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I'R!\1'TCN H'\I,T, PII\'E ICS SI'IIIES


INTRODUCTION
Yrcrori T!-\s.r -\Nrrvsrs,I'y ,| P. \\'jlls.
^ND
A S.rrxr Couns! r\ tnrsr.s, 4 cirl l'. TO THE
EdNn\as or \uclran lHrsr.s. Lr lrd.o
l'Br-\cnLls or nLx.allc tr\D lllc\ur.Illis-
THEORY OF RELATIVITY
!trnrxN!s, l! f. YisouJdr\ dnri C. L. \\ ebb.
Arorc Slx.rn.! i\! lr.trc S1!.crra!j ,l
Gerliar.l Itozbcre
Edcrrrdra aN! Mlcr.rrsrl, b,]\. 1\' Hnsi b.y
lno.nRrrtrs oF lllatDi, ,l l: C. Cl,tnpion
PETER GABRIEL BERGMANN
TExi .Dr\rlii(rs, Lv Ilf.ioo I.rni srnDY' l!36_101r
Cod.cx lhyslc, l,! II.rry -{ PorLins
(lortnc! Itrslcs, r\nuDcxD, Lv [cnr] .\.
Irrr.DUcro.r Qc^Nrw IxcFA\rcs, Dr \hd
Ino.xllnris rN ErrllrdnNrf,r lHrslcs, iJ,
Johr lio.ns, tu d,l/aarrch,, /tl, H. \ ici.r WITH A IORE}VORD
Nehe., ,\Lbcrl lj. \\'l'iilod, C. lla\Ylcv
Cat\Lrighi, tld noser IIuNid BY
Iu\.^ xNr^r. l'Rr:.JPr.ns or I'Ersrcs, d]/
II0Jmiri G. H.il aal l\'illard H. llc,neit
l rrnS1!u.r.n! or Srr S|tr'Lr LrPr-lINnD, ALBERT EINSTEIN
d! lrlrie N. Sinu,s lnlldNin Gr0g.ry
Ilor!i.rx..!nS.n.ru r\D ivoD.uran Srn.c-
!lnx: fina I D a.ttc llor.n.ur,ns, 6,
Clir lurd H.rzlolt.
Pnrsr.lr MrrxoRoroc!, i,v Jolr G. -{ll.iglt.
LllirroN{r Sr!.rEi rND SrelmM or
Por yr r.u. Iloln.urrs, lll 1'! 1-.! \fu.
Ai I-\rloDurrr)N ao !!! 'flnory or Rxra-
trrrrY, [l/ |tr.r (i. Berg'nrnn,

