Desalination 385 (2016) 111

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Desalination

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Hybrid PV/T water solar collector for net zero energy building and fresh
water production: A theoretical approach
O. Sotehi a,, A. Chaker b, C. Maalouf c
a
Dpartement gnie climatique, Facult des Sciences de la Technologie, Universit Constantine 1, BP 325, 25017 Constantine, Algrie
b
Laboratoire Physique nergtique Universit Constantine 1, BP 325, 25017 Constantine, Algrie
c
Laboratoire GRESPI Thermomcanique, Facult des Sciences, Universit de Reims Champagne Ardenne, PB1039, 51687 Reims, France

H I G H L I G H T S

We studied the possibility of obtaining an nZEB and producing fresh water.

A hybrid PV/T water solar collector is used.
A solar prototype is studied under the climate of Ouargla city.
A numerical simulation is carried out for 1 year with the TRNSYS 17 software.
A program is coupled with TRNSYS for the simulation of the solar still.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The purpose of this work is to study the possibility of obtaining a net zero energy building and producing fresh
Received 3 October 2015 water via a solar still by using a hybrid PV/T water solar collector. A solar prototype built in the city of Boussada
Received in revised form 23 January 2016 is studied under the climate of Ouargla city to show the importance of the use of passive solar architecture. The
Accepted 28 January 2016
results highlight the importance of using passive solar techniques to reduce heating energy needs. Energy savings
Available online xxxx
are realized with passive techniques even before the use of active solar systems. It is possible to cover the energy
Keywords:
requirements with the use of hybrid PV/T water solar collectors. High solar thermal fractions for domestic hot
Hybrid PV/T water solar collector water are achieved during the year. Solar electricity produced is high and can cover the annual needs of domestic
Building energy needs hot water, air conditioning and heating, lighting and household equipment of the prototype. A part of the differ-
Solar thermal fraction ence in area between that used to cover the thermal requirements of domestic hot water and the total area of the
Solar still PV/T collectors is used for supplying a solar still. An increase in the annual production of 2.97 times is obtained
Passive solar architecture compared to passive solar still.
2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction and Sahara).The daily solar energy received on a horizontal surface of

Renewable energy has known a huge development in recent years,
this clean technology ensures the energy security of non-oil countries
on one hand and environmental protection on the other hand. It should
be noted that even the countries producing energy products will face
the depletion of these resources since the worldwide consumption con-
tinues to increase.
Solar energy is considered as the most abundant on earth. Indeed,
the energy of 84 min of solar radiation on the earth can cover the energy
demand around the world for one year [1].
Due to its geographical location, Algeria has one of the highest solar
elds in the world. The sunshine duration of almost all the national
territory exceeds 2000 h annually and reaches 3900 h (high plateaus
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: sotehioualid@gmail.com (O. Sotehi).
1 m2 is about 5 kWh over the major part of the national territory, almost
1700 kWh/m2/year in the North and 2263 kWh/m2/year in the south of
the country [2]. It seems interesting to consider the use of solar energy
not as an ecological factor, but as a real alternative to energy resources.
The building sector is the most responsible of the energy consump-
tion in Algeria. According to statistics from the Department of Energy
in 2005, the building sector consumes over 42% of the domestic primary
energy, which makes it the most energy consumer sector [3].These
statistics tend to increase due to the enormous development of the
building stock as well as the increase of comfort requirements in recent
years. Power breaks are observed in summer period due to the in-
creased use of air conditioners.
On the other hand, Algeria is still facing feedstock difculties in
drinking water and sanitation especially in areas of high population
density despite the investments made. The critical situation of Algeria
in terms of drinking water is expressed by the established ratio between

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2016.01.034
0011-9164/ 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
2 O. Sotehi et al. / Desalination 385 (2016) 111

