Judgment and proposition or logical statement

1. Judgment and Proposition or Logical Statement

2. JUDGMENT and PROPOSITION Judgment - is the mental act which affirms or denies something.
Proposition - the product of judgment. - a statement that affirms (asserts) or denies (negates)
something.

3. Proposition is in a form of a sentence as a group of words that expresses a complete thought. 4

Kinds of Sentences 1.) Declarative : states a fact Ex. My house is a red-roofed bungalow in Greenhills. 2.)
Interrogative : asks a question Ex. How are you today? 3.) Imperative : makes a request or gives a
command Ex. (a.) Please send me some sampaguita plants. (b.) "Build more stately mansions, O my
soul." 4.) Exclamatory : expresses a strong feeling Ex. What a lovely thing to say! PROPOSITION

4. To the Logicians: a.) according to Bachhuber: proposition is being expressed by a declarative

sentence, for both assert or deny something. Ex. "Cainta is a town in Rizal province." (asserting) "
Manuel L. Quezon was not the first Vice-President of the Philippines" (denying) b.) according to Copi
insisted that there must be a distinction between form (kinds of sentences) and function (informative,
expressive, directive) -not every declarative sentence seeks to inform. Quite a number of declarative
sentences are ceremonial and expressive, as with gratitude and appreciation. PROPOSITION

5. To the Logicians: c.) according to Aristotle: -defines proposition as "a sentence that could either be
true or false." -this does not mean, however, that the proposition is in fact true or false. What matters is
that this is a proposition, a logical statement, where something is asserted, and which could either be
true or false. PROPOSITION

6. Kinds of Propositions a. categorical or attributed b. hypothetical c. existential d. non-existential e.

simple f. compound Basic Elements of the Categorical Proposition a. it has a subject- predicate
relationship b. its subject is affirmed or denied by the predicate therefore, its basic elements are: 1.) the
subject 2.) the predicate 3.) the copula PROPOSITION

7. SUBJECT - the one spoken of: the one about whom or of which something is affirmed or denied.
PREDICATE - is what is affirmed or denied of the subject. COPULA - links the subject with the predicate; a
verb to be: is, am, are (affirmative) and is, am, are not (negative) PROPOSITION "The story he told you is
apocryphal." story : subject apocryphal (fictitious) : predicate is : copula

8. NOTE: for the purpose of Logic, tenses are irrelevant. The copula "is" should be taken a tenseless
sense; its pasta and future forms are usually considered part of the predicate. In this connection, it is
important to note that number, in the grammatical sense, is irrelevant also to logic. PROPOSITION

9. Quality of the Proposition -Copula is the qualifier of the Proposition. Because of it, the proposition
is either affirmative or negative. Example: 1. He who is not a college graduate is ineligible. 2. Some
animals are non-mammals. PROPOSITION Quantity of Extension of the Proposition -quantity of the
proposition is equivalent to quantity of its subject. It is: Singular if subject stands for a single definite
individual or group. Particular if the subject designates an indefinite part of its total extension. Universal
if the subject can apply to every portion signified by the term.
 10. Quantity or Extension of the Proposition Example: 1.) Singular: Shakespeare is Englands greatest
dramatist. 2.) Particular: Some prima ballerinas are Margot Fonteyn and Natalia Makarova. 3.) Universal:
Love is many-splendor things.

11. Quantity of the Predicate Three Points in Determining the Quantity of the Predicate 1. Find out if
the predicate is singular. Ex. Dr. Christian Barnard is the most outstanding heart transplant surgeon. 2. If
the predicate is not singular, and if the proposition is affirmative, then the predicate is particular. Ex.
Gabriel Marcel is a French philosopher. 3. If the predicate is not singular, and if the proposition is
negative, then the predicate is universal. Ex. Some men are not artists.

12. Symbols and Categorical Statements Attempts to make Logic a science of symbols to achieve
shortcuts to correct reasoning. Symbols for the Four Categorical Statements (A,E,I,O) A and I are taken
from the two vowels of AffIrmo (affirm) and E & O from the two vowels of nEgO (negate or deny)

13. Symbols and Categorical Statements A- stands for universal or singular and affirmative statements.
E- stands for universal or singular and negative statements. I- stands for particular and affirmative
statements. O- stands for particular and negative statements.

14. Symbols andCategorical Statements universal/singular A I E O affirmative negative particular

15. Symbols and Categorical Statements A: 1. All roses are flowers. 2. Every cloud has its silver lining.
3. Man is a being-for-death. 4. Whoever wins will be awarded a trip to Hongkong. 5. Wherever you go, I
go. 6. Whatever will be, will be. 7. All of us in this room are Filipinos. 8. Everything is in a flux. 9. Francis
is a scholarly Jesuit. 10. His lecture on Philosophy and art is a brilliant piece of work.