Nu* Yo'l
PRENTICE-HALL, INC.
F

Foreword by Albe* Einstein


A rrpo,c.{ r,,r' I" tr"'i". o l, ,r,ar) ufr"h-
Ari,i,r'l'"1 ,',.1 J :,.lr. l;-;n n.boo .' ru T" o
satisfy a definite reed. IL is pimldlJ' A textbooli {or siule.ts of
phl'sics and mNthemrtics, {'licl mrv be used eith.r in th.r (hssrcom
or lor individual siudy. 'rhe onh prcrcqrlsitcs lor r{):rdhs ihe book
,xe a fumiliaritr vith crlculus and sone lmo"'lidso of dillerertial
FquJrio'.. rr i ,r ' l',n " rn, p ro l 1.n,i .
this l,ook gires llJl ei|,lusliil'e tre:,.tment of tbc man,Ieatures of the
theory of rcl.r,tilitv xtich is Dot onll sl'ltcmatic arrl losnidlv corn-
plete, but also preserrt! rLdequatelJ its crurilical bruis. TIc stlrdett
CorYPr.rHr, 1942, tt
$'ho mrrt(cs a thorough studl-ol the Looli 1l,iu maslcr ih(i natLenntical
tlENT( X-H.{t!, lNC. methods and phvsical aspect.s ol the thcor-r of rclslivitt .rnd will be
70 lllrh.\r'.nr., \.{ Io.li in a position to interpret for hjmsell its irnplicaiil:,ns. Hc will also be
ablc to understcn.l, with no lolticuhr difiiculty, lhii Liicrnl,ure of the
ficld.
I beiiel'e th:rt Dore time rDd efiort mjglt $ell be de.rotcd io tI
systetuitio torchillg of thc i,L(x,ry of rchl,jl.jtr than js usual at prcscnt
at most udvcrriiics. It is tlrrr tllat tho tlreo{' o{ rel.rtivitv. per
ticuiarly the geneml thcory, has pla).cd a llltlr{I modcst role ir1 the
J iBt P.intn,q IlrI:llrtl corlction of empiric: lacts so I.r, and il has (rririLut l little to
Secord l'rntrnrg Ja,riarr 11,16 atomi(i phlsics {rd our understlrding ol ,:juantulr d,dlon(inr. It is
lri;rlP ntnrS.. .... \'!a..1! 11117 quite possihle, bower.er, tlr:l,t some of thc, rsults ol thc gcnir th(iory of
Lnrlli llailirq...... . Ansri r'r3 rclativity, -cuclr rL! tli," sencr:Ll (jol oicnce ol th.r hrys oI Datur{r ard their
noDlireariijl', mry hclp to orerrome ihe dificulties cncount{)rcd ni
prescnt in Ur{r r.hr!)rlr of atomic anrl nucleu processes. Apart lrom this,
the th!.y ot rclativiiy l:rs 11 spqial :r,pperl be.rause oI its imer cor
sistencj. and tlc logicd -cintljcitt ol its llx(,rs.
Xltuch clTort las goDo irrto na]inrs this Lrook logicalllr and pedagoe
ically satisla{rtor.,., and D. Bixgmrnn lras spent mcnt houN Nith nn)
.xhich $ero d.roted to this crd. It is mr. |ope tlut Drcny studcnis
will enjol' ttrc l[ok and gdn Iron it a better undcrstardins of thc ec,
complj$hments and problems of rnodern theoreticat phrsics.
,\. li\s.L.trN
TIe Ilstiiuie lor -{dv[ccd Studr
Preluce
rf-r".,l^.k op+nrq I. : I ror d,d", . o" Fhy"i,.
rr"orr.o" r.|
I l' J r.,1,.n rri. - r prF io. , rod..r:u,r ,o r e
subje(iJ rnd $hose nnih.imatical l,rajning do{rs not so berond the
'leh, rt n io .r..,q.1,..,. h"or,,..' ,.,,,.
Tlic speciolized nrtlirnatical at)p.rratus nscd in thc theory ot rela
ti\.ity, tensor cdcul,s, and Ricci ii,rlculus, is, iheretorc, develored in the
bookitsell. Thc mrin ernphxsis of thebookis on tho devetoprnent of ihe
rditi\itl'j iii is tl,esc bl1.(i0 ideas rrtler than
basic ideas ol Lhc llieorv oI
special rpplicatidrs .rhich gne the thmrr its inportancc amonE the
\ , jou- r!n,I . ., r-o ,i pr \.i^..
'l
The materiJ lra.s beendil'idd n,tu firee parrs, ie specilt rteory ot
relaiility, thii ecnor:il theo4, of r.ela1,ivjiy, and j, report on uniEed
6cld tbeories. Thc three parts form a ruiit. Th{j rLlrrhor ftr&tizes i,h&t
many st:udents arc irterested ir rlre thcoi.l. of retaiii- v m3inh. for irs
applications to atomi{i and nuclear physics. It is }ioped that thcse
readers $ill lind iL ihe first irarl, on the sp(fid the.Il.of relaril.it-v, rll
the infonnation r\ni{]h t}iel' rcquire. ]'lroso rcders rr4r do nor jrr(jDd
to so betrcnd Ure sp(.i.rl theory ot relativirt n:Lv onir one so(jtion ot
Chaptcr V (p. ti7) ald alL ol Chalter VIII; ttesc p:'Ssl1qcs (jonljein
nsr"rirt $r ,t,t,""JJor , or r...r\"tot,1r,.",1nJj"n.,"1 r,p,r,
r r,h i.. -r.
The second pirt treats ihc senral LLeorv oI rctatirify, ilctudins thc
so^ l. l.r,, i.1, 'r,n. rlutrn.r, or
'.,. .,r,;o", r..n
T'.rirdFr,,Jrl. rir ....'t .,r rl. roo,r.o..1...t
o- -,,i;"
h\
general tlieory ol rchtivit).. None oI these th.t,ris ha.s beon corn-
plctely srtisfactorlr. NeverUrdcss, thc nuthor bttic\,s ihat this reDo.i
roo dao,r'1.,J:.,, -i not,,, r"n |.t r,-orl .,...!r.i,-bl ,.;_
cating possible dircciions ol Iui,ure rescrrch. IIoFe\-er, the thir.l part
may be onitted \lithout clestroJ,irs thc unitv of rhe rem.rinder.
Thc author nishes lo evress tris appr{lintion tor ihe hetp of I'ro,
_
lessor Einstein,l'.1,o re:,"d tl,e whok, Drnnuscripr and nnde manv
vahrble
i,cgc ion" Pi.r .,r'!r.t ,..J.",t."ro Lr.!nJ \tr.. fr; F..J"r,
-ho rF"d 1" ,an.,.,-r,, .,.n,rt.r ,.d ..,se n. r .ry . i, ;r.i
olh.r.npro\ ""nr . lh r,er..".. . nurrN oJ"uD.. t:no.r. .\lrfgoL
Bergmann read the manuscript, s gsesrcd nrprorements, and ;id
almost all of the teclinical $orh conlxxrted \i,irh thc preparrilon
of the
. '1". rri, n!rt. ..,op.r, ion .i h. 1.,ofi.,D.p..r.n.Drur
1.".'ll,.ilHalL, lnn. grr eiujtJ,
J\eDti.c i" L,.u . ds"J.
P. G. B.
vii
Contents

Forerord by Alberb Einstein


PrcIace. vii
lnrrodl rior . xiir
PAnT I
TIfE SPECIA], THEORY OF RELTITI\'ITY
L ItiAMns or RtrrnRENcE, CocjRDTN TE SysrtrMs, AND Co-
6RDr\ATD '1'&a.NsFoHMAxroNB . .
Codrdinat ironclormetions rot itrvolvirg tiue, Co6dincie
lranslormriioN involving tide.
IT. CL{ssrc^L Mnctr Nrcs
The law ol nrellir, n4riill 6ystos. Galilem traNfomatiou.
'Ihe lorce lav and iis tmrslormation prolerties.
IIL TnE PBoPAG-A.rroN oF LrcET 16
The i,rotiem codroniing .lassicil ottics. The coryurcuhr hy-
potliesis. The trjnsDiititrg medium !s lhe lrame of rclc.crce.
Tlc rbsolulc tBnc ol .efercr0e. 'l'he expclimeni of Michelson rnd
Mortey. 'l'he eiler lypouiesis,
lV. Tn- Lon, rrz Tn,r-Fo v\1lo{
The rclrtire chamctcr ol simuliareity, The letrgth of Bcales.
Tl4 rale of clocke. :l'he Lo(trtz l.en6forDatioD. The ,,kine-
malic" .flccis ol lhe Lorentz irlsiormslio!. the protc. tihe
inicNal. 1! r.lslivistic luF of tle a.ldiiioD of velocities. The
propc. iimc ol a mitoirl lody, Problems.
V, Vncton rNo TroNSon C^LcuLns rN rr, DrMENsroN^r,
^N 17
O.ihosonaltrr$lo.matio6. TrrDsfordaiiondetomi,rctri. ID-
pro!.d Dotation. Yec1,o.6. Vecior rnalysis. leNors. Temor
amlysi. Tcnsor densitis. The tensor dc4ity of Levi-Civjra.
Yecio. product and curl. GeneMlizoiion. i dimensiolal cor
tinuum. General translormrrions. Vectors. 1.ensors, Ilerric
tersor, Rioannirn 6prces, Rririns md loFedng of ildices.
iY

