telescoped
7200 miles of seajourneyfromthePersianGulf pipe, acetylene welded. In 1933,the H. C. Price Com-
through the Suez Canal. pany completed thefirst electric-welded pipeline with-
According to Daniel YergininhisPulitzerPrize out the use of a backup ring inside the pipe. The line
winning book,The Prize, the annual throughputof the was built for PhillipsPetroleumCompanyand ran
Trans-Arabian Pipeline was the equivalent of 60 tank- from Oklahoma City to
Thrall, Kansas.
ers in continuous operation fromthe Persian Gulf, via In the Golden Anniversary issue of The Oil and Gus
the Suez Canal, to the Mediterranean. King Ibn Saud Journal, Noah Wagner of the Prairie Pipeline Com-
saidatthetime, The oil itcarriedwouldfuelthe pany was mentioned, ostensibly as a pioneer in the
recovery of Europe. acetylene welding of pipeline. Wagner is credited by
the magazine with introducing acetylene welding to
Cross-Country Pipelines pipeline work in 1920. Some time later, the company
Welding has always played an extremely important welded a 225-km (140-mile), 20-cm (&in.) line from
role in pipeline construction.The first welding of pipe Mexia to Hensley, Texas.
~~
~
STD.AWS JWE-ENGL 1,977 W 0 7 8 4 ~O S L ~ ~ 9W0 9 m
The first seamless pipe supplied by the mills was engineers hadbeenworking for yearstoestablish
introduced in 1928.Electric-weldedpipewasintro- procedures.Then,attheeleventhhour,theenviron-
duced shortly after. Thetwo types of pipe still compete mentalistsshooktheirheadsandsaid,The welds
against one another. arent strong enough. They then established new spec-
At the 1934 Oil Show in Tulsa, a new speed record ifications for higher strength welds. The call wentout
in pipeline welding was set when an automatic oxy- for a cellulosic electrode that would meet these new
acetylene welding system made a circumferential weldspecs. Only one could be located atthe time: it was an
in6.4-mm(1/4-in.)wall,305-mm(12-in.)diameter E8 10G electrode from Thyssen, Germany, called Phoe-
pipe in 8 minutes.The equipment was a product ofthe nix Cell 80. Before the project was completed, more
Linde Air Products Company. than1.5millionpoundsofthiselectrodewerecon-
Arc Welding sumed in the fabricationof the Alaska pipeline. Of that
total,some 550 O00 poundswereflownindirectly
It was just about at that time, however, that acety-
from Germany to Alaska in an emergency airlift.
lene welding metits match: a verycrude covered elec-
trode. Someof the core wires of these electrodes were Later inthe construction phase, trouble arose over a
little more than rusty wire, a wire similar to the type certainsection of pipelinewhichhadnotbeen
used for cattle fencing. In some instances, the elec- inspected properly. Unfortunately, a reporter with one
trode covering was wet newspaper, but it welded pipe of the wire services misinterpreted the situation, and
much faster than any acetylene welding system. the next day newspapers across the country were run-
The firstelectricweldingused to constructnew ning headlines to the effect that there were 30 O00
steel roofs on large oil field tanks was done by Weld- defective welds in the Alaska pipeline. The Welding
ingEngineeringCompany(laterknown as H.C. Institute interceded and convinced the officials to have
Price). The emergence of shielded metal arc welding some of the weldments examined onafitness-for-
electrodes in the early 1930s madeit possible to weld purpose basis at the National Bureau of Standards
entire field storage tanks for the petroleum industry. (now the National Institute of Standards and Technol-
This
change
in joining technique dramatically ogy) in Boulder, Colorado. Using fracture mechanics
improved the tanks evaporation elimination and fire equipment, engineers there proved that the welds in
protection. question were adequatefor the intended service.
Prior to the construction ofthe Alaska pipeline, new
The Alaska Pipeline
pipe mills were being opened throughout the country.
StoriesabouttheAlaskapipelinecontinued for Bethlehem Steel held a major press conferencein the
years: how some welders were making $90 O 0 0 per late 1940s to celebrate the grand opening of its new
year, or about the tremendousjob rush to Alaska from pipe mill at Steelton, Pennsylvania. It was one of the
the lower 48. One of the best reports on the pipeline first users of submergedarc welding.
appeared in National Geographic; it contained a fair
amount of informationonwelding.Thisimportant A prominent inventor, a man named Wally Rudd,
wasmakingnewswith his patentedhigh-frequency
project involved the joining of 1.2-m (48-in.) diameter,
12.7-mm (U2-in.) wall, high-strength steel pipe. The resistance welding process. The first installation was
pipe had been made in Japan since no American pipe at Alcan, Kingston, Ontario, Canada, in 1955for lon-
mill was equipped to handle such a large size. gitudinal welding of 2- to 6-inch diameter aluminum
irrigation pipe.The first installation of the process at a
Severe weather conditions added to the usual con-
steelpipemillwasatRepublic Steel Company in
struction problems.
1956.Thisparticularinventionwasknown as the
This was also a project in which organizations con- Thermatool process.
cerned with the environment interjected a major voice.
At one point, trenching had to be stopped completely The ASME Code
because the workers had come upon a polar bear in On May2, 1930, thefirst fusion welded boilerdrum
hibernation. What to do? After weeks of consultation was tested to destruction at Combustion Engineering,
withall sorts of experts,thedecisionwasmade to Inc., Chattanooga, Tennessee. Shielded metal arc elec-
leave the bear alone and to trench around him. trodesproduced by C-Ewereusedtofabricatethe
Environmentalorganizationswere also involved, boiler drum. Actual fabrication was performedby the
indirectly and early in the project, with the selection Hedges-Walsh-WeidnerCompany,awhollyowned
of weldingelectrodes.Metallurgistsandwelding subsidiary of Combustion Engineering.Thirteen

Licensed by Information Handling Services ~ ~~~~
~~ ~ ~~ ~~~ ~ ~~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 051b799 845 m

Welding 1 625
months later, the ASME code committee adopted new ating station inthe United States. It was built by Com-
rules approving the use of welding for boiler drum bustion Engineering to Section I rules. The next ones
construction.On June 22, 1931,CombustionEngi- were built to Section VIII rules. Then, finally, Section
neering shipped theFust commercial land boiler fabri- III came into existence.
cated to these ASME code welding requirements to Industry ran into a series of welding problems in
the Fisher Body Division of General Motors Corpora- nuclear fabrication, but only because one no had expe-
tion. The facilitywasnamedaNationalHistoric rience in this field. Electroslag welding wastried, but
Mechanical Engineering Landmark by ASME in 1980.given up. Strip cladding was first used. There were
The Brown Paper Company, Monroe,Louisiana, is problems with the copper coating on submerged arc
credited with being thefirst customer to have received welding wire. Embrittling effects were brought on as a
a fusion-welded power boiler drum for naval vessels result of radiation onthe copper. Then there was stress
thathadbeen
constructedunderspecification
a corrosion cracking of the boiling water reactors. To
adopted by the U.S. Navy. The rules were not unlike solve these problems, preferential alloying was used to
those written for the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel improve the toughness.
Code committee. This occurred in 1930, during the
great years. The Auto Capltalof the World
The creation of the ASME Boiler Code was a great Detroit is not only the hub of automobile manufac-
milestone in the history of quality control and one in turing, it is also the scene wherethe largest amountof
which welding was heavily involved. A.M. Greene, welding in the entire world takes place, including both
Jr., referred to the period at the end of the 1920s and arcwelding and resistancewelding. One mightsay
the beginning of the 1930s as the great years in the that the two came together coincidentally around the
history of the Code. His first reason for calling those turn of the century whenJohn C. Lincoln, the founder
particular years great was the advent of fusion weld- of The LincolnElectricCompany,builtanelectric
ing. During the period of 1928 to 1931, he said, weld- automobileandinitiatedthemanufacture of equip-
ing was meeting the long service life expectations of ment to recharge the batteries for such vehicles. The
designers and fabricators for the shells and compo- use of welding for the manufacture of automobiles,
nents of boilers and pressure vessels. however, did not take place until many years later. The
One of the early methods used for weld testing by Ford Motor Company,for example, continued to rivet
Codefabricatorswas one calledtapping,which its cars until 1934, when arc welding wasfirst used to
appeared to have been a very low technology version join the frames together. Then in 1937, Ford startedto
of acoustic emission. In thelate 1920s, one might see use resistance spot welding.The first all-welded Ford
inspectorstappingweld joints withhammers,and automobile came out in 1949. Both arc and resistance
listening to thesoundthroughstethoscopes. If the welding were used.
sound were a deadone, the weld was thought to be At the front end of the car, there were those who
defective. wanted to see an aluminum radiator.R. L. Peaslee said
Nuclear Power vacuum brazing was used for aluminum radiators to
The worlds first large-scale nuclear electric power prevent the erosion that had been taking place when
generating station wenton line in 1956 at Calder Hall, the brazingof aluminum was processed in molten flux
West Cumberland, England. At the time, this plant was salt baths. If any salt remained on the part after clean-
described in a book entitled Wonders of the World as ing, corrosion problems would occur.The first alumi-
one of the seven wondersof the modern world. num radiator produced by vacuum brazing was done
The Vallecitos boiling water reactor, near Pleasan- by Harrison Radiatorin New Jersey.
ton, California, thefrst privately owned and operated In the early 1960s, C. J. Millerof General Electrics
nuclearpowerplant,startedto deliver significant aerospacegroup in Philadelphiadiscovered that a
quantities of electricity to thepublicutilitygridin magnesium content in the cladding or brazing alloy
1957. General Electric, Pacific Gas and Electric, and was the agent that made vacuum brazing of aluminum
Bechtel collaborated on this effort. The reactor was work. Miller filed five or six patents in this general
named a historic landmark by the ASME in 1987. area. GE never pursued the vacuum brazing process
The Shippingport,Pennsylvania,AtomicPower commercially, but instead licensed companies to use
Station wasthe first commercial centralelectric gener- the technology and collected royalties from its use.

Licensed by Information Handling Services ~~~~ ~~ ~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 3997 0784265 0536800 397 W
Recently, aluminum components have begun to be investment castings.As a result, these componentsare
specified in some automobiles. At Ford Motor Com- still joined by electron beam welding.
pany,aluminumhoods,deck-lids,andfenders are In the United States, the fuselages and wingsof alu-
specified for various vehicles.Weld bonding (the tech- minum aircraft have always been joined by various
nique of making resistance spot welds through epoxy) types of mechanicalfasteningdevices.In the past,
is starting to be used in the production of automobiles attemptshavemadetobuildweldedaircraft. One
havingaluminumcomponents.It is interestingthat attempt took place in the 1930s in Philadelphia when
this is the same basic process used for years by the theEdwardG.BuddCompanyfabricatedawelded
Russians in the fabrication of their aircraft. stainless steel airplane. Called Pioneer, Budds stain-
Robots lessairplanewasflownsuccessfully.Theplanehas
The first robot for resistance spot welding within since earned a permanent spot at the FranklinInstitute
the Ford Motor Company went into operation in 1961. inPhiladelphia. Budd was convinced thatstainless
The robot was built byAM Industries. By 1994, there steel had a great future in transportation. Years later,
were more than 500 robots used to control resistance the Budd Company won the first contract to build
spot weldingin the automotive industry. Metroliner passenger cars for the Northeast corridor.
According to Joseph Engelberger, the chairman and They were also welded from stainless steel.
chief executive officerof TRC, Danbury, Connecticut, Rocket to theMoon
the first robots for resistance spot welding at General On May 18,1969, the Apollo 10 manned spacecraft,
Motors(thereweretwo of them)wereinstalledin our rocket to the moon was fired into space. The
1964. Two years later, GM placed an order for 66 Uni- vehicles main weld was 10 m (33 ft) long, made by
materobotsfromUnimation to beusedin its new automatic gas tungstenarcwelding. The vehicles
Lordstown, Ohio, plant. They were hydraulically oper-command module consisted of an outer heat shield of
ated and usedfor resistance spot welding. PH 1408 Mo stainless steel honeycomb, and an inner
The early work on electric robots was conducted by cabinwasmadefrom2014-T6and6061-T6alumi-
Victor Scheinman and several associatesin Mountain num.Thicknesseswereinthe 1.5 mm (0.060in.)
View, California. Their first electricarm was called the range.
Stanford arm. WithbackingfromGeneralMotors, Some 24600cm(9700in.) of gas tungstenarc
Unimation finally introduced the Puma electric robot welding were used to join the heat shield assembly.
in the early 1970s. The equipmentoperated on directcurrent,straight
The Early Days of the Jet Engine polarity. Gas shielding consisted of an argonhelium
There is a long historyof successful weldingof jet mixture. A total of 63 individual welds, measuring up
engine components. In the 1970s, the production lines to 9400 cm (3700 in.) in total
length, were madeon the
at one of GeneralElectric Aircraft Engines plants was inner cabin.
manned by more than 400 certified welders. A light- The othercomponent for the Apollo 10 was the
weight engine of the 1958 period, the J-79, featured spacecrafts Lunar Module. This component was made
rolled and flash-welded flangesor frames. Two major mostly of 2219 aluminum; it, too, was welded by the
applications there were gas tungsten arc welding of automatic gas tungstenarcprocess.Manufacturing
large diameter A286 steel turbine frames using a Has- recordsindicatedthatonly15.2cm(6in.), or
telloy W filler metal, andthe welding of a Chromalloy 0.0007%, out of a total of 2950 cm (8640 of
in.)welds
alloy steel front frame. The Chromalloy material was had to be repaired on five Lunar Modules.
developed by GE. The J-79 engine powered the F-4 In terms ofwelding on the Apollo, probably the
fighter aircraft and the B-58 bomber. A commercial largest participant was Sciaky Brothers, Inc., Chicago.
derivative, the CJ-805 engine, powered the Convair After the mission was accomplished, Sciaky received
880. a congratulatory letter from the prime
contractor of the
Unfortunately, the role of welding in the fabrication Apollo program, the Space Division of North Ameri-
of the jet engine is on the decline. Replacingit in many canRockwell Corporation, Downey, California.
areas, particularly the rolled and welded frames, are Signed by Dale D. Myers, vice president, the letter
improved investment castings; however, the titanium stated:
fan framesfor other engines, especially those specified Your firms extensive welding contribution to
for the Boeing747, are toobigtobemade out of the Apollo program ismost highly commended.

Licensed by Information Handling Services ~ ~~~ ~ ~ ~~~~
Welding 1 627
Welding continues to play a vital role in aerospace. costbecame so highthatwelderswerecalledupon

One of the morerecentinnovationsintheSpace to attachsheetmetalsectionsmadeout of these
Shuttle program, for example, has been the develop- expensive materials to the internals of many vessels.
ment and use by NASA of the variable polarity plasmaThe technique soon became known as wallpapering,
arc welding (VPPAW) machine in the fabrication of and it is moving into other areas of construction as
the liquidoxygenandliquidhydrogenfueltanks. well.
These welding machines reduce distortion; reduce the
Railroads
original requirement of from 6 to 12 weld passes to 1
or 2 passes; and eliminate the need for precise joint In the 1930s, when the shift began from bolted to
fitup. continuous welded rail, many of the processes were
Structural Welding used:Fustoxyacetylene,then gas pressurewelding.
Other processes, including submerged arc, gas metal
Welding has been important to the fabrication of
arc, and electroslag welding, have all been tried. At
buildingsandbridges for manyyears.In1928,for
present, resistance flash welding and thermite welding
instance, the steel frameworkfor the four-story Upper
are generally used.
CarnegieBuildingwas erected in Cleveland. The
115 tons of steel required was estimated to have been Electrodes with Extruded Coatings
15% less than that required for a riveted design. A. O. Smith Corp. made two important contribu-
Welded construction received a lot of public atten- tions to the welding industry in 1927. One was the pro-
tion in the mid 1960s with the John Hancock building duction of solid electrodes with extrudedcoatings for
in Chicago. Big John,as it was referredto during its arc welding. The other was resistance flash welding
construction,eclipsed the Empire State Buildingin equipment capableof producing longitudinal seamsof
Manhattan as the worlds tallest building. 440-foot lengthsof large-diameter pipein 30 seconds.
American Welding Society Structural Code Low-hydrogencoatingswere first usedonstainless
The popular AWS D l. 1, Structural Welding Code- steel electrodes during the 1930s. The Germans were
Steel, officially came into existence in 1972, though it using a 25Cd20Ni electrode to weld armor plate. The
traces its beginningsto 1928 when the Code for U.S. Navy wanted industry to develop a similar elec-
FusionWeldingand Gas CuttinginBuilding Con- trode in this country. This was done atthe Philadelphia
struction was first published by the American Welding Navy Yard. Then, in 1942, the War Production Board
Society. Dl. 1, as it is familiarly known throughout announced it wanted a cutback inthe use of chromium
the steel construction industry, has become the bible andnickel, so al9Cr/9Ni electrodewasdeveloped.
of that industry. The newer D1.2, Structural Welding The low-hydrogenconceptwasthenused on elec-
Code-Aluminum, traces its origin to the same 1928 trodes for welding armor plate in aboutthe same time
Code. period. These types of coverings were finally applied
Utllitles and the Environment to low-alloy steel electrodes.
During the depression years, welding was relied on The first commercially available iron powder low-
heavily for the fabrication of the huge electrical gener- hydrogensteelelectrodewasintroduced byAlloy
ating complex knownas the Tennessee Valley Author- Rods in 1953. It was called Atom Arc.
ity.Muchmorewould be asked of welding by the Process Development
utilities in subsequent years. For example, the nations
concern with acid rain opened up a new market for One inventor who played a significant role in the
welding. The new market was the fabrication of flue early days of theindustrialrevolutionwasElihu
gas desulfurization (FGD) scrubbers for certain utili- Thomson. In 1877 Thomson read a paper at the Frank-
tiesthroughout the country. The plantsinquestion lin Institute in Philadelphia describing his experiments
wereburninghigh-sulfurcoal.Effluentfromthese withaninduction coil. Eightyearslater,hewas
plants drifted hundreds of miles away, damaging for- awarded a patent(the first) on resistance welding.
ests and lakes. Many of the FGD scrubbers were as Credit for the first complete description of spray
large as theelectricalgeneratingplantsthemselves. transfer; arc welding is given to Albert Muller, Glenn
The environments withinthe scrubbers were so severe J, Gibson and Nelson E. Anderson. Their Patent, No.
that designers were soon designating high-nickel and 2,504,868,wasawardedonApril18,1950. It was
titanium alloysas major materialsof construction. The assigned to the Air Reduction Sales Company.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 0784265
0516802
1bT m
Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) approximately 130 high-vacuum EBW machines were
The two versions of flux cored arc welding, gas delivered to customers inthe United States.
shielded and self shielded, were both developed the in GeneralMotorsCorporationdecidedtousethe
late 1950s. The gas shielded version was developed by EBWprocess to weld the Type 409 stainlesssteel
Arthur Bernard, presidentof Bernard Welding Equip- catalytic converters at its AC Spark Plug Division in
ment Company. A manufacturer of welding torches, Milwaukee. The converters were produced to satisfy
Bernard had no interest in entering the market on a the needs for GMS passenger cars and trucks. After
full-fledgedbasis;instead,hesold the rightstohis several decadesof operation, these EBW machines are
invention to the National Cylinder Gas Company. The finallybeingreplacedbygasmetal arc welding
self-shielded version of flux cored arc welding was machines, chiefly becauseof the high cost of mainte-
developed by Tom Black, a research engineer at Lin- nance on the EBW machines. Unfortunately, electron
coln Electric Company. beam welding had one main drawback. the Forprocess
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) to work at its best, welding had to take place inside a
vacuum chamber.
Originally known as Heliarc welding, gas tungsten
arcweldingwasinvented by RussellMeredith,an Laser Beam Welding (LBW)
engineer working for Northrup Aircraft during World Though it took many years, EBW finally met its
War II. The first paper on the process appeared in the match in laser beam welding.The laser does not have
Welding Journal in 1941. Meredith was awarded three to operate inside a vacuum. Early enthusiasm for the
patents on the process, the first of which was Patent laser even resulted in a system designed to weld an
No. 413,711, issued on February 24, 1942.The objec- entire car body. This system was ahead of its time,
tive had been to develop a process to weld magnesium although there are many lasers in automotive produc-
without the use of flux. On June 15, 1942, Meredith tion lines, welding parts both under the hood and on
was presented withthe prestigious Award of Merit by the body.
Frank Knox, Secretary of the Navy. That same year In 1990, Gillette set up 30 industrial lasers in pro-
NorthrupAircraftlicensedtheLindeAirProducts duction lines around the world to make the disposable
Company tofurther develop and market the process. shaving cartridges for its Sensor razor. The laser beam
Electron Beam Welding (EBW)
welding machines were 250W Nd:YAG units from
Lumonics Corporation, Livonia, Michigan. In order to
The 1960s were exciting years for proponents of meet quotas, a requirement of 3 million micro spot
electron beam welding (EBW). Numerous high-tech welds per hour had to be met, and it was met.
manufacturing companies bought electron beam weld-
ing machines, placed them in R&D, and made them Fiber Optics. The science of fiber optics has found
the high points of plant tours. In production, some of interesting usesin the welding industry. One ofits first
thefeatsandnear-featswereamazing.Entirewing useswas for visualinspection ofweldslocatedin
sections for military aircraft
wereelectron-beam hard-to-approach areas. Fiberoptics is now being used
welded within a huge 32-foot long, 10-1/2-foot-wide, to transmit beams emanating fromNd:YAG lasers for
8-foot tall chamber, built by Sciaky Brothersat Grum- welding and cutting. One application of fiber optics
man Aerospace Corporation, Bethpage,N.Y. This ver- enables welders to repair large valves inside naval ves-
sionofEBWtraced its beginningstotheFrench sels by taking the fiber optics cable through the hatch,
Atomic Energy Commission. Some of the first infor- avoiding cutting sections fromthe ships big enough to
mation about this particular process started to appear allow the valve to be removed and transported to a
in trade publications about 1957.It was being used in regular repair facility. Equipment based on this princi-
France to weld nuclear components. ple is starting to appear on automotive manufacturing
Predating the French work, an electron beam device lines to replace resistance spot welding.
was reported in Germany in 1948. In 1959, a scaled-up LaserBeamPatents. In 1958, Charles Townsand
high-vacuumversionoftheGermanprocesswas Arthur Scala of Bell Laboratories delivered a paper
deliveredtoanaerospacecompanyin the United, that proposed a basic structurefor a device that would
States.EventuallytheGermantechnology,soldin produce laser light, but the first operable laser beam
Europe by Zeiss, was absorbed in this country by the welding machines were based on a ruby laser and were
Hamilton Standard Division of United Aircraft Cor- operated by Ted Maiman at Hughes Aircraft in 1960.
poration.During the periodfrom1960to1964, The CO2 laser and the neodymium: yttrium aluminum

STD*AWS JWE-ENGL 1797 m 0784265 0516803 OTb m
Welding 1 629
garnet (nd:YAG) laser were both invented in 1964 at in 1966 to Schwitzer, used in the manufacture of tur-
BellLaboratories.C. K. N. Pate1 inventedtheCO2 bochargers.
laser.
Inverters
In1968,a CO2 laserwasbuiltattheEverett
Research Laboratory. This
unit
appeared
to
be One of the more important developments in power
scalable to a high-power process. United Technolo- sources for arc welding has beenthe inverter. In 1974,
gies Research Center made deep penetration welds in the U.S. Maritime Commission expressed interest in
1/4 inch thick steel using aCO:! laser. The patent situ- the development of aportable300-amperewelding
ationpertaining to lasers,however,continues to be power source using inverter technology. Jim Thommes
extremely complicated. was the chief designer of a frst-generation prototype
unit based on transistors. Almost immediately after it
Electroslag and Electrogas Welding
wascompleted,asecond-generationprototypewas
During the height of the Cold War in the 1950s, also developed,this one usingsemiconductors. The
electroslag welding madeits debut in the UnitedStates goal had been to develop an inverter power source that
in 1959 through a rather circuitous route. This verti- could be passed throughship hatches.
cal up system was introduced in this country by the
ArcosCorporation,whichhadobtained it froman Oxyacetylene Cutting
affiliate in Belgium, which had obtained it from the In the early years of metalworking expansion, oxy-
BratislavaInstitute ofWeldinginCzechoslovakia, acetylene cutting was found to be an extremely useful
whichhadobtaineditfromtheinventor,thePaton process. One incident involving oxyacetylene cutting
Institute of ElectricWelding inKiev, the Ukraine. occurred in 1908, when crews were tryingdismantle to
Many refinements and modifications have been made theQuebecbridge,whichhadfallenintothe St.
to the electroslag unit, resulting in machines capable LawrenceRiver.Theyhadtrieddynamite,butthat
of meeting the standards of United States industry, didnt work. Finally, a sales engineer and a few other
In 1976, the American Bureau of Shipping joined individuals succeeded in dismantling the bridge using
with the Maritime Administration to conduct an inves- manual torches.Two years later, the same process was
tigation to determine the limitations on the use of elec- used to dismantle the boilers of the battleship Ken-
troslagandelectrogaswelding.Recentlydeveloped tucky while it was moored at the Norfolk Naval Ship-
fluxcoredelectrodes,lowerheatinputvaluesand yard. Workers had already spent three months trying to
faster travel speeds have improved these processes. do the job with cold chisels and hacksaws, but were
Explosion Welding able to do very little dismantling. Using oxyacetylene
The early work in explosion welding was conducted torches, the boilers were dismantled in 10 days.
atanunderground site inNewJerseyby the E. I. Plasma Arc Cutting
Du Pont de Nemours & Company, Inc. An interesting
Plasma arc cutting was displayed publicly in 1956.
application of this technology came about when Du
The equipment consisted essentiallyof a gas tungsten
Pontpreparedspeciallydesignedtransitionpieces
arc welding torch with an arc-constricting nozzle. First
betweenaluminumandsteel for theUnited States
Coast Guard. Using these pieces, the Coast Guard was developed to cut aluminum,the process was expanded
able to attach aluminum superstructures to steel ships to cut stainless steel and other metals.
by welding the aluminum side of the transition joint to The Gleeblefrom Duffers Associates
the superstructure and the steel side to the steel deck- An important development in weld testing occurred
ing. Other types of ships soon took advantage of this in the mid 1950s, whentwo professors and one gradu-
new technology. ate student at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute devel-
Friction Welding oped
an
instrumentcapable of simulatingand
The first friction welding machine used in the auto- analyzingtemperatureexcursionsin
weldheat-
motive industry was built by A M F Industries. It went affected zones. It provided badly needed data. Nick-
into operation in a Ford Motor Company plant in Indi- namedtheGleeble,itwasinventedbyErnest
anapolis, where it was used to weld S A E 5140 steel Nippes, Warren Savage and Hugo Ferguson. A com-
steering worms to SAE 1010 carbon steel shafts. Cat- pany, Duffers Associates, was formed to market the
erpillar Tractor sold its first inertia welding machines Gleeble. Ferguson became its president.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L777 m 078426505Lb804T32 W
Acknowledgments The History of American Bureauof Shipping. 1991.

AmericanSociety for MechanicalEngineers, American Bureauof Shipping, Paramus, N.J.
AmericanBureau of Shipping, AmericanPetroleum Yergin,D.1991. ThePrize-TheEpicQuest for
Institute, NavalResearchLaboratory,AlloyRods, Oil, Money & Power. Simon & Schuster, NewYork.
ESAB, Ferranti Sciaky Inc.,The Lincoln Electric Co., McCullough, D. 1992. Truman. Simon & Schuster,
and United TechnologiesIndustrial Lasers. Our appre- New York.
ciation is also extendedtoHowardAdams, Connie 100 Years of Metalworking. 1955. Iron Age, Chilton
Banas,BernieBastian,Dominic Canonico, Brown Co., Philadelphia.
Cooper, Dan Hauser, James Kovach, Gus Manz, Pat Koelihoffer, L., Manz, A. F., and Hornberger, E. G.
Palvkill, Al Patnik, R. L. Peaslee, Wally Rudd, Tom 1988. Welding Processes and Practices. John Wiley &
Siewert, Bob Somers, Dietmar Spindler,James Terrill, Sons, New York.
DavidThomas,Tiny Von Rosenberg, and Eric Clark, J. A. 1963. The Chronological History of the
Whitney. Petroleum and NaturalGas Industries.
Clark Book Co., Houston, Tex.Golden Anniversary
References
Numbel; The Oil and Gas Journal. May 1951. Petro-
History-Materials Science and Technology Divi- leum Publishing Co., Tulsa,Okla.
sion. 1993. Naval Research Laboratory, Washington. The LTEC Story: Eighty Years in the Making. The
Cross, W. 1990. The Code-An Authorized History ESAB Group, Florence,S. C. Company News.
of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. The The New York Times, Nov. 13, 1992.
AmericanSociety of MechanicalEngineers,New Stinchcomb, C.1989. WeldingTechnologyToday.
York. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N. J.
TheProcedureHandbook of Arc Welding. 1973. Moley, R. 1962. The American Century of John C.
The Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland. Lincoln. Duell, Sloan and Pearce, New York.
Plasma arc hot wire cladding is used to build up the thickness of metal for hardfacing to increase wear
resistance

~~ ~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b505Lb805 979
Appendix 2
Major Associations of the Welding Industry
Abrasives Engineering Society (AES) American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
108 Elliott Drive 11West 42nd Street
Butler, PA 16001-1118 13th Floor
tel. (412)282-6210 New York, NY 10036-8002
fax (412)282-6210 tel. (212)642-4900
fax (212)398-0023
Aluminum Association (AA)
900 19th Street, N.W. American Petroleum Institute (API)
Suite 300 1220L Street, N.W.
Washington, DC 20006 Washington, DC 20005-8029
tel. (202)862-5100 tel. (202)
682-8000
fax (202)862-5164 fax (202)682-8115
American Associationof State Highway and
lhnsportation Officials (AASHTO) American Railway Engineering Association (AREA)
444N. Capital Street,N.W. 50 F Street, N.W.
Suite 249 Suite 7702
Washington, DC 20001 Washington, D.C.20001-2183
tel. (202)624-5800 tel. (202)639-2190
fax (202)624-5806 fax (202)639-2183
American Bureauof Shipping (ABS) American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT)
Two World Trade Center 17 11Arlingate Lane
106th Floor P.O. Box 285 18
New York, NY 10048 Columbus, OH43228-05 18
tel. (212)
839-5000 tel. (614)274-6003
fax (212)839-5130 fax (614)274-6899
American Gas Association (AGA) American Society for Quality Control (ASQC)
15 15 Wilson Boulevard P.O. Box 3005
Arlington, VA 22209 61 1East WisconsinAvenue
tel. (703)841-8400 Milwaukee, W1 53201-3005
fax (703)841-8406 tel. (414)272-8575
American Instituteof Mining, Metallurgical and fax (414)272-1734
Petroleum Engineers (AIME) American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM)
345 East 47th street 100Barr Harbor Drive
New York, NY 10017 W. Conshohocken, PA 19428
tel. (212)705-7695 tel. (610)
832-9686
fax (212)371-9622 fax (610)832-9668
American Instituteof Steel Construction (AISC)
One E. Wacker Drive
American Societyof Civil Engineers (ASCE)
Suite 3 100 345 East 47th Street
New York, NY 1 00 17
Chicago, IL 60601-2001
tel, (312)670-2400 tel. (212)705-7496
fax (312)670-5403 fax (212)355-0608
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) American Societyof Mechanical Engineers(ASME)
1101 17th Street, N.W. 345 East 47th Street
Washington, DC 20036-4700 New York, NY 10017-2392
tel. (202)
452-7100 tel. (212)705-7722
fax (202)463-6573 fax (212)705-7674
63 1
~ ~ ~~ ~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 05Lb8Ob 805
American Societyof Safety Engineers(ASSE) Compressed Gas Association (CGA)

1800East Oakton 1725Jefferson Davis Highway
Des Plaines,IL 6001 8-2 187 Suite 1004
tel. (708)692-412 1 Arlington VA 22202-4104
fax (708)296-3769 tel. (703)412-0900
fax (703)412-0128
American Water Works Association (AWWA)
6666 W. Quincy Avenue Copper Development Association
Denver, CO 80235
260 Madison Avenue
New York, NY 10016-2401
tel. (303)
794-7711
tel. (212)
251-7200
fax (303)794-7310 fax (212)251-7234
American Welding Institute (AWI) Edison Welding Institute (EWI)
10628Dutchtown Road 1250 Arthur E. Adams Drive
Knoxville, TN37932 Columbus, OH 43210
tel. (615)
675-2150 tel. (614)
688-5000
fax (615)675-6081 fax (614)688-5001
American Welding Society (AWS) Fabricators & Manufacturers Association

550 N.W. LeJeune Road International (FMA)
Miami, R,33 126 833 Featherstone Road
tel. (305)
443-9353 Rockford, IL 61107-6302
fax (305)443-7559 tel. (815)399-8700
fax (815) 399-7279
ASM International (ASM) International Instituteof Welding (IIW)
Route 87 550 N.W. LeJeune Road
Metals Park, OH 44073 Miami, F I 33 126
tel. (216)
338-5151 tel. (305)
443-9353
fax (216)338-4634 fax (305) 443-7559
Association of American Railroads(AAR) International Organizationfor Standardization (HO)
50 F Street, N.W. (See American National Standards Institute)
Washington, DC 20001-1564
International Oxygen Manufacturers Association (IOMA)
tel. (202)639-2100 P.O. Box 16248
fax (202) 639-5546 Cleveland, OH441 16-0248
tel. (216)228-2166
Association of Iron and Steel Engineers (AISE) fax (216)228-5810
Three Gateway Center
Suite 2350 International TitaniumAssociation
Pittsburgh, PA 15222 1871 Folsom Street, Suite 100
tel. (412)281-6323 Boulder, CO 80302
fax (412)281-4657 tel. (303)443-75 15
fax (303)443-4406
Canadian StandardsAssociation (CSA)
178 Rexdale Boulevard National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE)
Box 218340
Rexdale, Ontario
Houston, TX 77218-8340
Canada M9W 1R3
tel. (713)492-0535
tel. (416)747-4311
fax (713)492-8254
fax (416)747-4149
National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors
Canadian Welding Bureau (CWB) (NBBPVI)
254 Merton Street 1055 Crupper Avenue
Toronto, Ontario M4S IA9 Columbus, OH 43229
Canada tel. (614)
888-8320
tel. (416) 487-5415 fax (614)888-0750

National Electrid Manufacturers Association(NEMA) Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)

2101 L Street, N.W. 400 Commonwealth Drive
Washington, DC 20037 Warrandale, PA 15096
tel.(202)457-8400 tel.(412)776-4841
fax (202)457-8411 fax (412)776-5760
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Society ofManufacturing Engineers (SME)
P.O. Box 9101 One SME Drive
Batterymarch Park P.O. Box 930
Quincy, MA 02269-9 1O1 Dearborn, MI 48121
tel.(617)770-3000 tel.(313)271-1500
fax(617)770-0700
fax (313)271-2861
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
325 Broadway Steel TankInstitute (STI)
Boulder, CO 80303 570 Oakwood Road
tel.(303)497-3000 Lake Zurich, IL 60047-1559
tel.(708)438-8265
National Electrid ManufacturersAssociation (NEMA) fax (708)438-8766
1300N. 17th Street
Suite 1847 Steel lbbe Institute of North America
Rosslyn, VA 22209 8500 Station Street
tel.
(703)
841-3200 Suite 270
fax (703) 841-5900 Mentor, OH 44060
tel.(216)974-6990
National Welding Supply Association (NWSA) fax (216)974-6994
1900 Arch Street
Philadelphia,PA 19 103 Ultrasonic Industry Association (UIA)
tel.(215)564-3484 3738 Hilliard Cemetery Road
fax (215)564-2175 P.O. Box 628
Hilliard, OH 43026-8353
Naval Publication and FormsCenter tel.(614)771-1972
5801 Tabor Avenue fax(614)771-1984
Philidelphia, PA 19 120
tel.(215)697-2000 Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. (UL)
333 Pfingsten Road
Nickel DevelopmentInstitute (NiDI) Northbrook, IL 60062
214 King Street West tel. (847)
272-8800
Suite 500 fax (847)272-8129
Toronto, Ontario
Canada M5H 356
tel.(416)591-7999 Uniform Boilerand Pressure Vessel Laws Society
fax (416)591-7987 (UBPVLS)
308 N. Evergreen Road
Resistance WelderManufacturersAssociation (RWMA) Suite 240
1900 Arch Street Louisville, KY 40243-1010
Philadelphia, PA 19103 tel.(502)244-6029
tel.(215)564-3484 fax(502)244-6030
fax (215)564-2175
Welding Research Council(WRC)
Robotic Industries Association 345 East 47th Street
900 Victors Way Suite 1301
Ann Arbor, MI 48 106 New York,NY 10017
tel.(313)994-6088 tel.(212)705-7956
fax(313)994-3338 fax (212)371-9622

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 OSLb8OB b B B m
Appendix 3
Master Chart of Welding and Allied Processes
"
-medium vacuum .......... EBW-MV
-nonvacuum ..................EBW-NV
electroslag
welding
ESW .............
FLOWwelding flow ........................
IW
induction
welding ................
projection
PW
welding ............... laser
beam
welding
LBW ............
resistance seam welding....RSEW percussion
welding
PEW .............
-high frequency.............RSEW-HF welding
thermite .................TW
-induction ...................... RSEW-I
welding
spot acetylene
resistance air ......RSW ..........AAW
oxyacetylene welding OAW.........
oxyhydrogen welding..........OHW
pressure gas welding.........PGW
cpraying carbonarc ........................ ASP

air .......... CAC-A
praying arc flame carbon .......... FLSP ...............CAC
sprayingmetalplasma gas .................PSP ..........GMAC
gas tungsten arc cutting .....GTAC
flux .......................... FOC plasma
cutting
arc
PAC ..............
arc
powder metal
metal shielded ..........POC ...
oxyfuel gas cutting ..............OFC
ting beam-oxyacetylene
cutting electron ....OFC-A .........
EBC
g beam -oxyhydrogen
cutting laser ....OFC-H .............. LBC
-oxynatural gas cutting..OFC-N -air ................................. LBC-A
-0xypropane cutting......OFC-P -evaporative ..................LBCEV
oxygen arc cutting ..............AOC LBC-IG gas -inert .......................
oxygen
lance
cutting
LOC ........... -oxygen ......................... LBC-O
634
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L777 II 0784265 051b807 514 H
Appendix 4
Welding Test Positions
VERTICAL;
PLATES
HORIZONTAL
PLATES
AXIS OF WELD
1G
(A) TEST POSITION
(B) TEST POSITION 2G
PLATES VERTICAL;
AXIS OF WELD
VERTICAL PLATES HORIZONTAL
(C) TEST POSITION 3G (D) TEST POSITION4 6
Positions for Test Plates for Groove Welds
THROAT OF WELD
VERTICAL AXIS OF WELD
HORIZONTAL
.
/ /
AXIS OF WELD ,
HORIZONTAL
NOTE: ONE PLATE MUST
BE HORIZONTAL
(A) FLAT POSITION1F (B) HORIZONTAL POSITION 2F
AXIS OF WELD VERTICAL

I
AXIS OF WELD
HORIZONTAL
..
NOTE: ONE PLATE MUST

BE HORIZONTAL
(C) VERTICAL
POSITION 3F (D)OVERHEAD
POSITION
4F
Positions of Test Plates for Fillet Welds
635
STD=AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 0784265 0516830 236
PIPE HORIZONTAL ANDROTATED.

WELD FLAT(*15O). DEPOSIT
FILLER METALAT OR NEAR THE TOP.
(A) TEST POSITION1G ROTATED

I I
PIPE OR TUBE VERTICAL AND

NOT ROTATED DURING WELDING.
WELD HORIZONTAL (*15").
(B) TEST POSITION2 6

15" 15"
15" 15"
PIPE OR TUBE HORIZONTAL FIXED(k15")AND NOT ROTATED DURING WELDING.

