Physics II SP

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ENGINEERING PHYSICS II
Exam 2015-2016
JHUNJHUNUWALA
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Engineering Physics II
Edition 2016
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CONTENTS
1. Quatum Mechanics 1
2. Application of Schrodingers Equation
3. Coherence
4. Optical fibers
5. Laser
6. Holography
7. Nuclear Radiation Detectors

*******
SYLLABUS
203 ENGINEERING PHYSICS-II
UNIT 1
Quantum Mechanics: Compton effect & quantum nature of light,
Derivation of time dependent and time independent Schrdingers Wave
Equation, Physical interpretation of wave function and its properties,
boundary conditions, Particle in one-dimensional box.
UNIT 2
Applications of Schrdingers Equation, Particle in three-dimensional
box and Degeneracy, Barrier penetration and tunnel effect, Tunneling
probability, Alpha Decay, Summerfields Free electron gas model
Postulates, Density of energy states, Fermi energy level.
UNIT 3
Coherence and Optical Fibres, Spatial and temporal coherence,
Coherence length, Coherence time and Q factor for light, Visibility
as a measure of coherence, Spatial Coherence and size of the source,
Temporal coherence and spectral purity, Optical fiber as optical
wave-guide, Numerical aperture , maximum angle of acceptance and
applications of Optical Fiber.
UNIT 4
Lasers and Holography: Theory of laser action, Einsteins coefficients,
Components of a laser, Threshold conditions for laser action; Theory,
Design and applications of He-Ne and semiconductor lasers; Holography
versus photography, Basic theory of holography, Basic requirement of a
holographic laboratory; Applications of holography in microscopy and
interferometry.
UNIT 5
Nuclear Radiation Detectors, Characteristics of gas filled detectors:
general considerations, Constructions, Working and properties
of: Ionization chamber, proportional counter, G. M. Counter and
Scintillation Counter.
Suggested Readings
1. Fundamental of Optics, Jenkins and White, Fourth Edition, McGraw Hill.
2. Optics, Ajoy Ghatak, Third Edition, Tata McGraw Hill.
3. Quantum Mechanics, Schiff, Third Edition, McGraw Hill.
4. Quantum Mechanics, Merzbacher, Third Edition, Wiley India.
5. Nuclear Physics: Principles and Applications, John Lilley, Wiley India.
*******
Engineering Physics II 2015
ENGINEERING PHYSICS-II 2015
Unit-I
Q.1 (a) What is Compton effect? Deduce an expression for shift in

wavelength of scattered X -rays by Compton scattering. 2+5
(b) Derive Schrodinger time dependent wave equation. 4
(c) Find the probability that a particle in a box of width a can be

found between x = 0 and x = a/n when it is in the nth state? 5
OR
Q.1 (a) Write down Schrodinger wave equation for a particle enclosed
in one dimensional box of size ]a \. Solve it to get eigen values
and eigen functions. 8
(b) Show that the value of energy which a photon must have so
that it may transfer half of its energy to an electron at rest is
about 256 keV in a Compton scattering experiment. 8
Unit-II
Q.2 (a) Answer the following questions with respect to a particle in a

cubic box of side ]a \.
(i) Is nx = ny = nz = 1 state degenerate? 2
(ii) What is the order of degeneracy for nx + ny + nz = 4 ? 2
(iii) What shall happen to the degeneracies for nx + ny + nz = 4 ,
if the box is not cubical but rectangular parallelopiped with
sides a , b and c such that a = b ! c . 3
(b) What is tunnel effect? Write down Schrodinger equation for

potential barrier problem and steps to find out the transmission
coefficient of a particle having less energy than the height of
potential barrier? 2+3+4
OR
Q.2 (a) Write down basic postulates of summer field electron gas
model. Obtain an expression for the density of states for free

electron gas in metal and hence find expression for the Fermi
energy. 4+4+2
(b) Consider an electron whose total energy is 5 eV approaching

a barrier whose height is 6 eV and width is 7A c . Find out
de Broglie wavelength of incident electron and probability of
transmission through the barrier. 2+4
Unit-III
Q.3 (a) What is coherence? Explain temporal and spatial coherence. Show
that visibility is a measure of a degree of coherence. 2+3+3
(b) Write two prominent applications of optical fiber. 2+2
(c) Calculate the refractive indices of core and cladding materials

of an optical fiber if its numerical aperture is 0.22 and relative
refractive index difference is 0.012. 4
OR
Q.3 (a) Describe the construction of an optical fiber. What do you mean
by numerical aperture of an optical fiber? Find an expression for
the numerical aperture of an optical fiber. 4+2+4
(b) A laser operates at wavelength of 6000A c and it spectral line

width ^TV h is 10 Hz for this laser, calculate:
2
3+3
(i) Coherence length
(ii) Quality factor
Unit-IV
Q.4 (a) Derive the relation between Einsteins coefficients and discuss
the results. 5+2
(b) Explain the construction and working of a He - Ne laser. Draw

necessary diagram. What is the role of He in this laser? 3+4+2
OR
Q.4 (a) Write short notes on the following: 3+3

(i) Population inversion
(ii) Pumping
(b) What is holography? How it is different from photography?

Explain with suitable diagram, how a hologram is recorded
and then reconstructed? 2+2+3+3
Unit-V
Q.5 (a) What do you mean by dead time in Geiger Muller counter?
Draw a neat diagram on Geiger Muller Counter and explain its
working. Mention some of its application. 2+5+3
(b) An a -particle is stopped in an ionization chamber in which its

produces 15 # 10 4 ion pairs. Each time the a -particle produce
on ion pair, it losses 35 eV of energy. What is the kinetic energy
of the a -particle? Calculate the amount of charge collected by
each plate. 6
OR
Q.5 (a) Describe the construction, working and application of

Scintillation counter. 4+4+2
(b) In a Geiger Muller counter, on an average 108 electron/count

are collected if the count rate is 600 per minute, then find the
ionization current. 6
*******
Unit-I
Q.1 (a) Give the formulation of time dependent Shrodingers equation for
a free particle. Discuss the interpretation of position, probability
density and normalization of wave function. 4+2+2+2
(b) A quantum particle confined to one dimensional box of width

a is known to be in its first excited state. Determine the
probability of the particle in the central half. 6
OR
Q.1 (a) Solve Shrodingers wave equation for a particle in one-

dimensional box. Discuss the various energy states. 4+4
(b) X-rays of wavelength 0.2 A c are scattered from a target.

Calculate wavelength of X-ray scattered through 45c. Also find
the maximum Kinetic energy of the recoil electron. 4+4
Unit-II
Q.2 (a) Explain the following

(i) Degeneracy,
(ii) Order of degeneracy and
(iii) Non-degeneracy state 2+2+2
(b) A free particle is confirmed in a cubical box of side a write the

eigen values and eigen functions for an energy state represented
bynx + ny + nz = 4 . 5+5
OR
Q.2 (a) Define fermi energy. Derive an expression for fermi energy of a
system of particles. 2+6
(b) A beam of electron is incident on an potential barrier of height 5

eV and width 0.2 nm. What should be the energy of electrons so
that half of them are able to penetrate through the barrier? 8
Unit III
Q.3 (a) What is coherence ? Explain temporal and spatial coherence.

For the source to be spatial coherent, find the condition for its
size. 2+4+2
(b) A step index optical fibre has a core radius of 30 m m; n1 = 1.5

and n2 = 1.47 . If the operating wavelength is 800 nm, find the
no of modes propagating through the fibre. 8
OR
Q.3 (a) A fibre having a core index of n1 , cladding index n2 used in a

communication link. Prove that
^n1 - n2h
NA = n1 ^2Th1/2 , where T = 8
n1
(b) Calculate temporal Coherence length for
(i) Mercury vapor lamp emitting in green portion of spectrum
at Wavelength of 546.1 nm with emission band width of
TV = 6 # 108 Hz. 4
(ii) A helium neon laser operating at wavelength of 632.8 nm. 4
Unit-IV
Q.4 (a) What are the basic requirements of semi conductor laser? Draw
its label diagram and explain its working with necessary theory.
Write down the applications of semiconductor laser. 2+4+2
(b) What is the fundamental principal of a hologram? How is it

produced and how is image constructed from it? 4+4
OR
Q.4 (a) Explain the term absorption, spontaneous emission and

stimulated emission and drive a relation between Einesteins
Coefficients. 2+2+2+4
(b) What is holographic microscopy? With illustrative diagram

show outlay of a holographic interferometer and explain its
working. 2+2+2
Unit-V
Q.5 (a) Draw a labelled diagram of proportional counter and explain

its use in detection of a , b , soft x -rays and g -rays. 2+6
(b) A G.M. Counter has a plateau slop of 3% per 100 volts. If

the operating point is at 1100 volts. What is the maximum
permissible voltage fluctuation in the counting is not affected
by more than 0.1%. 8
OR
Q.5 (a) Explain the principle of particle detection. Draw log n - v

graph showing different regions and discuss the signification
physical processes taking place in these regions. 2+6
(b) An a -particle loses all its energy in producing 15 # 10 4

electron-ion pairs in the ionization chamber. 35 eV energy is
required to produce an electron-ion pair. What is the Kinetic
energy of the a -particle? Calculate the amount of charge
collected by each plate. 4+4
*******
Unit-I
Q.1 (a) Derive Schrodingers time dependent wave equation. Explain

the following:
(i) Hamiltonian
(ii) Physical significance of wave function and
(iii) Normalized and orthogonal wave functions 4+2+2+2
(b) An X-ray photon is found to have doubled its wavelength on

being scattered by 90c. Find the energy and wavelength of
incident photon. 3+3
OR
Q.1 (a) What is Compton effect? Derive an expression for Compton

Shift and wavelength of scattered photon. Explain why the
Compton shift is not observed with visible light? 2+4+2
(b) Consider a particle confined in a one dimensional box width

a. Find the probability that a particle in a box of width a can
be found between x = 0 and x = a/n when it is in the n th
state? 8
Unit-II
Q.2 (a) What is tunnel effect? Write down schrodinger equation for
potential barrier problem and steps to find out the transmission
coefficient of a particle having less energy that the height of
potential barrier. 2+2+4
(b) There are 2.5 # 1028 free electrons per cubic meter of sodium.
Calculate the,
(i) Fermi energy and
(ii) Fermi velocity. 4+4
OR
Q.2 (a) Obtain an expression for density of states for free electron gas
in a metal and find the expression for Fermi energy. 4+4
(b) Consider an electron of total energy 5 ev is approaching a

c . Find out deBroglie
barrier whose height is 6 ev and width 7A
wavelength of incident electron and probability of transmission
through barrier, (Mass of electron = 9.1 # 10-31 kg, Plancks
constant = 6.6 # 10-34 Js). 4+4
Unit-III
Q.3 (a) What is spectral purity? Derive an expression for coherence

length and coherence time in terms of wavelength and
frequency. 2+4
(b) Show that visibility is a measure of coherence. Can there be

absolute coherence or absolute incoherence. 4+2
(c) Calculate the refractive indices of core and cladding materials

of an optical fibre if its numerical aperture is 0.22 and relative
index difference is 0.012. 4
OR
Q.3 (a) What do you mean by spatial and temporal coherence for
propagating waves? Name the types of coherence involved in
biprism and Michelsons interferometer. 4+2
(b) How does an optical fibre function in transporting

electromagnetic energy? Show that the numerical aperture of
a step index fibre is given by NA = n1 2T where symbol have
their usual meanings? 2+4
(c) What is the coherence length of a source of l = 6 # 10-7 m

with a band width 10-11 m? 4
Unit-IV
Q.4 (a) How do you produce hologram in a laboratory? How are

various requirements for holography met? 4+4
(b) Describe the principle, construction and working of a
semiconductor laser. Describe various application of

semiconductor laser. 2+2+2+2
OR
Q.4 (a) In He - Ne laser, what is the function of He atoms? Explain the

answer with the help of energy level diagram for He - Ne . Describe
with a neat sketch the following of He - Ne laser. 2+3+3
(b) Compare holography and photography and discuss the construction

and reproduction of a hologram. In brier, discuss applications of a
hologram. 2+2+2+2
Unit-V
Q.5 (a) Draw a labelled diagram of a GM counter and its voltage

characteristics. Explain and indicate over it the followings.
(i) Threshold voltage
(ii) Plateau region
(iii) Working voltage
(iv) Continuous discharge region. 2+2+2+2+2
(b) In an air filled ionization chamber, 15 a -particle enter each micro

second from 5 Mev a -particle beam. If 35.2ev energy is needed to
produce an ion-pair in air. Calculate the ionization current. 6
OR
Q.5 (a) Give the construction, working and application of scintillation

counter. 3+3+2
(b) A GM counter with dead time td = 200 ms is used to detect

radiation from a radioactive source.
(i) If the observed count rate is 1000 s-1 , what is the true count
rate?
(ii) What would be the observed count rate if the source
strength were increased by a factor of 10. 4+4
*******
Chap 1 Quantum Mechanics Page 1
CHAPTER 1
QUANTUM MECHANICS
1. What is Compton effect? Deduce an expression for shift in wavelength

of scattered X -rays by Compton scattering.
RTU 2015, 2012, 2010, 2009
or
What is Compton effect? Derive an expression for Compton Shift

and wavelength of scattered photon. Explain why the Compton shift
is not observed with visible light?
RTU 2013
or
Obtain an expression for shift in wavelength of the scattered photon

by Compton scattering.
RTU 2011
or
Describe Compton effect. Derive an expression for Compton shift.

How does it support the particle nature of light?
RTU 2010
Ans :
Compton Effect
Compton effect gives direct and conclusive clarification in support
of the particle nature of electromagnetic radiation. Compton found
that when a monochromic beam of X-rays of wavelength l undergoes
inelastic collision with an electron at rest, the scattered X-rays beam
carry the longer wavelength l' in addition to the radiations of incident
wavelength l. This phenomenon of increase in the wavelength (or
decrease in frequency) of X-ray radiation by scattering is called the
Compton effect. The difference between l' and l , i.e., ]l' - lg is
known as Compton shift.
Page 2 Quantum Mechanics Chap 1
Expression for Compton Shift

The collision between the incident X-ray (photon) and an free
electron (assumed to be rest) of the scattering material is shown in
figure 1. Let us consider an X-ray photon of energy hn incident on a
electron of a target material. When this photon of momentum hn/c
collides elastically with a target electron of rest mass m0 and rest
mass energy of m0 c2 , it transfers some of its energy to the electron
so that the frequency of X-ray photon reduces to n l .
Fig 1 : Scattering of X-ray photon with the electron of scattering

material
After the collision, the scattered photon has an energy of hn l

(< h n) and momentum h n l /c (< h n/c ).Let us suppose that the
scattered photon and recoiling electron (momentum mv and energy
mc2 ) make angles q and f respectively with the direction of the
incident photon.
Let, Wave length of incident X-rays = l
Wave length of scattered X-rays = ll
Compton shift = Dl
Energy of incident X- ray photon = h n = hc
l
Momentum of incident X- ray photon = h
l
Energy of scattered X- ray photon h n l = hc
ll
Momentum of scattered X- ray photon = h

l'
According to the principle of law of conservation of energy, we can
write
Total energy before collision = Total energy after collision
h n + m0 c2 = h n' + mc2
mc2 = h]n - n lg + m0 c2 ...(1)
Applying the principle of conservation of momentum in the direction
of incidence (i.e. x -direction), we get
Momentum before collision = Momentum after collision
or, hn + 0 = h n' cos q + mv cos f
c c
or, mv cos f = h ^n - n' cos qh

c
or, mvc cos f = h^n - n' cos qh ....(2)
Again applying this law in perpendicular direction(i.e. y -direction),
we get
0 + 0 = h n' sin q - mv sin f
c
or, mvc sin f = hn' sin q ...(3)
Squaring and adding Eqs.(2) and (3), we obtain
m2 v2 c2 ^sin2 f + cos2 fh = h2 n' 2 sin2 q + h2 ^n - n' cos qh2
or, m2 v2 c2 = h2 ^n l2 sin2 q + n 2 + n l2 cos2 q - 2nn l cos qh
or, m2 v2 c2 = h2 ^n l2 + n 2 - 2nn l cos qh ...(4)
Squaring the Eq. (1), we get
m2 c 4 = h2 ^n 2 + n l2-2nn lh + m02 c 4 + 2m0 c2 h^n -n lh ...(5)
Subtracting Eq. (4) from Eq. (5), we get
m2 c2 ^c2-v2h = 2h2 nn l cos q - 2h2 nn l + m02 c 4 + 2m0 c2 h^n - n lh
2
m2 c 4 c1 - v2 m = - 2h2 nn l ^1 - cos qh + m02 c 4 + 2m0 c2 h^n - n lh ...(6)
c
From squaring of the relativistic mass formula
m0
m=
1 - v 2 /c 2
2
or, m2 d1 - v2 n = m 02 ...(7)
c
Using Eq.(7) in Eq.(6), we get
m 02 c 4 =- 2h2 nn l (1 - cos q) + m02 c 4 + 2m0 c2 h (n - n l )

2m0 c2 h^n - n lh = 2h2 nn l ^1 - cos qh
c (n - n l ) = h nn l ^1 - cos qh
m0 c
or c : 1 - 1 D = h ^1 - cos qh
nl n m0 c
c c h
or ` n l - n j = m0 c ^1 - cos qh ...(8)
or ^ll - lh = h ^1 - cos qh
m0 c
or Dl = h ^1-cos qh = 2h sin2 q ...(9)

m0 c m0 c 2
Eq. (9) gives the required expression for the Compton shift Dl .
Also, the dimension of constant h/m0 c in Eq. (9) is equivalent to the
wave length. So that it is called the Compton wavelength lc .
Why Compton shift is not observed with visible light ?

Compton shift is given by
Dl = h ^1-cos qh = 2h sin2 q
m0 c m0 c 2
From above equation, we observe that Compton shift is
independent of the wavelength of incident photon so, Dl should
have the same value for any photon, may be of any wavelength. Since,
the wavelength of visible light varies from 4000 Ac to 7000 Ac and
corresponding Compton shift is of the order of 0.01 Ac. Therefore,
Compton effect is not found with visible light as the relative shift
with visible light is vanishingly small.
2. Derive Schrodinger time dependent wave equation.

RTU 2015
or
Write down the time dependent and time independent Schrodingers

wave equations.
RTU 2012
Ans :
Schrodinger assumed that the wave function y should obey the
general wave equation. If the potential energy of the system depends

on time, the total energy of the system also depends on time.
The wave function considered in such a case is a time-dependent
wave function and the corresponding equation obtained is a time-
dependent wave equation. The time-dependent wave function is
expressed as shown below
y = Ae-iw^t - x/v h (1)
Rearranging Eq. (1) using E = 'w and l = 2 p', we get
p
-î/'hÊt - px h
y = Ae (2)
The wavelength given in Eq. (2) describes the wave equivalent of
an unrestricted particle of total energy E and total momentum p
travelling along the positive x direction.
Given any general time-dependent ware function, we can obtain
a differential equation that the wave-function obeys by considering
partial differentiation of the wave-function y wrt x and t .
Differentiating y twice with respect to x , we get
22 y - p2
= 2 y î2 =- 1h
2x 2 '
22y
or p2 y =- '2 (3)
2x2
Equation (3) also defines the value of the operator pt2 as follows:
2
pt2 =- '2 2 2 (4)
2x
Again differentiating Eq. (1) with respect to t , we get
=- iE y
2y
2t '
2y
or Ey =-' (5)
i 2t
Equation (5) defines the value of energy operator Et such that,
2
Et =-'2 i h 2 = i' 2 (6)
i 2t i 2t 2t
The total energy of the particle is defined as the sum of kinetic
energy an the potential energy. Therefore, we can write
p2
E= +U (7)
2m
where U is the potential energy possessed by the particle.
Multiplying Eq. (7) by y on both sides, we get

p2
Ey = y + Uy (8)
2m 2
Substituting the values of Ey and p y from Eq. (3) and (5), we get
2y 2
22 y
i' = =- ' + Uy (9)
2t 2 m 2x2
This is time dependent Schrodinger wave equation in one-dimension.
In three dimensions, Eq. (9) can be written as given below.
2
2y
i' =- ' d2 y + Uy (10)
2t 2m
2 2 2
where d2 / 2 2 + 2 2 + 2 2
2x 2y 2z
and U is the potential energy and is a function of x, y, z, and t.
To derive time-independent wave equation from time-dependent

wave equation
If a given wave function is time independent, then the wave function
can be expressed as a product of two functions, one space dependent
and other time dependent such that
y ^x, y, x, t h = y ^x, y, z h e-iwt (11)
Substituting Eq. (11) in Eq. (12), we obtain
i' 2 6ye-iwt@ = ' d2 7ye-iwtA + Uye-iwt