c
.F

COI..]TENTS CONTENTS

Ii YE(lron -4.ND Trrrson Cs-cIII,]]s rN ,\N n DNrNsro\.\L XIL'L'rrE Irr,jLD ll.rrr.\rroNs or rrrD GI:t:R.rt, l'Huory or
( omrrn,v (Conr.) REr,.r1.rvr.r,Y . 175
T.mo. dcnsities. Loti Civiia ic.sor dcnsilv TcNor miltBii Th. pordcroriorjv..qurlions ol ihe erlviirtiolxL 6eld. :r'!e r.p-
Geodcsi. Lines. Ilirl(Nski Norld ard Lorniz innsfornaiiors rcsentrti.ra ,, mart.r nr ihe fiei.l eqrltio's. Tl'o dillcrertial
lJr rs $ortd ]nios. r'rcble.t3. irleuiitics. TIt licld cquriions. 'l'|c lincur ulpr.rirtriidL anrl
the studrd .oardinrfu cordiiions. Soiulions of rlrc liocrized
\L Rrx,rrr\,'rsrrc XllEcn^\rcs on lll^ss Pol\xs 85
ield rt,iil,ions. lhc 6.ld ol r n$s loinl. GNvjtrli.n,al r.rves.
frosfun lor rchii'islic ncclLrni.s :lhe lorm ol the con6frttii.r Tl,c virirl,ioral prifciple Tl'e c.dn,i.iii.n .l l,hc grrvl tioral
la{s. L nodel c\rInplc. T,,)(nlz .ovalianco ol llic nc\Y.ons.rva- .nd clcciromagnciic t.l.ls. Tlic c.rs.rvil,ion larr iD rhcgo.ernl
tio, his. R.lil,ion lrhr.dr cnersy Did nnss lhe Conptor 1!.ory of rolriivity.
cll..r. ltehiilistic rnrllLi.rl nerhtics Rcliii!'isiic lorce
XIII. Iareonous Soi,ul,roNri or TiID Frn],D Ean.rrroNs or rIrD
\ lt. ,tLr . r.\ r r tr r fr'oDl 10ti GEND1i,!I 'l'HnonY or R . 198
T14 soluiion ol Sch$rrzschil.l.'l'h. "-s.hDrzsclil.l singuhritI."
X'hx(eLl's fiel.L.quatirns n.limiliry icmerks or transiormr-
lion trrolrc,li.s l!c rc|rcs.ntatiot ol lo"r nimorsi'nal ii-rn*
Th. freld ol trr .l.clacilly chrrg.d mass totut. 'I!c solurions
ir thrc! tlusone dnnc.sjors Thela,.nlz irrariaDce olXlr\wdll's Fith rotriioul suncl,rv.
ickl cquarioDs. 'fhc th-tsiciL si.srin.an..^ ol ihe tran6loruLion XI\i. THr, IxpnRr\rENr,lr, TESrs oF lIIE GrNDn11 TEEoRy or
l[rs. Carse tonslormatiors. Th. PoDrleromotivc cqu'rl,ions R!ri,ArryrrY 211
VIIT. TrrE l,IDcHAircs oF CoNUNnovs XI{fi liri l2l adrtrro.r lli. Fri!.li.n ol llcrcuy. l'he deflectior oi liFLt
'l'hc
Ir|roductory Jcmarks. N.nrcliliristi0 trcaiment ,\ gp..ial ! S.lMrzs.hild nel.l. l'he crariiatioul 6lilt oi sl]ccir{l lirr.
in
codrdnmh svslem 'l'cts.r lorm ol the equ.iion$. Thc strcss- XY. TrD Eau,\rloNs o!. l{ouoN rN Tr{n C;nNnri1i, 'l'Hlroriy
eDcr$ lcnsor ol elect.oriynanios Pr.llcn on Rnr,\rNrY 22;l
IX A!pr,r.,\rro\s on rrD SrrcllL 'fHtronY of Rnr,.i.1rrvl1.Y . 133 Ior.. laqs nr chs-.ical physies ard i'! llccir.dtd.mics, l'he h$
!lporin.rtrL verincnri.ns ol tIc sf..ial theory ol rclutivilt. ol moiion jr ihc -qor.rl lllrr'!.1 4lil,i!ilv. Thc cptr.\nnrln l
alh,rg.d prticl.s nr .Leoiromrgncljc fi.ld3 1'he licld .l o r'rfi.1Lt DeilLorl. 1-l'. lrsl, an.l ihe mrss ..N.rvilion
'rftroxinalioDaDd ihe equtio4 ol rnotioD,
lrs.. 'fh. sccond rtprcximaiior
di.virs prrtj.lc. Somnerlel..L's ih.ory ol ilte liydrcgcn nne sinc-
ture. D. Brcgljc $rvcc, llobleDs Cor.hsior. l'roblem.
PdJ III
P.\FT II LINII'IDD I"II]],D TI]Ii]ORIDS
TIIN GXNERAI, THEORY OF IIEI,I'1'IVITY XVI. Wtryr,'s G,lfcD INvrlRr.{Nr Gi,oM!,rrii 2+5
The g.onetry. ArrLFis nL gxuse invuiant seomciry. l'hysical
L lnr tr,r 'rLcot Ia v 151 nrteurreiatnm ol \{erl'B seomet.y. Weyl's vdririiorul pri,rciple
Irtrcdr0li!'i. i
The pturcifl. ol equivel.nce lol.,uruiions lor The .qurtions Gp, - 0.
rDlativistic Urcorl ol srr\irition Or inol,irl stslcns lln!
stcin's "olcvr|or." 1'l,c p.iroir,le .l gcDcml covaiance The X\III. Tl,!Lrrz-{'s Frvn DrMDNsroN,u, Trtrony AND rrrn PRoJric-
nttLtro .l lLe eEvi iionaL lield r\.f .rD Tr
Kihzi's iheory -\ I.u dh.nsionrl l.dnrlism jn D nr. din.r-
Xl. THi,r Rrrir.{NN OERISIorrur, CuEvArunD T 1{i1
$i,mrl lprce. AnrlJsis nr ihe ?-loDralisn. -{ spe.iil i)r,c rl
Th. ohrructerinlnrn ol lticnrnnirn spxcos Thc idLcqrabiliiv ot coij.dirrlc sjsloni. Cova.iatri lornulrtio! o1 lGluza's ilrnrv.
ilie.ftrcconncciion. nuclidioityc,rlinieerabilitv, TL.cliteion Projeoti! lield t!orics.
.l i.l,.grabi1iiy. Thc cornnurttior lit lor oo rjan| diilerentin- XYUI. ,{ GnNrH{i,rz{rroN of IL!',riz^'s TIrLor 271
rior. tl'c lcN.r characicr ol l?*l lr.tr.rties ol llic .urvainrc
lossibl. gcno.ilizrti.ns ol lG]rLza's thc.N. Tlc g.omct.y ol rlc
iensor. Thc covaiartfo.dr oi lhe cuNirl,uretensor' Conimete{l closc,l, nvc dinasi.ml 1rorl.l. hiroductior ol ill. st]ccjrl cl)
fo.ms oi inc curl'ntue tc.s.r' 'l'hc conimcted Birnchi ideDtirics.
rjrdinrl,c s!sl.n. 'l.l'c dcdratior oI fL.ld cqLrdii.nB lrom r vr r-
The nunl,er ot rlgebni0rllt indeleDdcnlcornlonenls olt|e c!r'r
", . ." lt1
I!nLx 281
rF