WELD FLAT, VERTICAL, OVERHEAD.
(C) TEST POSITION 5G
RING RESTRICTION A
TEST
PIPE INCLINATION FIXED(45' &O) AND NOT /

ROTATED DURING WELDING.
(D) TEST
POSITION 6G (E) TEST
POSITION 6GR (T-, Y- OR K-CONNECTIONS)
Positions ofTest Pipe for GrooveWelds

~~
-
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 07842b5 05Lb8LL L72 m

PIPE ROTATED PIPE ROTATED
(A) FLAT WELDING (B)HORIZONTAL

WELDING (C) HORIZONTAL
WELDING
TEST
POSITION - 1F TEST
POSITION - 2F TEST
POSITION - 2FR
OVERHEAD
(D)
MULTIPLE
WELDING
(E)
WELDING (F) MULTIPLE
WELDING
TEST
POSITION -4F TEST
POSITION - 5F TEST
POSITION -6F
Positions of Test Pipesfor Fillet Welds

S T D = A W S JWE-ENGL L997 W 07842b5 05Lb8L2 O09 m
Appendix 5
Types of Weld Joints
APPLICABLE WELDS
U-GROOVE
BEVEL-GROOVE
FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE
V-GROOVE
FLARE-V-GROOVE
EDGE-FLANGE
BRAZE J-GROOVE
SQUARE-GROOVE
(A) BUTT JOINT
APPLICABLE WELDS
V-GROOVE FILLET
BEVEL-GROOVE PLUG
FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE SLOT
FLARE-V-GROOVE SPOT
J-GROOVE SEAM
SQUARE-GROOVE PROJECTION
U-GROOVE BRAZE
(B) CORNER JOINT
APPLICABLE WELDS
SLOT FILLET
SPOT
BEVEL-GROOVE
FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE
SEAM
PROJECTION J-GROOVE
SQUARE-GROOVE
BRAZE
PLUG
(C) T-JOINT
APPLICABLE WELDS
SLOT FILLET
BEVEL-GROOVE SPOT
FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE SEAM
J-GROOVE PROJECTION
BRAZE PLUG
(D) LAP JOINT
APPLICABLE WELDS
U-GROOVE
BEVEL-GROOVE
FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE
V-GROOVE
FLARE-V-GROOVE
EDGE
SEAM J-GROOVE
SQUARE-GROOVE
(E) EDGEJOINT
638
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 M 07842b5 05Lb8L3 T q 5 m
Appendix 6
Weld Joint Preparation
GROOVE FACE
V FACE GROOVE
ROOT FACE AND

GROOVE FACE
L ROOT FACE AND

GROOVE FACE
GROOVE FACE
Section 1-Groove Face, Root Edge, and Root Face
639
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 0784265 051b814 981 m
/
\7
GROOVE
ANGLE
DEPTH OF BEVEL 4 ROOT OPENING

I
DEPTH OF BEVEL
GROOVE
BEVEL
ANGLE
4
.(
I
DEPTH OF BEVEL
(C)
ANGLE '
ROOTOPENING3 1L GROOVEBEVELANGLE
RADIUS L
(E) (F)
Section 2-Bevel Angle, Depth of Bevel, Groove Angle, Groove Radius, and Root Opening

r (A) SQUARE EDGE SHAPE

APPLICABLE WELDS
DOUBLE-BEVEL-GROOVE
DOUBLE-BEVEL-FLARE-GROOVE
DOUBLE-J-GROOVE
SINGLE-BEVEL-GROOVE
SINGLE-J-GROOVE
SQUARE-GROOVE
EDGE
FILLET
SINGLE-FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE BRAZE
APPLICABLE WELDS
SINGLE-BEVEL-GROOVE
SINGLE-V-GROOVE
BRAZE
(B) SINGLE-BEVEL EDGE SHAPE
APPLICABLE WELDS
DOUBLE-BEVEL-GROOVE
DOUBLE-V-GROOVE
(C) DOUBLE-BEVEL EDGE SHAPE
APPLICABLE WELDS
SINGLE-J-GROOVE
SINGLE-U-GROOVE
(D) SINGLE4 EDGE SHAPE
APPLICABLE WELDS
DOUBLE-J-GROOVE
DOUBLE-U-GROOVE
(E) DOUBLE4 EDGE SHAPE
n APPLICABLE WELDS
SINGLE-FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE PROJECTION
SINGLE-FLARE-V-GROOVE SEAM
SPOT EDGE
FILLET BRAZE
(F) FLANGED EDGE SHAPE
D (G) ROUND EDGE SHAPE

OR o
Section 3-Edge Shapes
APPLICABLE WELDS
DOUBLE-FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE
DOUBLE-FLARE-V-GROOVE
BRAZE

Appendix 7
Welding Symbols
1
GROOVE
SQUARE SCARF V BEVEL U J FLARE-V FLARE-BEVEL
" 11" 15 - " "y_" "

A
""
v
"TT" " 7 - "K" "h-" --/T"-
-STUD
SPOT
OR
PROJECTION
SEAM
BACK
OR
BACKING
SURFACING
EDGE
FLANGE
CORNER
" O" -"

"V" -=-
"8" - e -a-
"8"
NOTE: THE REFERENCE LINE IS SHOWN DASHED FOR ILLUSTRATIVE PURPOSES.
Figure 7-1"Weld Symbols
642

~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L797 M 07842b5 05Lb837 b90 9

FINISH SYMBOL
GROOVE ANGLE; INCLUDED ANGLE
OF COUNTERSINK FOR PLUG WELDS
ROOT OPENING; DEPTH OF FILLING
SIZEWELD
GROOVE SLOTFOR
WELDS ANDPLUG
LENGTH OF WELD
DEPTH OF BEVEL; SIZEOR PITCH (CENTER-TO-CENTER
STRENGTH FOR CERTAIN WELDS SPACING) OF WELDS
SPECIFICATION,
PROCESS, OR
OTHERREFERENCE
TAIL (OMITTED
WHEN REFERENCE
IS NOT USED)
WELD
REFERENCE LINE TO
STUD, PLUG, SLOT, ARROW SIDE MEMBER
OR PROJECTION WELDS OF JOINTOR ARROW
SIDE OF JOINT
IN THIS AREA
AS SHOWN WHEN TAIL AND
ARROW ARE REVERSED
r
Figure 7-2-Standard Location of Elements of a Welding Symbol
CONTOUR
CONSUMABLE BACKING OR
WELD ALL 1 FIELD WELD
MELT
INSERT SPACER FLUSH
AROUND
(SQUARE) (RECTANGLE) ET ONV VEX CONCAVE
_ _ _ ~
Figure 7-3-Supplementary Symbols

STD AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 07842b5 051b8LB 527
Appendix 8
Weld Discontinuities
UNDERBEAD CRACKS
TOE CRACKS
(A)
\
LUNDERBEADC
(B)
I I UNDERCUT
OVERLAP
UNDERFILL
UNDERFILL

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 07842b5 051b819 463 m
Appendix 9
Types of Weld Cracks
LEGEND:
1 CRATER CRACK
2 FACE CRACK
3 HEAT-AFFECTED ZONE CRACK
4 LAMELLAR TEAR
5 LONGITUDINAL CRACK
6 ROOT CRACK
7 ROOT SURFACE CRACK
8 THROAT CRACK
9 TOE CRACK
10 TRANSVERSECRACK
11 UNDERBEADCRACK
12 WELD INTERFACE CRACK
13 WELD METAL CRACK
645

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 07842b5 05Lb820 L85
Appendix 1O
Torch Nomenclature
1 r GAS
CONSTRICTING
/- NOZZLE
PLENUM
/- CHAMBER
CONSTRICTING
ELECTRODE
4
I SETBACK
ORIFICECONSTRICTING
DIAMETER
STANDOFF
DISTANCE WORKPIECE
(4
PLASMA ARC TORCH NOMENCLATURE
BACK CAP 4
\ I y
r ELECTRODE EXTENSION
\ I
WEI STANDOFF
DISTANCE
(9)
GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING TORCH NOMENCLATURE
646

~~
STD*AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb82L O L L m

ELECTRODE
GUIDE TUBE
MOLTEN SLAG
WELD POOL
WELD METAL
(C)
TYPICAL ARRANGEMENT FOR ELECTROSLAG WELDING
PROCESS NOMENCLATURE
I I
r-7 ''
.". .... ."_
WnRKPIFCF 7, nlCTANcE
",".m,.. t
1-\ ARCLENGTH
/'
\'\
(D)
GAS METAL ARC WELDING GUN NOMENCLATURE

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 076g2b5 051b822 T58
Appendix 11
Weld Sizes
ACTUAL THROAT "-.,
EFFECTIVE
THROAT - AND LEG SIZE
<>
THEORETICAL THROAT-/
(A) CONVEX FILLET WELD
A
V
LEG
SIZE
CONVEXITY
ACTUAL THROAT AND

EFFECTIVE THROAT-
THEORETICAL THROAT-
(B) CONCAVE FILLET WELD
h
ACTUAL THROAT-
EFFECTIVE THROAT-
INCOMPLETE FUSION
(C) FILLET WELD WITH INCOMPLETE FUSION
648

STD=AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b505Lb823 994 9
I A I
ROOT O P E N I N G 1 I \ 1
THEORETICAL THROATJ
(D) T-JOINT WITH ROOT OPENING
LEG AND SIZE
L-4 LEG AND SIZE
(E) UNEQUAL LEG FILLET WELD
WELD INTERFACE SIZE -

DEPTH OF FUSION
(F) RESISTANCE SPOT OR SEAM WELD

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 0784265 051b824 820
Appendix 12
Joint Penetration
ROOTPENETRATION 1 r JOINT PENETRATION

GROOVEWELDSIZE
LINCOMPLETE JOINT
PENETRATION
JOINT PENETRATION
ROOT PENETRATION 1 r-GROOVE WELD SIZE
INCOMPLETE JOINT
PENETRATION
INCOMPLETEJOINTJOINTPENETRATION
PENETRATION1 GROOVEWELDSIZE 7
ROOT PENETRATION
INCOMPLETE JOINT
JOINT PENETRATION GROOVE
r WELD SIZE-
INCOMPLETE JOINT- WELD SIZE, E, EQUALS E ~PLUS

, E~
PENETRATION
(E)
Figure 12-l-Joint Penetration, Root Penetration, and Incomplete Joint Penetration
650

Appendix 13
Safety
This Appendix covers the basic elements of safety trained to position themselves while welding or cut-
general to all welding, cutting, thermal spraying, and ting so that their heads are not in the gases or fume
related processes. It includes safety procedures com- plume. (Fume plume is the smoke-like cloud contain-
mon to a variety of applications. However,it does not ing minute solid particles arising directly from the area
cover all safety aspects of every process; especially of melting metal). Distinct from gas, fumesare metal-
not those involving sophisticated technology. For this lic vapors that have condensed to solids and are often
reason, the manufacturers literature should be refer- associated with a chemical reaction, such as oxidation.
enced for additional important safety information. Refer to American Welding Society,Fumes and Gases
Safety is an important consideration inall welding, in the Welding Environment:Miami, Florida, 1979.
cutting, and related work. No activity is satisfactorily Certain American Welding Society (AWS) specifi-
completed if someone is injured. The hazards that may cations call for precautionary labels on consumables
be encountered and the practices that will minimize and equipment. These labels concerning the safe use
personal injury and property damage are discussed. of the products should be read and followed. A typical
Management Support. The most important compo-
label is illustrated in Figure13- l.
nents of an effective safety and health program are
management support and direction. Management must WARNING:PROTECTyourselfandothers.Readandunder-
clearly state objectives and demonstrate its commit- stand thls label.
ment to safety and health by consistent execution of FUMESANDGASEScan be dangerous to yourhealth.ARC
RAYS can Injure eyes and burn. ELECTRIC SHOCK can KILL.
safe practices.
Read and understand the manufacturers Instructions
Management must designate approved areas where and your employers safety practices.
weldingandcuttingoperationsmay be carriedon Keep your head outof the fumes.
safely. When these operations must be done in other
Use enough ventilation, exhaust at the arc,
or both, to
than designated areas, management must assure that keep fumes and gases from your breather zone and
proper proceduresare established and followedto pro- the general area.
tect personnel and property. Wear correct eye, ear, and body protectlon.
Managementmust be certainthatonlyapproved Do not touch live electrlcaiparts.
welding, cutting, and allied equipment is used. Such See AmericanNationalStandard249.1Safety In
equipmentincludes
torches,
regulators,
welding WeldingandCuttingpubllshedbytheAmerican
machines, electrode holders, and personal protective Weidlng Society,550 N.W. LeJeune Rd., Miami, Florida
devices.Adequatesupervisionmust be providedto 33126;OSHA Safety andHealthStandards,29CFR
1910, available from US. Government Printing Office,
assure
that all equipment is properly used
and Washington, DC 20402.
maintained. DO NOT REMOVE THIS LABEL
Tralnlng. Thorough and effective training is a key
Figure 13-1-Minimum Warning Label for Arc
aspect of a safety program. Adequate trainingis man- Welding Processes and Equipment
datedunderprovisions of the U.S. Occupational
Safety and Health Act (OSHA), especially those of
the
HazardCommunication Standard
(29
CFR Manufacturers of welding consumables must pro-
1910.1200).Weldersand other equipmentoperators vide,onrequest,a Material
Safety Data Sheet
perform most safely when theyare properly trained in (MSDS) that identifies those materials present
in their
the subject. (The termwelder is intended to include all products that have hazardous physicalor health prop-
welding and cutting personnel, thermal sprayers, braz- erties. The MSDSprovidestheOSHAPermissible
ers, and solderers). Proper training includes instruction Exposure Limit (PEL), and any other exposure limit
in the safe use of equipment and processes, and the used or recommended by the manufacturer. Employers
safety rules that must be followed. Personnel need to that use consumables must make the applicable MSDS
know and understand the rules, and the consequences readily available to their employees, as well as train
of disobeyingthem.Forexample,weldersmustbe them to read and understandthe contents.
65 1

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 07842b5 051b82b b T 3 D
The MSDS contain important information about the Protectivescreens.Personsinareasadjacentto

ingredients contained in welding electrodes, rods, and welding and cutting must be protected from radiant
fluxes, the compositionof fumes which may be gener- energy and hot spatter by (1) flame-resistant screensor
ated in their use, and the means to be followed to pro- shields, or (2) suitable eye and face protection and pro-
tect the welder and others from hazards which might tective
clothing.
Appropriate radiationprotective,
be involved. semi-transparent materialsare permissible.
Under OSHA Hazard Communication Standard 29 Wall Reflectivity. Where arc welding or cutting is
CFR1910.1200,employersareresponsiblefor the regularlycarried on adjacenttopaintedwalls, the
training of employees with respectto hazardous mate- wallsshouldbepaintedwitha finish havinglow
rials used in their workplace. Many welding consum- reflectivity of ultravioletradiation.Areference is
ablesareincludedinthedefinition of hazardous Ultraviolet Reflectance of Paint, American Welding
materials according to this standard. Welding employ- Society, Miami, Florida: 1976.
ers must comply with the communication and training Finishes formulated with certain pigments, such as
requirements of this standard. titanium dioxideor zinc oxide, have low reflectivity to
The proper use and maintenance of the equipment ultraviolet radiation. Color pigments may be added if
must also be taught. For example, defective or worn they do not increase reflectivity. Pigments based on
electrical insulation cannot be tolerated in arc welding powderedorflakedmetals are notrecommended
or cutting, nor can defectiveor worn hoses be usedin because they reflect ultraviolet radiation.
oxyfuel gas welding and cutting, brazing, or soldering.
PublicDemonstrations. Personsputtingonpublic
Proper training in equipment operation is fundamental
to safe operation. demonstrations involving observation of arc or oxy-
fuel gas welding or cutting processes are responsible
General
Housekeeping. Good
housekeeping is for thesafety of observersandthegeneralpublic.
essential to avoid injuries. A welders vision is often Observers are not likely to have the necessary protec-
restricted by necessary eye protection. Persons passing tiveequipment to let themobservedemonstrations
a welding station must shield their eyes the fromflame safely.Forexhibitsinvolvingobservation of arcor
or arc radiation. The limited vision of the welder and oxyfuel gas welding and cutting processes, appropriate
passers-bymakesthemvulnerabletotrippingover eye protection for bothobservers and passers-by is
objects on thefloor.Therefore,weldersandsuper- mandatory.
visors must always makesure that the area is clear of
Fire. In most welding, cutting, and allied processes,
tripping hazards. Management must lay out the pro-
high-temperature
a heatsource is present.Open
ductionareasothatgashoses,cables,mechanical
flames, electric arcs, hot metal, sparks, and spatter are
assemblies, and other equipment do not cross walk-
ready sources of ignition. Many fires are started by
ways or interfere with routine tasks.
sparks, whichcan travel horizontally up to 11 m (35 ft)
When work is above ground or floor level, safety from their sourceand fall muchgreaterdistances.
rails or lines must be provided to prevent falls as a Sparks can pass through or lodge in cracks, holes, and
result of restricted vision from eye protection devices. other small openingsin floors and walls.
Safety lines and harnesses can be helpful to restrict The risk of fire is increased by combustibles in the
workers to safe areas, and to restrain them case in of a work area, or by welding or cutting too close to com-
fall. bustibles that have not been shielded. Materials most
Unexpected events, such as fire and explosions, do commonly ignited are combustiblefloors, roofs, parti-
occurinindustrialenvironments.All escape routes tions,andbuildingcontents,includingtrash,wood,
must be identified and kept clear so that orderly, rapid, paper,textiles,plastics,chemicals,andflammable
and safe evacuation of an area can take place. liquids and gases. Outdoors, the most common com-
Protection in the General Area.Equipment, machines, bustibles are dry grass and brush.
cables,hoses,andotherapparatusshouldalwaysbe Hot Work Permit System. When welding, cutting,or
placed so that they do not present a hazard to personnel similar hot working operationsare to be performed in
in passageways, on ladders, or on stairways. Warning areas not normally assigned for such operations, a hot-
signs should be posted to designate welding areas, and work permit system should be used. The purpose of
to specify that eye protection must be worn. the hot-work pennit system is to alert area supervisors
COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc. ~

~~ ~ ~~~~ ~
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 0764265 0536827 53T

Welding 13 653
to an extraordinary danger of fire that will exist at a ProtectlveClothing. Sturdy shoes or boots, and
particular time. The permit system should include a heavy clothing similar to that in Figure 13-2 should be
check list ofsafetyprecautions that includes an worn to protect the whole body from flying sparks,
inspection for fire extinguishers, establishment of fire spatter, and radiation bums. Woolen clothing is prefer-
watches if necessary, searchfor combustible materials, able to cotton because it is not so readily ignited. Cot-
and safety instructions for personnel in the area who ton clothing, if used, should be chemically treated to
are not involvedin the hot work. reduce its combustibility. Clothing treated with nondu-
rable flame retardants must be retreated after each
Explosion. Combustible gases, vapors,and dusts,
washing or cleaning. Clothing or shoes of synthetic or
when mixed withair or oxygen in certain proportions,
plastic materialswhichcanmeltand cause severe
present danger of explosion as well as fire. To prevent
bums should not be worn. Outer clothing should be
explosions, avoidall sources of ignition.Welding,
brazing, soldering, cutting, or operating equipment kept h e of oil and grease, especially in an oxygen-
rich atmosphere.
that can produce heat or sparks must not be done in
atmospheres containing combustible gases, vapors or
dusts.
Hollow containers must be vented before applying
heat. Heat must not be applied to a container that has
held an unknown material, combustible
a substance, or
a substance that may form combustible vapors on
heating. Additional informationis given in AWS F4.1,
Recommended Safe Practices for the Preparation for
WeldingandCuttingof Containers and Piping that
Have Held Hazardous Substances. Miami: American
Welding Society (latest edition).
Burns. Bums of the eye or body are serious hazards
of welding, brazing, soldering, thermal coating, and
cutting. Eye,face, and body protectionfor the operator
and others in the work area are required to prevent
bums from ultraviolet and infrared radiation, sparks,
and spatter.
Eye and Face Protection
Arc Welding and Cutting. Welding helmets or hand
shields containing appropriate filter lenses and cover
plates must be used by welders and welding operators
and nearby personnel when viewingan arc. Standards
for welding helmets, hand shields, face shields, gog-
gles, and spectaclesare given in ANSI287.1,Practice
for Occupational and Educational Eye and FacePro-
tection. NewYork:American National Standards Figure 13-2"Personal Protective Equipment
Institute (latest edition).
OxyfuelGasWeldingandCutting,SubmergedArc Cuffless pantsandcoveredpockets are recom-
Welding. Safety goggles with filter lenses (see Appen- mended to avoid spatter or spark entrapment. Pockets
dix 18) and full conforming side shields must be worn should be emptied of combustible or readily ignitable
whileperforming oxyfuel gas weldingand cutting. materials before welding because they may be ignited
During submerged arc welding, the arc is covered by by sparks or weld spatter and result in severe bums.
flux and not readilyvisible; hence, an arc welding hel- Pants should be worn outside of shoes. Protection of
met is not needed. However, becausethe arc occasion- the hair with a cap is recommended, especially if a
ally flashes through the flux burden, the operator hairpiece is worn. Flammable hair preparations should
should weartinted safety glasses. not be used.
STDmAYS JWE-ENGL L997 0784265 05Lb828 47b
Durable gloves of leather or other suitable material AmericanConference of GovernmentalIndustrial

should always be worn. Gloves not only protect the Hygienists(ACGIH)initspublications Threshold
hands from burns and abrasion, butalso provide insu- LimitValues for ChemicalSubstances and Physical
lation from electrical shock. A varietyof special pro- Agents intheWorkroomEnvironment. Personswith
tective clothing is also available for welders. Aprons, special health problems may have unusual sensitivity
leggings, suits, capes, sleeves, andcaps, all of durable that requires even more stringent protection.
materials, should be worn when welding overhead or Fumes and gases are usually a greater concern in
when special circumstances warrant additional protec- arc welding than in oxyfuel gas welding, cutting, or
tion of the body. Sparks or hot spatter in the ears can brazing because a welding arc may generate a larger
beparticularlypainfulandserious.Properly fitted, volume offume and gas, and greater varieties of mate-
flame-resistant ear plugsshouldbewornwhenever rials are usually involved.
operations pose such risks. Protection from excess exposure is usually accom-
Noise. Excessive noise,
particularly
continuous plished by ventilation. Where exposure would exceed
noise at high levels, can damage hearing. It may cause permissible limits with available ventilation, respira-
either temporary or permanenthearingloss. U.S. tory protection must be used. Protection mustbe pro-
Department of Labor Occupational Safety and Health vided not only for the welding and cutting personnel
Administrationregulationsdescribeallowablenoise but also for other persons in the area.
exposurelevels.Requirements of theseregulations Refer toIndustrial Ventilation,A Manual of Recom-
may be found in General Industry Standards, 29 CFR mended Practice, Cincinnati: American Conferenceof
1910.95. Governmental Industrial Hygienists(latest edition).
Inwelding, cutting, and allied operations,noise Arc Welding. Fumes and gasesfrom arc welding and
may be generatedby the process or the equipment, or cutting cannot be classified simply. Their composition
both. Additional informationis presented in Arc Weld- and quantity depend on the base metal composition;
ingandCutting Noise. Miami:AmericanWelding theprocessandconsumablesused;coatingson the
Society, latest edition. Processes that tend to have high work, such as paint, galvanizing, or plating; contami-
noise levels are air carbon arc and plasma arc cutting. nants in the atmosphere, such as halogenated hydro-
Engine-driven generators sometimesemit a high noise carbon vapors from cleaning and degreasing activities;
level, as do some high-frequency and induction weld- and other factors.
ing power sources. Various gases are generated during welding. Some
Machinery Guards. Welders and other workers must are products of the decomposition of fluxes and elec-
be protected from injuryby machinery and equipment trode coatings. Othersare formed by the action of arc
that they are operating, or by other machinery operat- heatorultravioletradiationemitted by the arc on
ing in the work area. Moving components and drive atmosphericconstituentsandcontaminants.Poten-
belts must be covered by guards to prevent physical tially
hazardous gases
includecarbonmonoxide,
contact. Workers must be protected against accidental oxides of nitrogen,ozone,andphosgeneor other
entry into the working envelope of a robot. decomposition products of chlorinated hydrocarbons,
Becauseweldinghelmetsanddark filter lenses such as phosgene.
restrict the visibility ofwelders,theymaybeeven Helium and argon, although chemically inert and
more susceptible than ordinary workers to injury from nontoxic, are simple asphyxiants, and can dilute the
unseen,unguardedmachinery.Therefore,
special atmospheric oxygen concentration to potentially harm-
attention is required to this hazard. ful low levels. Carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrogen can
Fumes and Gases. Welders, welding operators, and
also cause asphyxiation.
other persons in the area must be protected from over- Ozone maybegeneratedbyultravioletradiation
exposure to fumes and gases produced during welding, welding arcs. This is particularly true with gas
from
brazing, soldering, and cutting. Overexposure is expo- shielded arcs, especially when argon is used. Photo-
sure that is hazardous to health, and exceeds the per- chemical reactions between ultraviolet radiation and
missiblelimitsspecifiedbyagovernmentagency. chlorinated hydrocarbons result in the production of
Such recognized authorities are the U.S. Department phosgene and other decomposition products.
of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administra- Exposure Factors. The single most important factor
tion(OSHA),Regulations 29 CFR1910.1000; the influencing exposure to fume is the position of the

~~~~
~~
STD.AWS
JWE-ENGL L997 076426505Lb829302 9
Welding Encyclopedia Appendlx 13 655
welders head with respect to the fume plume. When these hazards an air line respirator, hose mask, or gas
the head is in such a position that the fume envelops mask is required.
the face or helmet, exposure levels can be very high. Special Ventilation Situations
Therefore, welders mustbe trained to keep their heads
Welding in ConfinedSpaces. Special consideration
to oneside of the fume plume. In some cases,the work
must be given to the safety and healthof welders and
can be positioned so the fume plume rises to one side.
other workers in confined places. Gas cylinders must
Ventilation. Ventilationhasasignificantinfluence be located outside of the confined spaceto avoid pos-
on the amount of fumes in the work area, and hence sible contamination of the space with leaking gasesor
the welders exposure. Ventilation may be local, where volatile material. Welding power sources should also
the fumes are extracted near the point of welding, or be located outside to reduce danger of engine exhaust
general, where theshop air is changed or filtered. The and electric shock.
appropriate type will depend on the welding process, A means for removing persons quickly in case of
the material being welded, andother shop conditions. emergencymustbeprovided.Safetybeltsandlife-
Adequate ventilationis necessary to keepthe welders lines, when used, should be attached to the workers
exposure to fumes and gases within safe limits. body in a mannerthat avoids the possibilityof the per-
The bulk of fume generated during welding and cut- son becoming jammed in the exit. A trained helper
ting consists of small particles that remain suspended should be stationed outside the confined space with a
in the atmospherefor a considerable time.As a result, preplanned rescue procedure to be put into effect in
fume concentration in a closed area can build up over case of emergency.
time, as can the concentration of any gases evolvedor
WeldingofContainers. Welding or cutting on the
used in the process. The particles eventually settle on outside or insideofcontainers or vessels that have
the walls and floor, but the settling rate is low com-
helddangeroussubstancespresentsspecialhazards.
pared to the generation rate of the welding or cutting Flammable or toxic vapors may be present, or may be
processes. Therefore,fume concentration must be con-
generated by the applied heat.The immediate area out-
trolled by ventilation.
side and inside the container should be cleared of all
Adequate ventilation is the key to control of fumes obstacles and hazardous materials.
andgasesintheweldingenvironments.Natural,
When repairing a container in place, entry of haz-
mechanical, or respirator ventilation mustbe provided
ardous substances released from the floor or the soil
for all welding, cutting, brazing, and related opra-
beneath the container mustbe prevented. The required
tions. The ventilation must ensure that concentrations air-suppliedrespirators or hosemasks are those
of hazardousairbornecontaminants are maintained accepted by the U.S. Bureau of Mines or other recog-
below recommended levels. These levels must be no
nized agency. For more complete procedures, refer to
higher than the allowable levels specified by the U.S. AWS F4.1, Recommended Safe Practices for the Prep-
OccupationalSafetyandHealthAdministration or aration for Welding and Cutting Containers that Have
other appropriate authorities. Held Hazardous Substances. Miami: American Weld-
Respiratory Protectlve Equipment. Where natural or ing Society (latest edition). When welding or cutting
mechanical ventilation is not adequate or where toxic inside of vessels that have held dangerous materials,
materials require a supplement to ventilation, respira- the precautions for confinedspacesmust also be
tory protective equipment must be used. Respirators observed.
with air lines, or face masksthatgiveprotection Highly Toxic Materials. Certain materials which are
against all contaminants are generally preferred. Air- sometimes present in consumables, base metals,coat-
supplied welding helmets are also available commer- ings, or atmospheres for welding or cutting operations,
cially.Filter-typerespirators,approved by the U.S.
Bureau of Mines for metal fume, give adequate protec-have permissible exposure limits of 1.O mg/m3 or less.
tion against particulate contaminants thatare less toxic Among such materials are the following metals and
than lead, provided they are usedand maintained cor- their compounds:
rectly. Their general use is not recommended, how- (1) Antimony
ever, because of the difficulty in assuring proper use (2) Arsenic
and maintenance. They will not protect against mer- (3) Barium
cury vapor, carbon monoxide,or nitrogen dioxide. For (4) Beryllium
656 13 Encyclopedia Welding
(5) Cadmium are at or below the limits allowedfor human exposure.

(6) Chromium All persons in the immediate vicinity of welding or
(7) Cobalt cutting operations involving toxic materials must be
(8) copper similarly protected. Unless atmospheric tests under the
(9) Lead mostadverseconditionsestablishthat exposure is
(10) Manganese withinacceptableconcentrations,thefollowingpre-
(11) Mercury cautions must be observed.
(12) Nickel Confined Spaces. Whenever any toxic materialsare
(13) Selenium encountered
in
confined space operations,local
(14) Silver exhaust ventilation and respiratory protection mustbe
(15) Vanadium used.
Base metals andfiller metals that may release some Indoors. When any toxic materials are encountered
of these materials as fume during welding or cutting in indoor operations, local exhaust (mechanical) venti-
are shown in Table 13- l. lation must be used. When beryllium is encountered,
respiratory protection in additionto local exhaust ven-
Table 13-1 tilation is essential.
Possible Toxic MaterialsEvolved During
Outdoors. Whenanytoxicmaterials are encoun-
Welding or Thermal Cutting
tered in outdooroperations,respiratoryprotection
Evolved Metalsor approved by the Mine Safety and Health Association
Base or Filler Metal Their Compounds (MSHA), the National Institute of Occupational Safety
andHealth(NIOSH), or otherapprovingauthority
Carbon and low alloy Chromium, manganese, may be required.
steels
Stainless steel Chromium, manganese, nickel Persons should not consume food in areas where
Manganese steels and Chromium, cobalt, manganese, fumes that contain materials with very low allowable
hardfacing
materials
nickel,
vanadium exposure limits may be generated. They should also
High copper alloys Beryllium, chromium, copper, practicegoodpersonalhygiene,suchaswashing
lead, nickel hands before touching food, to prevent ingestion of
Coated or plated steel Cadmium*, chromium, copper, toxic contaminants.
orlead,
silver
nickel,
copper
FluorineCompounds. Fumes and gases from fluo-
*When cadmiumis a constituent in a filler metal, a warning label rine compounds can be dangerous to health, and can
must beaffixed to the container or coil. Refer to ANSIIASC
249.1, burn the eyes and skin on contact. Local mechanical
Safety in Welding and Cutting. NewYork:AmericanNational
Standards Institute (latest edition). ventilation or respiratory protection must be provided
when welding, brazing, cutting, or soldering in con-
fined spaces involving fluxes, coatings,or other mate-
rial containingfluorine compounds.
Manufacturers Material Safety Data Sheets should
be consulted to determine if any of these highly toxic When such processes are employed in open spaces,
materials are present in welding filler metalsand the need for local exhaust ventilation or respiratory
fluxes being used. Material SafetyData Sheets should protection will depend upon the circumstances. Such
be requested from suppliers. However, welding filler protection is not necessary when air samples taken in
metalsandfluxes are not the onlysourceofthese breathing zones indicate that all fluorides are within
materials. They may also be present in base metals, allowable limits. However, local exhaust ventilationis
coatings, or other sources in the work area. Radioac- always desirable for fixed-location production welding
tive materials under Nuclear Regulatory Commission and for all production welding of stainless steels when
jurisdiction require special considerations. filler metals or fluxes containing fluoridesare used.
When toxic materialsare encountered as designated FumesContainingZinc. Compounds may produce
constituents in welding, brazing or cutting operations, symptoms of nausea, dizziness, or fever (sometimes
special ventilation precautions must be taken to assure called metal fume fever). Welding orcutting where
that the levelsof these contaminantsin the atmosphere zinc may be present in consumables, base metals, or

~~ ~~~~~
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 07842b5 05Lb83L Tb0 M
coatings should be done as describedfor fluorine Pressure reducing regulators must be used onlyfor
compounds. the gas and pressure stated on the label. They should
Measurement of Exposure notbeusedwithothergases, or at other pressures,
even though the cylinder valve outlet threads may be
The American Conferenceof Governmental Indus- the same. The threaded connections to the regulator
trial Hygienists (ACGIH) and theU.S. Department of must not be forced. Improper fit of threads between a
Labor, Occupational Health and Safety Administration gas cylinder and regulator or between the regulator
(OSHA) have established allowable limitsof airborne and hose indicates that an improper combination of
contaminants. They are called threshold limit values devices is being used. Refer to ANSYCGAV- 1, Com-
(TLVs), or permissible exposure limits(PELS). pressed Gas Cylinder Valve Outlet and Inlet Connec-
The TLV (a registered trade markof the ACGIH) is tions. New York: Compressed Gas Association.
the concentration of an airborne substance to which
most workers may be repeatedly exposed, day after Oxygen. Oxygen is nonflammable but it supports
day, without adverse effect. In adapting these to the the combustion of flammable materials. It can initiate
working environment, a TLV-TWA (Threshold Limit combustion andvigorouslyaccelerateit.Therefore,
Value-TimeWeightedAverage)quantity is defined. oxygen cylinders and liquid oxygen containers should
TLV-TWA is the time weighted average concentration not be stored in the vicinity of combustibles or with
for a normal %hour workday or 40-hour workweek to cylinders of fuel gas. Oxygen should never be used as
which nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed a substitute for compressed air. Pure oxygen supports
withoutadverseeffect.KV-TWAvaluesshouldbe combustion more vigorously than air, which contains
used as guides in the control of health hazards, and only 20% oxygen. Therefore, the identification of oxy-
should not be interpreted as sharp lines between safe gen and air should be differentiated.
and dangerous concentrations. Oil, grease, and combustible dusts may spontane-
TLVs are revised annually as necessary. They may ously ignite on contact with oxygen. Hence, all sys-
or may not correspondto OSHA permissibleexposure tems and apparatus for oxygen service must be kept
limits (PEL) for the same materials. In many cases, free of any combustibles.Valves,piping,orsystem
current ACGIH valuesfor welding materialsare more components thathavenotbeenexpresslymanufac-
stringent thanOSHA levels. tured for oxygen servicemust be
cleanedand
The only way to assure that airborne contaminant approved for this service before use. Refer to G4.1,
levels are withintheallowablelimits is totake air Cleaning Equipment for Oxygen Service; New York:
samplesat the breathingzones of thepersonnel Compressed Gas Association.
involved. An operators actual on-the-job exposure to Apparatus that has been manufactured expressly for
welding fume should be measuredfollowingthe oxygen service, and is usually so labeled, must be kept
guidelines provided in ANSYAWS F1.l, Method for in the clean condition as originally received.
Sampling Airborne Particulates Generated by Welding Oxygenvalves,regulators,andapparatusshould
and Allied Processes. This document describes how to never be lubricated with oil.If lubrication is required,
obtain an accurate breathing zone sample of welding the type of lubricant and the method of applying the
fume for aparticularweldingoperation.Both the lubricant should be specified in the manufacturers lit-
amount of the fume and the composition of the fume erature. If it is not, then the device should be returned
can be determined in a single test using this method. to the manufacturer or authorized representative for
Multiplesamples are recommended for increased service. Oxygen must never be used to power com-
accuracy. When a helmet is worn, the sample should pressed air tools. These are almost always lubricated
be collected inside the helmet in the welders breath- with oil. Similarly, oxygen must not be used to blow
ing zone. dirt fromworkandclothingbecausethey are often
Regulators. Apressure-reducingregulatorshould contaminated with oil, grease, or combustible dust.
always be used when withdrawing gas from gas cylin- Only clean clothing should be worn when working
ders for welding or cutting operations. Gas regulators withoxygensystems.Oxygenmustnotbeusedto
should meetthe requirements of E-4, Standard for Gas ventilateconfinedspaces. Severe bumsmayresult
Regulators for Welding and Cutting; New York: Com- from ignition of clothing or the hair in an oxygen-rich
pressed Gas Association, and other code regulations. atmosphere.
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 3997 m 0784265 0536832 9T7 m
Fuel Gases. Fuel gases commonly used in oxyfuel competent person. As a minimum, the training should
gas welding ( O W ) and cutting (OFC) are acetylene, include the points coveredin ANSUASC 249.1, Safety
methyl-acetylene-propadiene(MPS), natural gas, pro- in Welding and Cutting (published by the American
pane, and propylene. Hydrogenis used in a few appli- Welding Society).
cations. Gasolineis sometimes usedas fuel for oxygen
EquipmentSelection. Electric shockhazards are
cutting. It vaporizes in the torch. These gases should
minimized by proper equipment installation and main-
always be referred to by name.
tenance, good operator practice, proper operator cloth-
Acetylene in cylinders is dissolved in a solvent so ingandbodyprotection,andtheuseofequipment
that it can be safely stored under pressure. Inthe free designed for the job and situation. Equipment should
state, acetylene should never be used at pressures overmeetapplicableNationalElectricalManufacturers
103 kPa (15 psig) becauseit can dissociate with explo- Association (NEMA) or American National Standards
sive violence at higher pressures. Institute(ANSI)standards,suchas ANSWL 55 1,
Acetylene and MPS should never be used contact
in SafetyStandard for TransformerType Arc Welding
with silver, mercury, or alloys containing 70% or more Machines, latest edition.
copper. These gases react with these metals to form
When special welding and cutting processes require
unstable compounds thatmay detonate under shockor
open circuit voltageshigherthanthosespecifiedin
heat.
ANSVNEMA Publication EW-1,Electrical Arc Weld-
Valves onfuel gas cylinders should never be opened ing Apparatus, insulationandoperatingprocedures
to clean the valve outlet, especially not near possible mustbeprovidedthat are adequatetoprotect the
sources offlame ignition or in confined spaces. welder from these higher voltages.
ShieldingGases. Argon,helium,nitrogen,
and
carbon dioxide (COz) are used for shielding with some Installation. Equipmentshouldbeinstalled in a
weldingprocesses.All,exceptcarbondioxide, are clean, dry area. When thisis not possible, it should be
used as brazing atmospheres. These gasesare odorless adequately guarded from dirt and moisture. Installa-
tion must be doneto the requirements of ANSVNFPA
andcolorlessand
can displace air needed for
70, National Electric Code, and local codes. This
breathing.
includesnecessarydisconnects, fusing, andtype of
Confinedspacesfilledwiththesegasesmustbe
incoming power lines.
well ventilated before personnelenter them. If there is
any question,the space should be checked first with an Terminals for welding leads and power cables must
oxygen analyzerfor adequate oxygen concentration.If be shielded from accidental contact by personnelor by
an analyzer is not available, an air-supplied respirator metal objects, such as vehicles and cranes. Connec-
should be wornby anyone entering the space. Contain- tions between welding leads and power supples may
ers of these gases should not be placed in confined be guarded using (1) dead frontconstructionand
spaces. receptacles for plug connections, (2) terminals located
in a cover, (3) insulating sleeves, or (4) other equiva-
Electrical Safety lent mechanical means.
ElectricShock. Electric shock can cause sudden
death.Injuriesandfatalitiesfrom electric shock in Wearers of Pacemakers. The technology of heart
weldingandcuttingoperationscanoccurifproper pacemakers and the extent towhichthey are influ-
precautionary measures are not followed. Most weld- enced by other electrical devices is constantly chang-
ing and cutting operations employ some type of elec- ing. It is impossible tomakeageneralstatement
trical equipment. For example, automatic oxyfuelgas concerning the possible effects of welding operations
cutting machines use electric motor drives, controls, on such devices. Wearers of pacemakersother or elec-
and systems. tronic equipment vital to life should check with the
Someelectricalaccidentsmaynotbeavoidable, device manufacturer or their doctor to
determine
such as thosecaused by lightning.However,the whether any hazard exists.
majority are avoidable, including those caused by lack Grounding. The workpiecebeingweldedandthe
of proper training. frame or chassis of all electrically powered machines
A good safety training program is essential. Before must be connectedtoagood electrical ground.
being allowed to commence operations, welding oper- Grounding can be done by locating the workpiece or
ators must be fully instructed inelectrical safety by a machine on a grounded metal floor or platen, or by
connecting it to a properly grounded building frame or should not be confused with high-frequency arc stabi-
other satisfactory ground. Chains, wire ropes, cranes, lization equipment used in gas tungsten arc welding
hoists, and elevators must not be used as grounding (GTAW).
connectors or to carry welding current. Laser Beam Welding and Cutting. The basic hazards
The workpiece lead is not the grounding lead. The associated with laser operation are:
workpieceleadconnectstheworkterminal on the (1) Eye damage from the beam, including bums of
powersource to the workpiece.Aseparatelead is the corneaor retina, or both
requiredtogroundtheworkpiece or powersource
work terminal. (2) Skin burns from the beam
Care should be taken when connecting the ground- (3)Respiratorysystemdamagefromhazardous
materials evolved during operation
ing circuit. Otherwise, the welding current may flow
through a connection intended only for grounding, and (4) Electrical shock
may be of higher magnitude than the grounding con- ( 5 ) Chemical hazards
ductor can safely carry.
Special
radio-frequency (6) Contact with cryogenic coolants
grounding may be necessaryfor arc welding machines Lasermanufacturersarerequiredtoqualifytheir
equipped with high-frequency arc initiating devices. equipmentwiththeU.S.Bureau of Radiological
Refer to EW-1, Electric Arc Welding Power Sources, Health(BRH).Electricalcomponentsshouldbe in
Section10.5.6,
National
Electrical
Manufacturers compliance withNEMA standards. User actionis gov-
Association. erned by OSHA requirements. In all cases, American
National Standard 2136.1, Safe Use of Lusers (latest
Brazing and Soldering
edition), should be followed.
Hazards encountered in brazing and soldering oper-
ations are similar to those associated with welding and FrictionWelding. Frictionweldingmachines are
cuttingprocesses.Brazingandsolderingoperations similar to machine tool lathesin that one workpieceis
may be done at temperatures where some elements in rotatedbya drive system. They are also similar to
the filler metal will vaporize. Personnel and property hydraulicpresses in that one workpiece is forced
must be projected against hot materials, gases, fumes, against the other. Therefore, safe practices for lathes
electrical shock, radiation, and chemicals. and power presses should be used as guides for the
It is essential that adequate ventilation be provided design and operationof friction welding machines.
so that personnel do not inhale gases and fumes gener- ExplosionWeldlng. Explosivesand explosive
ated during brazing or soldering. Some filler metals devices are a part of explosion welding. Such materi-
and base metals contain toxic materials such as cad- als and devicesare inherently dangerous, but thereare
mium, beryllium, zinc, mercury,or lead that vaporize safe methods for handling them. However,if the mate-
during brazing. Fluxes contain chemical compounds rials are misused, they can kill or injure operators or
of fluorine, chlorine, and boron that are harmful if they persons in the vicinity, and destroy or damage prop-
are inhaled or contact the eyes or skin. Suitable venti- erty. Explosive materials should be handled and used
lation mustbe provided to avoid these hazards. only by trained personnel who are experienced in that
Hlgh-FrequencyWelding. High-frequencygenera- field.Handlingandsafetyproceduresmustcomply
tors are electrical devices and require all usual safety with all applicable federal, state, and local regulations.
precautions when handling and repairing such equip- Refer to ANSI/NFPA 495, Manufacture, Transporta-
ment. Voltages are in the range from 400 to 20 O00 V tion, Storage and Use of Explosive Materials; New
and are lethal. These voltages may be either low or York: American NationalStandardsInstitute, latest
highfrequency.Proper care and safetyprecautions edition.
should be taken while working on high-frequency gen- UltrasonicWelding. Withhigh-powerultrasonic
eratorsandtheircontrolsystems.Unitsmust be equipment, high voltagesare present in the frequency
equipped with safety interlocks on access doors and converter, the welding head, and the coaxial cable con-
withautomaticsafetygroundingdevicestoprevent nectingthesecomponents.Consequently, the equip-
operation of the equipmentwhenaccess doors are ment should notbe operated withthe panel doors open
open. The equipment should notbe operated with pan- or housing covers removed. Door interlocks are usu-
els or high voltage covers removed or with interlocks ally installed to prevent introduction of power to the
andgrounding devicesblocked. This equipment equipment when the high-voltage circuitry is exposed.
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb834 77T m
The cables are fully shielded and present no hazard Adhesive Bonding. Adequatesafetyprecautions
when properly connected and maintained. must be observed with adhesives. Corrosive materials,
Because of hazards associated with the application flammable liquids, and toxic substances are commonly
of clamping force, the operator should not place hands used in adhesive bonding. Therefore, manufacturing
or arms in the vicinity of the welding tip when the operationsshouldbecarefullysupervised to ensure
equipment is energized.Formanualoperation,the that proper safety procedures, protective devices, and
equipment should be activated by dual palm buttons protective clothing are being used. Operations should
that meet the requirementsof OSHA. comply with all federal, state, and local regulations,
Thermite Welding. Thermite mix, in the crucible or includingOSHARegulation 29CW 1900.1000, Air
ontheworkpieces,canleadtorapidformation of Contaminants.
steam when the chemical reaction for thermite weld- Severe allergic reactions can result from direct con-
ing takes place. This may cause ejection ofmolten tact, inhalation, or ingestion of toxic materials suchas
metal from the crucible. Therefore, the thermite mix phenolics and epoxies as well as most catalysts and
should be storedin a dry place, the crucible should be accelerators. The eyes or skin may become sensitized
dry, and moisture should not be allowed to enter the over a long period of time even though noofsigns irri-
system before or during welding. tation are visible. Once workers are sensitized to a par-
The work area should befree of combustible mate- ticular type of adhesive, they may no longer be able to
rials that may be ignited by sparks or small particles ofworknear it because of allergic reactions. Careless
molten metal. The area should be well ventilated to handling of adhesivesbyproductionworkers may
avoid the buildup of fumes and gases from the reac- expose others to toxic materials if proper safety rules
tion. Starting powders and rods should be protected are not observed. For example, coworkers may touch
against accidental ignition. tools, door knobs, light switches, or other objects con-
Personnelshould
wear
appropriate
protection taminated bycareless workers.
against hot particles or sparks. This includes full face For the normal individual, proper handling methods
shields with filter lenses for eye protection and head- that eliminate skin contact with an adhesive should be
gear. Safety bootsare recommended to protect the feet sufficient. It is mandatory that protective equipment,
from hot sparks. Clothing should not have pocketsor barrier creams, or both be used to avoid skin contact
cuffs that might catch hot particles, with certain typesof formulations.
Source: American Welding Society,Welding Hand-
ThermalSpraying. Thepotentialhazardsto the book, Vol. 1, 8th Edition. Miami, Florida: American
healthandsafetyofpersonnelinvolvedinthermal Welding Society, 1987.
spraying operations and to persons in the immediate Additional Safety Resources
vicinity are as follows:
AmericanNational StandardsInstitute
(ANSI)/
(1) Electrical shock
National Fire
Protection Association(NFPA).
(2) Fire
ANSUNFPA 51B, Cutting and Welding Processes,
(3) Fumes and gases
Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association.
(4) Dust
(5) Arc radiation A N S W P A S 1, Oxygen-Fuel Gas Systems for Weld-
(6)Noise. ing, Cuttingand Allied Processes, Quincy,MA:
These hazards are not unique to thermal spraying National Fire Protection Association.
methods.Forexample,flamesprayinghashazards AmericanSociety for Metals, Metals Handbook,
similar to those associated withthe oxyfuel gas weld- Vol. 4. Heat Treating. Metals Park, OH: American
ing and cutting processes. Likewise, arc spraying and Society for Metals (latest edition).
plasma spraying are similar in many respects to gas American Welding Society. ANSVASC 249.1, Safety
metal arc and plasma arc welding, respectively. Safe in Welding and Cutting, Miami, Florida: American
practices for these processes shouldbe followed when Welding Society.
thermalsprayingwithsimilarequipment.However,
thermal spraying does generate dust and fumes to a -. ArcWeldingandCutting Noise. Miami, FL:
greater degree. Refer to Thermal Spraying: Practice, American Welding Society.
Theory, and Application; Miami,Florida:American -. Arc Welding Safely. Miami, FL: American Weld-
Welding Society, latest edition. ing Society.

Licensed by Information Handling Services ~~~ ~ ~
STD.AWS
JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 051b835 bob
Welding Encyclopedia 661 Appendlx 13
-. Characterization of Arc Welding Fumes. Miami, -. WeldingFume Control, a Demonstration

FL: American Welding Society. Project. Miami, FL: American Welding Society.
-. Efects of Welding on Health I, II, III, IV and V Balchin,N.C. Health and Safety in Weldingand
Miami, FL: American Welding Society.
Allied Processes, 3rd Ed., England: The Welding
-. Fumes and Gases in the Welding Environment. Institute.
Miami, FL: American Welding Society.
-. Oxyfuel Gas Welding, Cutting, andHeating Compressed Gas Association,Incorporated. Hand-
Safely. Miami, FL: American Welding Society. book ofCompressed Gases, 2ndEd.,NewYork,
NY Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.
-. AWS F2.1, RecommendedSafe Practices for
Electron BeamWeldingand Cutting. Miami, FL: -. Handling AcetyleneCylindersin Fire Situ-
American Welding Society. ations, SB-4. NewYork, NY CompressedGas
-. AWS F4. 1, Recommended Safe Practicesfor the Association.
Preparation for Welding and Cutting ofContainers -. Safe Handling of Compressed Gases in Con-
that Have Held Hazardous Substances. Miami, FL: tainers, P-1,NewYork, NY CompressedGas
American Welding Society.
Association.
-. AWSC2.1, RecommendedSafe Practices for
T h e m 1 Spraying. Miami, FL: American Welding Firemans Fund Insurance Companies. Welding Fume
Society. Control with Mechanical Ventilation, 2nd Ed.,
-. The Welding Environment. Miami, FL: American San Francisco, CA:FiremansFundInsurance
Welding Society. Companies.
-. Ultraviolet Reflectance of Paint. Miami, FL: The WeldingInstitute. The Facts about Fume.
American Welding Society. England: The Welding Institute.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 O784265 O51b83b 542 W
Appendix 14
Metric Conversions
Table 14-1
Metric Conversion Factors for Common Engineering Terms
PrOpertY To Convert From To Multiply By

acceleration (angular) revolution per minute squared rads2 1.745 329 x
acceleration (linear) in./min2 d S 2 7.055 556 x 106
ft/min2 d S 2 8.466 667 x
ft/s2 d S 2 3.048 O00 x 10"
area in.2 m2 6.451 600 x 10-4
ft2 m2 9.290 304 x 1W2
Yd2 m2 8.361 274 x 10"
acre (US. Survey) m2 4.046 873 x lo3
density pound mass per cubic inch kg/m3 2.767 990 x 104
energy, work, heat, and impact energy foot pound force J 1.355 818
BtU J 1.054 350x 16
calorie J 4.184 O00
watt hour J 3.600 000 X 103
force kilogram-force N 9.806 650
pound-force N 4.448 222
length in. m 2.540 O00 x 1W2
ft m 3.048 O00 x 10"
Yd m 9.144 O00 x 10-1
mile (US. Survey) km 1.609 347
mass pound mass (avdp) kg 4.535 924 x 10"
metric ton kg 1.o00 o00 x 1 6
ton (short2000 lbm) kg 9.071 847 x lo2
power horsepower (550 ft lbfls) W 7.456 999 x lo2
horsepower (electric) W 7.460 O00 x 102
Btu/min W 1.757 250 x 10
calorie per minute W 6.973 333 x 1 t 2
foot pound-force per minute W 2.259 697 x le2
pressure pound force per square inch kPa 6.894 757
bar Wa 1.O00o00x 102
atmosphere kPa 1.013 250 x lo2
tensile strength (stress) ksi MPa 6.894 757
torque inch pound force N-m 1.129 848 x 10"
foot pound force N-m 1.355 818
velocity (angular) revolution per minute rads 1.047 198 x lo"
degree per minute rads 2.908 882 x lo4
revolution per minute deg/min 3.600 O00 x 102
velocity (linear) in./min d S 4.233 333 x 10-4
ft/min d S 5.080 O00 x lW3
milehour kmh 1.609 344
volume m3 1.638 706 x
ft3 m3 2.831 685 x 1W2
Yd3 m3 7.645 549 x lo - '
in.3 L 1.638 706 x 1W2
ft3 L 2.831 685 x 10
gallon L 3.785 412
662
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 07842b5 05Lb837 489 W
Welding Encyclopedia Appendlx 14 663
Table 14-2
Metric ConversionFactors for Common Welding Terms
property To Convert From To Multiply By

area dimensions (mm2) in? mm2 6.451 600x 1@
mm2 in.2 1.550 003 x
current density Alin? Almm2 1.550 003 x lW3
Almm2 6.451600x lo2
deposition rate* lbh kglh 0.45
electrode force pound-force N 4.448 222
kilogram-force N 9.806 650
N lbf 2.248 089 x 10
flow rate (Umin) ft3h Umin 4.719 475 x 10
gallon per hour Umin 6.309 020 x 1W2
gallon per minute Umin 3.785 412
Umin ft3h 2.118 880
heat input Jlin. J/m 3.937 008 x 10
Jlm J/in. 2.540 o00 x 1W2
impact energy foot pound force J 1.355 818
linear measurements in. mm 2.540 o00 x 10
ft mm 3.048O00 x lo2
mm in. 3.937 008 x
mm ft 3.280840 x
power density W/in.2 W/m2 1.550003 x lo3
pressure (gas and liquid) Wlmm2 W/m2 6.451 600 x 10-4
psi Pa 6.894 757 x
lblft2 Pa 4.788 026 x 10
N/llUn2 Pa 1.o00 o00 x 106
kPa psi 1.450 377 x 10
kPa lblft2 2.088 543 x 10
Wa Nimm2 1.000 o00 X 10-3
torr (mm Hg atOOC) kPa 1.333 22 x lo
micron (pm Hg atOOC) kPa 1.333 x2210-4
kPa torr 7.50064 x 10
kPa micron 7.500a X 103
tensile strength( m a ) psi kPa 6.894 757
lblft2 kPa 4.788 026 x 1W2
Nimm2 MPa 1.O00 o00
Mpa psi 1.450 377 x lo2
MPa lblft2 2.088 543 x 104
MPa Nlmm2 1.o00o00
thermal conductivity (W/(m.K) cal/(cm. S C)
e W/(m K) - 4.184O00 x lo2
travel speed, wire feed speed
(&S) in.1min mm/S 4.233 333 x 10
mds 205in.1min 2.362
*Approximate conversion

STD.AWS
JWE-ENGL L997 H 07842b5 05Lb838 3L5 m
Table 14-3
Temperature Conversion: SI Unitst3 U.S. Customary
Degrees Celsiusm Degrees Farhenheit
and the Celsius temperature scales, the Fahrenheit scale continues
Despite international acceptance and usage of the Kelvin to be
widely usedin the USA, hence the conversion tablefor "C to "F herewith. The term centigrade should not be usedfor
temperature because in metric countries this meansone hundredth partof the unit of plane angle; i.e., the grade. Between
the
are 180" on the Fahrenheit and Rankine scales
temperatures of melting ice and boiling water, there as compared with 100"on the
Celsius and Kelvin scales.The ration of these numbers is9 5 , therefore, the following equations apply:
"C = 519 ("F -32), and, O F = 915 "C = 32"
To use the tables below, enter the central (bold-face) columns with the number
be converted.
to If converting Fahrenheit degrees,
"C"to the left.If converting Celsius degrees, read the Fahrenheit equivalent in the
read the Celsius equivalent in column headed
column headed"F' to the right.
C F C F C F C F
-273 -459 -40.0 4 0 -40.0 24.4 76 168.8 199 390 734
-268 -450 -34.0 -30 -22.0 25.6 78 172.4 204 400 752
-262 -440 -29.0 -20 4.0 26.7 80 176.0 210 410 770
-257 -430 -23.0 -10 14.0 27.8 82 179.6 216 420 788
-251 -420 -17.8 O 32.0 28.9 84 183.2 22 1 430 806
-246 -410 -16.7 2 35.6 30.0 86 186.8 227 440 824
-240 400 -15.6 4 39.2 31.1 88 190.4 232 450 842
-234 -390 -14.4 6 42.8 32.2 90 194.0 238 460 860
-229 -380 -13.3 8 46.4 33.3 92 197.6 243 470 878
-223 -370 -12.2 10 50.0 34.4 94 201.2 249 480 896
-218 -360 -11.1 12 53.6 35.6 96 204.8 254 490 914
-212 -350 -10.0 14 57.2 36.7 98 208.4 260 500 932
-207 -340 -8.9 16 60.8 37.8 100 212.0 266 510 960
-201 -330 -7.8 18 64.4 43.0 110 230.0 27 1 520 968
-196 -320 -6.7 20 68.0 49.0 120 248.0 277 530 986
-190 -310 -5.6 22 71.6 54.0 130
282 266.0 540 1004
-184 -300 -4.4 24 75.2 60.0 140 284.0 288 550 1022
-179 -290 -3.3 26
66.0 78.8 150
293 302.0 560 1040
-173 -280 -2.2 28 82.4 71.0 160
299 320.0 570 1058
-168 -270 -454 -1.1 30 86.0 77.0 170304 338.0 580 1076
-162 -260 -436 0.0 32 89.6 82.0 180 356.0 310 590 1094
-157 -250 -418 1.1 34 93.2 88.0 190 374.0 316 600 1112
-15 1 -240 400 2.2 36 96.8 93.0 200 392.0 321 610 1130
-146 -230 -382 3.3 38 100.4 99.0 210 410.0 327 620 1148
-140 -220 -364 4.4 40 104.0 100.0 212 414.0 332 630 1166
-134 -210 -346 5.6 42 107.6 104.0 220 428.0 338 640 1184
-129 -200 -328 6.7 44 111.2 110.0 230 446.0 343 650 1202
-123 -190 -310 7.8 46 114.8 116.0 240 464.0 349 660 1220
-118 -180 -292 8.9 48 118.4 121.0 250 482.0 354 670 1238
-112 -170 -274 10.0 50 122.0 127.0 260 500.0 360 680 1256
-107 -160 -256 11.1 52 125.6 132.0 270 518.0 366 690 1274
-101 -150 -238 12.2 54 129.2 138.0 280 536.0 37 1 700 1292
-96 -140 -220 13.3 56 132.8 143.0 290 554.0 377 710 1310
-90 -130 -202 14.4 58 136.4 149.0 300 572.0 382 720 1328
-84 -120 -184 15.6 60 140.0 154.0 310 590.0 388 730 1346
-79 -110 -166 16.7 62 143.6 160.0 320 608.0 393 740 1364
-73 -100 -148 17.8 64 147.2 166.0 330 626.0 399 750 1382
-68 -90 -130 18.9 66 150.8 171.0 340 644.0 404 760 1400
-62 -80 -112 20.0 68 154.4 177.0 350 662.0 410 770 1418
-57 -70 -94 21.1 70 158.0 182.0 360 680.0 416 780 1436
-5 1 -60 -76 22.2 72 161.6 186.0 370 698.0 42 1 790 1454
-46 -50 -58 23.3 74 165.2 193.0 380 716.0 427 800 1472

Table 14-3
Temperature Conversion:SI Units H U.S. Customary (Continued)
C F C F C F C F
432 810 1490 738 1360 2480 1043 1910 3470 1349 2460 4460
438 820 1508 743 1370 2498 1049 1920 3488 1354 2470 4478
443 830 1526 749 1380 2516 1054 1930 3506 1360 2480 4496
449 840 1544 754 1390 2534 1060 1940 3524 1366 2490 4514
454 850 1562 760 1400 2552 1066 1950 3542 1371 2500 4532
460 860 1580 766 1410 2570 1071 1960 3560 1377 2510 4550
466 870 1598 771 1420 2888 1077 1970 3578 1382 2520 4568
1 47 880 777 1616 1430 10822606 1980 13883596 2530 4586
477 890 1634 782 1440 2624 1088 1990 3614 1383 2540 4604
482 900 1652 788 1450 2642 1093 2000 3632 1399 2550 4622
488 910 1670 793 1460 2660 1099 2010 3650 1404 2560 4640
493 920 1688 799 1470 2678 1104 2020 3668 1410 2570 4658
499 930 1706 804 1480 2696 1110 2030 3686 1416 2580 4676
504 940 1724 810 1490 2714 1116 2040 3704 1421 2590 4694
510 950 1742 816 1500 2732 1121 2050 3722 1427 2600 4712
516 960 1760 821 1510 2750 1127 2060 3740 1432 2610 4730
52 1 970 1778 827 1520 2768 1132 2070 3758 1438 2620 4748
527 980 1796 832 1530 2786 1138 2080 3776 1443 2630 4766
532 990 1814 838 1540 2804 1143 2090 3794 1449 2640 4784
538 1000 1832 843 1550 2822 1149 2100 3812 1454 2650 4802
543 1010 1850 849 1560 2840 1154 2110 3830 1460 2660 4820
549 1020 1868 854 1570 2858 1160 2120 3848 1466 2670 4838
554 1030 1886 860 1580 2876 1166 2130 3866 1471 2680 4856
560 1040 1904 866 1590 2894 1171 2140 3884 1477 2690 4874
566 1050 1922 871 1600 2912 1177 2150 3902 1482 2700 4892
571 1060 1940 877 1610 2930 1182 2160 3920 1488 2710 4910
577 1070 1958 882 1620 2948 1188 2170 3938 1493 2720 4928
582 1080 1976 888 1630 2966 1193 2180 3956 1499 2730 4946
588 1090 1994 893 1640 2984 1199 2190 3974 1504 2740 4964
593 1100 2012 899 1650 3002 1204 2200 3992 1510 2750 4982
599 1110 2030 904 1660 3020 1210 2210 4010 1516 2760 5000
604 1120 2048 910 1670 3038 1216 2220 4028 1521 2770 5018
610 1130 2066 916 1680 3056 1221 2230 4046 1527 2780 5036
616 1140 2084 921 1690 3074 1227 2240 4064 1532 2790 5054
621 1150 2102 927 1700 3092 1232 2250 4082 1538 2800 5072
627 1160 2120 932 1710 3110 1238 2260 4100 1543 2810 5090
632 1170 2138 938 1720 3128 1243 2270 4118 1549 2820 5108
638 1180 2156 943 1730 3146 1249 2280 4136 1554 2830 5126
643 1190 2174 949 1740 3164 1254 2290 4154 1560 2840 5144
649 1200 2192 954 1750 3182 1260 2300 4172 1566 2850 5162
654 1210 2210 960 1760 3200 1266 2310 4190 1571 2860 5180
660 1220 2228 966 1770 3218 1271 2320 4208 1577 2870 5 198
666 1230 2246 971 1780 3236 1277 2330 4226 1582 2880 5216
671 1240 2264 977 1790 3254 1282 2340 4244 1588 2890 5234
677 1250 2282 982 1800 3272 1288 2350 4262 1593 2900 5252
682 1260 2300 988 1810 3290 1293 2360 4280 1599 2910 5270
688 1270 2318 993 1820 3308 1299 2370 4298 1604 2920 5288
693 1280 2336 999 1830 3326 1304 2380 4316 1610 2930 5306
699 1290 2354 1004 1840 3344 1310 2390 4334 1616 2940 5324
704 1300 2372 1010 1850 3362 1316 2400 4352 1621 2950 5342
710 1310 2390 1016 1860 3380 1321 2410 4370 1627 2%0 5360
716 1320 2408 1021 1870 3398 1327 2420 4388 1632 2970 5378
721 1330 2426 1027 1880 3416 1332 2430 4406 1638 2980 5396
727 1340 2444 1032 1890 3434 1338 2440 4424 1643 2990 5414
732 1350 2462 1038 1900 3452 1343 2450 4442 1649 3000 5432

Appendix 15
Elements-Chemical Symbols
and Atomic Numbers
Atomic Atomic Atomic
Element No. Element No. Element No.
Actinium (Ac) 89 Hafnium (Hf) 72 Promethium (Pm) 61
Aluminum (Al) 13 Helium (He) 2 Protactinium (Pa) 91
Americium (Am) 95 Holmium (Ho) 67 Radium (Ra) 88
Antimony (Sb) 51 Hydrogen (H) 1 Radon (Rn) 86
Argon (A) 18 Indium (In) 49 Rhenium (Re) 75
Arsenic (As) 33 Iodine (I) 53 Rhodium (Rh) 45
Astatine (At) 85 Iridium (Ir) 77 Rubidium (Rb) 37
Barium (Ba) 56 Iron (Fe) 26 Ruthenium (Ru) 44
Berkelium (Bk) 97 Krypton ( W 36 Samarium (Sm) 62
Beryllium (Be) 4 Lanthanum (La) 57 Scandium (Sc) 21
Bismuth (Bi) 83 Lawrencium (Lw) 103 Selenium (Se) 34
Boron (B) 5 Lead (Pb) 82 Silicon (Si) 14
Bromine (Br) 35 Lithium (Li) 3 Silver (Ag) 47
Cadmium (Cd) 48 Lutetium (Lu) 71 Sodium (Na) 11
Calcium (Ca) 20 Magnesium (Mg) 12 Strontium (Sr) 38
Californium (Cf) 98 Manganese (Mn) 25 Sulfur, yellow (S) 16
Carbon, graphite(C 6 Mendelevium (MV) 101 Tantalum (Ta) 73
Cerium (Ce) 58 Mercury (Hg) 80 Technetium (Tc) 43
Cesium (Cs) 55 Molybdenum (Mo) 42 Tellurium (Te) 52
Chlorine (Cl) 17 Neodymium (Nd) 60 Terbium (Tb) 65
Chromium (Cr) 24 Neon (Ne) 10 Thallium (Tl) 81
Cobalt (Co) 27 Neptunium (Np) 93 Thorium (Th) 90
Copper (Cu) 29 Nickel (Ni) 28 Thulium (Tm) 69
Curium (Cm) 96 Niobium (Nb) 41 Tin (Sn) 50
Dysprosium (Dy) 66 Nitrogen (N) 7 Titanium (Ti) 22
Einsteinium (E) 99 Nobelium (No) 102 Tungsten (W) 74
Erbium (Er) 68 Osmium (Os) 76 Uranium (U) 92
Europium (Eu) 63 Oxygen (0) 8 Vanadium (V) 23
Fermium (Fm) 100 Palladium (Pd) 46 Xenon (Xe) 54
Fluorine (F) 9 Phosphorus, white (P) 15 Ytterbium (Yb) 70
Francium (Fr) 87 Platinum (Pt) 78 Yttrium (Y) 39
Gadolinium (Gd) 64 Plutonium (Pu) 94 Zinc (Zn) 30
Gallium (Ga) 31 Polonium (Po) 84 Zirconium (Zr) 40
Germanium (Ge) 32 Potassium (K) 19
Gold (Au) 79 Praseodymium (Pr) 59
666
STD AWS m
Appendix 16
Standards for Welding, Cutting, andAllied Processes
Definitions. The American Welding Society usesthe Methodsofachievingcompliancevarywiththe
general termstandards to refer to documents that gov- standards. Some havespecificrequirementsthat do
em and guide welding activities. Standards describe not allow for alternative actions. Others permit alter-
thetechnicalrequirements for amaterial,process, native actions or procedures, as long as they result in
product, system,or service. They also indicate the pro- properties that meet specified criteria. These criteria
cedures, methods, equipment, or tests used to deter- are often given as minimum requirements; for exam-
mine that the requirements have been met. ple, the ultimate tensile strength of a welded specimen
Standardsincludecodes,specifications,recom- mustmeet or exceed the minimumtensilestrength
mended practices,
classifications,
methods,
and specified for the base material.
guides. These documents have many similarities, and Sources. private andgovernmentalorganizations
the terms are often used interchangeably, but some- develop, issue, and update standards that apply to their
times incorrectly. Each term has a specific definition. particular areas of interest. The following sources of
Codes and specifications are similar types of stan- standards are of interest to the welding industry:
dards that use the words shall and will to indicate the American Association of State Highway and
mandatory useof certain materials or actions, or both. Transportation Offkials
Codes differ from specifications in that their use is American Bureauof Shipping (ABS)
generallyapplicabletoaprocess.Specifications are American Instituteof Steel Construction (AISI)
generallyassociatedwithaproduct.Bothbecome American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
mandatory when specified byone or more governmen- American PetroleumInstitute (API)
tal jurisdictions or when they are referenced by con- American
Railway
Engineering
Association
tractual or other procurement documents. (AREA)
AmericanSociety of Mechanical Engineers
Recommended practices and guides are standards
(ASME)
that are offered primarily as aids to the user. They use
American Water Works Association (AWWA)
words such as should and m y because their use is
American Welding Society (AWS)
usually optional. However,if these documentsare ref-
Association of American Railroads( A A R )
erenced by codes or contractual agreements, their use
may become mandatory. If the codes or agreements ASTM
Canadian Standards Association (CSA)
contain non-mandatory sectionsor appendixes, the use
of referenced guides or recommended practices is at Compressed Gas Association (CGA)
the users discretion. International
Organization for Standardization
(ISO)
Classifications and methods generally provide lists NationalBoardofBoilerandPressureVessel
of established practices or categories for processes or Inspectors (NBBPVI)
products.Themostcommon example is astandard National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
testing method. NavalPublicationand Forms Center(Military
The user of a standard should become acquainted Specifications)
with its scope and intended use, both of which are usu- Pipe FabricationInstitute (PH)
ally included within the Scope or Introduction section SAE
of the standard. Itis equally important, but often more Superintendentof Documents (Federal Specifications)
difficult, to recognize subjects that are not covered by Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
the document. These omissionsmay require additional Uniform Boiler and Pressure Vessel Laws Society
technical consideration. A document may cover the (UBPVLS)
details of the product form without considering special The welding interests ofmanyof these groups
conditions under which it will be used. Examples of overlap, and some agreements have beenmadeto
special conditionswould be corrosive atmospheres, reduce duplication of effort. Many standards that
elevated temperatures, and dynamic rather than static are concerned with welding, brazing, and allied pro-
loading. cesses are prepared by the American WeldingSociety
667
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 0784265 0536842 846 D
(AWS) because these subjects are of primary interest ing are examples of other national standards designa-
to the members. Standards that apply to a particular tions andthe bodies responsiblefor them:
product are usually prepared by the group that has BS -British Standard issued by the British Stan-
overall responsibility. For example, those for railroad dards Association
freight cars are published by the Association of CSA - Canadian Standard issued bythe Canadian
American Railroads (AAR).However, freight cars Standards Association
are basically structures, and the applicable AAR DIN -West German Standard issued bythe Deut-
specification currently refers to ANSUAWS D l .l, sches Institutefuer Normung
Structural Welding Code-Steel, for the qualification JIS -Japanese Industrial Standard issued by the
of welding procedures, welders, and welding oper- Japanese Standards Association
ators. In 1986, the American Welding Society pub- NF -French Standard issued by the Association
lished ANSVAWS D15.1, Railroad Welding Franaise de Normalisation
Specification. Revisions to the AAR standards will Of these, the Canadian Standards Association is dis-
reference ANSVAWS D 15.l . cussed in a following section. Thereis also an Interna-
Eachorganizationthatpreparesconsensusstan- tional Organizationfor Standardization (ISO).Its goal
dards has committees or task groups to perform this is the establishment of uniform standards for use in
function. Membersof these committeesor task groups international trade. This organizationis discussed in a
are specialists in their fields. They prepare drafts of following section.
standards that are reviewed and approved by a larger
Applications. The minimum requirements of a par-
group. Each main committee is selected to include per-
sonswithdiverseinterestsbalancedequallyamong ticular standard may not satisfy the special needs of
producers, users, and government representatives. To every user. Therefore, a user may find it necessary to
avoid control or undue influence by one interest group, invoke additional requirements to achieve the desired
consensus must be achieved by a high percentage of quality.
all members. Most standards may be revised by using one of sev-
eral procedures. These are usedwhenastandard is
The federal government develops or adopts stan- found to be in error, unreasonably restrictive, or not
dards for itemsandservicesthat are in the public applicable with respect to new technological develop-
rather than the private domain. The mechanisms for ments. Some standards are updated on a regular basis;
developing federal or military documents are similar others are revised as needed. The revisions may be in
tothose of privateorganizations.Standard-writing the form of addenda, or they may be incorporated in
committees usually exist within a federal department superseding documents.
or agency that has responsibility for a particular item If there is a question about a particular standard
or service. involving either an interpretation or a possible error,
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) the user should contact the responsible organization.
is a private organization responsible for coordinating When the use of a standard is mandatory, whether as
nationalstandards for usewithin the UnitedStates. a result of a government regulation or a legal con-
ANSI does not actually prepare standards. Instead, it tract, it isessential to know the specific edition of the
formsnationalinterestreviewgroupstodetermine document tobeused. If there is a question con-
whether proposed standards are in the public interest. cerning which edition or revision of a document is
Each groupis composed of persons from various orga- to be used, it should be resolved before commence-
nizations concerned with the scope and provisions of a ment of work. It is unfortunate, but not uncommon,
particular document. If there is consensus regarding to find that an outdated edition of a referenced docu-
the general valueof a particular standard, thenit may ment has been specified, and must be followed to be
be adopted as an American National Standard. Adop- in compliance.
tion of a standard by ANSI does not, of itself, give it Organizations responsible for preparing standards
mandatory status. However, if the standard is cited by that relate to welding are discussed in the following
agovernmentalrule or regulation,itmaythenbe sections. The publications are listed without refer-
backed byforce of law. ence to date of publication, latest revision, or amend-
Otherindustrializedcountriesalsodevelopand ment. New publications relating to welding may be
issue standards onthe subject of welding. The follow- issued, and current ones maybe withdrawn or

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 0784265 0516843 782
Welding Encyclopedia Appndix 16 669
revised. The responsible organization should be StandardSpecificationsforHighwayBridges. This

contacted for current information on the standards it AASHTOspecificationcoversthedesignandcon-
publishes. struction
requirements for all
types of
highway
Some organizations covermany product categories bridges. It refers to the welding fabrication require-
while others may cover only one. Table 16-1 lists the mentsinthe AASHTO standard, Specifications for
organizations and the product categories covered by Welding of Structural Steel-Highway Bridges and the
their documents. The National Fire Protection Associ- ANSYAWS D l.1, Structural WeldingCode-Steel.
ation is not listed in Table 16-1 because its standards StandardSpecificationsforWeldingofStructural
areconcernedwithsafepracticesratherthanwith ThisAASHTOspecification
S t e e l HighwayBridges.
products.TheAmericanWeldingSocietyandthe provides modificationsto the ANSYAWSD l. 1, Srruc-
American Petroleum Institute also publish standards rural Welding Code-Steel, which are deemed neces-
concerned with welding safety. sary for use by member agencies. These are referenced
American Association of State Highway and to the applicable sectionsof the AWS Code.
Transportation Offlcials Guide
Specifications
for
Fracture
Critical
Non-
The member agencies of the American Association Redundant
Steel
Brldge Members. Fracture-critical
of State Highway and
Transportation
Officials members or componentsof a bridge are tension mem-
(AASHTO) are the U.S. Department of Transporta- bers or components, thefailure of which would likely
tion, and the Departments of Transportation and High- resultincollapse of thestructure. This document
ways of the fifty states, Washington DC, and Puerto assigns the responsibility for specifying those bridge
Rico.The AASHTO specificationsareprepared by members or components, if any, that fallinto the frac-
c o m m i t t e e s madeupofemployees of themember ture-critical category.It requires that such members or
agencies. These documents are the minimum rules to components be fabricated to the required workman-
be followed by all member agencies or others in the ship standards onlyby organizations having the proper
design and constructionof highway bridges. personnel,experience,procedures,knowledgeand
Table 16-1
Products Covered by Standardsof Various Organizatlons
NBBPW
PrOdUCt AAR AASHM ABS
AISC
AREA
API
ASME UBPVLS ASTM AWS AWWA FED P H SAE UL
Base X X X X X X
Bridges X X X X X
Buildings X X
Construction equipment X X X
Cranes, hoists X X
Elevators, escalators X
Filler metals X X X X X
Food,drug equipment X
Machine tools X
Military equipment X
Power generation equipment X X X X
Piping X X X x x x X
Presses X
Pressure vessels, boilers X X X X
Railway equipment X X X
Sheet metal fabrication X
Ships X X X
Storage tanks X x x X
Structures, general X X
Vehicles X X X

STD.AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 W 07842b5 0516844 619
equipment. For example, all welding inspectors and andproperties of rolledstructuralsteelshapes, (2)
nondestructivetestingpersonnelmusthavedemon- beam, girder, and column design, and (3) welded con-
strated competencyfor assuring quality in compliance nection design. Part5 of the manual is the Specifica-
with the governing specifications. The document also tionfor the Design,Fabrication,andErection of
contains requirements additional to those in the Stan- Structural Steelfor Buildings. This part includescer-
dard Specijcations for Welding of Structural Steel- tainaspects of structural steel designthat are not
Highway Bridges. included inother parts of the manual.
American Bureau of Shipping Specification for the Design, Fabrication, and Erec-
The function of the American Bureau of Shipping tionofStructuralSteelForBuildings. This document
(ABS) is to control the quality of ship construction. specifies, in detail, all principal steps required for the
Each year, ABS reissues the Rules for Building and construction of structural steel buildings. It references
Classing Steel Vessels. These rules are applicable to the AWS filler metal specifications, and specifies the
ships thatare intended to have American registration. particular filler metal classification to be used with a
To obtainAmericanregistrationandinsurance,a weldingprocess for eachtype of structuralsteel.
ship must be classed (approved) by ABSafter inspec- Requirements for the types and details of fillet, plug,
tions and reviews by its surveyors (inspectors). The and slot welds are alsoincluded. The specification
surveys begin with a review of the proposed design. refers to ANSYAWS Dl. 1, Structural Welding Cude-
Reviews are also made during and after construction Steel, for welding procedure and welder performance
to verify that constructioncomplieswith the ABS qualifications.
rules. The process is completed with the assignment Quality Criteria and Inspection Standards. This docu-
and registration of a class (numerical identification) ment covers such subjects as preparation of materials,
for the ship. fitting and fastening, dimensional tolerances, welding,
One section of the ABS Rules addresses welding surfacepreparation,andpainting. It discusses the
and is divided into the following parts: practical implementation of some of the requirements
Part 1 - Hull Construction of other AISC specifications. Typical problems that
Part 2 - Boilers, Unfired Pressure Vessels, Piping, may be encountered in steel construction and recom-
and Engineering Structures mended solutions are presented. The welding section
Part 3 -Weld Tests provides interpretations regarding AISC requirements
The section addresses such topics as weld design, or prequalification of welding procedures, preheating,
welding procedures, qualification testing, preparation control of distortion, and tack welding.
for welding,productionwelding,workmanship,and
American National Standards Institute
inspection.
ABS also publishes a list of welding consumables, The American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
entitled Approved Welding Electrodes, Wire-Flux, and is the coordinating organization for the United States
Wire-Gas Combinations.These consumables are pro- voluntary standards system; it does not develop stan-
ducedbyvariousmanufacturersaround the world. dardsdirectly. The Instituteprovidesthemeans for,
They are tested under ABS supervision and approved determining the need for standards, and ensures that
for use under the ABS rules. organizations competent to fill these needs undertake
the developmentwork. The approvalprocedures of
American Instituteof Steel Construction
ANSI ensure thatall interested persons have an oppor-
TheAmericanInstitute
of Steel Construction tunity to participate in the development of a standard
(AISC) is a non-profit trade organizationfor the fabri- or to comment on provisions of the standard prior to
cated structural steel industry in the United States. Thepublication. ANSI is the U.S. member of non-treaty
Institutes objectives are to improve and advance the internationalstandardsorganizations,such as the
use of fabricated structural steel through research and International Organization for Standardization (ISO),
engineering studies, and to developthe most efficient and the InternationalElectrotechnicalCommission
and economical design of structures. The organization (IEC).
also conducts programs to improve and control prod- The American National Standards Institute provides
uct quality. a common language that can be used confidently by
Manual of Steel Construction. The first four parts of industry,suppliers,customers,business, the public,
the manual cover such topics as (1) the dimensions government,andlabor.Eachoftheseinterests hass