2
(12)
2t 2m
Solving Eq. (12), we get
2
i' ^- iwye-iwt h = ' 7e-iwt d2 y + Uye-iwtA
2m
2
'wy =- ' d2 y + Uy
2m
Since 'w = E , we can write
2
Ey - Uy =- ' d2 y (13)
2m
Rearranging eq. (13), we get
2m Ê - U h
d2 y + y=0
'2
This is the required time-independent Schrodinger wave equation.
3. Write down Schrodinger wave equation for a particle enclosed in one

dimensional box of size ]a \. Solve it to get eigen values and eigen
functions.
RTU 2015
or
Solve Shrodingers wave equation for a particle in one-dimensional

box. Discuss the various energy states.
RTU 2014
or
Solve the Schrodinger wave equation for a particle trapped to one

dimensional box of side a and obtain its energy eigen values and
eigen functions.
RTU 2012
or
Write down Schrodingers equation for a particle confined in a one

dimensional box. Obtain the wave function for a particle confined
in this box.
RTU 2011
or
Write down the Schrodingers time independent wave equation for a

free particle confined in one dimensional box of side a . Obtain eigen
values and normalized wave functions for the particle.
RTU 2008
Ans :
Note : Here we have used L instead a . You may use a .
Consider a particle such as a gas molecule or an electron trapped in
a one-dimensional potential box with infinitely high walls as shown
in Figure 1. From this Infinitely hard walls, the particle does not
loose energy when it collides with the walls, it means total energy
remains constant.
Let us consider, the box contains a particle of mass m , moving
along the x -axis only between the two rigid, ideally reflecting,
Infinitely high walls A and B at x = 0 and x = L . The particle is
free to move between the walls. Let us consider that the potential
energy U of the particle is zero inside the box, but rises to infinity
at the walls and outside. In such a case, the particle is said to be
moving in an infinitely deep potential well.
Fig 1 : One-dimensional potential box with infinitely high walls
The potential energy of the box in boundary conditions may be

defined as
U = 0 for 0 # x # L
U = 3 for x < 0 and x > L ...(1)
The Schrodinger wave equation for the particle is given by
22 y 8p2 m
+ Ê - U h y = 0
2x2 h2
Inside the box, U = 0 , therefore the above equation reduces to the
form
22 y 8p2 mE
+ y=0 ...(2)
2x2 h2
Let 8p2 mE/h2 = k2 and substituting in Eq. (2), we get
22 y
+ k2 y = 0 ...(3)
2x2
The general solution of this differential Eq. (3) can be given as
y ^x h = A sin kx + B cos kx ...(4)
where A and B are constants. The values of A and B can be
determined by applying the boundary conditions. Since this particle
cannot penetrate the hard walls and cannot exist outside the box.
So that the probability of finding the particle (i.e., y) will be zero
outside the box i.e.,
y (x) = 0 at x = 0 ...(5)
and y (x) = 0 at x = L ...(6)
Applying the boundary condition (5) to Eq. (4), we get
0 = A sin 0 + B cos 0
or B=0
Now, substitute B = 0 in Eq. (4), we get
y (x) = A sin kx ...(7)
Using the boundary condition given in Eq. (6) in Eq. (7), we obtain
A sin kL = 0
or kL = np where (n = 0 , 1, 2, 3,...)
or k = np ...(8)
L
Now, the wave function y can be reduces to the form
y^x h = A sin npx ...(9)
L
We have assumed above that
2
k2 = 8p mE ...(10)
h2
Squaring Eq. (8), we have
2 2
k2 = n p ...(11)
L2
Equating Eq. (10) and Eq. (11), we obtain
8p2 mE = n2 p2
h2 L2
In general using En for E
2 2 2 2
En = n h 2 = h <n2 F ...(12)
8mL 8 m L
where n = 1, 2, 3,.......
Eq. (12) gives the value of energy of a particle insider an
infinitely deep potential well. Thus, inside an infinitely potential
well, the particle can have only discrete sets of values of energy. The
discrete energy values are given by
2
E1 = h 2 for n = 1
8mL
2
E2 = 4h 2 = 4E1 for n = 2
8mL
2
E3 = 9 h 2 = 9E1 for n = 3
8mL
2
E 4 = 16 h 2 = 16E1 for n = 4
8mL
h h
h h
Fig 2 : Discrete energy levels of a particle in a deep potential box
These are called the eigen values of the particle in the well
and constitutes the energy levels of the system. The discrete energy
levels of the particle in deep potential box have been shown in Fig.
2. In the wave function (or eigen function) given by Eq. (9), we still
require the exact value of constant A. To find the value of constant
A, we apply normalization condition, i.e.,
#- 33 yn ^x h dx = 1
2
...(13)
Above expression clarify that the probability of finding the particle

is 1. Using the boundary conditions of our problem, we can write
yn ^x h dx = 1
L
#0 2
sin2 npx dx = 1
L
or, A2 #0 L
A2 L
;1 - cos
2npx E dx = 1
or.
2 #0 L
or, A2 ;x - L sin 2npx EL = 1

2 2pn L 0
or, A2 L = 1
2
or, A= 2
L
Substituting the value of A in Eq. (9), we get
y ^x h = 2 sin npx ...(14)
L L
Eq. (14) gives the wave functions of a particle enclosed in

an infinitely deep potential well. The first three normalized wave
functions (or eigen function) y1 , y2 and y3 along with their
corresponding probability densities y1 2 , y2 2 and y3 2 are shown in
Fig. 3(a) and 3(b).
Fig 3 : (a) Normalized wave functions y1 , y2 and y3 , (b) Their

corresponding probability densities y1 2 , y2 2 and y3 2
4. Find the probability that a particle in a box of width a can be found

between x = 0 and x = a/n when it is in the n th state?
RTU 2015, 2013
Ans :
The wave function y when the particle is in n th state is
y n (x) = 2 sin npx
a a
Therefore desired probability
a/n
P= #0 | y n (x) | 2 dx
2 sin npx 2 dx
b a l
a/n
= #0 a
=1 2 sin2 npx dx
a/n
a #0 a
=1 b1 - cos 2napx l dx
a/n
a #0
= 1 :x - a sin 2npx D
a/n
a 2np a 0
= 1 <a - a sin b 2np $ a lF

a n 2np a n
= 1 <a - 0F = 1
a n n
5. Show that the value of energy which a photon must have so that it
may transfer half of its energy to an electron at rest is about 256 keV
in a Compton scattering experiment.
RTU 2015
Ans :
It is given that half of energy of incident photon is equal to energy
transferred to an electron at rest or half of energy of incident photon
is equal to energy of scattered photon.
Thus 1 hn = hn l
2
or n = 2n l
So, ll = 2l since n \ 1
l
Dl = ll - l = 2l - l
or Dl = l = h ^1 - cos qh
m0 c
For minimum energy of incident photon l should be maximum, i.e.,
at q = 180c.
So, lmax = h 71 - ^- 1hA = 2h
m0 c m0 c
= 2 # 6.6 # 10-34
9.1 # 10-31 # 3 # 108
= 0.048 # 10-10 m = 0.0484 A
c
So, Minimum energy of incident photon
E min = hc
lmax
-34
= 6.6 # 10 # 3 -# 108
10
0.0484 # 10
= 4.091 # 10-14 J
-14
= 4.091 # 10
-19
1.6 # 10
= 256 keV
6. Give the formulation of time dependent Shrodingers equation for

a free particle. Discuss the interpretation of position, probability
density and normalization of wave function.
RTU 2014
Ans :
Time Dependent Shrodingers equation( Refer Q.2)
Physical Interpretation of Wave Function

For the physical interpretation of the wave function y, it was initially
considered as an important observable property of the system. The
standard assumption is that the wave function of an electron is a
probability amplitude and its modulus square gives the probability
density of finding the electron in a certain location at a given instant.
This is usually called the probability interpretation of the wave
function.
In quantum mechanics, the motion of an atomic particle is
described by the wave function y. The wave function at a particular
time contains all the information that anybody at that time can
have about the particle. But the wave function y (r, t) itself has no
physical interpretation, as it is not an observable quantity.
Physical Interpretation of Probability Density

If y is the amplitude of the matter waves at any point in space, then
the particle density (material particle per unit volume) at that point
will be proportional to y2 .
It has been observed that in some cases, y is appreciably
different from zero in some finite region known as wave packet. This
initial interpretation of the wave function was soon rejected and

replaced by Borns probability interpretation and then Bohr, Dirac,
and Heisenberg suggested a new idea about the physical significance
of y. According to this idea, since y is a complex quantity,
therefore, the probability in this case is written as ^yy *h instead of
y2 , where y * is the complex conjugate of y i.e. y2 is a measure of
probability density. The probability of finding a particle in a volume
dV = dx dy dz at any point r ^x, y, z h at time t is expressed as
P ^r, t h dV = y ^r, t h dV
2
# ...(1)
Since, the total probability of finding the particle in the selected

region of space is unity, it means, particle is certain to be found
somewhere in that space, thus the above expression (1) can be given
as
### y 2 dxdydz = 1 ...(2)
or ### ^yy *hdxdydz = 1
y satisfying the above requirement is said to be normalized.
Normalization of Wave Function

From the previous article of physical interpretation of wave function
^yh , we can say that yy * gives the probability of finding the particle
in a particular region of space. A particle which exist in a particular
region of space has the probability of finding the particle in that
region will be 100%, i.e., unity. This may be written as
#- 33 y ^r, t h dV = 1
2
...(1)
where dV = dx dy dz is the elemental volume of the region of space

and Eq. (1) is called the normalization condition.
Generally, y is not a normalized wave function. If y is the solution
of a wave equation, then ^Nyh will also be the solution of the same
wave equation, where N is a constant quantity. Now select the
proper value of N , such that the new wave function is a normalized
function. For the normalization of this new wave function, it must
satisfy the following requirement
# ^Nyh * ^Nyhdxdydz = 1
N 2
# yy *dxdydz = 1
N 2
= 1 ...(2)
# yy *dxdydz
where N is termed as the normalization constant and Ny is known
as the normalized wave function.
7. A quantum particle confined to one dimensional box of width a is

known to be in its first excited state. Determine the probability of
the particle in the central half.
RTU 2014
Ans :
The wave function of particle in nth state in one dimensional box is
y n ^x h = 2 sin d npx n
a a
In first excited state, n = 2 , therefore
y 2 ^x h = b a l
2 sin 2px
a
At the central half x = a to x = 3a . Thus the probability of finding

4 4
the particle is given by
3a/4
P= #a/4 | y 2 (x) | 2 dx
2 sin 2px 2 dx
b a l
3a/4
= #a/4 a
=1 2 sin2 2px dx
3a/4
a #a/4 a
=1 b1 - cos 4apx l dx
3a/4
a #a/4
= 1 :x - a sin 4px D
3a/4
a 4p a a/4
= 1 < 3a - a sin b 4p $ 3a lF - 1 <a - a sin b 4p $ a lF

a 4 4p a 4 a 4 4p a 4
= 1 ; 3a - a sin (3p)E - 1 <a - a sin (p)F

a 4 4p a 4 4p
= 1 ; 3a - 0E - 1 <a - 0F
a 4 a 4
=3-1=1
4 4 2
8. X-rays of wavelength 0.2 A c are scattered from a target. Calculate

wavelength of X-ray scattered through 45c. Also find the maximum
Kinetic energy of the recoil electron.
RTU 2014
Ans :
We have c = 2 # 10-11 m and f = 45c
l = 0.2A
Tl = h ^1 - cos 45ch
mc
6.62 # 10-34
= 61 - 0.7071@
9.1 # 10-31 # 3 # 108
= 0.0071Ac
Therefore, wavelength of scattered X-rays

l' = l + Tl
= 0.2 + 0.0071
= 0.2071Ac
Ek = hc c 1 - 1 m
l l'
Thus kinetic energy is maximum if l' is maximum. The maximum
value of l' can be obtained by the relation l' = l + Tl m .
Maximum value of Tl is obtained at f = 180c.
Tl m = h ^1 - cos fh
m0 c
= 6.62 # 10-34 ]1 - cos 180cg

9.1 # 10-31 # 3 # 108
= 2 # 6.62 # 10-34
9.1 # 10-31 # 3 # 108
c
= 0.0485A
l' = 0.2 + 0.0485
= 0.2485Ac
Hence, maximum kinetic energy,
-34 8
Ek = 6.62 # 10 -10# 3 # 10 ; 1 - 1 E
10 0.2 0.2485
= 19.38 # 10-16 J
9. Derive Schrodingers time dependent wave equation. Explain the

following:
(i) Hamiltonian
(ii) Physical significance of wave function and
(iii) Normalized and orthogonal wave functions
RTU 2013
Ans :
Schrodingers Time Dependent Wave Equation ( Refer Q.2)
(i) Hamiltonian
In the derivation of time dependent wave equation we get
2y 2
i' =- ' d2 y + Uy
2t 2 m
2y
or 8_- '2 /2m i d2 + U B y = i'
2t
The operator 8_- '2 /2m i d2 + U B is called Hamiltonian and is
represented by H , while the operator i'22 / t , operated on y , gives
the eigen value of energy Ê h . So that Schrodinger equation can be
written in operator form as
Hy = Ey
(ii) Physical significance of wave function ( Refer Q.6 )
(iii) Normalized and Orthogonal wave functions

yy * gives the probability of finding the particle in a particular
region of space. A particle which exist in a particular region of space
has the probability of finding the particle in that region will be 100%
, i.e., unity. This may be written as
#- 33 y ^r, t h dV = 1
2
...(1)
where dV = dx dy dz is the elemental volume of the region of space

and Eq. (1) is called the normalization condition.
Generally, y is not a normalized wave function. If y is the

solution of a wave equation, then ^Nyh will also be the solution of the
same wave equation, where N is a constant quantity. Now select the
proper value of N , such that the new wave function is a normalized
function. For the normalization of this new wave function, it must
satisfy the following requirement
# ^Nyh * ^Nyhdxdydz = 1
N 2 # yy *dxdydz = 1
N 2
= 1 ...(2)
# yy *dxdydz
where N is termed as the normalization constant and Ny is known
as the normalized wave function.
If in the above equation (1) the value of the integral is equal
to zero, the wave function y is known as orthogonal wave function.
Consider the two wave functions yi and yj are represent the
solutions of the Schrodinger equation such that integral #
yi* yj dV
or # y*j yi dV be lost over the entire space, i.e.,
# y*i yj dx dy dz = 0 or # y*j yi dx dy dz = 0 ...(3)
where i ! j , then the wave functions are said to be orthogonal wave

function.
10. An X-ray photon is found to have doubled its wavelength on being

scattered by 90c. Find the energy and wavelength of incident photon.
RTU 2013
Ans :
Given q = 90c
From the expression of Compton shift, we have
Dl = h ^1 - cos qh ...(1)
m0 c
6.62 # 10-34
= ^1 - cos 90ch
9.1 # 10-31 # 3 # 108
= 2.424 # 10-12 m = 0.0242 Ac
As Dl = ll - l , where l is the wavelength of incident photon and
ll is the wavelength of scattered photon, then
ll = l + Dl ...(2)
Given ll = 2l ...(3)
From Eqs. (2) and (3), we get
2l = l + Dl
or l = Dl = 0.0242 # 10-10 m = 0.0242 A
c
Energy of the incident photon
E = hn = hc
l
= 6.62 # 10-34 # 3 # 108 = 0.513 MeV

^0.0242 # 10-10h^1.6 # 10-19h
11. Find the lowest energy of an electron confined to move in a one

c.
dimensional box of length 1 A
RTU 2012
Ans :
Given, m = 9.1 # 10-31 kg
h = 6.6 # 10-34 kg
L = 1Ac = 1 # 10-10 m
Minimum energy of an electron moving in 1-D box having length L
is given by ^n = 1h
2
E1 = h 2
8mL
Substituting the given value in above eqn, we get
^6.6 # 10-34h
2
E1 =
8 # 9.1 # 10 # ^10-10h2
-31
= 5.984 # 10-18 J
-18
= 5.984 # 10-19 = 37.4 eV
1.6 # 10
12. Discuss the physical interpretation of wave function and its properties.
or
Give physical interpretation of wave function.

RTU 2011, RU 2003
Ans :
Physical interpretation of wave function (Refer Q.6)
Properties of Wave Function

The wave function must have the following properties:
(i) y must be finite, continuous and single valued everywhere.
2
(ii) # y dV over all space has a finite constant.
2y 2y 2y
(iii) , , must be finite, continuous and single valued everywhere.
2x 2y 2z
(iv) y must be normalized which means that y must go to zero as
x " ! 3, y " ! 3 and z "!3.
13. X-rays with l = 1 Ac are scattered from a carbon block. The scattered
radiation is viewed at 90c to the incident beam.
(a) Compute the wave length of scattered photon ?
(b) What kinetic energy is imported to the recoil the electron ?
RTU 2012, 2009
Ans :
Given, c = 1 # 10-10 m ,
l = 1A
q = 90c,
m0 = 9.1 # 10-31 kg
h = 6.6 # 10-34 Js ,
c = 3 # 108 m/ sec
(a) Compton shift is given by
Dl = ll - l = h ^1 - cos qh
m0 c
Substituting the given value in above formula, we get
6.6 # 10-34
ll - l = ^1 - cos 90ch
9.1 # 10-3 # 3 # 108
c
= 0.024 A
ll = ^0.024 + lh A
c
= ^0.024 + 1h A
c = 1.024 A
c
(b) K.E. of recoil electron is given by

K.E. = hn - hn l
= hc c 1 - 1 m
l ll
= hc c ll - l m = hcDl
lll lll
-34 8
= 6.6 # 10-10 # 3 # 10 # 0-.024
1 # 10 # 1.0242 # 10 10
= 4.67 # 10-17 J
-17
= 4.67 # 10-19 J - 292 eV
1.6 # 10
14. In Compton experiment the wavelength of X-ray radiation scattered

c . Calculate the wavelength of the
at an angle of 45c is 0.022 A
incident X-rays.
RTU 2011
Ans :
Given, c = 22 # 10-13 m ,
ll = 0.022 A
q = 45c,
h = 6.6 # 10-34 Js
m0 = 9.1 # 10-31 kg
The Compton shift is given by
ll - l = h ^1 - cos qh
m0 c
22 # 10-13 - l = 6.6 # 10-34 ]1 - cos 45cg

9.1 # 10-31 # 3 # 108
l = 22 # 10-13 - 7.08 # 10-13
= 14.92 # 10-13 . 0.015 A
c
15. A particle is moving in one dimensional potential box (of infinite

height) of width 25 A c . Calculate the probability of finding the
c at the centre of the box when it is
particle within an interval of 5 A
in its state of least energy.

RTU 2011
Ans :
We have
2 sin npx
y (x) n =
L a L k
For state of least energy n = 1 a
2 sin px
y (x) 1 =
L aL k
It is given that we have to find probability in the interval of 5 Ac at

c
the centre of width 25 A . Suppose the limit at either side of centre is
x1 = 0.4 L to x2 = 0.6 L . So the probability is given by
p = y (x) 2 = 2 sin2 d px n dx
x2
L
#x
1 L
=1 #0.4L b1 - cos 2Lpx l dx

0.6L
L
0.6L
= 1 ;x - sin 2px b L lE
L L 2p 0.4L
= 1 ;0.6L - sin ^2p0.6h L - 0.4L + sin ^2p0.4h L E

L 2p 2p
= 0.6 - 1 sin ^2p0.6h - 0.4 + 1 sin ^2p0.4h

2p 2p
= 0.20 - ^- 0.094h + 0.094
= 0.387 = 38.7 %
16. Explain normalized and orthogonal wave functions.

RTU 2011
Ans :
Refer Q.9
17. The wave function of a particle in its ground state in one dimensional
box of length L is given by y = L2 sin pLx . Calculate the probability
c at the centre of box

of finding the particle within an interval of 1 A
of length L = 10 Ac.
RTU 2008
Ans :
We have
2 sin npx
y (x) n =
L a L k
For state of least energy n = 1 a
2 sin px
y (x) 1 =
L aL k
It is given that we have to find probability at the centre in the interval
of 1 Ac . Suppose the limit at either side of centre is x1 = 0.45 L to
x2 = 0.55 L . So the probability is given by
p = y (x) 2 = 2 sin2 d px n dx
x2
L
#x
1 L
=1 #0.45L b1 - cos 2Lpx l dx

0.55L
L
0.55L
= 1 ;x - sin 2px b L lE
L L 2p 0.45L
= 1 ;0.55L - sin ^2p0.55h L - 0.45L + sin ^2p0.55h L E

L 2p 2p
= 0.10 - ^- 0.049h + 0.049
= 0.198 = 19.8%
18. An electron is trapped in an infinitely deep cubical potential well of

c . What is it first excitation energy?
width 1 A
RTU 2008
Ans :
Given, L = 1Ac
In general form, the discrete energy value is given by
2 2
En = n h 2 ...(1)
8mL
The ground state energy is given by putting ^n = 1h in Eq. (1), we
have
]1g2 h2
E1 =
8mL2
^6.6 # 10-34h
2
=
8 # 9.1 # 10 # ^10-10h2
-31
-18
= 5.984 # 10 -19 eV = 37.4 eV
1.6 # 10
For the first excitation energy, put n = 2 in Eq. (1), we get
E2 = 4E1 = 4 # 37.4 = 149.6 eV
19. An X-ray photon of wave length 0.3 Ac is scattered through an angle

of 60c by a free electron. Find wavelength of scattered photon and
recoil energy of electron.
RTU 2008
Ans :
Given, q = 60c,
c = 0.3 # 10-10 m
l = 0.3 A
Dl = ll - l
= h ^1 - cos qh
m0 c
Substituting the values in above formula, we get
6.6 # 10-34
ll - l = Dl = ^1 - cos 60ch
9.1 # 10-31 # 3 # 108
c
= 0.0121 A
So, ll = ^0.0121 + 0.3h Ac = 0.3121 A
c
Recoil energy of the electron is given by
^K.E.hrecoil = hn - hn l
= hc - hc
l ll
= hc c ll - l m = hcDl
lll lll
-34 8
= 6.6 # 10 # -310# 10 # 0.0121 -# 10-10
10
0.3 # 10 # 0.3121 # 10
= 2.6 # 10-16 J
-16
= 2.6 # 10-19 eV - 1600 eV
1.6 # 10
20. Light of wavelength 3000 A c falls on a metal surface having work

function of 2.3 eV. Calculator the maximum velocity of the ejected
electrons. What retarding potential is necessary to stop the emission
of these electrons?
(Planks constant h = 6.6 # 10-34 J-s)
(Mass of electron m = 9.1 # 10-31 kg)
RU 2005
Ans :
The wavelength of incident light,
l = 3000 A c
= 3000 # 10-10 = 3 # 10-7 m
-34 8
hc = 6.6 # 10 J-s # 3.0 # 10 m/s
l -7
3 # 10 m
= 6.6 # 10-19 Joules
Work function W = hv0 = 2.3 eV
= 2.3 # 1.6 # 10-19 Joules
Einsteins equation
hv = W + KE max
Maximum kinetic energy
KE max = hv - W
= hc - W
l
= 6.6 # 10-19 - 2.3 # 1.6 # 10-19 Joules
or KE max = 2.9 # 10-19 Joules
Now Vmax = 2KE max

m
= 2 # 2.9 # 10-19 Joules

9.1 # 10-31 kg
= 8 # 105 m/sec
If V0 is retarding potential required to stop the emission of photo

electrons, then we get
-19
V0 = KE max = 2.9 # 10 -Joules
e 1.6 # 10 19 C
= 1.8125 Volts
21. In Compton scattering, the energy of an incident X-ray photon is

150 keV and that of scattered photon is 130 keV. Determine the
angle of scattering.
RU 2002
Ans :
Given, E = 150 keV = 150000 # 1.6 # 10-19 J ,
c = 3 # 108 m/ sec
El = 130 keV = 130000 # 1.6 # 10-19 J ,
m = 1.67 # 10-27 kg
Wavelength of incident photon is given by
-34 8
l = hc = 6.6 # 10 # 3 # 10
E 3
150 # 10 # 1.6 # 10 J-19
c
= 0.0825 A ...(1)
Wavelength of scattered photon is given by
-34 8
ll = hc = 6.6 # 10 3
# 3 # 10
-19
El 130 # 10 # 1.6 # 10 J
c
= 0.0952 A ...(2)
ll - l = 0.024 ^1 - cos qh A
c ...(3)
Substituting eqn (1) and (2) in (3), we get
^0.0952 - 0.0825h A
c = 0.024 ^1 - cos qh A
c
cos q = 1 - 0.0127 = 0.4752

0.0242
or q = 61.63c
*******
Chap 2 Application of Schrodingers Equation Page 27
CHAPTER 2
APPLICATION OF SCHRODINGERS EQUATION
1. What is tunnel effect? Write down Schrodinger equation for potential

barrier problem and steps to find out the transmission coefficient of
a particle having less energy than the height of potential barrier?
RTU 2015, 2013, 2012
or
What is quantum mechanical Tunneling? Give one example.