16. E: 1. No atheist is a believer in God. 2. No bird has four legs. 3. Love of country is not a commodity
for sale. 4. None of the invited top brass showed up. 5. Love means not having to say you are sorry. 6. I
never said he was a crook. 7. He loves me not. 8. Not any of the men to be arrested could be located. 9.
No pill box is a safe weapon. 10. A squash is not an eggplant. Symbols and Categorical Statements

17. Symbols and Categorical Statements I: 1. Some philosophers are essentialists. 2. Several
philosophers are existentialists. 3. Many movies are, in whole or in part pornographic. 4. A few heart
transplant patients are still alive. 5. Most cultures are deeply religious. 6. Filipinos are music lovers. 7.
The Japanese soldiers in World War II were barbarians. 8. Pampanguenas are good cooks. 9. Almost all
people condemned the Plaza Miranda carnage. 10. Quite a few tourists are knowledgeable of our scenic
spots.

18. Symbols and Categorical Statements O: 1. Some dogs are not black. 2. Not all women are fickle. 3.
A few Filipinos are not literate. 4. Many Americans are not rich. 5. Most Russians are not Communist
Party members. 6. Some things in life are not edible. 7. All that shines is not gold. 8. From the economic
standpoint , not all men are equal. 9. Not everyone who wears glasses is smart. 10. All parrots cannot
talk.

19. THE LOGICAL FORM Most of the propositions taken up follow a consistent pattern: S is P (subject-
copula-predicate). Those already adept in logic can easily translate, mentally, any proposition into a
standard- form categorical statement. The following illustrate the logical form: A propositions: 1. Mario
sells newspapers. Mario is a [newsboy] 2. Shakespeare wrote a drama Macbeth. Shakespeare is the
[dramatist] of Macbeth. Shakespeare is the [author] of the drama Macbeth.
 20. THE LOGICAL FORM 3. Whatever is material will decay. All things which are material are
[substances] which will decay. E propositions: 1. No crocodiles fly. No crocodiles are [flyers]. 2. None of
the guests came. No guests are [guests] who came. or No guests are [people] who came.

21. THE LOGICAL FORM I propositions: 1. Some broken hearts can be mended. Some broken hearts
are mendable [things]. 2. A dog barked furiously last night. Some dog is an [animal] which barked
furiously last night. O Proposition: 1. Several student radicals have not traveled to Red China. several
student radicals are not [travelers] to Red China. 2. We saw the zarzuela and did not enjoy it. Some
times that we saw the zarzuela are not [times] that we enjoyed.

22. The Hypothetical Proposition Hypothetical Proposition -is a compound proposition which contains
a proposed or tentative explanation. Compound Proposition - consists of at least two clauses connected
by conjunctions, adverbs, etc. which expresses the relationship between the clauses as well as our
assent to it.

23. The clauses are simple propositions of the A-E-I-O variety. 3 Kinds of Hypothetical Proposition 1.
Conditional Proposition 2. Disjunctive Proposition 3. Conjunctive Proposition The Hypothetical
Proposition

24. 1. Conditional Proposition - a compound proposition in which one clause asserts something as true
provided that the other clause is true. - the first clause= if clause or termed as the antecedent. - the
second clause = then clause or called as the consequent. Example: If strong typhoons come, then
crops will be destroyed. (1.) The Hypothetical Proposition

25. (1.) Conditional Proposition Antecedent: If strong typhoon comes Consequent: then crops will be
destroyed. NOTE: the ifthen are the connectives and indicate that if the antecedent is true, then, the
consequent must be true. IMORTANT: -sequence between the two. -antecedent must flow with logical
necessity into the consequent -it does not matter whether individually the antecedent or the
consequence is true or false; what matters is the relationship between them.

26. (2.) The Hypothetical Proposition 2. Disjunctive Proposition - alternative proposition - It is the
one which presents two or more alternatives, one of which may be true. - Its members are linked by the
conjunctions eitheror. - It may either be strict disjunctive or broad disjunctive.

27. (2.) Disjunctive Proposition Strict Disjunctive - Only one member is true and the others are false.
Ex. Either he is an angel or a devil. - A proposition and its contradictory may be asserted. - Ex. Either a
triangle is a three-sided figure or it is a non-three-sided figure.

28. (2.) Disjunctive Proposition Broad Disjunctive - one member or more than one member may be
true. Example: Either Luciano or Edgardo are TOYM candidates. - The distinction between the strict
and the broad disjunctive is based on the analysis of the subject matter and context.