~~~
Welding Encyclopedia 16 Appendix 671
either participatedin the developmentof the standards pumping, and transmission of crude petroleum, petro-
or has been giventhe opportunity to comment on their leum products, and fuel gases, and also to the distribu-
provisions.However,thesestandards are developed tion systems when applicable. It presents methods for
andusedvoluntarily.Theybecomemandatoryonly the production of acceptable welds by qualified weld-
when they are adopted or referenced by a governmen- ers using approved welding procedures, materials, and
tal body. equipment. It also presents methodsfor the production
American Petroleum Institute of suitable radiographs by qualified technicians using
approved procedures and equipment, toensure proper
The American Petroleum Institute (API) publishes analysis ofweldquality.Standards of acceptability
documents in all areas related to petroleum produc- and repairof weld defects are also included.
tion. Those documents that include welding require-
ments are related to pipelines and refinery equipment, The legalauthority for the useofAPIStd1104
comes from Title49, Part 195, Transportation of Liq-
storage tanks for refinery service, and safety and frre
uids by Pipeline, of the United States Code of Federal
protection.
Regulations.
PipelinesandRefineryEquipment. The appendix Storage Tanks for Refinery Service
entitledInspectionofWelding in The Guide for
Inspection of Refinery Equipment is the only partthat Inspection, Rating and Repairof Pressure Vessels in
applies specifically to welding.Its objective is to guide Petroleum RefineryService,
RP510. This recom-
the user in determining whether welded joints are of mended practice covers the inspection, repair, evalua-
acceptable quality and comply with both the require- tion for continued use, and methods for computing the
ments of the contract or job specifications and the pre- maximum allowable working pressure of existing
scribed welding procedure specifications. pressure vessels. The vessels include those constructed
in accordance with Section W1 of the ASME Boiler
RecommendedPipelineMaintenanceWeldingPrac- and Pressure Vessel Code orotherpressurevessel
tices, RP1107. The primarypurposeofthisrecom- codes.
mended practiceis safety. It prohibits practicesthat are
Recommended Rules for Design and Construction of
known to be unsafe, and warns against practices for Large,Welded,Low-PressureStorageTanks, Std 620.
which cautionis necessary. It also includes 18methods These rules cover the design and construction of large,
for the inspection of repair welds, and for installing field-welded tanks that are used for storage of petro-
appurtenances on loaded piping systems being used leum intermediates and finished products under pres-
for the transmission of natural gas, crude petroleum, sure of 103 kPa (15 psig) and less.
and petroleum products.
The legal authority for RP 1107 comes from refer- WeldedSteelTanksforOilStorage, Std 650. This
ence to it in ASMEB3 1.4, Liquefied Petroleum Trans- standard covers the material, design, fabrication, erec-
portation Piping Systems (described
under the tion, and testing requirements for vertical, cylindrical,
AmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers). The welded steel storage tanks that are above ground and
latterpublication, like API Std 1104, Standard for not subject to internal pressure.
Welding Pipelines and Related Facilities,is also refer- Safety and Fire Protection
enced by Title 49, Part 195, Transportution ofLiquids Repairs to Crude Oil, Liquefied Petroleum Gas, and
by Pipeline, of the United States Code of Federal ProductsPipelines,PSD 2200. This petroleum safety
Regulations. data sheet is a guide to safe practices for the repair of
RecommendedPracticeforWelded,PlainCarbon pipelines for crude oil, liquefied petroleum gas, and
SteelRefineryEquipmentforEnvironmentalCracking petroleum products.
Senrice, Pub1 942. This publication proposes actions
Safe Practices in Gas and Electric Cutting and Weld-
for protectionagainsthydrogenstresscrackingof ing in Refineries, Gasoline Plants, Cycling Plants, and
>weldsin plaincarbonsteelthat are exposed,under Petrochemical Plants, Pub1 2009. This publication out-
stress, to certain aqueous-phase acidic environments, linesprecautions for protectingpersons from injury
:such as moist hydrogen sulfide. and property from damage by fire that might result
StandardforWeldingPipelinesandRelatedFaciii- during the operation of oxyfuel gas and electric cutting
Pies, API Std 1104.This standard applies to arc and oxy-andweldingequipment in andaroundpetroleum
fuel gas welding of piping used in the compression, operations.
WeldingorHotTappingonEquipmentContaining VIII. These include towers, reactors and other oil and
Flammables, PSD 2201. This petroleumsafetydata chemical refining vessels, heat exchangers for refiner-
sheet lists proceduresfor welding, as well as for mak- ies, paper mills, and other process industries, as well
ing hot taps (connections whilein operation), on pipe- as storagetanks for largeandsmall air and gas
lines,vessels,ortankscontainingflammables. This compressors.
data sheetandPSD 2200 are also requirementsof Section II, Material Specifications, contains the
ASME B3 1.4, LiquefiedPetroleumTransportation specifications for acceptable ferrous andnonferrous
Piping Systems. base metals, and for acceptable welding and brazing
American Rallway Engineering Associatlon filler metals and fluxes. Many of these specifications
The AmericanRailwayEngineeringAssociation are identical to and havethe same numerical designa-
(AREA) publishes theManual for Railway Engineer- tion as ASTM andAWS specifications for base metals
ing. This manual contains specifications, rules, plans, andweldingconsumables,respectively.Section U,
and instructions that constitute the recommended prac- Nondestructive Examination, coversmethodsand
tices of railway engineering. Two chapters specifically standards for nondestructiveexamination of boilers
cover steel construction. One ofthese covers the and pressure vessels. Section IX, Welding and Brazing
design, fabrication, and erection of buildings for rail- Qualifications, covers the qualification of(1) welders,
way purposes. The other addresses the same topicsfor welding operators, brazers, and brazing operators, and
railway bridges and miscellaneous steel structures. (2) the welding and brazing procedures that are to be
employed for welding or brazing of boilersor pressure
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
vessels. This section of the Code is often cited by othea-
Two standing committees of the American Society standardsandregulatorybodies as theweldingand
of Mechanical Engineers(ASME) are actively brazingqualificationstandard for other types cd
involved in the formulation, revision, and interpreta- welded or brazed products.
tion of standards covering products that may be fabri- The ASME Boiler and Pressure VesselCode is ref-
cated by welding. These committees are responsible erenced in the safety regulations of most states and
for preparing the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel major cities of the United States, and also the prov-
Code and the Code for Pressure Piping, which are inces of Canada. A number of federal agencies include
American National Standards. the Code as part of their regulations.
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code.The ASME Boiler The Uniform Boiler and Pressure Vessel Laws Soc-
and Pressure Vessel Code (PVC) contains eleven sec- ety(UBPVLS)has,as its objective,uniformity of
tions.SectionsI,III, IV, VIII, E, and X coverthe laws, rules, and regulations that affect boiler and pres-
design,construction,andinspection of boilersand sure vessel fabricators, inspection agencies, and users.
pressure vessels. Sections VI, VII, and XI cover the The Society believesthat such laws, rules, and regula-
maintenance and operation of boilers or nuclear power tions should follow nationally accepted standards. It
plant components. The remaining Sections II, V, and recommends the ASME Boiler andPressureVessel
IX cover material specifications, nondestructive exam- Code as the standard for construction and the Znspec-
ination, and welding andbrazing
qualifications, tion Code of the National Boardof Boiler and Pressure
respectively. Inspectors (NBBPVI), discussed in a following sec-
SectionI, Power Boilers, coverspower,electric, tion, as the standard for inspection and repair.
and miniature boilers; high temperature boilers used in The ASME Boiler andPressureVessel Code is
stationary service; and power boilers used in locomo- unique in that it requires third-party inspection inde-
tive,
portable,
and
traction
service.
Section III, pendent of it the fabricator andthe user. The NBBPVI
Nuclear PowerPlant Components, addresses the vari- commissions inspectors by examination. These
ous components required bythe nuclear power indus- inspectors are employed either by authorized inspee-
try. Section IV, Heating Boilers, applies to steam heat tionagencies(usuallyinsurancecompanies) or by
and hot water supply boilers that are directly fired by jurisdictional authorities.
oil, gas, electricity,or coal. Section VIII,Pressure Ves- Prior to building a boileror pressure vessel,a com-
sels, covers unfired pressure vessels. Unfired pressure pany must have a quality control system and a manual
vessels are containers for the containment of pressure that describesit. The system must be acceptable to the
either internal or external. All Code vessels not cov- authorized inspection agency and either the jurisdic-
ered by Sections I, III, and IV are covered by Section tional authority or the NBBPVI. Based on the results
Welding Amendix 16 673
of an audit of the fabricators quality system, ASME products;gas,steam,air,water,andrefrigerants,