lntroduction

Almost all the laws of phJ,sics deal {ith ihe beharior ol certain objects
in space in i,he cour'.sc oI time. The position of a body or the location
of an event can be cxpresscd only os a locetion rclativc L0 somc otbr
body suitable for that |uryosc. For instance, in an crpcrimcnt with
Atwood's machire, the r.olociiics and accdcr'ttions ol thc l'ishts are
refered to the machire itself, th!1i is, ulLinrtcl]. to the earth. An
astronomer may refer the motion ol the plcncts to thc center of gravitt
of the sun. All motions are dcscribid cs motions relrtiYe to some

We imagine that .on.eptudly, rt 1e8st, o frumc{ork of rods vlich


extend,s into space cl1n be rigidlr* io thc rcfocnce Lrodt'. Using
'iijlathcd
this conceptual franervorl< as r Carresien coordinnic sr*stcm in thrce
dimcnsions, $e charactcizo any locrtion by lhree mtmbd.s, tlie co.jrd;
nates of that sp:ure point. Such a conceptual framework, risidlt' (on
nected vith sone matcrial body or other $'ell-defined point, is often
called a frcne ol riP.tence.
Some bodies may be suitable as reference bodies, othcrs mry not.
Even before thc theory of relativity $as conceived, the problcm of
selectins suitrblc flames ol reterence played an important prit in thc
development of scierce. Galileo, the lather ol post-medier.al phtcics,
coisidercd ihc choice ol the heliocntric hame to be so iDrportant lhet
he risked imprisonment ard even cierth in his elTorts to have the ncw
frame of rcIerence accepted by his contemporaris. In the last analysis,
it rvas the choice ol the refe.enoe body 1lhith was the subject ol his
dispute with the authodties.
Later, $hen Nex'ton sai.c a comprehensive presentation of the physics
of his tine, the helioccntric lrme of reference Lad been generally
accepted. Still, Ncirtorr ldt ihiii furtLer discussion $as necessary. To
sloi'r thai some lrames of rcfcrcncc wr:re nore sritable for the descip-
tion ol nature than others, he deviscd the lamous pail er?eriment: Hc
6lled s, pail with watr. By twisting t}ic rope vhicL supported the pril,
he madc it roljatc rround its cxis. As thc vetcr sradurlly bega:n ic
participate in the rctation, its sudace changed from a rlane to a para-
boloid. Aftcr the rater had sained thc sene speed oI roiitjon as the
xiii
a-

xiv INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION xv

pcil. ii i., . iit,l.rr..,.