RTU 2011, 2010, RU 2007, 2006
or
What do you mean by quantum mechanical tunnelling. Show that

the tunnelling probability is given by the expression.
T= 1
U 02
1 += G
4E ^ 0 E h sinh2 aa
U -
where U0 = height of the rectangle potential barrier. Draw graphs
showing variation of T with particle energy E and barrier width a .
RTU 2010
or
What do you mean by quantum mechanical tunneling. Show that the

tunneling probability is given by the expression.
16E ^V0 - E h -2ba
T= e
V 02
where V0 = height of the rectangular potential barrier. Draw graphs
showing variation of T with particle energy E and barrier width a .
RTU 2008
or
Write short note on Tunnel effect.

RU 2002
Ans :
To understand the phenomenon of tunnelling, we consider a typical
Page 28 Application of Schrodingers Equation Chap 2
example. The barrier potential, shown in Fig. 1 below is given by

U0 0#x#L
U ^x h = *
0 x < 0 and x > L
(a)
(b)
Fig 1 : (a) Barrier potential, (b) Form of the wave function of a
particle of energy E < U0 in the different regions
Consider particle of mass m with energy E < U0 incident on

the barrier from left as shown in Fig 1. Now, if E < U0 then all the
particles will be reflected at x = 0 and all will be transmitted into
the region x > L if E > Uo . However, quantum mechanically there
will be a finite probability for the particles to be in region 3 even if
E < U0 . This phenomenon of tunnelling through the barrier is called
barrier penetration or quantum mechanical tunnelling. Because of
the wave nature of material particles, this tunnelling through the
barrier is possible. Though the particle tunnels through the region
0 < x < L , it can never be observed there as its kinetic energy is
negative in that region.
Schrdingers Equation and its Solution in Various Regions

The solution of the Schrdingers equation for the particle gives the
wave function for the three regions. In region 1, the wave function
corresponds to two waves, one travelling from left to right and the
other from right to left. These waves represent the incident particles
and the particles reflected by the barrier, respectively. In region 2,
two solutions are possiblean exponentially increasing function and
an exponentially decreasing function. The wave function in region 3
is finite and we have only waves travelling from left to right. Thus,
quantum mechanically there is a probability for the particle to be in
region 3. The electron (particle) would be described to be entirely
reflected back from the barrier ât x = 0h if its kinetic energy is
smaller than U0 .
Region 1 :
The Schrdinger equation for region 1( x < 0,U0 = 0 ) is described by
d2 y1 + 2m2 Ey1 = 0
'
or, d2 y1 + k2 y1 = 0 where k = 2mE

'2
The general solution of above equation is
y1 ^x h = Aeikx + Be-ikx ...(1)
We can also view this solution as sum of two travelling waves
Incident yinc ^x, t h = Aei^kx - wt h
Reflected yref ^x, t h = Be-i^kx + wt h
Region 2 :
The Schrdinger equation for region 2 (0 < x < L ) is
d2 y2 + 2m2 Ê - U0h y2 = 0 inside barrier Û = U0h
'
Since, E < U0 we rearrange the previous equation as
d2 y2 - 2m2 Û0 - E h y2 = 0
'
2m Û0 - E h
or, d2 y2 - a2 y2 = 0 where a =
'
The general solution of the above equation is
y2 ^x h = Ceax + De- ax ...(2)
In region 2, the term Ceax is the wave reflected from the second
boundary of the potential barrier x = L whereas the term De- ax

is the wave reflected into the barrier region. Its amplitude decrease
exponentially, if the wave travel back.
Region 3 :
The Schrdinger equation for region 3 ( x > L,U0 = 0 ) is
d2 y3 + 2mE y3 = 0
'2
or, d2 y3 + k2 y3 = 0
The general solution of the above equation is
y3 ^x h = Feikx + Ge-ikx ...(3)
Obviously, in region 3, Feikx represents the wave transmitted

out of the barrier. Here Ge-ikx is the wave travelling from right to
left. But there is no such wave, thus G can be taken to be zero. Here
A, B, C, D, F and G are constants and these have to be evaluate with
the help of boundary conditions. We assume that y ^x h and dy/dx
are continuous at x = 0 and x = L . Applying boundary condition at
x = 0 , we get y1 = y2
So that A+B = C+D ...(4)
2y1 2y2
Also at x = 0 , =
2x 2x
or, ik (A - B) = a (C - D)
or, A - B = a (C - D) ...(5)
ik
Now adding Eqs. (4) and (5), we get
A = d1 + a nC + d1 - a n D ...(6)
ik 2 ik 2
Similarly subtracting these equations, we have
B = d1 - a nC + d1 + a n D ...(7)
ik 2 ik 2
Again applying the boundary condition at x = L with G = 0 , we get
y2 = y3
aL - aL
or, Ce + De = FeikL ...(8)
2y3 2y2
Also at x = L , =
2x 2x
or, ikFeikL = aCeaL - aDe- aL
or, CeaL - De- aL = ik FeikL ...(9)

a
Again adding Eqs. (8) and (9), we have
2CeaL = FeikL b1 + ik l
a
or, C = F eikL e- aL b1 + ik l ...(10)

2 a
Now subtracting, we get
D = F eaL eikL b1 - ik l ...(11)
2 a
Now for determining the value of constant A, substitute values of C
and D in Eq. (6), we obtain
A = c1 + a m F eikL e- aL b1 + ik l + c1 - a m F eikL eaL b1 - ik l

ik 4 a ik 4 a
= F eikL ;e- aL c1 + a mb1 + ik l + c1 - a mb1 - ik l eaL E

4 ik a ik a
îk + ahâ + ik h îk - ahâ - ik h aL
= F eikL ;e- aL + e E
4 ika ika
ikL
= F e 6e- aL ^- k2 + a2 + 2ikah + ^k2 - a2 + 2ikah eaL @
4 ika
ikL ^k2 - a2h êaL - e- aLh êaL + e- aLh
= Fe < + ika F
ika 2 2 2
^k2 - a2h
= FeikL < sinh aL + cosh aL F
2ika
ikL
= Fe 7^k2 - a2h sinh aL + 2ika cosh aL A
2ika
i^k2 - a2h
A = FeikL <cosh aL - sinh aL F ...(12)
2ka
Transmission Probability
The transmission probability is given by
2
Transmitted current density *
T= = F = c F mc F m
Incident current density A A A
Now from Eq. (12), we can write
T= 2ikae-ikL - 2ikaeikL
2 2 # 2 2
(k - a ) sinh aL + 2ika cosh aL (k - a ) sinh aL - 2ika cosh aL
= 4k2 a2
(k - a ) sinh aL + 4k2 a2 cosh2 aL
2 2 2 2
1 = cosh2 aL + ^k - a h sinh2 aL
2 2 2
or, = G
T ]2kag2
^k2 - a2h
2
= =1 + sinh2 aL + 2 2
sinh2 aL G
4k a
2 2 2
= <1 + 4k a + a + k2 - 2a2 k2 sinh2 aL F
2 2
4k a
â2 + k2h
2
= =1 + sinh2 aL G
4k2 a2
2mÛ 0 - E h
Also, we have a = '
and k = 2'
2
mE
. Substituting the values 2
2 2
a and k in the above equation, we get
1 = 1+8 ' + 2'mE B

2m (U 0 - E) 2
2 2
sinh2 aL
T 4 _ 2mE i8 B
2m (U - E) 0
'2 '2
= 1+ U02 sinh2 aL
4E (U0 - E)
2
Therefore, T= F = 1 ...(13)
A 1+ U02
sinh2 aL
4EÛ0 - E h
Fig 2 : Plot of transmittance versus E/U
It is clear from Eq. (2.3.13) that tunnelling probability T is
always less than unity whatever be the values of E and U , i.e. even
if E > U . Considering eaL >> e- aL , we have
sinh2 aL = c
eaL - e- aL m2 - e2aL
2 4
Substituting this value in Eq. (13), we get
1 16E Û0 - E h -2aL
T= - e
U 02 2aL
U 02
1+ ce m
4E Û0 - E h 4
or, T = 16 c1 - E m e-2aL
E ...(14)
U0 U0
2. Write down basic postulates of summer field electron gas model.

Obtain an expression for the density of states for free electron gas in
metal and hence find expression for the Fermi energy.
RTU 2015
or
Write a short note on Sommerfields free electron gas model.

RTU 2011
or
Give the basic assumptions made in free electron model of solid.

RU 2007
or
Write down basic postulates of Sommerfields free electron gas model.

Show that the number of energy states per unit energy is given by
g Ê h = 4pV ^2m h3/2 E 1/2
h3 RTU 2010, 2008
Ans :
Sommerfields gas model

To explain the observed electrical and thermal properties, Sommerfield
has developed a model based on the following assumptions :
(1) Each atom contributes electrons to free gas depending on its nature.
(2) Matter consists of light negatively charged electrons which are
movable and heavy, static, positively charged ions.
(3) Since electrons do not themselves come out of the metal, they
are trapped in a three-dimensional potential well of infinite
height or in a 3-D box.

(4) The only interactions are electron-ion collisions, which take
place in a very short time.
(5) All these electrons move in the negative potential created by
leftover positive ions. Although the potential is periodic, it is
assumed to be uniform.
(6) Electron-ion collisions are assumed to dominate, as these will
abruptly alter the electron velocity and maintain thermal
equilibrium.
(7) No two electrons occupy the same energy state according to the
Paulis exclusion principle.
(8) The free electron gas obeys Fermi-Dirac statistics.
Quantum Theory of Free Electrons

According to the free electron approximation, the forces between
conduction electrons and ion cores are neglected so that the electrons
within the metal are treated as free electron. Also, electron possessed
only kinetic energy, since the potential energy is taken to be zero.
Consider an electron of mass m confined in a box of length L . Under
this situation, the Schrdinger wave equation becomes
2
- ' 42 y = Ey ...(1)
2m
The solution of the above equation in vector form is given as
y = y 0 exp îk $ r h ...(2)
where k is the wave vector with the magnitude k = 2 p . We can find
l
from Eq. (2) that
22 y 2 22 y 2 22 y
= - k x y , = - k y y , = - k z2 y
2x 2 2y 2 2z 2
22 y 22 y 22 y
Then, 42 y = + +
2x2 2y2 2z2
=- ^k x2 + k y2 + k z2h y ...(3)
2 2
or, 4 y =- k y ...(4)
Now, substituting Eq. (4) in (1), we have
2
- ' # ^- k2 yh = Ey
2m
2 2
or, E ^k h = ' k ...(5)
2m
Now, converting the total energy E in terms of momentum p with

the help os following relations.
k = 2p , l = h and ' = h
l p 2p
2 2 2
E = ' k = b h l b 1 lc 2p m
2
So that
2m 2p 2m l
2 2
p2 p2
or, = h 12 = h 2 =
2m l 2m h 2m
p2
or, E= ...(6)
2m
Eq. (6) represents the energy of a free particle (i.e., electron).
Here we have not considered the lattice periodicity and also assumed
the constant potential inside the crystal to be zero. However, for
cyclic boundary conditions, k = 2pn/L , where L is the length of the
cyclic chain (i.e. the solid). Therefore,
2 2
E ^n h = ' k
2m
2 2
E ^n h = n h 2 ...(7)
2mL
The first three lower energy state wave functions are represented
in Figure 1. The distribution of the available electrons among the
various allowed energy levels and the evaluation of the related
quantities can be understood better along with the treatment of the
free electron gas in three-dimensional box of length L .
Fig 1 : Energy states of wave function
Fermi Energy
Consider that N free electrons are contained in a box at absolute
temperature. At absolute zero temperature all the energy levels
below a certain level will be filled with electrons and the levels above
this level will be empty. This energy level which divides the filled and
empty levels is called Fermi level and the corresponding energy of
that level is known as Fermi-energy EF .
Fig 2 : Ground state of a system of N free electrons
In ground state of the system of N free electrons, the occupied

states may be represented as a point inside a sphere in k -space as
shown in Fig. 2. Considering the kx , ky and kz components of kF
along x, y and z axes, respectively. As described in Eq. (7), the
energy of the electron is given by
2 2
Ek = ' k ...(8)
2m
From the above relation (8), we can say that the energy increases
as the square of distance from the origin of the k space coordinate
system. All the electrons which lie on the same spherical shell of
radius, kF , have the same energy, which is called Fermi Energy and
it is given by
2
EF = ' k F2 ...(9)
2m
Also, kx = 2p nx Since k = 2p n
L L
ky = 2p ny and kz = 2p nz
L L
where nx , ny and nz have the values 0, ! 1, ! 2 , ...

So, kx = 0 , ! 2p , ! 4p , ! 6p , ...
L L L
ky and kz also have the same values.
Fig 3 : Volume of a shell in k space
Suppose ^ 2Lp h3 is the volume of one shell in k -space as shown in

Fig. 3. Then in a sphere of volume 43p k F3 , the total number of energy
states (or shells) will be
4p k 3
F
NF = 2 3 3 ...(10)
2p
bLl
Here the factor 2 represents the two allowed values of spin
quantum number ms =+ 12 (spin up) and ms =- 12 (spin down) for
each allowed value of k . If all of these energy shells are filled with
electrons, then N will be equal to the number of electrons, i.e.
4p k 3
2 3 3 = N or N = V 2 k F3 ^V = L3h
F
...(11)
2p
bLl 3p
2
or, k F3 = 3Np
V
or, kF = _3ne p2i1/3 ...(12)
From Eq. (12), we can say that kF depends upon number of

electrons per unit volume i.e. electron concentration ^ VN h or ne , but it
does not depend on the mass of electrons. Now the Fermi energy is
2
EF = ' k F2
2m
= h2 (3n p2) 2/3

e
8mp2
2 2/3
= h c 3ne m
2m 8p
Substituting the values of standard constants h = 6.62 # 10-34 Js
, m = 9.1 # 10-31 kg and divided by 1.6 # 10-19 to convert it in eV,
we get
-38
EF = 5.84 # 10-19 = 3.65 # 10-19 ^ne h2/3 eV ...(13)
1.6 # 10
Thus, knowing the number of electrons per unit volume, the
Fermi energy at 0 K may be calculated. The energy can be written
as
EF = 1 mv F2 ...(14)
2
where vF is the velocity of electron in Fermi level, i.e. corresponding
to Fermi energy. Then,
1 mv 2 = E = h2 c 3ne m2/3
2 F F
2m 8p
2 2/3
v F2 = h 2 c 3ne m
m 8p
1/3
vF = h c 3ne m
m 8p
1/3
= h c 3ne m
2m p
or, vF = '73ne p2A1/3 ...(15)

m
Density of States
It is defined as the number of energy states per unit energy range.
It is denoted by the symbol D Ê h . In other words, the density of
states for electrons in a band gives the number of orbitals (or states)
in a certain energy range. Hence, the number of filled (i.e. density of
electron state) states having the energy in the range E and E + dE

is
N ]E g dE = D Ê h f Ê h dE ...(18)
From the energy relation
2 2
E ='k
2m
and N = V 2 k3 ...(19)
3p
2 2 2/3
we get E = ' c 3p N m ...(20)
2m V
where E is total energy and N is the number of electrons. Therefore,
from Eq. (20), we have
3/2
3p2 N = 2mE 3/2 = = 2mE G
V
; 2 E
' h2 /4p2
or, N = 8pV3 ^2mE h3/2 ...(21)
3h
Fig 4 : Variation of density of occupied states
Differentiating Eq. (2.6.21) w.r.t. E , we get

dN = 8pV 2m 3/2 3 E1/2
dE
^ h 2
3h3
8pmV ^2mE h1/2
=
h3
dN = V 2m 3/2 E 1/2
or,
dE
; E ^ h ...(22)
2p2 '2
The quantity ^ dN
dE h is frequency referred to as the density of
available state D Ê h , also denoted by g Ê h . Hence, by substituting

' = 2hp in above equation, we obtain the number of energy states per
unit energy as
g Ê h = 4p3V ^2m h3/2 Ê h1/2
h
Multiplying the probability of occupation f Ê h to g Ê h , we
get the density of occupied state N Ê h , as shown in Fig. 2.6.4. For
a metal in thermal equilibrium, the number of electrons per unit
volume N Ê h dE that have energy between E and E + dE is equal to
the product of the number of allowed states and the probability that
the sate is occupied. Thus, the number of electrons whose energies
lie between E and E + dE is given by
N Ê h dE = dN f Ê h dE
dE
N Ê h dE = 8pmV ^2mE h1/2 Ê - EdE

h/kT
h3 e F
+1
3. Consider an electron whose total energy is 5 eV approaching a

c . Find out de Broglie
barrier whose height is 6 eV and width is 7A
wavelength of incident electron and probability of transmission
through the barrier.
RTU 2015, 2013
Ans :
Given, c = 7 # 10-10 m
L=7A
E = 5 eV = 5 # 1.6 # 10-19
= 8 # 10-19 J
U0 = 6 eV = 6 # 1.6 # 10-19
= 9.6 # 10-19 J
De-Broglie wavelength of an electron of energy E eV is
l = 12.27 Ac = 12.27 = 5.48 Ac
E 5
Transmission (Tunnel) probability for electron is given by
16E Û0 - E h -2aL
T= e ...(1)
U 02
2p 2m Û0 - E h
where a= ...(2)
h
2pL 2m Û0 - E h
or aL = ...(3)
h
Substituting the given values in eqn (3), we get
2 # 3.14 # 7 # 10-10 2 # 9.1 # 10-31 # ^9.6 - 8h # 10-19
aL =
6.62 # 10-34
= 3.585
Now substituting the values in eqn (1), we get
-19 -19
T = 16 # 8 # 10 #-119.62 # 10 e-^
2 # 3.585h
^9.6 # 10 h
= 1.709 # 10-3 = 0.171 %
4. Answer the following questions with respect to a particle in a cubic

box of side ]a \.
(i) Is nx = ny = nz = 1 state degenerate?
(ii) What is the order of degeneracy for nx + ny + nz = 4 ?
(iii) What shall happen to the degeneracies for nx + ny + nz = 4 , if
the box is not cubical but rectangular parallelopiped with sides
a , b and c such that a = b ! c .
RTU 2015, 2007
Ans :
The energy level of a particle in 3 D having sides a , b and c is
2
2 2
n 2
En , n , n = h e n 2x + 2y + n2z o
x y z
8m a b c
(i) For nx = ny = nz = 1, and a = b = c there is only one eigen
2
function corresponding to eigen value 3h 2 .
8ma
So, it is non-degenerate _nx ! ny ! nz ! 0i
(ii) For nx + ny + nz = 4 , and a = b = c there can be three
possibility, i.e.,
^nx , ny, nz h = ^1, 1, 2h, ^1, 2, 1h and ^2, 1, 1h
So, the degeneracy is three fold because there are three eigen function
corresponding to eigen energy,
2 2 2
E = h 2 ^1 + 1 + 4h = 6h 2 = 3h 2
8ma 8ma 4ma
(iii) When a = b ! c , then energies corresponding to all three states
are
2 2
E2, 1, 1 = h c 42 + 12 + 12 m = h c 52 + 12 m
8m a a c 8 m a c
2 2
E1, 2, 1 = h c 12 + 42 + 12 m = h c 52 + 12 m
8m a a c 8 m a c
2 2
E1, 1, 2 = h c 12 + 12 + 42 m = h c 22 + 42 m
8m a a c 8 m a c
As E2, 1, 1 = E1, 2, 1
2
8m c a2 c2 m
So, h 5 + 1 is doubles degenerate corresponding to eigen
2
function y2, 1, 1 and y1, 2, 1 whereas the energy = h c 22 + 42 m is non-
8m a c
degenerate.
5. Explain the following

(i) Degeneracy,
(ii) Order of degeneracy and
(iii) Non-degeneracy state
RTU 2014
Ans :
(i) Degeneracy
When the momentum and energy of two or more quantum states that
have different eigen values are same, it is called degenerate state or
degeneracy. For example, three independent stationary states having
quantum numbers (2, 1, 1), (1, 2, 1), (1, 1, 2) have same energy value
2
E = 6h 2 En = h 2 [n x2 + n y2 + n z2 ]
2
8ma 8ma
but the corresponding wave functions y 211 , y 121 , y 112 will be different
(ii) Order of degeneracy

The number of different sets of quantum numbers or wave function
associated with particle of energy value is called order of degeneracy.
(ii) Non-Degenerate State
When a particle possesses a quantum state, for which there is only

one wave function corresponding to certain energy, then such a
state and energy level are said to be non-degenerate state or non-
degeneracy.
For example, the ground state with quantum numbers (1, 1,
1) has the energy E = 3h2 /8ma2 , and no other state contains this
energy.
On applying magnetic or electric field, degeneracy can be broken
down, hence creating non-degenerate state.
6. A free particle is confirmed in a cubical box of side a write the

eigen values and eigen functions for an energy state represented by
nx + ny + nz = 4 . What is the order of degeneracy in this case ?
RTU 2014, 2007
Ans :
The energy level of a particle in 3 D having sides a , b and c is
2
2 2
n 2
En , n , n = h e n 2x + 2y + n2z o
x y
8m a
z
b c
and wave function is
2 2 sin d nx px n sin ny py sin d nz pz n
y= 2
a
b c a d b n c
If 3 D box is cubic, then we have a = b = c and we get
2
En , n , n = h 2 _n x2 + n y2 + n z2i
x y z
8ma
n py
and y = 2 2 sin d nx px n sin d y n sin d nz pz n
a a a a a
For nx + ny + nz = 4 , there can be three possibility, i.e., quantum
value
^nx , ny, nz h = ^1, 1, 2h, ^1, 2, 1h and ^2, 1, 1h
So, the degeneracy is three fold because there are three eigen function
corresponding to eigne energy,
2 2 2
E = h 2 ^1 + 1 + 4h = 6h 2 = 3h 2
8ma 8ma 4ma
Three eigen function are as follows
py
y 1, 1, 2 = 2 2 sin c px m sin d n sin b 2pz l
a a a a a
2py
y 1, 2, 1 = 2 2 sin c px m sin c sin pz
a a a a m ca m
py
y 2, 1, 1 = 2 2 sin b 2px l sin d n sin c pz m
a a a a a
7. Define Fermi energy. Derive an expression for Fermi energy of a

system of particles.
RTU 2014
or
Obtain an expression for density of states for free electron gas in a

metal and find the expression for Fermi energy.
RTU 2013
or
What is the density of energy states in metals? Obtain an expression

for the density of states for free electron gas in metals.
RTU 2009
Ans :
Refer Q.2
8. A beam of electron is incident on an potential barrier of height 5 eV

and width 0.2 nm. What should be the energy of electrons so that
half of them are able to penetrate through the barrier?
RTU 2014
Ans :
Given, U0 = 5 eV , h = 0.2 nm = 0.2 # 10-9 m
Since E < V0 , then the probability of transmission is
16EÛ0 - E h -2aL
T= e ...(1)
U02
2p 2m Û0 - E h
where, a= ...(2)
h
and T = T0 e-2aL ...(3)
where, T0 = Maximum transmission probability
As per the problem statement