may issue the fabricator aCertificate of Authorization except as specifically excluded.
and a code symbol stamp. The authorized inspection Piping for air and other gases, which is notnow
agency is also involved in monitoring the fabrication within the scope of existing sections of this code, may
and field erection of boilers and pressure vessels. An be designed, fabricated, inspected, and tested in accor-
authorized inspector mustbe satisfied that all applica- dancewith the requirements of thissection of the
ble provisions of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Ves- Code. The pipingmustbeinplants,buildings,and
sel Code havebeenfollowedbeforeallowing the similar facilities that are nototherwisewithinthe
fabricator to applyits code symbol stamp tothe vessel scope of this section.
name plate. B3 1.4, LiquidPetroleumTransportationPiping
Code for Pressure Piping Systems, covers piping for transporting liquid petro-
leum products between producers lease facilities, tank
The ASME B3 1, Code for Pressure Piping, pres-
farms,natural gas processingplants,refineries, sta-
ently consists ofsevensections.Eachsectionpre-
tions,terminals,and other deliveryandreceiving
scribes the minimumrequirements for the design,
points. Examples of such products are crude oil, con-
materials, fabrication, erection, testing, and inspection densate,gasoline,naturalgasliquids,andliquefied
of a particular type of piping system. petroleum gas.
B31.1, Power Piping, covers power and auxiliary B31. 5 , Refrigeration Piping, applies to refriger-
service systems for electric generation stations; indus- ant and brine piping for use at temperatures as low
trial and institutional plants; central and district heat- as -196C, (-320F) whether erected on the premises
ing plants; and district heating systems. or assembled in a factory. Itdoes not include (1) self-
This section excludes boiler external piping which contained or unit refrigeration systems subject to the
is defined by Section I of the ASME Boiler and Pres- requirements of UnderwritersLaboratoriesorany
sure Vessel Code. Boiler piping requires a quality con- other nationallyrecognizedtestinglaboratory, (2)
trol system and third-party inspection similar to those water piping, or (3) piping designed for external or
required for boiler fabrication. Otherwise, the materi- internalpressurenotexceeding103kPa(15psig),
als, design,fabrication,installation, and testing for regardless of size. Other sectionsof the Code may pro-
boiler external piping must meet the requirements of viderequirements for refrigerationpipingintheir
section B3 l.l. A fabricatoris not required to provide a respective scopes.
quality control system and third-party inspection for B3 1.8, Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping
the other piping systems covered B3 byl. Systems, addresses gas compressor stations,gas meter-
B3 1.2, Fuel Gas Piping, covers piping systems for ingandregulating stations, gasmains,andservice
fuel gasesincludingnaturalgas,manufacturedgas, linesuptotheoutlet of thecustomersmeter set
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) andair mixtures above assembly. Gas storage lines andgas storage equipment
theuppercombustiblelimits,LPGin the gaseous of the closed-pipe type that are either fabricated or
phase, or mixtures of these gases. These piping sys- forged from pipe or fabricated from pipe and fittings
tems, both in and between buildings, extend fromthe are also included.
outlet of the consumers meter set assembly (or point B31.9, Building Services Piping, applies to piping
of delivery) to and including the first pressure-contain- systems for servicesin industrial, commercial, public,
ing valve upstreamof the gas utilization device. institutionalandmulti-unitresidentialbuildings.It
B31.3, ChemicalPlant and PetroleumRefinery includes only those piping systems within the build-
Piping, covers all piping within the property limits of ings or property limit.
facilities engaged in processing or handling of chemi- All sections ofthe Codefor Pressure Piping require
cal, petroleum, or relatedproducts.Examples are qualification of the weldingproceduresandperfor-
chemical plants, petroleum refineries, loading tenni- mance of welders and welding operatorsto be used in
nals, natural gas processing plants (including liquefied construction. Some sectionsrequirethesequalifica-
naturalgas facilities), bulk
plants,
compounding tions to be performed in accordance with Section IX of
plants, and tank farms. This section applies to piping the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, while in
systems that handle all fluids, including fluidized sol- others it is optional. The use of API Std 1104, Stan-
ids, and to all types of service including raw, interme- dard for Welding Pipelines and Related Facilities or
diate, and finished chemicals;oil and other petroleum AWS DIO. 9, Specification for Qualification of Weld-
~~
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 0784265 05Lb848 2b4
ing Procedures and Weldersfor Piping and Tubing is Some products covered by ASTM specifications are
permitted in some sectionsas an alternative to Section fabricated by welding. The largest group is steel pipe
IX.Each section of the Code should be consulted for andtubing.Sometypes of pipe are produced from
the applicable qualification documents. strip by rolling and arc weldingthe longitudinal seam.
ASTM The welding procedures generally must be qualified to
the requirements of the ASME Boiler and Pressure
ASTM (formerly the American Society for Testing Vessel Code or another code.
and Materials) develops and publishes specifications
Other types of pipe and tubing are produced with
for use in the production and testingof materials. The
resistance welded seams. There are generally no spe-
committees that develop the specifications are com-
cific weldingrequirementsin the applicableASTM
prised of producers and users, as well as others who
specification. The finished pipe and tubing must pass
have an interest in the subject materials.The specifica-
specific tests that should result in failure at the welded
tions cover virtually all materials used in industry and
seam if the welding operationis out of control.
commercewiththeexceptionofweldingconsum-
TwoASTMspecificationscover joints inpiping
ables, which are coveredby AWS specifications.
systems. These are ASTM A422, Standard Specifica-
ASTM publishes the Annual Book of ASTM Stan- tion for Butt Welds in Still Tubesfor Refinery Service
dards that incorporates new and revised standards. It is and ASTM F722, Standard Specification for Welded
currently composed of 15 sections comprising 65 vol- Joints for Ship-board Piping Systems. ASTM E190,
umes and an index. Specifications for the metal prod- Guided Bend Test for Ductility of Welds, is presently
ucts,
test
methods,andanalytical
proceduresof theonlyASTMtestingspecification that is solely
interest to the welding industry are found in the first intended for welds.
three sections, comprising 17 volumes. Section 1 cov-
ers ironandsteelproducts;Section 2, nonferrous American Water Works Association
metal products; and Section3, metal test methods and The American Water Works Association ( A W A )
analytical procedures. Copies of single specifications currently has two standards that pertain to the welding
are also available from ASTM. of waterstorageandtransmissionsystems.Oneof
Prefix letters, whichare part of each specifications these standards wasdeveloped jointly with and
alpha-numeric designation, provide a general idea of adopted by the American Welding Society.
the specification content. They include A for ferrous Standard for Field Weldingof Steel Water Pipe Joints
metals, B for nonferrous metals, and E for miscella- C206. This standard coversfield welding of steel water
neoussubjectsincludingexaminationandtesting. pipe. It includes the welding of circumferential pipe
When ASME adopts an ASTM specification for cer- joints as we11 as other welding required in the fabrica-
tain applications, either in its entirety or in a revised tion and installation of specials and accessories. The
form, it adds anS in frontof the ASTM letter prefix. maximum wall thickness of pipe covered by this stan-
Many ASTM specifications include supplementary dard is 31.8 mm (1.25 in.).
requirements that mustbe specified bythe purchaser if StandardforWeldedSteelElevatedTanks,Stand-
they are desired.Thesemayincludevacuumtreat- pipes, andReservoirsforWaterStorage, DIO0 (AWS
ment, additional tension tests, impact tests, or ultra- D5.2). This standard covers the fabrication of water
so& examination. storage tanks. An elevated tank is one supported on a
The producerof a material or product is responsible tower. A standpipe is a flat-bottomed cylindrical tank
for compliance with all mandatory and specified sup- having ashell height greater thanits diameter. A reser-
plementaryrequirements of theappropriateASTM voir is a flat-bottomed cylindrical tank having a shell
specification. The user of the material is responsible height equal toor smaller thanits diameter. In addition
for verifying that the producer has complied with all to welding details, this standard specifies the responsi-
requirements. bilities of the purchaser and the contractor for such
Somecodespermittheusertoperform the tests items as the foundation plans, the foundation itself,
required by ASTMor other specification to verify that water for pressure testing, and asuitable right-of-way
amaterialmeetsrequirements.Iftheresultsofthe from the nearest public road
for on-site erection.
tests conform to the requirements of the designated American Welding Society
specification, the material can
be
used for the TheAmericanWeldingSociety (AWS) publishes
application. numerousdocumentscovering the useandquality

~~~ ~~ ~~ ~
~
STD.AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 OSLb849 IJTO m

Welding 16 675
control of welding. These documents include codes, level applies to systems that require a high degree of
specifications, recommended practices, classifications, weld quality. Examples are lines in nuclear, chemical,
methods, and guides. The general subject areas cov- cryogenic,gas, or steamsystems. The other level
ered are: applies to systems requiring average
an degree of weld
(1) Definitions and symbols quality, suchas low-pressure heating, air-conditioning,
(2) Filler metals sanitary water, and some gas or chemical systems.
(3) Qualification and testing AWS 82.2, Standard for Brazing Procedure and Per-
(4) Welding processes formance Qualification.The requirements for qualifica-
( 5 ) Welding applications tion of brazingprocedures,brazers,andbrazing
(6) safety operators for furnace, machine, and automatic brazing
Definitions and Symbols are covered by this publication. It is to be used when
required by other documents, suchas codes, specifica-
ANSUAWS A2.4 Symbols for Welding,Brazing,and
tions, or contracts.Those documents must specify cer-
Nondestructive Examination.This publication describes
tain
requirementsapplicable to the production
the standard symbols used to convey welding, brazing,
brazement.Applicablebasemetals are carbonand
and nondestructive testing requirements on drawings.
Symbols in this publication are intended to facilitate alloy steels, cast iron, aluminum, copper, nickel, tita-
communicationsbetweendesignersandfabrication nium, zirconium, magnesium, and cobalt alloys.
personnel. Typical information that can be conveyed AWS 82.1, Standard for Welding Procedure and Per-
withweldingsymbols includes type of weld, joint formance Qualification.This standard provides require-
geometry, weldsize or effective throat, extentof weldments for qualification of welding procedures,
ing, and contour and surfacefinish of the weld. welders, and welding operators. It may be referenced
ANSUAWS A3.0, Standard Welding Terms and Defini- in aproductcode,specification, or contractdocu-
tions. This publication lists and defines the standard ments. If a contract document is not specific, certain
terms that should be used in oral and written commu- additional requirements must also bespecified, as
nications conveying welding, brazing, soldering, ther- listed in this standard. Applicable base metalsare car-
mal spraying,
and
thermal
cutting
information. bon andalloy steels,castirons,aluminum, copper,
Nonstandard termsare also included; theseare defined nickel, and titanium alloys.
by reference tothe standard terms. ANSUAWS C3.2, Standard Method for Evaluating the
Filler Metals StrengthofBrazedJoints in Shear. This standard
A listing of AWS specifications for filler metals is describes a test method used to obtain reliable shear
shown in Appendix 17. strengths of brazed joints. For comparison purposes,
specimen preparation, brazing practices, and testing,
Qualification and Testing
procedures mustbe consistent. Production brazed joint
AWSC2.16, Guide for Thermal Spray Operator and strength may not be the same as test joint strength if
EquipmentQualification. This guide provides for the the brazing practices are different. With furnace braz-
qualification of operators and equipmentfor applying ing, for example,the actual part temperatureor time at
thermal sprayed coatings. It recommends procedural temperature, or both,duringproduction may vary
guidelines for qualification testing.The criteria used to from those used to determinejoint strength.
judge acceptability are determined by the certifying
agent aloneor together withthe purchaser. ANSVAWS 84.0 StandardMethodsforMechanical
TestingofWelds. This document describes the basic
AWS D10.9, Speclficatlon for Qualification of Welding mechanical tests used for evaluation of welded joints,
Procedures and WeldersforPipingandTubing. This weldability, and hot cracking. The tests applicable to
standard applies specificallyto qualifications for tubu- welded butt joints are tension, Charpy impact, drop-
lar products, Itcovers circumferential groove andfillet weight, dynamic-tear, and bend tests. Tests of fillet
welds
but excludes welded longitudinal
seams welds are limited to break and shear tests.
involved in pipe and tube manufacture. An organiza-
tion may make this specification the governing docu- For welding materials and procedure qualifications,
ment for qualifying welding procedures and welders the mostcommonlyused tests are round-tension,
by referencingit in the contract and by specifyingone reduced-sectiontension,face-,root-,andside-bend,
of the two levels ofacceptancerequirements. One andCharpyV-notchimpact. Fillet weldtests are
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb850 912 W
employed to determine proper welding techniques and Welding Applications

conditions, and the shear strength of welded joints for AWS publishes standards that cover various appli-
design purposes. cations of welding. The subjectsand appropriate docu-
AWS B1.lO, Guide for the Nondestructive Inspection ments are listed below.
of Welds. This standard describes the common nonde- Automotive
structive methods for examining welds. The methods Automotive Portable Gun Resistance-Spot Welding,
included are visual, penetrant, magnetic particle, radi- Recommended Practices for, AWS D8.5
ography, ultrasonic and eddy currentinspection. Automotive Resistance SpotWeldingElectrodes,
Welding Processes Standard for, AWS D8. 6
AWS publishes recommended practices and guides Automotive Welding Design, Recommended Prac-
for arc and oxyfuel gas welding and cutting; brazing; tices for, AWS D8.4
resistance welding; and thermal spraying. The follow- Automotive Weld Quality-Resistance Spot Welding,
ing is a list of processes and applicable documents. Specification for, AWS D8.7
Machinery and Equipment
Arc and Gas Welding and Cutting
Earthmoving and Construction Equipment, Specifi-
AirCarbon-Arc Gougingand Cutting, Recom- cation for Welding, AWS D14.3
mended Practicesfor, ANSYAWS C5.3 Industrial andMill Crane andOther Material Han-
ElectrogasWelding,Recommended Practices for, dling Equipment, Specification for Welding, ANSY
AWS C5.7 AWS D14.1
Gas Metal Arc Welding, Recommended Practices Machineryand
Equipment, Classification and
for, AWS C5.6 Application of Welded Joints for, AWS D14.4
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding,Recommended Prac- Metal Cutting Machine Tool Weldments, Specifica-
ticesfor, AWS C5.5 tionfor, ANSYAWS D14.2
Oxyfuel Gas Cutting, Operator 'S Manual for, AWS PressesandPress Components, Spec$cation for
C4.2 Welding of,AWS D14.5
Plasma Arc Cutting, Recommended Practices for, Railroad WeldingSpecification, ANSUAWS D 15.1
AWS C5.2 Rotating Elements of Equipment, Specification for,
AWS D14.6
Plasma Arc Welding, Recommended Practices for,
AWS C5.1 Marine
Stud Welding, Recommended Practices for, ANSY Aluminum Hull Welding, Guide for, ANSUAWS
AWS C5.4 D3.7
Steel Hull Welding, Guidefor, ANSYAWS D3.5
Brazing
Underwater Welding, Specification for, ANSYAWS
Design,Manufacture,and Inspection of Critical D3.6
BrazedComponents,RecommendedPractices for,
Piping and Tubing
AWS C3.3
Aluminum and Aluminum Alloy Pipe, Recom-
Resistance Welding mended Practices for Gas Shielded Arc Welding of,
Resistance Welding,Recommended Practices for, ANSYAWS D10.7
AWS C1.1 Austenitic Chromium Nickel Stainless Steel Piping
Resistance WeldingCoated Low Carbon Steels, andTubing,Recommended Practices for Welding,
Recommended Practicesfor, AWS C1.3 ANSYAWS D10.4
Chromium-Molybdenum Steel Piping and Tubing,
Thermal Spraying
Recommended Practices for Welding of, ANSUAWS
T h e m l Spraying: Practice, Theory, and D10.8
Application Local Heat Treatment of Welds in Piping and Tub-
Metallizing with Aluminum and Zinc for Protection ing, AWS D1O.10
of Iron and Steel, Recommended Practices for, AWS Plain Carbon Steel Pipe, Recommended Practices
c2.2 and Proceduresfor Welding,AWS D10.12

Licensed by Information Handling
~ ~ _ _ _ _
~ _
~
Services
~~
STD-AUS JWE-ENGL L777 m 07842b5 05Lb85L 859 m

Root Pass Weldingand Gas Purging,Recom- to buildings (static loading), bridges (dynamic load-
mended Practices for, ANSYAWS D10.11 ing), and tubular structures.
ltanium Piping and Tubing, Recommended Prac- Safety
tices'for Gas TungstenArcWelding of, ANSYAWS ANSYASC 249.1, Safety in Welding and Cutting,
D 10.6 wasdevelopedby the ANSIAccreditedStandards
Sheet Metal Committee 249, Safety in Welding and Cutting, and
then published by AWS. The purpose of the Standard
ANSYAWSD9.1, Specification for Welding of
is the protection of persons from injury and illness,
Sheet Metalcovers non-structural fabrication and erec-
and the protection of property from damage by fire
tion of sheet metalby welding for heating, ventilating,
andexplosionsarisingfromwelding, cutting, and
andairconditioningsystems;architecturalusages,
allied processes.
food-processing equipment, and similar applications.
It specificallycovers arc, oxyfuelgas,andresis-
Wheredifferentialpressures of morethan 30 kPa
tance welding, and thermal cutting, but the require-
(120 in.ofwater) or structuralrequirementsare
mentsaregenerallyapplicable to otherwelding
involved, other standards are tobe used.
processes as well.
Structural Welding The provisions of this standard are backed by the
ANSYAWS D1.2, Structural
Welding Code- force of law since they are included in the General
Aluminum, addresses welding requirementsfor alumi- Industry Standards of the U.S. Department of Labor,
num alloy structures. It is used in conjunction with Occupational Safety and Health Administration.
appropriate complementary codes or specifications for Othersafetyandhealthstandardspublished by
materials,design,andconstruction. The structures AWS include the following:
covered are tubulardesignsandstaticanddynamic Electron Beam Welding and Cutting, Recommended
nontubular designs. Safe Practices for, AWS F2.1
ANSYAWS D 1.4,Structural Welding Code-Rein- EvaluatingContaminantsintheWeldingEnviron-
forcing Steel, applies to the welding of concrete rein- ment, A Sampling StrategyGuide, AWS F1.3
forcing steel for splices (prestressing steel excepted), Measuring Fume Generation Rates and Total Fume
steel connection devices, inserts, anchors, anchorage Emission for Welding and Allied Processes, Labora-
details, and other welding in reinforced concrete con- tory Method for, ANSYAWS F1.2
struction. Welding may be done in a fabrication shop Preparation for Welding andCuttingContainers
orinthefield.Whenweldingreinforcingsteelto and Piping That Have Held Hazardous Substances,
primary structural members, the provisions of ANSY Recommended Safe Practices for the, AWS F4.1
AWS Dl. 1, StructuralWelding Code-Steel, also Sampling AirborneParticulates Generated by
apply. Welding and Allied Processes, Method for, ANSV
ANSYAWS D l .3, Structural Welding Code-Sheet AWS F1.1
Steel, appliesto the arcwelding of sheetandstrip Sound Level Measurement of Manual Arc Welding
steel, including cold-formed members, that are 5 mm and Cutting Processes, Method for, AWS F6.1
(0.18in.) or less inthickness.Thewelding may Thema1 Spraying,RecommendedSafe Practices
involve connections of sheet or strip steel to thicker for, AWS C2.1
supportingstructuralmembers.Whensheetsteel is Association of American Railroads
welded to primary structural members, the provisions Manual of StandardsandRecommendedPractices.
of ANSYAWS Dl. 1, Structural Welding Code-Steel, The primary sourceof welding information relating to
also apply. the construction of new railway equipmentis the Man-
ANSYAWS Dl. 1, Structural Welding Code-Steel, ual of StandardsandRecommended Practices pre-
coversweldingrequirementsapplicable to welded paredby the MechanicalDivision,Association of
structures of carbon- and low-alloy steels. It is to be American Railroads (AAR). This manual includes
used in conjunction with any complementary code or specifications, standards, and recommended practices
specification for the design and construction of steel adopted by the Mechanical Division. Several sections
structures. It is notintendedtoapplytopressure of the manual relate to welding, and the requirements
vessels, pressure piping,or base metalsless than 3 mm are similar to those ofANSYAWS Dl .l, Structural
(1/8 in.) thick. There are sections devoted exclusively Welding CodePteel. This Code is frequently refer-
STD=AWS JWE-ENGL L997 W 07842b5 051b852 795 m
678 Appendix16 Welding Encyclopedia
enced, particularly with regard to weld procedure and required tobe in accordance with (1) the latest recom-
performance qualification. mendations of the American Welding Society,(2) The
TheAmericanWeldingSocietypublishes AWS Specifications for Design, Fabrication, and Construc-
D 15.1,Railroad Welding Specifcation. AWS D 15.1 is tion of Freight Cars, and(3) the welding requirements
written by the Committee on Railroad Welding, which of the Specificationsfor Tank Cars.
is madeupofrepresentatives ofAAR andAWS. FieldManualofAssociation of AmericanRailroads
ANSYAWS D15.1, RailroadWeldingSpecfcation, InterchangeRules. Thismanualcovers the repair of
has been endorsed by the AAR. Revisions of the Man- existing railway equipment.The U.S. railway network
ual of Standards and RecommendedPractices refer to is made up of numerous interconnecting systems, and
AWS D15 1 for all welding requirementson construc- it is often necessary forone system to make repairs on
tion and maintenanceof steel and aluminum railcars. equipment of another system. The repair methods are
The sections of the current Manual of Standards detailed and specific so that they may be used as the
and Recommended Practices that relate to welding are basis for standard charges between the various railroad
summarized below, companies.
Section C, Part II, Specifications for Design, Fabrica- Canadian Standards Association
tion and Construction of Freight Cars. This specifica- The CanadianStandardsAssociation(CSA) is a
tion covers the general welding practices for freight voluntary membership organization engaged in stan-
carconstruction.Weldingprocessesandprocedures dards development and also testing and certification.
other than those listed in the document may be used. The CSA is similar to ANSI in the United States, but
However, they must conform to established welding ANSI does not test and certify products. ACSA Certi-
standardsorproprietarycarbuildersspecifications, fication Mark assures buyers that a product conforms
and produce welds of quality consistent with design to acceptable standards.
requirements and good manufacturing techniques, The ExamplesofCSAweldingdocuments are the
weldingrequirements are similarto,thoughnot as following:
detailed as those in ANSYAWS Dl. 1, Structural Weld- AluminumWelding
Qualification Code, CSA
ing Code-Steel. The qualification of weldersand W47.2
welding operators must be done in accordance with Certifcation of Companies for Fusion Welding of
the AWS Code. Steel Structures, CSA W47. 1
Section C, Part 111, Specification for Tank Cars. This Code for Safety in Welding and Cutting (Require-
specificationcoverstheconstruction of railroadcar ments for Welding Operators), CSA W1 17.2
tanksused for the transportationofhazardousand Qualification Code for Welding Inspection Organi-
non-hazardous materials. The requirements for fusion zations, CSA W178
welding of the tanks, and for qualifying welders and Resistance Welding Qualification Code for Fabri-
weldingprocedures to beusedaredescribedinan cators of Structural Members Used in Buildings, CSA
appendix.Asecondappendixdescribestherequire- w55.3
ments for repairs, alterations, or conversions of car Welded Aluminum Design and Workmanship (Inert
tanks. If welding is required, it must be performedby Gas Shielded Arc Processes), CSA S244
facilities certified by AAR in accordance with a third WeldedSteelConstruction (Metal Arc Welding),
appendix. The rulesfor welding on the tanks are cov- CSA W59
ered by the ASMEBoiler and Pressure VesselCode. Welding Electrodes, CSA W48 Series
The U.S.Department of Transportation(DOT) Welding of Reinforcing Bars in Reinforced Concrete
issues
regulationscoveringthe
transportationof Construction, CSA W186
explosives, radioactive materials, and other dangerous Compressed Gas Association
articles. Requirements for tank cars are set forth in The CompressedGas Association (CGA) promotes,
the United States Code of Federal Regulations, Title develops,represents,andcoordinatestechnicaland
49,Sections173.314,173.316,and179,which are standardization activitiesin the compressedgas indus-
included at the endof the AAR specifications. tries, including end uses of products.
Section D, Trucks and Truck Details. The procedures, The Handbook of Compressed Gases, published by
workmanship, and qualification of welders employed CGA, is asource of basicinformationaboutcom-
in the fabrication of steel railroad truck frames are pressedgases,includingtransportation,uses,and

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 1993 m 07842b5 0516853 b2L m
safety considerations, and also the rules and regulations. Part 1910 covers generalindustry;Part1926
tions pertainingto them. covers the constructionindustry.Theseregulations
Standards for Welding and Brazing on Thin Walled were derived primarily from national consensus stan-
Containers, CGA C-3, is directly related tothe use of dards of ANSI and the NFPA.
weldingandbrazingin the manufacture of DOT- Similarly, the U.S. Department of Transportation is
regulatedcompressed gas cylinders. It coverspro- responsible for regulating the transportationof hazard-
cedureand operator qualification,inspection,and ous materials, petroleum, and petroleum products by
container repair. pipeline in interstate commerce. Itsrules are published
The following CGA publications contain informa- under Title 49 of the United Sates Code of Federal
tion on the properties,manufacture,transportation, Regulations, Pan 195. Typical of the many national
storage, handling, and useof gases commonly used in consensus standards incorporated by reference in these
welding operations: regulations are API Standard 1104 and ASME B3 1.4.
Acetylene, G- 1 The U. S . Department of Transportation is also
Commodity Specificationfor Acetylene, G- l. 1 responsible for regulating merchant shipsof American
Carbon Dioxide,G-6 registry. It is empowered to controlthe design, fabrica-
Commodity Specifcation for Carbon Dioxide, tion, and inspection of these ships by Title 46 of the
G-6.2 United States Code of Federal Regulations.
Hydrogen, G-5 The U.S. Coast Guardis responsible for performing
Commodity Specificationfor Hydrogen, G-5.3 the inspections of merchant ships. The Marine Engi-
Oxygen, G-4 neering Regulations incorporate references to national
Commodity Specificationfor Oxygen, G-4.3 consensusstandards,such as thosepublished by
The InertGases Argon, Nitrogen, and Helium,P-9 ASME, ANSI, and ASTM. These rules cover repairs
Commodity Specificationfor Argon, G-11.1 and alterations that must be performed with the cogni-
Commodity Specificationfor Helium, G-9.1 zanceof the localCoastGuardMarineInspection
Commodity Specificationfor Nitrogen, G-10.1 Officer.
Safetyconsiderationsrelated to thegasescom- The U.S. Department of Energy is responsible for
monly used in welding operationsare discussed in the the development and use of standards by government
following CGA pamphlets: and industry for the design, construction, and opera-
HandlingAcetylene Cylinders inFire Situations, tion of safe,reliable,andeconomicnuclearenergy
SB-4 facilities.Nationalconsensusstandards,such as the
Oxygen-Deficient Atmospheres,SB-2 ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Sections III
Safe Handling of Compressed Gases in Containers, and IX, and ANSUAWS D1.l, StructuralWelding
P- 1 Code-Steel, are referred to in full or in part. These
Federal Government standards are supplemented by separate program stan-
Several departments of the federal government, dards, knownas RDT Standards.
including the GeneralServicesAdministration, are Military and Federal Specifications.Military specifi-
responsible for developing weldingstandards or cations are prepared by the Department of Defense.
adopting existing standards,or both. More than48 O00 Theycovermaterials,products, or servicesspecifi-
standards have been adopted by the federal government.cally for military use, and commercialitems modified
Consensus Standards. The U.S. Departments of to meet military requirements. Military specifications
Labor, Transportation, and Energy are primarily con- have document designations beginning with the prefix
cerned with adopting existing national consensusstan- MIL. They are issued as either coordinated or limited-
dards, buttheyalsomakeamendmentstothese coordinationdocuments.
Coordinated
documents
standardsorcreateseparatestandards,asnecessary. cover itemsorservicesrequired bymorethan one
For example, the OccupationalSafetyandHealth branch of themilitary.Limitedcoordinationdocu-
Administration (OSHA) of the Department of Labor ments cover items or services of interest to a single
issuesregulationscoveringoccupationalsafetyand branch. If a document is of limited coordination, the
health protection. The welding portions of standards branch of the military which uses the document will
adopted or established by OSHA are published under appear in parentheses in thedocumentdesignation.
Title 29 of the United States Code of Federal Regula- The Department of Defense has begun to replace mili-
Licensed by Information Handling Services ~ ~~ ~~ ~~ ~
S T D - A W S JWE-ENGL 1,997 m O~WV,~ o s ~ 5 4 m
tary specificationswithconsensusstandards in the For a listing of military and federal specifications

interest of economy. that pertain to welding, brazing, and soldering, refer to
Two current military specifications cover thequali- American Welding Society, Welding Handbook, Vol.
fication of welding procedures or welder performance, 1, 8th Edition,Miami,Florida:American Welding
or both. One is MIL-STD-1595, Qualification ofAir- Society, 1987.
craft, Missile, and Aerospace FusionWelders. The International Organization for Standardization
other, MIL-STD-248,Welding and Brazing Procedure The International Organization for Standardization
and PeqGormunce Qualification, covers the require- (EO) promotes the developmentof standards to facili-
ments for the qualification of welding and brazing pro- tate the international exchange of goods and services.
cedures,welders,brazers,andweldingandbrazing It is comprised of the standards-writing bodiesof more
operators.Itallowsthefabricatortosubmit for than 80 countries and has adopted or developed over
approvalcertified
records of qualification tests 4000 standards.
prepared in conformance with the standards of other ANSI is the designated U.S. representative to ISO.
government agencies, ABS, ASME, or other organiza- IS0 standardsandpublicationsareavailablefrom
tions. Its use is mandatory when referenced by other ANSI.
specifications or contractual documents. The IS0 standards that relate to welding have been
MIL-STD- 1595 establishes the procedure for quali- categorized into six groups: (1) General, (2) Arc and
fying welders and welding operators engaged in the GasWeldingandCuttingProcesses, (3) Resistance
fabrication of components for aircraft, missiles, and Welding Processes, (4)Filler Metals and Electrodes,
otheraerospaceequipment by fusionwelding pro- (5) Design, and (6) Testing and Evaluation. For a list-
cesses. This standard is applicable when required in ing of IS0 standards, refer to American Welding Soci-
thecontractingdocuments, or wheninvokedinthe ety, WeldingHandbook, Vol, I, 8thEdition,Miami,
absence of a specified welder qualification document. Florida: American Welding Society, 1987.
MIL-STD-1595supersededMIL-T-502 1, Tests; National Boardof Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors
Aircraft and Missile WeldingOperator 'S Qualification, The National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessels
which is obsolete. However, MIL-T-5021is still refer- (NBBPVI), often referred to as the National Board,
enced by other current government specifications and representstheenforcementagenciesempowered to
contract documents. Whenso referenced, a contractor assure adherence to the ASME Boiler und Pressure
has to perform the technically obsolete tests required Vessel Code. Its members are the chief inspectors or
by this standard. other jurisdictional authoritieswhoadministerthe
Federal specifications are developed for materials, boiler and pressure vessel safety laws in the various
products, and services that are used by two or more jurisdictions of the United States andprovinces of
Federalagencies, one ofwhich is notadefense Canada.
agency. Federal specifications are classified into broad The National Boardis involved in the inspection of
categories. The QQ group, for example, covers metals new boilers and pressure vesseMt maintains a regis-
and most welding specifications. Soldering and braz- tration system for use by manufacturers who desireor
ing fluxes are in the O-F group. are required by law to register the boilers or pressure
Somemilitaryandfederalspecificationsinclude vessels that they have constructed, The National Board
requirements for testing and approval of a material, is also responsible for investigating possible violations
process, or piece of equipment before its submission of the ASME Boiler andPressureVessel Code by
for use under the specification. If the acceptance tests either commissioned inspectorsor manufacturers.
pass the specificationrequirements,thematerial or The National Board publishes a number of pam-
equipment will be included in the applicableQualified phletsandformsconcerningthemanufactureand
Products List (QPL). In other specifications, the sup- inspection of boilers,pressurevessels,andsafety
plier is responsible for product conformance. This is valves. It also publishes theNational Board Inspection
often the case for welded fabrications. The supplier Code for the guidance of its members, commissioned
must show evidence that the welding procedures and inspectors, and others. The purpose of this code is to
theweldersarequalifiedinaccordancewiththe maintain the integrity of boilers and pressure vessels
requirements of the specification, and must certifythe after they have been placed in service by providing
test report. rules and guidelines for inspection after installation,

~-
~~
-~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 M 078q2b5 05Lb855 YTq m

repair, alteration, or re-rating. In addition, it provides Installation of Blower and Exhaust Systems for
inspection guidelines for authorized inspectors during Dust, Stock, and Vapor Removal or Conveying, NFPA
fabrication of boilers and pressure vessels. 91
In some states, organizations that desire to repair Standard on Aircraft Maintenance, NFPA 410
boilers and pressure vessels must obtain the National Again, the user should check the standards to deter-
Board Repair (R) stampby application to the National mine those that apply the
to particular situation.
Board. The firm must qualify all welding procedures
Pipe Fabrication Institute
and welders in accordance with theASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code, Section R,and the results must The Pipe Fabricating
Institute (PH) publishes
be accepted by the inspection agency. The firm must numerous documents for use by the piping industry.
also have and demonstrate a quality control system Some of the standards have mandatory status because
similar to, but not as comprehensive as that required they are referenced in one or more piping codes. The
for an ASMEcode symbol stamp. purpose of PFI standards is to promote uniformity of
National Fire Protection Association
piping fabrication in areas not specifically coveredby
codes. Other P H documents, such as technical bulle-
The mission of the NationalFire Protection Associ- tins, are not mandatory, but they aid the piping fabrica-
ation (NFPA) is the safeguarding of people and their tor
in
meetingtherequirements of codes. The
environment from destructive fire through the use of following PFI standards relate directly to welding.
scientific and engineering techniques and education.
The NFPA standards are widely used as the basis of End Preparation and Machined Backing Rings for
legislation and regulation at all levels of government. Butt Welds, ES1
Many are referenced in the regulations of OSHA. The Manual Gas Tungsten Arc Root Pass Welding End
standards are also used by insurance authorities for Preparation and Fit upTolerances, ES2 1
risk evaluation and premium rating. Minimum Length and Spacing for Welded Nozzles,
ES7
Installation of Gas Systems. NFPA publishes several
standards that present general principlesfor the instal- Preheat andPostheat Treatment of Welds, ES 19
lation of gas supply systems and the storage and han- Recommended Practice for Welding of Transition
dling of gases commonly usedin welding and cutting: Joints Between Dissimilar Steel Combinations, ES28
Bulk Oxygen Systems at Consumer Sites, NFPA 50 Welded LoadBearing Attachments to Pressure
Design and installation of Oxygen-Fuel Gas Sys- Retaining Piping Materials, ES26
tems for Welding and Cutting and Allied Processes, VisualExamination-The Purpose, Meaning, and
NFPA 51 Limitation of the Term, ES27
Gaseous Hydrogen Systems at Consumer Sites, SA
NFPA 50A
National Fuel Gas Code,NFPA 54
SAE (formerly the Society of AutomotiveEngi-
neers) is concerned with the research, development,
Storage andHandling of Liquefied Petroleum
design, manufacture, and operation of all types of self-
Gases, NFPA 58
propelled machinery. Such machinery includes auto-
Users shouldcheck each standard to seeif it applies
mobiles,trucks,buses,farmmachines,construction
to theirparticularsituation.Forexample, NFPA 51
equipment, airplanes, helicopters, and space vehicles.
does not apply to a system comprised of a torch, regu-
Related areas of interest to SAE are fuels, lubricants,
lators, hoses, and single cylinders of oxygen and fuel
and engineering materials.
gas. Such a system is covered by ANSYAWS 249.1,
Safety in Welding and Cutting. AutomotiveStandards. Several
SAEwelding-
Safety related automotive standards are written in coopera-
NFPA publishes several standards which relate to tion with AWS. These are:
the safe use of welding and cutting processes: Automotive Resistance SpotWelding Electrodes,
Cleaning Small Tanks and Containers, NFPA 327 Standardfor, HS J1156 (AWS D8.6)
Control of Gas Hazards on Vessels to be Repaired, Automotive WeldQuality-ResistanceSpot Weld-
NFPA 306 ing, Specificationfor, HS J1188 (AWS D8.7)
Fire Protection in Use of Cutting andWelding Automotive Frame Weld
Qua1ityArc Welding,
Processes, NFPA 5 1B Speci)?cationfor, HS J1196 (AWS D8.8)
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 W 07842b5 053685b 330 m
Aerospace Material Specifications. Material specifi- Over 500 of the listed numbers are for welding and
cations are published by SAE for use by the aerospace brazing filler metals. Numbers with the prefix W are
industry.
The
AerospaceMaterial
Specifications assigned to welding filler metals that are classified by
(AMS) cover fabricated parts, tolerances, quality con- deposited metal composition.
trol procedures, and processes. Underwriters Laboratories,Inc.
For a listing of welding-relatedA M s specifications,
refer to AmericanWeldingSociety, WeldingHand- Underwriters Laboratories, Inc., (UL) is a not-for-
book, Vol. 1, 8th Edition, Miami, Florida: American profit organization which operates laboratoriesfor the
Welding Society, 1987. examinationandtestingofdevices,systems,and
materials to determine their relation to hazards to life
Unified Numbering System and property. UL Standards for Safety are developed
The Unified Numbering System (UNS) provides a underaprocedurewhichprovides for participation
method for cross referencing the different number- andcommentfrom the affectedpublic as well as
ing systems used to identify metals, alloys, and industry. This procedure takesinto consideration a sur-
welding filler metals. WithUNS, it is possible to vey of known existing standards, and the needs and
correlate over 4400 metals and alloys used in a vari- opinions of a wide variety of interests concerned with
ety of specifications, regardless of the identifying the subject matter of a given standard. These interests
number usedbya society, trade association, pro- include manufacturers, consumers, individuals associ-
ducer, or user. ated with consumer-oriented organizations, academi-
UNS is produced jointly by SAE and ASTM, and cians, government officials, industrial and commercial
designated SAE HSJ1086lASTM DS56. Itcross refer- users, inspection authorities, insurance interests, and
ences the numbered metal and alloy designations of others. Examples of standards which contain welding
the following organizations and systems: requirements are the following:
AA (Aluminum Association) Tanks,Steel Aboveground, for Flammableand
AC1 (Steel Founders Societyof America) Combustible Liquids, UL 58
AIS1 (American Iron andSteel Institute) Tanks,SteelUnderground, for Flammable and
Combustible Liquids, UL 142
ASME (American Society of Mechanical
Engineers) Both of these standards include details relating to the
types of welded joints that are allowed to be used and
ASTM (Formerly American Societyfor Testing and how they are to be tested.
Materials
UL should be contacted if no standard canbe found
AWS (American Welding Society) for a particular product.The UL Standards for Safety
CDA (Copper Development Association) pertain to more than 11 O00 product types in over 500
Federal Specifications generic product categories.
MIL (Military Specifications) Source: American Welding Society,Welding Hand-
SAE (Formerly Societyof Automotive Engineers) book, Vol. 1, 8th Edition. Miami, Florida: American
AMS (SAE Aerospace Materials Specifications) Welding Society, 1987.

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 051b857 277
Appendix 17
Filler Metal Specifications
The AWS filler metalspecifications cover most Covered Corrosion-Resisting Chromium and Chro-
types of consumables used with the various welding mium-Nickel Steel WeldingElectrodes, Specification
and brazing processes.The specifications include both for, ANSVAWS A5.4
mandatory and nonmandatory provisions. The manda- Flux-Cored Corrosion-Resisting Chromium and
toryprovisions cover suchsubjects as chemical or Chromium-Nickel Steel Electrodes, Specification for,
mecbanical properties, or both, manufacture, testing, ANSYAWS A522
and
packaging.The
nonmandatoryprovisions, Iron and Steel Oxyjel Gas Welding Rods, Specifi-
included in an appendix, are provided as a source of cation for, ANSYAWS A5.2
information for the user on the classification, descrip- Low Alloy Steel Covered Arc Welding Electrodes,
tion, and intended use of the filler metals covered. Specificationfor, ANSYAWS A5.5
Following is a current listing of AWS filler metal Low Alloy Steel Electrodes and Fluxes for Sub-
specifications. merged Arc Welding, Specification for, ANSYAWS
A l m i n u n and Aluminum Alloy Bare Welding Rods A5.23
and Electrodes, Specificationfor, ANSYAWS A5.10 Low Alloy Steel Electrodes for Flux Cored Arc
Aluminum and Aluminum Alloy Covered Arc Weld- Welding, Specificationfor, ANSYAWS A529
ing Electrodes, Specificationfor, ANSYAWS A5.3 Low Alloy Steel Filler Metals for Gas Shielded Arc
Brazing Filler Metal, Specificationfor, ANSYAWS Welding, Specificationfor, ANSYAWS A5.28
M.8 Magnesium Alloy Welding Rods andBare Elec-
Composite Surfacing Welding Rods and Electrodes, trodes, Specificationfor, ANSYAWS A5.19
Specijkation for, ANSYAWS A5.21 Nickel andNickel Alloy BareWelding Rods and
Carbon Steel Electrodes for Flux Cored Arc Weld- Electrodes, Specificationfor, ANSYAWS A5.14
ing, Specification for, ANSYAWS A520 Nickel and Nickel Alloy CoveredWelding Elec-
Carbon Steel Electrodes and Fluxes for Submerged trodes, Specificationfor, ANSYAWS A511
Arc Wdding, Specificationfor, ANSVAWS A5.11 Solid Surfacing WeldingRods and Electrodes, Spec-
Carbon Steel Filler Metals for Gas Shielded Arc ificationfor, ANSVAWS A5.13
Welang, Specificationfor, ANSYAWS A518 Etanium and Etanium Alloy BareWelding Rods
Consumable Inserts, Specification for, ANSYAWS and Electrodes, Specificationfor, ANSYAWS A5.16
A5.30 Tungsten Arc Welding Electrodes, Specification for,
Conrumbles Used for Electrogas Welding of Car- ANSYAWS A5.12
bon and High Strength Low Alloy Steels, Specification Welding Rods andCovered Electrodes for Cast
for, ANSYAWS A5.26 Iron, Specificationfor, ANSYAWS A5.15
Consumables Usedfor Electroslag Weldingof Car- Zirconium and Zirconium Alloy Bare Welding Rods
bon und High Strength Low Alloy Steels, Specification and Electrodes, Specificationfor, ANSYAWS A5.24
for, ANSVAWS A525 Most AWS filler metalspecificationshavebeen
Copper and Copper Alloy Bare Welding Rods and approved by ANSI as American National Standards
Electdes, Specificationfor, ANSYAWS A5.1 and are adopted by ASME. When ASME adopts an
Copper and Copper Alloy Rods for Oxyjel Gas AWS filler metal specification, either in its entirety or
Welding. Specificationfor, ANSYAWS A5.21 with revisions, it adds the letters SF to the AWS
Comion-Resisting Chromium and Chromium- alphanumeric designation. Thus, ASME SFA-5.4
Nickel Steel Bareand Composite MetalCoredand specification would be similar, if not identical, to the
Stranded Arc Welding Electrodes and Welding Rods, AWS A5.4 specification.
Specificationfor, ANSYAWS A5.9 AWS also publishes the following documents to aid
Covered Carbon Steel Arc Welding Electrodes, users withthe purchase of filler metals:
Specificationfor, ANSYAWS A5.1 AWS A5.01, Filler Metal Procurement Guidelines,
C o v m d Copper and Copper AlloyArc Welding providesmethods for identification of filler metal
Eledrmks, Specification for, ANSYAWS A5.6 components,lotclassification of filler metals,and
683
S T D ~ A W SJWE-ENGL 1997 m 0 7 w z b s 0 s ~ b a s 8so3 m
684 Appendix 17 The Welding Encyclopedia
specification of the testing schedule in procurement of specific filler metals and their intended usage, as
documents. well as methods for classification,weldingproce-
The Filler Metal Comparison Charts provide lists dures, and safety considerations. Although reasonable
ofmanufacturersthatsupply filler metals in accor- care has been takenin the compilation and publication
dancewith
thevarious AWS specificationsand of the Users Guide to insure authenticity of the con-
provides the brand names. Conversely, theA W S spec- tents, no representation is made as to the accuracy or
ification, classification, and manufacturer of a filler reliabilityof this information.TheUsers Guide is
metal can be determined fromthe brand name. intendedsolelyasasupplementto the A W S Filler
The AWS Users Guide to Filler Metals is a collec- Metal Comparison Charts, and should not be negarded
tion of commentary information selected from the 30 as a substitute for the various A W S specifications to
technical standards writtenby the AWS Committee on which it refers. This publication is subject to revision
Filler Metal. The Users Guide provides descriptions at any time.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 051b859 0 4 T m
Appendix 18
Recommended Eye Protection
Arc W.ldlng and Cutting. Welding helmets or hand gas welding and cutting, a bright yellow flame may be
shields containing appropriate filter lenses and cover visible during torch brazing. A filter similar to that
plates must be used by welders, welding operators and used for oxyfuel gas welding and cutting should be
nearbypersonnelwhenviewinganarc.Suggested used for torch brazing.
shadre numbers for filter plates for various arc welding
and cutting processes are shown in Table 18-l . Thermal Spraying. The general requirements for the
Dnring submerged arc welding, the arc is covered protection of thermal spray operators are the same as
by flux and is not readily visible; therefore a welding for welders. Table 18-3 is a guide for the selection of
helmet is not needed. However, becausethe arc some- the proper filter shade number for viewing a specific
times flashes through the flux burden, the operator spraying operation.
should wear tinted safety glasses. LaserBeamWeldingandCutting. Eyeinjury is
O x y f u e F Gas Welding, Cutting, Brazing and Soldering. readilycausedbylaserbeams.Safety glasses are
Safety goggies with filter lenses (see Table 18-2) and available that are substantially transparent to visible
full conforming side shields must be worn when per- light but are opaque to specific laser beam outputs.
forming oxyfuel gas welding and cutting. For torch Selective filters for ruby, Nd-YAG, andother laser sys-
Brazing and soldering, safety spectacles with or with- tems are available. Glasses appropriate tothe specific
out side shields are recommended. As with oxyfuel laser system mustbe used.
Table 18-1
Suggested Viewing Filter Plates-Arc Processes
~ ~~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~~~~~
Lowest Shade Comfort Shade

OperatjeSI Welding Current, A Number NWbeP
ShieldedUnder
metal arc welding 60 7 -
60-1 60 7 10
12 10 160-250
14 250-550 11
Ga metal arc
Under
weldingarc cored
and flux 60 7 -
60-160 10 11
12 160-250 10
250-500 10 14
Under arc welding
Gas tungsten 50 8 10
50-150 8 12
14 10 150-550
UnderPlasma arc welding 20 6 6-8
20-100 8 10
12 100400 10
14 400-800 11
UnderPlasmaan:cuttingb 300 8 9
300400 9 12
400-800 10 14
Air-carbmarc cutting
Under 500
12 10
14 500-1000 11
a. To selea the best shade for the application,first select a dark shade. If it is difficult to see the operation properly, select successively
lighter shades until the operationis sufficiently visible for good control. However, do notgo below the lowest recommended number,
where given.
b. The suggested filters are for applications where the arc is clearly visible. Lighter shades may be used where the arc is hidden by the
work or submerged in water.
685
STDIAWS JWE-ENGL L777 W 07842b5 051b8b0 8 b L m
686 Appendix 18 Welding Encyclopedm
Table 18-2
Suggested Viewing FilterPlates-Oxyfuel Gas Processes
Plate Thickness
Comfort Shade
Operation mm in. NIUdX9
gas Oxyfuel Under 1/8 4,5
3.2-12.7 118-112 5,6
12.7 1/2 Over 6,5
Oxyfuel (steel)b 25 Under 1 374
25-125 14 4,5
Over 150 6 54
Torch brazing - - x4
Torch soldering - - 2
a. To select the best shade for the application, first select adark shade. If it is difficult tosee the operation properly, select successively
lighter shades until theoperation is sufficiently visible for good control. However, do go notbelow the lowest recommended mmber,
where given.
b. With oxyfuel gas welding or cutting, the flame emits strong yellow light. A filter platethat absorbs yellow orsodium wave lengths of
visible light should be used for good visibility.
Table 18-3
Recommended Eye Filter Plates
for Thermal Spraying Operations
Operation Numbers
flame Wire 2 to 4
ame Wire 3of molybdenum to 6
3 Flame powder
spraying of metal to 6
spraying
Flame ceramics of exothermics
or 4 to 8
Plasma 9 to 12
Fusing 4 to 8

Appendix 19
Automatic Welding Programs
HIGH PULSE
CURREM\CURRENT--,
FINAL TAPER CURRENT

START
CURRENT FINAL
CURRENT
INITIAL
CURREM LOW PULSE
I HIGHPULSE TIME
TIME
I
DELAY
TAPER
TIME
TIME
9W WELD TIME
DELAY TIME
WELDING CYCLE TIME
COOLING WATER
"1"""""""""""""""- I
SHIELDING GAS
"-" WIRE FEED SPEED

..r
.......................... I lI
* I
I
TRAVEL SPEED
""i:
METAL FILLER TIME DELAY STARTTRAVEL
STOP DELAY TIME
FILLER METAL START DELAY TIME
TRAVEL STOP
DELAY TIME
Figure 191-~pical GTAW or PAW Program for Automatic Welding
687
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 9 0784265 0516862 634 D
688 Appendix 19 The Welding Encyclopedia
WELDING CURRENT
START
CURRENT
-
SPEED
FEEDWIRE CURRENT
FILL
" - 4
r - - - L""""",
WELDING VOLTAGE
1
f .\. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
START
VOLTAGE
f'
m
CRATER FILL VOLTAGE
WELD TIME
CRATER MELTBACK Posmw
TIME
TIME
TIME
FILL
WELDING CYCLE TIME ' 1
Figure 19-2-Typical GMAW, FCAW, and SAW Program for Automatic Welding

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb8b3 570 m
Buyers Guide
The Buyers Guide is a list of products, manufacturers, and suppliers representative of major categories of
welding-reIatedproducts.Companieslistedwereexhibitorsat the 1996 AWS InternationalWeldingand
Fabricating Exposition in Chicago, Illinois, The list is categorized by producttype, followed by an alphabetical
list of the names and addressesof manufacturers and suppliers, with telephone and fax numbers.
WELDING EQUPMENT Miyachi

Unitek
Corporation
Unitrol Electronics Incorporated
AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE CONTROLS
Uniweld Products, Inc.
AMET, Inc.
Wall Colmonoy Corporation
Dimetrics, Incorporated
Gas Tech, Inc. Weldit, Inc.
Hobart Brothers Company CONTROLS
Hobart Lasers& Advanced Systems Computer Weld Technology, Incorporated
Jetline Engineering Inc. CYBO Robots
Liburdi Pulsweld Corporation Dimetrics, Incorporated
Miller Electric Manufacturing Company Entron Controls, Incorporated
Motoman, Inc. Esab Welding & Cutting Products
Oxo Welding Equipment Gilbert Industrial
Powcon Incorporated Hobart Lasers& Advanced Systems
Tri Tool Inc. Jetline Engineering Inc.
Weldline Automation Liburdi Pulsweld Corporation
BRAZING Livingston, Incorporated
AGA Gas, Inc. Medar, Inc.
Aluminum Association, Inc.,The Modular VisionSystems
American TorchTip Company N. A. Technologies Co.
BTU Contracts, Inc. National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ)
Controls Corporation of America Oxo Welding Equipment
Engdhard Corporation Process Welding Systems, Inc.
Flame Technologies, Incorporated Robotron
Fusion Incorporated Thermadyne Industries
Gas Tech, Inc. Thennadyne International
Goss8Incorporated Thermadyne Weldingproducts Canada, Ltd.
Harris Calorific Division,The Lincoln Electric Unitrol Electronics Incorporated
Company Weldcomputer Corporation
The Lincdn Electric Company Weldline Automation
Harris Welco -Division of J.W. Harris
Le@ Corporation ELECTROGAWELECTROSLAG
Lucas-Milhaupt, Inc., A Handy8z Harman Company Lincoln Electric Company, The
Metalworks, S.D.Hawkins National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ)
National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ) Navy Joining Center
National Torch Tip Co., Inc.
Nattco Products-An NTT Company ELECTRON BEAM
OTC-Daihen, Inc. American Torch Tip Company
PillzdCycle-Dyne AMET, Inc.
Robinson Technical Products Midwest Modular VisionSystems
Smith Eqyipment Manufacturing Company LLC National Excellence In Materials
Joining (NEMJ)
Thermadyne Industries Sciaky, Incorporated
Thermadyne International Special Welding
Services,
Inc. ,
Thennadyne Welding Products Canada, Ltd. Technical Materials Inc.
689

FRICTION WELDING Thermadyne International
National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ) Ltd.
Thermadyne Welding Products Canada,
Ramstud [USA] Inc. Thermal Dynamics
Special Welding Services, Inc. Trafimet USA, Inc.
Tregaskiss Ltd.
GMAW AUTOMATIC Tweco/Arcair
ABB Flexible Automation Incorporated Weld-Motion Inc.
AGA Gas,Inc. Weldline Automation
American & European Machinery, Incorporated Winona Manufacturing
American Torch Tip Company
American Weldquip Inc. GMAW MANUAL
AMET, Inc. AGAGas,Inc.
Binzel Corporation, Alexander American & European Machinery, Incorporated
C.E.A. Welding Equipment American Torch Tip Company
Cemont American Weldquip Inc.
CYBO Robots Bernard Welding
D/F Machine Specialties Incorporated Binzel Corporation, Alexander
Dimetrics, Incorporated C.E.A. Welding Equipment
ESAB Welding& Cutting Products Cebora S.P.A.
Gas Tech, Inc. Cemont
Genesis Systems Group Cho Heung Electric Ind. Co., Ltd.
Hobart Brothers Company D/F Machine Specialties Incorporated
RC Doyles SupplyInc.
Jetline Engineering Inc. ESAB Welding & Cutting Products
K & K Welding Products, Inc. Frimar Sas
Kawasaki Robotics (USA) Incorporated Gas Tech, Inc.
Lincoln Electric Company,The Henning Hansen Incorporated
Livingston, Incorporated Hobart Brothers Company
Magnatech Limited Partnership K & K Welding Products, Inc.
Miller Automation Incorporated Korea Welding Industry Cooperative
Miller Electric Manufacturing Company Lincoln Electric Company,The
MK Products, Inc. Miller Electric Manufacturing Company
Modular Vision Systems MK Products, Inc.
Motoman, Inc. National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ)
N. A. Technologies Co. National Torch Tip Co., Inc.
National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ) Nu-Tecsys Corporation
National Torch Tip Co., Inc. Ocim Welding Products S.R.L.
Nu-Tecsys Corporation OTC-Daihen, Inc.
Ocim Welding Products S.R.L. Oxo Welding Equipment
Ogden Engineering Corporation PAC*MIG, Inc.
OTC-Daihen, Inc. Panasonic Factory Automation Co.
Oxo Welding Equipment Pandjiris Incorporated
PAC*MIG, Inc. Profax
Panasonic Factory Automation Co. S.I.A.T. Spa Section Pittarc
Pandjiris Incorporated Systematics, Inc.
Profax Thermacut
S.I.A.T. Spa Section Pittarc Thermadyne Industries
Servo-Robot Inc. Thermadyne International
Tecnar Automation Ltd. Thermadyne Welding Products Canada, Ud.
Thermacut Thermal Dynamics
Thermadyne Industries Trafimet USA, Inc.

Tregaskiss Ltd. Nu-Tecsys Corporation
Neco/Arcair OTC-Daihen, Inc.
Winona Manufacturing Panasonic Factory Automation Co.
Protective Metal Alloys, Incorporated Powcon Incorporated
RED-D-ARCIncorporated
Russian American Technology Inventions L.C.
HARDFACINGBURFACING
Thermadyne Industries
AGAGas,Inc. Thennadyne International
BTU Contracts, Inc. Thennadyne Welding Products Canada, Ltd.
ESAB Welding& Cutting Products Thermal Dynamics
Gas Tech, Inc. Trexim
Gullco International Incorporated
Harris Calorific Division,The Lincoln Electric
Company LASER BEAM WELDING
Hobart Brothers Company American Torch Tip Company
Hobart Lasers& Advanced Systems AMET, Inc.
Lincoln Electric Company, The Convergent Energy
Miller Thermal Incorporated Directed Light, Inc.
Modular Vision Systems Gas Tech, Inc.
National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ) Gullco International Incorporated
National Torch Tip Co., Inc. Hobart Lasers& Advanced Systems
Pandjiris Incorporated IRC
Rexarc International, Inc. Jetline Engineering Inc.
Stoody Company Laser Applications, Inc. (LAI)
Thennadyne Industries Laser Machining, Incorporated
UTP Welding Materials M.Braun, Inc.
Victor Equipment Company Modular Vision Systems
Wall Colmonoy Corporation Motoman, Inc.
Weartech International, Inc. N. A. Technologies Co.
Weldline Automation National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ)
Ogden Engineering Corporation
Sciaky, Incorporated
INVERTER POWER SUPPLY/ARC WELD
Servo-Robot Inc.
American 8z European Machinery, Incorporated Special Welding Services, Inc.
Arc Machines, Incorporated Trumpf Incorporated
Arcmaster Unitek Miyachi Corporation
Buco Welding & Cutting Products Incorporated
C.E.A. Welding Equipment
Cebora S.P.A. OXYACETYLENE WELDING
Cemont AGAGas,Inc.
Cho Heung Electric Ind. Co., Ltd. American Torch Tip Company
Dimetrics, Incorporated Controls Corporationof America
ESAB Welding& Cutting Products Flame Technologies, Incorporated
Gas Tech, Inc. Gas Tech, Inc.
Hill Technical Division- Serv-Tech, Inc. Genesis Systems Group
Hobart Brothers Company Goss Incorporated
Hobart LasersL! Advanced Systems Great Wei Lung Industry Co., Ltd.
Inweld Corporation Harris Calorific Division,The Lincoln Electric
Korea Welding Industry Cooperative Company
Liburdi Pulsweld Corporation High PurityGas Co.
Lincoln Electric Company, The Lincoln Electric Company, The
MK Products, Inc. National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ)

~~
~~
STD.AWS
JWE-ENGL L977 m 07842b5 OSlb8bb 2 8 T
692 Buyers Guide Encyclopedia Welding
National Torch Tip Co., Inc. Astro Arc Polysoude

Nattco Products-An NTT Company Cho Heung Electric Ind. Co.,Ltd.
Oxygen Generating Systems, Inc. (OGSI) CYBO Robots
RED-D-ARC Incorporated Dimetrics, Incorporated
Rexarc International, Inc. ESAB Welding& Cutting Products
Smith Equipment Manufacturing Company LLC Gas Tech, Inc.
Thermadyne Industries Genesis Systems Group
Thermadyne International Great Wei Lung Industry Co., Ltd.
Ltd. Hobart Lasers& Advanced Systems
Uniweld Products, Inc. Jetline Engineering Inc.
Victor Equipment Company K & K Welding Products, Inc.
Wall Colmonoy Corporation Korea Welding Industry Cooperative
Weldit, Inc. Liburdi Pulsweld Corporation
Modular Vision Systems
PIPE WELDING Motoman, Inc.
AGAGas,Inc. National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ)
American Torch Tip Company North American Sales Distribution Center, Inc.
Arc Machines, Incorporated (NASDC)
Astro Arc Polysoude Pandjiris Incorporated
Bug-O Systems, Inc. Powcon Incorporated
Cypress Welding Equipment Inc. Process Welding Systems, Inc.
Dimetrics, Incorporated RED-D-ARC Incorporated
Gas Tech, Inc. Sciaky, Incorporated
GE Welding& Machining Thermacut
Harris Calorific Division,The Lincoln Electric Thermadyne Industries
Company Thermadyne International
Hobart Lasers& Advanced Systems Thermadyne Welding Products Canada, Ltd.
IRC Thermal Dynamics
Lincoln Electric Company,The Trafimet USA, Inc.
Magnatech Limited Partnership
MatheyLeland International, Ltd. PLASTIC WELDING EQUIPMENT
Miller Electric Manufacturing Company AGA Gas,Inc.
MK Products, Inc. Bug-O Systems, Inc.
Modular Vision Systems National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ)
National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ) Thermal Dynamics
Nu-Tecsys Corporation UTP Welding Materials
Ogden Engineering Corporation Wegener North America, Inc.
Pandjiris Incorporated
RED-D-ARC Incorporated
Servo-Robot Inc. POSITIONERS, MANIPULATORS
Tecnar Automation Ltd. ABB Flexible Automation Incorporated
Tri Tool Inc. AGA Gas,Inc.
Wachs Company, E.H. AMET, Inc.
Weld-Motion Inc. Atlas Welding Accessories, Inc.
Weldline Automation Bear Paw Magnetic Tools Incorporated
Weldsale Company Bug-O Systems, Inc.
C & G Systems, Inc.
PLASMA ARC WELDING Cloos International Inc.
AGA Gas, Inc. CYBO Robots
American Torch Tip Company Dimetrics, Incorporated
M T , Inc. Gas Tech, Inc.