renewable resources and consumption (500 m3/capita/year). Experts
estimate that if the natural water resources fall below 1000 m3/capita/
year, it becomes a scarce resource. Experts predict that this ratio
would be 430 m3/capita/year in 2020 [4] and dangerously reach
300 m3/capita/year in 2025 or 200 m3/capita/year, if only surface
water is considered. This tendency results from the fact that Algeria is
a semi-arid country, it is also based on data related to population growth
as well as economic and social development.
It is more advisable to integrate and use solar energy for residential
applications and for desalination of salt water.
In Algeria, the problem of salt water in the region of Sahara is often
found. The considerable evaporation of surface water caused by the in-
tensity of solar radiation and the high ambient temperature effects the
degree of salinity and the presence of minerals in groundwater. The
use of solar energy through solar stills to purify this water is an econom-
ic and a simple solution.
Therefore, the aim of our work is to study the possibility of using a
hybrid solar PV/T water collector for supplying a house with thermal
energy for domestic hot water and a solar still with preheated brine
and with electricity for lighting, air conditioning, heating and household
appliances. The high intensity of the solar radiation and ambient tem-
perature has an effect on the dimensioning of the hybrid PV/T solar col-
lector. It is clear that the area needed to meet the thermal domestic hot
water is smaller than the area of the PV modules due to high electricity
needs. Part of the difference between the two areas will be designed to
supply a solar still with preheated brine.
some researchers have studied the inuence of the shape, the type and
the operating parameters on the production of the solar still [1823].
The improvement of the solar still production can be achieved by
preheating the brine before being introduced into the latter. Increasing
the temperature of the brine leads to an increase in the temperature dif-
ference between the water to be distilled and the glazing (condensing
surface), thereby increasing production. For this purpose a coupling
with a solar thermal collector will allow it to warm up. Different re-
searches were carried out in this way [2437].
It is certain that the economic factor plays a role in choosing the type
of active or passive solar still. This study aims to use a PV/T solar plant to
meet the energy needs of a building on one hand, and to feed a solar
desalination plant with preheated brine on the other hand.
Ouargla city, situated in south of Algeria, has a groundwater saliniza-
tion problem due to the intense evaporation of surface water. Studies
done before on this region [20] show the importance of using solar en-
ergy for desalination of brackish water. Therefore and based on these
studies, we will explore the possibility of supplying a solar still and a
solar prototype building with a hybrid PV/T solar collector. The solar
still chosen is a single sloped type that is characterized by simplicity
and relatively acceptable efciency. During the day, the solar still is sup-
plied with preheated brine from hybrid PV/T collector without the use
of a storage tank. During the night, it is disconnected from the collectors
to eliminate reverse circulation.
3. Description of the solar system and the studied prototype

2. Literature review of hybrid PV/T collectors and solar still 3.1. Weather data

The major applications of the solar energy can be classied into two Ouargla city is characterized by extreme climatic conditions. It is lo-
categories: solar thermal systems that convert solar energy into thermal cated at a latitude of 31.91, a longitude of 5.4 and an altitude of 141 m.
energy and solar photovoltaic systems that convert solar energy into This city ranks in the climate zone D1 (according to the Algerian thermal
electrical energy [5]. regulation, Algeria is divided into seven climatic zones for estimating air
Today, the efciency of conversion to electricity of commercialized conditioning requirements), with a basic temperature estimated at 5 C
photovoltaic panels is between 12 to 18%. Over 80% of incoming solar in winter and 44 C in summer [38]. Figs. 1 and 2 shows the various met-
radiation is reected or converted into heat [6]. Increasing photovoltaic rological characteristics of the city of Ouargla.
cell temperature decreases the performance of the latter. The increase of
10 C of the PV cell temperature leads to a reduction of the electrical en- 3.2. Solar circuit
ergy produced by the cell of 5% [7].
Researchers propose to remove this heat by introducing a coolant The solar circuit shown in Fig. 3 is composed of several solar PV/T
(water and air) that extracts heat and which can be used in thermal connected in series and providing thermal energy to a solar storage
applications. This type of solar collector is called hybrid PV/T solar col- tank via a heat exchanger in the lower part of the tank on the one
lector. More than the generated electricity, hybrid PV/T solar collector
has three possible applications: heating air [8], heating water [9], or
heating the water and the air at the same time, this type is called Bi
uid [10].
Research has been conducted since 1970 to model and improve the
design of hybrid PV/T solar collectors [1114] as well as improving their
integration and evaluating their impact on the energy behavior and the
economy of buildings [15].
Basant Agrawal and G.N Tiwari [16] show that the use of BiPVT col-
lectors (building integrated photovoltaic thermal) is more suitable from
an energy and economic point of view than the BiPV collectors (building
integrated photovoltaic). The overall energy efciency of BiPVT collector
is almost 17 to 20% higher and the exergy yield is about 1.5 to 2% higher
than those of a similar BiPV collector. All researches concluded that hy-
brid PV/T collectors represent the adequate solution to reduce the ener-
gy impact of buildings.
Another interesting application of solar energy is solar desalination.
Several types of solar stills were made. The most used are those of
greenhouse type. They have the advantage of being simple, easy to per-
form, with rustic design, and inexpensive. However they have a major
disadvantage of low production (about 2 to 3 l per square meter per
day) [17].
Considerable studies have therefore been done in recent years to im-
prove the production of solar stills. Different techniques are developed; Fig. 1. Monthly average of global solar radiation on horizontal surface.
 O. Sotehi et al. / Desalination 385 (2016) 111 3

Table 1
Characteristics of studied PV/T system and the solar still.