29. (3.) The Hypothetical Proposition 3. Conjunctive Proposition - one which asserts that two
alternatives cannot be true at the same time. In fact, both alternatives may be false. Example: 1. You
cannot be in the faculty room and in the auditorium at the same time. 2. A thing cannot exist and not
exist at the same time.

30. Reported by GROUP #3 JUDGEMENT and PROPOSITION or LOGICAL STATEMENT Arlene

Abonales Maria Joyce Lim Renzie Relota Kersha Sheene Martos Art Marie Getonzo Kimberly Havoc
 31. The Venn Diagrams - A clearer presentation of categorical statement. - Called after the English
mathematician and logician John Venn who first introduced it during the nineteenth century. - If we
represent the subject as S and the predicate as P, then anything that is not the subject is S and anything
that is not the predicate is P.

32. The Venn Diagrams Figure 2 Figure 2 represents class S- a class of persons or objects. It does not
represent a proposition, i.e., it does not assert anything. S S Figure 3 Figure 3 is a shaded circle. It
represents a nullification of class S. It means that class S has no members. S x Figure 4 Figure 4 has an x
in its center. It represents the fact that there are Ss, i.e., that there is at least one member of S, that
class S is not empty.

Notes for logic

1. Victoria Intl College 13 Notes Introduction to logic Name: Amit Chaudhary Semester: 4th

2. Page 1 of 16 What is logic? Logic is the principles and methods used to distinguish correct from
incorrect reasoning. It is the science of valid inference. It is the rational way of drawing or establishing
conclusions. It is the foundation of all mathematics, science, and reasoning. Logic helps us to identify
good argument and understand why they are good. Similarly, it guides us to identify bad argument and
to understand why they are bad. People use logic in every situation. It is used to solve problems,
troubleshoot, and helps to find mathematical sums. Logic is the way of learning to think and
communicate clearly and coherently. In conclusion, logic is the justification of our beliefs and the
judgments. Example: The increase in CO2 has caused global climate change. Humans are responsible
for the increase in CO2. Humans are responsible for global climate change. Arguments Logic and
critical thinking are concerned with arguments. An argument is a collection of propositions, one of which
(the conclusion) is supported by the others (premises). An argument might also be called an inference or
reasoning. An argument is a set of statements connected by a special relationship of justification; the
statements provide evidence for the main claim. Arguments seek to prove a point; to establish truth of a
claim on basis of other claims. An argument presents logical reasons and evidence to support a
viewpoint. The best arguments are ones with true premises that provide the strongest possible support
for their conclusion. The strongest possible support for a conclusion is called validity. Inductive and
Deductive Arguments INDUCTIVE - reaches a general conclusion from observed specifics. If we move
from specific premise to general conclusion then it is called inductive argument. It is associated with
informal logic. Example: The apple is from the cartoon. The apple is very testy. So, the apples in the
cartoon are testy. DEDUCTIVE - begins with a major premise and moves toward a more specific
statement or minor premise. If we move from general premises to specific conclusion then it is called
deductive argument. It is associated with formal logic. All the apples in this cartoon are testy. Specific
General General Specific

3. Page 2 of 16 This apple is from that cartoon. So, the apple is testy. Propositions Arguments are
made up of propositions. A proposition is a statement that can be expressed as a declarative sentence. It
asserts that something is or is not the case, and thus can be true or false. While propositions can be
expressed as declarative sentences, they are not to be equated with declarative sentences. A sentence is
a set of symbols (typically visual or auditory); in certain cases, the proposition is what those symbols
mean. Sentences in different languages, or even different sentences in the same language, may express
the same proposition. Propositions have different levels of complexity. We can get a sense of these
levels of complexity by distinguishing between simple and compound propositions. A proposition is
compound if and only if it is a: (a) A disjunctive proposition: an or statement such that the whole
statement is true if and only if at least one of its component statements are true. (b) A conjunctive
proposition: an and statement such that the whole statement is true if and only if both of its
component statements are true. (c) A hypothetical proposition: an if-then statement that is false if and
only if its antecedent is true and its consequent is false. If a hypothetical is of the form If p then q, p is
the antecedent and q is the consequent. If a statement is not compound, then it is simple. For example,
All rabbits are mammals. Bugs Bunny is a rabbit. Bugs Bunny is a mammal. Premises and conclusion
Premises: Premises are assertions that, when joined together, will lead the reader to the conclusion. The
most important part of any premise is that your audience will accept it as true. If your audience rejects
even one of your premises, they will likely also reject your conclusion, and your entire argument will fall
apart. When constructing premises, it is essential to