~~~
'STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 9 0784Zb5 051b8b7 LLb D

Welding Encyclopedia Buyer's Guide 693
Gilbert Industrial Systematics, Inc.

Gullco International Incorporated Thermadyne Industries
Hobart Lasers& Advanced Systems Thennadyne International
Jetline Engineering Inc. Thennadyne Welding Products Canada, Ltd.
Kawasaki Robotics (USA) Incorporated Thermal Dynamics
Miller Automation Incorporated United Proarc Corporation
Miller Electric Manufacturing Company Vista Equipment Company, Inc.
National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ) POWER SUPPLIES GTAW
Ogden Engineering Corporation AGA Gas, Inc.
Panasonic Factory Automation Co. American & European Machinery, Incorporated
Pandjiris Incorporated Arc Machines, Incorporated
Process Welding Systems, Inc. Burco Welding& Cutting Products Incorporated
Ransome Company C.E.A. Welding Equipment
RED-D-ARC Incorporated Cebora S.P.A.
Servo-Robot Inc. Cemont
%eco/Arcair Cho Heung Electric Ind. Co., Ltd.
Weld-Motion Inc. CNI-Ceramic Nozzles, Inc.
Weldcoa Dimetrics, Incorporated
Weldline Automation ESAB Welding & Cutting Products
Weldsale Company Gas Tech, Inc.
GE Welding & Machining
POWER SUPPLIES GMAW Hobart Brothers Company
AGA Gas, Inc. Hobart Lasers& Advanced Systems
American & European Machinery, Incorporated Liburdi Pulsweld Corporation
Burco Welding& Cutting Products Incorporated Lincoln Electric Company,The
C.E.A. Welding Equipment Magnatech Limited Partnership
Cebora S.P.A. Miller Electric Manufacturing Company
Cemont MK Products, Inc.
Century Manufacturing Nattco Products-AnN?T Company
Cho Heung Electric Ind. Co., Ltd. Nu-Tecsys Corporation
Cloos International Inc. OTC-Daihen, Inc.
CNI-Ceramic Nozzles, Inc. Panasonic Factory Automation Co.
Computer Weld Technology, Incorporated Powcon Incorporated
Cooptim Industrial Ltd. RED-D-ARC Incorporated
Dimetrics, Incorporated Thermadyne Industries
ESAB Welding& Cutting Products Thermadyne International
Gas Tech, Inc. Thermadyne Welding ProductsCanada, Ltd.
Henning Hansen Incorporated Thermal Dynamics
Hobart Brothers Company Tri Tool Inc.
IRC Vista Equipment Company, Inc.
Korea Welding Industry Cooperative Welding Nozzle International
Lincoln Electric Company,The
Miller Electric Manufacturing Company POWER SUPPLIES SMAW
MK Products, Inc. AGA Gas,Inc.
Nattco Products-An NTT Company American & European Machinery, Incorporated
Nu-Tecsys Corporation Belco Products, Incorporated
OTC-Daihen, Inc. Burco Welding& Cutting Products Incorporated
Panasonic Factory Automation Co. C.E.A. Welding Equipment
Powcon Incorporated Cebora S.P.A.
RED-D-ARC Incorporated Cemont

STD.AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 9 0784265 05168b8 O52 m
694 Buyers Welding Encyclopedia
Century Manufacturing Korea Welding Industry Cooperative

ESAB Welding& Cutting Products Lenco
Gas Tech, Inc. Livingston, Incorporated
Hobart Brothers Company Medar, Inc.
Lincoln Electric Company,The Miller Electric Manufacturing Company
Miller Electric Manufacturing Company Modular VisionSystems
Nu-Tecsys Corporation National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ)
OTC-Daihen, Inc. Nippert Company, The
Powcon Incorporated Panasonic Factory Automation Co.
RED-D-ARC Incorporated Resistance Welder Manufacturers Association
Thermadyne Industries (RWMA)
Thermadyne International Robotron
Thermadyne Welding Products Canada, Ltd. Sciaky, Incorporated
Thermal Dynamics Thermadyne Industries
Vista Equipment Company, Inc. Thermadyne International
Thermadyne Welding Products Canada, Ltd.
POWER SUPPLIES SAW Tweco/Arcair
AGA Gas,Inc. Unitek Miyachi Corporation
American & European Machinery, Incorporated Unitrol Electronics Incorporated
C.E.A. Welding Equipment Weld Technology Industries, L.L.C.
ESAB Welding& Cutting Products Weldcomputer Corporation
Gas Tech, Inc. Weltronicflechnitron Corporation
Hobart Brothers Company
Lincoln Electric Company,The ROBOTS ARC
Miller Electric Manufacturing Company ABB Flexible Automation Incorporated
Nu-Tecsys Corporation AGA Gas,Inc.
Powcon Incorporated American Torch Tip Company
RED-D-ARC Incorporated Applied RoboticsInc.
Thermadyne Industries Banner Welder Incorporated
Thermadyne International Binzel Corporation, Alexander
Thermadyne Welding Products Canada,Ltd. CYBO Robots
Thermal Dynamics ESAB Welding& Cutting Products
Vista Equipment Company, Inc. Fanuc RoboticsNorth America, Inc.
Gas Tech, Inc.
RESISTANCE WELDING& CONTROLS Genesis Systems Group
AGA Gas, Inc. Hobart Lasers& Advanced Systems
American & European Machinery, Incorporated IRC
Applied Robotics Inc. Kawasaki Robotics (USA) Incorporated
Banner Welder Incorporated Liburdi Pulsweld Corporation
Bosch -Industrial Electronics Division Lincoln Electric Company, The
C.E.A. Welding Equipment Miller Automation Incorporated
Centerline (Windsor) Limited Miller Electric Manufacturing Company
Cho Heung Electric Ind. Co., Ltd. Motoman, Inc.
Darrah Electric Company N. A. Technologies Co.
Engineering Products& Services (E.P.S.) National ExcellenceIn Materials Joining (NEMJ)
Entron Controls, Incorporated Navy Joining Center
Flex-Cable Ogden Engineering Corporation
Gas Tech, Inc. PAC*MIG, Inc.
Gilbert Industrial Panasonic Factory Automation Co.
Henning Hansen Incorporated Servo-Robot Inc.
Kirkhof/Goodrich Corporation Tecnar Automation Ltd.

~

Welding Buyer's Guide 695
United Proarc Corporation Genesis Systems Group

Gilbert Industrial
ROBOTS RESISTANCE Henning Hansen Incorporated
Applied Robotics Inc. Korea Welding Industry Cooperative
Banner Welder Incorporated Livingston, Incorporated
Bosch - Industrial Electronics Division Medar, Inc.
Centerline (Windsor) Limited Miller Electric Manufacturing Company
CYBO Robots National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ)
Electrode Dressers, Inc. Nippert Company,The
Engineering Products& Services (E.P.S.) Robotron
Genesis Systems Group Sciaky, Incorporated
Kawasaki Robotics (USA) Incorporated Tec Torch-Weldtec
Livingston, Incorporated Thermadyne Industries
Medar, Inc. Thermadyne International
Motoman, Inc. Thermadyne Welding Products Canada, Ltd.
National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ) Unitek Miyachi Corporation
Weltronic/Technitron Corporation Unitrol Electronics Incorporated
Weldcomputer Corporation
SOLDERING Weltronic/Technitron Corporation
AGAGas,Inc.
Coral Spa STUD WELDING& CONTROLS
Flame Technologies, Incorporated Applied Robotics Inc.
Fusion Incorporated Bettermann of America, Incorporated
Gas Tech, Inc. Burco Welding& Cutting Products Incorporated
Goss Incorporated Cemont
Lepe1 Corporation Centerline (Windsor) Limited
Lucas-Milhaupt, Inc., A Handy& H m a n Company Cho Heung Electric Ind. Co., Ltd.
National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ) Gas Tech, Inc.
National TorchTip Co., Inc. Gilbert Industrial
Nattco Products-AnN" Company Korea Welding Industry Cooperative
Pilladcycle-Dyne Livingston, Incorporated
Thermadyne Industries Miller Electric Manufacturing Company
Thermadyne International National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ)
Thermadyne Welding Products Canada, Ltd. Oxo Welding Equipment
Uniweld Products, Inc. Ramstud [USA] Inc.
UTP Welding Materials RED-D-ARC Incorporated
Weldit, Inc. Soyer Gmbh, Heinz
Stud Welding Associates
SPOT WELDING & CONTROLS Thermadyne Industries
AGAGas,Inc. Thermadyne International
American & European Machinery, Incorporated Thermadyne Welding Products Canada, Ltd.
Applied Robotics Inc. Trw Nelson Stud Welding Div
Banner Welder Incorporated Weldcomputer Corporation
Bosch -Industrial Electronics Division Weldline Automation
C.E.A. Welding Equipment Weltronic/Technitron Corporation
Cemont
Centerline (Windsor) Limited SUBMERGED ARC (AUTOMATIC)
Cherokee Industries, Incorporated AGAGas,Inc.
Cho Heung Electric Ind. Co., Ltd. American TorchTip Company
Engineering Products& Services (E.P.S.) American Weldquip Inc.
Entron Controls, Incorporated Bug-O Systems, Inc.

Cho Heung Electric Ind. Co.,Ltd. ESAB Welding?LCutting Products

CYBO Robots High Purity Gas Co.
ESAB Welding & Cutting Products Miller Thermal Incorporated
Gas Tech,Inc. Motoman, Inc.
Genesis Systems Group National ExcellenceIn Materials Joining(NEMJ)
Invincible Airflow Systems Stellite Coatings
IRC Sulzer Metco
Jetline Engineering Inc. Tafa Incorporated
Lincoln Electric Company,The Thermadyne Industries
Miller Electric Manufacturing Company Thermadyne International
Modular Vision Systems Thyssen Welding
National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ) UTP Welding Materials
Ogden Engineering Corporation Wall Colmonoy Corporation
OTC-Daihen, Inc.
Pandjiris Incorporated VERTICAL AUTOMATIC WELDING
Ransome Company AGA Gas,Inc.
RED-D-ARC Incorporated Bug-O Systems, Inc.
S.I.A.T. Spa Section Pittarc GE Welding & Machining
Servo-Robot Inc. Hobart Lasers & Advanced Systems
Thermadyne Industries Jetline Engineering Inc.
Thermadyne International Lincoln Electric Company, The
Thermadyne Welding Products Canada, Ltd. Magnatech Limited Partnership
Tweco/Arcair National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ)
Weld Engineering Co.,Inc. PAC*MIG, Inc.
Weld-Motion Inc. Pandjiris Incorporated
Weldline Automation Powcon Incorporated
Ransome Company
SUBMERGED ARC (MANUAL) Tweco/Arcair
AGA Gas, Inc. United Proarc Corporation
American Torch Tip Company Weld-Motion Inc.
American Weldquip Inc. Weldline Automation
ESAB Welding& Cutting Products
Invincible Airflow Systems WELD JOINT TRACKING SYSTEMS
Korea Welding Industry Cooperative ABB Flexible Automation Incorporated
Lincoln Electric Company, The AGA Gas,Inc.
Miller Electric Manufacturing Company Bug-O Systems, Inc.
National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ) Computer Weld Technology, Incorporated
Oxo Welding Equipment Gullco International Incorporated
Profax Hobart Lasers& Advanced Systems
RED-D-ARC Incorporated IRC
S.I.A.T. Spa Section Pittarc Jetline Engineering Inc.
Thermadyne Industries Kawasaki Robotics (USA) Incorporated
Thermadyne International Lincoln Electric Company,The
Thermadyne Welding Products Canada, Ltd. Modular VisionSystems
TwecoIArcair Motoman, Inc.
National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ)
THERMAL SPRAYING Navy Joining Center
AGA Gas, Inc. Ogden Engineering Corporation
American Torch Tip Company Panasonic Factory Automation Co.
BTU Contracts, Inc. Powcon Incorporated
Bug-O Systems, Inc. Servo-Robot Inc.

~~ ~ ~~ ~~
~~ ~~
STD.AWS JWE-ENGL 3997 078U265 0536873 b47 m

Welding Encyclopedia Guide Buyers 697
Tecnar Automation Ltd. American Br European Machinery, Incorporated

Weld-Motion Inc. American Saw & Manufacturing Company
Weldline Automation AMET, Inc.
Bernard Welding
WELD SEAMERS Bluco Corporation
Hobart Lasers& Advanced Systems Broco Incorporated
IRC BurcoNosa
Jetline Engineering Inc. C & G Systems, Inc.
Modular Vision Systems C-K WorldwideInc.
National ExcellenceIn Materials Joining (NEMJ) C.E.A. Welding Equipment
Ogden Engineering Corporation Cajon Company
Pandjiris Incorporated CNI-Ceramic Nozzles,Inc.
Servo-Robot Inc. Computer Weld Technology, Incorporated
United Proarc Corporation DF Machine Specialties Incorporated
Weld-Motion Inc. Darrah Electric Company
Weldline Automation Doyles Supply Inc.
Weltronic/Technitron Corporation FHP Elmotor Ab
Gilbert Industrial
WELD SENSORS Hobart Lasers& Advanced Systems
ABB Flexible Automation Incorporated Ibeda Incorporated
CYBO Robots Inert Systems Inc.
Gilbert Industrial Jackson Industries
Hobart Lasers & Advanced Systems K & K Welding Products, Inc.
IRC Koolant Koolers, Inc.
Jetline Engineering Inc. Larco
Livingston, Incorporated Larco/Safety Controls Corporation
Modular Vision Systems M.Braun, Inc.
Motoman, Inc. Mechafin Ag
National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ)
Medar, Inc.
Navy Joining Center
Motoman, Inc.
Servo-Robot Inc.
Tecnar Automation Ltd.
Unitrol Electronics Incorporated Nattco Products-An NTT Company
Weldcomputer Corporation Nupro Company
Ocim Welding ProductsS.R.L.
WELDING OSCILLATION Oxo Welding Equipment
Computer Weld Technology, Incorporated Process Equipment Company
Gullco International Incorporated Seal Seat Company
Hobart Lasers& Advanced Systems Stellite Coatings
Jetline Engineering Inc. Swagelok Company
Lincoln Electric Company,The Tec Torch-Weldtec
Magnatech Limited Partnership Thyssen Welding
Miller Electric Manufacturing Company Tri Tool Inc.
Powcon Incorporated United Proarc Corporation
Tri Tool Inc. UTP Welding Materials
Weldline Automation Weldcoa
Weldcomputer Corporation
OTHER WELDING EQUIPMENT Weldcraft Products,Inc.
Accra-Weld Controls, Incorporated Welding Institute (TWI),The
Alsimag Technical Ceramics, Inc. Welding Nozzle International

ULTRASONIC WELDING High Purity Gas Co.

National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ) Mittler Supply Inc.
Noms Cylinder Company
INDUSTRIAL GASES& Queen Cylinder Company
RELATED EQUIPMENT SCM Technologies
Taylor-Wharton
FUEL GASES Thermadyne Industries
AGA Gas,Inc. Thermadyne International
Air Liquide America Corporation Thermadyne Welding Products Canada,
Ltd.
Air Products& Chemicals, Incorporated Weldship Corporation
Boc Gases (Formerly Airco Gases) Worthington Cylinders
BTU Contracts, Inc.
Gas Tech, Inc. GAS GENERATING EQUIPMENT
High Purity Gas Co. AGA Gas,Inc.
MG Industries Gas Products Division Air Liquide America Corporation
Mittler Supply Inc. Air Products & Chemicals, Incorporated
Praxair, Inc. Compressed Gas Association (CGA)
Rockford Industrial Welding Supply,Inc. Gas Tech, Inc.
MG Industries Gas Products Division
SHIELDING PUMPS Mittler Supply Inc.
AGAGas,Inc. Oxygen Generating Systems,Inc. (OGSI)
Air Liquide America Corporation Praxair, Inc.
Air Products& Chemicals, Incorporated Rexarc International, Inc.
Boc Gases (Formerly Airco Gases) Rockford Industrial Welding Supply, Inc.
BTU Contracts, Inc.
Gas Tech, Inc. GAS REGULATORWCONTROLS
M.Braun, Inc. AGA Gas,Inc.
MG Industries Gas Products Division Air Liquide America Corporation
Mittler Supply Inc. BTU Contracts, Inc.
Praxair, Inc. Ceodeux Incorporated
Rockford Industrial Welding Supply, Inc. Contemporary Products, Inc. (CPI)
Controls Corporationof America
CRYOGENIC GASES CTR of Charlotte Inc.
Cryogenic Industries ESAB Welding& Cutting Products
CTR of Charlotte Inc. Flame Technologies, Incorporated
Fiba Technologies, Inc. Gas Tech,Inc.
Mid America Cryogenics Goss Incorporated
Taylor-Wharton Ibeda Incorporated
Woodland Cryogenics, Inc. Lincoln Electric Company,The
Mid America Cryogenics
CYLINDER COATINGS National Standard
Dynaflux, Inc. National Torch Tip Co., Inc.
Nattco Products-AnN l T Company
GAS CYLINDERS Rego ProductsEcii
AGA Gas, Inc. Rexarc International, Inc.
BTU Contracts, Inc. Smith Equipment Manufacturing Company LLC
Catalina Cylinders, Cliff Impact Division Thermadyne Industries
Compressed Gas Association (CGA) Thermadyne International
Contemporary Products, Inc. (CPI) Thermadyne Welding Products Canada, Ltd.
CTR of Charlotte Inc. Uniweld Products, Inc.
Fiba Technologies, Inc. Victor Equipment Company

~~~
S T D - A W S JWE-ENGL 3997 m IJXYIZ~S 0536873 UT
Welding Encyclopedia Buyer's Guide 699
Weldit, Inc. OTHER GAS RELATED EQUIPMENT

Western Enterprises Ametek - U.S. Gauge
Cajon Company
HANDUNG EQUIPMENT Centerflex
AGAGas,Inc. Ceodeux Incorporated
Bear Paw Magnetic Tools Incorporated CTR of Charlotte Inc.
Ceodeux Incorporated Fiba Technologies, Inc.
Contemporary Products, Inc. (CPI) Gow-Mac Instrument Company
Fiba Technologies, Inc. H & H Sales Company, Incorporated
Galt Industries, Inc. Hannay Reels
Gas Tech, Inc. Ibeda Incorporated
Jackson Industries
Gow-Mac Instrument Company
K-Tron, Inc.
M.Braun, Inc. Mid America Cryogenics
MatheyLeland International, Ltd. National Torch TipCo., Inc.
MG Industries Gas Products Division Nattco Products-AnN'IT Company
Mid America Cryogenics Nupro Company
Miller Thermal Incorporated Rexarc International, Inc.
Saftcart Swagelok Company
Taylor-Wharton Taylor-Wharton
Themadyne Industries Thermco Instrument Corporation
Themadyne International Unisource Manufacturing Inc.
Unisource Manufacturing Inc. Weldcoa
Victor Equipment Company Weldit, Inc.
Weldcoa Weldship Corporation
Whitey Company
STORAGE & DISTRIBUTION EQUIPMENT Wika Instrument Corporation
AGA Gas, Inc.
Contemporary Products, Inc.(CPI) WELDING ACCESSORIES &
Controls Corporation of America ALLIED PRODUCTS
Cryogenic Industries
CTR of Charlotte Inc. ABRASIVE PRODUCTS
Fab-Tech Incorporated Abmast Abrasives Corporation
Fiba Technologies, Inc. AGAGas,Inc.
H & H Sales Company, Incorporated Anderson Products
High Purity Gas Co. Bates Abrasive Products, Inc.
Bosch Power Tools
MG Industries Gas Products Division
Camel Grinding Wheel
Mid America Cryogenics Carborundum Abrasives
Minnesota Valley Engineering Chicago Pneumatic Tool Company
Quality Cryogenics Incorporated CrowdNorth American Professional Products
Rexarc International,Inc. Dynabrade, Inc.
saftcart Express WholesalelWorldwide Welding, Inc.
Superior Products, Inc. Flexovit USA, Inc.
Taylor-Wharton Gas Tech, Inc.
Tomco Equipment Company Harris Welco -Division of J.W. Harris
Weldcoa Hitachi Power Tools
Weldship Corporation Inweld Corporation
Wire Crafters Incorporated Jepson Power Tools
Wireway/Husky Kasco Abrasives
Woodland Cryogenics,Inc. Klingspor Abrasives, Inc.

~ ~~
~ ~~
L S Industries Tweco/Arcair
Los Angeles Diamond Tools, Inc. United Air Specialists, Inc.
M.K. Morse Weldsale Company
Metabo Corporation
MG Industries Welding Products Division ANTI SPATTER COMPOUNDS
Milwaukee Electric ToolCorp AGA Gas, Inc.
Norton Company CrowdNorth American Professional Products
Pangborn Corporation Dynaflux, Inc.
Pearl Abrasive Company ESAB Welding& Cutting Products
Pferd, Inc. Express Wholesale/Worldwide Welding, Inc.
Rex-Cut Products, Inc. Genesis Systems Group
Robinson Technical Products Midwest Harris Welco- Division of J.W. Harris
Ski1 Power Tools Inweld Corporation
Sparky Abrasives James Morton, Incorporated
Standard Abrasives K & K Welding Products, Inc.
Suhner Industrial Products Lenco
T. C. Service Co. National TorchTip Co., Inc.
United Abrasives, Incorporated Nattco Products-An N" Company
Walter, Incorporated, J. Nu-Tecsys Corporation
Weiler Brush Company, Inc. Robinson Technical Products Midwest
AIR CLEANERSFUME COLLECTORS Thermadyne International
Aercology, Inc. Thermadyne Welding Products Canada, Ltd.
AGA Gas,Inc. Tweco/Arcair
Airflow Systems, Incorporated Walter, Incorporated, J.
Arcmaster Weld-Aid Products
CFA Weldsale Company
Coppus Portable Ventilation Division, Tuthill Corp. York Sales Company
Coral Spa
Dcm Clean-Air Products, Inc. BACKING MATERIALS
Diversi-Tech Inc. Alsimag Technical Ceramics, Inc.
Dualdraw By IMM Cerbaco Ltd.
Fab-Tech Incorporated Imperial Weld Ring Corporation
Farr Company
Gardner Environmental Products BOOTHS 81BENCHES
Gas Tech, Inc. Bluco Corporation
Harris Welco- Division of J.W. Harris Coral Spa
bweld Corporation Dualdraw By I"
L, S Industries M.Braun, Inc.
Lincoln Electric Company, The Wilson Industries, Inc.
Micro Air Air ClnrsBy Metal-Fab Inc.
Nederman, Inc. CHEMICAL PRODUCTS
Nu-Tecsys Corporation Arcal Chemicals, Incorporated
Optrel Ag CrowdNorth American Professional Products
Pangborn Corporation Dynaflux, Inc.
Plymovent Corporation ESAB Welding & Cutting Products
Roberts-Gordon, Incorporated Harris Welco- Division of J.W. Harris
Thermadyne Industries High PurityGas Co.
Thermadyne International Inweld Corporation
Thermadyne Welding Products Canada, Ltd. La-Co Industries, Inc./MarkalCo.
Torit-Donaldson Company Lenco

MG Industries Welding Products Division Harris Welco-Division of J.W. Harris

Nissen Co.,J. P. Inweld Corporation
Screenpro K & K Welding Products, Inc.
Themadyne Industries Lenco
Thmadyne International Lincoln Electric Company,The
Themadyne Welding Products Canada, Ltd. MG Industries Welding Products Division
Thysse.n Welding Nu-Tecsys Corporation
lhecotkcair Profax
Walter, Incorporated, J. Robinson Technical Products Midwest
Winter Inc. & Co., F.W. Symington & Co., Inc., C.H.
ClAMPS, CONNECTORS, LUGS, FllTlNGS Thermadyne International
Blum Corporation Thermadyne Welding Products Canada, Ltd.
Crome-Hinds Cam-Lok ThecolArcair
De-Sta-Co A Dover Resources Company Washington Alloy Company
Enerpac
EsAJ3 Welding & Cutting Products FACE PROTECTORWELMETS
Express WhdesaleNorldwide Welding, Inc. AGA Gas, Inc.
Gross Stabil Corporation Arcmaster
Harris Welco- Division of J.W. Harris Cherokee Industries, Incorporated
Inweld Corporation Doyles Supply Inc.
Jackson Industries ESAB Welding& Cutting Products
J a m e s Morton, Incorporated Express WholesaleNorldwide Welding, Inc.
K 8z K Welding Products, Inc. Fibre-Metal ProductsCo.
Lenco Harris Welco-Division of J.W. Harris
Oetiker, Incorporated Inweld Corporation
Pandjiris Incorporated Kopo International (Fiprom; Globtrade USA)
RED-PARC Incorporated Korea Welding Industry Cooperative
Robinson Technical Products Midwest Kromer Cap Co., Inc.
Superior Products, Inc. Lincoln Electric Company, The
Symington & Co., Inc., C.H. Mack Products Company/Ohio Goggles Division
Thermadyne Industries MG Industries Welding Products Division
Thennadyne International MSA
Thmadyne Welding Products Canada, Ltd. Nederman, Inc.
lhdArcair OptreL AG
Walhonde Tools Inc. Robinson Technical Products Midwest
Welding Nozzle International Sellstrom Manufacturing Company
Welds& Company Symington & Co., Inc., C.H.
Western Entaprises Thermadyne Industries
Wilton Corporation Thermadyne International
3 E L E C m D EHOLDERS Weiler Brush Company, Inc.
AGA Gas, Inc. Weldrite Welding Products,Inc.
Alsimag Technical Ceramics,Inc.
Binzel Carporation, Alexander FLUX RECOVERY EQUIPMENT
Cemont American Vacuum Company
Centerline (Windsor) Limited ESAB Welding& Cutting Products
Cmw Incorporated Invincible Airflow Systems
Doyles Supply Inc. Miller Electric Manufacturing Company
ESAB Welding & Cutting Products Pandjiris Incorporated
Express WholesaleNVorldwide Welding, Inc. Weld Engineering Co., Inc.
~
~~ ~~~ ~ ~
HANDLING EQUIPMENT PLATENS
Accra-Weld Controls, Incorporated Bluco Corporation
Bear Paw Magnetic Tools Incorporated Weldsale Company
Miller Electric Manufacturing Company
PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
Pandjiris Incorporated
Sumner Manufacturing Company Incorporated AGA Gas, Inc.
Tri-State Industries, Incorporated American Kanox Corporation
Auburn Manufacturing Incorporated
HEATING TORCHES Cherokee Industries, Incorporated
AGA Gas, Inc. Doyles Supply Inc.
American Torch Tip Company Elliott Corporation
Belchfire Corporation ESAB Welding& Cutting Products
BTU Contracts, Inc. Gerson Co., Inc., Louis M.
Ceodeux Incorporated Guard-Line, Inc.
Controls Corporationof America Inweld Corporation
ESAB Welding& Cutting Products Kinco International, Incorporated
Flame Technologies, Incorporated Kromer Cap Co., Inc.
Gas Tech, Inc. MSA
Goss Incorporated N.L.F. Protective Products
High Purity Gas Co. Nattco Products-An NTT Company
Inweld Corporation Revco Industries (Black Stallion)
National Torch Tip Co.,Inc. Robinson Technical Products Midwest
Rexarc International, Inc. Stanco Manufacturing, Inc.
Smith Equipment Manufacturing Company LLC Steiner Industries
Thermadyne Industries Thermadyne Industries
Thermadyne International Thermadyne International
Uniweld Products, Inc. Thermadyne Welding Products Canada,
LtcL
Victor Equipment Company Tillman & Company, John
Weldit, Inc. Triple Crown Products
Weldas Company
MARKERS Whitestone Corporation
Carmel Industries Wilson Industries, Inc.
Express WholesaleM70rldwide Welding,Inc.
Harris Welco- Division ofJ.W. Harris PROTECTIVE GLOVES
La-Co Industries, Inc./Markal Co. AGA Gas,Inc.
Mark-Tex Corporation American Kanox Corporation
Nissen Co., J. P. Atlas Welding Accessories, Inc.
Ransome Company Doyles Supply Inc.
Robinson Technical Products Midwest Elliott Corporation
Tempil, Air Liquide America Corp. ESAB Welding& Cutting Products
Express Wholesale/Worldwide Welding,Inc-
OVENS Guard-Line, Inc.
Express Wholesale/Worldwide Welding,Inc. Harris Welco - Division of J.W. Harris
Gullco International Incorporated Inweld Corporation
Inweld Corporation Johnson Wilshire, Inc.
M.Braun, Inc. Kinco International, Incorporated
Manning USA MG Industries Welding Products Division
Phoenix Products Company, Inc. MSA
RED-D-ARC Incorporated N.L.F. Protective Products
Robinson Technical Products Midwest Revco Industries (Black Stallion)
Weld Engineering Co., Inc. Robinson Technical Products Midwest

Welding Encyclopedia Buyers Gulde 703
Stanco Manufacturing, Inc. Contour Sales Divof Jackson Products

Steiner hadustries Electrode Dressers, Inc.
Tillman & Company, John Enerpac
Washrngton Alloy Company Expansion Seal Technologies (Formerly Expando Seal
Weldas Campany Tools)
Wilson Mustries, Inc. Harris Welco- Division of J.W. Harris
James Morton, Incorporated
PURGitNG EQUIPMENT Jancy Engineering Co. Home of The Slugger
Cms G i i t h Packaging Systems M.K. Morse
Expansicm Seal Technologies (Formerly Expando Seal Robinson Technical Products Midwest
Tools) Suhner Industrial Products
Magnatecb Limited Partnership Sumner Manufacturing Company Incorporated
North American Sales Distribution Center, Inc. Thermadyne Industries
(UA==) Thermadyne International
S C R E W , SHIELDS & CURTAINS Thermadyne Welding Products Canada, Ltd.
AGAGas,Inc. Walhonde Tools Inc.
American Kanox Corporation TOOLS (POWER)
Auburn Manufacturing Incorporated AGA Gas,Inc.
Fro& Safety Products AtrZlX
Hitco T&ologies Incorporated Black And Decker
Inweld Ccrporation Bosch Power Tools
King Bag& Manufacturing Co. Chicago Pneumatic Tool Company
Korea W d i n g Industry Cooperative Dynabrade, Inc.
N.L.F. Rdective Products Electrode Dressers, Inc.
Revco Industries (Black Stallion) Express WholesalelWorldwide Welding, Inc.
Robinson Technical Products Midwest Fein Power Tools Inc.
Rockwell Laser Industries Hitachi Power Tools
S c h t i f k Technologies, Inc./STI Indresco Inc., Industrial Tool Division
Sellstrom Manufacturing Company Jancy Engineering Co. Home of The Slugger
Stanco Manufacturing, Inc. Jepson Power Tools
Steiner Mustries M.K. Morse
Tillman B Company, John Makita USA Inc.
Welcl.de Company Metabo Corporation
Wilson Industries, Inc. Milwaukee Electric ToolCorp
Wire Cr&ers Incorporated Nitto Kohki U.S.A.,Inc.
WirewayHusky Ski1 Power Tools
Suhner Industrial Products
TEWERATURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS T. C. Service Co.
James Morton, Incorporated Tri Tool Inc.
La-Co Wustries, Inc./Markal Co. Trumpf Incorporated
Manning USA Walhonde Tools Inc.
RansmCompany
RobinsonTechnical Products Midwest WATER COOLING EQUIPMENT
Tempil, Air Liquide America Corp. Alpha Environmental Refrigeration Company
UTP Welding Materials Bernard Welding
Binzel Corporation, Alexander
TOOLS WANUAL) Cemont
AGA Gas, Inc. Dynaflux, Inc.
Atlas Welding Accessories, Inc. Frimar Sas
Atrax Gas Tech, Inc.
Bear Paw Magnetic Tools Incorporated Harris Welco- Division of J.W. Harris

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05Lb878 T T 3
704 Buyer's Guide Welding Encyclopedia
K & K Welding Products, Inc. MG Industries Welding Products Division

Koolant Koolers, Inc. MSA
Lepel Corporation Nattco Products-An NTT Company
Lincoln Electric Company,The Nederman, Inc.
Nu-Tecsys Corporation Nu-Tecsys Corporation
Thermadyne Industries Optrel AG
Thermadyne International Racal Health& Safety, Inc.
Thermadyne Welding Products Canada, Ltd. Robinson Technical Products Midwest
Unitrol Electronics Incorporated Selectrode Industries, Inc.
Weldcraft Products, Inc. Sellstrom Manufacturing Company
WELDING CABLE Thermadyne International
Direct Wire& Cable, Inc. Thermadyne Welding Products Canada, Ltd.
Electron Beam Technologies, Inc. Washington Alloy Company
Engineering Products& Services (E.P.S.)
Essex Group, Incorporated WIRE BRUSHES
Express Wholesale/Worldwide Welding, Inc. Advance Milwaukee Brush
Frimar Sas AGA Gas,Inc.
Gas Tech, Inc. Anderson Products
Harris Welco-Division of J.W. Harris Doyle's Supply Inc.
Inweld Corporation Express WholesaleNorldwide Welding, Inc.
K & K Welding Products, Inc. Harris Welco-Division of J.W. Harris
Lincoln Electric Company, The High Purity Gas Co.
Mannings USA Inweld Corporation
Nu-Tecsys Corporation Jaz-Zubiaurre S.A.
Otto Tool Co. Div. of Alsana MG Industries Welding Products Division
RED-D-ARC Incorporated Pferd, Inc.
Robinson Technical Products Midwest Robinson Technical Products Midwest
Unitek Miyachi Corporation Walter, Incorporated, J.
Washington Alloy Company Weiler Brush Company, Inc.
Welding Nozzle International Weldcraft Products, Inc.
WELDING HELMETS OTHER ALLIED PRODUCTS

AGA Gas,Inc. American Torch Tip Company
Arcmaster American Weldquip Inc.
Cemont Ametek Inc.-Haveg Division
Cherokee Industries, Incorporated Arcmaster
Doyle's Supply Inc. Belaire Products Inc.
ESAB Welding& Cutting Products Bernard Welding
Express Wholesale/Worldwide Welding, Inc. Bluco Corporation
Fibre-Metal Products Co. C-K Worldwide Inc.
Harris Welco-Division of J.W. Harris C.E.M.E./Major
Hornell Speedglas, Inc. Ceodeux Incorporated
Inweld Corporation Champion Cutting Tool Corp.
Jackson Products, Inc. CNI - Ceramic Nozzles, Inc.
Jackson Products, Inc. Contour SalesDiv of Jackson Products
Kedman Company Cooptim Industrial Ltd.
Kopo International (Fiprom;Globtrade USA) Directed Light, Inc.
Korea Welding Industry Cooperative Frimar Sas
Kromer Cap Co., Inc. Gerson Co., Inc., Louis M.
Lincoln Electric Company, The Hannay Reels

~~~ ~
Hornell Speedglas, Inc. CUTTING TABLES

Jackson Industries Advanced Kiffer Systems, Incorporated
James Morton, Incorporated American Torch Tip Company
Larco Anderson Incorporated
Larco/Safety Controls Corporation ESAB Welding& Cutting Products
M.K. Morse Galt Industries, Inc.
Naltex Gas Tech, Inc.
Nippert Company,The Weldsale Company
Optrel AG CUTTING TIPS& FIXTURES
Pferd, Inc. AGA Gas, Inc.
Racal Health & Safety, Inc. Air Liquide America Corporation
Roberts-Gordon, Incorporated American Torch Tip Company
Rockwell LaserIndustries Ceodeux Incorporated
Scientific Technologies, Inc./Sti Controls Corporationof America
SCM Metal Products, Inc. Enerpac
Screenpro Flame Technologies, Incorporated
Servo-Robot Inc. Gas Tech, Inc.
Sdar Flux (Golden Empire Corp) Goss Incorporated
Superior Flux & Manufacturing Company Great Wei Lung Industry Co., Ltd.
Systematics, Inc. High Purity Gas Co.
Tec Torch-Weldtec Koike Aronson Incorporated
Thennadyne Industries Magic TipiTotal Products International
Triple Crown Products National Torch TipCo., Inc.
Universal Flow Monitors, Incorporated Robinson Technical Products Midwest
Uniweld Products, Inc. Smith Equipment Manufacturing Company LLC
Uvex Safety, Incorporated Symington & Co., Inc., C.H.
Water-Je1 Technologies Thermacut
Weldmatic Inc. Thermadyne Industries
Weldreel Incorporated Thermadyne International
Wilton Corporation Thermadyne Welding Products Canada, Ltd.
WirewayMusky Uniweld Products, Inc.
CUlTING ROBOTS
CUTTING EQUPMENT
ABB Flexible Automation Incorporated
CARBON ARC GOUGING AGA Gas,Inc.
AGA Gas, Inc.
Bug-O Systems, Inc.
Bug-OlSystems, Inc.
CYBO Robots
Gas Tezh, Inc.
Gas Tech, Inc.
Harris Welco -Division of J.W. Harris
Genesis Systems Group
Inweld Corporation
IRC
Miller Electric Manufacturing Company Motoman, Inc.
Powcon Incorporated National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ)
Profax Ogden Engineering Corporation
RED-D-ARC Incorporated Servo-Robot Inc.
Robinson Technical Products Midwest United Proarc Corporation
Symington & Co., Inc., C.H.
Thermadyne Industries EXOTHERMIC CUlTING EQUIPMENT
Thermadyne International Broco Incorporated
Themadyne Welding Products Canada, Ltd. ESAB Cutting Systems
lbeco/Arcair ESAB Welding& Cutting Products

Symington & Co., Inc., C.H. OXYFUEL GAS (MANUAL)
Thermadyne Industries AGA Gas, Inc.
Thermadyne International American Torch Tip Company
Thermadyne Welding Products Canada, Ltd. BTU Contracts, Inc.
Tweco/Arcair Burny Group/Cleveland Machine Controls Inc.
Controls Corporation of America
ESAB Cutting Systems
HEATING TORCHES ESAB Welding& Cutting Products
AGA Gas,Inc. Flame Technologies, Incorporated
American Torch Tip Company Gas Tech, Inc.
Belchfire Corporation Goss Incorporated
BTU Contracts, Inc. Gullco International Incorporated
Controls Corporation of America Harris Calorific Division,The Lincoln Electric
Flame Technologies, Incorporated Company
Gas Tech, Inc. High Purity Gas Co.
Goss Incorporated Koike Aronson Incorporated
Harris Calorific Division,The Lincoln Electric (NEW)
National Excellence In Materials Joining
Company National Torch Tip Co., Inc.
High PurityGas Co. RED-D-ARC Incorporated
National Torch Tip Co., Inc. Rexarc International, Inc.
Rexarc International, Inc. Smith Equipment Manufacturing Company LLC
Smith Equipment Manufacturing Company LLC Thermadyne Industries
Thermadyne Industries Thermadyne International
Thermadyne International Thermadyne Welding Products Canada, Ltd.
Victor Equipment Company
Weldit, Inc.
Uniweld Products,Inc.
Victor Equipment Company OXYFUEL GAS (AUTOMATIC)
Weldit, Inc. AGAGas,Inc.
LASER BEAM CUTTING Anderson Incorporated
ABB Flexible Automation Incorporated BTU Contracts, Inc.
AGA Gas,Inc. Bug-O Systems, Inc.
American Torch Tip Company Burny Group/Cleveland Machine Controlsh c .
Burny Group/Cleveland Machine Controls Inc. Controls Corporation of America
CYBO Robots ESAB Cutting Systems
Directed Light, Inc. ESAB Welding & Cutting Products
ESAB Cutting Systems Flame Technologies, Incorporated
ESAB Welding& Cutting Products Gas Tech, Inc.
Gullco International Incorporated
Gas Tech, Inc.
Koike Aronson Incorporated
Hobart Lasers& Advanced Systems
M.T.C. Ltd.
Koike Aronson Incorporated MG Industries Systems Division
Laser Applications, Inc. (LAI) National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ)
Laser Machining, Incorporated National Torch Tip Co., Inc.
M.T.C. Ltd. Pandjiris Incorporated
Modular Vision Systems RED-D-ARC Incorporated
Motoman, Inc. Sigmatek Corporation
National ExcellenceIn Materials Joining (NEMJ) Smith Equipment Manufacturing Company LLC
Sigmatek Corporation Thermadyne Industries
Trumpf Incorporated Thermadyne International

Welding Encyclopedia Buyers Guide 707
Thermadyne Welding Products Canada, Ltd. CYBO Robots

United Proarc Corporation Doyles Supply Inc.
Victor Equipment Company ESAB CuttingSystems
Weldit, Inc. ESAB Welding& Cutting Products
Express WholesalelWorldwide Welding, Inc.
PIPE CUlTlNG & BEVELING Gas Tech, Inc.
AGA Gas, Inc. Genesis Systems Group
American Torch Tip Company Great Wei Lung Industry Co., Ltd.
Bug-O Systems, Inc. Henning Hansen Incorporated
Burny GroupKleveland Machine ControlsInc. Hypertherm Incorporated
Cypress Welding Equipment Inc. Koike Aronson Incorporated
D. L. Ricci Corporation Lincoln Electric Company,The
Doringer Manufacturing Company M.T.C. Ltd.
Esc0 Tool A Unit of Esc0 Technologies, Inc. MG Industries Systems Division
G.B.C. Industrial Tools Miller Electric Manufacturing Company
George Fischer Pipe Tools Motoman, Inc.
H & M Pipe Beveling Machine Company, Inc. National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ)
Harris Calorific Division,The Lincoln Electric National Torch TipCo., Inc.
Company Nattco Products- An NTT Company
Hobart Lasers & Advanced Systems Nu-Tecsys Corporation
Koike Aronson Incorporated OTC-Daihen, Inc.
Machine Tech, Incorporated Peddinghaus Corporation
Mactech - Stresstech Powcon Incorporated
MatheyLeland International, Ltd. Profax
Milwaukee Electric ToolCorp RED-D-ARC Incorporated
National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ) Sigmatek Corporation
Nu-Tecsys Corporation Smith Equipment Manufacturing Company LLC
Pandjiris Incorporated Thermacut
Protem Engineering Corporation Thermadyne Industries
T. C. Service Co. Thermadyne International
Tri Tool Inc. Thermadyne Welding Products Canada, Ltd.
Trumpf Incorporated Thermal Dynamics
Vernon Tool Company Trafimet USA, Inc.
Vogel Tool & Die Corporation Weldcraft Products, Inc.
Wachs Company, E.H.
World Machinery& Saws System Company POWER SUPPLIES
AGA Gas,Inc.
PLASMA ARCCUlTlNG American & European Machinery, Incorporated
ABB Flexible Automation Incorporated C.E.A. Welding Equipment
Advanced Kiffer Systems, Incorporated ESAB Welding& Cutting Products
AGAGas,Inc. Gas Tech, Inc.
American & European Machinery, Incorporated Henning Hansen Incorporated
American Torch Tip Company Lincoln Electric Company,The
Anderson Incorporated Mactech - Stresstech
Bernard Welding Medar, Inc.
Bug-O Systems, Inc. Miller Electric Manufacturing Company
Burco Welding & Cutting Products Incorporated Nu-Tecsys Corporation
Burny GroupKleveland Machine Controls Inc. OTC-Daihen, Inc.
C.E.A. Welding Equipment Powcon Incorporated
Cebora S.P.A. RED-D-ARC Incorporated
Century Manufacturing Thermadyne Industries

