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Fine scale, periodic structures offer designers additional freedom to create novel functions or combinations
of functions. This emerging field of "structured" surfaces is poorly defined. This paper attempts to define
"structured" surfaces, and then to provide examples of such surfaces for a variety of applications.
Manufacturing and metrology are also discussed
with contributions from ( ClRP member) that "..the quality of the surface is often of the utmost
K. Blaedel (Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, importance for the correct functioning of the part". This
USA) paper is not an attempt to add to, or survey, the copious
6. Blasi (Fraunhofer ISE, Germany) literature connecting measurements of surface finish of
V. Boerner (Fraunhofer ISE, Germany) conventionally machined surfaces with such functional
E. Brinksmeier' performance as adhesion, paintability, friction, lubrication
W. J. Bryan (3M Company, USA) and wear[4,5]. Nor will it discuss the relationship
H. Chase (Applied Image Group, USA) between finish and optical scatter. Rather it focuses on
L. De Chiffre surfaces that have been designed with specific textures
R. R. Donaldson' to give specific performance. As Appeldorn observes[6]:
K. Koerber (LZH Hannover, Germany) "By modifying the microstructure of surfaces. we can
E. G. Loewen' transform materials' physical, chemical and optic
D. A. Lucca' properties"
0. Riemer (LFM Bremen, Germany)
S. Scott (Reflexite Precision Technology Center, USA)
K. J. Stout (Huddersfield University, UK)
E. C. Teague (NIST, USA)
T. R. Thomas (Avalon Technology, UK)
H-K. Toenshoff
T. V.Vorburger (NIST, USA)
A. Walter (IWT Bremen, Germany)
1. Introduction
All surfaces have texture and structure, and all
manufactured surfaces are "engineered. What then is
the meaning of our title - or the purpose of this paper?
Figure 2: =Javajacket"
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Keynote Papers
reflection rather than transmission is known as "optical standardized meaning of "_..roughness,waviness and
black", often some kind of carbon coating. Johnson[lO] lay"[l3]. To do otherwise invites confusion.
created a poroys surface optical black by etching
electroless nickel plated surfaces. The resulting array of The definition proposed above for a structured surface
conical features had diameters of 0.5-5 pm, depending may suggests a surface that does not change its form as
on the phosphorus content of the plating, and aspect a function of position. The retroreflective road sign
ratios of the order of 3. These coatings showed high material is a good example. Such a definition. however,
efficiency at wavelengths from 0.25 - 5 pm, but poor would preclude Fresnel lenses or zone plates, where
abrasion resistance. groove form andlor pitch will vary as a function of
distance from the axis of rotation. Such surfaces,
however, have a deterministic pattern of high aspect
ratio features and obvious commonality with other
structured surfaces in terms of manufacture and
metrology. We suggest therefore, that structured
surfaces are not necessarily isotropic. although they
typically are periodic in at least one dimension and have
some symmetry.
543
3. Applications
As indicated above, structured surfaces already find Applications of structured surfaces in machining abound.
widespread use. Table 1 attempts to classify general Abrasive papers, for example, are commonly considered
areas of application, giving some examples which are as random arrays of grits bonded to an appropriate
expanded upon in subsequent sections of the paper. As backing. Note, however, the periodic arrays (Figure 8) of
will be apparent, structuredlengineered surfaces affect circular "dots" of electroplated random areas of diamond
many aspects of everyday life. The 'Java Jacket', for abrasives in some abrasive pads sold for high stock
example, (Figure 2) is an embossed paper wrapper removal in ceramics. Similarly, new abrasive films are
designed to provide both thermal insulation and being produced (Figure 9) based on pyramidal
improved "grippability"l5. The dimples on a golf ball microstructures with embedded abrasives; these films
deliver distance, by affecting air flow over the ball's are claimed to give high removal rates which are
surface, while the grooves on the golf club impart the maintained through the life of the film. The new film
spin that professional golfers exploit and amateurs envy. typically shows individual abrasives at the peak of each
Sharp grooves in the soles of deck shoes provide pyramid; with wear, more abrasives are revealed. From
traction by squeezing water away on wet surfaces. Preston's wear equation[l6], it is easy to see how the
increased numbers of abrasives compensate for
3.1 Tools decreased load per grit arising from increased contact
An early example of a structured surface is the workshop area. From the samples examined by the first author, it
file. Leonard0 da Vinci (Figure 7) apparently built a appears that the spatial scale of the pyramidal pattern is
simple machine designed to emboss the periodic increased with increasing grit size.
structure needed, although we do not know how
successful were his products. Today's home workshops
contain an array of tools derivative of this idea; files, of
course, with arrays of parallel cutting edges, aggressive
wood rasps with periodic arrays of pyramidal cutting
edges, and rotary files for power drills for enlarging holes
or shifting their centers.