4. Page 3 of 16 consider your audience. When you know your audience, you also know which
assertions they will accept and which they will question. (a) For example, consider the following
assertion: Because greenhouse gases are causing the atmosphere to warm at a rapid rate... Is this a
solid premise? It depends on your audience. If your readers are members of an environmental group,
they will accept this premise without qualms. If your readers are oil company executives, they may
reject this premise and your conclusions. (b) To construct solid premises, you need to consider the
rationales and beliefs of your opponents. What are the givens you accept that they do not? What
beliefs lead them to reject those givens? Where can two sides of an argument find common ground?
That is where you will find effective premises to reach your conclusion. Conclusions: A conclusion can be
any assertion that your readers will not readily accept. A conclusion must have at least one premise
supporting it. The thesis of an argumentative paper will always contain a conclusion, with the main
points or body paragraphs acting as premises that lead the reader to accept it. (a) Lets revisit the
previous example, but change the wording slightly: Therefore, greenhouse gases are causing the
atmosphere to warm at a rapid rate. How did changing the first word in the sentence change the
function of the sentence? The meaning of the sentence stays the same, but how we're using it in our
argument has changed. It is now in the form of a conclusion. (b) You may have heard one of your thesis
statements or main arguments described as too obvious. This usually means that your readers already
accept your conclusion without any need for argument. You must also consider your audience when you
are constructing your conclusions. Recognizing Arguments Arguments are composed of one or more
premises and a conclusion. Premises are statements offered as reasons for accepting another
statement. A conclusion is a statement supported by reasons. Distinguishing premises from conclusions
is a skill that requires both practice and close attention to the nuances of language. Here are some tips
that will help you separate premises from conclusions: 1. Look for premise indicators--words like
because, since, for, and given that-- that provide clues when premises are being offered. 2. Look for
conclusion indicators--words like therefore, thus, hence, and so-- that provide clues when conclusion
indicators are being offered. 3. If the passage contains no indicator words, try these two strategies:

5. Page 4 of 16 a. Ask yourself, "What claim is the writer or speaker trying to prove?" That claim will
be the conclusion. b. Try putting the word "therefore" before each of the statements in turn. The
statement it fits best will be the conclusion. Example: 1. A good society treasures its dissidents and
mavericks because it needs the creative thinking that produces new hypotheses, expanded means, a
larger set of alternatives, and, in general, the vigorous conversation induced by fresh ideas. (Nel
Noddings, Philosophy of Education, 1995) Premise: A good society needs the creative thinking that that
produces new hypotheses, expanded means, a larger set of alternatives, and, in general, the vigorous
conversation induced by fresh ideas. Conclusion: A good society treasures its dissidents and mavericks.
2. Make a will. Otherwise, the state will determine who gets your stuff. (Andrew Tobias, "Isn't It Time
You Faced the Future?" 2001) Premise: If you don't make a will, the state will determine who gets your
stuff. Conclusion: You ought to make a will. The word otherwise often functions--as it does here--as
premise indicator. 3. With what group do I belong? I am with those who would be pleased to be refuted
if I should say anything that is not true, and pleased to be the refuter of anyone who should say anything
that is not true-- more pleased, in fact, to be refuted than to refute. I think that's a greater good, you
see, insofar as it's a greater good to be relieved of a great evil than to relieve another of the same.
(Socrates, in Plato's Gorgias) Premise: It is a greater good to be relieved of a great evil than to relieve
another of the same. Conclusion: It is a greater good to be refuted than to refute. In this passage, the
premise indicator "insofar as" helps us to identify the premise. Notice that the first two sentences aren't
strictly part of the argument. Their function, instead, is to provide background or contextual information
necessary to understand the argument. 4. Good sense is of all things in the world the most equally
distributed, for everybody thinks himself so abundantly provided with it that