STD.AWS JWE-ENGL L997 E 07842b5 05Lb882 422 m
708 BuyersGuide Welding Encyclopedia
Thermadyne International Sigmatek Corporation

Thermadyne Welding Products Canada, Ltd. Tri Tool Inc.
United Proarc Corporation
SAWS (MECHANICAL) Vogel Tool & Die Corporation
Doringer Manufacturing Company Wachs Company, E.H.
George FischerPipe Tools Welding Institute (TWI), The
Great Wei Lung IndustryCo., Ltd. Weldsale Company
Hem Saw Wikus Inc.
Hyd-Mech Saws Limited WATER JET CUTTING
Jepson Power Tools Burny GroupKleveland Machine Controls Inc.
Milwaukee Electric Tool Corp ESAB Cutting Systems
Otto Tool Co. Div. of Alsana Laser Applications, Inc. (LAI)
Production Machinery, Inc. M.T.C. Ltd.
Scotchman Industries, Incorporated Sigmatek Corporation
T. C. Service Co.
Wachs Company, E.H. JOINING MATERIALS
Wilton Corporation
World Machinery& Saws System Company BRAZING ALLOYS (BASE METAL)
AGA Gas,Inc.
SAWS (ABRASIVE) Alcotec Wire Company
Bosch Power Tools American Welding Alloys
Chicago Pneumatic Tool Company Astrolite Alloys
Doringer Manufacturing Company Champion Welding Products, Incorporated
Esc0 Tool A Unitof Esc0 Technologies, Inc. Engelhard Corporation
Everett Industries Incorporated ESAB Welding& Cutting Products
Femi S.R.L. Fusion Incorporated
Hitachi Power Tools Gas Tech, Inc.
Jepson Power Tools Gasflux Company,The
Los Angeles Diamond Tools, Inc. Handy & Harman of Canada Limited
Milwaukee Electric ToolCorp Harris Welco -Division of J.W. Harris
Ski1 Power Tools Inweld Corporation
T. C. Service Co. Lucas-Milhaupt, Inc., A Handy& Harman Company
Tri Tool Inc. National Torch Tip Co., Inc.
Prince & Izant Company
WATER TABLES Protective Metal Alloys, Incorporated
Anderson Incorporated Robinson Technical Products Midwest
ESAB Cutting Systems Selectrode Industries, Inc.
Galt Industries, Inc. Thyssen Welding
M.T.C. Ltd. Uniweld Products, Inc.
MG Industries Systems Division UTP Welding Materials
Weldsale Company Weldrite Welding Products, Inc.
OTHER CUlTlNG EQUIPMENT BRAZING ALLOYS (FOIL)

Cardinal Eg Saws Corporation AGAGas,Inc.
Champion Cutting Tool Corp. Champion Welding Products, Incorporated
Doringer Manufacturing Company Engelhard Corporation
Mactech - Stresstech ESAB Welding & Cutting Products
MatheyLeland International, Ltd. Handy & Harman of Canada Limited
National Torch Tip Co., Inc. Hi-Alloy Weld Specialists
Nattco Products-An NTT Company & Harman Company
Lucas-Milhaupt, Inc., A Handy
Seal Seat Company MG Industries Welding Products Division

Welding Buyers Guide 709
National Torch Tip Co., Inc. CONSUMABLE WELDING INSERTS

Prince & Izant Company AGA Gas,Inc.
Robinson TechnicalProducts Midwest Arcos Alloys
Champion Welding Products, Incorporated
BRAZING ALLOYS (POWDER) ESAB Welding & Cutting Products
AGA Gas,Inc. Harris Welco -Division of J.W. Harris
American Welding Alloys Imperial Weld Ring Corporation
Astrolite Alloys National TorchTip Co., Inc.
Champion Welding Products, Incorporated Russian American TechnologyInventions L.C.
Engelhard Corporation Trafimet USA, Inc.
ESAB Welding & Cutting Products UTP Welding Materials
Welding Rod Factory, The
Handy & Harman of Canada Limited
Harris Welco - Division of J.W. Harris HARDFACINWSURFACING (POWER ALLOYS)
Hi-Alloy Weld Specialists AGA Gas, Inc.
Kytex Solutions, Inc. American Welding Alloys
Lucas-Milhaupt,Inc., A Handy& Harman Company Astrolite Alloys
MG Industries Welding Products Division Champion Welding Products, Incorporated
National Torch Tip Co., Inc. ESAB Welding & Cutting Products
National Welding Alloys Gas Tech, Inc.
Praxair Specialty Powders Harris Welco-Division of J.W. Harris
Prince & Izant Company Hi-Alloy Weld Specialists
Protective Metal Alloys, Incorporated Indura S.A.
SCM Metal Products, Inc. Inweld Corporation
Sherritt Incorporated James Morton, Incorporated
Sulzer Metco MG Industries Welding Products Division
Thyssen Welding Mitsubishi Materials U S A Corporation
UTP WeldingMaterials National TorchTip Co., Inc.
Wall ColmonoyCorporation National Welding Alloys
Winter Inc. & Co., F.W. Osram Sylvania Inc.
Postle Industries
BRAZING ALLOYS(PRECEIUS METAL) Praxair Specialty Powders
AGAGas,Inc. Protective Metal Alloys, Incorporated
Astrolite Alloys SCM Metal Products,Inc.
Champion Welding Products,Incorporated Selectrode Industries, Inc.
Stellite Coatings
Engelhard Corporation
ESAB Welding & Cutting Products
Thermadyne International
Fusion Incorporated Thermadyne Welding ProductsCanada, Ltd.
Handy & Harman of Canada Limited Thyssen Welding
Harris Welco -Division of J.W. Harris UTP Welding Materials
Lucas-Milhaupt, Inc., A Handy & Harman Company Wall ColmonoyCorporation
MG Industries Welding Products Division Washington Alloy Company
National TorchTip Co., Inc. Weartech International, Inc.
National Welding Alloys Welding Rod Factory,The
Prince & Izant Company Winter Inc. & Co., EW.
Robinson TechnicalProducts Midwest
SelectrodeIndustries, Inc. HARDFACINWSURFACING (STRIP CLADDING)
UTP WeldingMaterials AGAGas,Inc.
Washington Alloy Company Champion WeldingProducts, Incorporated
Welding Rod Factory,The Midwest Alloys& Technology, Inc.

Licensed by Information Handling Services ~~ ~ ~~~~
STD.AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 07842b5 051b884 2T5 m
710 Buyers Guide Welding Encyclopedia
National Torch Tip Co., Inc. Wall Colmonoy Corporation

Oerlikon Offshore Washington Alloy Company
Ransome Company Weartech International, Inc.
Sandvik Steel Company Weld Mold Company
Stoody Company Welding Rod Factory,The
Thermadyne International SOLDERING ALLOYS
Ltd. American Welding Alloys
Thyssen Welding Astrolite Alloys
UTP Welding Materials Champion Welding Products, Incorporated
Engelhard Corporation
HARDFACING/SURFACING (WIRE) ESAB Welding & Cutting Products
AGA Gas,Inc. Fusion Incorporated
American Welding Alloys Handy & Harman of Canada Limited
Ampco Metal Harris Welco- Division of J.W. Harris
Arcos Alloys Hi-Alloy Weld Specialists
Astrolite Alloys Inweld Corporation
Champion Welding Products, Incorporated Lucas-Milhaupt, Inc., A Handy& Harman Company
Chosun Steel Wire Company MG Industries Welding Products Division
COR-MET, Inc. National Torch Tip Co., Inc.
ESAB Welding& Cutting Products National Welding Alloys
Femi S.R.L. Prince & Izant Company
Filler Metals, Inc. SCM Metal Products, Inc.
Gas Tech,Inc. Selectrode Industries, Inc.
GE Welding & Machining Thermadyne Industries
Harris Welco- Division of J.W. Harris Thermadyne International
Indura S.A. Thermadyne Welding Products Canada, Ltd.
Inweld Corporation Thyssen Welding
Lincoln Electric Company,The Uniweld Products, Inc.
McKay Welding Products UTP Welding Materials
MG Industries Welding Products Division Washington Alloy Company
National Torch Tip Co., Inc. Welding Rod Factory, The
National Welding Alloys
Oerlikon Offshore WELDING WIRE (ALUMINUM)
Polymet Corporation Alcotec Wire Company
Postle Industries Aluminum Association, Inc.,The
Protective Metal Alloys, Incorporated American Filler Metals Inc.
Rexarc International,Inc. American Welding Alloys
Robinson Technical Products Midwest Astrolite Alloys
Rolled Alloys Champion Welding Products, Incorporated
Selectrode Industries, Inc. ESAB Welding& Cutting Products
Stoody Company Femi S.R.L.
Techalloy Company, Inc.- Baltimore Welding Filler Metals, Inc.
Division Gas Tech, Inc.
Thermadyne Industries Gulf Wire Corporation
Thermadyne International Handy & Harman of Canada Limited
Thermadyne Welding Products Canada, Ltd. Harris Welco- Division of J.W. Harris
Thyssen Welding Hi-Alloy Weld Specialists
United States Welding Corporation Indura S.A.
Uniweld Products, Inc. Inweld Corporation
UTP Welding Materials Lincoln Electric Company,The

MG Industries Welding Products Division WELDING WIRE (NICKELMIGH NICKEL ALLOYS)

National Torch Tip Co., Inc. American Filler Metals Inc.
National Welding Alloys American Welding Alloys
Oerlikon Offshore Arcos Alloys
OTC-Daihen, Inc. Astrolite Alloys
Polymet Corporation Champion Welding Products, Incorporated
Robinson Technical Products Midwest COR-MET, Inc.
Selectrode Industries, Inc. ESAB Welding& Cutting Products
Thermadyne Industries Filler Metals, Inc.
Thermadyne International Harris Welco-Division of J.W. Harris
United States Welding Corporation Hi-Alloy Weld Specialists
Uniweld Products, Inc. Hyundai Welding& Metal Company, Ltd.
UTP Welding Materials Inco Alloys International, Inc.
Wall Colmonoy Corporation Indura S.A.
Washington Alloy Company Inweld Corporation
Welding Rod Factory,The Lincoln Electric Company,The
Weldrite Welding Products, Inc. McKay Welding Products
MG Industries Welding Products Division
WELDING WIRE (COPPER ALLOYS) Midwest Alloys& Technology, Inc.
American Filler Metals Inc. National Standard
American Welding Alloys National Torch Tip Co.,Inc.
Ampco Metal National Welding Alloys
Arcos Alloys Oerlikon Offshore
Astrolite Alloys Protective Metal Alloys, Incorporated
Champion Welding Products, Incorporated Robinson Technical Products Midwest
ESAB Welding& Cutting Products Rolled Alloys
Filler Metals, Inc. Sandvik Steel Company
Gas Tech, Inc. Techalloy Company, Inc.- Baltimore Welding
Harris Welco-Division of J.W. Harris Division
Hi-Alloy Weld Specialists Thermadyne Industries
Inco Alloys International, Inc. Thermadyne International
Indura S.A. Thyssen Welding
Inweld Corporation United States Welding Corporation
Lincoln Electric Company, The Uniweld Products,Inc.
MG Industries Welding Products Division UTP Welding Materials
National Standard Wall Colmonoy Corporation
National Torch Tip Co., Inc. Washington Alloy Company
National Welding Alloys Weld Mold Company
Oerlikon Offshore Welding Rod Factory,The
Robinson Technical Products Midwest Weldrite Welding Products, Inc.
Symington & Co., Inc., C.H.
Thermadyne International WELDING WIRE (MILD STEEL)
Thyssen Welding American Filler Metals Inc.
Uniweld Products, Inc. American Welding Alloys
UTP Welding Materials Astrolite Alloys
Wall Colmonoy Corporation Champion Welding Products, Incorporated
Washington Alloy Company Chosun Steel Wire Company
Weld Mold Company Conarco AlambresY Soldaduras S.A.
Welding Rod Factory,The Eagle Wire Company, Inc.
Weldrite Welding Products, Inc. ESAB Welding& Cutting Products
Wisconsin Wire Works Inc. Faiter ElettrodiS.P.A.

712 Buyer's Guide Welding Encyclopedia
Femi S.R.L. Inweld Corporation

Filler Metals,Inc. Kopo International (Fiprom; Globtrade
USA)
Gas Tech, Inc. Lincoln Electric Company,The
Harris Welco- Division of J.W. Harris McKay Welding Products
Hi-Alloy Weld Specialists MG Industries Welding Products Division
Hyundai Welding& Metal Company, Ltd. Midwest Alloys& Technology, Inc.
Indura S.A. National Standard
Inweld Corporation National Torch TipCo., Inc.
Kobelco Weldingof America Inc. National Welding Alloys
Kopo International (Fiprom; Globtrade USA) Oerlikon Offshore
Lincoln Electric Company,The OTC-Daihen, Inc.
McKay Welding Products Robinson Technical Products Midwest
MG Industries Welding Products Division Rolled Alloys
MidSTATES Wire Sandvik Steel Company
National Standard Symington & Co., Inc., C.H.
National Torch Tip Co., Inc. Techalloy Company, Inc.-Baltimore Welding
National Welding Alloys Division
Oerlikon Offshore Thyssen Welding
OTC-Daihen, Inc. Trader S.P.A.
Robinson Technical Products Midwest United States Welding Corporation
Symington & Co., Inc., C.H. Uniweld Products, Inc.
Techalloy Company, Inc.- Baltimore Welding UTP Welding Materials
Division Wall Colmonoy Corporation
Thyssen Welding Washington Alloy Company
Uniweld Products, Inc. Weld Mold Company
UTP Welding Materials Welding Rod Factory,The
Washington Alloy Company Weldrite Welding Products, Inc.
Weld Mold Company
Welding Rod Factory,The OTHER JOINING MATERIALS
Weldrite Welding Products,Inc. Alcotec Wire Company
Astrolite Alloys
WELDING WIRE (STAINLESS STEEL) Bettermann of America, Incorporated
American Filler Metals Inc. Inweld Corporation
American Welding Alloys Navy Joining Center
Arcos Alloys Sulzer Metco
Astrolite Alloys Trader S.P.A.
Champion Welding Products, Incorporated United States Welding Corporation
Chosun Steel Wire Company UTP Welding Materials
COR-MET, Inc. Welding Institute (TWI), The
Femi S.R.L. THERMAL SPRAY WIRES
Filler Metals, Inc. Arcos Alloys
Gas Tech, Inc. Champion Welding Products, Incorporated
Gulf Wire Corporation MidSTATES Wire
Handy & Harman of Canada Limited Miller Thermal Incorporated
Harris Welco-Division of J.W. Harris National Torch Tip Co., Inc.
Hi-Alloy Weld Specialists Sulzer Metco
High PurityGas Co. Techalloy Company, Inc.- Baltimore Welding
Hyundai Welding& Metal Company, Ltd. Division
Inco Alloys International, Inc. Thyssen Welding
Indura S.A. Wall Colmonoy Corporation

~~ ~~
~ ~~
STD.AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 W 07842b5 0516887 TO4 W

a Welding Buyers Guide 713
ELECTRODES/FILLER METALS National Welding Alloys

Oerlikon Offshore
ALUMINUM Robinson Technical Products Midwest
Alcotec Wire Company Selectrode Industries, Inc.
Aluminum Association, Inc.,The Thyssen Welding
American Welding Alloys Uniweld Products, Inc.
Burny Group/Cleveland MachineControls Inc. UTP Welding Materials
Cemont Washington Alloy Company
Champion Welding Products, Incorporated Weld Mold Company
ESAB Welding& Cutting Products Weldrite Welding Products,Inc.
Femi S.R.L.
Filler Metals, Inc. COPPEWCOPPER ALLOYS
Gas Tech, Inc. American Welding Alloys
Harris Welco- Division of J.W. Harris Ampco Metal
Hi-Alloy Weld Specialists Arcos Alloys
Indura S.A. Centerline (Windsor) Limited
Inweld Corporation Champion Welding Products, Incorporated
Lincoln Electric Company,The Cmw Incorporated
MG Industries Welding Products Division Femi S.R.L.
National TorchTip Co., Inc. Filler Metals, Inc.
National Welding Alloys Harris Welco-Division of J.W. Harris
Oerlikon Offshore Hi-Alloy Weld Specialists
Robinson Technical Products Midwest Inco Alloys International, Inc.
Selectrode Industries, Inc. Indura S.A.
Thyssen Welding Inweld Corporation
Uniweld Products, Inc. Lincoln Electric Company,The
UTP Welding Materials MG Industries Welding Products Division
Washington Alloy Company National Torch Tip Co., Inc.
Weldrite Welding Products, Inc. National Welding Alloys
Nippert Company,The
CAST IRON Oerlikon Offshore
American Welding Alloys Robinson Technical Products Midwest
Ampco Metal SCM Metal Products, Inc.
Champion Welding Products, Incorporated Selectrode Industries, Inc.
Conarco AlambresY Soldaduras S.A. Thyssen Welding
COR-MET, Inc. Uniweld Products, Inc.
ESAB Welding& Cutting Products UTP Welding Materials
Femi S.R.L. Washington Alloy Company
Filler Metals, Inc. Weld Mold Company
Gas Tech, Inc. Weldrite Welding Products, Inc.
Harris Welco-Division of J.W. Harris
Hi-Alloy Weld Specialists FLUX COREDWIRE (STEEL)
Hobart Brothers Company American Welding Alloys
Indura S.A. Cemont
Inweld Corporation Champion Welding Products, Incorporated
Kopo International (Fiprom;Globtrade USA) Chosun Steel Wire Company
Lincoln Electric Company,The Conarco AlambresY Soldaduras S.A.
McKay Welding Products COR-MET, Inc.
MG Industries Welding Products Division Eagle Wire Company, Inc.
Midwest Alloys& Technology, Inc. ESAB Welding& Cutting Products
National Torch Tip Co., Inc. Filler Metals, Inc.

Gas Tech, Inc. Chosun Steel Wire Company
Harris Welco- Division of J.W. Harris COR-MET, Inc.
Hi-Alloy Weld Specialists ESAB Welding& Cutting Products
Hobart Brothers Company Filler Metals, Inc.
Hyundai Welding& Metal Company, Ltd. Gas Tech, Inc.
Inweld Corporation Harris Welco-Division of J.W. Harris
Kobelco Welding of America Inc. Hi-Alloy Weld Specialists
Lincoln Electric Company,The Hobart Brothers Company
McKay Welding Products Hyundai Welding?LMetal Company,Ltd.
MG Industries Welding Products Division Inweld Corporation
National Welding Alloys Kobelco Weldingof America Inc.
Oerlikon Offshore Lincoln Electric Company, The
Robinson Technical Products Midwest McKay Welding Products
Symington & Co., Inc., C.H. MG Industries Welding Products Division
Thyssen Welding Midwest Alloys& Technology, Inc.
Washington Alloy Company National Torch Tip Co., Inc.
Weld Mold Company National Welding Alloys
Weldrite Welding Products,Inc. Oerlikon Offshore
Robinson Technical Products Midwest
FLUX COREDWIRE (LOW ALLOY STEEL) Sandvik Steel Company
American Welding Alloys Symington & Co., Inc., C.H.
Cemont Thyssen Welding
Champion Welding Products, Incorporated UTP Welding Materials
Conarco AlambresY Soldaduras S.A. Washington Alloy Company
COR-MET, Inc. Weld Mold Company
ESAB Welding& Cutting Products Welding Rod Factory,The
Filler Metals, Inc. Weldrite Welding Products, Inc.
Gas Tech, Inc.
Harris Welco- Division of J.W. Harris
FLUX CORED WIRE (NICKEL ANDHIGH NICKEL
Hi-Alloy Weld Specialists
ALLOYS)
Hyundai Welding& Metal Company, Ltd. American Filler Metals Inc.
Inweld Corporation American Welding Alloys
Lincoln Electric Company,The Champion Welding Products, Incorporated
McKay Welding Products COR-MET, Inc.
MG Industries Welding Products Division ESAB Welding?LCutting Products
National Welding Alloys Filler Metals, Inc.
Oerlikon Offshore Hi-Alloy WeldSpecialists
Robinson Technical Products Midwest Ibeda Incorporated
Symington & Co., Inc., C.H. Inco Alloys International, Inc.
Thyssen Welding Inweld Corporation
Uniweld Products, Inc. Lincoln Electric Company,The
UTP Welding Materials McKay Welding Products
Washington Alloy Company MG Industries Welding Products Division
Weldrite Welding Products, Inc. National Welding Alloys
Protective Metal Alloys, Incorporated
FLUX CORED WIRE-STAINLESS STEEL Symington & Co., Inc., C.H.
American Filler Metals Inc. Thyssen Welding
American Welding Alloys UTP Welding Materials
Cemont Washington Alloy Company
Champion Welding Products, Incorporated Weartech International, Inc.

-~
~~ ~~
STDmAWS
JWE-ENGL L997 07842b5 05Lb889 887 m
Weld Mold Company Hi-Alloy Weld Specialists

Weldrite Welding Products, Inc. Inco Alloys International, Inc.
Indura S.A.
HARDFACING/SURFACING Inweld Corporation
American Filler Metals Inc. Lincoln Electric Company, The
American Welding Alloys McKay Welding Products
A m p o Metal MG Industries Welding Products Division
Arcos Alloys Midwest Alloys& Technology, Inc.
Champion Welding Products, Incorporated National Torch Tip Co., Inc.
Conarco Alambres Y Soldaduras S.A. National Welding Alloys
COR-MET, Inc. Protective Metal Alloys, Incorporated
Femi S.R.L. Robinson Technical Products Midwest
Filler Metals, Inc. Rolled Alloys
Gas Tech, Inc. Sandvik Steel Company
Hi-Alloy WeldSpecialists SCM Metal Products, Inc.
Hobart Brothers Company Selectrode Industries, Inc.
Indura S.A. Sherritt Incorporated
Inweld Corporation Techalloy Company, Inc.-Baltimore Welding
Kopo International (Fiprom;Globtrade USA) Division
Lincoln Electric Company,The Thyssen Welding
McKay Welding Products Uniweld Products, Inc.
MG Industries Welding Products Division UTP Welding Materials
Mitsubishi Materials US A Corporation Wall Colmonoy Corporation
National TorchTip Co., Inc. Washington Alloy Company
National Welding Alloys Weartech International, Inc.
Oerlikon Offshore Weld Mold Company
Protective Metal Alloys, Incorporated Welding Rod Factory,The
Rexarc International, Inc.
Robinson Technical Products Midwest STAINLESS STEEL
SCM Metal Products, Inc. American Filler Metals Inc.
Selectrode Industries, Inc. American Welding Alloys
Stoody Company Arcos Alloys
Thermadyne Industries Champion Welding Products, Incorporated
Thyssen Welding Chosun Steel Wire Company
Trader S.P.A. Conarco AlambresY Soldaduras S.A.
Uniweld Products, Inc. COR-MET, Inc.
UTP Welding Materials ESAB Welding& Cutting Products
Wall Colmonoy Corporation Femi S.R.L.
Washington Alloy Company Filler Metals, Inc.
Weartech International, Inc. Gas Tech, Inc.
Weld Mold Company Harris Welco - Division of J.W. Harris
Welding Rod Factory,The Hi-Alloy Weld Specialists
NICKEL Hyundai Welding& Metal Company,Ltd.
American Filler Metals Inc. Inco Alloys International, Inc.
American Welding Alloys Indura S.A.
Arcos Alloys Inweld Corporation
Champion Welding Products, Incorporated Kopo International (Fiprom; Globtrade USA)
COR-MET, Inc. Lincoln Electric Company, The
Femi S.R.L. McKay Welding Products
Filler Metals, Inc. MG Industries Welding Products Division

Midwest Alloys& Technology, Inc. GTAW

National Torch Tip Co., Inc. American Welding Alloys
National Welding Alloys American Weldquip Inc.
Oerlikon Offshore Arcos Alloys
Robinson Technical Products Midwest C-K Worldwide Inc.
Rolled Alloys Cemont
Sandvik Steel Company Champion Welding Products, Incorporated
SCM Metal Products, Inc. CNI -Ceramic Nozzles, Inc.
Selectrode Industries, Inc. Conarco AlambresY Soldaduras S.A.
Techalloy Company, Inc.- Baltimore Welding COR-MET, Inc.
Division ESAB Welding& Cutting Products
Thyssen Welding Filler Metals, Inc.
Uniweld Products, Inc. Gas Tech, Inc.
UTP Welding Materials Hi-Alloy Weld Specialists
Washington Alloy Company Inco Alloys International, Inc.
Weld Mold Company Inweld Corporation
Welding Rod Factory,The Lincoln Electric Company, The
Weldrite Welding Products, Inc. McKay Welding Products
MG Industries Welding Products Division
STEEL
National Welding Alloys
American Filler Metals Inc.
Navy Joining Center
American Welding Alloys
Nu-Tecsys Corporation
Champion Welding Products, Incorporated Oerlikon Offshore
Chosun Steel Wire Company Osram Sylvania Inc.
Conarco AlambresY Soldaduras S.A. OTC-Daihen, Inc.
COR-MET, Inc. Robinson Technical Products Midwest
ESAB Welding& Cutting Products Sandvik Steel Company
Femi S.R.L. Techalloy Company, Inc.- Baltimore Welding
Filler Metals, Inc. Division
Gas Tech, Inc. Teledyne Advanced Materials
Hi-Alloy Weld Specialists Thyssen Welding
Hobart Brothers Company UTP Welding Materials
Indura S.A. Washington Alloy Company
Inweld Corporation Weld-Motion Inc.
Lincoln Electric Company,The Welding Nozzle International
McKay Welding Products Welding Rod Factory,The
MG Industries Welding Products Division Weldrite Welding Products, Inc.
National Welding Alloys METAL CORED WIRES
Oerlikon Offshore American Welding Alloys
Robinson Technical Products Midwest Champion Welding Products, Incorporated
Techalloy Company, Inc.- Baltimore Welding Chosun Steel Wire Company
Division COR-MET, Inc.
Thyssen Welding ESAB Welding & Cutting Products
Trader S.P.A. Gas Tech, Inc.
Uniweld Products,Inc. Hi-Alloy Weld Specialists
UTP Welding Materials Hobart Brothers Company
Washington Alloy Company Inweld Corporation
Welding Rod Factory,The Lincoln Electric Company,The
Weldrite Welding Products, Inc. McKay Welding Froducts

~~~~

STD*AWS JWE-ENGL L997 W 0784265 05L689L 435 m
Oerlikon Offshore Pandjiris Incorporated

Robinson Technical Products Midwest Servo-Robot Inc.
Thyssen Welding Sherwin, Incorporated
Weld Mold Company Spectro Analytical Instruments, Inc.
Spectronics Corporation
UNDERWATER Staveley Instruments, Inc.
American Welding Alloys Unitek Miyachi Corporation
Anderson Incorporated Welch Allyn,Inc -Imaging Products Division
Broco Incorporated Welding Consultants, Inc.
Champion Welding Products, Incorporated
Hi-Alloy Weld Specialists NDT SERVICES
National Torch Tip Co., Inc. Fiba Technologies,Inc.
National Welding Alloys GE Welding & Machining
Oerlikon Offshore Krautkramer Branson
Sandvik Steel Company Magnaflux
Thermadyne Industries Metorex Incorporated
Thermadyne International Mqs Inspection Inc.
Thennadyne Welding ProductsCanada, Ltd. National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ)
Thyssen Welding Panametrics, Inc.
Tweco/Arcair Weldship Corporation
OTHER ELECTRODES FILLER METALS OTHER TESTING EQUIPMENT

Bettermann of America, Incorporated AMET, Inc.
Navy Joining Center Equotip Associates
North American Sales Distribution Center, Inc. Expansion Seal Technologies (Formerly Expando Seal
(NASDC) Tools)
Weartech International, Inc. Fiba Technologies, Inc.
Welding Institute (TWI),The Herron Testing Laboratories,Inc.
LeCo Corporation
TESTING EQUIPMENT Liburdi Pulsweld Corporation
DESTRUCTIVE TEST EQUIPMENT Olympus America Incorporated
Enerpac Welch Allyn, Inc-Imaging Products Division
Unitek Miyachi Corporation Welding Consultants, Inc.
Welding Institute (TWI),The
NONDESTRUCTIVE TEST EQUIPMENT Weldship Corporation
Centurion Ndt, Inc.
CrowrdNorth American Professional Products RELATED PRODUCTS AND SERVICES
Dynaflux, Inc.
Enerpac CADICAM
IRC Advanced Kiffer Systems, Incorporated
Krautkramer Branson Anderson Incorporated
LeCo Corporation Burny Group/Cleveland Machine Controls Inc.
Livingston, Incorporated Generative N/C Technology, Inc.
Magnaflux Koike Aronson Incorporated
Metorex Incorporated M.T.C. Ltd.
Modular Vision Systems N. A. Technologies Co.
Navy Joining Center National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ)
Ogden Engineering Corporation Navy Joining Center
Olympus America Incorporated Shop Data Systems, Inc.
Panametrics, Inc. Sigmatek Corporation

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 I07842b5 05Lb89Z 37L
718 Buyers Guide Welding Encyclopedia
COMPUTER SOFTWARE Pandjiris Incorporated

ABB Flexible Automation Incorporated Rockwell Laser Industries
American Welding Institute (Awi) Servo-Robot Inc.
Anderson Incorporated Spanish Associationof Welding And Joining
Aw Johnson & Associates Technologies
Burny Group/Cleveland Machine Controls
Inc. Walhonde Tools Inc.
C-Spec Weldcomputer Corporation
Canadian Welding Bureau Welding Consultants, Inc.
Computer Engineering, Incorporated
Computers Unlimited ENGINES, GAS& DIESEL
Dataweld Inc. American Honda Motor Co., Inc.
Directed Light, Inc. Detroit Diesel Corporation
EWI Deutz Corporation
Generative N/C Technology, Inc. Kohler Co., Engine Division
Hobart Lasers& Advanced Systems Onan Corporation
IRC Wis-Con Total Power Corporation
Koike Aronson Incorporated
M.T.C. Ltd. FURNACES
MG Industries Systems Division Mannings USA
N. A. Technologies Co. National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ)
National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ) Technical Materials Inc.
Rockwell LaserIndustries HEAT TREATINWSTRESS RELIEVING
Servo-Robot Inc. Ametek Inc.-Haveg Division
Shop Data Systems, Inc. Bonal Technologies, Inc.
Sigmatek Corporation Global Heat Incorporated
Herron Testing Laboratories, Inc.
CONSULTING Hill Technical Division-Sem-Tech, Inc.
Akron Area Partners For Progress Laser Applications, Inc. (LAI)
American Weldquip Inc. Laser Machining, Incorporated
AMET, Inc. Lepe1 Corporation
Anderson Incorporated Mannings USA
Aw Johnson & Associates Pilladcycle-Dyne
C-Spec Sqwincher, The Activity Drink
CYBO Robots Technical Materials Inc.
Directed Light, Inc. Wall Colmonoy Corporation
Entergy Corporation
Ewi LADDERS & SCAFFOLDING
Factory Mutual Pandjiris Incorporated
Generative N/C Technology, Inc. Wing Enterprises Incorporated
Gilbert Industrial
Herron Testing Laboratories, Inc. METAL WORKING EQUIPMENT
Hobart Lasers& Advanced Systems Accra-Weld Controls, Incorporated
IRC Bluco Corporation
Lincoln Electric Company,The Bonal Technologies, Inc.
M.T.C. Ltd. Centerline (Windsor) Limited
Mid America Cryogenics C d USA Inc (Ercolina)
N. A. Technologies Co. Dynabrade, Inc.
National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ) Eagle Bending Machines, Inc.
Navy Joining Center Enerpac
Ogden Engineering Corporation Hellers Son Inc.,E.G.

Jepson Power Tools AMET, Inc.

Metal Muncherrnab Center Sales CYBO Robots
Milwaukee Electric Tool Corp Directed Light, Inc.
Mubea MachineryAnd Systems, Inc. Ewi
National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ) Herron Testing Laboratories, Inc.
Pangborn Corporation IRC
Peddinghaus Corporation N. A. Technologies Co.
Pilladcycle-Dyne National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ)
Project Tool & Die, Inc. Navy Joining Center
Technical Materials Inc. Ogden Engineering Corporation
Walhonde Tools Inc. Paton Welding Institute
Wilton Corporation Rockwell Laser Industries
Russian American Technology Inventions L.C.
NUMERICALLY CONTROLLED EQUIPMENT
Servo-Robot Inc.
Anderson Incorporated
Technical Materials Inc.
Burny Group/Cleveland Machine Controls Inc.
C & G Systems, Inc. Tri Tool Inc.
Eagle Bending Machines, Inc. Welding Consultants, Inc.
ESAB Welding& Cutting Products Welding Institute (TWI), The
Hellers Son Inc., E.G.
IRC TECHNICAL TRAINING
MG Industries Systems Division American Welding Society, The
Mubea MachineryAnd Systems, Inc. CYBO Robots
National Excellence In Materials Joining
(NEiMJ) Divers Academyof The Eastern Seaboard Inc.
Ogden Engineering Corporation EWI
Peddinghaus Corporation Gow-Mac Instrument Company
Servo-Robot Inc. Herron Testing Laboratories, Inc.
Hobart Instituteof Welding Technology
PIPE END PREPARATION Ilisagvik College
Advance Milwaukee Brush Letourneau University
Eagle Bending Machines, Inc. Lincoln Electric Company,The
Esco Tool A Unitof Esco Technologies, Inc. Mannings USA
G.B.C. Industrial Tools Mid America Cryogenics
George Fischer Pipe Tools Miller Electric Manufacturing Company
H & S Tool Miller Thermal Incorporated
Jancy Engineering Co. Home of The Slugger National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ)
Mactech - Stresstech Navy Joining Center
MatheyLeland International, Ltd. Pennsylvania Collegeof Technology
Mid America Cryogenics Rockwell Laser Industries
Otto Tool Co. Div. of Alsana
Texas State Technical College Welding Department
Project Tool& Die, Inc.
Tri Tool Inc. Welding Consultants, Inc.
Trumpf Incorporated Welding Institute(TWI), The
Vogel Tool & Die Corporation
Wachs Company, E.H. TUBE BENDING EQUIPMENT
Wilton Corporation Cm1 USA Inc (Ercolina)
World Machinery& Saws System Company Eagle Bending Machines, Inc.
George Fischer Pipe Tools
RESEARCH & DEVELOPEMENT Hellers Son Inc., E.G.
American Welding Institute (Awi) Vogel Tool & Die Corporation
American Welding Society,The World Machinery & Saws System Company
WELDING PUBLICATIONS Eastern Etching& Manufacturing
American Welding Society,The Entergy Corporation
ASM International Fisher Container Corporation
EWI Galvanizing Company, Rogers
Fabricators & Manufacturers Association Gases And Welding Distributor
Forming & FabricatingKME Generative N/C Technology, Inc.
Hobart Instituteof Welding Technology Gte Scientific Society of Mechanical Engineers
Industrial Market Place (Hungary)
Industrial Product Bulletin H & S Tool
Lincoln Electric Company,The Havens Sculptures,James
Metal Forming Magazine Heath Jewelry, Michelle& Andy
National Excellence In Materials Joining (NEMJ) Herron Testing Laboratories, Inc.
Navy Joining Center Hobart Instituteof Welding Technology
Resistance Welder Manufacturers Association Industrial Maintenance& Plant Operation
Inweld Corporation
Welding Design& Fabrication Italian Trade Commission
Kiel, Adele
OTHER PRODUCTS AND SERVICES King Bag& Manufacturing Co.
69 Design Inc. Larco
Abs Quality Evaluations Larco/Safety Controls Corporation
Advanta Business Services Letourneau University
Air Quality Engineering Inc. Lyalls Labors Ltd.
Akron Area Partners For Progress Mannings USA
Aluminum Association, Inc.,The Maros Welding (Metal WorkingArtist), Keith
American Welder,The Mmm Metalworking Machinery Mailer
American Welding Society,The Modem Application News
AMET, Inc. Moore Industrial Hardware
Arthur Ross Cady-Arc Enterprises Mqs Inspection Inc.
Artists Kafka Metal-Sculpture Naltex
Assembly Magazine Navy Joining Center
Austrian Trade Commission Nupro Company
AWS Foundation Ohio State UniversityAVelding Engineering,The
AWS Travel Club Otto Tool Co. Div.of Alsana
Belleville Area College-Welding Technology P.B.J. Enterprises
Division Permadur Industries, Inc.
BurnfreeDIortrade International, Inc. Products Unlimited
Cajon Company Project Tool& Die, Inc.
Carvalho, Adriana Richard Prazen
Cary - Cary Founds Schweissen & Schneiden 97/Essen Welding Fair 97
Casilio, Martin A. Scientific Technologies,Inc./Sti
Celestial Ironworks Sculpture By Niemi
Chemclean Corp Sigmatek Corporation
Clemco Industries Corporation Stel DiA.M. Mazzucco
CNA Insurance Companies Store Fixtures Unlimited
CNI - Ceramic Nozzles, Inc. Swagelok Company
Contemporary Products, Inc. (Cpi) Systematics, Inc.
Dataweld Inc. Vocational IndustrialClubs of America, Inc.
Divers Academy of The Eastern SeaboardInc. Wachs Company, E.H.
Doblinger, Don Watteredge-Uniflex, Inc.
Dunn, MichaelT. Weld Systems International Incorporated
Eagle Bending Machines, Inc. Welding Consultants, Inc.

~ ~ ~~ ~~~~~
~~~
Whitey Company Metal MuncherFab Center Sales

Willing A r t s , Todd Piranha-Mega Manufacturing Incorporated
Zero Products, A Divisionof Clemco Industries Corp. Production Machinery, Inc.
Trumpf Incorporated
PROTECTIVE COATINGS Uni-Hydro, Incorporated
Dynaflux, Inc.
Engelhard Surface Technologies OTHER METALWORKING EQUIPMENT
Miller Thermal Incorporated Abrasive Engineering& Manufacturing (Aem)
Naltex Chicago Pneumatic Tool Company
Spatzlpratt & Lambert United Inc. Convergent Energy
Thyssen Welding Dynabrade, Inc.
UTP Welding Materials Eagle Bending Machines, Inc.
Wall Colmonoy Corporation Eagle Industries
Walter, Incorporated, J. Edwards Manufacturing Co.
Watson Coatings Incorporated Enerpac
Fein Power Tools Inc.
METAL WORKING EQUIPMENT Gullco International Incorporated
Henning Hansen Incorporated
ROLL FORMlNG EQUIPMENT James Morton, Incorporated
Accra-Weld Controls, Incorporated Jancy Engineering Co. Home The of Slugger
C d USA Inc (Ercolina) Ken Kosiorek Metal Sculpture
Comeq, Incorporated L S Industries
Eagle Bending Machines, Inc. Milwaukee Area TechnicalCollege
Hellers Son Inc., E.G. Mubea MachineryAnd Systems, Inc.
Pangborn Corporation
SHEET METALWORKING EQUIPMENT Piranha-Mega Manufacturing Incorporated
Eagle Bending Machines, Inc. Project Tool& Die, Inc.
Hellers Son Inc.,E.G. Scotchman Industries, Incorporated
Unipunch Products,Inc. Technical Materials Inc.
Uni-Hydro, Incorporated
STAMPING & PUNCHING EQUIPMENT United Proarc Corporation
Accra-Weld Controls, Incorporated Vogel Tool& Die Corporation
Centerline (Windsor) Limited Walhonde Tools Inc.
Cleveland Steel Tool Company,The Weld Systems International Incorporated
Edwards Manufacturing Co.
Enerpac FLUXEWPOWDERS
Metal MuncherFab Center Sales
Mubea Machinery And Systems, Inc. FLUX (GAS WELDINWBRAZING)
Peddinghaus Corporation Astrolite Alloys
Piranha-Mega Manufacturing Incorporated Controls Corporation of America
Trumpf Incorporated Engelhard Corporation
Unipunch Products, Inc. ESAB Welding& Cutting Products
Vogel Tool & Die Corporation Fusion Incorporated
Gas Tech, Inc.
BENDING & SHEARING EQUIPMENT Gasflux Company,The
Centerline (Windsor) Limited Handy & Harman of Canada Limited
Cm1 USA Inc (Ercolina) Harris Welco-Division of J.W. Harris
Comeq, Incorporated Hi-Alloy Weld Specialists
Eagle Bending Machines, Inc. Ibeda lncorporated
Edwards Manufacturing Co. Inweld Corporation
Hellers Son Inc.,E.G. La-Co Industries,InclMarkal Co.
Licensed by Information Handling Services -
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 05lb89b Tl7 m
722 Buyers Guide Welding Encydopedia
Lucas-Milhaupt,Inc.,AHandy & Hannan CompanyLa-CoIndustries,Inc./MarkalCo.