pa11, hc sl,opperl the Thc *'atel slorved dorn and eventurllx caDe L,riio\onn,,, "rb",o,.t(.-,t r!,J \,. .,,
to (om|lcte rest. ,\t tLc s.tme time, jts surfa.c rcsumed tle sLnpe ot succccded in fornul,rtins tln) underlying larts.
Onco it r':15 0lecrly rcrDgrizrd lhat the choicc oI a fr:inrc of rcfcrqrcc
The d!(iiltion sir.en abovr: is based on:r lrtnr: or rclererce con- deterniined the lorm ol r l:rw ol natrne, iri'stigations i'o! crDicrl ouli
nected l!,ith th{i crrth. 'fhc ltN gortrning the slrlrr ol lhe rvtto's which cstablished the eiTe.t of this choice in a ntsihdnrtic fonil.
su!fucc could bc iormulited thrts:'Ihc snrlaee o{ thc i'ti.r is a plarc l{e.lllloics {'as the lirst bnnch ol physics to b.xprrssr:rl ir r com
llliclc!-cl the {ci(ir docs not rotrt.. lr, is.r paraboloi(l $ln)Il the vai,cr ploLe s"vstcm ol nrathemrtn l[rs. Among all lii. ii]rn$ of refern.e
rotil.s. The stxto of notiorl ol th{r f l has no irflucn&r on the shrrc conceinlle, there exists r s(it ol l nrs lrilh rusf(ul, to (hidr the h$'
of irertid trlies its lamilirr fonl: ln ihc al)s(xr.o of lores, the spa(e
Norv l.L us rlescribe th{r \hole e:perimdlt in terms ol r frrne ol reler corirdinnt.s ol a Drllss ponrt arc li ru fiturtions ol time. Tle.se fnmes
enre rotrting relatilely 1io l|e e:Ll'th {iih a constaDt rlsrrlar 1'elocitv of rcfercnc(i e called in.//ft1 sastrms. h Fns lound that :rli ol the
equal to thc greate.qt \-elo.itJ ol the pril. At tirsi, tlir: t'lrpr:, the pril, lnx.s ol n(ich.rriica take the snme forD irh{Ji sttted nr tenns ot aly one
an.L the wrtcr "rotlte" Nith a certiin co stant arsulm \dociiv $'ith ol thesc irr,iial s)'stems. Itlotlr{ir lranc of rcferen.e necessitries :r
respect to our new ll11me ol leleienre, lnd lhe surla.e ol thc water is N more nn'oh-cd ph-r'sical and mrtlilmr|irrl dcsoi|tjon, lor exrmple, the
plane. lhdl the rope, 0n{1in turn the ]rril, is "stoffed," tlld the \tater frame ol r(.Iorence connecte(L $itli \.$ton's rotrtine pail. The clar:rc-
graclrlally "slorvs doNn," ir],ilc its su rrt bccomes 11 p{rtiroloid. Aftcr tization ol ihe nlotions ol Doss points rot snbjcOi to lorces is possible
tle vatcr irlrs corne to "(! jl plete rest," iis lull:L.e siiLl .r pambolonl, in terl. ol this narne o{ referen., but tlic matlrenratical lorm of the
the ropc, and in tul.n thc piil, is agrin rnade to "rotrtc" relativelv 10 laN ol nnrrtir, is nNolvecl. ]'he spaco (lindhflte.s are not, lirear iunc-
orlr lr:lm{r .,1 rcle ren.o (l,hai is, stoDrcd \vith resp(it 1.o the earth);ihc
\\,ater srrdurll) besins to f:1ltici!:Ltc iL l,he "rotcti(nI," wlile its Fnrfucc Sirn,e ih{: lNrs ol nechanics take t|e same lolm in all franrcs ol lcfcr-
fatterN oul. Tn thc . , the l1hol{r rt)paratus js "rotating" $itb its ence ri'linrLr nc inertial systems, all inertial srstems are equir cni ftom
form.r angular veld il], and thc surhce of thc Nttcf is agcin r fl:ur. the poirri. of \,ie\r ol mechanics. Uie can find out 1lhelhcr a giv.n body
$ itlr rcspect to tlris frirne of r.j.r u t, t|e law \rould ha 'e 1'o bc fornu- is "a(i(!lo1l.tcd" or "urac.eleratecl" by comparing its motion nith lhrt
htcd lilre this: olll rvhen thc wrLcr "rcturt.s" \'ilh a ceftain rnguLar of som{r n{ss poirt \\hirh is not .subjert to rny iolces. Rut riether a
\tlocitr. is iis surlme a plxnc. The rlevirrii<rti lrom a phnc incri:l1sts bodv is ":rt rcst" or "in nnill)r motion" depends efiilell on the inerlil1]
\rith ihc drxiaiiion lrom tliis ir:lr'ticul|lr stltc ol motion Tlrc sirtc ol systun uscd f,:,r the desrriptnr.;tl1o tcms "at rest" and "in unilou)
rert rrodrces also a p rLoloicl. r\sril thc rotriiorl ol iLe pail is moiion" har.e no rbsoiuto meinirs. '1he principle that all i|efijal s)'s-
tems rre ertuir.rllcnt lor tlc dcs(xi|inxr ol xaturc ]s ut)led the ptinc.iple
Ne\rior's pail exrrinidrl brnrgs oul \ely clea v ilhrt is ncant bl'
"suitrblc" lranre ol rt:lelcnce- \\c can descibe .atnro :'ld \e can Irhen Xlax\rell de1'eloped the eqratnrns ol the ele.tromagnetic fie1d,
lornulNtti its laNs rtsitle lrhatel'cr llLrne of relerenr(i \r{r choose. Ilrt these equetions 1rere rpp
enth in(r)m})rtiblc with thr t ncide ol rela-
there nal-cxist r |:Lrnc or fr:Lrnrs nr Nhic| the lo\'s ol rrttoe arc fundi- tir-ity. Ior, arcordjns to this tli()r], (t(ltrornrisndi(i iihlcs in mpty
merrt:Lllr sinplcr, thrt is, in lrhi.li lllc la(s ol nrliut c,:rntxh fe{er Epace should proprsrio witlr r uri(rrsrl, corsirnt !.ldiit)'. ol about
elenents ilrn lhej- \rorl(l otheriris.i. Talre thc instmce ol Newton's 3 X 10ro (im/'sci, {Ld this, it rl)t){rucct, iluki rot bc huc Nitlr rcst).i.t
lotrtins pril. Il our dcsniption ol nriLrre ntrc l[scd on thc lrrmc ol to botlr ol tNo difiduL| iuiti: sysl,uns rtticli rtrl nor.irg rclrtivr:ly
leferenr(: co nected Nith ihe f[il, rl u"v phlsntl lais nnlld hrv. ta to each other. The oue lrnDic of rclcltncc \ith rcspect io \ihich ihc
rontrin irl ditimrL (tcmcnt, tlrii angular \1i1o(i1\ o ol tllc r l rell1,i\'e sped of elertromagnetjc radiation Nould be the srne in all directionA
to :r. "morc s it rlc" lirurre ol rci:rlnce, lct rrs sll to thc cl1rur. could be u!.d for the definiiion of "absolute rest" aDd of "absolute
Thc ]a$s of nrotnD of the phurts becomc lusically snill)lcr {hen thev ,{ numbcr ol cxperimenie|s t ed nard to find this fmme of
'notion."
arc rxplcsscd in temls .,1thc lrcljorentrir lralnc ol reluence iNtctd of relcrence and io dcternLift tlrc cr.tli's niotn)n irith rcspct to it.
Lhe seocentric lnlre. Thal js $hy 1he descdrtion ol aropelni'us 3n'l All thes. attempts, howeler, \erc unsuccessful. On thc (r)ntrary, all
INTRODUCTION