T
T= 0 ...(4)
2
From Eq. (3) and (4), we get
T0
= T0 e-2aL
2
or 2aL = log e 2 ...(5)
From eqn. (2) and (5), we have
2p 2m Û0 - E h
2# L = log e 2
h
Squaring both side and arranging, we get
h2 ^log e 2h2
Û0 - E h =
16p2 2mL2
Substituting the values in above eqn., we obtain
^6.62 # 10-34h # ^0.693h2
2
Û0 - E h =
16 # ^3.14h2 # 2 # 9.1 # 10-31 # ^0.2 # 10-9h2
= 1.83 # 10-20 J
-20
= 1.83 # 10-19 = 0.114 eV
1.6 # 10
or E = Û0 - 0.114h eV
= ^5 - 0.114h = 4.886 eV .
9. There are 2.5 # 1028 free electrons per cubic meter of sodium.
Calculate the, (i) Fermi energy and (ii) Fermi velocity.
RTU 2013
Ans :
Given, ne = 2.5 # 1028 m-3
Fermi energy is given by
2 2/3
EF = h c 3ne m
2m 8p
Substituting the values in above equation, we get
^6.62 # 10-34h 3 # 2.5 # 1028 2/3
2
EF = -31 c 8 # 3.14
m
2 # 9.1 # 10
= 4.95 # 10-19 J
-19
EF = 4.95 # 10-19 = 3.09 eV
1.6 # 10
Now EF = 1 mv F2
2
Thus Fermi-velocity is given by
vf = 2EF = 2 # 4.950 # 10-19

m 9.1 # 10-31
= 1.039 # 106 m/s
10. Calculate the probability of transmission that an electron with

energy 1.0 eV will penetrate a potential barrier of 4.0 eV when
c.
barrier width is 4.0 A
RTU 2012
Ans :
Given, c = 4 # 10-10 m ,
L =4A
E = 1eV = 1.6 # 10-19 J
U0 = 4 eV = 4 # 1.6 # 10-19 = 6.4 # 10-19 J
Transmission probability for electron is given by
16E Û0 - E h -2aL
T= e ...(1)
U 02
2p 2m Û0 - E h
where a= ...(2)
h
2pL 2m Û0 - E h
or aL = ...(3)
h
Substituting the given value in eqn (2), we get
2 # 3.14 # 4 # 10-10 2 # 9.1 # 10-31 # ^6.4 - 1.6h # 10-19
aL =
6.62 # 10-34
= 3.54
Substituting the given value and eqn (3) in eqn (1), we get
-19 -19
T = 16 # 1.6 # 10 #-194.28 # 10 e-^
2 # 3.54h
^6.4 # 10 h
= 2.52 # 10-3 = 0.252%
11. For potassium fermi energy is 2.14 eV and the density of electron is
1.4 # 1028 /m3 . Find the electron density of a metal for which Fermi
energy is 4.7 eV.
RTU 2012
Ans :
Given, For potassium ^Kh ,
EF,K = 2.14 eV and ne, x = 1.4 # 1028 /m3
For metal ^Mh ,
EF,M = 4.72 eV and ne, m = ?
ne \ E F3/2
3/2
ne, K E
So, = d F, K n
ne, M EF, M
or 1.4 # 1028 = c 2.14 m3/2 = 0.305

ne,M 4.72
28
or ne,M = 1.4 # 10 = 4.59 # 1028 per m3
0.305
12. Write down Schrodingers equation for a particle of mass ]m \ trapped

in a 3-dimensional box of side ]a \. Solve it for energy eigen values
and eigen functions
RTU 2011
or
Write down Schrodingers equation for a particle confined in a 3-D

box. Obtain the wave functions for a particle confined in this box
RTU 2010, 2009, 2008
Ans :
Consider a three-dimensional rectangular parallelepiped box of sides
a, b and c which are parallel to the axes x, y and z , respectively as
shown in given figure. This box confined a particle of mass m . Since,
the particle is free inside the box, it feels no potential. When the
particle collides with the wall, it faces infinite potential and so, after
collision, it is reflected back. The probability of the particle finding
outside the box is zero, i.e., y is zero outside the box everywhere. y
only exists for a < x < 0 , b < y < 0 and c < z < 0 .
Fig 1 : Particle in a three dimensional box
Schrdingers Equation and Separation of Variables

The three-dimensional free particle Schrdingers equation with
U = 0 is given by
2
- ' d2 y (r) = E y (r)
2m
2 2 2 2
or - ' = 22 + 22 + 22 G y (x, y, z) = E y (x, y, z) ...(1)
2m 2x 2y 2z
To solve Eq. (1), we assume that each dimension is independent
so the wave function is factorable into three independent components.
In solving this equation we can try to separate the variables x , y
and z by assuming that motion along x is independent of motion
along y and z and vice versa. Let us consider that y is formed of
three functions, X ^x h , Y ^y h and Z ^z h . All the three X, Y and Z are
mutually independent.
y (x, y, z) = X ^x h Y ^y h Z ^z h ...(2)
Applying the separated wave function to the Schrdinger equation,
we have
E 6X (x) Y (y) Z (z)@ =- ' = 22 + 22 + 22 G X (x) Y (y) Z (z)

2 2 2 2
2m 2x 2y 2z
Now, operating on the separated wave function with the kinetic
energy operator yields
22 X (x) 22 Y (y)
E 6X (x) Y (y) Z (z)@ =- ' =Y (y) Z (z)
2
+ X (x) Z (z)
2m 2x 2
2y2
22 Z (z)
+ X (x) Y (y) G
2z2
Dividing both sides by X (x) Y (y) Z (z), we get
2 22X (x) 22Y (y) 22Z (z)
E =- ' > 1 + 1 + 1 H ...(3)
2m X (x) 2x 2
Y (y) 2y 2
Z (z) 2z2
The bracket quantity in Eq. (3) gives no resultant function of
x, y and z on the right side and each of the operation must therefore
produce a constant, i.e.
d1
22X + k 2 n + 1 22Y + k 2 + 1 22Z + k 2 = 0
X 2x2 x eY
2y2
yo c Z 2z2 zm ...(4)
where 2mE
k=
'2
Eq. (4) may be broken into three independent equations
2 2
1 2X (x) + k 2 = 0 or 2X (x) =- k 2 X (x) ...(5)
X _x i 2x 2 x x
2x2
2 2
1 2Y (y) + k 2 = 0 or 2Y (y) =- k 2 Y (y) ...(6)
y y
Y (y) 2y 2
2y2
2 2
1 2Z (z) + k 2 = 0 or 2Z (z) =- k 2 Z (z) ...(7)
z z
Z (z) 2z2 2z2
Wave Function :
The solutions to the second order differential equations described
above are sines, cosines or complex exponential. As with the 1-D
asymmetrical particle-in-a-box, here running a < x < 0 , b < y < 0
, c < z < 0 , only sine functions satisfy the global constraint of
continuity of the wave function at the x = y = z = 0 boundaries.
The general solution of Eq. (5) may be written as
X = A sin kx x + Al cos kx x
Applying the boundary conditions X = 0 at x = 0 , we get
0 = A sin ^kx 0h + Al cos ^kx 0h
Al = 0
Thus, X (x) = A sin kx x
Similarly, Y (y) = B sin ky y and Z (z) = C sin kz z
When we equivalently apply the global constraint of continuity
at the boundaries x = a, y = b, z = c , where the respective wave
functions must also go to zero, the arguments of each of the sine
functions collapse to integral numbers of , i.e., on applying the

boundary conditions X = 0 at x = a , we get
0 = A sin kx a
or, kx = nx p where nx = 1, 2, 3, ...
a
ny p
Similarly, ky = and kz = nz p
b c
Therefore, X (x) = A sin nx px ...(8)

a
n y py
Similarly, Y (y) = B sin , ny = 1, 2, 3, ... ...(9)
b
Z (z) = C sin nz pz , nz = 1, 2, 3, ... ...(10)

c
where nx , ny and nz are integers (excluding zero) which known as
quantum numbers. Substituting Eqs. (8) to (10) into Eq. (2), we get
n py
y = ABC sin nx px sin y sin nz pz ...(11)
a b c
From definition of the normalization of wave function, we have
a b c
# # # y 2 dxdydz = 1
x=0 y=0 z=0
Separating the integral, we obtain
#x = 0 A2 sin2 nxapx dx # #y = 0 B2 sin2 nybpy dy # #z = 0C 2 sin2 nzcpz

a b c
=1
Solving this integral, we get

A2 a B2 b C 2 c = 1
2 2 2
or, ABC = 222 ...(12)

abc
To find the normalized wave function for the particle defined
by quantum numbers nx , ny, nz , substitute Eq. (12) into Eq. (11), we
obtain
n py
yn , n , n = 2 2 2 sin nx px sin y sin nz pz ...(13)
x y z
a b c a b c
& For a cubical box a = b = c then
2 2
Energy eigen value E = p '2 ^n x2 + n y2 + n z2h
2ma
....(18)
and eigen function
n p
y = 2 2 sin d nx p n x sin d y n y sin d nz p n z ...(19)
a a a a a
13. Find the lowest energy of a Neutron confined to a nucleus of size

10-14 meter.
RTU 2011
Ans :
Given, Side of cube, a = b = c = 10-14 cm
For lowest energy state
n x = ny = n z = 1
Energy of particle in cubical box is given by
En , n n = h 2 ^n x2 + n y2 + n z2h
2
x
8ma
y z
Substituting the given values in above formula, we get

^6.62 # 10-34h ^12 + 12 + 12h
2
E1, 1, 1 =
8 # 1.6 # 10 # 10-3 # ^10-14h2
-24
-68
= 130.68 # 10-55 = 10.27 # 10-13 J
12.8 # 10
-13
E1, 1, 1 = 10.27 # 10-19 = 6.42 MeV
1.6 # 10
14. Calculate the Fermi Energy and Fermi velocity for free electron gas
in silver. Given the number of free electrons per unit volume in silver
is 5.8 # 1028 per meter cube.
RTU 2011, RU 2004
Ans :
Given, ne = 5.8 # 1028 m-3
2 2/3
EF = h c 3ne m
2m 8p
Substituting the values in above equation, we get

^6.62 # 10-34h 3 # 5.8 # 1028 2/3
2
EF = c m
2 # 9.1 # 10-31 8 # 3.14
-68
= 43.82 # 10-31 ^3.63 # 1018h
18.2 # 10
= 8.74 # 10-19 J
-19
EF = 8.74 # 10-19 = 5.46 eV
1.6 # 10
Now EF = 1 mv F2
2
Thus Fermi-velocity is given by
vf = 2EF
m
= 2 # 8.74 # 10-19
9.1 # 10-31
= 1.37 # 106 m/s
15. Obtain the expression for the density of states for fermi gas and
hence fine expression for fermi energy of metal at 0 k having n
electrons per unit volume.
RTU 2008, 2007, RU 2006, 2005
or
Using free electrons model, calculate density of energy states for free
electron in 7th energy range from E to E + dE .
RU 2003
or
What is density of energy states in metals? Derive an expression for

the density of energy states and hence obtain Fermi energy of metals.
RU 2002
Ans :
Refer Q.2
16. What do you understand by the potential wall or potential barrier?

Explain how does a particle with energy lower than the barrier height
tunnels through its quantum mechanically? Give one example?
RTU 2009, RU 2005, 2004
Ans :
Refer Q.1
17. With help of suitable diagrams explain the phenomenon of quantum

mechanical tunneling in a -decay process.
RTU 2008
Ans :
Alpha decay is an important type of radioactive decay in which an
atomic nucleus emits an energetic alpha particle. The emitted alpha
particle consists of two protons and two neutrons and is structurally
identical to a helium-4 nucleus ( 42He ). A specific example of alpha
decay is the decay of uranium to thorium represented by
238
92 U $ 234 4
90 Th + 2 He + 4.18 MeV
Alpha decay was discovered and named by Rutherford in

1898. The alpha-decaying nucleus, emits an alpha particle with a
characteristic energy, Ea . While these alpha emission energies cover
a fairly narrow range of values (from about 2 to 8 MeV), the half-
lives of the corresponding nuclei cover an excessive range (from
10-12 to1017 sec ). Experiments showed that, within certain families
of alpha-emitting nuclei, the half-lives and alpha emission energies
were related to one another. Written in terms of the decay constant,
l = ln 2 , this relationship can be expressed in the form
T1/2 1/2
l = Ae-B/E a
...(1)
where A is a constant that characterizes the particular family of
nuclei and B depends on the charge of the individual nucleus. In some
cases the observed emission energies were too low to be consistent
with surmounting the energy barrier at all. The potential energy
function responsible for alpha decay has the form shown in figure 1.
Fig 1 : Potential energy function responsible for alpha decay
Note that U (r) is a function of a radial coordinate r , this is

because we are dealing with a three-dimensional problem in which the
potential energy function is spherically symmetric and r represents
the distance from an origin at the centre of the nucleus. Initially, an
alpha particle of energy Ea is confined within a distance r = r 0 of
the origin by the well-like part of the potential energy function. This
well is due to the powerful but short-range interaction known as the
strong nuclear force. In addition, a long-range electrostatic force acts
between the positively charged alpha particle and the remainder of
the positively charged nucleus and has the effect of repelling the
alpha particle from the nucleus. The electrostatic force corresponds
to the potential energy function
2 (Z - 2) e2
U (r) = ...(2)
4pe0 r
Z is the atomic number of the nucleus, 2e is the charge of the
alpha particle, ]Z - 2g e is the charge of the nucleus left behind after
the decay and e0 is a fundamental constant called the permittivity of
free space. This potential energy function is often called the Coulomb
barrier. Notice that the Coulomb barrier exceeds the energy of the
alpha particle in the region between r = r0 and r = r1 (defined by
U _r1i = Ea ). In classical physics, the alpha particle does not have
enough energy to enter this region, but in quantum physics it may
tunnel through. Once beyond the pointr = r1 , the alpha particle is

electrostatically repelled from the nucleus.
To apply the quantum-mechanical theory of tunnelling to alpha
decay, we first note that a classically confined particle would oscillate
back and forth inside the well, the combination of its energy (Ea
) and the nuclear diameter (2r 0 ) implying that it is incident on
the barrier about 1021 times per second. Taking this idea over into
quantum mechanics, we shall regard each of these encounters as an
escape attempt. The small probability of escape at each attempt
is represented by the transmission coefficient for tunnelling, T .
To estimate T , we must take account of the precise shape of the
Coulomb barrier. We shall note that they involve the approximation
T + 21aL
e
2m 6U (r) - Ea@
T = exp e - 2 # dr o
r1
or, ...(3)
r0 '
where r0 and r1 are the minimum and maximum values of r for
which U (r) > Ea . This equation is closely related to the expression
for tunnelling through a finite square barrier. If the potential energy
function U (r) happened to be constant over a region of length L ,
then Eq.(3) would reproduce the exponential term.
18. Calculate Fermi energy in copper assuming that each copper atom
contributes one free electrons to the electron gas. Given density of
copper 8.94 # 103 kg/m3 and atomic mass is 63.5 u .
RTU 2009, 08, (1 SEM)
Ans :
Given, r = 8.94 # 103 kg/m3
Atomic man of copper
m = 63.5 # 1.6 # 10-27
= 1.016 # 10-25 kg
So, no. of copper atom per unit volume is
r
ne =
m
3
= 8.94 # 10-25 = 8.79 # 1028 per m3
1.016 # 10

2 2/3
EF = h c 3ne m
2m 8p
^6.62 # 10-34h 3 # 8.79 # 1028 2/3
2
= c m
2 # 9.1 # 10-31 8 # 3.14
= 1.154 # 10-18
-18
EF = 1.154 # 10-19 = 7.21 eV
1.6 # 10
19. Electron of energy 1 eV and 2 eV are incident on a potential barrier

of height 5 eV and width 5 A c . Find tunnel probability for there
electron.
RTU 2008
Ans :
Given, c = 5 # 10-10 m
L = 5A
E = 2eV = 2 # 1.6 # 10-19
= 3.2 # 10-19 J
U0 = 5 eV = 5 # 1.6 # 10-19
= 8 # 10-19 J
Transmission (Tunnel) probability for electron is given by
16E Û0 - E h -2aL
T= e ...(1)
U 02
2p 2m Û0 - E h
where a= ...(2)
h
2pL 2m Û0 - E h
or aL = ...(3)
h
Substituting the given values in eqn (2), we get
2 # 3.14 # 5 # 10-10 2 # 9.1 # 10-31 # ^8 - 3.2h # 10-19
aL =
6.62 # 10-34
= 4.743 # 1024 # 9.346 # 10-25 = 4.432
Now substituting the values in eqn (1), we get
-19 -19
T = 16 # 3.2 # 10 # 4.8 # 10 e-^
2 # 4.432h
^8 # 10-19h2
= 5.42 # 10-4 = 0.054%
20. In a long chain molecule of length 5 Ac electrons may be treated as

free to move along the length. Calculate the zero point energy, the
energy gap between the first two energy states of the electron and
also the wavelength of absorption line arising from this transition.
RU 2002
Ans :
The Zero point energy (n = 1) is given by
2
E1 = h 2
8mL
^6.6 # 10-34h
2
=
8 ^9.1 # 10-31h (5 # 10-10) 2
-19
= 2.4 # 10-19 eV
1.6 # 10
= 1.5 eV
The energy gap between first two energy states is given by
2 2 2
E2 - E1 = 4h 2 - h 2 = 3h 2
8mL 8mL 8mL
DE = 3 # 1.5 = 4.5 eV
Now the wavelength of absorption line arising from this transition
is given by
hc = 3h2 = DE
l 8mL2
or l = hc
DE
(6.6 # 10-34) (3 # 108)
=
4.5 # 1.6 # 10-19
or l = 2.75 # 10-7 = 2750 A
c
21. Write down Schrodingers equation for a particle of mass m trapped

in three dimensional cubical box of side a . Find lowest energy of the
following states:
(i) non-degenerate (ii) doubly degenerate (iii) triply degenerate and
(iv) sixfold degenerate for 3-D cubical box.
RU 2001
Ans :
Schrodingers equation (Refer Q.12)

Consider the motion of a free particle in a cubical potential box of
side a . The potential inside the box is V (x, y, z) = 0 and outside
infinite. The wave function is given by
3
2 2 n p
y (x, y, z) = b a l sin a n1 p k x sin a n2 p k y sin a 3 k z
a a a
and allowed values of E are
2
En , n , n = h 2 (n x2 + n y2 + n z2)
x y z
8ma
(i) Non Degenerate

When there is only one wave function (y nx, ny, nz ) corresponding to a
particular energy eigen value (Enx, ny, nz ), then energy level is known
as Non-degenerate. In the lowest quantum state (1, 1, 1) in which
2
nx = ny = nz = 1, there is an energy level E1, 1, 1 = (3) h 2 .
8ma
Energy levels E2, 2, 2 (i.e., nx = ny = nz = 2 ) and so on, will also
be non degenerate.
(ii) Doubly degenerate :

There is no value of energy level having different values of nx , ny , nz
with different combinations with just two sets. So doubly degenerate
is unavailable.
(iii) Triply degenerate

There are three sets (1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 1) and (2, 1, 1) of the quantum
(6) 2
number nx , ny and nz , which will give the same energy level E =
8ma2
and this single energy level also corresponds to three different wave
(9) h2
function y 1, 1, 2 , y 1, 2, 1 and y 2, 1, 1 . Similarly, energy level E =
8ma2
corresponding to three sets of quantum numbers (2, 2, 1), (2, 1, 2)

and (1, 2, 2), is also a degenerate level known as triply degenerate
level.
(iv) Sixfold degenerate

(14) h2
The energy level E = corresponding to six sets (1, 2, 3),
8ma2
(1, 3, 2), (2, 1, 3), (2, 3, 1), (3, 1, 2) and (3, 2, 1) of quantum numbers
nx , ny and nz hence this energy level is known as sixfold degenerate.
*******
Chap 3 Coherence Page 61
CHAPTER 3
COHERENCE
1. What is coherence? Explain temporal and spatial coherence. Show

that visibility is a measure of a degree of coherence.
RTU 2015
or
What do you mean by spatial and temporal coherence, for

propagating waves? Name the types of coherence involved in biprism
and Michelsons interferometer.
RTU 2013
or
What do you mean by spatial and temporal coherence, for propagating

waves? Show that visibility is a measure of degree of coherence.
RTU 2011
or
Define coherence and explain temporal and spatial coherence. Show

that visibility is a measure of coherence.
RTU 2010
or
Show that visibility is a measure of coherence. Can there be absolute

coherence or absolute in coherence.
RTU 2013
or
Show that visibility is a measure of degree of coherence.