544
Keynote Papers
545
The advantage in weight reduction is particularly striking such as beam shaping[30]; there are, however,
in an application recently described by Scott[24] (Figure applications such as some eyepieces which operate over
12). Five meter aperture collimating lenses for large the entire visible spectrum. Low efficiency DOEs may
format projection displays were replicated in acrylic from also be designed for beam diagnostics[31].
diamond machined aluminum molds. The resulting optic
is 9 mm thick, weighing 126 kg; a refractive acrylic lens 3.6 Sub-wavelength optical structures
to give the same performance would be 1.6 m thick and As indicated above, sub-wavelength structures generate
weigh over 13,000 kg. a refractive index distribution that effectively acts as an
anti-reflective surface. Continuous relief or micro-relief
Another application is in automotive lights - both internal surfaces can be used, although the latter leads to a loss
and external (Figure 13). The key to cost effective of efficiency[32]. Early workers attempted to replicate
fabrication of such parts is typically the single point moth eye structures (periodic arrays of spherical
diamond machining of complex mold surfaces[25]. segments, such as Figure 5);other structures have since
been evaluated.
3.4 Prism arrays
Traditionally, retroreflective materials, as used on traffic
signs on every road, used glass bead technology. Arrays
of microprisms (Figure 4) molded into thin polymer films
produce signs with higher reflectivity for highway
applications.
546
Keynote Papers
surface structure[38]. If the surface of a thermal heat In diamond turning operations, vacuum chucks are
radiator is structured, these resonances increase the generally machined in situ. In the oily, chip ridden
emissivity at certain wavelengths. The resonant environment of such a machine, the functional
wavelengths can be adapted to a desired behaviour by requirements are to ensure that fluids trapped between
variation of the structure parameters. Figure 17 shows a the lands and the part are quickly squeezed out..
microstructured tungsten surface with a resonance Experience at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
wavelength at 2 pm. led to the practice[42] that the small land dimension
should never exceed 75 pm. Experience at NlST
A metallic thin film perforated periodically with uniform confirms that, when this approach is taken, vacuum
holes acts as a bandpass filter for electromagnetic chucks repeat to 0.1 pm or better. This approach to
-
radiation[39]. Such resonant filters, well known for vacuum chucks can be easily implemented by machining
microwave applications, can now be produced for a series of concentric V-grooves (with appropriate
applications in the near infra-red. Figure 18 shows a gold connections to a vacuum plenum) and then machining
on glass filter with a 1.1 pm period giving a peak appropriate flats on the "tops" of the Vees. For thin
transmittance of 0.6 and far IR reflectance of 0.9. Most parts, the sag between lands can be estimated[43].
recent filters[40] have transmissions as high as 0.78.
W
547
In the semiconductor industry a different approach to increased surface area for improved bonding of the
vacuum chuck design has been observed. Some polymeric bellows to the silicon carbide, but also
designers focus oniminimizing "percent area contact", increases the shear strength of the bond.
with targets of the order of 2% or less. Chucks designed
to this rule have been seen with individual land much Another application of structured surfaces is improving
larger than the LLNL design rule. lnterferometric tests of adhesion of paints to steel panels[47] through a number
the performance of- such chucks holding silicon wafers of processes unfortunately referred to as "texturing" -
show surface distortions that map the locations of the including electron beam texturing (EBT).
supports in the so-called "pin-chucks". Note, however, electrodischarge texturing (EDT) and electrochrome
that the driving issue for VLSl may not be the texturing (ECT) using chrome balls on the roll. Both EBT
reproducibility of the chuck, but minimizing the transfer of and ECT produce deterministic patterns of dimples on
impurities between process steps. the sheet metal surface.