Component Characteristic Value Unit

PV cellule surface 0.33 m2

Collector n efciency factor 0.96
Fluid thermal capacitance 4.19 kJ/kgK
Collector plate absorptance 0.92
Collector plate emittance 0.09
PV/T Loss coefcient for bottom and edge
1.1 kJ/hm2K
collector losses
Transmittance absorbance product 0.9
Temperature coefcient of PV cell
0.0032
efciency
Temperature for cell reference efciency 25 C
Packing factor 0.8
Specic heat, cw 4190 J/kg C
Latent heat of vaporization of water, L 2.25 105 J/kg
Absorptivity of the glass, g' 0.05 Fraction
Absorptivity of the water, 'w 0.34 Fraction
Solar still Absorptivity of the absorber, 'b 0.36 Fraction
Thermal conductivity of glass cover, Kg 0.78 W/mK
Thickness of glass cover, Lg 0.004 m
Thermal conductivity of the absorber, kb 49 W/mK
Thickness of absorber, Lb 0.002 m
Tank volume 0.225 m3
Fig. 2. Monthly average temperature and the relative humidity of the outdoor air. Storage
Tank loss coefcient 1.62 kJ/hm2K
tank
Auxiliary (electric) 2.82 kW
Maximum power 25 W
Pump
hand and to a solar distiller on the other hand. In addition, an electrical Nominal ow rate 216 kg/h
backup system provides heat to the tank and is placed in its upper part.
The photovoltaic panels are connected to an AC/DC converter that
supplies the building and outdoor network in case of surplus electricity
production. No electrical energy storage system is provided. The solar collector is disconnected from the solar still in the absence of
Characteristics of the PV/T solar system and the solar still are illus- solar radiation to eliminate any risk of reverse circulation.
trated in Table 1. Quasi state analysis has been carried out.
The solar still shown in Fig. 4 is a single slope type. It is essentially Heat capacity of the absorbent material and that of insulation are
constituted by a sealed capacity surmounted by a glass, while the negligible.
lower part is covered with water (brackish water or seawater). Under The side surface is small compared to the basin one.
the action of solar radiation, transmitted through the transparent glass
cover, the water is heated and a portion thereof evaporates. The vapor The model presented below is elaborated by M.K. Gaur and
produced is condensed on the inner side of the glass and the condensate G.N.Tiwari [33].
is recovered by a receiver. A water supply offsets the ow of distillate
water. To reduce heat loss to the outside, the side and bottom walls 3.3. At the glass surface
are isolated.
In order to develop the thermal model of solar still connected to a 3.3.1. Inner surface
number of PV/T collectors in series, some assumptions are made [33]:

The solar still is vapor proof. 0
 Kg


g It Ag h1w T w T gi Ab T gi T go Ag 1
The temperature gradient in the glass and the water is negligible. Lg

Fig. 3. Descriptive diagram of the hybrid PV/T solar system coupled with a solar still.
4 O. Sotehi et al. / Desalination 385 (2016) 111

3.4. In the water mass

dT w

Q_ u;N Ab w I t hbw T b T w Ab M w cw
0
h1w T w T gi Ab 10
dt

where: Q_ u;N is the useful energy provided by the Nth PV/T solar collec-
tors connected in series, Q_ , is given by the expression:
u;N

h
i
Q_ u;N AN ef f ;N :I
0
t U L;N T fi T a : 11

hbwis the convective heat transfer coefcient between the absorber

and the brine, estimated at 250 W/m2K for summer and 200 W/m2K
for winter.

3.5. At the basin liner

0
Ab b I t hbw T b T w Ab hba T b T a Ab 12

Fig. 4. Single slope solar still with the produced heat exchanges.
hbais the heat transfer coefcient between the absorber and the out-
side air:
With:
 1
Lb 1
h1w hcw hew hrw 2 hba : 13
kb 2:8
hcw is the convection heat transfer coefcient between the water
The amount of water produced by the solar still:
surface and the surface of the inner glass cover expressed by Dunkle's
relation: q_ ew
_ ew
m : 14
L
hcw 0:884T1=3 3
  1  q_ ew is the evaporative loss obtained by:


T T w T gi P w P gi T w 273  268:9  103 P w : 4

q_ ew hew : T w T gi : 15

Pw and Pgi are the partial saturated vapor pressure for the tempera- The surface, the mass of water in the solar still and the injection ow
ture Tw and Tgirespectively, determined by the following relationship: rate will be determined subsequently.
 