.lneriments scemed to sllssest that the principle of relfltivit)' applicd


i..ir." u'* a""t-a"nlnics as well as tor"those of rnechinics. E A'
i"*"',".,""r' "r 1" ',"o'1, ir \.1,; !"Fn' r "ri"t'r' tlr' "ol
-.,,.:, "- d rrrn oi r r"nr' -, r'J rinr' rl]alo
" r'
,ii. ,-," ,',.a o ." Ji or' r"d l" .$c.j,nanr 'l mdl'oo' Bur
had to introctuce e nunLrer of assunplions iihich could not have becn
checke{:l b}' l1ny conceivdrle experimcnt To this cxtent
}is theory lvos
,. '*' *,'-;"" n Lrr"":r' n l \ rc'{ r"z'l rh' I r'lv :r ''i rur'
'
"' " .,bei$en
" '.'^.",u
iJc. .borrr 'l'1'' 1r'l rrn $ tr l r" 'l ' rl" i r'
theory :Lnd expcdment Once this revisiou had been
l,rsse
i"ra", tr'" p.ir"ipr" "ehLif itv $':rs cxtendcd to the vhole of phvsics
ir"i" i" "r
(!rll;d ihe spccial theor,r ol relati\'itv lt citablishes lille
""*
iunaa'.cntar equi'atence oI aU ertial svstm]r' It preserves lullv their
,,.t.i-ec,no..lio..,,or;nlt ,,,." - tF 2 ,*.. r" r'n.n Trp.L-
;"..i '",' 1,"o'. e| ' 13'i'ir.' s rl/2"' sro '1'"1" , a"'tr',s li'
, " o ro-,.:o" 1Ld s !Lt" ro gi , r n"r -, r'ol srar' . tio . PART I
",;r""
,.- r- ir'"r.""r.ra |' f ' d'u'
r"u' oldiiT'-lr
*"", ft"'. poiDt ol vie$, in nechanics and to somc extent in The Special Theory oI Relativity
.i.*.a"""-i " "r*"i""f
Oiv irhen l,he stutlent undentands fullv the dead-
".
i""i.-r,"i"""r tr'**rr"u conclusions and c:perimentrl results in classic:rl
can h spprcciatc the rlecessitv of revisi4 classical
"i""i.J.-,'"r""
.r,,":." .l:r,.i..r; lir"r. ', .. l,' ,4. :tiupr.. or :pJ px,J rm '
"r"*
.,1' rl I' i.'1" mp' LEli - and rp'J ' ' FrF' od' 1'mi'
",1-'..",
*'rl'"
rre cssilr. undcrstood.
part of this book is devoted to the seneral thcorv of
reh'iri r, r'rl;'1"'l, d ne-L L ''u'-q aoa' prcil rr arr'mlt' 1o -\-
"1"""a
i"oo r. v ol g"J"i xrioD to rhc rFlo ol ' tmdvnanj"'
',."o'
v-

CHAPTER I

Fre mes o[ Rebrence, Coi5rdinate Systems,


and Coiirdinate Trans[ormations

We ha\. spoken of frames ot rcferrnoe and lave m{rniioncd Catesian


codrdinate svstenls. In this chapl.r'rro shall exdnine more closely rLc
relatjonships betx,eeD dilTerent frnn.s of refrexft and diflercxt co-