Another example of a "vacuum chuck" as a structured Epoxy coatings for replacement of worn enamel in front
surface is the rapidly-renewable lap[46]. Here the lap teeth is a relatively new advancement in dentistry. The
substrate may either have a random texture obtained layer of epoxy adheres to the tooth if the tooth is properly
through use of foamed ceramics or have a periodic, roughened by a special burr and then etched to remove
"structured" surface obtained by machining the the surface damage (Figure 20)
substrates. The lap film is caused to conform or partially
conform to the structure. The same principle - controlling
contact area and providing space for excess fluid etc - is
observed on the bar of most English pubs. The multi-mm
scale structured rubber mat (Figure 19) also protects the
bar!
548
Keynote Papers
Klocke et a1[51] show significantly increased load Another artifact has been diamond turned to test optical
capacity resulting from laser texturing of sliding ceramic performance, in this case distortion as a function of focus
seal surfaces. The friction and wear characteristic of in microscopes used for quality control in the integrated
lapped silicon carbide, widely used for axial face seals, circuit industry[59]. Here a series of concentric steps
can be improved by smoothing the surface using excimer were produced with heights and widths varying from 0.1
laser radiation[l4]. In an experimental system, wear has to 1 pm and 1 to 10 pm respectively. The entire artifact is
been reduced by 25% and the initial coefficient of friction less than 200 pm diameter and less than 10 pm high.
decreased by 40%. Image analysis of the edges of steps adjacent to that at
best focus show the departure from circularity of those
3.12 Fluid flow steps, and hence the distortion in the optical system.
It is well known that the detailed nature of surfaces in
fluid flow affect the boundary layer and hence Diamond turning is also being used to produce
turbulence, drag etc. One commonplace example is the cylindricity artifacts. Cylinders with 1 micrometer
dimpled surface of golf balls. amplitude sine waves with periods of 0.25-8 mm have
been produced at NIST. Addition of a fast tool servo to a
Adhesive backed films have been developed and machine at Aachen allows production of artifacts with
manufactured to reduce skin friction on aircraft[52]. They both axial and azimuthal modulations; these artifacts are
consist of 80 to 300 pm high grooves (Figure 23), not single frequency[60].
parallel to the air flow, which move the point at which
transition from laminar to turbulent flow takes place. Periodic structures are also being used as transfer
Although not designed for use in water, such films were standards in the "nanotechnology" region[bl]. Optical
used successfully to reduce friction on the hull of the techniques are typically applied to produce grids,
America's Cup yacht sailed by Dennis Connors in Perth, gratings and doubly-sinusoidal structures[62].
Australia in 1987.
549
3.14 Biomedical applications Etching
Biomedical implants, based on a number of different Thermal reflow
materials, generally have one common requirement, that
there is good adhesion, and compatibility, between the Material deposition
implant and the surrounding tissue. Experiments are Plating
underway at the University Clinic at Aachen to evaluate Evaporation
the performance of laser structured ceramic surfaces for
replacement hip and knee joints. Regular grids of blind Replication
holes (of unit aspect ratio) have been UV laser drilled Hot embossing
with diameters from 10 to 300 micrometers[63]. Injection molding
Casting
Other experiments have shown that bony-ingrowth and
long term behavior of the surfaces of hip endoprostheses Material modification
can be improved by structuring the surface using blind Laser texturing[l4]
holes. Such holes have been drilled with a frequency Solidificationof liquids (eg polymer curing)
doubled YAG laser at LZH Hannover; here approximately
15 holes per mm2have been drilled in TiA16V4. An equally convenient classification of fabrication
process is into:
0 those used for direct fabrication of the part of
interest or of a mold; and
0 those used to replicate.
550
Keynote Papers
ruling, but with the added options of superimposing the other applications ranging from cylinder patterning for
structure on curved surfaces and adding grooves in automotive applications to machining of biological
multiple directions. Molds for retro-reflecting micro- tissue[80] have been suggested.
prisms, for example, can be produced by 3 intersecting
groove directions. It should also be noted that a new Another approach to direct patterning of metals by laser
generation of ultra-precision multi-axis machine tools is machining is laser induced chemical etching[81]. A
emerging with application both to complex structured focussed beam can be used directly, for example for
surfaces and to micro-systems (see for example Weck micro-optics fabrication[82], or a mask projected (through
and Fischer[70]). reduction optics if required) onto the work.