5144 5144
P w exp 25:317 and P gi exp 25:317 : 3.6. Prototype studied
T w 273 T gi 273
5 The solar village is built under the direction of the Polytechnic School
of Architecture and Urban Planning (EPAU) in the city of Boussada lo-
hew is the evaporative heat transfer coefcient between the water cated in a semi-arid zone with a very contrasted climate, which is inter-
surface and the inner glass cover given by the relation: mediate between high plateaus and Sahara climates. This city ranks in


1 climate zone D1 (same zone as the city of Ouargla).
hew 0:01623  hcw  P w P gi  T w T gi : 6 This prototype is built with high compactness and following an east
west axis with large south surface to favor the use of solar energy
hrw is the radiative heat transfer coefcient between the water sur- (Fig. 5). The total area of the prototype is estimated at 87.75 m2.
face and the inner face of the glass cover given by the relation: The living room, situated in the north side is considered as the cooler
hn
4 o
1 i part of the house in summer, it has large zenithal openings above its
hrw  5:67  108 T w 2734 T gi 273  T w T gi : southern wall to allow better uptake of winter sun, while it allows great-
7 er ventilation in summer. The central area has a ventilation chimney
that operates when the windows are closed (not considered in this
I (t) is the incident solar radiation on the glass cover. study) (Fig. 6). The family room is situated between two bedrooms.
They are south orientated and each one has an illuminating window
3.3.2. Outer glass surface and a Trombe wall to optimize its caloric intake (Fig. 7). Thus, each
space has self-heat source and its proper ventilation.
Solar collectors, storage tank and the zenithal opening are accessible
Kg


to allow their maintenance. The east and west facades are entirely
T T go h1g T go T a 8
Lg gi opaque.
The characteristics of the walls, doors and windows of the prototype
h1g is the total external heat transfer between the outer glass surface are given in Table 2.
and the external air given by the relationship of Hottel and Woertz: Heated air in the Trombe wall is injected into the room by natural
convection only in winter. For the other seasons of the year, no effect
h1g 5:7 3:8 V o : 9 is considered.
The heating set temperature is 20 C and the cooling set temperature
Vo is the wind speed obtained from the meteorological data le. is 26 C, a ventilation rate of 3 volume/h in summer and 1 volume/h
 O. Sotehi et al. / Desalination 385 (2016) 111
Fig. 5. Plan view of the solar prototype.
for the winter are considered. The inltration rate is estimated at
1.5 volume/h [38].
3.7. Modeling of the solar installation and the building
The resolution of solar still equations is performed by a program
coupled with TRNSYS for the simulation of the PV/T solar collector and
the building. Differential equations are solved by Rung-Kutta 4 method
with a time step of 1 h. Weather data is obtained from the weather le of
the city of Ouargla. The inclination of the hybrid PV/T collector and the
glass cover of the solar still are 36 which corresponds to the latitude
of Ouargla city with south orientation. Fig. 8 shows a model of the
installation studied on TRNSYS. A multi-zone building model is used
(type 56).
4. Energy requirements and solar production
4.1. Domestic hot water
The solar system will be sized to meet both thermal and electrical
energy needs of the prototype. Thermal needs include domestic hot
water requirements while electrical energy needs include lightings,
household equipment, the auxiliary of hot water system, pumps, regu-
lation organs and electrical energy for the air conditioning system.
Fig. 6. Zenithal opening to capture solar radiation to living room.
5
Domestic hot water requirements are estimated for a family of 5 per-
sons representing 45 l/person/day at a temperature of 45 C. The tem-
perature of the hot water storage tank is maintained at a value of
60 C to eliminate any risk of formation of legionella.
The analysis of Fig. 9 shows that domestic hot water needs vary dur-
ing the year. The maximum value estimated at 331 kWh is recorded for
the month of February and the minimum value estimated at 191 kWh is
recorded for the month of August. The domestic hot water varies during
the year depending on climatic conditions and habits of occupants.
The thermal energy production of a surface of 6 m2 of the PV/T solar
collector, the necessary auxiliary, the consumption of the pumps and
regulation organs are also shown in Fig. 9. We nd that the solar instal-
lation covers completely the domestic hot water needs for the months
from May to October. Indeed, in this period domestic hot water con-
sumption decreases when the solar radiation and the ambient temper-
ature increase thereby increasing the efciency of the solar installation.
While for the other months, the coverage of needs range between 54%
for the month of January to 93% for the month of April. The consumption
of the electrical auxiliary is inversely proportional to the production of
the solar system. It varies between 147.36 kWh for January and 0 kWh
for the months from May to October where the solar installation covers
all domestic hot water. This consumption will subsequently be covered
by the electricity generated by PV solar panels. The consumption of
Fig. 7. Trombe wall and space reservation for solar collectors.
6 O. Sotehi et al. / Desalination 385 (2016) 111