Metalworks, S.D. Hawkins
Lucas-Milhaupt,
Handy
AInc., & Harman
Company
MG Industries
Welding
Products
Division
National
Welding
Alloys
Prince
Alloys
Welding
National & Izant Company
erJoining Navy Selectrode
Inc.Industries,
Prince & Izant Company Superior Flux& Manufacturing Company
Robinson Technical Products Midwest
Thyssen Welding
Selectrode Industries, Inc.
Superior Flux & Manufacturing Company Uniweld Products, Inc.
Welding Thyssen
,od
Welding
Inc.
Products,
Uniweld The
UTP Welding Materials
Wall Colmonoy Corporation FLUX (SUBMERGEDARC)
Welding Rod Factory,The ESAB Welding & Cutting Products
Filler Metals, Inc.
FLUX (SOLDERING) Gas Tech, Inc.
Astrolite Alloys Hyundai Welding& Metal Company, Ltd.
Engelhard Corporation Inco Alloys International, Inc.
Lincoln Electric Company, The
Fusion Incorporated
Gas Tech, Inc. McKay Welding Products
Handy & Harman of Canada Limited Midwest Alloys& Technology, Inc.
Harris Welco- Division of J.W. Harris Oerlikon Offshore
Hi-Alloy Weld Specialists Sandvik Steel Company
Inweld Corporation Thyssen Welding

~~
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L797 II 0784265 05Lb877 953
Suppliers
3M OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH& ENVIRONMENTAL ADVANCED KIFFER SYSTEMS, INCORPORATED
SAFETY DIVISION 15666 Snow Road
3M Center Building,275-6W-O1 Cleveland, OH 44142-235 1
Saint Paul,MN 55 144-lo00 (216) 267-8181
(612) 733-5608 FAX: (216) 267-8182
FAX: (612) 735-2555
ADVANTA BUSINESS SERVICES
69 DESIGN INC.
1020 LaurelOak Road
2030 NW 7th Avenue Voorhees, NJ 08043
Miami, FL 33127
(800) 469-0825
ABB FLEXIBLE AUTOMATION FAX: (800) 446-7129
INCORPORATED
4600 Innovation Drive AERCOLOGY, INC.
Fort Collins,CO 80525 8 Custom Drive
(970) 225-7600 Old Saybrook,CT 06475
FAX: (970) 225-7700 (203) 399-7941
FAX: (203) 399-7049
ABMAST ABRASIVES CORPORATION
13 Industrial Boulevard AGA GAS, INC.
Plattsburgh, NY 12901 6225 Oak Tree Blvd.
(800) 36 1-2297 Cleveland, OH 4413 1
FAX: (800) 300-2420 (216) 573-7800
FAX: (216) 573-7870
ABRASIVE ENGINEERING& MANUFACTURING
(AEM) AIR LIQUIDE AMERICA CORPORATION
540 East Old Highway56 2121 North California Blvd., #350
Olathe, KS 66061 Walnut Creek, CA 94596
(800) 875-6040 (510) 977-6218
FAX: (913) 764-0429 FAX: (510) 746-6306
ABS QUALITY EVALUATIONS AIR PRODUCTS & CHEMICALS, INCORPORATED
16855 Northchase Drive 12200 East Iliff Avenue, Ste. 200
Houston, TX 77060 Aurora, CO 80014
(7 13) 874-6360
(303) 755-5230
FAX: (713) 874-5974
FAX: (303) 755-3723
ACCRA-WELD CONTROLS, INCORPORATED
10891 Northland Drive AIR QUALITY ENGINEERING INC.
Rockford, MI 4934 1 3340 Winpark Drive
(616) 866-3434 Minneapolis, MN 55427
FAX: (616) 866-9468 (612) 544-4426
FAX: (612) 544-4013
ADVANCE MILWAUKEE BRUSH
W142 N9251 Fountain Blvd. AIRFLOW SYSTEMS, INCORPORATED
P.O. Box 830 11370 Pagemill Road
Menomonee Falls,W1 53052 Dallas, TX 75243-8306
(414) 255-3200 (214) 272-3003
FAX: (414) 255-1412 FAX: (214) 503-9596
723
STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 W 07842b5 051b898 89T m
724 Suppliers Encyclopedia Welding
AKRON AREA PARTNERS FOR PROGRESS AMERICAN SAW & MANUFACTURING COMPANY
One Cascade Plaza, Ste.800 301 Chestnut Street J ,
Akron, OH 44308 East Longmeadow, MA01028

(216) 376-5550 (413) 525-3961
FAX: (216) 379-3164 FAX: (413) 525-8867
ALCOTEC WIRE COMPANY AMERICAN TORCH TIP COMPANY
2750 Aero Park Drive 6212 29th Street East
Traverse City, MI49686 Bradenton, FL 34203
(616) 941-4111 (800) 342-8477
FAX: (616) 941-9154 FAX: (941) 753-6917
ALPHA ENVIRONMENTAL REFRIGERATION AMERICAN VACUUM COMPANY
COMPANY 7301 North Monticello Avenue
2619 Bond Street Skokie, IL60076
Rochester Hills, MI48309 (800) 321-2849
(810) 852-4711 FAX: (847) 674-0214
FAX: (810) 852-0155
AMERICAN WELDER, THE
ALSIMAG TECHNICAL CERAMICS, INC. 550 N. W. LeJeune Road
One Technology Place, Hwy. 14 Miami, FL 33 126
Laurens, SC 29360 (305) 443-9353
(803) 682-1150 FAX: (305) 443-7559
FAX: (803) 682-1140
AMERICAN WELDING ALLOYS
ALUMINUM ASSOCIATION, INC., THE
380 West Martin Luther King Jr. Blvd.
900 19th Street North West
Washington, DC20006 Unit 3
(202) 862-5124
Los Angeles, CA90037
(213) 233-9733
FAX: (202) 862-5164
FAX: (213) 233-9749
AMERICAN & EUROPEAN MACHINERY,
INCORPORATED AMERICAN WELDING INSTITUTE(Awl)
Post Office Box25 18 10628 Dutchtown Road
Whitehouse, OH 4357 1 Knoxville, TN 37932
(419) 877-1000 (423) 675-2150
FAX: (419) 877-1001 FAX: (423) 675-6081
AMERICAN FILLER METALS INC. AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY, THE

6060 Donoho 550 N. W. LeJeune Road
Houston, TX77033 Miami, FL 33 126
(713) 649-8785 (305) 443-9353
FAX: (713) 644-9628 FAX: (305) 443-7559
AMERICAN HONDA MOTOR CO., INC. AMERICAN WELDQUIP INC.
4475 River Green Parkway 620 East Smith Road
Duluth, GA30136 Medina, OH 44256
(770) 497-6063 (216) 723-5333
FAX: (770) 497-6011 FAX: (800) 949-9353
AMERICAN KANOX CORPORATION AMET, INC.
3728 Rockwell Avenue 4191 West Highway 33
El Monte, CA91731 Rexburg, ID 83440
(818) 443-8489 (208) 356-7274
FAX: (8 18) 443-8597 FAX: (208) 356-8612
~ ~~
~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 07842b5 051b899 72b
Welding Suppliers 725
AMETEK - U.S. GAUGE ARCMASTER

900 Clymer Avenue 25 Walpole Park South
Sellersville, PA 18960 Walpole, MA 02081
(215) 257-6531 (508) 668-5149
FAX: (215) 257-3058 FAX: (508) 668-4640
AMETEK INC. - HAVEG DIVISION ARCOS ALLOYS
900 Greenbank Road One Arcos Drive
Wilmington, DE 19808
Mount Carmel, PA 17851
(800) 441-7777
FAX: (302) 995-0491 (717) 339-5200
FAX: (717) 339-5206
AMPCO METAL
Post Office Box 2004 ARTHUR ROSS CADY - ARC ENTERPRISES
Milwaukee, W1 53201 36248 Camp Creek Road
(414) 645-3750 Springfield, OR 97478
FAX: (414) 645-3225 (541) 741-6215
FAX: (541) 741-6215
AMPROCORP U.S.A INCORPORATED
41 11 South West 47th Avenue ARTISTS KAFKA METAL-SCULPTURE
Suite 321 2802 Lexington Drive
Fort Lauderdale, FL 333 14 Hazelcrest, IL 60429
(954) 581-7935 (708) 335-0445
FAX: (954) 581-7515
ASM INTERNATIONAL
ANDERSON INCORPORATED Materials Park,OH 44073
307 Foxcroft, Suite 10 (216) 338-5151
Pittsburgh, PA 15220
FAX: (216) 338-4634
(412) 429-8760
FAX: (412) 429-8754 ASSEMBLY MAGAZINE
ANDERSONPRODUCTS 191 South Gary Avenue
1040 Southbridge Street Carol Stream,IL 60188
Worcester, MAO 16 O1 (708) 665-1000
(508) 755-6100 FAX: (708) 462-2225
FAX: (508) 755-4694
ASTRO ARC POLYSOUDE
APPLIED ROBOTICS INC. 1094 1 La Tuna Cannon Road
648 Saratoga Road Sun Valley, CA 91352
Glenville, NY 12302 (8 18) 768-5660
(518) 384-1000 FAX: (818) 767-3180
FAX: (518) 384-1200
ASTROLITE ALLOYS
ARC MACHINES, INCORPORATED 120 1 Vanguard Drive
10280 Glenoaks Blvd Oxnard, CA 93033
Pacoima, CA 9 133 1
(805) 487-7 13 1
(818) 896-9556
FAX: (818) 890-3724 FAX: (805) 487-9694
ARCAL CHEMICALS, INCORPORATED ATLANTIC MACHINE TOOLS INCORPORATED

223 Westhampton Avenue 11629 North Houston Rosslyn Road
Capital Heights,MD 20743 Houston, TX 77086
(301) 336-9300 (713) 445-3985
FAX: (301) 336-6597 FAX: (713) 445-3989
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 W 07842b5 05Lb900 278 W
726 Suppliers Welding Encyclopedia
ATLAS WELDING ACCESSORIES, INC. BEAR PAW MAGNETIC TOOLS INCORPORATED

501 Stephenson Highway,P.O. Box 969 46 13 Aircenter Circle
Troy, MI 48099 Reno, NV 89502
(810) 588-4666 (702) 829-1810
FAX: (810) 588-2706 FAX: (702) 829-1819
ATRAX BELAIRE PRODUCTS INC.
2150 West Lawrence Avenue 763 South Broadway Avenue
Chicago, IL 60625 Akron, OH 44311
(800) 633-5994 (216) 253-3116
FAX: (800) 329-7301 FAX: (216) 376-7790
AUBURN MANUFACTURING INCORPORATED BELCHFIRE CORPORATION

Post Office Box 220 2900-C Vera Avenue
Mechanic Falls,ME 04256 Glendale, WI 53209
(207) 345-8271 (414) 258-5700
FAX: (207) 345-3380 FAX: (414) 228-5702
AUSTRIAN TRADE COMMISSION BELCO PRODUCTS, INCORPORATED

500 North Michigan Avenue 205 Alexander Drive
Chicago, IL 606 11 Woodbury, TN 37 190
(312) 644-5556 (615) 563-4060
FAX: (312) 644-6526 FAX: (615) 563-4070
AW JOHNSON & ASSOCIATES BELLEVILLE AREA COLLEGE-WELDING

149 Avenida Cota TECHNOLOGY DIVISION
San Clemente, CA 92672 2500 Carlyle Road
(714) 498-7000 Belleville, IL 62221
(618) 235-2700
FAX: (714) 498-3889
FAX: (618) 235-1578
AWS FOUNDATION
BERNARD WELDING
550 N. W. LeJeune Road
667 West Coming Road
Miami, FL 33 126 Beecher, IL 60401
(305) 443-9353 (708) 946-228 1
FAX: (305)443-7559 FAX: (708) 946-6738
AWS TRAVEL CLUB BETTERMANN OF AMERICA, INCORPORATED
550 N. W. LeJeune Road 503 Parkway View Drive
Miami, FL 33 126 Pittsburgh, PA 15205
(305) 443-9353 (412) 787-5970
FAX: (305) 443-7559 FAX: (412) 788-6627
BANNER WELDER INCORPORATED BINZEL CORPORATION, ALEXANDER
N117 W18200 Fulton Drive 650 Research Drive, Suite 110
West Bend, W1 53022 Frederick, MD 21703
(414) 253-2900 (301) 846-4196
FAX: (414) 253-2919 FAX: (301) 831-8072
BATES ABRASIVE PRODUCTS, INC. BLACK AND DECKER
6230 South Oak Park Avenue 701 East Joppa Road
Chicago, IL 60638 Towson, MD 21286
(312) 586-8700 (410) 716-3900
FAX: (312) 586-0187 FAX: (410) 716-2238

STD*AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 0516901 104 m
Weldina EncvcloDedia
BLUCO CORPORATION BURCO WELDING& CUlTlNG PRODUCTS

509 Weston Ridge Drive INCORPORATED
Naperville, IL 60563 614 Old Thornasville Road
(800) 535-0135 High Point,NC 27260
FAX: (708) 637-1847 (910) 887-6100
FAX: (910) 887-6194
BOC GASES (FORMERLY AlRCO GASES)
575 Mountain Avenue BURCO/MOSA
Murray Hill, NJ 07974 Post Office Box 2804
(908) 771-1218 High Point,NC 27261
FAX: (908) 771-1764 (800) 982-8726
BONAL TECHNOLOGIES, INC. FAX: (910) 887-6194
21 178 Bridge Street BURNFREE/NORTRADE INTERNATIONAL, INC.
Southfield, MI 48034
(810) 353-2041 9382 South 670 West
FAX: (810) 353-2028 Sandy, UT 84070
(801) 569-9090
BOSCH - INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS DIVISION FAX: (801) 569-3733
97 River Road
Collinsville, CT 06022 BURNY GROUPlCLEVELAND MACHINE
(203) 693-1738 CONTROLS INC.
FAX: (203) 693-1739 7550 Hub Parkway
Cleveland, OH 44147
BOSCH POWER TOOLS (216) 524-8800
4300 West Peterson Avenue FAX: (216) 642-2199
Chicago, IL 60646
(312) 481-3830 C & G SYSTEMS, INC.
FAX: (312) 481-3654 1290 Louis Avenue
Elk Grove Village,IL 60007
BRIGGS ANDSTRAlTON CORPORATION (708) 437-6450
Post Office Box 702 FAX: (708) 437-6478
Milwaukee, WI 53201
(414) 259-5333 C-K WORLDWIDE INC.
FAX: (414) 259-5313 3501 "C" Street North East
Auburn, WA 98002
BROCO INCORPORATED
(206) 854-5820
8690 RedOak Street
FAX: (206) 939-1746
Rancho Cucamonga, CA 9 1730
(909) 483-3222 C-SPEC
FAX: (909)483-3233 2291 Heritage Hills Drive
BTU CONTRACTS, INC. Pleasant Hill, CA 94523
6432 North Ridgeway Avenue (510) 943-1120
Lincolnwood, IL 60645 FAX: (510) 930-8223
(708) 673-7790 E-mail: info@cspec.com
FAX: (708) 673-7794 http:/lwww.cspec.com
BUG-O SYSTEMS, INC. C.E.A. WELDING EQUIPMENT

3001 West CarsonStreet Post Office Box 25 18
Pittsburgh, PA 15204 Whitehouse, OH 43571
(412) 331-1776 (419) 877-1000
FAX: (412) 331-0383 FAX: (419) 877-1001
S T D - A W S JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 05Lb902 040 m
C.E.M.EJMAJOR CASILIO, MARTIN A.

33900 Curtis Boulevard 437 Shawmut Avenue
Eastlake, OH 44095 Johnsonburg, PA 15845
(2 16) 942-0054 (814) 965-5834
FAX: (216) 942-2102
CATALINA CYLINDERS, CLIFF IMPACT DIVISION
CAJON COMPANY 33800 Lakeland Blvd.
9760 Shepard Road Eastlake, OH 44095
Macedonia, OH 44056 (2 16) 946-9090
(216) 467-0200 FAX: (216) 946-2573
FAX: (216) 467-5000
CEBORA S.P.A.
CAMEL GRINDING WHEEL Via Andrea CostaN 24 Cadriano
7530 N. Caldwell Avenue Bologna, 40057
Niles, IL 60714 Italy
(847) 647-5994 (39) 51765000
FAX: (847) 647-1861 FAX: (39) 51765222
CANADIAN WELDING BUREAU CELESTIAL IRONWORKS
7250 West Credit Avenue R.R.3, Box 64AA
Mississauga, Ontario, L5N5N1 Great Bend, KS 67530
Canada (316) 564-3625
(905) 542- 13 12
FAX: (316) 564-3142
FAX: (905) 542-1318
CEMONT
CARBORUNDUM ABRASIVES
7903 Jefferson Circle
6600 Walmore Road
Niagara Falls,NY 14304 Colleyville, TX 76034
(716) 731-7777 (817) 581-9982
FAX: (716) 731-2467 FAX: (817) 581-9984
CARDINAL EG SAWS CORPORATION CENTERFLEX

1255 Tonne Road 2145 South Platte River Drive
Elk Grove Village, IL
60007 Denver, CO80223
(708) 364-5640 (800) 385-3539
FAX: (708) 228-7067 FAX: (303) 742-9514
CARMEL INDUSTRIES CENTERLINE (WINDSOR) LIMITED

6845 De Lepee Post Office Box32966
Montreal, QuebecH3N 2C7 Detroit, MI48232-0966
Canada (313) 961-0746
(514) 270-5377 FAX: (519) 734-1838
FAX: (5 14) 270-2025
CENTURION NDT, INC.
CARVALHO, ADRIANA 707 Remington Road
1441 West Wyler Schaumburg, IL60173
Chicago, J
L 606 13 (708) 884-4949
(312) 226-7521 FAX: (708) 884-8772
FAX: (312) 226-7688
CENTURY MANUFACTURING
CARY - CARY FOUNDS 923 1Penn Avenue South
7337 Highway 60 East Minneapolis, MN 5543 1
East Lake Wales,FL 33853 (612) 885-4481
(813) 696-2412 FAX: (612) 885-4569

~~~ ~~~~~~~~ ~
Welding Encyclopedia Suppliers 729
CEODEUX INCORPORATED CHO HEUNG ELECTRIC IND. CO., LTD.

1002 Corporate Drive Room 1008 Cheil Building
Export, PA 15632 256- 13 GongDuk-Dong
(412) 325-5720 Mapo-Ku
FAX: (412) 325-5723 Seoul, 121-020,Korea
(82) 7193679
CERBACO LTD. FAX: (82) 7193672
2899 Nostrand Avenue CHOSUN STEEL WIRE COMPANY
Brooklyn, NY 11229 253 North Santa Fe
(7 18) 252-9200 Salina, KS 67401
FAX: (7 18) 252-9201 (913) 827-4529
FAX: (913) 827-5804
CFA
CLEMCO INDUSTRIES CORPORATION
8031 Jarry E. One CableCar Drive
Montreal, Quebec, H1J 1H6 Washington, MO 63090
Canada (314) 239-0300
(800) 565-5326 FAX: (314) 239-0788
FAX: (800) 665-6889
CLEVELAND STEEL TOOL COMPANY, THE
CHAMPION CUTTING TOOL CORP. 474 East 105th Street
1 00North Park Avenue Cleveland, OH 44 108
Rockville Centre,NY 11570 (800) 446-4402
FAX: (216) 681-7009
(516) 536-8200
FAX: (516) 678-4064 CLOOS INTERNATIONAL INC.
9 11 Albion Avenue
CHAMPION WELDING PRODUCTS Schaumburg, IL 60193
INCORPORATED (708) 924-9988
76 19 Detour Avenue FAX: (708)924-9989
Cleveland, OH 44103
CML USA INC (ERCOLINA)
(216) 431-9353 Post Office Box 11 1095
FAX: (216) 431-1155 Cleveland, OH 441 11
(216) 631-3444
CHEMCLEAN CORP FAX: (216) 631-3313
130-45 180th Street
Springfield Gardens,NY 11434 CMS GILBRETH PACKAGING SYSTEMS
(718) 525-4500 8 Neshaminy Interplex, No. 219
Trevose, PA 19053
CHEROKEE INDUSTRIES, INCORPORATED (2 15) 244-2400
Post OfficeBox 352 FAX: (215) 244-2390
Rte. 3, NorthHwy. 11 CMW INCORPORATED
Ord, NE 68862 70 South Gray Street
(308) 728-3113 Indianapolis, IN 46206
FAX: (308) 728-3481 (317) 634-8884
FAX: (317) 638-2706
CHICAGO PNEUMATIC TOOL COMPANY
CNA INSURANCE COMPANIES
2220 Bleecker Street CNA Plaza 9West
Utica, NY 13501-1795 Chicago, IL 60685
(315) 792-2600 (800) 262-6241
FAX: (315) 792-2672 FAX: (312) 822-1645
STD.AWS JWE-ENGL 3997 m 0784265 O536904 933 m
CNI-CERAMIC NOZZLES, INC. CONTINENTAL ABRASIVES

100 Marine Street 1687 1 Noyes Avenue
Farmingdale, NY 11735 Irvine, CA 927 14
(516) 293-5720 (714) 474-1101
FAX: (516) 293-5882 FAX: (714) 863-3076
COLORADO SCHOOLOF MINES
CONTOUR SALES DIVOF JACKSON PRODUCTS
15th and Illinois
Golden, CO 80401 5801 Safety Drive N.E.
(303) 273-3797 Belmont, MI 49306
FAX: (303) 273-3795 (800) 253-728 1
FAX: (616) 784-7870
COMEQ, INCORPORATED
Post Office Box 2193 CONTROLS CORPORATIONOF AMERICA
Baltimore, MD 21203 1501 Harpers Road
(410) 325-7900 Virginia Beach,VA 23454
FAX: (410) 325-1025 (804) 422-8330
COMPRESSED GAS ASSOCIATION (CGA)
FAX: (804) 422-3125
1725 Jefferson Davis Hwy CONVERGENTENERGY
Arlington, VA 22202-4102
(703) 4 12-0900 1 Picker Road
FAX: (703) 412-0128 Sturbridge, MA 01566
(508) 347-268 1
COMPUTER ENGINEERING, INCORPORATED FAX: (508) 347-5 134
Post Office Box 1657
Blue Springs, MO 64013 COOPTIM INDUSTRIAL LTD.
(816) 228-2976 Petofi S. 21
FAX: (816) 228-0680 Diosd 2049
COMPUTER WELD TECHNOLOGY INCORPORATED Hungary
(36) 23382431
4544 South Pinemont, Suite 200
Houston, TX 77041 FAX: (36) 23382321
(713) 462-2118 COPPUS PORTABLE VENTILATION
FAX: (7 13) 462-2503 DIVISION, TUTHILL CORP.
COMPUTERS UNLIMITED Millbury Industrial Park
2407 Montana Avenue Millbury, MA 01527-8000
Billings, MT 59101 (508) 756-8391
(406) 255-9500 FAX: (508)756-8375
FAX: (406) 255-9595
COR-MET, INC.
CONARCO ALAMBRES Y SOLDADURAS S.A. 988 Rickett Road
Calle 18 Nro. 4079 Brighton, MI 48 116
Buenos Aires, 1672, (810) 227-3257
Argentina
(54) 7527521 FAX: (810) 227-9266
FAX: (54) 753757 1 CORAL SPA
CONTEMPORARY PRODUCTS, INC. (CPI) Strada Volpiano 52/54
530 Riverside Industrial Parkway Leini Torino, 10040
Portland, ME 04103 Italy
(800) 424-2444 (39) 11998921 1
FAX: (207) 797-941 1 FAX: (39) 119988460

~~ ~ ~~ ~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 W 07842b5 053b905 85T m
CROUSE-HINDS CAM-LOK DATAWELD INC.

Route 4, Box 156 1909 Citizens Bank Drive
La Grange, NC 2855 1 Bossier City, LA 7 111 1
(919) 566-3014 (318) 746-6111
FAX: (919) 566-9337 FAX: (318) 746-0323
CROWWORTH AMERICAN PROFESSIONAL DCM CLEAN-AIR PRODUCTS, INC.
PRODUCTS 6850 Manhattan Boulevard, Suite 500
1500 McConnellRoad Fort Worth, TX 76120
Woodstock, IL 60098-73 10 (817) 654-2829
(8 15) 334-0020 FAX: (817) 451-0615
FAX: (815) 334-0021
DE-STA-CO A DOVER RESOURCES COMPANY
CRYOGENIC INDUSTRIES Post Office Box 2800
25720 Jefferson Avenue Troy, MI 48007-2800
Murrieta, CA 92562 (810) 589-2008
(909) 696-7840 FAX: (810) 644-3929
FAX: (909) 698-7484 DEL-LIFTGATES, INC.
CTR OF CHARLOlTE INC. 190 Lewis Street
298 PorterRoad Buffalo, NY 14240
Rock Hill,SC 29730-6341 (716) 853-7994
(803) 324-8101 FAX: (716) 854-5424
FAX: (803) 324-8187 DETROIT DIESEL CORPORATION
CYBO ROBOTS
13400 Outer Drive West
Detroit, MI 48239-4001
270 1 Fortune Circle East
(313) 592-5000
Indianapolis, IN 4624 1 FAX: (313) 592-7590
(317) 484-2926
FAX: (317) 241-2727 DEUTZ CORPORATION
3883 Steve Reynolds Boulevard
CYPRESS WELDING EQUIPMENT INC. Norcross, GA 30093
11902 Rockville Drive (404) 564-7 100
, Houston, TX 77064 FAX: (404) 564-7222
(7 13) 469-0746
FAX: (713) 469-9354 DEXTERAXLE
Post Office Box250
D. L. RlCCl CORPORATION Elkhart, IN 465 15
2722 North Service Drive (219) 295-1900
Red Wing, MN 55066 FAX: (219) 522-5208
(612) 388-8661
FAX: (612) 388-0002 DIYETRICS, INCORPORATED
404 Armour Street
D/F MACHINE SPECIALTIES INCORPORATED Post OfficeBox 339
1750 Howard Drive Davidson, NC 28036
North Mankato, MN 56003 (704) 892-8872
(507) 625-6200 FAX: (704) 892-4713
FAX: (507) 625-6203
DIRECT WIRE & CABLE, INC.
DARRAH ELECTRIC COMPANY 68 Denver Road
5914 MerrillAvenue Post OfficeBox 57
Cleveland, OH 44102 Denver, PA 17517
(216) 631-0912 (717) 336-2842
FAX: (216) 631-0440 FAX: (7 17) 336-0505
~
STD.AWS
JWE-ENGL L997 W 07842b505Lb90b79b W
DIRECTED LIGHT, INC. DYNAFLUX, INC.

633 RiverOaks Parkway 241 Brown Farm Road
San Jose, CA 95134 Cartersville, GA 30120
(408) 321-8500 (800) 334-4420
FAX: (408) 321-8466 FAX: (404) 382-9034
DIVERS ACADEMY OF THE EASTERN SEABOARD EAGLE BENDING MACHINES, INC.
INC. Post Office Box 189
2500 South Broadway Bay Minette, AL 36507
Camden, NJ 08 104
(334) 937-0947
(800) 238-3483
FAX: (609) 541-4355 FAX: (334) 937-4742
DIVERSI-TECH INC. EAGLE INDUSTRIES

13 1 Montee De Liesse 16011 South East Belair Drive
Montreal, Quebec, H4T 1V2 Portland, OR 97216
Canada (503) 254-1749
(514) 340- 1774 FAX: (800) 959-6601
FAX: (514) 340-9408
EAGLE WIRE COMPANY, INC.
DOBLINGER, DON 325 Emmett Avenue
10414 Reed Box 70067
Monclova, OH 43542 Bowling Green,KY 42101
(419) 873-5458 (502) 843-1035
FAX: (502) 782-6177
DORINGER MANUFACTURllUG COMPANY
13400 EstrellaAvenue EASTERN ETCHING& MANUFACTURING
Gardena, CA 90248 Foot of Grape Street
(800) 962-6800
FAX: (213) 746-9245 Chicopee, MA O 1O 13
(413) 594-6601
DOYLES SUPPLY INC. FAX: (413) 594-6600
Decatur, AL 35602 EDWARDS MANUFACTURING CO.
(205) 353-7515 Post Office Box 166
FAX: (205) 353-8792 Northaire Industrial Park
Albert Lea, MN 56007
DUALDRAW BY IMM (507)373-8206
5495 East 69th Avenue FAX: (507) 373-9433
Commerce City, CO 80022
(800) 977-2125 ELECTRODE DRESSERS, INC.
FAX: (303) 287-0109 4506 Roger Chaffee S.E.
DUNN, MICHAELT.
Grand Rapids, MI 495 18
Post Office Box 249
Petersburg, NY 12 13 8 (616) 538-6224
(518) 658-3119 FAX: (616) 538-6777
DYNABRADE, INC. ELECTRON BEAM TECHNOLOGIES, INC.

8989 Sheridan Drive 1275 Harvard Drive
Clarence, NY 1403 1 Kankakee, IL 60901
(716) 631-0100 (815) 935-2211
FAX: (716) 631-2073 FAX: (815) 935-8605

~~ ~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 051b907 b 2 2 m

ELLIOTT CORPORATION ESAB WELDING& CUlTING PRODUCTS

504 Pecor Street Post OfficeBox 100545
Oconto, WI 54153 Florence, SC 29501
(414) 834-5622 (803) 664-4393
FAX: (414) 834-2884 FAX: (803) 664-5575
ENERPAC ESCO TOOL,A UNIT OF ESCO TECHNOLOGIES,
13000 West Silver Spring Drive INC.
Butler, W1 53007 50 Park Street
(414) 781-6600 Box 530
FAX: (414) 781-7403 Medfield, MA 02052
ENGELHARD CORPORATION (508) 359-4311
235 Kilvert Street FAX: (508) 359-4145
Warwick, RI 02886 ESSEX GROUP, INCORPORATED
(401) 739-9550
FAX: (401) 739-9555 1601 Wall Street
Fort Wayne, IN 46802
ENGELHARD SURFACE TECHNOLOGIES (219) 461-4159
12 Thompson Road FAX: (219) 461-4150
East Windsor, CT06088
(860) 623-9901 EVERElT INDUSTRIES INCORPORATED
FAX: (860) 623-4657 3601 Larchmont North East
Post OfficeBox 2068
ENGINEERING PRODUCTS& SERVICES Warren, OH44484
(E.P.S.) (216) 372-3700
330 East Maple, Building J FAX: (216) 372-3118
Troy, MI48083
(810) 616-0200 EWI
FAX: (810) 616-9795 1 100Kinnear Road
Columbus, OH43212-1161
ENTERGY CORPORATION (614) 486-9400
308 East Pearl Street FAX: (614) 486-9528
Jackson, MS39215
(601) 824-0479 EXPANSION SEAL TECHNOLOGIES
FAX: (601) 824-0483 (FORMERLY EXPANDO SEAL TOOLS)
334 Godshall Drive
ENTRON CONTROLS, INCORPORATED
Harleysville, PA 19438
465 East Randy Road
(800) 355-7044
Carol Stream, IL 60188
(708) 682-9600
FAX: (215) 513-4333
FAX: (708) 682-3374 EXPRESS WHOLESALWORLDWIDE WELDING,
EQUOTIP ASSOCIATES INC.
Post OfficeBox 15580 Post OfficeBox 1050
Pittsburgh, PA 15244 Pineville, NC 28 134
(800) 397-7821 (803) 547-0123
FAX: (412) 788-8984 FAX: (803) 547-0800
ESAB CUTTING SYSTEMS FAB-TECH INCORPORATED

411 South Ebenezer Road 21 Hercules Drive
Florence, SC29501 Colchester, VT 05446
(803) 664-4394 (802) 655-8800
FAX: (803) 664-4403 FAX: (802) 655-8804
Licensed by Information Handling Services ~~~ ~
FABRICATORS 81MANUFACTURERS FlBA TECHNOLOGIES, INC.
ASSOCIATION 97 Turnpike Road
833 Featherstone Road Westboro, MA 01581
Rockford, IL 6 1 107 (508) 366-8361
(815) 399-8700 FAX: (508) 366-1915
FAX: (815) 399-7679
FIBRE-METAL PRODUCTS CO.
FACTORY MUTUAL Post Office Box 248
1 15 1 Boston-Providence Turnpike Concordville, PA 19331
Norwood, MA 02062 (610) 459-5300
(617) 762-4300 FILLER METALS, INC.
FAX: (617) 762-9375 Post Office Box 276
Pottstown, PA 19464
FAITER ELElTRODl S.P.A. (610) 323-2120
Via Per Azzano S. Paolo Nr. 32/E FAX: (610) 323-8344
Grassobbio (BG) 1-24050,
Italy FINWELDING S.R.L.
(39) 525029 Via Civinelli, 1040
FAX: (39) 526756 Cesena-Fo 47020
Italy
FANUC ROBOTICS NORTH AMERICA, INC. (39) 547317533
2000 South Adams Road FAX: (39) 5473 18726
Auburn Hills, MI 48326
(810) 377-7000 FISHER CONTAINER CORPORATION
2000 Dempster Plaza
FAX: (810) 377-7366
Evanston, IL 60202
FARR COMPANY (708) 866-6050
222 1 Park Place FAX: (708) 866-7271
El Segundo, CA 90245-4900 FLAME TECHNOLOGIES, INCORPORATED
(310) 536-6321 Post Office Box 1776
FAX: (310) 643-9086 Cedar Park, TX 78613
(512) 219-8489
FEIN POWER TOOLS INC. FAX: (512) 219-8477
3019 West Carson Street
Pittsburgh, PA 15204 FLEX-CABLE
(412) 331-2325 16 West Huron Street
FAX: (412) 331-3599 Pontiac, MI 48342
(810) 338-6600
FEMl S.R.L. FAX: (810) 338-3747
Via S Caterina 8
Correzzola (PD) FLEXOVIT USA, INC.
Italy 1305 Eden-Evans Center Road
Angola, NY 14006
(049) 585-0244
(7 16)549-5 1 00
FAX: (049)585-0303 FAX: (716) 549-5455
FHP ELMOTOR AB FORMING 81FABRICATINGEME
Ankarsrum, S-590 90 Post Office Box 930
Sweden Dearborn, MI 48 12 1
(46) 49053385 (313) 271-1500
FAX: (46) 49050047 FAX: (313) 271-2861

~~
FRIMAR SAS GASFLUX COMPANY, THE
S.P.Provinciale Verdello-Carvaggio121 Post OfficeBox 1170
Pognano (BG), 24040 Elyria, OH 44035
IdY (216) 365-1941
(39) 0354829333 FAX: (216) 365-3495
FAX: (39) 0354829374
GE WELDING & MACHINING
FROMMELT SAFETY PRODUCTS 302 Hansen Access Road
8900 North Arbon Drive King of Prussia, PA 19406
Milwaukee, WI 53223 (610) 992-7959
(800) 553-5560 FAX: (610) 992-6158
FAX: (319) 589-2754
GENERATIVE WC TECHNOLOGY, INC.
FUSION INCORPORATED 300 Knickerbacker Road
4658 East 355th Street Cresskill, NJ 07626
Willoughby, OH44094 (201) 871-2350
(216) 946-3300 FAX: (201) 871-2358
FAX: (216) 942-9083
GENESIS SYSTEMS GROUP
G.B.C. INDUSTRIAL TOOLS 4821 Tremont Avenue
25 19East Southmore Davenport, IA 52807
Pasadena, TX 77502 (319) 386-4034
(713) 472-8122
FAX: (319) 386-3012
FAX: (7 13)472-6804
GEORGE FISCHER PIPE TOOLS
GALT INDUSTRIES, INC.
407 Hadley Street
100 First Avenue
Pittsburgh, PA 15222 Holly, MI48442
(810) 634-8251
(412) 232-0952
FAX: (412) 232-0961 FAX: (810) 634-2507
GALVANIZING COMPANY, ROGERS GERSON CO., INC., LOUIS M.

1800 West 21st Street 15 Sproat Street
Tulsa, OK 74107 Middleboro, MA 02346
(9 18) 584-0303 (508) 947-4000
FAX: (918) 584-1781 FAX: (508) 947-5442
GARDNER ENVIRONMENTAL PRODUCTS GILBERT INDUSTRIAL

1201 West Lake Street 33-12 Lomar Park Drive
Horicon, W1 5305 1 Pepperell, MA 01463
(414) 485-4303 (508) 433-5263
FAX: (414) 485-4370 FAX: (508) 433-9508
GAS TECH, INC. GLOBAL HEAT INCORPORATED

12000 Roosevelt Road 8501 West 191st Street, Unit57
Hillside, IL60162 Mokena, IL60448
(708) 449-9300 (800) 443-2893
FAX: (708) 443-0345 FAX: (815) 469-8790
GASES AND WELDING DISTRIBUTOR GOSS INCORPORATED

1100 Superior Avenue 1511 Route 8
Cleveland, OH 44 114 Glenshaw, PA 15 116
(216) 696-7000 (800) 367-4677
FAX: (216) 696-7658 FAX: (412) 486-6844
~~
STDnAWS JWE-ENGL 1777 07842b5 051h910 L17 W
GOW-MAC INSTRUMENTCOMPANY H & M PIPE BEVELING MACHINECOMPANY, INC.

277 Brodhead Road 3 11 East Third Street
Bethlehem, PA 18017 Tulsa, OK 74 120
(610) 954-9000 (918) 582-9984
FAX: (610) 954-0599 FAX: (918) 582-9989
GREAT WEI LUNG INDUSTRY CO., LTD. H & S TOOL
lF, No. 23 Chin Ho Street 212 West Bergey Street
Tu Cheng City Wadsworth, OH 44281
Taipai, Hsien (216) 335-1536
Taiwan R.O.C. FAX: (216) 336-9159
(886) 266-8065
FAX: (886) 266-8449 HANDY & HARMAN OF CANADA LIMITED
290 Carlingview Drive
GROSS STABIL CORPORATION Rexdale, ONT, M9W 5G1
333 Race Street Canada
Post Office Box 368 (416) 675-1860
Coldwater, MI 49036 FAX: (416) 675-1956
(517) 278-6121
FAX: (517) 278-5523 HANNAY REELS
553 State Route 143
GTE SCIENTIFICSOCIETY OF MECHANICAL Westerlo, NY 12193
ENGINEERS (HUNGARY) (518) 797-3791
Fo utca 68 FAX: (5 18) 797-3259
Post Office Box 433
Budapest, 1371 HARRIS CALORIFICDIVISION, THE LINCOLN
Hungary ELECTRIC COMPANY
(36) 12020582 2345 Murphy Boulevard
FAX: (36) 12020252 Gainsville, GA 30504-6000
(770) 536-8801
GUARD-LINE, INC. FAX: (770) 535-0544
215-217 South Louise
Atlanta, TX 7555 1 HARRIS WELCO - DIVISION OFJ.W. HARRIS
(903) 796-4111 105 1York Road
FAX: (903) 796-7262 Post Office Box 69
Kings Mountain, NC 28086
GULF WIRE CORPORATION (704) 739-6421
New Orleans, LA 70189
(504) 254-0062 HAVENS SCULPTURES,JAMES
FAX: (504) 254-1220 521 West Main Street
Woodville, OH 43469
GULLCO INTERNATIONAL INCORPORATED (419) 849-3048
21568 Alexander Road
Cleveland, OH 44 146 HEATH JEWELRY, MICHELLE & ANDY
(216) 439-8333 Post Office Box 2089
FAX: (216) 439-3634 Taos, NM 87571
H & H SALESCOMPANY, INCORPORATED HELLERS SON INC., E.G.
Post Office Box 686 18330 Oxnard Street
Huntertown, IN 46748-0686 Tarzana, CA 91356
(219) 637-3177 (818) 881-0900
FAX: (219) 637-6880 FAX: (818) 344-8898

~~ ~~ ~~~
HEM SAW HOBART INSTITUTEOF WELDING TECHNOLOGY

Post Office Box 1148 400 Trade Square East
Pryor, OK 74362 Troy, OH 45373
(918) 825-1000 (5 13) 332-5000
FAX: (918) 825-4824 FAX: (513) 332-5200
HENNING HANSEN INCORPORATED HOBART LASERS81ADVANCED SYSTEMS
Post Office Box 220
Pickering, Ontario, LlV 2R4 1 19 1 Trade Road East
Canada Troy, OH 45373
(905) 839-7481 (513) 332-5555
FAX: (905) 839-3686 FAX: (513) 339-1718
HERRON TESTING LABORATORIES, INC. HORNELL SPEEDGLAS, INC.

5405 East Schaaf Road 2374 Edison Blvd
Cleveland, OH 44 11 3 lbinsburg, OH 44087
(216) 524-1450 (800) 628-9218
FAX: (216) 524-1459 FAX: (216) 425-4576
HI-ALLOY WELD SPECIALISTS HOUGEN MANUFACTURING INCORPORATED
12 16 Illinois Avenue G-5072 Corunna Road
South Houston, TX 77587
(713) 943-1818 Flint, MI 48501
FAX: (713) 943-7773 (810) 732-5840
FAX: (810) 732-3553
HIGH PURITY GAS CO.
4344 South Main HYD-MECH SAWS LIMITED
Pearland, TX 77581 1079 Parkinson Road
(7 13) 482-7007 Woodstock, ONT, N4S 8P6
FAX: (713) 482-9216 Canada
(519) 539-6341
-
HILL TECHNICAL DIVISION SERV-TECH, INC.
FAX: (5 19) 539-5 126
5200A Cedar Crest Boulevard
Houston, TX 77087 HYPERTHERM INCORPORATED
(713) 640-1155
FAX: (713) 640-1166 Etna Road
HITACHI POWER TOOLS Hanover, NH 03755
3950 Steve Reynolds Boulevard . (603) 643-3441
Norcross, GA 30093 FAX: (603) 643-5352
(770) 925-1774
FAX: (770) 564-7003 HYUNDAI WELDING& METAL
COMPANY, LTD.
HITCO TECHNOLOGIES INCORPORATED 5455 Corporate Drive
1600 West 135th Street Troy, MI 48098
Gardena, CA 90249-2506 (810) 641-0105
(310)970-5452
FAX: (310) 515-1779 FAX: (810) 641-0156
HOBART BROTHERS COMPANY IBEDA INCORPORATED

600 West MainStreet 32676 Center Ridge Road
Troy, OH 45373 North Ridgeville, OH 44039-2457
(5 13) 332-4000 (216) 327-7300
FAX: (513) 332-4336 FAX: (216) 327-5777
IES UTILITIES INERT SYSTEMS INC.

Post OfficeBox 351 6414 Greeley Hill Road
Cedar Rapids, IA 52406 Coulterville, CA 953 11
(319) 398-4542 (209) 878-0420
FAX: (319) 398-4567
FAX: (209) 878-0443
ILISAGVIK COLLEGE
Post OfficeBox 749 INNOVATIVE INDUSTRIES INC.
Barrow, AK 99723 1525 Deleglise
(907) 852-9138 Antigo, WI 54409
FAX: (907) 852-9122 (715) 627-4467
IMPERIAL WELD RING CORPORATION
FAX: (715) 627-4528
80-88 Front Street INVINCIBLE AIRFLOW SYSTEMS
Elizabeth, NJ 07206
(908) 354-001 1 700 North Ray
FAX: (908) 354-9014 Post OfficeBox 380
Baltic, OH 43804
INCO ALLOYS INTERNATIONAL, INC. (216) 897-3200
1401 Burris Road FAX: (216) 897-3400
Newton, NC 28658
(704) 465-0352 INWELD CORPORATION
FAX: (704) 464-8993 2301 Duss Avenue
INDRESCO INC., INDUSTRIAL TOOL DIVISION Ambridge, PA 15003-0460
7007 Pinemont (412) 251-9100
Houston, TX 77040 FAX: (412) 251-9200
(7 13) 462-452 1
FAX: (713) 460-7008 IRC
1380 Graham Bell
INDURA S.A.
Camino A Nelipilla #7060 Boucherville, Quebec,J4B 6H5
Santiago Canada
Chile (514) 655-4410
(56) 5571777 FAX: (514) 655-4963
FAX: (56) 5573471
ITALIAN TRADE COMMISSION
INDUSTRIAL MAINTENANCE& PLANT 401 North Michigan Avenue, Suite 3030
OPERATION Chicago, IL 6061 1
One ChiltonWay
(312) 670-4360
Radnor, PA 19089
(610) 964-4041 FAX: (312) 670-5147
FAX: (610) 964-4947
JACKSON INDUSTRIES
INDUSTRIAL MARKET PLACE 6000 South Oak Park Avenue
7842 North Lincoln Avenue Chicago, IL 60638
Skokie, IL 60077 (312) 229-0033
(708) 676- 1900 FAX: (312) 229-0693
FAX: (708) 676-0063
INDUSTRIAL PRODUCT BULLETIN JACKSON PRODUCTS, INC.
301 Gibraltar Drive 101 South Hanley Road
Morris Plains, NJ 07950 Saint Louis,MO 63303
(201) 292-5100 (3 14) 746-4850
FAX: (201) 539-3476 FAX: (3 14) 862-5803

JAMES MORTON, INCORPORATED KASCO ABRASIVES

50 Franklin Street 580 Race Street
Post Office Box 399 Coldwater, MI 49036
Batavia, NY 1402 1 (800) 367-729 1
(800) 828-1004 FAX: (5 17) 279-7265
FAX: (716) 344-0025 KAWASAKI ROBOTICS (USA) INCORPORATED
JANCY ENGINEERING CO. 28059 Center Oaks Court
HOME OF THE SLUGGER Wixom, MI 48393
2735 Hickory Grove Road (810) 305-7610
FAX: (810) 305-7618
Davenport, IA 52804
(319) 391-1300 KEDMAN COMPANY
FAX: (319) 391-2323 Post Offce Box 25667
Salt Lake City,UT 84125
JAZ-ZUBIAURRE S.A. (801) 973-9112
Asuerreka, 7 FAX: (801) 972-2756
Eibar, 20600
Spain KEN KOSIOREK METAL SCULPTURE
(344) 3 1 2-0600 21 2 1 Seagull Lane
FAX: (344) 312-1704 San Diego, CA 92123
(619) 279-6344
JEPSON POWER TOOLS FAX: (619) 279-6344
20333 South Western Avenue
KIEL, ADELE
Torrance, CA 90501
3346 South Seeley
(310) 320-3890 Chicago, IL 60608
FAX: (310) 328-1318 (312) 524-0779
FAX: (708) 839-9207
JETLINE ENGINEERING INC.
15 Goodyear Street KINCO INTERNATIONAL, INCORPORATED
Irvine, CA 927 18 927 South East Marion
(714) 951-1515 Portland, OR 97202-7031
FAX: (7 14) 95 1-9237 (503) 238-4588
FAX: (503) 233-9501
JOHNSON WILSHIRE, INC.
700 Union Street KING BAG& MANUFACTURING CO.
Montebello, CA 90640 1500 Spring Lawn
(213) 888-0022 Cincinnati, OH 45223
FAX: (213) 888-0029 (513) 541-5440
FAX: (513) 541-6555
K & K WELDING PRODUCTS, INC.
KIRKHOF/GOODRICH CORPORATION
520 Tesler Road
3903 Roger B Chaffee Boulevard
Lake Zurich, IL 60047
Grand Rapids, MI 49548
(708) 540-9400 (616) 241-1621
FAX: (708) 540-0197 FAX: (616) 241-0002
K-TRON, INC. KLINGSPOR ABRASIVES, INC.
Post Office Box 488 2555 Tate Boulevard S.E.
Jasper, GA 30143 Hickory, NC 28601
(706) 692-3360 (800)645-5555
FAX: (706) 692-3451 FAX: (800) 524-6758

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0 7 8 4 t b 5 0516934 8b2 m
KOBELCO WELDINGOF AMERICA INC. KYTEX SOLUTIONS, INC.

7478 Harwin Drive 14240 Cherry Lane Court
Houston, TX 77036 Laurel, MD 20707
(7 13) 974-5774 (301) 617-0444
FAX: (713) 974-6543 FAX: (301) 725-3347
KOHLER CO., ENGINE DIVISION L S INDUSTRIES
444 Highland Drive 710 East 17th Street
Kohler, W1 53044
(414) 457-4441 Wichita, KS 67214
FAX: (414) 459-1747 (316) 265-7997
FAX: (316) 265-0013
KOIKE ARONSON INCORPORATED
635 West Main Street 'LA-CO INDUSTRIES, INC./MARKAL CO.
Arcade, NY 14009 1201 Pratt Boulevard
(716) 492-2400 Elk Grove,IL 60007
FAX: (716) 457-3517 (708) 956-7600
FAX: (708) 956-9885
KOOLANT KOOLERS, INC.
2625 Emerald Drive LARCO
Kalamazoo, MI 49001 2600 Fernbrook Lane
(616) 349-6800 Plymouth, MN 55447
FAX: (616) 349-8951 (612) 557-7055
KOPO INTERNATIONAL LARCOEAFETY CONTROLS CORPORATION
(FIPROM; GLOBTRADE USA)
One Penn Plaza 13705 26th Avenue North
New York, NY 101 19-0002 Plymouth, MN 55441
(212) 465-1350 (612) 557-7055
FAX: (212) 465-1353 FAX: (612) 557-1130
KOREA WELDING INDUSTRY COOPERATIVE LASER APPLICATIONS, INC. (LAI)

16-2 Yoido-dong, Youngsungpo-ko 1110 Business Parkway South
618 Korea Federation Small Business Bldg. Westminster, MD 11257
Seoul, Korea (410) 857-0770
(82) 02785504 FAX: (410) 857-0774
FAX: (82) 02783586
LASER MACHINING, INCORPORATED
KRAUTKRAMERBRANSON 500 Laser Drive
50 Industrial Park Road Somerset, W1 54025
Lewistown, PA 17044 (715) 247-3285
(717) 242-0327 FAX: (715) 247-5650
FAX: (717) 242-2606
LEC0 CORPORATION
KROMER CAP CO., INC.
759 North Milwaukee Street 3000 Lakeview Avenue
Milwaukee, W1 53202 Saint Joseph, MI 49085-2396
(414) 276-1800 (616) 982-5409
FAX: (414) 276-8440 FAX: (616) 982-8977
KUTON WELDING INCORPORATED LENCO

8582 Telfair Avenue 3 19 West Main Street
Sun Valley, CA 91352 Jackson, MO 63755
(818) 771-0964 (314) 243-3141
FAX: (8 18) 504-9567 FAX: (314) 243-7122

LEPEL CORPORATION M.K. MORSE

50 Heartland Boulevard Post Office Box 8677
Edgewood, NY 11717 Canton, OH 44711
(516) 586-3300 (216) 453-8187
FAX: (516) 586-3232 FAX: (216)453-1111
LETOURNEAU UNIVERSITY M.T.C. LTD.
Post Office Box 7001 Post Office Box 467
Longview, TX 75607-7001 Lockport, NY 14095
(903) 753-023 1 (716) 433-7722
FAX: (903) 236-1700 FAX: (716) 433-1554
LlBURDl PULSWELD CORPORATION MACHINE TECH, INCORPORATED
400 Highway 6 North 2988 East 24th Road
Hamilton, ONT, L9J lE7 Marseilles, IL 6 134 1
Canada (815) 795-6818
(905) 689-0734 FAX: (815) 795-6535
FAX: (905) 689-0739
MACK PRODUCTS COMPANY/OHIO GOGGLES
LINCOLN ELECTRIC COMPANY, THE DIVISION
22801 Saint Clair Avenue 1384 Hird Avenue
Cleveland, OH 44117 Post Office Box 572, Edgewater Branch
(216) 481-3100 Cleveland, OH 44 107
FAX: (216) 486-1751 (2 16) 226-5 100
FAX: (216) 226-7430
LIVINGSTON, INCORPORATED
unit 1 MACTECH - STRESSTECH
7 Commerce Avenue Post Office Box 11
West Lebanon, NH 03784 Red Wing,MN 55066
(603) 298-9600 (800) 328-1488
FAX: (603) 298-7878 FAX: (612) 388-0337
LOS ANGELES DIAMOND TOOLS, INC. MAGIC TlP/TOTAL PRODUCTS INTERNATIONAL
9722 Jorden Circle 6953 North West 82nd Avenue
Santa Fe Springs,CA 90670 Miami, F% 33166
(310) 802-1003 (305) 373-9009
FAX: (310) 944-3835 FAX: (305) 558-8995
LUCAS-MILHAUPT, INC.,A HANDY & HARMAN MAGNAFLUX
COMPANY 7301 West Ainslie
5656 S . Pennsylvania Avenue Harwood Heights,IL 60656
Cudahy, W1 53 110 (708) 867-8000
(414) 769-6000 FAX: (708) 867-6833
FAX: (414) 769-1093
MAGNATECH LIMITED PARTNERSHIP
LYALL'S LABORS LTD. Post Office Box 260
1305 Summerset East Granby, CT 06026
Indianola, IA 50125 (203) 653-2573
(515) 961-0106 FAX: (203) 653-0486
M.BRAUN, INC. MAKITA USA INC.
2 Centennial Drive, Unit 4F 14930 Northam Street
Peabody, MA 01960 La Mirada, CA 90638
(508) 531-6217 (714) 522-8088
FAX: (508) 531-7245 FAX: (801) 485-6370

MANNINGS USA METAL MUNCHEWFAB CENTER SALES
53 Abbett Avenue Post Ofice Box 192
Momstown, NJ 07960- 1365 Clay Center,KS 67432-0192
(800) 447-4473 (800) 235-6307
FAX: (201) 984-5533 FAX: (913) 632-6577
MARK-TEX CORPORATION METALWORKS, S.D. HAWKINS
16 1 Coolidge Avenue 708 Twin View
Engelwood, NJ 0763 1 Rockwall, TX 75087
(201) 567-4111
(214) 701-8113
FAX: (201) 567-7857
MAROS WELDING (METAL WORKING ARTIST), METOREX INCORPORATED
KEITH 1900 NE Division Street
1214 Capitol Drive, Unit 4 Bend, OR 97701
Addison, IL 60101 (503) 385-6748
(708) 628-9258 FAX: (503) 385-6750
FAX: (708) 628-9471
MG INDUSTRIES GAS PRODUCTS DIVISION
MATHEY/LELAND INTERNATIONAL, LTD. 3 Great Valley Parkway
Post Ofice Box 4721 10 Malvern, PA 19355
Tulsa, OK 74147 (610) 695-7400
(918) 258-7311 FAX: (610) 695-7471
FAX: (918) 251-5200
MG INDUSTRIES SYSTEMS DIVISION
MCKAY WELDING PRODUCTS
W 141 N 9427 Fountain Boulevard
401 Trade Square East Menomonee Falls,M 5305 1
Troy, OH 45373
(513) 332-5705 (414) 255-5520
FAX: (800) 356-4300 FAX: (414) 255-5170
MECHAFIN AG MG INDUSTRIES WELDING PRODUCTS DIVISION

Freilagorstrasse 27 N94 W14355 Garwin Mace Drive
Zurich, CH8047 Menomonee Falls,M 5305 1
Switzerland (414) 255-5520
(41) 4924200 FAX: (414) 255-5668
FAX: (41) 4927239
MICRO AIR AIR CLNRS BY METAL-FAB INC.
MEDAR, INC. Post Office Box 11 38
38700 Grand River Avenue Wichita, KS 67201
Fannington Hills, MI 48335 (316) 943-2351
(810) 471-2660 FAX: (316) 943-2717
FAX: (810) 615-2971
MID AMERICA CRYOGENICS
METABO CORPORATION
703 1 Corporate Circle
1231 Wilson Drive
Westchester, PA 19380 Indianapolis, IN 46278
(800) 638-2264 (317) 216-7123
FAX: (800) 638-2261 FAX: (317) 216-7121
METAL FORMING MAGAZINE MIDSTATES WIRE

27027 Chardon Road 5 10 SouthOak Street
Richmond Heights, OH 44143 Crawfordsville, IN 47933
(216) 585-8800 3 17) 362-2200
FAX: (216) 585-3126 FAX: (317) 362-4143

Licensed by Information Handling~ ~Services
______~
~ ~
MIDWEST ALLOYS& TECHNOLOGY, INC. MK PRODUCTS, INC.

25 19 Cassens Drive 16882 Armstrong Avenue
Fenton, MO 6301 1 Irvine, CA 92714
(314) 349-6000 (800) 787-9707
FAX: (314) 349-2240 FAX: (800) 373-3329
MILLER AUTOMATION INCORPORATED MMM METALWORKING MACHINERY MAILER
1635 West Spencer Street 29501 Greenfield Road
Appleton, WI 54914 Southfield, MI 48076
(414) 735-4369 (800) 966-8233
FAX: (414) 735-4003 FAX: (810) 552-0466
MILLER ELECTRIC MANUFACTURING COMPANY MODERN APPLICATION NEWS
1635 West Spencer Street 2504 NorthTamiami Trail
Appleton, WI 54914 Nokomis, FI 34275-3842
(414) 734-9821 (813) 966-9521
FAX: (414) 735-4033 FAX: (813) 966-2590
MILLER THERMAL INCORPORATED MODULAR VISION SYSTEMS
N67 Communications Drive 8 133 Leesburg
Pike
Appleton, WI 54195 Vienna, VA 22 182
(414) 731-6884 (514) 333-0140
FAX: (414) 734-2160 FAX: (514) 333-8636
MILWAUKEE AREA TECHNICAL COLLEGE MOORE INDUSTRIAL HARDWARE
700 West State Street 77 Circle Freeway Drive
Milwaukee, WI 53233-1443 Cincinnati, OH 45246
(414) 297-6315 (800) 543-1677
FAX: (414) 297-67 11
FAX: (513) 870-9771
MILWAUKEE ELECTRIC TOOL CORP.
MOTOMAN, INC.
13135 West Lisbon Road
Brookfield, W1 53005 805 Liberty Lane
(414) 781-3600 West Carrollton, OH 45449
FAX: (414) 783-8555 (513) 847-3214
FAX: (513) 847-6277
MINNESOTA VALLEY ENGINEERING
407 7th Street North West MQS INSPECTION INC.
New Prague,MN 56071 2301 Arthur Avenue
(6 12) 758-4400 Elk Grove Village,IL 60007
FAX: (612) 758-8225 (800) 638-5227
FAX: (708) 981-9396
MITSUBISHI MATERIALS US A CORPORATION
721 1 Patterson Drive MSA
Garden Grove, CA 92641 Post Office Box 426
(800) 621-4486 Pittsburgh, PA 15230
FAX: (714) 898-2924 (800) 672-2222
MlITLER SUPPLY INC. MUBEA MACHINERY AND SYSTEMS, INC.

3607 South Main Street 8200 Dixie Highway
South Bend, IN 46634- 1676 Florence, KY 41042
(219) 291-5100 (606) 525-6499
FAX: (219) 291-7507 FAX: (606) 525-0078