RTU 2008
Ans :
Coherence
The term coherence, basically refers to the degree of correlation
between the phases at different points in a beam of light. Coherence
is a property of waves that helps getting stationary interference i.e.
Page 62 Coherence Chap 3
the interference which is temporally and spatially constant. Actually

the coherence is a measure of the correlation that exits between the
phases of the wave measured at different points.
Two waves are said to be coherent if they have a constant
relative phase and its also means that they have the same frequency.
The coherence of a wave depends on the characteristic of its source.
There are two types of coherence :
(i) Temporal coherence and
(ii) Spatial coherence.
Temporal Coherence :
Temporal coherence is a measure of the correlation between the
phases of a wave at different points along the direction of wave
propagation. The temporal coherence is also known as longitudinal
coherence. A beam of light is said to possess temporal coherence, if
the relationship between their phases at a given time and at a certain
time later along the direction of propagation is time independent or
remains constant. Temporal coherence refers to spectra purity, i.e. it
tells us about the monochromaticty of the source .
Suppose a beam of light travelling along the positive x - axis as
shown in Fig. 1. A and B are the two points lying on the x - axis.
The wave is said to possess temporal coherence if the phase difference
of the waves crossing A and B at any instant is always constant.
Fig 1 : Beam of light possessing temporal coherence
Let the phases of the waves crossing A and B at any instant

t1 are fA and fB respectively, and at a later time t2 , they are fAl
and fBl . Using this situation, the beam is said to be coherent if
fB - fA = fBl - fAl .
Spatial Coherence
Spatial coherence is a measure of the correlation between the phases
of a wave at different points transverse to the direction of wave

propagation. The spatial coherence is also termed as transverse
coherence or lateral coherence. A beam is said to possess spatial
coherence, if the phase difference of the waves crossing the two points
lying on a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the
beam is independent of time. The spatial coherence tells us about
the uniformity of the phase of the wavefront.
Suppose beam of light travelling along the positive x - direction
as shown in Figure 2. Here, abcd is a transverse plane and P and P l
are two points on this plane within the beam of light. The beam is
said to possess spatial coherence if the phase difference of the waves
crossing P and P' at any instant is always constant.
Let the phases of the waves at these points at any instant t1 are
same say fA and at a later time t2 , the phases of the waves are again
the same but equal to fB . In such a case, the waves are said to have
spatial coherence.
Fig 2 : Beam of light possessing spatial coherence
Visibility as a Measure of Coherence :

We know that absolutely coherent wave is practically impossible.
When superposing waves are coherent, sustained interference occurs.
The interference of light produces bright (maximum light intensity)
and dark (minimum light intensity) bands. The quality of interference
is the difference in maximum and minimum intensity. Now we define
a dimensionless quantity called visibility which measures contrast or
the quality of interference
q = Imax - Imin ...(1)
Imax + Imin
where Imax and Imin are respectively the maximum and minimum
intensities of interference pattern. Definitely, if coherence is poor,

visibility will also be poor and so contrast or visibility must be
related to degree of coherence.
Considering two waves of same intensities Io each superimpose
and C part of their intensity as coherent part and ^1 - C h part as
incoherent. Now, according to the law of superposition, the coherent
part shall interfere and so the amplitudes of the waves are added up.
Intensity is proportional to square of amplitude so the intensity at
maximum due to coherent part shall be 4Io C while at minimum it
shall be zero. The incoherent parts do not interfere and intensities
are added everywhere. Therefore, intensity, both at maximum and
minimum, will be 2^1 - C h Io . Because of superposition the maxima
and minima have intensities
Imax = 4Io C + 2^1 - C h Io ...(2)
and Imin = 0 + 2^1 - C h Io ...(3)
Substituting Eqs. (2) and (3) in Eq. (1), we obtain
4Io C + 2^1 - C h Io - 2^1 - C h Io
q=
4Io C + 2^1 - C h Io + 2^1 - C h Io
= 4Io C
4Io C + 4Io - 4Io C
or, q=C ...(4)

If two waves have different intensities say I1 and I2 then visibility is
given by
q = 2 I1 I2 # C ...(5)
I1 + I2
It can be follows from Eqs. (4) and (5) that visibility measures
mutual coherence between two monochromatic waves.
2. What is coherence ? Explain temporal and spatial coherence. For the

source to be spatial coherent, find the condition for its size.
RTU 2014
Ans :
Coherence ( Refer to Q 1 )
Temporal and Spatial Coherence ( Refer to Q 1 )
Spatial Coherence and Size of the Source

Consider a single atomic point source that emits wavetrains spread
over spherical surface. At given points transverse to direction of
propagation, wavetrains produce secondary sources with constant
phase differences. Despite of this, when source is extended one
finite size, it contains large number of atomic emitters that emitting
wavetrains randomly. Thus phase difference at two points in transverse
plane remain constant for certain separation. The separation or
transverse coherent length depends on size of the source.
Fig 1 : Determination of coherence of a light source
Consider a source of finite width a . Because of its finite width,

it shall produce diffraction pattern. The diffraction pattern has
angular spread of 2l/a . If the two sources y1 and y2 lie within
the central maximum then they remain coherent. Since spread of
diffraction is inversely proportional to a , thus the smaller is the size
of the source, higher shall be spatial coherence or transverse coherent
length. Sources y1 and y2 as shown in Figure 1 remain spatially
coherent if
q # 2l ...(1)
a
Theoretically, on either side from the centre, the spread extends
from - l/a to + l/a , but intensity at end points is zero. Therefore,
practically the sources y1 and y2 remain coherent when these are
located within half width of the diffraction band, i.e.
q# l ...(2)
a
From the geometry of Figure 1, we can say D >> a and y , thus we

can write
tan q - q = lw
D
or, l w = Dq = Dl ...(3)
a
= l
a /D
or, lw = l ...(4)
q0
where q 0 = a/D is the angle substantiated by a at the centre of the
slit. The circular sources are more commonly used and in that case,
lw = 1.22l ...(5)
q0
We can see from Eqs. (3) to (5) that the smaller the size of
source S , more will be the transverse coherent length lw . The above
conclusions do not hold good for the sources like lasers which are
basically coherent. As will be seen, in these sources wavetrains due
to different atoms add in the phase maintaining the same direction.
c and it spectral line width

3. A laser operates at wavelength of 6000 A
2
Dn is 10 Hz for this laser, calculate:
(i) Coherence length
(ii) Quality factor
RTU 2015, 2007
Ans :
We have
Spectral width Dn = 102 Hz ,
c = 3 # 108 m/ sec
The coherent length and coherence time is related by the relation
l0 = c # t0
(a) Coherence length
8
l0 = c = 3 # 10 since t0 = 1
Dn 10 2
Dn
= 3 # 106 m
(b) Quality factor is given by the relation lQ = l0

l
or Q= 0
l
6
= 3 # 10-7 = 5 # 1012
6 # 10
4. Calculate temporal Coherence length for

(i) Mercury vapor lamp emitting in green portion of spectrum
at Wavelength of 546.1 nm with emission band width of
3n = 6 # 108 Hz.
(ii) A helium neon laser operating at wavelength of 632.8 nm.
RTU 2014
Ans :
(a)Given, 3n = 6 # 108 Hz ,
l = 546.1 nm = 546.1 # 10-9 m
Temporal coherence length is given by
2 2 2
l0 = l = 2l # c 3l = l 3 n
3l l 3n c
= c
3n
8
= 3 # 108
6 # 10
= 0.50 m
(b) For helium neon lasers 3 n = 1 # 106 Hz. Thus
l0 = c
3n
8
= 3 # 106 = 300 m
1 # 10
5. What is spectral purity? Derive an expression for coherence length

and coherence time in terms of wavelength and frequency.
RTU 2013
or
Explain coherence length and coherence time.

RTU 2009, 2008
Ans :
Spectral Purity
Spectral purity refers to the quantification of the monochromaticity
of a given light sample. This is a particularly important parameter
in areas like laser operation and time measurement. Spectral purity
is easier to achieve in devices that generate visible and ultraviolet
light, since higher frequency light results in greater spectral purity.
The actual sources of light are not perfectly monochromatic but
they consist of a sequence of harmonic wave trains of finite length
each separated from the other by a discontinuous change in phase.
The wave train, shown in Figure 1, appears fairly sinusoidal for some
numbers of oscillations between abrupt changes of frequency and
phase. For which we define the coherence length and time as below :
Fig 1 : Determination of coherence length and time of wave train
Coherence Length
The distance for which the field remains sinusoidal is called coherent
length. We denote it by l0 . We may consider coherence length as
approximately equal to the length of the wave train, cDt , over which
its phase is predictable.
Coherence Time
The average time interval during which the light wave remains
sinusoidal is known as coherence time. Coherence time is denoted by
t0 . We can therefore write
l0 = cDt
and t 0 = Dt
Thus, l0 = ct0
Coherence Length in Terms of Wavelength

The bandwidth of the spectral distribution is inversely proportional
to coherence time t 0 . Let the bandwidth be Dw and the velocity of
light be c , then the coherence length is given by
l0 = ct0 ...(1)
and the bandwidth of the spectral distribution is given by
D w = 2p
t0
or, 2pDn = 2p
t0
or, Dn = 1
t0
or, t0 = 1
Dn
where Dn denotes the frequency distribution in Hz. Substituting t0
in Eq. (1), we get
l0 = c ...(2)
Dn
Also, we know the frequency of a wave is
n=c
l
where l is the wavelength of propagating wave. Differentiating both
the sides, we obtain
Dn =- c2 Dl ...(3)
l
From Eqs. (2) and (3), we obtain (neglecting negative sign)
2
l0 = l ...(4)
Dl
2
or, Dl = l
l0
where Dl is called the natural line width. Therefore, for obtaining a
well defined interference, the coherence length l0 should be large. In
other words, we can say that a beam of infinite coherence length l0
will be strictly monochromatic. The coherence length may be defined
as the product of the number of wave oscillations N contained in the
wave train and of the wavelength, l . Thus,
l0 = Nl ...(5)
Equating the Eqs. (4) and (5), we get

N = l
Dl
or, Dl = 1 ...(6)
l N
Eq. (6) shows that the larger the number of wave oscillations in a
wave packet, the smaller is the bandwidth.
6. What is the coherence length of a source of l = 6 # 10-7 m with a

bandwidth 10-11 m.
RTU 2013
Ans :
We have l = 6 # 10-7
Bandwidth Dl = 10-11 m
Coherence Length in terms of wavelength is given by
2
l0 = l
Dl
^6 # 10-7h
2
=
10-11
= 36 # 10-3 = 36 mm
7. Calculate the temporal coherence length lc for mercury vapour lamp

emitting in green portion of spectrum at wavelength 546.1 nm with
emission bandwidth of Tv = 6 # 108 Hz.
RTU 2010
Ans :
Refer Q.4
8. How does monochromaticity relate to temporal coherence? Define

the ]Q \ factor for a spectral line.
RTU 2009
Ans :
The light emitted by a source is characterized by spread in frequency
about the central frequency. The higher is the frequency spread, the
less is the monochromaticity and less is the degree of coherence. The
coherent time is related to frequency as
t0 = 1 ...(1)
Dn
The quality factor of light, Q for a light pulse is given by
Q= n = l ...(2)
Dn Dl
Now the wavelength of light l is related to frequency as
n = c where c is the speed of light ...(3)
l
On differentiate both the sides, we get
Dn = c2 ^- Dlh = c2 Dl ...(4)
l l
Substitute this value of Dn in Eq. (1), we have
l2
t0 =
cDl
And coherence length is
2
l0 = t0 c = l
Dl
= l .Q ...(5)
Thus, the longitudinal coherent length is wavelength times the
quality factor. Temporal coherence will come into play when waves
travel in the same direction. Let us take the example of Michelsons
interferometer. The two beams after travelling distances d1 and d2
reach at the beam splitter and then telescope. The path-difference
between the beams is calculated by 2^d1 - d2h . Now for observable
interference, the condition is
2^d1 - d2h < l0
Thus, we can say when we increase the separation ^d1 - d2h , the
contrast of fringes decreases.
Quality Factor
All practical wave trains emitted by atoms of molecules have a finite
length l0 or time span T0 . This has two consequences :
(i) A phase relation would not exist for distance larger than l0 . i.e.,
the fresh emission occurs after a break and at random time.

(ii) A sharp wavelength l cannot be assigned to this emission and
we need to assign a certain spread of wavelengths inherently.
So, we can say that each spectral line has a finite purity and is
defined by
Q= l
Dl
which is known as quality factor or Q -factor. Thus, in terms of Q
-factor, the coherence length l0 can be written as
l 0 = lQ .
9. Continuous laser of wavelength l = 650.0 nm Q -switched into 0.5 ns

pulse. Compute its coherent length, bandwidth and linewidth?
RTU 2008
Ans :
Given, l = 650 nm = 650 # 10-9 m ,
t0 = 0.5 ns = 0.5 # 10-9 sec
(a) Coherence length is given by
l0 = ct0
= 3 # 108 # 0.5 # 10-9
= 0.15 m
(b) Bandwidth is given by
3n = 1
t0
= 1 = 2 # 109 Hz
0.5 # 10-9
(c) Line width is given by
2
3 l = l #3 n
c
^650 # 10-9h2 ^2 # 109h
=
3 # 108
c
= 0.028 A
10. The spectral spread of a red cadmium light of wavelength 694.3 nm

is 0.001 nm. Calculate
(a) Spectral purity factor
(b) Coherence length
(c) Coherence time
RU 2004
Ans :
We have
l = 694.3 nm = 694.3 # 10-9 m ,
3 l = 0.001 nm = 10-12 m
(a) Spectral purity factor is
Q= l
3l
= 694.3 # 10-9
-12
10
= 6.943 # 105
(b) Coherence length is

l0 = lQ
= (694.3 # 10-9) (6.943 # 105)
= 0.482 m
(c) Coherence time is
t0 = l0
c
= 0.4828 = 1.60 # 10-9 sec

3 # 10
11. The coherence time for sodium light of wavelength 5890 A c is

-10
t c = 10 sec. What is the maximum thickness of film that could be
measured using interference of sodium light?
RU 2003
Ans :
We have, c
l = 5890 A
= 5890 # 10-10 m ,
t0 = 10-10 sec
Maximum thickness of film that can be measured using interference
should by equal to its coherence length. Therefore
l0 = ct0
= 3 # 108 # 10-10 = 3 cm
*******
Chap 4 Optical Fibers Page 75
CHAPTER 4
OPTICAL FIBERS
1. Describe the construction of an optical fiber. What do you mean by

numerical aperture of an optical fiber? Find an expression for the
numerical aperture of an optical fiber.
RTU 2015
or
A fibre having a core index of n1 , cladding index n2 used in a

communication link. Prove that
^n1 - n2h
NA = n1 ^2Th1/2 , where T =
n1
RTU 2014
or
How does an optical fiber function in transporting electromagnetic

energy? Show that the numerical aperture of a step index fiber is
given by NA = n1 2V where symbol have their usual meanings?
RTU 2013
or
Explain how light is propagated in a variable index fibre. Define

numerical aperture and acceptance angle. Derive expression for the
same.
RTU 2012
or
Explain clearly, the construction of optical fiber, refraction of a

wave and the propagation electromagnetic wave inside an optical
fibre. Use proper diagram. Derive the expression for the maximum
acceptance angle of optical fiber in air.
RTU 2009, 2007
Ans :
An optical fibre is consists of a central part, called core of refractive
index n1 having diameter from 1 mm to 10 mm . The construction is
shown In figure 1. The core is surrounded by another transparent
Page 76 Optical Fibers Chap 4
material having refractive index n2 where n2 < n1 , called cladding

having diameter from 100 m to 200 m . To protect from moisture
and environmental variations, the cladding is surrounded by plastic
primary coating and then nylon coating. Normally, many fibres are
encapsuled in a fibre cable. Such a cable for four fibres has been
shown in Figure 1(b). The central tension member protects the fibre
from cracks and two ducts are provided for electrical feed to each
fibre.
Fig 1(a) : An optical Fibre with normal dimensions
Fig 1(b) : Cable containing many fibres
Optical fibres may be classified as step index or graded index

(GRIN) fibres depending on the refractive index changing suddenly
from n1 to n2 or gradually at the core radius. Fibres are also classified
depending on modes they propagate, e.g., single mode fibre and
multimode fibre.
Numerical Aperture And Maximum Angle of Acceptance

Consider an optical fibre of core of refractive index n1 and cladding
of refractive index n2 . Light is incident making an angle i with the
core axis as shown in Figure 2(a). Light is refracted at angle q and
fall on the core-cladding interface at an angle q , where
q' = (90 - q) ...(1)
Using Snells law at the entry of light into the optical fibre, we have
no sin i = n1 sin q ...(2)
where no is refractive index of medium outside the fibre. For air
no = 1.
Light when travels from core to cladding it moves from denser
to rarer medium and so it maybe totally reflected back to the core
medium if q' exceeds the critical angle q c ' . The critical angle is that
angle of incidence in denser medium (n1) for which angle of refraction
becomes 90. Using snells laws at core cladding interface, we get
Fig 2(a) : Light travels thorugh optical fibre by totally reflecting

from opposite walls
Fig 2(b) : Maximum angle of acceptance
n1 sin q c ' = n2 sin 90
or sin q c ' = n2 ...(3)

n1
Therefore, for light propagation withing the core of optical fibre
as guided wave, the angle of incidence at core-cladding interface
should be greater than q c ' .
Note that as i increases, q increases and so q' decrease. (see
Eq. 1). Therefore, there is maximum value of i beyond which, the
light entering the fibre falls on core-cladding interface at an angle
less than critical angle q c ' and so it does not propagate rather it is
refracted into cladding medium [Figure 2(b)]. This maximum value
of i say im is called maximum angle of acceptance and no sin im is
called numerical aperture (NA).
From Eq. (2),
NA = no sin im = n1 sin q
= n1 sin (90 - q c) From Eq. (1)
or NA = n1 cos q c '
= n1 1 - sin2 q c '
From Eq. (3),
sin q c ' = n2
n1
1 - a n2 k
2
Therefore, NA = n1
n1
NA = n 12 - n 22 (4)
The significance of NA is that light entering in the cone of
semivertical angle i only propagate through the fibre. The higher
the value of im or NA, more is the light collected for propagation in
the fibre. Numerical Aperture is thus light gathering capacity of an
optical fibre-one of the characteristic parameters.
In practice optical fibres are designed by slightly reducing the
refractive index of cladding by adding impurities. So, parameter used
is relative refractive index change, 3 defined as
3 = n1 - n2 = 1 - n2
n1 n1
or n2 = (1 - 3) ...(5)
n1
Substituting Eq. (5) in Eq. (4), we find that
no sin im = NA = n1 1 - (1 - 3) 2
NA = n1 1 - 1 - 3 2 + 2 3
As 3 is small 32 is negligible as compared to 3. Therefore,
NA = no sin im = n1 2 3 ...(6)
n1
or im = sin-1 a no 2 3k
It must be noted that NA and im both are independent of

the core diameter. This holds good for optical fibres upto core
diameter 8 mm . For ultraline fibres, wave optics is not applicable
because diffraction effects dominate. The fibre is to be analysed by
electromagnetic theory.
2. Write two prominent applications of optical fiber.

RTU 2015, 2008
Ans :
Transmission of light through optical fibre has a wide variety of
applications. Two of these applications are described below :
Optical Communication
The electronic communications were carried out by sending electrical
signals through copper cables, coaxial cables or waveguides. In recent
years, Optical fibre cables are used for the communication of video
as well as audio signals. In one second, optical fibres are capable of
transmitting information equivalent to three episodes of a television
program.
Two small optical fibres are capable of transmitting information
with nil possibility of cross talks between neighbouring fibres because
there is no leakage of the signal. Thus it can be concluded that use of
fibre optic systems has improved transmission distance, information
density and speed of transmission, with a reduction in error rate and
nil electromagnetic interference. Optical fibre cable can be safely
used for signal transmission near the nuclear installations because
plastic cladded silica fibres resist to nuclear radiations.
Medical Applications
Optical fibre have many applications in the field of medical. Some of
these described as follows :
(i) Diagnosis : The fibre endoscopes are basic diagnostic tools for
medicine and used to inspect internal organs for diagnostic
purpose.
(ii) Opthalmology : A laser beam guided by optical fibres are used
to reattach detached retina and to correct defective vision in
ophthalomology.
(iii) Cardiology : In Cardiology, optical energy transmitted through
an optical fibre is used to evaporate built-up plaque that is
blocking an artery which might cause heart attacks.
(iv) Cancer Treatment : In the treatment of cancer, the optical fibre
technology is also used.
3. Calculate the refractive indices of core and cladding materials of an

optical fiber if its numerical aperture is 0.22 and relative refractive
index difference is 0.012.
RTU 2015, 2013, 2009
Ans :
Given, NA = 0.22 , 3 = 0.012
Relation between NA and relation refraction index difference is given
by
NA = mcore 2 3
0.22 = mcore 2 # 0.012
mcore = 0.22 = 1.42
0.155
mcore - mcladding
Also 3=
mcore
1.42 - mcladding
0.012 =
1.42
or mcladding = 1.42 - 0.01704
= 1.403
4. A step index optical fibre has a core radius of 30 m m; n1 = 1.5 and

n2 = 1.47 . If the operating wavelength is 800 nm, find the no of
modes propagating through the fibre.
RTU 2014
Ans :
The normalized frequency V number is given by
V = 2pa n 12 - n 22
l
2 # p # (30 # 10-6)
= 1.52 - 1.472
800 # 10-9
= 70.33
For step index fibre number of modes
2 2
N = V = 70.33 = 2473
2 2
5. For a step index fibre having core index 1.43 and cladding index 1.4,
calculate:
(i) Critical angle
(ii) Critical propagation angle
(iii) Numerical aperture
RTU 2012
Ans :
(a) The critical angle is
m2
fc = sin-1 e o
m1
= sin-1 b 1.40 l = 78.24c

1.43
(b) The critical propagation angle is
m2
qc = cos-1 e o
m1
= cos-1 b 1.40 l = 11.76c

1.43
(c) Numerical aperture is
NA = m12 - m22
= (1.43) 2 - (1.40) 2 = 0.291
6. Compare the maximum angle of acceptance and Numerical aperture

of two fibres. Characterized by core and cladding index n1 and n2
respectively
(a) n1 = 1.6 , n2 = 1.5
(b) n1 = 2.1, n2 = 1.5
RTU 2011
Ans :
(a) Given, m1 = 1.6 , m2 = 1.5
Numerical aperture, NA = m12 - m22
= ^1.6h2 - ^1.5h2 = 0.31 = 0.556
Acceptance angle, f = sin-1 m12 - m22
= sin-1 ^0.556h = 33.77c
(b) Given, m1 = 2.1, m2 = 1.5
Numerical aperture
NA = m12 - m22
= ^2.1h2 - ^1.5h2 = 2.16 = 1.46
Acceptance angle, f = sin-1 m12 - m22
= sin-1 ^1.46h = Does not exist
Because the values of sin f lie between - 1 to 1.
7. Explain the use of optical fibres in:

(i) Fibroscope
(ii) Sensor
(iii) Optical gyroscope
RTU 2011
Ans :
(i) Fibroscope
Because of small compact size, optical fibres are used as image
transmitters. Flexible fibroscopes shown in Figure 1 are used in
medical sciences. The set of outer fibres conduct light to illuminate
the object and the set of inner fibres show image. Optical fibre
endoscopes are also common in use and designed on the same
principle.
Fig 1 : Flexible fibroscope.
(ii) Sensor
In simplest form, it consists of a Y-coupler. Two bundles of optical
fibres are cemented or fused along the common length as shown in
Figure 2. Generally laser light is incident on one part and reflected
light is received at the other part. The biosensor designed in this way
be used to measure blood pressure, temperature sense pH, etc.
Fig 2 : Prototype Optical Fibre Sensor
(iii) Optical gyroscope

A Optical gyroscope is nothing but Fibre optic Gyroscope(FOS). It
senses changes in orientation using the Sagnac effect, thus performing
the function of a mechanical gyroscope. However its principle of
operation is instead based on the interference of light which has
passed through a coil of optical fibre which can be as long as 5 km.
Two beams from a laser are injected into the same fiber but in
opposite directions. Due to the Sagnac effect, the beam travelling
against the rotation experiences a slightly shorter path delay than
the other beam. The resulting differential phase shift is measured
through interferometry, thus translating one component of the
angular velocity into a shift of the interference pattern which is
measured photometrically.
Beam splitting optics launches light from a laser diode into
two waves propagating in the clockwise and anticlockwise directions
through a coil consisting of many turns of optical fibre. The strength
of the Sagnac effect is dependent on the effective area of the closed
optical path: this is not simply the geometric area of the loop but is
enhanced by the number of turns in the coil.
A FOG provides extremely precise rotational rate information,
in part because of its lack of cross-axis sensitivity to vibration,
acceleration, and shock. Unlike the classic spinning-mass gyroscope,
the FOG has no moving parts and doesnt rely on inertial resistance
to movement. Hence, this is perhaps the most reliable alternative to
the mechanical gyroscope. Because of their intrinsic reliability, FOGs
are used for high performance space applications.
8. An optical fibre has an NA of 0.20 and a cladding refractive index

of 1.59. Determine the acceptance angle for the fibre in water which
has a refractive index of 1.33.
RTU 2010
Ans :
Given, NA = 0.20 , m0 = 1 (for air), m2 = 1.59
Numerical aperture,
NA = m12 - m22
m1 = ^NAh2 + m22
= ^0.20h2 + ^1.59h2 = 1.60
For water, m0 = 1.33
m12 - m22
NA =
m0
^1.60h2 - ^1.59h2
= = 0.13
1.33
So, acceptance angle,

f = sin-1 ^NAh
= sin-1 ^0.13h = 7.5c
9. The refractive index of core of an optical fibre is n1 = 1.45 and the

relative refractive index difference is 0.01. Find maximum angle of
acceptance for this fibre.
RTU 2008
Ans :
Given, n1 = 1.45 , 3= 0.01
Numerical aperture is given by
NA = n1 2 3
= 1.45 2 # 0.01 = 0.205
Maximum acceptance angle is
f0 = sin-1 ^NAh
= sin-1 ^0.205h = 11.83c
*******
Chap 5 Lasers Page 87
CHAPTER 5
LASERS
1. Derive the relation between Einsteins coefficients and discuss the

results.
RTU 2015
or
Explain the term absorption, spontaneous emission and stimulated

emission and drive a relation between Einesteins Coefficients.
RTU 2014
or
What do you understand by spontaneous emission and stimulated

emission ? Obtain a relation for Einstein coefficients A and B
for spontaneous and stimulated emission. What are essential
requirements for laser action?
RTU 2010, 2009, (II SEM.)2008
or
Explain the meaning of stimulated emission.