Table 2 must not exceed the value of 0.15 W/m2K and 0.85 W/m2K for fenes-
Characteristics of the construction of solar prototype. trations [40]. While for the prototype, the U-value ranges from 0.583 to
Wall/windows/door Composition U value Surface 1.51 W/m2K for walls, oor and roof, and between 2.58 to 5.74 W/m2K
(W/m2K) (m2) for fenestration. The north wall is well insulated and the south one has a
Exterior plaster, 2 cm high thermal inertia that can promote the storage of heat. While both
Parpaing, 25 cm east and west walls are weak for the prototype since no insulation is
North wall Expanded cork insulation, 5 cm 0.583 29.45 applied.
Parpaing, 10 cm
Table 3 illustrates the variation of the annual needs of cooling and
Interior plaster, 2 cm
Exterior plaster, 2 cm heating for various passive scenarios. A rotation of the building to the
East wall Parpaing, 40 cm 1.51 23.80 east and to the west of 45 shows that increasing the annual needs of
Interior plaster, 2 cm 2.39 and 0.53%, respectively, is obtained. The rotation of the building
Stone, 40 cm to the east increases heating requirements of 27.04% because the inci-
South wall 0.668 7.10
Interior plaster, 2 cm
Exterior plaster, 2 cm
dent solar energy on the solar wall is less important than the south fa-
West wall Parpaing, 40 cm 1.51 23.80 cade, while for cooling requirements, an increase of 0.56% is obtained.
Interior plaster, 2 cm This increase is due to the exposure of the west wall to sunlight for
Tiling, 2 cm long period of the day. The rotation of the building towards west
Concrete mortar, 4 cm
increases heating requirements of 24.27% and decreases the cooling de-
Dry sand, 5 cm
Floor on the ground
Tar paper, 0.5 cm
0.949 87.75 mand of 1.23%. The building rotation to the west inuences the amount
Solid concrete, 16 cm of solar energy received by the solar wall which increases heating needs,
Heavy Stone, 20 cm while for air conditioning the decrease is due to the characteristics of
Concrete mortar, 4 cm the south wall facing west, which decreases the amount of heat
Ground clay, 20 cm
accessing the interior.
Solid concrete, 3.5 cm
Dry sand, 2 cm The use of cool roof increases heating needs of 2.57% and 5.22% for
Multilayer Waterproong, 1 cm absorption coefcient of 0.4 and 0.2 respectively, due to the reduction
Slope form of heavy Concrete of the amount of solar energy absorbed by the roof, while a decrease
Roof 1.46 87.75
aggregate, 10 cm
in air conditioning needs of 0.99% and 1.95% respectively for the same
Dry sand, 2 cm
Insulation (compensated cork),
absorption values is obtained. An annual reduction of 0.75 and 1.45%
4 cm for the two values of the absorption coefcient is obtained.
Concrete slabs, 20 cm The insulation of both east and west walls is the best solution to re-
Interior plaster, 2 cm duce the consumption of heating and air conditioning. Indeed, a reduc-
Window Single glazing 5.74
tion in annual consumption of heating of 43.19% and of air conditioning
Door Wood 2.58
Exterior plaster, 2 cm of 18.88% is obtained. This presents an annual consumption decrease of
Parpaing, 25 cm 21.49%. Using the same component of the north wall for both east and
9.25
Trombe wall Interior plaster, 2 cm 2.17 west walls can signicantly reduce the consumption of heating and air
(Two walls)
Air layer, 10 cm
conditioning. Obviously, more energy saving can be achieved by other
Glass, 0.5 cm
wall types.
Improving the energy performance of the solar prototype begins
pumps and regulatory organs ranges between 7.99 kWh for the month with passive techniques. The decrease of the U-value of the walls and
of January and 13.09 kWh for the month of May. windows, the use of cool roofs and other techniques enhance the energy
behavior of the prototype. Then, the use of high energy performance
4.2. Space heating and air conditioning equipment can signicantly reduce energy consumption and the impact
of buildings on the environment.
Needs for cooling and space heating of the prototype are shown in
Fig. 10. High space heating demands are recorded for the months of 4.3. Sizing and production of PV panels
January and December. As for the other months the demand is lower.
Needs for air conditioning begins from April to October with a peak of After covering domestic hot water needs by the thermal energy
2806.62 kWh obtained for the month of July. produced by the PV/T collector, the electrical energy produced by the
The contribution of solar devices integrated into the prototype is PV modules will be used to cover the electrical auxiliary, pumps and
discussed. A comparison between the prototype studied and another regulatory devices of the solar system, lighting as well as needs for air
construction without the two Trombe walls and with a window of the conditioning and space heating. The space heating and cooling are pro-
family living room with surface of 2 m2 is illustrated in Fig. 11. The com- vided by air conditioning system with reverse cycle (COP = 2.8 with a
parison between the production of the two cases shows that the use of compressor electrical efciency of 80%).
these solar passive devices has a positive effect on the monthly con- Table 4 shows electricity requirements for lighting and household
sumption of heating. The reduction varies between 487.90 kWh in appliances of the prototype (except for air conditioning and space
January and 88.45 kWh for the month of March. The heating period is heating system, auxiliary and pumps of the solar system). The lamps
from November to March. An annual difference of 1429.73 kWh is are considered with low power consumption with 15 W, the refrigera-
obtained. Trombe walls are supposed well covered in the summer and tor is powered by direct current and consumes 70 W DC [39].
the solar wall is well insulated. No effect of the Trombe wall on the inte- The methodology for dimensioning the PV solar panels needed to
rior is considered. cover the total electrical energy consumption of the prototype that
The use of passive solar devices affects the heating needs of this pro- outlined by A. Al-Salaymeh et al. [39]. For an annual consumption of
totype. But full coverage of these needs is not completed. The use of 6754.89 kWh (prototype without improvement), an area of 17.2 m2 is
other passive techniques such as thermal insulation, phase change ma- obtained with 18 PV panels. This surface can be reduced to 14.58 m2
terials can improve the energy behavior of the prototype in winter and in the case of applying improvements (insulation and cool roof).
summer. For example, the comparison between the U-value of walls, The PV panel dimensioning is done on the basis of one year. It is clear
oor, ceiling and windows with Passivhaus standard shows that differ- that in the low demand period of electrical energy, the PV panels will pro-
ences exist. The Passivhaus standard requires that the U-value of walls duce more electrical energy than consumption. The surplus production
 O. Sotehi et al. / Desalination 385 (2016) 111 7