-
~~~
STD.AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 m 07842b5 0516918 408
MVSl NAVY JOINING CENTER

8 133 Leesburg Pike 1100 Kinnear Road
Vienna, VA 221 82 Columbus, OH 43212
(514) 333-0140 (614) 486-9423
FAX: (514) 333-8636 FAX: (614) 486-9528
N. A. TECHNOLOGIES CO. NEDERMAN, INC.
1317 Washington Street, Suite #1 6 100 Hix Road
Golden, CO 80401 Westland, MI 48 185
(303) 279-7942 (313) 729-3344
FAX: (303) 279-5286 FAX: (313) 729-3358
N.L.F. PROTECTIVE PRODUCTS NIPPERT COMPANY, THE
3131 Cedar Cross Court 80 1 Pittsburgh Drive
Dubuque, IA 52003 Delaware, OH 43081
(319) 582-6488 (614) 363-1981
FAX: (319) 582-5570 FAX: (614) 363-3847
NALTEX NISSEN CO., J. P.
220 East Saint Elmo Post Office Box 339
Austin, TX 78745-1218 Glenside, PA 19038
(512) 447-7000 (215) 886-2025
FAX: (512) 447-7444 FAX: (215) 886-0707
NATIONAL EXCELLENCEIN MATERIALS JOINING NllTO KOHKI U.S.A., INC.
(NEMJ) 4525 Turnberry Drive
EWI 1100 Kinnear Road Hanover Park,IL 60103
Columbus, OH 432 12 (708) 924-9393
(614) 486-9400 FAX: (706) 924-0303
FAX: (614) 486-9528
NORRIS CYLINDER COMPANY
NATIONAL STANDARD Post Office Box 7486
16 18 Terminal Road Longview, TX 75607
Niles, MI 49 120 (800) 527-8418
(616) 683-8100 FAX: (903) 237-7654
FAX: (616) 683-6249
NORTH AMERICAN SALES DISTRIBUTION
NATIONAL TORCH TIP CO., INC. CENTERJNC. (NASDC)
50 Freeport Road 23 13 North Eastman Road
Pittsburgh, PA 152 15 Longview, TX 75605
(412) 781-4200 (800) 524-4188
FAX: (412) 781-1075 FAX: (903) 753-7223
NATIONAL WELDING ALLOYS NORTON COMPANY
1600 South Canal Street Box 15008
Pittsburgh, PA 15215 Worcester, MA 01615-0008
(4 12) 78 1-4255 (508) 795-5000
FAX: (412) 781-4377 FAX: (508) 795-5741
NAlTCO PRODUCTS-AN N l T COMPANY NU-TECSYS CORPORATION
50 Freeport Road 90 Nol1 Street
Pittsburgh, PA 15215 Waukegan, IL 60085
(412) 781-4200 (708) 662-8500
FAX: (412) 781-1075 FAX: (708) 662-9019

NUPRO
COMPANY .. OPTREL AG
4800 East 345th Street Industriestrasse 2
Willoughby, OH 44094 Wattwil, CH 9630
(216) 951-7100 Switzerland
FAX: (216) 951-4872 (41) 71-9871011
FAX: (41) 71-9872104
OClM WELDING PRODUCTS S.R.L.
OSRAM SYLVANIA INC.
Via Benaco 3
Hawes Street
S . Giuliano, Milanese (MI), 20098
Towanda, PA 18848
Italy (717) 268-5000
(39) 29880320 FAX: (717) 268-5323
FAX: (39) 298281773
OTC-DAIHEN, INC.
OERLIKON OFFSHORE 5311 W. T.Harris Boulevard West
Hayes End Road Charlotte, NC 28269
Hayes, Middlesex, UB48EF (704) 597-8240
United Kingdom FAX: (704) 333-9790
(44) 01815738371
FAX: (44)01818488529 OTTO TOOL CO. DIV.OF ALSANA
3921 Sandstone Drive
OETIKER, INCORPORATED El Dorado Hills, CA 95762
3305 Wilson Street (916) 638-0202
Marlete, MI 48453 FAX: (916) 939-0912
(517) 635-3621 OXO WELDING EQUIPMENT
FAX: (517) 635-2157 114 Oak Street
New Lenox, IL 6045 1
OGDEN ENGINEERING CORPORATION (815) 485-8400
372 West Division Street FAX: (815) 485-5280
Schereville, IN 46375
(219) 322-5252 OXYGEN GENERATING SYSTEMS, INC. (OGSI)
FAX: (219) 865-1825 222 1Niagara Falls Boulevard
Niagara Falls,NY 14304
OHIO STATE UNIVERSITYDVELDING (716) 731-1455
ENGINEERING, THE FAX: (716) 731-1358
197 1 Neil Avenue
Columbus, OH 43210 P.B.J. ENTERPRISES
(614) 292-6841 N93 W29194 WoodchuckWay
FAX: (614) 292-6842 Colgate, WI 53017
(414) 538-1495
OLYMPUS AMERICA INCORPORATED
PAC*MIG, INC.
Tho Corporate Center Drive
Melville, NY 11747 Wichita, KS 6720 1-2 174
(516) 844-5000 (316) 269-3040
FAX: (516) 488-3973 FAX: (316) 269-2404
ONAN CORPORATION PANAMETRICS, INC.
1400 73rd Ave North East 221 Crescent Street
Minneapolis, MN 55432 Waltham, MA02 154
(612) 574-5000 (617) 899-2719
FAX: (612) 574-8289 FAX: (617) 899-1552

PANASONIC FACTORY AUTOMATION CO. PHOENIX PRODUCTS COMPANY,INC.
9377 West Grand Avenue 6161 North 64th Street
Franklin Park, IL 60131 Milwaukee, WI 53218
(708) 288-4577 (414) 438-1200
FAX: (708) 288-4430 FAX: (414) 438-0213
PANDJlRlS INCORPORATED PILLAWCYCLE-DYNE
5 15 1Northrup Avenue N92 W15800 Megal Drive
Saint Louis,MO 63 110 Menomonee Falls,W1 5305 1
(3 14) 776-6893 (800) 558-7733
FAX: (314) 776-8763 FAX: (414) 255-0359
PANGBORN CORPORATION PIRANHA-MEGA MANUFACTURING
Pangborn Blvd INCORPORATED
Hagerstown, MD 2 1740 401 South Washington
(301) 739-3500 Hutchinson, KS 67501
FAX: (301) 739-2279 (316) 663-1127
FAX: (316) 663-6012
PATON WELDING INSTITUTE
11 Bozhenko str. PLYMOVENT CORPORATION
Kiev, 252650 375 Raritan Center Parkway
Ukraine Edison, NJ 08837
(7) 4466330 (908) 417-0808
FAX: (7) 2680486 FAX: (908) 417-1818
PEARL ABRASIVE COMPANY POLYMET CORPORATION
62 O1 South Garfield Avenue 10073 CommercePark Drive
Commerce, CA 90040 Cincinnati, OH 45246
(310) 927-5561 (513) 874-3586
FAX: (310) 928-3857 FAX: (513) 874-2880
PEDDINGHAUS CORPORATION POSTLE INDUSTRIES
300 North Washington Avenue 5349 West 161stStreet
Bradley, IL 609 15 Cleveland, OH 44142
(815) 937-3800 (216) 265-9000
FAX: (815) 937-4003 FAX: (216) 265-9030
PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY POWCON INCORPORATED
One College Avenue 8 123 Miralani Drive
Williamsport, PA 17701 San Diego, CA 92126
(717) 326-3761 (619) 578-8580
FAX: (717) 327-4503 FAX: (619) 621-6301
PERMADUR INDUSTRIES, INC. PRAXAIR SPECIALTY POWDERS
47 Old Camplain Road 1555 Main Street
Somerville, NJ 08876 Indianapolis, IN 46224
(908) 526-3888 (317) 240-2186
FAX: (908) 707-1796 FAX: (317) 240-2225
PFERD, INC. PRAXAIR, INC.
30 Jytek Drive 39 Old Ridgebury Road
Leominster, MA 01453 Danbury, CT 068 10-5 13 1
(508) 840-6420 (7 16) 879-4077
FAX: (508) 840-6421 FAX: (716) 879-2015

~~~~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 0536921 TT2 W
PRINCE 81IZANT COMPANY PROTEUS INDUSTRIES INC.

12333 Plaza Drive 340 PioneerWay
Cleveland, OH 44130 Mountain View, CA 94041
(216) 362-7000 (415) 964-4163
FAX: (216) 362-7456 FAX: (415) 965-9355
PROCESS EQUIPMENT COMPANY QUALITY CRYOGENICS INCORPORATED
6555 South State Route 202 Post Ofice Box 724
Tipp City, OH 45371 Jasper, GA 30143
(513) 667-445 1 (706) 692-6 167
FAX: (513) 667-9322 FAX: (706) 692-6350
PROCESS WELDING SYSTEMS, INC. QUEEN CYLINDER COMPANY

138 Space Park Drive 239 Lafayette Road
Nashville, TN 3721 1 London, OH 43 140
(615) 331-7766 (800)255-2957
FAX: (615) 331-8822 FAX: (614) 852-5449
PRODUCTION MACHINERY, INC. RACAL HEALTH& SAFETY, INC.

9O00 Yellow Brick Road 7305 ExecutiveWay
Baltimore, MD 21237 Frederick, MD 2 170 1
(410) 574-2110 (301) 695-8200
FAX: (410) 574-4790 FAX: (301) 695-4413
RAMSTUD [USA] INC.
PRODUCTS UNLIMITED
1801 Westwood Drive 400 Technology Court, Suite C
Smyma, GA 30082
Sterling, LL 61081
(770) 333-9393
(815) 626-0300 FAX: (770) 333-9479
FAX: (815) 626-8637
RANSOME COMPANY
PROFAX Post Ofice Box 3047
Post Office Box 898 Houston, TX 77253
Pearland, TX 77588 (7 13) 868-0647
(713) 485-6258 FAX: (713) 868-0649
FAX: (713) 485-8030
RED-D-ARC INCORPORATED
PROJECT TOOL81DIE, INC. 1668 Jaggie FoxWay
6955 Danyeur Road Lexington, KY 4051 1
Redding, CA 96001 (606)259-2828
(916) 243-8903 FAX: (606) 259-1382
FAX: (916) 243-8914
REGO PRODUCTSECII
PROTECTIVE METAL ALLOYS, INCORPORATED Highway 100
8726 Production Avenue Elon College,NC 27244
San Diego, CA 92121 (910) 449-7707
(800) 762-9237 FAX: (910) 449-6594
FAX: (619) 271-1790
RESISTANCE WELDER MANUFACTURERS
PROTEM ENGINEERING CORPORATION ASSOCIATION (RWMA)
25570 Rye CanyonRoad, Unit L 1900 Arch Street
Valencia, CA 9 1355 Philadelphia, PA 19103-1498
(800) 258-0133 (215) 564-3484
FAX: (805) 294-1041 FAX: (215) 963-9785

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL 1997 II 07842b5 O5Lb922 939 m
REVCO INDUSTRIES (BLACK STALLION) ROLLED ALLOYS

3110 Harcourt Street 125 WestSterns Road
Rancho Dominguez, CA 90224 Temperance, MI 48 182
(800) 321-7515 (800) 521-0332
FAX: (310) 638-5604 FAX: (313) 847-3915
REX-CUT PRODUCTS, INC.
S.I.A.T. SPA SECTION PITTARC
960 Airport Road
Fall River,MA 02720 Via Facini N. 16
(800) 225-8182 Gemona Del Friuli-Udine, 33010
FAX: (800) 638-8501 Italy
(39) 43297022
REXARC INTERNATIONAL, INC. FAX: (39) 432526010
35 East Third Street
Post Office Box 7 SAFTCART
West Alexandria, OH 45381 Highway 49 South
(513) 839-4604
FAX: (513) 839-5897 Clarksdale, MS 38614
(601) 627-3438
RICHARD PRAZEN FAX: (601) 627-1640
11 577 South Lamptonview
Salt Lake,UT 84065 SANDVIK STEEL COMPANY
(801) 328-0249 Post Office Box 1220
FAX: (801) 359-3728 Scranton, PA 1850 1
(717) 587-5191
ROBERTS-GORDON, INCORPORATED
Buffalo, NY 14240-0044
SCHWEISSEN & SCHNEIDEN
(716) 852-4400 97/ESSEN WELDING FAIR 97
FAX: (716) 852-0854
150 North Michigan Avenue
ROBINSON TECHNICAL PRODUCTS MIDWEST Chicago, IL 60601
102 1 Maryland Avenue (312) 781-5180
Dolton, IL 60419 FAX: (312) 781-5188
(708) 841-2550
FAX: (708) 841-8335 SCIAKY, INCORPORATED
4915 West 67th Street
ROBOTRON
21300 Eight Mile Road West Chicago, IL 60638
Southfield, MI 48086-5090 (708) 594-3800
(810) 350-1444 FAX: (708) 594-9213
FAX: (810) 356-3989
SCIENTIFIC TECHNOLOGIES, INCJSTI
ROCKFORD INDUSTRIAL WELDING SUPPLY, INC. 6550 Dumbarton Circle
2935 Eastrock Drive Fremont, CA 94555-361 1
Rockford, IL 6 1 125 (510) 608-3400
(815) 226-1900 FAX: (510) 644-1440
FAX: (815) 226-5617
SCM METAL PRODUCTS, INC.
ROCKWELL LASER INDUSTRIES
Post Office Box 43010 2601 Weck Drive
Cincinnati, OH 45243 Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
(800) 945-2737 (9 19) 544-8090
FAX: (513) 271-1598 FAX: (919) 544-7996

-
~- ~ ~
STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L977 m 07842b5 053b923 875 m

Welding Suppllers 749
SCM TECHNOLOGIES SHERRllT INCORPORATED

PO Box loo0 9405 50th Street
Tilbury, ONT., NOP 2LO Edmonton, ALB, T6B 2T4
Canada Canada
(519) 682-1313 (403) 440-7905
FAX: (519) 682-3630
FAX: (403) 440-7948
SCOTCHMAN INDUSTRIES, INCORPORATED
180 East Highway 14 SHERWIN, INCORPORATED
Philip, SD 57567 5530 Borwick Avenue
(605) 859-2542 South Gate, CA 90280
FAX: (605) 859-2499 (310) 861-6324
FAX: (310) 923-8370
SCREENPRO
1219 West Eleventh Street SHOP DATA SYSTEMS, INC.
Los Angeles, CA 90015 7 12 East Walnut Street
(213) 747-7799
Garland, TX 75040
SCULPTURE BY NlEMl (214) 494-2719
83 Ambrogio Drive, Unit C FAX: (214) 272-7062
Gurnee, IL 6003 1
(708) 249-8480 SIGMATEK CORPORATION
FAX: (708) 336-5608 13333 Bel-Red Road, No. 100
Bellevue, WA 98005
SEAL SEAT COMPANY (206) 649-9021
1200 Monterrey Pass Road FAX: (206) 643-8008
Monterrey Park, CA 9 1754
(213) 269-1311 SIMPLEWDIV OF TEMPLETON KENLEY& CO.,
FAX: (213) 269-0529 INC.
SECKLER STUDIO 2525 Gardner Road
1208 Paseo Norte Broadview, IL 60153
BOX1100-301 (708) 865-1500
Taos, NM 87571 FAX: (708) 865-0894
(505) 751-0320
FAX: (505) 751-0321 SKlL POWER TOOLS
4300 West Peterson Avenue
SELECTRODE INDUSTRIES, INC.
Chicago, IL 60646
230 Broadway
Huntington Station,NY 11746 (312) 481-3830
(516) 547-5470 FAX: (312) 481-3684
FAX: (5 16) 547-5475
SMITH EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURING
SELLSTROM MANUFACTURING COMPANY COMPANY LLC
Post OfficeBox 355 2601 Lockheed Avenue
Palatine, IL 60078 Watertown, SD 57201
(800) 323-7402 (605) 882-3200
FAX: (708) 358-8564 FAX: (605) 882-2100
SERVO-ROBOT INC.
SOLAR FLUX (GOLDEN EMPIRE CORP)
1380 Graham Bell Street
Boucherville, QUE,J4B 6H5 Post Office Box 2129
Canada Morehead City, NC 28557
(514) 655-4223 (919) 808-3511
FAX: (5 14) 655-4963 FAX: (9 19) 808-37
11

-
~~ ~
I S T D ~ A W SJWE-ENGL L997 m 0784265 0516924 7 0 1 m
SOYER GMBH, HEIN2 STANDARD ABRASIVES

Inninger Strasse 14 935 1 Deering Avenue
Etterschlag, D-8031 Chatsworth, CA 9 11
13
Germany (8 18) 7 18-7070
(49) 008153807 FAX: (818) 718-1171
FAX: (49) 0081538030
STAVELEY INSTRUMENTS, INC.
SPARKY ABRASIVES 421 North Quay Street
481 1 Dusharme Drive Kennewick, WA 99336
Brooklyn Center, MN 55429 (509) 735-7550
(612) 535-2403 FAX: (509) 735-4672
FAX: (612) 535-2708
STEINER INDUSTRIES
SPATUPRATT & LAMBERT UNITED INC. 5801 North Tripp Avenue
Post Offce Box 2153 Chicago, IL 60646-6013
Wichita, KS 67201 (800) 62 1-45 15
(800) 325-2661 FAX: (312) 588-3450
FAX: (3 16) 733-4420
STEL DI A.M. MAUUCCO
SPECIAL WELDING SERVICES, INC. 700 East Elm Avenue
5225 Davis Road La Grange, IL 60525
Saginaw, MI,48604 (708) 579-5893
(517) 791-4595 FAX: (708) 579-5884
FAX: (517) 791-1339
STELLITE COATINGS
SPECTRO ANALYTICAL INSTRUMENTS, INC.
1201 Eisenhower Drive North
160 Authority Drive Goshen, IN 46526
Fitchburg, MA 01420 (800) 235-9353
(508) 342-3400 FAX: (219) 534-3417
FAX: (508) 342-8695
SPECTRONICS CORPORATION STOODY COMPANY
956 Brush Hollow Road 5557 Nashville Road
Westbury, NY 11590 Bowling Green, KY 42101
(800) 274-8888 (800) 227-9333
FAX: (800) 491-6868 FAX: (800) 243-4322
SQWINCHER, THE ACTIVITY DRINK STORE FIXTURES UNLIMITED

Post Office Box 8250 121 Yellowstone Road
Columbus, MS 39705 Plymouth Meeting, PA 19462
(800) 654-1920 (610) 828-6470
FAX: (601) 327-7821 FAX: (610) 828-6455
STAINLESS STEEL SERVICES, INC. STUD WELDING ASSOCIATES

4325 North 3rd Street 41515 Schaden Road
Philadelphia, PA 19140 Elyria, OH 44035
(800) 553-2568 (216) 324-3042
FAX: (215) 457-3019 FAX: (216) 324-3301
STANCO MANUFACTURING, INC. SUHNER INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTS
Post Office Box 1148 4 11 SouWSuhner Drive
2004 West Main Street Post OfficeBox 1234
Atlanta, TX 7555 1 Rome, GA 30162
(903) 796-7936 (706) 235-8046
FAX: (903) 796-9237 FAX: (706) 235-8045
COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc. L

SUUER METCO TAFA INCORPORATED

1101 Prospect Avenue 146 Pembroke Road
Westbury, NY 11590 Concord, NH 03301
(516) 338-2460 (603) 224-9585
FAX: (516) 338-2414 FAX: (603) 225-4342
SUMNER MANUFACTURING COMPANY
INCORPORATED TAIWAN PLASMA CORPORATION
75 14 Alabonson Road No. 48-12 Ku0 Hsi Road
Houston, TX 77088 Kaohsiung Hsien
(7 13) 999-6900 Taiwan R.O.C.
FAX: (713) 999-6966 (886) 077876722
FAX: (886) 077876756
SUPERIOR FLUX 81MANUFACTURING COMPANY
95 Alpha Park TAYLOR-WHARTON
Cleveland, OH 44143 101 1 Mumma Road
(216) 461-3315 Camp Hill,PA 17001-8316
FAX: (216) 461-6846 (800) 898-2657
SUPERIOR PRODUCTS, INC. FAX: (334) 443-2250
3786 Ridge Road
Cleveland, OH44 144 TEC TORCH - ELDTEC
(216) 651-9400 Post Office Box 1870
FAX: (216) 651-4071 San Marcos,CA 92079
(619) 744-640 1
SWAGELOK COMPANY FAX: (619) 747-2121
3 1400 Aurora Road
Solon, OH 441 39 TECHALLOY COMPANY, INC. - BALTIMORE
(2 16) 349-5934 WELDING DIVISION
FAX: (216) 349-5843 23 10 Chesapeake Avenue
Baltimore, MD 2 1222-4098
SYMINGTON 81CO., INC., C.H.
(410) 633-9300
77 East Wilson Bridge Road
Worthington, OH 43085 FAX: (410) 633-2033
(614) 848-4821 TECHNICAL MATERIALS INC.
FAX: (614) 848-4861
5 Wellington Road
SYNTAX S O M A R E CORP. Lincoln, RI 02865
616 East Southern Avenue,No. 103 (401) 333-1700
Mesa, AZ 85204 FAX: (401) 333-2848
(602) 844-3633
FAX: (602) 844-3833 TECNAR AUTOMATION LTD.
3502 First Street
SYSTEMATICS, INC. St Hubert, Quebec, J3Y8Y5
Post Office Box 2429 Canada
West Chester,PA 19380
(514) 443-5335
(6 O1) 696-9040
FAX: (610) 430-8714 FAX: (5 14) 443-4880
T. C. SERVICE CO. TELEDYNE ADVANCED MATERIALS

761 A Beta Drive 7300 Highway 20 West
Cleveland, OH 44 143 Huntsville, AL 35806
(216) 461-1320 (205) 837-1311
FAX: (216) 461-3714 FAX: (205) 722-2284
TEMPIL, AIR LIQUIDE AMERICA CORP. THYSSEN WELDING

2901 Hamilton Blvd. 365 Village Drive
South Plainfield,NJ 07080 Carol Stream,IL 60188-1828
(908) 757-8300 (708) 682-4112
FAX: (908) 757-9273 FAX: (708) 682-5904
TEXAS STATE TECHNICAL COLLEGE WELDING TILLMAN & COMPANY, JOHN
DEPARTMENT 2555 South Dominguez Hills Drive
3801 Campus Drive Dominguez Hills, CA 90220
Waco, TX 76705
(310) 764-0110
(817) 867-4884
FAX: (310) 764-0104
FAX: (817) 867-3550
TOMCO EQUIPMENT COMPANY
THERMACUT
Post Office Box 601 3340 Rosebud Road
Windsor, VT 05089 Loganville, GA 30249
(603) 542-67 15 (404) 979-8000
FAX: (603) 542-6732 FAX: (404) 985-9179
THERMADYNE INDUSTRIES TORIT-DONALDSON COMPANY

101 South Hanley Road 1400 West 94th Street
St Louis,MO 63 105 Minneapolis, MN 55431
(314) 721-5573 (800) 365-1331
FAX: (314) 721-4822 FAX: (612) 887-3377
THERMADYNE INTERNATIONAL TRADER S.P.A.
2220 Wyecroft Road Via Ponte Sul TorreZ.I.
Oakville, ONT, L6L 5V6 Remanzacco (UD), 33047
Canada Italy
(905) 827-9777 (39) 432667265
FAX: (905) 827-9797 FAX: (39) 432667208
THERMADYNE WELDING PRODUCTS CANADA, TRAFIMET USA, INC.
LTD.
700 East Elm Avenue, Unit B
2220 Wyecroft Road La Grange, IL 60525
Oakville, ONT,L6L 5V6
(708) 579-5893
Canada
(905) 827- 1 11 1 FAX: (708) 579-5884
FAX: (905) 827-3648 TREGASKISS LTD.
THERMAL DYNAMICS 2570 North Talbot Road
Industrial Park #2 Oldcastle, ONT, NOR 1LO
West Lebanon,NH 03784 Canada
(800) 752-7621 (519) 737-6966
FAX: (603) 298-5720 FAX: (519) 737-1530
THERMCO INSTRUMENT CORPORATION TREXIM

Post Office Box 309 25 Walpole Park South
Laporte, IN 46352 Walpole, MA 02081
(219) 362-6258 (508) 668-5149
FAX: (219) 324-3568 FAX: (508) 668-4640
TRI TOOL INC. UNITED ABRASIVES, INCORPORATED

3806 Security Park Drive Route 66
Rancho Cordova,CA 95742 Willimantic, CT 06226
(916) 351-0144 (203) 456-7 13 1
FAX: (916) 351-0372 FAX: (203) 456-8341
TRI-STATE INDUSTRIES, INCORPORATED UNITED AIR SPECIALISTS, INC.
5 137 Indianapolis Boulevard
4440 Creek Road
East Chicago,IN 463 12
(219) 392-3520 Cincinnati, OH 45242
FAX: (219) 392-3530 (513) 891-0400
FAX: (513) 891-4882
TRIPLE CROWN PRODUCTS
8 14 ElaAvenue UNITED PROARC CORPORATION
Waterford, WI 53185 No.3-1 Kung Yei 10th Road
(414) 534-7878 Peng Chen Ind. Park
FAX: (414) 534-7879 Tao Yuan Hsien,
Taiwan R.O.C.
TRUMPF INCORPORATED
(886) 4698970
Farmington Industrial Park
Farmington, CT 06032 FAX: (886) 4694499
(860) 677-9741 UNITED STATES WELDING CORPORATION
FAX: (860) 678-1704
3579 Highway50 East, 104
TRW NELSON STUD WELDING DIV. Carson City,NV 89701
7900 West Ridge Road (702) 883-7878
Elyria, OH 44036-2019 FAX: (702) 883-7776
(216) 329-0400
FAX: (216) 329-0526 UNITEK MlYACHl CORPORATION
1820 South Myrtle Avenue
TWECO/ARCAIR Monrovia, CA 91017
4200 WestHarry (818) 303-5676
Wichita, KS 67277
FAX: (818) 358-8048
(800) 231-9353
FAX: (800) 633-9513 UNITROL ELECTRONICS INCORPORATED
UNI-HYDRO, INCORPORATED 702 Landwehr Road
Highway Junction 4& 7 Northbrook, IL 6oO62-23 O1
Post Office Box 128 (847) 480-0 1 15
Cosmos, MN 56228 FAX: (847) 480-0932
(612) 877-7284
FAX: (612) 877-7204 UNIVERSAL FLOW MONITORS, INCORPORATED
1755 East Nine Mile Road
UNIPUNCH PRODUCTS, INC. Post Office Box 249
370 Babcock Street Hazel Park, MI 48030
Buffalo, NY 14206 (810) 542-9635
(716) 825-7960
FAX: (810) 398-4274
FAX: (716) 825-0581
UNISOURCE MANUFACTURING INC. UNIWELD PRODUCTS, INC.
2668 North East RiversideWay 2850 Ravenswood Road
Portland, OR 9721 1 Fort Lauderdale,FL 333 12
(503) 281-3781 (305) 584-2000
FAX: (503) 287-481 8 FAX: (305) 587-0109

STD*AWS JWE-ENGL L777 07842b5 0536728 357
754 Sumliers Welding Encyclopedia
UTP WELDING MATERIALS WALL COLMONOY CORPORATION

10401 Greenbough Drive 30261 Stephenson Highway
Stafford, TX 77477 Madison Heights, MI 48071-1650
(713) 499-1212 (810) 585-6400
FAX: (713) 499-4347 FAX: (810) 585-7960
UVEX SAFETY, INCORPORATED WALTER, INCORPORATED, J.
10 Thurber Boulevard 141 Locust Street
Smithfield, RI 02917 Hartford, CT 06114-1504
(401) 232-1200 (203) 724-0321
FAX: (401) 232-1830 FAX: (203) 560-7300
VERNON TOOL COMPANY WASHINGTON ALLOY COMPANY
503 Jones Road 9809 160th Street East
Oceanside, CA 92054 hyallup, WA 98373
(619) 433-5860 (800) 558-5825
FAX: (619) 757-2233 FAX: (206) 841-0411
VICTOR EQUIPMENT COMPANY WATER-JEL TECHNOLOGIES
Post Office Box 1007 243 Veterans Boulevard
Denton, TX 76202- 1007 Carlstadt, NJ 07072
(800) 426- 1888 (800) 275-3433
FAX: (800) 535-0557 FAX: (201) 507-8325
VISTA EQUIPMENT COMPANY, INC. WATSON COATINGS INCORPORATED
Post Office Box 472 Post Offce Box 35067
Crawfordsville, IN 47933 Saint Louis, MO 63135
(317) 362-2060 (314) 521-2000
FAX: (317) 362-3282
FAX: (314) 521-6582
VOCATIONAL INDUSTRIAL CLUBS OF
AMERICA, INC. WATTEREDGE-UNIFLEX, INC.
Post Office Box 3000 567 Miller Road
Leesburg, VA 22075 Avon Lake,OH 44012
(703) 777-8810 (216) 871-9215
FAX: (703) 777-8999 FAX: (216) 933-8248
VOGEL TOOL& DIE CORPORATION WEARTECH INTERNATIONAL, INC.

1825 North 32nd Avenue 13032 Park Street
Stone Park,IL 60165 Santa Fe Springs,CA 90670
(708) 345-0160 (310) 698-7847
FAX: (708) 345-0535 FAX: (3 10) 945-5664
WACHS COMPANY, E.H. WEGENER NORTH AMERICA, INC.

100 Shepard Street 23 1 Frontage Road, Unit 12
Wheeling, IL 60090 Burr Ridge,IL 60521
(708) 537-8800 (708) 789-0990
FAX: (708) 520-1 147 FAX: (708) 789-1380
WALHONDE TOOLS INC. WEILER BRUSH COMPANY, INC.
Route 7, Box 228-A One Wildwood Drive
Charleston, WV 25309 Cresco, PA 18326
(304) 756-3796 (717) 595-7495
FAX: (304) 756-3834 FAX: (717) 595-2002

STDOAWS JWE-ENGL L997 07842b5051b929 293 m
-
WELCH ALLYN, INC IMAGING PRODUCTS WELDCOA
DIVISION 120 North Railroad Avenue
4619 Jordon Road Northlake, IL 60164
Skaneateles Falls,NY 13 153 (708) 531- 1200
(315) 685-4189 FAX: (708)531-1222
FAX: (315) 685-7905 WELDCOMPUTER CORPORATION
105 Jordan Road
WELD ENGINEERING CO., INC.
Troy, NY 12180
34 Fruit Street (518) 283-2897
Shrewsbury,MA O 1545 FAX: (5 18) 283-2907
(508) 842-2224
FAX: (508) 842-3893 WELDCRAFT PRODUCTS, INC.
119 EastGraham Place
WELD MOLD COMPANY Burbank, CA 91502
750 Rickett Road (818) 846-8181
Brighton, MI 48 1 16 WELDING CONSULTANTS, INC.
(810) 229-9521 889 North 22nd Street
FAX: (810) 229-9580 Columbus, OH 432 19-2426
(614) 258-7018
WELD SYSTEMS INTERNATIONAL FAX: (614) 258-1996
INCORPORATED
506 Bullis Road WELDING DESIGN & FABRICATION
West Seneca, NY 14224 1 100 Superior Avenue
(716) 834-9662 Cleveland, OH 441 14
(216) 696-7000
FAX:(416) 674-7139 FAX: (216) 696-7658
WELD TECHNOLOGY INDUSTRIES, L.L.C. WELDING INSTITUTE ml),THE
2525 Park Street Abington Hall,
Muskegon, MI 49444 Abington,
(616) 737-6444 Cambridge,CB 16AL
FAX: (616) 733-2131 United Kingdom
(44)1223891162
WELD-AID PRODUCTS FAX: (44)1223892588
14650 Dequindre Road WELDING NOZZLE INTERNATIONAL
Detroit, MI 48212 1560 12th StreetEast
(313) 883-6977 Palmetto, FL 34221
FAX: (313) 883-4930 (800) 964-9645
FAX: (941) 729-4518
WELD-MOTION INC.
7 12 Valley Road WELDING ROD FACTORY, THE
Menasha, WI 54952 2301 Duss Avenue, Building 11
(414) 739-7861 Ambridge, PA 15003
FAX: (414) 739-7862 (412) 378-741 1
FAX: (412) 378-7892
WELDAS COMPANY WELDIT, INC.
128 Seaboard Lane 1700 S. Canal St.
Franklin, TN 37067 Pitsburgh, PA 15215
(615) 377-4722 (412) 781-4200
FAX: (615) 377-3635 FAX: (412) 781-1075

"
STDSAWS JW-E-ENGL 1777 m 07842b5 051b730 T05 D
WELDLINE AUTOMATION, INC. WHITESTONE CORPORATION

1201 North Las Brisas RR2, Box 4800
Anaheim, CA 92806 White Stone,VA 22578
(714) 237-7730 (804) 435-6725
FAX: (714) 237-7734
WHITEY COMPANY
WELDLOGIC INCORPORATED 3 18 Bishop Road
2550 Azurite Circle Highland Heights, OH 44143
Newbury Park, CA 91320 (216) 473-1050
(805) 498-4006 FAX: (216) 473-0402
FAX: (805) 498-1761
WlKA INSTRUMENT CORPORATION
WELDMATIC INC.
Post Office Box 1322 1000 Wiegand Boulevard
Columbus, NE 68602- 1322 Lawrenceville, GA 30243
(402) 564- 1808 (404) 5 13-8200
FAX: (402) 564-1825 FAX: (404) 513-8203
WELDREEL INCORPORATED WIKUS INC.

401 South Jackson Street 1255 Tonne Road
EI Dorado, AR 71731-0698 Elk Grove, IL 60007
(501) 863-5785 (800) 247-2691
FAX: (501) 863-3921 FAX: (708) 228-7067
WELDRITE WELDING PRODUCTS, INC. WILLING ARTS, TODD
4239 West 150thStreet 138 North 11th Street
Cleveland, OH 44135 Saint Charles,IL 60174
(216) 251-4512
(708) 584-6917
FAX: (216) 251-0035
WELDSALE COMPANY WILSON INDUSTRIES, INC.
2151 Dreer Street 123 Explorer Street
Philadelphia, PA 19 125 Pomona, CA 9 1768
(215) 739-7474 (909) 468-3636
FAX: (215) 426-1260 FAX: (909) 468-3640
WELDSHIP CORPORATION WILTON CORPORATION

225 West 2nd Street 300 South Hicks Road
Post Office Box A Palatine, IL 60067
Bethlehem, PA 18015 (708) 934-6000
(610) 861-7330 FAX: (708) 934-6730
FAX: (610) 861-5175
WING ENTERPRISES INCORPORATED
WELTRONICflECHNlTRON CORPORATION Post Office Box O0
3 1
150 East St. Charles Springville, UT 84663-3 100
Carol Stream,IL 601 88
(708) 462-8250 (801) 489-3684
FAX: (708) 462-8259 FAX: (801) 489-3685
WESTERN ENTERPRISES WINONA MANUFACTURING

875 Bassett Road 50 Freeport Road
Westlake, OH 44145 Pittsburgh, PA 15215
(216) 871-2160 (412) 781-4200
FAX: (216) 835-8283 FAX: (412) 781-1075

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 07842b5 05Lb933 943 m
WINTER INC. & CO., F.W. WOODLAND CRYOGENICS,INC.

Delaware Ave. & Elm Street 5322 Woodland Avenue
Camden, NJ 08102 Philadelphia, PA 19 143
(609) 963-7490 (215) 727-0950
FAX: (609) 963-7463 FAX: (215) 727-1033
WIRE CRAFTERS INCORPORATED WORLD MACHINERY& SAWS SYSTEM COMPANY

6208 Strawberry Lane 11 139 Garvey Avenue
Louisville,KY 40214 El Monte, CA 91733
(800) 626-1816 (818) 454-1026
FAX: (502) 361-3857 FAX: (818) 454-1027
WIREWAY/HUSKY WORTHINGTON CYLINDERS

Post Office Box645 Post Office Box 128
Citronelle, AL 36522
Denver, NC 28037
(205) 866-2400
(704) 483- 1900 FAX: (205) 866-7759
FAX: (704) 483-1911
YORK SALES COMPANY
WIS-CON TOTAL POWER CORPORATION 1201 Belvidere Street
3409 Democrat Road Waukegan, IL 60085
Memphis, TN 38 118 (708) 662-5206
(901) 365-3600 FAX: (708) 662-2818
FAX: (901) 369-4050
ZERO PRODUCTS,A DIVISION OF CLEMCO
WISCONSIN WIRE WORKS INC. INDUSTRIES CORP.
S80 W18878 Apollo Drive One CableCar Drive
Muskego, W1 53 150 Washington, MO 63090
(414) 679-8218 (314) 239-0300
FAX: (414) 679-8219 FAX: (314) 239-0788

758 Welding
by Ed Carlson, Glendale, Arlzona. Colors produced

This welded sculpture, a flying eagle, was created are
by applying heat to the steel with an oxyacetylene torch, developing temper colors and quenching when
the desired shadeis reached.
Photo courtesy of Welding Journal


Welding Encyclopedia PDF

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Welding Encyclopedia PDF

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

~~

American Welding Society

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

Printed in the UnitedStates of America.

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 97-070432

O 1997 by American Welding Society

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

WHAT MAKES A WELDER?

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

Photos by Renate Gaddis

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05LbL7L 270 W

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

Structural Steel Welding Application

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

Welding Encyclopedia ACETYLENE 3

became apparent in World War I, when welding was

(B) Neutral Some stationarygenerators are doubie-rated for

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

STD=AWS JWE-ENGL L997 m 07842b5 05LbL79 5 b L m

Cylinders are checked after each procedure during

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

STDmAWS JWE-ENGL 1997 D 07842b5 051b181 LLT m

for uses not originally intended. An adapter is some- ADDED METAL

and toughness to resist failure along the adhesive-to- brazing,soldering,ormechanicalfastenerssuchas

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

methods are not generally applicable to evaluation of

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

AGRICULTURAL WELDING ing electrode holders, and supply both compressedair

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

The welded joint offersrigidity,simplicity,low ALLOY

ALLOTROPY ALTERNATING CURRENT (ac or a-c)

to a periodically varying current with successive half Wrought Alloys

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

Table A-2 Brazed joints should be carefully designed to pro-

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

STD-AWS JWE-ENGL L997 07842b5 05LbL91 Ob9 m

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

Thickness, Time, Current, Tip pressure,lb.

switches. Such devicesshouldcontrolthewelding

- CURRENT minum alloys.

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

sulted to determine the size and number

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

l . Weldability ratings are based on the most weldable temper:

COPYRIGHT American Welding Society, Inc.

1100,3003, Alc. 3003 ER4145 ER4145 ER4043d,e ER53!%je."9

2014,2036 ER4145h ER4145h ER4145 - - ER4145 ER4145 - -

5005,5050 - ER4043e ER4043e ER.5356' ER5356' ER4043e ER4043e.' ER53569 ER5356'

5086 - - ER5356e*f*g ER5356g

5086 - - ER5356efg ER5356g