RTU 2007
Ans :
Einstein explained the action of laser beam based on quantum
theory of light. Production of laser light is a particular consequence
of interaction of radiation with matter. Radiation interacts with
matter under appropriate conditions and may lad to the transition
of an atom or a molecule from one energy state to another. If the
transition is from a higher state to a lower state, the system gives a
part of its energy. But, if the transition is in the reverse directions,
then it absorbs the incident energy.
There are three possible ways through which interaction of
radiation and matter can take place. Among the three types, one is
absorption that is also known as induced absorption and the other
two are emissions.
The emissions of radiation can occur in two ways as suggested
Page 88 Lasers Chap 5
by Einstein. They are spontaneous emission and stimulated emission.

The interpretation of the interaction is done on the basis of ideas
related to energy levels of the concerned system for which light is to
be obtained.
All the three processes are described by considering an atom
having only two energy levels E1 and E5 .
(a) Induced Absorption (Absorption)

Let the atom be initially in the lower state E1 . If a photon of energy
hv is incident on the atom in the lower state, the atom absorb the
incident photon and gets excited to the higher energy state E2 . This
process is called induced absorption as shown in Figure 1
Fig 1: Induced absorption
The rate of absorption R12 is proportional to the population of the

lower energy level N1 and to the density of incident radiation r . Hence,
R12 \ N1 r
or R12 = B12 N1 r
where B12 is the proportionality constant known as the probability
of absorption of radiation per unit time.
(b) Spontaneous Emission

It is a process in which there is an emission of a photon whenever
an atom transits from a higher energy state to a lower energy state
without the aid of any external agency.
For this process to take place, the atom has to be in the excited
state. Since, the higher energy level is an unstable one, the excited
atom in the higher energy level E2 spontaneously returns to the lower
energy level E1 with the emission of a photon of energy hv = E2 - E1
as shown in Figure 2.
Fig 2: Spontaneous Emission
The rate of spontaneous emission of radiation R21 ^sp h is proportional

to the population N2 at the higher energy level E5 .
i.e, R21 ^sp h \ N2
Thus R21 ^sp h = A21 N2 ...(2)
where A21 is the proportionality constant known as the probability
of spontaneous emission per unit time.
(c) Stimulated Emission

It is a process in which there is an emission of a photon whenever an
atom transits from a higher energy state to a lower energy under the
influence of an external agency, i.e., an inducing photon.
For the process also, the atom should be already in the excited
state. Let a photon having an energy hv = E2 - E1 interact with
an atom in the excited state. Under such interaction, the incident
photon stimulates the excited atom in the lever E2 to transit to the
lower energy level E1 , resulting in the emission of a photon of energy
hv = E2 - E1 as shown in Figure 3.
Fig 3: Stimulated Emission
Both the inducing photon and the emitted photon will have
the same phase, energy and direction of movement. This kind of
emission is responsible for laser action, i.e., the stimulated emission
of radiation is the principle used in laser action.
The rate of stimulated emission of radiation R21 ^st h is
proportional to the population N2 at the higher energy level E2 and
to the density r of the inducing photon.
i.e., R21 ^st h \ N2 r
Thus R21 ^st h = B21 N2 r ...(3)
where B21 is the proportionality constant known as the probability
of stimulated emission of radiation per unit time.
The coefficients B12, A21 and B21 in the equations (1), (2), (3) are
called the Einsteins coefficients.
Relation between Einsteins Coefficients

Einstein obtained a mathematical expression for the existence of
two different kinds of processes-spontaneous emission and stimulated
emission.
Since the transition between the atomic energy states is a
statistical process, it is not possible to predict which particular atom
will make a transition from one state to another at a particular
instant. But it is possible to calculate the rate of transmission
between the states.
Let us assume that the atomic system is in equilibrium with
electromagnetic radiation. Hence at thermal equilibrium, the number
of upward transitions is equal to the number of downward transitions
per unit volume per second.
i.e., The rate of absorption = The rate of emission
B12 N1 r = A21 N2 + B21 N2 r ...(4)
From the above equation,
^B12 N1 - B21 N2h r = A21 N2
r= A21 N2
^B12 N1 - B21 - N2h
or r= A21
N
c B12 1 - B21 m ...(5)
N2
Under thermal equilibrium, the number of atoms N1 and N2
in the energy states E1 and E2 at a temperature T is given by

Boltzmann distribution law. Hence, we have
-E1
N1 = N0 ec k BT
m ...(6)
-E2
N2 = N e c m ...(7)
0 kB T
where N0 is the total number of atoms and kB is the Boltzmanns
constant.
-E2
Thus N2 = ec k T m = e -^kE TE h
B
2- 1
N1 ec k-ET m
B
1
N2 = ec k-hvT m [Since hv = E2 - E1
N1
B
or N1 = ec khvT m ...(8)
N2
B
Substituting equation (8) in equation (5)

r= A21 ...(9)
8B12 ec k T m - B21B
hv
B
or r = A21 1 ...(10)
B21
B12 ec khvT m - 1
;c B21 m E B
But from Plancks black body theory of radiation

3
r = 8phv
3
1 ...(11)
c ec khvT m - 1 B
Hence, comparing equation (10) and (11), we get

A21 = 8phv3 ...(12)
B21 c3
B12 = B21 ...(13)
Take B12 - B21 = B and A21 = A . The constants A and B are called
Einsteins coefficients.
Equation (13) shows that the probability of absorption is equal
to the probability of stimulated emission. From equation (12) it is
seen that the ratio of spontaneous emission and stimulated emission
is proportional to v3 . It means that the probability of spontaneous
emission dominates over stimulated emission.
2. Explain the construction and working of a He - Ne laser. Draw

necessary diagram. What is the role of He in this laser?
RTU 2015, 2007
or
In He-Ne laser, what is the function of He atoms? Explain the

answer with the help of energy level diagram for He - Ne . Describe
with a neat sketch the working of He - Ne laser.
RTU 2013
or
Explain the essential requirements for producing laser action. With

neat and clean diagram, explain the working of He-Ne laser. How is
population inversion achieved in this type of laser.
RTU 2011
Ans :
He-Ne Laser is a gas Laser. In gas Lasers, gases work as the active
medium. It is a four-level Laser and operates in continuous working
(CW) mode. Its usual operation wavelength is 632.8 nm in the red
region of the visible spectrum. He-Ne Lasers have many industrial
and scientific uses and often used in laboratory demonstrations of
optics.
Construction of He-Ne Laser

A schematic diagram of a He-Ne Laser is shown in Fig. 1. The set-
up consists of a long fused quartz tube of bore diameter 1.5 cm
and length of 80 cm. As the name suggested, a mixture of helium
and neon gases are used as active medium in a ratio 5 : 1 to 20 : 1,
contained at low pressure (an average 50 Pa per cm of cavity length)
in a glass envelope. Neon atoms are the active centers and have
energy levels suitable for Laser transitions while helium atoms help
in exciting neon atoms.
Electrodes are provided in the discharge tube to produce
discharge in the gas. The energy or pump source of a Laser is
provided by an electric discharge of around 1000 V through an anode
and cathode at each end of the glass tube and a current of 5 mA to
100 mA is typical for CW operation. The tube is hermetically sealed
by inclined windows arranged at its two ends. The optical cavity of
Laser consists of a plane, high-reflecting mirror at one end of the
Laser tube and a concave output coupler mirror of approximately 1
% transmission at the other end.
Fig 1 : Construction of He-Ne Laser
Energy level diagram of He-Ne Laser (Population inversion)

Neon atoms are the active centers and have energy levels suitable
for Laser transition while helium atoms help in exciting neon atoms.
The mixture of these gases at low pressure form the Laser medium.
In Fig. 2, the left side shows the lower level of the helium atoms.
The energy scale is interupped and that there is a larger difference in
energy in the recombination process as shown in the Fig. 2.
Fig 2 : Energy level diagram of He-Ne Laser
The first state of the helium to be excited, 2 1s1 and 2 1s0 are
metastable states with life times 10-6 to 10-4 sec and energy around
20.61 eV i.e. optical transitions to the ground state 1 1s0 are not
allowed because this would contaminate the selection rules for optical
transitions. As a result of gas discharge, these states are populated
by electron collisions. A collision is called of the second type, if one of
the colliding bodies transfer energy to the other so that a transition
from the previous energy state to the next higher or lower takes
place, apart from the electron collision of the second type.
In the latter, an excited helium atom reaches the initial state
because its energy has been used in the excitation of a Ne atom. Both
these processes from the basic for the production of a population
inversion in the Ne system.
Working of He-Ne Laser

When electric discharge is passed through mixture of He and Ne at
low pressure, an energetic electron collisionally excites a He atom to
the state labelled as 2 1 s0 because it has low excitation potential than
Ne. A He atom in this excited state is often written He* ^2 1 s0h , where
* denotes the excited state of He.
e1 + He $ He* + e2
where e1 and e2 are electron energies before and after impact. Since,
excited metastable states of He are quite close to excited metastable
state of Ne, thus the excited He* ^2 1 s0h atom collides with an
unexcited Ne atom and the atoms exchange internal energy, with an
unexcited Ne atom. The excited Ne atom written as Ne* ^3s2h . Thus,
the purpose of population inversion is fulfilled.
He* + Ne $ Ne* + He
When the excited Ne atom passes from metastable state ^3s h to
lower level ^2ph , it emits photon. This emitted photon of wavelength
632 nm travels through the gas mixture parallel to the axis of tube.
After striking the mirror, it is reflected back and forth by the mirror
ends until it stimulate an excited Ne atom. It causes to emit a photon
of 632 nm with stimulating photon.
The stimulated transition between 3s level and 2p level is
known as Laser transition. This process is continued until a beam
of coherent radiation becomes sufficiently strong. A portion of it
escapes through partially silvered end.
The Ne atom passes to lower level 1s emitting spontaneous
emission and finally the Ne atom comes to ground state through

collision with tube wall and undergoes radiationless transition. The
radiation corresponding to 0.63 mm however gives the red light
characteristic of He-Ne Laser.
Role of He
Neon atoms are the active centers and have energy levels suitable
for Laser transition while helium atoms help in exciting neon atoms.
The mixture of these gases at low pressure form the Laser medium.
3. Write short notes on the following:

(i) Population inversion
(ii) Pumping
RTU 2015
or
What is active medium, population inversion and optical pumping in

reference to laser action?
RU 2005
Ans :
(i) Active medium

Atoms are in general characterized by a large number of energy
levels. However, all type of atoms are not suitable for laser operation.
Even in a medium consisting of different species of atoms, only a
small fraction of atoms of a particular type have energy level
system suitable for achieving population inversion. Such atoms
can produce more stimulated emission than spontaneous emission
and cause amplification of light. Those atoms, which cause laser
action, are called active centers. The rest of the medium acts as
host and supports active centers. The medium hosting the active
centers is called the active medium. It is also called laser medium.
An active medium is a medium which when excited reaches the state
of population inversion and promotes stimulated emissions leading
to light amplification.
(ii) Population Inversion

The number of active atoms assigned to an energy state is called
population of that state. Considering N1 and N2 are populations
of lower (E1 ) and excited (E2 ) energy levels respectively. Where as,
Population inversion is the state of a system at which the population
of a particular higher energy state is more than that of a specified
lower energy state.
Fig 1 : Plot between energy level (E ) and number of atoms (N )
Let us consider a system consisting of two energy levels, i.e.

lower energy level E1 and higher (excited) energy level (E2 ). When
the material is in thermal equilibrium condition, the population ratio
is given by the distribution law
N2 = e- (E - E )/kT
2 1
N1
The condition in which, the number of atoms in lower level,
i.e. N1 is greater than that of the atoms in excited states, i.e. N2 is
called normal condition or thermal equilibrium. Thus under thermal
equilibrium N1 >> N2 . The graph between E and N using Maxwell
Boltzmann distribution equation is shown in Fig. 4.5.1.
From figure, the concentration of lower energy level is higher
than that of the excited energy level. For producing emission from
higher energy level, the population of higher level must be as high
as possible. If the number of atoms (population) of higher energy
level is more than that of the low energy level, than it is known as
population inversion. The Laser beam emission appear only when
Rate of (stimulated + spontaneous) emission > Rate of absorption
or, B21 r ^n h N2 + A21 N2 > B12 r ^n h N1
For effective Laser action only stimulated emission is to be considered

here. So, ignoring spontaneous emission, the above equation becomes
B21 r ^n h N2 > B12 r ^n h N1
If we consider B12 = B21 = B
Then, N2 > N1
(iii) Pumping
For achieving and maintaining the condition of population inversion,
it is required to raise continuously the atoms in the lower energy
level to the upper energy level. It is done with energy supplied to the
system. Pump is the agency which supplies the energy.
Hence, pumping is the process of supplying energy to the Laser
medium with a view to transfer it into the state of population
inversion. As N1 is originally very much larger than N2 , a large
amount of input energy is required to instantly increase N2 to a
value comparable to N1 .
(iv) Optical Pumping

This is the method of pumping. In optical pumping, a light source
is used to supply luminous energy. Most often this energy is given
in the form of short flashes of light. This technique was first used
by Maiman in the ruby laser and is also widely used in solid-state
Lasers. In this method, the Laser material is kept inside a helical
xenon flash lamp similar to that which is used in photography.
4. What are the basic requirements of semi conductor laser? Draw its
label diagram and explain its working with necessary theory. Write
down the applications of semiconductor laser.
RTU 2014, 2010
or
Describe the principle, construction and working of a semiconductor

laser. Describe various applications of semiconductor laser.
RTU 2013
or
How do pumping and population inversion are achieved in a

semiconductor laser? What are advantages of using heterojunction
over homojunction in semiconductor lasers?

RTU 2010
or
Write short notes on semiconductor laser.

RTU 2011
Ans :
Semiconductor Lasers works at room temperature and in continuous
wave mode. They are small, efficient Laser devices with dimensions
less than a square millimeter. Their operating wavelengths are
from 0.6 to 1.55 mm depending on the Laser medium materials.
Semiconductor Lasers requires low operating power and have high
efficiencies. But they, do not narrow line width in other Lasers. Now,
pn-Junction Lasers are made to emit light almost anywhere in the
spectrum from UV to IR. It is already been used in millions fibre
optic communications, Laser disk audio systems and so on.
Construction of Semiconductor Laser

Figure 1 shows the systematic structure of a GaAs p-n junction
diode. A heavily doped p-region is produced by diffusion of Zn (
1024 atoms per m3 ) into n-type GaAs. A heavily zinc doped layer
constitutes the heavily doped p-region. The doping in the n and p
regions is such that both are degenerate. The diodes are small in
size and the top and bottom faces are metallized. The front and rear
faces are polished parallel to each other and perpendicular to the
plane of the junction so that they act as reflecting mirrors.
The polished faces constitute Fabry-Perot resonator. The
remaining two faces are roughened to eliminate lasing in these
directions. The active layer consists of a layer of thickness of the
order of 1 mm , a little wider than the depletion region. The entire
structure is packaged in small case which looks like the metal case
used for discrete transistors.
Working of Semiconductor Laser

The energy band diagram of p-n junction diode under thermal
equilibrium and under forward bias is represented by Fig. 2. Because
of very high doping on n-side, the donor levels are broadened and
extend into the conduction band. It is also fill the conduction band
up to Fermi Level EF , which falls within the conduction band.
Electrons occupy the portion of the conduction band lying below
the fermi level.
Fig 1 : Construction of semiconductor Laser
In the p-type, holes are added by the acceptors down to energy EF

, which falls with valence band e^VN + VP h is the built-in voltage or
the contact potential of the p-n junction diode. The two bands are
separated by an energy gap Eg . At thermal equilibrium, the fermi
level is uniform across the junction. When the junction is forward
biased, electrons and holes are injected into the junction region in
high concentration. i.e. raising n relative to p side. Hence, in the
depletion region the injected electrons and holes appear in high
concentrations, giving rise to population inversion. EFN and EFP are
separated from each other by an energy equal to Eg + e^VN + VP h .
In a forward biased junction, the injected electron hole pairs causes
spontaneous emission of photons and the junction acts as an LED.
As the diode current is gradually increased, the intensity of light
increased linearly and a point is reached where significant population
inversion exists near the junction region. As a result, the region
contains a large concentration of electrons within the conduction
band and simultaneously a large number of holes within the valence
band. Consequently, stimulated emission occurs at frequencies
corresponding to the normal modes of the cavity. The wavelengths
of the normal modes are given by
l = 2L
n
where L is the length of the cavity and n = 1, 2, 3, .... Finally, at

sufficiently high currents, strong population inversion occurs and
most preferred mode dominates the intensity.
(a)
(b)
Fig 2 : Energy level diagram of p-n junction Laser diode (a) Under
thermal equilibrium (b) When a forward bias voltage is applied
Applications of Semiconductor Laser

(i) Because of rapid advances in semiconductor technology, diode
Lasers are mass produced for use in optical fibre communications,
in CD players, optical reading, CD-ROM drives, high speed
Laser printing etc wide variety of applications.

(ii) It is used in electro-optics because of its spectral purity, high
efficiency, rugged less, ability to modulate at extremely rapid
rates, long lifetimes and moderate power (as much as 200 mW
), even with its pinhead size.
5. Explain the principle of laser. What are the essential requirements of

a laser ? Explain how these requirements are achieved ?
RTU 2012
Ans :
Laser is a device in which intense, monochromatic, coherent and
unidirectional light beam is obtained. It was discovered in 1950,
by Town and Shallow. The word laser is the acronym of light
amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
A laser produces a beam of light whose waves have the same
frequency (monochromatic), are in phase with one another (coherent)
and well collimated Figure 1 Shows a laser beam
Fig 1:
The change in number of atoms in the excited state is possible by

the following three process: (i) spontaneous-emission, (ii) absorption
and (iii) stimulated emission. The principle of laser is based on the
fact that there is more stimulated emission as compared to the
spantaneous-emission and absorption.
Let N1 and N2 be the number of atoms in the ground energy
state and the excited energy state, and rv12 is the radiation density
in the surrounding corresponding to the frequency v12 of photon
emitted by spontaneous emission from the excited energy state to
the ground state energy, then,
rate of spontaneous emission = A12 N12
rate of stimulated emission = B12 N2 rv12

and rate of absorption = B12 N1 rv12
where A12 and B12 are called as Einsteins A and B coefficient.
Hence, Rate of stimulated emission = B12 N2 rv12

Rate of spontaneous emission A12 N2
and Rate of stimulted emission = N2

Rate of absorption N1
It is essential that the rate of stimulated emission should be
higher than that of the rate of spontaneous emission and the rate of
absorption. Hence, the following conclusion are obtained from the
above relations.
(i) For lasing action the number of atoms in the excited energy
state must be very large as compared to the number of atoms
in the ground energy state, i.e. N2 >> N1 , this is called the
population inversion.
(ii) The value of v12 must be as high as possible, i.e. the radiation
density in the surrounding corresponding to the frequency
v12 of the photon emitted by spontaneous emission should be
high. For this, the emitted radiation is kept enclosed inside the
cavity between the two parallel reflectors so that due to the
successive reflections, the number of photons corresponding to
the frequency v12 increases and hence the energy density v12
increases.
(iii) The ratio of Einsteins A and B coefficients should be minimum.
For this, the excited energy state is to be chosen in such a way
that the spontaneous emission from it is forbidden. This energy
state is called the metastable state. By doing so, the value of
A becomes nearly zero. The life time of a metastable state is
nearly 10-3 s while that of the ordinary excited state is nearly
10-8 s. Thus, working of laser is based on the presence of a large
number of atoms in one or more metastable state. Figure 5.8
shows the laser action. Let E0 be the ground state energy of an
atom and E1 and E2 are the two excited states respectively, if
a light is made to incident by a flash tube, many atoms absorb
photons corresponding to the energy Ê2 - E0h and get excited
to the energy to the energy state E2 as shown by the transition
1 in Fig. 5.5. These excited atoms after 10-8 s , emit a photon
of energy Ê2 - E1h by spontaneous emission and come to the
ground state energy as shown by the transition 2 in Figure 2.
Fig 2:
If the energy state E1 is the metastable state, then it is not

possible for the atom to come to the ground state energy E0 by
spontaneous emission, but it is possible for the atom to come from
the metastable energy state E1 to the ground state energy state E0
by the stimulated emission. Thus, the number of atoms in the energy
state E1 is very much increased in comparison to those in the ground
state energy E0 .
Now, if photons corresponding to the energy E1 - E0 = hv are
made to incident, then the stimulated emission starts and as a result
of chain process an intense light beam is obtained. The photons so
emitted are reflected several times between the high reflectors so
that the stimulated radiation becomes more intense as compared to
the spontaneous radiation.
Thus, for a simple kind of laser, we need an assembly of atoms
that have the three energy states, one the ground state of energy
E0 , other a metastable state of energy E1 and third a still higher
excited state E2 that decays to the metastable state. Hence, we
need more atoms in the metastable state than in the ground state.
If we can arrange this and then shine light of frequency v on the
assembly, there will be more stimulated emissions from the atoms in
the metastable state then the absorptions by atoms from the ground
state. The result will be an amplification of the original light. The
process of increasing the number of atoms in the metastable state
much larger in comparision to those in the ground state, is called
the population inversion. This is illustrated in Fig. 5.6.
Fig 3(a) : Pumping of atoms from ground state to excited state
Fig 3(b) : Spontaneous emission transition from excited state to

metastable state
Fig 3(c) : Metastable state occupied by more atoms
Fig 3(d) : Stimulated Emission
6. Laser action occurs by stimulated emission from an excited state to

a state of energy 30.5 eV. If the wavelength of laser light emitted is
690 nm, what is the energy of the excited one ?
RTU 2012
Ans :
Energy of Emitted laser light
E1 = hc
l
^6.626 # 10-34h # ^3 # 108h
=
690 # 10-9
= 1.8 eV
Therefore energy of excited stage
E2 = 30.5 eV + 1.8 eV
= 32.3 eV
7. The pulse width of laser of wavelength 1064 nm is 25 ms. If the

average power output per pulse is 0.8 W, then
(a) What is the energy released per pulse ?
(b) How many photons does each pulse contain ?
RTU 2012
Ans :
Given l = 1064 nm = 1064 # 10-9 m , P = 0.8 W
Pulse width = 3t = 25 ms = 25 # 10-3 sec
(i) The energy released per pulse is given by
E = P #3t
= 0.8 # 25 # 10-3 = 0.02 J
(ii) The number of photons that each pulse contain is
N = E = El
hn hc
= 0.02 # 1064 # 10-9 = 1.07 # 1017

-34
6.62 # 10 # 3 # 108
8. A laser beam has a power of 50 mW. It has an aperture of 5 # 10-3 m
and wavelength 7200 Ac . A beam is focused with a lens of focal length

0.1 m. Calculate the areal spread and the intensity of the image.
RTU 2012
Ans :
Given, P = 50 mW = 50 # 10-3 W , a = 5 # 10-3 m
c , Focal length of lens = 0.1 m
l = 7200 A
Angular spread is given by the relation
dq = l
a
-10
= 7200 # 10 -3
= 1.44 # 10-4 radian
5 # 10
Aerial spread is
= ^ fdqh2 = ^0.1 # 1.44 # 10-4h2
= 2.074 # 10-10 m2
Now the intensity of the image is
I = Power
Areal spread
= 50 # 10-3
2.074 # 10-10
= 2.411 # 108 W/m2
9. Write short notes on Q -switching and mode locking.