6. Page 5 of 16 even those most difficult to please in all other matters do not commonly desire more
of it than they already possess. Premise: Even those most difficult to please in all other matters do not
commonly desire more good sense than they already possess. Conclusion: Good sense is of all things in
the world the most equally distributed. 5. Forbear to judge, for we are sinners all. Premise: We are
sinners all. Conclusion: You should not judge. 6. Todays first year college students have lived the
external appearances of an adult life for many more years than their counterparts 50 years ago did.
[Therefore,] what we have traditionally associated with the intellectual awakening during childhood
years must now occur in the high school. Premise: Todays first year college students have lived the
external appearances of an adult life for many more years than their counterparts 50 years ago did.
Conclusion: What we have traditionally associated with the intellectual awakening during childhood
years must now occur in the high school. 7. Thomas Aquinas argued that human intelligence is a gift
from God and therefore to apply human intelligence to understand the world is not an affront to God,
but is pleasing to him. Premise: Human intelligence is a gift from God. Conclusion: To apply human
intelligence to understand the world is not an affront to God, but is pleasing to him. 8. Standardized
tests have a disparate racial and ethnic impact; white and Asian students score, on average, markedly
higher than their black and Hispanic peers. This is true for fourth-grade tests, college entrance exams,
and every other assessment on the books. If a racial gap is evidence of discrimination, then all tests
discriminate. Premise: White and Asian students score markedly higher than black and Hispanic students
on fourth-grade standardized tests, college entrance exams, and every other assessment on the books.
Premise: Standardized tests have a disparate racial and ethnic impact. Conclusion: If a racial gap is
evidence of discrimination, then all tests discriminate.

7. Page 6 of 16 Argument vs Explanation If you want to communicate with someone in order to get
your point across, you will probably end up using many definitive statements backed up by factual
statements. These statements can be based on observation, established facts, or proofs. Without even
consciously thinking about it, we are always using this methodology in our conversations. These
conversations are therefore riddled with arguments and explanations. While the two terms are often
erroneously used interchangeably and explanations can be used to bolster arguments, there are many
differences between arguments and explanations. 1. Definition of an Argument and an Explanation
Argument Argument has a number of different definitions. Essentially, it is a line of logic that is
presented in order to support the veracity of a statement. Argument has combative connotations, but
an argument does not have to be belligerent. Explanation Explanation is used to clarify and explicate a
statement. Its aim is to make the listener understand the statement rather than persuade him to accept
a certain point of view. 2. Example of an Argument and an Explanation Argument - one person wants to
convince the other person that it is going to snow tomorrow. He will cite predictions from the weather
station, as well as the clouds visible on the horizon, the damp chill in the air, and the squirrels furiously
hiding their nuts. Explanation- one both people agree is it going to snow tomorrow because, they say,
there is a cold front coming in and the air feels damp. In both cases, the example of snow is used, but
note that the argument is trying to convince someone of the truth of their statement, whereas with the
explanation, it is not a matter of if the statement is true, but why it is true. 3. Uses of Arguments and
Explanations Arguments- Arguments are used in a variety of professional and academic applications. For
instance, a debate club will take on both sides of an argument and strive to prove each one is right.
Arguments are also used by lawyers to convince the jury of the defendants guilt or innocence.
Diplomats will approach a negotiating table with a certain argument in mind. Entrepreneurs will present
potential backers with an argument in support of their business model.

8. Page 7 of 16 Explanations- Explanations are used all the time in the classroom to put across new
items to students. Giving directions is a form of explanation. You will also find explanations included
with most new purchases, especially those with some assembly required. When the aforementioned
entrepreneur is presenting an argument about his business model, he may be asked to explain how it all
works. In summary, then, an argument is a piece of reasoning in which the reason is intended to provide
evidence for accepting a doubted conclusion. An explanation is a piece of reasoning in which the reason
is intended to provide a cause for an already accepted conclusion. It is sometimes said that rational
inquiry aims at two things: knowledge and understanding. We can now say that argument and
explanation are the reasoning tools that we use to accomplish these two goals. Argument attempts to
establish knowledge by giving evidence that reduces doubt. Explanation attempts to establish
understanding by supplying causal connections between accepted facts. Summary: 1. Arguments and
explanations are both used to get the point across when speaking or writing. 2. Arguments are
persuasive and seek to make people understand that something is true, whereas explanations start with
the assumption of truthfulness and tell why or how the statement has come into being. 3. Both
arguments and explanations have wide application in education and business, but arguments are used
for persuasion and explanations are used for clarification. Validity of arguments An argument is valid if
and only if the truth of its premises entails the truth of its conclusion and each step, sub-argument, or
logical operation in the argument is valid. Under such conditions it would be self-contradictory to affirm
the premises and deny the conclusion. The corresponding conditional of a valid argument is a logical
truth and the negation of its corresponding conditional is a contradiction. The conclusion is a logical
consequence of its premises. An argument that is not valid is said to be "invalid". An example of a valid
argument is given by the following well-known syllogism (also known as modus ponens): All men are
mortal. Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