Coijrdinate transfonnatio4s not involvjng time. ]\s a specific in-


stanc, let us corlsidcr a fr.al1re of r(ilcreD(e corocctcd rigidty ryiih rhe
eartli, that is, a gcoc{rntic fr nc ol relrrcrice. tn orcter to cxprc,.s
quantitaii\-ell tle locrtion ol a poinL rclati\'e lo llnr $[th, rl.e i]rtrodu(e
a co.irdinrte svstem. \rc .hoose :1 loilt of origir, ler us sat Ure ccnrer
of thc cir,rih, cnd dircctions lor the thr( :Lxes; tor insrance, the -I-axis
malr go lrom the earth's ccnter tluough the interscciion ot the c.tuctor
and the Gro{,n$-irh ueridiiln, tLe r a:ds t]loush thc irtersecrion of the
equator and i,lrc 90"11-meddil1n, nn(l the Z{xis throL,eh the North pole.
lhe locatior of::inr.pojnt is thcn sir.en Ly thrce rcal xumbrs, the co,
ordinates of Uut poirlt. The moti.D of a rxr i js conr)tctelr. describcd
if we express thc tlrree point coordinites a, Iuriions ot ihe. ,{ point
is at rest relatil'eb to our frame of rcference iI thcse three functions a.c

lliillrorii abandonins th earth as the body nith {hich oul tramc of


re{erencc is Iisidlv connccted, \\e crn nltroduco anothcr corjrdjratc
systeDr.I c nay, for insliLn.e, choose $s the poirit of oriein some $.elt-
uF, n.,poi. onr ".r| r .ri,
",tr.,,.-,r o.." rr",... .. ot ,,"
Unii,(!l States Cocsli and ccodetic Surrcy; ancl as rhe dilcction tor Urc
.I axis the clirection due Dasi,; for the l-cis, thc dnciior due Norihi
and for ilic 7-ards, the clirection str:1ighr up, a$,1!y lroln the earth's
center, thii carth assum{l to bc 11 sphere.
Thc relationsliip belsren the trvo co6rdiI.Lte syiims is completetj,
detennincd if thc co,jrdin:rtcs ot ary siven point wiih respect to one co_
ordinate st'sterr are knorvn lunctioN of its corjrdinatcs wjth rcs.cct ro
rL.o,rp 'obror-1, syreu. Ler u.cat. .r r o":,:ir.,esr.rcmS
V
FRAMES OF REFERENCE lchap. I
chap. ll FRAMES OF REFERENCE

rnd the coiirdinstes ol a certain another one rigidly con,rectcd the s&ne rcterencc bodx, such as rhc
and the scco d coilrdinate system 'vith
'S/,
point P with respect to S (r, y, :) and the codrdinates of the same point earth. But (odrdinrte transformation oflcls an important method lor
invstigating Ure relationship tr{rtieen two ditTelenr lrames ot reterencc
with rcspect to S' (x', 1/', ,'). Then, r' , y', ard ,/ arc connected $-ith
$,hich mo\' relatil.cl"r' to each ot|er. In such a casc, $e reprcsent c&ch
,, s, and z by quations ol ihe foul:
of the t{'o francs by one co,irdjnate sxsi,cm.
r': c,rr * * cB: * i','l
c"y l.et us comparo .r {ramc of rcferencc rigirllv connc.ied \rirl the cnrth
y' : c",x + cev + c'z + tt' ,\ (1.1) and another orrj oonnectcd \rith Ncwtorl's nail. Ihjch lio:ss|mc iq
ror! lq \irh on. r p ;.,1"r rpo J. \i. .n r, ,oJ r,r ..^
:,"'. + + + 2'. ordinate sl.steIn-c \lrnrh emLlc us to dcse be qu$ntirr,tivetJ.rtre toftrtion
o-
" """y """. )
of anv point \\.iih rcspect to cither {ratuc ot refcrcn.e. Ltjt us cxlt these
(i/, i', :') ai ti,e co,rrdinrles ol tne poinli of orisin o{ S Fith rcspect
to S'. 'Ihe 0onrtanls c,L are the cosiDes c,f the lngles bets'ccD ure axes tFo coindinai,e sxsiems S (1,his S is xot i:texi,nr vith i,tre fotmijr S)
ol S ard S'. .rd rldrina 1,o ihe rnsle betwccn iihe X- and tlic -Xraxis, ard
'S*,
re+eciiity, :1nd lci us choosc tlre poilts ot orisin so thnt they
both lje on thc rxis ol the t)r;l and coin.ide; ttrc Z axis aDcl thc Z+ axis
c{ to Lhe allgle bet$een thc l-- ftnd the Xlaxis, c' to the anglc Lrct\i'eeD
may tre ideDticd And poinlins stmiglli, up. If the pajt rotatcs vjth r
the -Y- rnd the llaxis, ard so fori,h.
'l'lie transition lrom one codrdilate system to flnothel is cclcd a constant anglrlar r.rlocitl' o rclative 10 the cardi, and it at ihe tinic
co(tudinate bonsf.)rnition, and the equations comecting the point co-
I : 01ihe X-ariis is p l1llcl i,o the -{*-!xis, the co.ifttjnu.te tra$forrna-
ordinates of the two co.irdin{te systems arc c^lle,l twnslarnanan
tioD cquatioDs trirc ilre fotn