RTU 2011, 2010
Ans :
Q-switching :
Q-switching is a technique for obtaining short, intense bursts of
pulses from Lasers. To get Laser action, little population inversion
is not sufficient. As the light bounces back and forth in the optical
resonator, it undergoes amplification as well as it suffers various loses.
Since there are losses, the inversion density must be high enough to
produce gain compensating these losses. The inversion density for
which gain is equal to the loss is called threshold inversion density.
If we independently introduce some losses inside the cavity, the
threshold inversion density increases. Hence we can develop the
inversion density to a high value and correspondingly gain also

increases. But No oscillation takes place, since gain is less than the
independently introduced loss.
Now suddenly removing the introduced loss, the threshold
inversion density switches back to its original value. Under this
condition the gain is very much higher than the loss and intense
amplification takes place and all the available energy is emitted as
a single large pulse. In this process, on removing the independently
introduced loss, the Quality Q of the cavity is switched to a high
value, this technique is called Q-switching. There are different
methods of Q-switching.
In the ordinary pulsed mode, the output of an insulating crystal
Laser consists of many random spikes of about 1 m sec duration
with a separation of about 1 m sec and the length of train of spikes
may be about 1 m sec . Peak powers within the spikes are typically of
the order of kilowatts. When the Laser is Q-switched, the result is
a sigle pulse of high power typically in the mega watt range, with a
duration of 10-100 n sec .
Mode Locking :
Mode locking is a method (or actually a group of methods) of
producing periodic, high power, short duration Laser pulses. Here,
the Laser resonator contains either an active element (an optical
modulator) or a nonlinear passive element (a saturable absorber),
which causes the formation of an ultrashort pulse circulating in the
Laser resonator.
The output from Laser cavity may support oscillations in many
modes accordingly. The output of such type of Laser varies with
time and depends on the relative phase, frequencies and amplitudes
of the modes. In the steady state, the various effects influencing
the circulating pulse are in a balance so that the pulse parameters
are unchanged after each completed round trip or often even nearly
constant throughout each round trip. Each time the pulse hits the
output coupler mirror, a usable pulse is emitted, so that a regular
pulse train leaves the Laser.
Suppose we force the modes of maintain the same relative phase
with respect to one another, then the output of the Laser consists
of a sequence of short pulses, separated in time by 2L/C , where
L is the length of the cavity, each of peak power equal to N times
the average power (where N is the number of modes in the cavity).

Using this technique pulses of pico second, duration with nano
second pulse separation and peak powers of the order of mega watts
can be produced.
10. Find the intensity of laser beam of 20 mW and diameter 1.5 mm.
Assume the intensity to be uniform throughout the beam.
RTU 2011
Ans :
Given P = 20 mW
= 20 # 10-3 W
d = 1.5 mm
= 1.5 # 10-3 m
Intensity I = Power
Area
= 4P2
pd
= 4 # 20 # 10-3
3.14 # ^1.5 # 10-3h2
= 11.32 kW/m2
11. A laser beam having a wavelength of 8000 A c and aperture 0.5 cm

is sent to moon. If distance of moon from earth is 4 # 108 m then
calculate
(a) angular spread of the beam and
(b) aerial spread of the beam when it reached to moon.
RTU 2009
Ans :
Aperture a = 0.5 cm = 5 # 10-3 m ,
Wavelength, l = 8 # 10-7 m
Distance of moon
D = f = 4 # 108 m
(a) Angular spread in given by
dq = l
a
-7
= 8 # 10-3
5 # 10
= 1.6 # 10-4 rad
(b) Aerial spread at moon
^ fdqh2 = ^1.6 # 10-4 # 4 # 108h
2
= 4.096 # 109 m2
12. Outline various processes that occur when atoms interact with
radiation field.
RTU 2010, 2008
Ans :
Einstein explained the action of laser beam based on quantum
theory of light. Production of laser light is a particular consequence
of interaction of radiation with matter. Radiation interacts with
matter under appropriate conditions and may lad to the transition
of an atom or a molecule from one energy state to another. If the
transition is from a higher state to a lower state, the system gives a
part of its energy. But, if the transition is in the reverse directions,
then it absorbs the incident energy.
There are three possible ways through which interaction of
radiation and matter can take place :
(i) Stimulated absorption
(ii) Spontaneous emission
(iii) Stimulated emission
Refer Q.1 For More.
13. Give the reasons for the following basic properties of a laser :
(i) High Intensity
(ii) High directionality
RTU 2007
Ans :
(i) High Intensity

Since, the Laser power is concentrated in a beam of very small
diameter, even a small Laser can deliver very high intensity at
the focal plane of the lens. Thus the Laser beam is highly intense
compared to ordinary light. The intesity can be further increased for
short duration by using Laser in Q -switching mode. For example,
if the power of a Laser beam is P = 1 Watt , the intensity at the focal
point is given by
I = P
area
= P
pl2 f 2 /r2
= 1
7.0 # 10-10
= 1.4 # 109 W/m2
So that even a small power of 1 W can given an intensity of 109 W/m2
, which is extremely large.
(ii) Directionality
The output beam of Laser has a well-defined wavefront therefore,
Laser is highly directive non-diverging beam at all photons are added
in phase have the same momentum, caused by diffraction effects.
The high directionality allows us to focus it into a point by passing
the beam through a suitable convex lens. If we consider the light
of wavelength l = 6000 A c , focal length of the lens is 5 cm and the
radius of the beam, r = 2 mm , then the area of the spot at the focal
plane is of the order of
pl2 f 2 p^6 # 10-7h2 ^5 # 10-2h2
=
^2 # 10-3h
2 2
r
= 7.1 # 10-10 m2
which is extremely small. The high degree of collimation or the

directionality of a Laser beam is due to the geometric design of the
Laser cavity. A typical value of divergence of He-Ne Laser is 10-3 rad
14. Distinguish between spontaneous and induced emissions. How does

induced emission dominates in He-Ne laser ?
RU 2004
Ans :
Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission
1 The emission of The stimulated emission is
electromagnetic radiation by a process in which excited
a group of atoms or atomic- atomic sized systems emit
sized systems which undergoes radiation of same frequency
transition from higher energy under influence of photon of
state to lower energy state energy equal to the difference
with no outside influence is between two transition levels.
called spontaneous emission.
2 It is very difficult to control The process of stimulated
the process of spontaneous emission can be controlled
emission from outside. from outside.
3 The emitted light during The light produced during
spontaneous emission is neither stimulated emission is both
coherent nor monochromatic. coherent and monochromatic.
4 The rate of spontaneous The probability of this
emission probability remains emission depends upon energy
constant. density of incident radiation.
How does induced emission dominates in He-Ne laser ( Refer Q)
15. What are spontaneous and induced emission ? How could probability
of stimulated emission be increased.
RU 2004
Ans :
Refer Q.1
*******
Chap 6 Holography Page 113
CHAPTER 6
HOLOGRAPHY
1. What is holography? How it is different from photography? Explain

with suitable diagram, how a hologram is recorded and then
reconstructed?
RTU 2015
or
What is the fundamental principal of a hologram? How is it produced

and how is image constructed from it?
RTU 2014
or
What is a hologram? Explain with suitable diagram how a hologram

is recorded and then reconstructed.
RTU 2012
or
Give two fundamental differences between a hologram and a

photograph. Describe the method of recording the hologram and
reconstruction of image from it.
RTU 2011, 2008
or
Outline basic theory of holography.

RTU 2008
Ans :
Holography is a three-dimensional (3D) lensless photography,
in which an image is captured as an interference pattern. The
interference pattern (image ) thus recorded is called a hologram,
which is true 3D record of the object. In Holography, the process of
the image formation is a two-step process, i.e. it is carried out in the
following two steps :
Recording of Hologram
In this process, the object is transformed into a photographic
Page 114 Holography Chap 6
record. Here, we consider a monochromatic coherent source as

shown in Figure 1. This coherent light from a source is split into two
components by beam splitter:
(i) One of which is directed towards the object and
(ii) Second part serves as reference beam which is directed to
suitable recording medium.
Fig 1 : Recording of hologram
The beam, directed to the object is scattered or diffracted by

the object. This scattered wave constitutes the object wave, which is
now allowed to fall on the recording medium, as shown in Figure 1.
Since, the object and reference waves are mutually coherent, stable
interference pattern is formed when the two meet at the recording
medium.
This complex interference pattern is recorded by a photographic
plate that contains information about amplitude as well as phase of
the object wave of light at each point. The developed negative of these
interference fringe-pattern is a hologram. The term holography is
derived from this word.
Reconstruction of Image on Hologram

An arrangement for reconstruction of the object from the information
contained in the hologram is shown in Figure 2. The process of
reconstruction of the image of the object is actually a reversal of the
process followed for generating the hologram. For the reconstruction
process, the hologram is illuminated with another wave by a
collimated laser beam which undergoes diffraction. This is called

reconstruction of image on the hologram.
Fig 2 : Reconstruction of image on hologram
The diffracted waves carry all the information that was

contained in the wave diffracted by the object when the hologram
was being generated. The diffracted rays form two images: a virtual
image and a real image. Different perspectives of the object can be
visualized by changing the angle of viewing. The virtual image is
seen by looking through the hologram as if it were a window. The
other beam produces a real image which can be recorded on the
photographic plate.
2. What is holographic microscopy? With illustrative diagram show

outlay of a holographic interferometer and explain its working.
RTU 2014, RTU 2010, 2008
or
Write short notes on the holographic microscopy.

RTU 2011
Ans :
Holographic Microscopy
In holographic microscopy, a laser beam passes through the specimen
being studied and then through a microscope. To produce hologram,
this beam interferes with the reference beam. Any cross- section of
the specimen can be seen after reconstruction of the image. If l r and
l s are the wavelength of reconstructing light and the wavelength used
in holography respectively then the magnification (m ) associated
with reconstruction is given by
Wavelength of light used for reconstruction l r
m= =
Wavelength of light used for recording ls
Fig 1: Holographic microscope
To increase magnification, one has to do recording at short
wavelength and reconstruction at a much longer wavelength. The

two drawbacks are :
(i) The non-availability of suitable coherent sources at very short
wavelength (UV and X-rays) limits the magnification and
(ii) The presence of wavefront aberrations introduced by the change
between the recording wavelength and the reconstruction
wavelength.
For study of microscopy, a typical holographic microscope is
shown in Figure 1. To study this phenomenon, a coherent light
from laser incident on beam splitter and splits into two parts. The
reference beam, falls on the photofilm after being reflected from
mirror M1 and another splitter S2 . The other part of the beam, after
being reflected from mirror M2 , falls on the sample of the microscope
. Then, microsope forms image on the film. The reconstructed image
may be at any cross-section and at any depth and so point-to-point
observation is possible once hologram has been recorded.
In addition to applications in biological sciences, holographic
microscopy is used to study gain size studies of microstructures and
rocket engine exhaust analysis. By just rotating reference beam
gradually, dynamics of tmhe grain or micro-particles or biotissues
may be studied by multi-recording technique.
Holographic Interferometry
Holography is widely used in making precise interferometer
measurements. Conventional interferometry is used to make
measurements on highly polished surfaces of simple shapes. With the
help of holographic interferometry ,we can make measurements on
there dimensional surfaces of arbitrary shapes and surface conditions.
For example, objects undergoing pressure or heat stress in machines
can be monitored holographically. Different procedures are followed
for the application of holographic interferometric techniques.
In the double exposure interferometry, two exposures of the
same emulsion are made with the same reference wave, one with
the original object and the other with the object to be compared.
The reconstructed object wave from the two interfere and produce
the interference pattern, which can be used to compare the two
objects. Usually, the two objects correspond to the same object
under different conditions of strain.
3. Compare holography and photography and discuss the construction

and reproduction of a hologram. In brief, discuss applications of a
hologram.
RTU 2013
or
Discuss construction and reproduction of a hologram. In brief discuss

applications of a hologram.
RTU 2010, 2009, 2007
Ans :
Hologram differs from photograph in many ways, which are described
below :
Holography Photography
Holography requires In photography, there is no need of
1 monochromatic, coherent light monochromatic, coherent source,
source, i.e. laser light. i.e. it uses a ordinary light.
It produces a three-dimensional
It produces a two-dimensional
2 (3D) image without using the
(2D) image with the use of lenses.
lenses.
Record the distribution of both Record the distribution of
3
amplitude and phase. amplitude alone.
Hologram receives light from In a photograph, recorded
every point of a image and hence negative has definite correlation
there is no one to one relationship. with recorded image as the light
4
These are interference fringes- originating from a particular point
lines, rings etc. and so there is of image is collected by a lens
no correlation. focused on that particular point.
In photography, the light reflected
Holography is constructed by
from the object is made to incident
means of interference of light
on photographic film. Due to the
5 between the reference beam
chemical reaction between the light
and the light reflected from the
and the chemical coated on the
object.
film, the image is formed.
In a photography each point of
In hologram all points of
object relates to a conjugate point
object relate to each point of a
in the image. If the negative is
6 hologram. Thus the entire image
broken into several pieces, it is not
can be reconstructed using a
possible to construct the original
small broken piece of hologram.
image.
Construction and reproduction of a hologram (Refer Q.1)
Applications of a hologram.
Apart from the above mentioned applications, holography has many
other important applications. Some important applications are listed
below :
(i) Holographic 3D images of eyes and interferometric testing of
human teeth, chest motion during respiration were carried
out quite easily.
(ii) Holograms are used for security in many industries. Other
security uses include clothing hand tags, certificates, tickets,
passes, many kind of identification and membership cards,
debit and credit cards, etc.
(iii) Holograms made with X-rays or ultraviolet rays are able
to record images of particles smaller than visible light such
as atoms or molecules. For example Microwave holography
detects images deep in space by recording radiowaves they
emit.
(iv) Holographic techniques, such as holographic endoscopies,
X-rays holography, laser holograms are frequently used to
diagnose dangerous diseases.
(v) 3D acoustical hologram of an opaque object is used to see
internal structure of an object. Such techniques are very
useful in the field of medicine and technology.
(vi) A holographic lens is used in an aircraft head-up display
to allow a fighter pilot to see critical cock it instruments
while looking straight ahead through the wind screen.
(vii) Holography is used for point of purchase advertising taking
the place of a photography of a product.
(viii)Holograms can be recorded to provide the same functions as
refractive optical elements such as lenses and prisms.
(ix) Using holography, a large amount of information can be
stored in high density crystals or photopolymers.
(x) Advanced holographic techniques have a variety of
applications in ophthalmology, urology, otology, pathology
and orthopaedics etc.
(xi) Holograms are commonly found on a host of product,
packaging, including compact disc, computer software,
cosmetics, watches and sporting goods.
4. What are the basic requirements of a holographic laboratory?

Explain all the components of a holographic lab?
RTU 2008, RU 2000
Ans :
There are the following requirements in making holography:
(i) The light source used should be monochromatic, as the fringe
pattern produced is a function of wavelength of the illumination.
(ii) Since holography is an interference phenomenon, there should
not be a path difference between the object wave and the
reference wave more than the coherence length.
(iii) Spatial coherence is important so that the reference wave and
the scattered object waves from different regions can interfere
properly. If the source lacks spatial coherence, then each element
of source will produce interfere fringss, which are displaced from
those of other elements.
(iv) Since reconstructed image coordinates depend on wavelength
as well as position of the reconstructing source, it is necessary
that the source emits a narrow band of wavelength and it is
not broad in the interest of obtaining good resolution in the
reconstructed image.
(v) For obtain aberrations free reconstructed image, it is necessary
that the reconstructing source is of the same wavelength and is
situated at the same position with respect to the hologram as
the reference source.
*******
Chap 7 Nuclear Radiation Detectors Page 121
CHAPTER 7
NUCLEAR RADIATION DETECTORS
1. What do you mean by dead time in Geiger Muller counter? Draw

a neat diagram on Geiger Muller Counter and explain its working.
Mention some of its application.
RTU 2015
or
Draw a labelled diagram of a GM counter and its voltage

characteristics. Explain and indicate over it the followings:
(i) Threshold voltage
(ii) Plateau region
(iii) Working voltage
(iv) Continuous discharge region
RTU 2013
or
Describe construction and working of Geiger Muller counter. Explain

the terms dead time and quenching.
RTU 2012
or
What do you mean by dead time in GM counter? Draw a neat

diagram of GM counter and explain its working. Mention some of
its applications.
RTU 2010
or
Explain the terms avalanching, quenching and dead time. How is

quenching achieved in a G.M. tube?
RTU 2009
Ans :
Geiger-Muller counters work in the same manner as proportional
counters, the main difference being that ion pairs form along the
radiation track and produce avalanche. In Geiger-Muller counters,
one avalanche can produce another avalanche within the counter
Page 122 Nuclear Radiation Detectors Chap 7
sensitive volume and advances as a chain reaction. So the output

pulses of Geiger-Muller counters are correlated with the original
radiation properties.
Construction of Geiger-Muller Counter

The Geiger-Muller counter consists of a cylindrical chamber (tube)
with a wire stretched along its longitudinal axis and insulated from
its walls. The cylinder is filled with a low pressure gas mixture,
usually Helium or Argon.
Fig 1 : Construction of Geiger-Muller counter
The chamber walls act as the cathode and a positive voltage

is applied to the wire (usually tungsten), making it the anode. The
electrodes have a high voltage across them. When radiation enters
the tube it can ionize the gas. The ions (and electrons) are attracted
to the electrodes and an electric current is produced. A high voltage
is established across the cylinder and the wire as shown in the Figure
1.
Working of Geiger-Muller Counter

The potential of the order of 1000 volts is applied between anode and
cathode. When radiation enters the G.M. tube below the breakdown
potential of the gaseous mixture, some of the argon atoms gets
ionized and produce number of ion-pairs that release electrons by
collision and these are attracted toward the centre wire (anode). The
negative ions are collected and produce the primary discharge of the
counter and then the positive ions slowly drift toward the cathode
where they hit the cathode and produce free electrons.
The electrons produced in these ionizing collisions can also

participate in the ionization process, causing an avalanche of ion
formation to occur. Atoms are excited by collisions with high-speed
electrons at the avalanche site. The atoms generate photons as
they decay to a lower energy state. These photons can ionize other
gas molecules and the resulting photoelectrons can cause further
avalanches. Thus, the discharge spreads along the tube, resulting in
a positive ion shield around the wire anode. Eventually the ion shield
reduces the electric field at the wire to such an extent that no further
electron multiplication can occur. When this happens, production
of new avalanches ceases. The electrons striking the anode and the
change in tube voltage due to the ion shield produce a pulse at the
anode which is amplified and counted.
Operating Characteristic of a Geiger-Muller Tube

When the tube is exposed to a constant radiation intensity and the
voltage applied on the tube is slowly increased, a voltage will be
reached at which GM tube begins to produce pulses as indicated
by the recorder. This is the starting potential. As the voltage is
increased, very rapid increase in counting rate is observed. This
voltage is known as the threshold. Beyond the threshold further
increase in the voltage over certain range will produce little effect
on the counting rate. This region is known as the plateau. It should
have a slope of less than 10% per 100 volts for good tubes. Within
the plateau region, the proper operating voltage is selected.
The operating voltage should be selected relatively close to the
threshold voltage (within the lower 25% of the plateau) to preserve
the life of the tube. Also the operating voltage should be selected
at a point where the plateau shows minimum slope. If the voltage
is increased beyond the plateau region, the counting rate begins to
increase rapidly and the region of continuous discharge is reached.
The shape of the high voltage (HV) plateau is as shown in the Figure
2 and explained as follows :
For very low voltage (V < Va ) the counting rate is zero. The
scaler does not receive any signal because all the pulses are below
the discriminator level. The counting rate keeps increasing with high
voltage (HV), since more and more pulses are produced with a height
above the discriminator level. This continues up to the point when
V = Vb . For V > Vb , all the pulses are now above the discriminator
level. Since all the pulses are counted, each pulse being recorded as
one regardless of its height, the counting rate does not change. This
continues up to V = Vc . Beyond that point, the counting rate will
start increasing again because the HV is so high that spurious and
double pulses may be generated. Counter should not be operated
beyond V = Vc
Fig 2 : Plot of count rate versus applied voltage
Quenching
The positive ions striking the cathode liberate electrons. Since the
field at wire is no longer reduced because of positive ions already
reaching the cathode. A single ionising event may cause continuous
discharge. The process of prohibiting the secondary pulse is called as
Quenching. There are two ways of quenching.
1. Internal Quenching : The internal quenching method is
accompanied by adding to the main gas of the counter, a
small amount of a polyatomic organic gas or a halogen gas.
These have relatively large molecules, which tend to absorb
the fluorescent emissions of the noble-gas atoms. They also
have smaller excitation potentials than the latter, so their de-
excitation photons have insufficient energy to ionize the gas
and propagate the discharge further. For satisfactory photon
quenching, the absorption spectrum of the quenching agent
should match the emission spectrum of the noble gas. Methane
and ethanol both satisfy these requirements.
2. External Quenching : In external quenching, the operating
voltage of the counter is decreased, after the start of the
discharge until the ions reach the cathode, to a value for which
the gas multiplication factor is negligible. In this method
voltage across anode and cathode is lowered by applying

suitable electronic circuit. Therefore a large current pulse is
used in the counting circuit. When a large current pulse is
produced due to secondary emission of electrons, there occurs
a large voltage across series resistance. this results in lowering
the potential difference between electrodes of the counter. So
further ionisation is avoided.
Dead Time and Recovery Time of GM Tubes

After a count has been recorded, it takes the G-M tube a certain
amount of time to reset itself to be ready to record the next count.
Since the detector is not operating while it is being reset, the measured
activity is not the true activity of the sample. If the counting rate is
high, then the effect of dead time is very important.
Dead Time
Dead time is time from the initial pulse until another pulse can be
produced by the detector and the Recovery time is the time from
the initial full size pulse to the next full size pulse produced by the
detector.
Recovery Time
The recovery time includes a smaller interval of time known as the
dead time. During the dead time, the detector can not respond to
another ionizing event. The dead time occurs because of the effect
that the large number of positive ions have on the voltage potential
across the detector.
In the recovery time, the detector can respond, but because of
a reduced gas amplification factor, the output pulses are too small
to measure. In most common day-to-day use, the resolving time is
usually called the dead time since for all practical purposes, the
detector is dead until a pulse large enough to trigger the electronics
is created. This is illustrated in Figure 3.
Consider two radioactive sources of strength S1 andS2 . Let n1, n2
be the respective count rates recorded and n12 be the count rate
recorded when sources are taken together. Let t be the resolving
time. Let N1, N2 and N12 be the corrected count rates respectively.
Then we have
N1 = n1 , N2 = n2 , N12 = n12
1 - n1 t 1 - n2 t 1 - n12 t
we have N1 + N2 = N12
Fig 3 : Illustration of dead time and recovery time
Substituting value of N1, N2 and N12 in above equation, we get

n1 + n2 = n12
1 - n1 t 1 - n2 t 1 - n12 t
solving the above equation and neglecting the higher powers of count
rates, we get
t = n1 + n2 - n12
2n1 n2
The relation between dead time t , the true count rate N1 and
the measured count rate N is given by
N1 = N
1 - Nt
This expression is valid only when Nt << 1.
Applications of Gieger-Muller Counter

Following are some applications of G.M. counter :
(i) The scientific applications of the GM counter are limited since
it does not have any energy resolution. The GM counter can
be used to monitor ambient radiation levels for safety purposes
where the radioactive species are already known.
(ii) GM counters are widely used in portable survey instruments
at nuclear power facilities due to their ruggedness and the
simplicity of the associated electronics.