9. Page 8 of 16 What makes this a valid argument is not that it has true premises and a true
conclusion, but the logical necessity of the conclusion, given the two premises. The argument would be
just as valid were the premises and conclusion false. The following argument is of the same logical form
but with false premises and a false conclusion, and it is equally valid: All cups are green. Socrates is a
cup. Therefore, Socrates is green. No matter how the universe might be constructed, it could never be
the case that these arguments should turn out to have simultaneously true premises but a false
conclusion. The above arguments may be contrasted with the following invalid one: All men are mortal.
Socrates is mortal. Therefore, Socrates is a man. In this case, the conclusion does not follow inescapably
from the premises. All men are mortal, but not all mortals are men. Every living creature is mortal;
therefore, even though both premises are true and the conclusion happens to be true in this instance,
the argument is invalid because it depends on an incorrect operation of implication. Such fallacious
arguments have much in common with what are known as howlers in mathematics. A standard view is
that whether an argument is valid is a matter of the argument's logical form. Many techniques are
employed by logicians to represent an argument's logical form. A simple example, applied to two of the
above illustrations, is the following: Let the letters 'P', 'Q', and 'S' stand, respectively, for the set of men,
the set of mortals, and Socrates. Using these symbols, the first argument may be abbreviated as: All P
are Q. S is a P. Therefore, S is a Q. Similarly, the third argument becomes: All P are Q. S is a Q. Therefore,
S is a P. An argument is formally valid if its form is one such that for each interpretation under which the
premises are all true, the conclusion is also true. As already seen, the interpretation given above (for the
third argument) does cause the second argument form to have true premises and false conclusion (if P is
a not human creature), hence demonstrating its invalidity. Validity of statements A statement can be
called valid, i.e. logical truth, if it is true in all interpretations.

10. Page 9 of 16 DIAGRAMMING, SUMMARIZING, AND PARAPHRASING ARGUMENTS I. Analyzing

Arguments A. There are two techniques for analyzing arguments. 1. Paraphrasing arguments involves
setting for the arguments (the one in prose) and the propositions in clear language and logical order.1
2. Diagraming arguments involves the use of spatial relations in two dimensions2 for the purposes of
clarifying both the content and general flow of an argument in prose. Paraphrasing Arguments A
paraphrase is fundamentally about making the argument of a passage more easily recognizable, thus a
good paraphrase will: Use premise- and conclusion-indicators Clearly answer the question-and-
answer test Use common argument forms Balance faith and charity Add important hidden
argument-parts, including contextual clues Why paraphrase? Paraphrasing is the basis of note-taking.
In an overwhelming majority of cases, the only notes you need to take are those that pertain to an
authors argument. Note-taking is the most important transition from reading to writing.
Paraphrasing is the basis of clear writing. If you can write good paraphrases, you can write clear
sentences, paragraphs, and papers. Other paraphrasing strategies: Overview Order propositions in an
intuitive manner Simplify the language of the original text Eliminate irrelevant propositions Provide
uniformity of terms and language Plus two more to be discussed next class Identify important
intermediate conclusions Distinguish independent from dependent premises A good paraphrase
should list the premises in an order which makes the structure of the argument clear, minimally in
standard form; Standard form: Premise 1 Premise 2 Premise n Conclusion A good
paraphrase should simplify the language of the original text, by trading out more elliptical and
counterintuitive language for more concrete and concise language.

11. Page 10 of 16 A good paraphrase should eliminate irrelevant propositions. A proposition is

irrelevant if it is neither a premise nor a conclusion of an argument What does paraphrasing accomplish?
Paraphrasing helps clarify the argument in prose. (weve already noted this) Paraphrasing helps one
discern the nature of the inference the argument is using. Paraphrasing can also help one see what
premises were assumed, or not explicitly stated in the prose-style presentation of the argument.
Paraphrasing also helps prep one for a proper evaluation of the argument. Examples: 1. The Pistons did
not lose because of the lack of ability. They are an all-around better team. They lost because of the law
of averages. They will beat the Spurs every two times out of three. When you examine the NBA Finals,
that is exactly how they lost the seventh because that would have been three out of three. The Spurs
will beat the Pistons one out of three. It just so happens that, that one time was the final game, because
the Pistons had already won two in a row. Argument 1: Either the Pistons lost because they are
inferior to the Spurs or because of the law of averages. The Pistons are better than the Spurs. The
Pistons lost the NBA Finals because of the law of averages. Argument 2: The Pistons will beat the Spurs
2 of 3 times; the Spurs will beat the Pistons 1 of 3 times. The Pistons had won Games 5 and 6 of the
Finalstwo in a row, so if they had won the final game they would have won 3 of 3. The Pistons lost
the NBA Finals because of the law of averages. 2. Racially diverse nations tend to have lower levels of
social support than homogeneous ones. People dont feel as bound together when they are divided on
ethnic lines and are less likely to embrace mutual support programs. You can have diversity or a big
welfare state. Its hard to have both. If a nation is diverse, then people dont feel bound together. If
people dont feel bound together, then they are less likely to embrace large scale social programs.