Fig. 8. Modeling the solar installation and the building under TRNSYS.

will be injected directly into the external network. While for months
characterized by high demand of electricity, the production of the PV
panels will not be sufcient to cover them. Consumption from external
network is required to meet the needs as well.
Fig. 12 shows the electrical production of PV/T collectors and the
electrical consumption of solar prototype. The production of the photo-
voltaic panels exceeds the consumption for the months of January to
March and November to December. Over this period, the heating con-
sumption is low due to the use of passive devices and the Saharan cli-
mate which reduces heating requirements compared to other climatic
regions in Algeria. The coverage of domestic hot water by the thermal
energy produced by solar thermal collectors can signicantly reduce
the annual electricity needs. While this production becomes insufcient
for months where air conditioning needs are high, these needs are much
higher than the space heating needs due to the climate and the architec-
ture of the prototype. Although this architecture promotes the use of
passive solar energy in the winter. The reduction in air conditioning

Fig. 9. Requirements, production of DHW and consumption of the auxiliary and pump of
the PV/T collector. Fig. 10. Monthly needs for space heating and air conditioning.
8 O. Sotehi et al. / Desalination 385 (2016) 111

Table 4
Monthly electricity needs for different household appliances and lighting.

Appliance Numbers Power Duration of Total monthly

per unit (W) use consumption
(kWh/month)

Lighting 10 15 8 h/day 12
(1/3 parallel)
Refrigerator 1 70 24 h/day 50.4
Television 2 80 3 h/day 14.4
Computer 1 300 3 h/day 27
Iron 1 1500 2 h/week 12
Washing machine 1 400 5 h/week 8
Other 2000 6 h/week 48
Total 171.2