(iii) GM counters are also used for personal monitoring for
contamination (friskers), for process monitoring and for area
radiation monitoring.
(iv) GM counters are often used for laboratory counting when just
a gross count is desired.
2. An a -particle is stopped in an ionization chamber in which its

produces 15 # 10 4 ion pairs. Each time the a -particle produce on
ion pair, it losses 35 eV of energy. What is the kinetic energy of the
a -particle? Calculate the amount of charge collected by each plate.
RTU 2015
or
An a -particle loses all its energy in producing 15 # 10 4 electron-ion

pairs in the ionization chamber. 35 eV energy is required to produce
an electron-ion pair. What is the Kinetic energy of the a -particle?
Calculate the amount of charge collected by each plate.
RTU 2014
Ans :
Given,
Energy required to produce an ion pair,
W = 35 eV
The number of electron-ion pairs produced in the ionization chamber
Ne = 15 # 10 4
So, Kinetic energy of the a -particle
K.E. = Ne W
= 35 # 15 # 10 4
= 5.25 # 106 eV = 5.25 MeV
Hence, the amount of charge collected by each plate,

q = Ne e
= ^15 # 10 4h # ^1.6 # 10-19h
= 2.4 # 10-14 C
3. Describe the construction, working and application of Scintillation

counter.
RTU 2015
or
Give the construction, working and applications of scintillation

counter.
RTU 2013
or
Give the construction and theory of a scintillation counter.

RTU 2010, 2009
or
With suitable diagram explain various components of scintillation

counting system.
RTU 2008
or
Explain construction and working of scintillation counter.

RTU 2008
Ans :
Scintillation counter measure radiation by analyzing the effects of
the excitation of the detector material by the incident radiation. In
a scintillation detector, this emitted light is collected and measured
to provide an indication of the amount of incident radiation.
Scintillators are materials- solids, liquids, gases- that produce sparks
or scintillations of light when ionizing radiation passes through them.
A common example is a television picture tube.
The coating on the screen is excited by the electron beam
and emits light. A material which scintillates is commonly called a
phosphor or a fluor. The scintillations are commonly detected by a
photomultiplier tube (PMT). Scintillation detectors constitute the
other major class of radiation detectors used in nuclear medicine.
Construction of Scintillation Counter

Radiation detection systems based on scintillation detectors consist
of three main components:
(i) A scintillator (including the sensitive volume of the detector),
(ii) An optical coupling system and
(iii) A photomultiplier tube and signal possessing electronic.
Fig 1 : Construction of scintillation counter
The outer surface of the scintillator (the sensitive volume of

the detector) is optically isolated inside a holding vessel where the
outer surfaces are constructed from reflecting materials. The side
of the scintillator facing the photomultiplier tube is transparent to
allow the passage of the produced light pulses - scintillation - due
to the interaction of radiation within the scintillator. The light is
emitted isotropically and somehow has to be channeled toward the
photomultiplier tube.
The optical coupling system may vary from virtually nothing to
a highly sophisticated arrangement to ensure the efficient transfer of
the light pulse from the scintillator to the photomultiplier tube. The
photomultiplier tube consists of a photosensitive layer (photocathode)
and 9 to 12 dynodes where the applied positive voltage increases
gradually by about 100 to 200 Volt for each dynode and anode.
There are three classes of solid state scintillation phosphors: organic
crystals, inorganic crystals and plastic phosphors.
1. Inorganic scintillation phosphors : Inorganic crystals include
lithium iodide (LiI), sodium iodide (NaI), cesium iodide (CsI),
and zinc sulfide (ZnS). Inorganic crystals are characterized by
high density, high atomic number and pulse decay times of
approximately 1 microsecond. Thus, they exhibit high efficiency
for detection of gamma rays and are capable of handling high
count rates.
2. Organic Scintillation phosphor : Organic scintillation phosphors
include naphthalene, stilbene and anthracene. The decay time
of this type of phosphor is approximately 10 nanoseconds.
This type of crystal is frequently used in the detection of beta

particles.
3. Plastic phosphors : Plastic phosphors are made by adding
scintillation chemicals to a plastic matrix. The decay constant
is the shortest of the three phosphor types, approaching 1 or 2
nanoseconds. The plastic has a high hydrogen content, therefore,
it is useful for fast neutron detectors.
Working of Scintillation Counter

The photons produced in the scintillator hit the photocathode and
release a number of electrons that gain kinetic energy, due to the
potential difference between the photocathode and the first dynode,
and hit the first dynode and release five to eight electrons. The
maximum values of quantum efficiency, the fractional number of
electron released per photon, are 0.2 to 0.3 and depend on the
wavelength of the light. The produced photoelectrons are internally
multiplied due to an increase in the applied voltage on the dynodes
that generate a relatively large electric pulse output at the anode,
which is nearly proportional to the energy absorbed in the scintillator.
Therefore the radiation detection process with a scintillation
detector includes energy absorption in the scintillator, conversion
of the absorbed energy to light photons, loss of photons in the
scintillator, collection of photons and emission of electrons by the
photocathode, electron multiplication in the photomultiplier tube
(PMT), and finally output electric pulse analysis. The number of
electrons, ne , released at the photocathode per absorbed energy (in
keV), Ea , is given by
ne = Ea STp GC
where
S = Scintillation efficiency (the number of photons converted to
light per keV),
Tp = fraction of photons not absorbed in the scintillator,
G = light collection efficiency (the fraction of photons that fall on
the photocathode),
C = quantum efficiency (the fractional number of electrons released
per photon hitting the photocathode).
Applications of Scintillation Counter

Following are some applications of scintillation counter :
(i) They can be used to measure radiation intensity.
(ii) It is used as a spectrometer to measure the energy spectrum of

radiation.
4. In a Geiger Muller counter, on an average 108 electron/count are

collected if the count rate is 600 per minute, then find the ionization
current.
RTU 2015, 2008
Ans :
Given,
Counting rate, n = 600 = 600 = 10 counts/ sec
60
No. of electrons per count, k = 108 electrons/count
So, the total number of electrons collected is given by
Ne = (Count rate) # (no. per count)
= 10 # 108 = 109 electrons
Therefore, current due to the flow of electrons is obtained as
q
I = = Ne e
t t
where e = charge on one electron = 1.6 # 10-19 coloumb .
^10 h # ^1.6 # 10 h
9 -19
Hence, I =
1
= 1.6 # 10-10 A = 16 nA
5. Draw a labelled diagram of proportional counter and explain its use

in detection of a , b , soft x -rays and g -rays.
RTU 2014
Write a short note on proportional counter.

RU 2006, 2004
Ans :
This counter works in higher applied potential difference region than
ionization chamber. The small pulse amplitude encountered in ion
chambers can be changed by using gas-filled detectors in a different
manner. A proportional counter is a detector which operates in the
proportional region. As the voltage on the detector is increased beyond

the ion chamber region, the ions created by primary ionization are
accelerated by the electric field towards the electrode. Unlike the
ion chamber region, however, the primary ions gain enough energy
in the acceleration to produce secondary ionization pairs. These
newly formed secondary ions are also accelerated, causing additional
ionizations. The large number of events, known as an avalanche,
creates a single, large electrical pulse.
Construction of Proportional Counter

A typical proportional counter is shown in Figure 1. It can be
constructed using self-contained gas volumes or with continuously
cleaning gas volumes. A mixture of noble gas Ar ^90%h and some
poly atomic gas (methane 10%) are usually used as filler gas in
this counter. The detectors can also be constructed with the sample
holder integral to the detector, eliminating the need for a detector
window. Virtually all proportional counters are constructed using
a wire anode of small diameter (of 0.1 mm) placed inside a larger,
typically cylindrical cathode that also serves to enclose the gas.
Under these conditions, the electric-field strength is nonuniform and
reaches large values in the immediate vicinity of the wire surface.
Fig 1 : Typical Proportional Counter
Working of Proportional Counter

Proportional counters are photon counting devices. A typical
counter consists of a gas-filled chamber fitted with one or more X-ray

transparent windows. Photons penetrate the window and pass into
the gas inside where interactions with the gas atoms result in the
creation of a number of ion pairs (electrons and partially ionized gas
atoms). The anodes are usually thin metal wires and their electric
field causes the electrons to drift towards the anodes where the field
strength is highest.
The energy of the electrons increases and collisions with other
gas atoms cause further ionization producing more electrons. These
secondary electrons themselves drift and acquire enough energy to
cause further ionization and so a large cloud of electrons arrives
at the anode in a process known as an avalanche. The quantity of
charge produced in the avalanche is great enough to be detectable in
an amplifier connected to the anode. In a proportional counter, the
objective is to have each original free electron that is formed along
the track of the particle create its own individual ownsend avalanche.
Thus, many avalanches are formed for each incident charged particle.
Use in detection of a , b , soft x -rays and g -rays.

(1) a counting: The a particles emitted by a source are almost
monoenergetic, and so the pulse height spectrum shows almost
a single isolated pulse. Since a produces 1000 times ion-pairs
per unit length compared to b , for detecting a particles, the
counter is operated at the lower portion of proportional counting
range.
(2) b counting: b particles have continuous and wide energy
spectrum. The ion-pairs are produced by a small portion. So we
find a broad curve in Figure 7.4(b) (dotted curve). The doctor
has to be operated at the higher voltage.
To have simultaneous detection of a and b particles, the
anode is made in the form of a cylindrical bunch of wires, one
insulated from the other. Each wire works as detector and if
biased at different voltages, these can be used to detect particles
of different energies, i.e., determine the energy spectrum of the
particles detected.
(iii) g -rays and X -rays: Proportional counters can be used to detect
X -rays and low energy g -rays. These produce photoelectrons
from gas atoms which subsequently cause gas multiplication
leading to avalanche. Only low energy g -rays and X -rays can
be detected.
6. A G.M. Counter has a plateau slop of 3% per 100 volts. If the

operating point is at 1100 volts, what is the maximum permissible
voltage fluctuation in the counting is not affected by more than
0.1%.
RTU 2014
Ans :
As the plateau slope
S = n2 - n1 # 100
nau V2 - V1
Now we have
^n2 - n1h
= 0.1% = 0.1 # 10-2 = 10-3
nau
and slope S = 3 % = 3 = 0.03

100
Therefore 0.03 = 10-3 # 100

V2 - V1
-3
or V2 - V1 = 10 # 100 = 10 = 3.3 Volt
0.03 3
As operating voltage is 1100 volts, hence the voltage fluctuation is
3.3 volts in 1100 volts or 0.3%.
7. Explain the principle of particle detection. Draw log n - v graph

showing different regions and discuss the significant physical
processes taking place in these regions.
RTU 2014, 2009
or
How will you differentiate between three types of gas detectors viz.
ionization chamber, proportional counter and GM counter?
RTU 2012
Ans :
Ionization chamber, proportional counter, and Gigger Mular (GM)
counters are used to detect particles. These detectors generally
consist of gas enclosed in a metal cylinder; a thin metal wire is put
on the axis of the above cylinder as shown in Figure 1. The wire is
insulated from the outer cylinder. A thin window provides the entry
of the radiation.
Fig 1 : Gas filled Detector ( Ionization chamber/Proportional

Counter/ GM Counter )
A radial electric field is applied between thin wire called anode

and the outer cylinder called cathode.
The radiation entering the detector collides inelastically with
atoms of the gas and produces ion-pairs (electron and a positive
ion form a pair). When there is no electric field, these ion-pairs
combine or diffuse in the gas and, therefore, no current flows through
the outer resistor R . When electric field is applied, the ion-pairs
produced move towards electrodes, electrons towards central wire,
and positive ions towards cathode. As a result, current flows through
the resistor R . If the total capacitance of detecting system be CT , a
pulse is produced which could be processed and detected by detector
electronics.
The following points must be noted :
1. The average energy needed to create an ion-pair in a given gas
is almost same, about 32 eV for the gases commonly used.
2. The electron mobility in most of the gases is of the order of
106 ^cm/sh^V/cmh-1 and is about 1000 times more than ions, i.e.
electrons move quicker.
3. The drift velocity of ions decreases with pressure also and so it
is given by
mE
vi i (1)
p
where m i is mobility, E is electric field, and p is pressure m i is

almost independent of the mass of the ion. So, vi is reduced at higher
pressures.
However, ion pairs produced per unit length by particle a for given
energy, say, 5 MeV, is 10 times for protons and 100 times for b
. Therefore, in light of (a) above, for detecting g ôr b h , the gas
pressure has to be quite hight to limit the size of the detector.
In vies of the above, the detector response will depend on the
voltage applied, the pressure and nature of the entering particle.
We, therefore, start examining the response (output current or pulse
height) for a given gas at a given pressure p for two representative
particles say a - and b . Typical response curves are shown in Figure
2.
Fig 2 : Different Region of Operation of gas filled detectors
Six different regions marked from I to VI in the figure are

identified and discussed below:
Region I: Region of Recombination

When tube voltage is zero, the ion-pairs produced recombine
and there is no current in resistor R . But, as we increase tube
voltage gradually, ions do drift towards electrodes and current
starts flowing. As voltage increases, the drift of ions increases and
recombination decreases. At certain voltage, say, V = 20 volts, the

recombination stops completely. The region from V = 0 to V = 20 is
the recombination region. Since a particle produces more ion pairs
per unit length (about 1000 times of b ) and so as compared to b
more current flows when a enters (see Figure 7.2).
Region II: Region of Ionization Chamber

When recombination stops, the tube current saturates, i.e. all the
ions and electrons produced by radiation are drawn to the respective
electrodes. Since electrons move faster than ions, they are collected
quickly and produced a pulse. The height of the pulse or current in
R depends on the no. of ion-pairs produced which, in turn, depends
on the energy of radiation but does not depend on applied voltage.
Ionization current measures intensity; hence, the detectors operating
in this range are called ionization chambers.
Region III: Region of Proportional Counter

As the voltage is increased further, the ion-pairs produced gain
energy. These moving ion-pairs collide with gas molecules and
produce ion-pairs further. The process is repeated. This process is
called gas multiplication. In fact, energy required to produce a single
ion pair is - 32 eV, and so a single incident particle may produce
many ion-pairs which in turn, multiply. In fact, ion pairs produced
by an incident particle increase ion pairs by a constant factor M , as
large as 105 to 106 . This process is called gas multiplication, and this
is the underlying principle of proportional counters.
Since the number of ion pairs produced depends only on energy
EêV h
n = 32.6 , the pulse height produced is proportional to energy, and so
it is the proportional counting region. Also, pulse corresponding to
particle a will be about 1000 times higher than b . So, it is possible
by selecting proper electronics to identify the particle nature.
Region IV: Region of Limited Proportionality

If the voltage is increased further, the strong electric field sweeps
away electrons quickly, leaving positive ions behind. These positive
ions clouded together alter the electric field, and so, non-linear
effects come up. The pulse height very non-linearly with the energy
of paricle. This limits the use of counters operating in this region.
Region V: The Region of Giger-Muller Counter

When the voltage is increased to kV, beyond V4 in Figure 2, the electric
field within the tube is so high ^106 V/mh that electrons produced by
primary radiation get enough energy to produce secondary ion pairs.
The electrons from secondary ion-pair are also capable of repeating
the process. This chain reaction leads to avalanche multiplication of
electrons, called Townsend avalanche. Under these conditions when
avalanche starts, more and more number of electrons and positive ions
are created. The electrons are quickly swept away but positive ions
get accumulated in the tube. This growing number of positive ions
start reducing electric field and ultimately it goes below avalanche
and so the avalanche stops or quenched. This process is self limiting.
When the avalanche terminates, it has certain number of positive
ions shielding the field. Since the output pulse is determined by the
total number of positive ions causing quenching, it is of the same
amplitude independent of the properties of incident radiation.
This region is the Giger-Muller region. See that, in Figure 2,
there is plateau region where count rate is constant. Most of the
Giger-Muller (GM) counters are operated in this region.
It may be noted that the ionization chamber is mostly operated
in current mode, the proportional and GM counters are generally
operated in pulse mode.
Region VI: Region of Continuous Discharge

When the Voltage is increased beyond the plateau region V5 , a
continuous discharge starts due to electric breakdown of gas. These
is a pulse without particle entering into the detector. Although the
discharge is like thunderbolts, it appears continuous due to detector
electronics. This region cannot be used for designing a detector.
8. A GM counter with dead time td = 200 ms is used to detect radiation

from a radioactive source.
(a) If the observed count rate is 1000 s-1 , what is the true count rate?
(b) What would be the observed count rate if the source strength
were increased by a factor of 10.
RTU 2013
Ans :
Given,
Observed counting rate,
n = 1000 counts/sec
Dead time, t = 200 # 10-6 sec
(a) Actual counting rate is given by
N = n
1 - nt
Substituting the given values in above formula, we get
True count rate N = 1000 = 1000
1 - ^1000h # 200 # 10-6 1 - 0.2
= 1250 counts/sec
The dead time loss is

N - n = 17391 - 16000 = 1391 counts/min
(b) If the same signal strength is increased by a factor of 10, N
become 12500, then observed count rate
n = 1 +NNt
= 12500 = 12500
1 + ^12500h # 200 # 10-6 1 + 2.50
= 3571.4 count/sec
9. In an air filled ionization chamber., 15 a -particle each enter micro

second from 5 MeV a -particle beam. If 35.2 eV energy is needed to
produce an ion-pair in air. Calculate the ionization current.
RTU 2013
Ans :
Since 15 a -particle each enter micro second, i.e. each second 15 # 106
particle enter. Hence
The total energy of particles entering the chamber is
K.E = 15 # 106 # 5 # 106 eV = 75 # 1012 eV
Energy needed to produce on ion pair is 35.2 eV. So no of ion -pair
produced
12
Ne = 75 # 10 eV = 2.13 # 1012 pair
35.2eV
Ionization Current
N e 2.13 # 10 # ^1.6 # 10 h
12 -19
I = e =
t 1
= 3.41 # 10-7 A
10. What are the advantages of proportional counter over GM counter.

RTU 2010, 2008
Ans :
The advantage of proportional counter over GM counter are that it
can be
(1) operated at reduced voltage
(2) the organic quenching gas is not rapidly utilized and
(3) there is no dead time during each pulse.
11. An ionization chamber exposed to a beam of a-particle registers a

current of 4.8 # 10-13 ampere. In the average 20 a-particles enter the
chamber per second. Assuming that in producing ion pairs 35 eV
per ion pair energy is needed, calculate the energy of the a-particle
RTU 2012
Ans :
Given, I = 4.8 # 10-13 Amp
If E (eV) be the energy of a-particles, then the total energy of 20
a- particles is
E20 = 20E eV
In producing ion pairs 35 eV per ion pair energy is needed, then the
number of ion pairs produced per second is
Ne = 20E
35
Thus the charge possessed by these ion pairs per second (current) is
I = 20E eV
35
= 20E # 1.6 # 10-19 coulmb/ sec

35
or 4.8 # 10-13 = 20E # 1.6 # 10-19 coulmb/ sec

35
-13
or E = 4.8 # 10 # -35
20 # 1.6 # 10 19
= 5.25 MeV
12. The efficiency of a GM counter is 90 %. If it counts maximum 6000

counters/minute then calculate the paralysis time of counter.
RTU 2012
Ans :
Given,
The efficiency of counter,
h = 90% = 0.9
Maximum count rate of GM counter,
n = 6000 counts/minute
= 100 counts/sec
Since, the efficiency of GM counter is defined as
h= n (1)
N
where n is the observed count rate and N is the actual count rate
given by
N = n (2)
1 - nt
where t is the dead time. So, from Eqs. (1) and (2), we obtain
h = ^1 - nt h
1-h
or, t=
n
= 1 - 0.9
100
= 1 # 10-3 sec = 1 ms
13. A G.M. counter with a dead time of 300 m sec records 16000 counts/
min. What is the dead time loss in the counting rate ?
RTU 2010
Ans :
Given,
Observed counting rate,
n = 16000 counts/min
-6
Dead time, t = 300 # 10 = 5 # 10-6 min
60
Actual counting rate is given by
N = n
1 - nt
N = 16000
1 - ^16000h # 5 # 10-6
= 16000
1 - 0.08
= 17391 counts/min
The dead time loss is

N - n = 17391 - 16000 = 1391 counts/min
*******

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