12. Page 11 of 16 If a nation is diverse, then it is less likely to embrace large scale social programs.
Diagraming Arguments To exhibit the structure of an argument it is sometimes useful to represent it
graphically, to diagram it.5 Sometimes a diagram is more useful when all of the premises and
conclusions are stated explicitly, but in a way that is rather complicated. Steps toward proper
diagraming: Read the passage carefully. Identify each claim and number them. Provide missing
parts if needed. Determine relation of claims and diagram. a) Draw in the circled numbers that stand
in for coordinate premises at the same height on your page.6 b) Draw in the conclusion of the argument
below the circled numbers representing the coordinate premises. c) If the premises of the argument
both independently support the conclusion, all one needs to do next is draw arrows starting from each
premise to the conclusion (see page 23 in the textbook). d) If the premises of the argument support the
conclusion only when understood in light of one another (as a conjunction perhaps), then one needs to
draw a horizontal line which extends out to each premise that jointly supports the conclusion, and then
one should draw an arrow from the middle of that horizontal line to the conclusion in the diagram. e) If
there is more than one conclusion, and several premises, sometimes both conclusions may be
supported by the plurality of premises in which case your diagram will look like that one on page 25 of
the textbook. f) Because the same proposition can serve as a premise, where it occurs as an
assumption in an argument; or as a conclusion, where it is claimed to follow from other propositions
assumed in an argument. Premise and conclusion are always relative terms.7 g) Occasionally, one
will encounter paragraphs in which there are multiple arguments, and yet there are stand-alone
premises which support differing conclusions. In such a case, ones diagram should look like that on
page 27 (see the bottom of the page). Examples:

13. Page 12 of 16 1. Since Mary visited a realtor and her banks mortgage department, she must be
planning on buying a home. Step 1. Number each statement And note each indicator word. Since (1)
Mary visited a realtor and (2) her banks mortgage department, (3) she must be planning on buying a
home. Step 2. Which of the claims is the conclusion? Which are premises? Step 3. Use arrows to
represent the intended relationship between the claims. In this case the premises are independent.
Even though the combined force of both premises makes the argument stronger, either premise could
stand alone in supporting the conclusion. 2. Sandra cant register for her classes on Wednesday. After
all, Sandra is a sophomore and sophomore registration begins on Thursday. Step #1. Identify each claim
and note any indicator words that might help identify premise(s) and conclusion(s). (1) Sandra cant
register for her classes on Wednesday. After all, (2) Sandra is a sophomore and (3) sophomore
registration begins on Thursday. Step #2. Use arrows to show the relationships between the claims in
the argument. These are linked premises since both (in conjunction) are necessary to prove the
conclusion. 3. Pool maintenance can cost hundreds of dollars a year and we really dont have that kind
of money. So, I dont think we should put a pool in this summer. Besides, pools pose a real drowning
danger to small children. (1) (2) (3)(+) (1) (2) (3)

14. Page 13 of 16 Step #1. The first task is to analyze the argument. Decide what the various claims are
and begin to decide which premises are and which conclusions are. Number the claims and note any
indicator words. (1) Pool maintenance can cost hundreds of dollars a year and (2) we really dont have
that kind of money. So, (3) I dont think we should put a pool in this summer. Besides, (4) pools pose a
real drowning danger to small children. Step #2. Use arrows to represent the argument 3. Youve often
complained that mainstream television doesnt have quality programming, so I think you should support
public broadcasting. Besides, you watch PBS all the time and fair is fair. Since support means money, you
should write a check to PBS immediately. (1)Youve often complained that mainstream television
doesnt have quality programming, so (2) I think you should support public broadcasting. Besides (3),
you watch PBS all the time and (4) fair is fair. Since (5) support means money, (6) you should write a
check to PBS immediately. Reasoning: Reasoning is the set of processes that enables us to go beyond
the information given. Reasoning is just the process of making certain statements, which we call
reasons, in support of other statements, which we call conclusions. Premises 1 and 2 are linked. While
premise 1 could stand alone, premise 2 cant. Premise 4 is independent. It could be offered alone as
support for the conclusion. (1) (2) (3) (+) (4) (1) (2) (3) (+) (4) (5) (6) (+)