Capabilities and limitations of diamond turning have For small series or prototype development, refractive
been discussed elsewhere(711; in this context, however, micro- optics can be machined with excimer laser
it should be noted that a major limitation is tool wear. radiation (for example at a wavelength of 193 nm )
Small included angle tools are particularly susceptible to followed by a thermal smoothing postprocess. Figure 25
catastrophic chipping from inclusions in the material, shows a cylindrical lens array, machined in LaFN21
while chemical interactions constrain the available range glass with an aspherical topography.
of work materials[72]. Suzuki et al report successful
production of micro-Fresnels in tungsten carbide using a
fine diamond resin bond wheel; finish achieved was of
the same order as in diamond turning of metallic mold
materials[73].
55 1
Lithography at longer wavelengths tends to produce can either enhance sputter rates or cause selective
lower aspect ratio features in the resist. Use of UV deposition.
radiation and chemically amplified resists can give sub-
micrometer features with aspect ratios up to about 4[84]. 4.8 Replication
For many structured surfaces, the key step to economic
production is replication by embossing, molding or
Mask - -- - __ - --- Pattern casting[gl]. Precision machined masters may be used
rrzl photoresist
Etch
directly; more commonly, however, masters are
electroformed to produce working molds - sometimes
also referred to as shims or stampers. Hot roller
I I embossing is used to reproduce nominally planar surface
relief microstructures in polymer films such as
polyvinylchloride and polycarbonate. Production costs
are low, but diificulties are encountered with deep
microstructures. Hot stamper (or reciprocating)
Etch embossing is used for deeper microstructures[92].
level Injection molding can be used to reproduce
binary optic microstructures in metals and ceramics, as well as in
plastics[75]. Thermal cycling may limit mold life and mold
filling can be an issue. Other approaches that are being
Figure 26 Binary optics fabrication used include heat-cured epoxy and UV-cured
photopolymers.
Continuous profiles can be produced by half-tone
techniques, where dithering and projection lithography 5. Metrology
are used in combination with thick photoresists with gray- In Section 2 of this paper it was indicated that a
level capabilities[85]. Gimkiewicz et al[86] demonstrated structured surface was one that is poorly described by
a different approach to the lithographic production of conventional surface roughness parameters and poorly
micro-prism arrays using variable exposure of specially measured using conventional measurement methods. In
prepared glasses. High energy beam sensitive (HEBS) this section we will further discuss the measurement
glass contains silver ions and a photoinhibitor. The silver options and issues specific to structured surfaces. We
ions reduce on exposure to a 10 kV beam, increasing the note that ClRP has a long tradition of contributions in
optical density of the glass as a function of the exposure. surface metrology. Pioneering colleagues such as
Nicolau, Pesante. Weingraber, Reason, Van Hasselt, De
Refractive lenslet arrays can also be produced by a Vries, Whitehouse, Peters, Vanherck and DeBruin have
photothermal method[d-/] in which a latent image is first helped define the science of surface measurement; here
recorded in a photosensitive glass. Exposure to UV we can only hope to contrast the requirements of surface
radiation modifies the material in such a way that, when measurement for structured surfaces with the long
it is heated to the softening point, it expands. The tradition of more conventional surface metrology
volume increase exerts pressure on the soft, unexposed
glass, squeezing it out of the surface: surface tension In principle, the options available for measurement of a
forces the surface into a spherical shape. structured surface are no different from those facing any
surface metrologist[93]. The surfaces to be measured,
All lithographic processes are followed by some form of however, tend to be somewhat different: slopes and
etching, such as reactive ion etching, RF sputtering, ion aspect ratios are high - compared with the average
milling etc. Each has specific advantages - and is surface of engineering interest. Parameters of functional
described in an extensive literature already and so will importance (average included angle in a micro-prism
not be discussed here. array, draft angle in a mold) are not provided by
commercial instruments, but can be extracted from a
4.6 Thermal reflow matrix of surface heights as a function of position,
Lens arrays can be produced in a single stage by provided such a matrix reliably represents the surface.