Maximum production of 1.47 kg is obtained at 15 h against 1.35 kg

Fig. 11. Comparison of the energy needs for space heating with and without passive solar
heating devices.
needs must be considered by the use of other passive cooling tech-
niques. The annual requirement and the production of PV modules are
shown in Fig. 13. The air conditioning needs are predominant followed
by lighting and household appliances.
4.4. Solar still
The sizing of PV/T collectors showed an area difference necessary to
cover the DHW thermal needs and electrical needs. A difference in sur-
face of 11.2 m2 is obtained. In what follows, we will use a portion of this
surface to power a solar still plant.
A study conducted by T. Kiatsiriroat et al. [25] showed that for a ratio
between the surface of the solar collectors and the evaporation surface
of the solar still of 5, an increase in the production is completed, beyond
the increase is insignicant. In our case, a ratio of 4 will be used. The ow
of water is in active mode with a ow rate of 0.055 kg/s and a mass of
50 kg. An area of 4 m2 is used for supplying brine to 1 m2 of the solar
still. No storage tank is provided and the system is disconnected from
the solar collectors at night to avoid the reverse circulation.
Fig. 14 shows the hourly production variation for both passive and
active solar still. To compare the results obtained in this study with
the experimental study of Shiv Kumar and Arvind Tiwari [32], we
have chosen the day of September 24 which is characterized with
almost the same climatic conditions as stated in the study of Shiv
Kumar and Arvind Tiwari [32] (April 14, 2006). The maximum produc-
tion of the passive solar still is obtained at 15 h estimated at 0.35 kg. In
the experimental study, a production of 0.30 kg is achieved. This differ-
ence is due to the high solar radiation compared to that of the experi-
mental study. A daily production of 2.26 kg is achieved for passive
distiller. For the active still, the effect of coupling with the PV/T solar col-
lector allows an increase in production to 327.66%, which is 4.27 times.
obtained in the experimental study at 14 h (April 13, 2006). The daily
production in this case is 6.97 kg against 7.22 kg obtained in the exper-
imental study. The PV/T collector used in the experimental study is ther-
mally more efcient than that of this study because only a part of the
surface is covered by PV cell, while in this study the entire surface is cov-
ered by PV cells which reduced thermal performance of the PV/T collec-
tor explaining the difference in the daily production. Preheating the
water to be distilled leads to a considerable increase in production.
The effect of coupling the solar still with PV/T collector on the
monthly production is illustrated in Fig. 15, which shows that an in-
crease is also obtained. This increase ranges from 125.32% in June to
553.83% in December, which represents 2.25 to 6.53 times increase.
The annual production is 635.71 kg for passive distiller and 1888.09 kg
for active distiller or 2.97 times increase. Shiv Kumar and Arvind Tiwari
obtained an increase in daily production of 3.2 and 5.5 times in summer
and winter, respectively for an active solar still coupled to a hybrid PV/T
water collector [32].
5. Economic study
Coupling the solar still with a PV/T solar collector allows an increase
in the production of distilled water. However, some parameters such as
the cost of investigation and maintenance of the installation can inu-
ence the choice and the use of active solar distillation. Indeed, a study
conducted by Shiv Kumar and G.N. Tiwari [28] shows that despite an
increase in the annual production of the active system of 3.5 times com-
pared to passive still, the production cost for the passive system is lower
than the active system estimated at 2.8 times less. The payback periods
for the active system is from 3.3 to 23.9 years while for the passive sys-
tem is from 1.1 to 6.2 years. The problem of this difference is the high
cost of solar thermal collector system and PV panels. The lifetime of
the solar thermal collector was estimated at 15 and 30 years for the
PV panels in this study.
In the absence of any information about the purchase cost of solar
PV/T systems as well as installation and maintenance cost, we will
perform an economic study of the benets of this facility for using
solar energy instead of conventional energy, the sale of electricity pro-
duced by PV cells and distilled water.

Table 3
Annual needs variation for different passive scenarios.

Orientation Cool roof Insulation

(Absorption coefcient) (U-value)

Initial 45 E 45 W 0.4 0.2 0.538

Total needs kWh 9892.36 10,129.17 9945.31 9818.03 9748.31 7765.69

Heating 27.04 24.27 2.57 5.22 43.19
Percentage
Air conditioning 0.56 1.23 0.99 1.95 18.88
(%)
Annual 2.39 0.53 0.75 1.45 21.49
 O. Sotehi et al. / Desalination 385 (2016) 111
Fig. 12. Electrical production by PV panels and solar prototype needs.
In order to determine the prots made by the use of this type of solar
installation, it is necessary to know the electricity tariffs in Algeria. The
price of 1 kWh in Algeria varies according to the level of consumption.
Indeed, for a quarterly consumption below 125 kWh, the price is
1.779 AD (0.01715 $US) for the 1 kWh. Beyond this, the price will be
4.179 AD (0.04027 $US) for 1 kWh consumed. The purchase prices of
electricity from renewable origin by the government are the subject of
a decree published in the Ofcial journal on April 24, 2014. The electric-
ity purchase price by the government is variable according to several
criteria, such as the capacity of the installation and the operating time.
We will take as reference the price of 15.94 AD (0.1563 $US) for the pur-
chase of 1 kWh produced by photovoltaic panels. Concerning the sale of
distilled water, 1 L is sold at 30 AD (0.2815 $US).
Fig. 16 shows annual prots obtained by the solar plant PV/T for the
two cases. Clearly prots are earned and saved through the sale of
electricity and distilled water. The prots realized for the energy
consumption and sale of distilled water are respectively 34,628.69 AD
(333.77 $US) and 56,642.7 AD (545.95 $US). The annual total is
34,628.69 AD (333.77 $US) and 91,271.39 AD (879.72 $US) without
Fig. 13. Annual electrical needs and production of PV panels.
9
Fig. 14. Production of active and passive solar stills for the day of September 24.
and with the use of solar still respectively, with a difference of 2.63
times. The use of PV/T collectors to power a solar still can increase
prots.
A solar still is a simple device and does not require complicated
maintenance and interventions made by professionals. Its maintenance
is easy and inexpensive. Interventions are limited to periodic cleaning of
the solar still, changing the pump on a period of 7 years. Thermal part of
the PV/T collectors may operate for a period of 15 years and the PV part
has a lifetime of 30 years. This data can argue the choice of this type of
solar collectors and its coupling with a solar distiller.
6. Conclusion
This work deals with the possibility of obtaining a net zero energy
building and the production of distilled water through the use of hybrid
PV/T solar collectors. The study is performed on a prototype built in
Boussada solar village under the climate of Ouargla. The solar system
Fig. 15. Monthly production of passive and active solar still.
10 O. Sotehi et al. / Desalination 385 (2016) 111