15. Page 14 of 16 Functions of Language The formal patterns of correct reasoning can all be conveyed
through ordinary language, but then so can a lot of other things. In fact, we use language in many
different ways, some of which are irrelevant to any attempt to provide reasons for what we believe. It is
helpful to identify at least three distinct uses of language: Informative use of language: The informative
use of language involves an effort to communicate some content. When I tell a child, "The fifth of May is
a Mexican holiday," or write to you that "Logic is the study of correct reasoning," or jot a note to myself,
"Jennifer555- 3769," I am using language informatively. This kind of use presumes that the content of
what is being communicated is actually true, so it will be our central focus in the study of logic.
Expressive use of language An expressive use of language, on the other hand, intends only to vent some
feeling, or perhaps to evoke some feeling from other people. When I say, "Friday afternoons are
dreary," or yell "Ouch!" I am using language expressively. Although such uses don't convey any
information, they do serve an important function in everyday life, since how we feel sometimes matters
as much asor more thanwhat we hold to be true. Directive uses of language Finally, directive uses of
language aim to cause or to prevent some overt action by a human agent. When I say "Shut the door,"
or write "Read the textbook," or memo myself, "Don't rely so heavily on the passive voice," I am using
language directively. The point in each of these cases is to make someone perform (or forswear) a
particular action. This is a significant linguistic function, too, but like the expressive use, it doesn't always
relate logically to the truth of our beliefs. Notice that the intended use in a particular instance often
depends more on the specific context and tone of voice than it does on the grammatical form or
vocabulary of what is said. The simple declarative sentence, "I'm hungry," for example, could be used to
report on a physiological condition, or to express a feeling, or implicitly to request that someone feed
me. In fact, uses of two or more varieties may be mixed together in a single utterance; "Stop that," for
example, usually involves both expressive and directive functions jointly. In many cases, however, it is
possible to identify a single use of language that is probably intended to be the primary function of a
particular linguistic unit. British philosopher J. L. Austin developed a similar, though much more detailed
and sophisticated, nomenclature for the variety of actions we commonly perform in employing ordinary
language. You're welcome to examine his theory of speech acts in association with the discussion in your
textbook. While the specifics may vary, some portion of the point remains the same: since we do in fact
employ language for many distinct purposes, we can minimize confusion by keeping in mind what we're
up to on any particular occasion. Literal and Emotive Meaning

16. Page 15 of 16 Even single words or short phrases can exhibit the distinction between purely
informative and partially expressive uses of language. Many of the most common words and phrases of
any language have both a literal or descriptive meaning that refers to the way things are and an emotive
meaning that expresses some (positive or negative) feeling about them. Thus, the choice of which word
to use in making a statement can be used in hopes of evoking a particular emotional response. This is a
natural function of ordinary language, of course. We often do wish to convey some portion of our
feelings along with information. There is a good deal of poetry in everyday communication, and poetry
without emotive meaning is pretty dull. But when we are primarily interested in establishing the truth
as we are when assessing the logical merits of an argumentthe use of words laden with emotive
meaning can easily distract us from our purpose. Kinds of Agreement and Disagreement In fact, an
excessive reliance on emotively charged language can create the appearance of disagreement between
parties who do not differ on the facts at all, and it can just as easily disguise substantive disputes under a
veneer of emotive agreement. Since the degrees of agreement in belief and attitude are independent of
each other, there are four possible combinations at work here: Agreement in belief and agreement in
attitude: There aren't any problems in this instance, since both parties hold the same positions and have
the same feelings about them. Agreement in belief but disagreement in attitude: This case, if unnoticed,
may become the cause of endless (but pointless) shouting between people whose feelings differ sharply
about some fact upon which they are in total agreement. Disagreement in belief but agreement in
attitude: In this situation, parties may never recognize, much less resolve, their fundamental difference
of opinion, since they are lulled by their shared feelings into supposing themselves allied. Disagreement
in belief and disagreement in attitude: Here the parties have so little in common that communication
between them often breaks down entirely. It is often valuable, then, to recognize the levels of
agreement or disagreement at work in any exchange of views. That won't always resolve the dispute
between two parties, of course, but it will ensure that they don't waste their time on an inappropriate
method of argument or persuasion. Emotively Neutral Language For our purposes in assessing the
validity of deductive arguments and the reliability of inductive reasoning, it will be most directly helpful
to eliminate emotive meaning entirely whenever we can. Although it isn't always easy to achieve
emotively neutral language in every instance, and the result often lacks the colorful character of our
usual public discourse, it is worth the trouble and

17. Page 16 of 16 insipidity because it makes it much easier to arrive at a settled understanding of
what is true. In many instances, the informal fallacies we will consider next result from an improper use
of emotionally charged language in the effort to persuade someone to accept a proposition at an
emotional level, without becoming convinced that there are legitimate grounds for believing it to be
true.