melting a polymer (eg photoresist) and relying on surface
tension and plastic flow to generate spherical 'caps"[88]. 5.1 Scanning electron microscopy
Thermal reflow has also been used to smooth out ridges As will have been clear from the earlier sections of this
and steps from multi-step lithographic fabrication paper, the scanning electron microscopelmicrograph
processes. (SEM) is the inspection 'work-horse" of the industry
preparing structured surfaces. With appropriate sample
An interesting variant of this approach was described by preparation, the SEM gives excellent depth of focus and
Okamoto et a1[89]. Normally the contraction of UV resolution - a very attractive combination for surfaces
curable photopolymers is considered a problem when with high aspect ratios. Conventional secondary electron
trying to produce 3D features lithographically. These imaging in a conventional SEM is, however, a long way
authors, however, take advantage of the contraction to from metrology. Extrapolation from the ubiquitous
produce lenslet arrays. "micron" marker on an SEM image to actual dimension
on the part is a risky proposition(941.
4.7 Focussed ion beam machining
Another approach to machining fine structures in molds Over the past decade or so, substantial effort has been
is focussed ion beam machining, typically using gallium devoted to providing traceable linewidth and critical
ions[90]. Excellent fine detail can be obtained, but dimension metrology for the IC industry using SEMs[95].
removal rates are very low, of the order of pm3/s. Rigorous models of electron beam-sample interactions in
Introduction of secondary gas species into the system the scanning transmission mode, the development of
552
Keynote Papers
fixed beamlscanning sample mode instruments, and commercially available instruments are relatively low.
advances in stereographic imaging have all improved Also, for high slope surfaces, the effective point of
capabilities in feature metrology based on the SEM. The interaction between the probe and the surface will
average manufacturing engineer, however, can be badly change as the measurement is being made, convolving
fooled by the average SEM and the average SEM the tip geometry with the surface. Special probes have
operator. been developed for measuring vertical walls in IC
applications, and these might be applied for some
5.2 Stylus profilometry structured surfaces.
The stylus profiler has been used for 2D surface
metrology since 1927, and is sometimes considered a 5.5 Measurement of structured surfaces
reference method against which to compare other A simple comparison between the surfaces described in
techniques[96]. The advantages and limitations of the Section 3 and the measurement methods indicated
technique have been widely discussed[93,97]. For above reveals a clear need for new measurement
measurement of structured surfaces, however, there are methods. One approach to visualizing the relationship
three main issues[l04]: between the capabilities of instruments and the surface
The need for 3 0 in many applications, making data features of interest is the map of horizontal versus
acquisition time relatively long; vertical range/resolution introduced by Church[99] in a
Stylus tip radius, which will distort sharp peaks and discussion of light scattering techniques. Stedman
valleys and preclude measurement of high applied the same idea to a discussion of instruments for
frequency structures, such as sub-wavelength the measurement of X-ray optics[l00] and later explicitly
coatings (Section 3.6); and derived the plotting of limits on such plots based on
Stylus included angle, which limits slopes (aspect modeling surfaces based on sinusoidal perturb-
ratios) which can be measured ations[lOl]. These plots can be extended to cover a
broad range of measurement applications[lO2] (Figure
5.3 Optical methods 27). Clearly, both the capabilities of the instrument and
Three basic optical methods can be considered: the characteristics of the surface can be plotted and
autofocus instruments, phase shifting interferometers, compared.
and scanning white-light interferometers. In every case,
the surface slope that can be measured is limited by the Teague et al[l03] produced maps plotting slope versus
numerical aperture of the objective, typically no higher relative wavelength (related to an optical wavelength of
than 0.9. This leads to a slope limit of approximately 320. 600 nm). Initially they developed their maps to show the
regions of applicability of various scattering theories,
For the autofocus methods, the lateral resolution is then extending them to show the characteristics of
limited by the focal spot size, of the order of 1 pm at surfaces and the regions of applicability of various
best. Like the stylus methods, data acquisition is serial, instruments. They later added non-optical instruments to
hence the time taken to obtain a 30 map can be their plots[l04].
relatively long.
Vertical ; <A :
ranadresolution a3a..
For the phase shifting micro-interferometers (pPSI),
lateral resolution is usually limited by the detector used,
and the lateral range by the objective. Slopes are limited
by the Nyquist condition that there must be at least 2
pixels per fringe (usually slightly more). In high slope 1m m I_
553
emphasizes the high slope capability of the SEM, for nor that the product is necessarily the best for the
example, and the low slope capability of optical profilers. purpose.
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