Nomenclature
Symbol Denition Unit

Ab area of the basin solar still m2

Ag area of solar still glass m2
AN area of N numbers of PV/T collectors m2
Cw specic heat J/kg K
hbw convective heat transfer coefcient between solar still basin W/m2 C
and basin water
hcw convective heat transfer coefcient between water and W/m2 C
condensing cover
hew evaporative heat transfer coefcient between water and W/m2 C
condensing cover
hrw radiative heat transfer coefcient between water and W/m2 C
condensing cover
h1g total external heat transfer coefcient W/m2 C
h1w total internal heat transfer coefcient W/m2 C
I(t) incident solar intensity on PV/T solar collecteur W/m2
I(t) incident solar intensity on glass of solar still W/m2
Kg thermal conductivity of glass cover W/m C
L latent heat of vaporization of water J/kg
Lg thickness of glass cover m
N numbers of collectors
m_ ew distillate output kg
Fig. 16. Benets obtained by selling electricity and distilled water. Mw masse of water kg
Q_u;N
the rate of thermal energy available at the outlet of Nth kW
collector
Pgi partial saturated vapor pressure at condensing cover N/m2
temperature
is sized to cover the annual domestic hot water, air conditioning and Pw partial saturated vapor pressure at water temperature N/m2
heating, lighting as well as other household appliances and feeding a q_ total heat transfer rate from water surface to condensing W
solar still plan. The inuence of passive architecture of the prototype is cover
t time interval s
highlighted. The numerical simulation is carried out for a period of
Ta ambient air temperature C
1 year with the TRNSYS 17 software coupled with a program for the Tgi inner glass cover temperature C
simulation of solar still. Tgo outer glass cover temperature C
The results allow us to draw some observations: Tw water temperature C
Tb water temperature at the base of solar still C
UL,N overall heat loss coefcient for N collector's absorber plate W/m2K
Total coverage of the annual thermal and electricity needs is possible below the PV/Tmodule to the ambient
with hybrid PV/T collectors. Vo wind velocity m/s
The passive architecture and the prototype composition allow signi-
Subscripts
cant reduction of heating and cooling needs. Improvements can be a ambient
made by using other passive techniques such as thermal insulation b basin
and cool roofs. eff effective
The coverage of domestic hot water by solar energy can signicantly i inner
inow
reduce total energy needs.
g glass
An annual increase of 2.97 times of the solar still production is obtain- o outer
ed by preheating the brine before its injection. p plate
Benets are achieved by using solar energy instead of conventional w water
energy and the sale of electricity and distilled water. The payback Greeks symbols
time of the installation has not been determined, but it is certain absorptivity
that with an appropriate nancial aid from the government when ' fraction of solar ux absorbed
purchasing this technology, reduced payback time can be obtained. emissivity of glass
StefanBoltzmann constant (5.6697 108 W/m2K4)
transmisivity
The study of the use of this type of energy and installation as well as () absorptancetransmittance product
T temperature difference (C)
the architecture of the prototype enables us to note that the energy
economy begins with the architecture of the building itself. An appro- Abbreviation
priate architecture can considerably reduce energy requirements. AD Algerian dinar
$US US dollar (1 $US = 103.75 AD, Exchange Rates Updated: Aug. 13.2015)
Then, the equipment used and the behavior of users are the second
PV/T hybrid photovoltaic thermal collector
criteria to reduce the consumption of energy. The use of solar energy DHW domestic hot water
that is available practically throughout the year with sufcient amount nZEB net zero energy building
over the entire Algerian territory is a key element to reduce the impact
of buildings on energy, environmental and economic assessments of the
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