,{ codrdinate system is neoessary not only lor the description of loclF


tions, but also lor the reprcscntntion of vectoN. let us considcr some
vector lield, for examplc, an clectrostatic 6dd, in the neishLorhood of
thc point P. Th valur rnd direction of ihe lield strensth E at P is
Eqs. (1.2) ha1.c n forn sirniiu to eqs. (1.j), exccpt thar the cosins are
complctely deternimtl when 1ve knolv thc conponents of E \\'ith respect
no lons{rr .onstali. lut tunctions ol lirr{r. ]'Jre rctativc notion of thc
to some stated (r),irdirr:r.te system 3. l-cl us call thc components of E
t$'o flan(is of renronre exptesscs itsett ir the turctionat d{:Dendcnire ot
at P with rcspccii lo S, 1l",E,,andE". The comporlents of E at P
tla.^o ri
rl'ith respect io arother system, lor insla ce .q', can be coDrputed iI i'e ".
Eqs. (1.2) erprcss the rehi,io.ship betwi].]rl t\ro trames ot refcrcnce
know the transformation e(tuations delillirg the ixrdrdinate transform:F
$hioh rre rc trtnrg r.htirelr to ercl other. \iu.v otlcn $,e,l|e intrcsred
tior S into 8'. These rrerv comporerlts , tti , s:, , and .Dj , arc indc- in the rclalionship bel,*,.rcn tno tstnes ot r.forence lvhich arc in a state
pondent of tho trarlslaiion ol the poiriii of odgin, thai is, the constants
o{ uDjJounj innslato4. notioD relrril,e to clrcti other. In that ca.sc. it
d , ai, , and "l' of (1.1). .4; is thc sull ol the projcctions of ,',, -4, , i .o , r'. I r,,.too. n \,o .".1:.. ...n,,..c.ri1 .i. o rt1
ancl J, on the llaxis, and Jlj and .ol are detcrnined similarlv,
their rorresponding axcs rLrc par:1ltit io each otirer and so thai the poiriis
Di - c',8, 'I' qzll, t c'"8, , of odgin coircidc at tlic time , = 0. The iransformrtior eouations
Ei : c,18" 1' chD! + c"E,,
E: : ciU. + cnq! + cal't' .

A la$ 1\'hich explcsses the conpoDenis of a certain quantitv :lt a point


in tems of tlic componcnls of the s{ne quantitv at thc srrre point
i.. i ',":,:\
(r.3)

{ith respect to anothr codrdinatc svstem is called tvnslarna'ion lab'


^ yhele ,,, a , and a are thc conponenrs of rhe l,etocity oI S* relaiivctt,
to S.
coitrdinate hansfo.mations involving time. \\ie liove thus ftr con-
TLe form of thc transronlal,loD oqualj.Jns (1.2) an.t (1.3) depcDds,
sidered only transformaiions lvhich lc'd from one codrdinatc svstcm to ot
FRAMES OF REFERENCE t (h ap. I Chap. ll FRAMES OF REFERENCE

.oujsa, on ILF r'le i!. mol or o' b^ rno h'mps ot r"'r'n'p L'ut il that is, we essume that we can constmct rigid me$uring mcls whose
;i;;;;.;;^.FJd tu.,mprions Fg,'dirg rh' na'rrre o mp ,rd lensth js independent of their state of motrion. Eqs. (1.t) shov Nith
;;;-"; ii; t ..- 'o' ro. 'o a" n- , I r'
/ nd'u"' d4n v ol particular clerity how this essumption is e{pressed by the fo]m of the
"'* "" "'
p""r;"r. rr"-" " "t" ne or.inorh" rvo'd' rrar ir is r'os'ible transformation equations. For thc distancc bet$ecn two points & and
rn ouilcl c"ocks \\hi"h xrc Dot !ffe.red bl 'h'ir "r-t" o rno i",}
Tbir Pz with thc coijrdinates (rr, lr, a) and (x,,
"i,y a,, ,,:) js
s.-VIr, -J) (u" !.t, .: _-,rt, (1.5)
and obviously

(1.6)

is srtiSfid for any time l.


We shall have to coDiider these assumptions again at a latcr time.

li2l.'o".o.]rJi'aP6ys'.mc'$||h'l,."oo'di'D'"s
,"r-i:'r' -,1. .-..-..r,." t,"-," n l,'1,' o" r'1rP6 r'J r$rrh l"

assumption is e:pressed in our tramformation equations bv the absence


ol & tr;nsfomation equation for , If vc wish, ve can add thc equation
t* : t, (1.4)

expressine
-The the univc$al chaxacter ol timc erylicitlv'
other assu-ptio" concems lengih mcasurcments We assume
ihat the distance [etvecn two points-thev mav be particles at a
sivcn time is quite inclependent of anv particular frame ol reference;
V

Chap. ll l CLASSICAL MECHANICS

lomrliorl cqli.li(tr,s fl.2) orce xnd tll! r s{rxnrd tirne $iih rcsl(:ct
to l. ]'hc rcsuliils (rtuitnrns conrdr i, !, ?. x+, r+,llsi
zt, rrrl lLc
CHAPTER II a,,J. o l'. oi ' "'t I

1\'e .rs-\trred ili$l i.lrc roindnnic srsi.enr fi is rn jneftial sl -(icn. \\'.1


Clasricul Mechanics subsliluic, r.hcrclorc, lor:ii,.f, :u.l 2 l1ld ftr :i, ,, ard: the cxprr:ssidrs
(2.1) a d 12.2) r.sPc(tivcly. 'l'hus, wc olrtr,il lor thc srarr)d (!
ordinrlcs ard thrir de 1'atires
or* + d, cos 01 + d, sh o1, I
The lair of inenia' ineriial systems. The branch of ph: -"icg $Lich
lrom tho lirst $as l]l)st cofsisi{llly dciltol)ed:ls rn cxperin.r:rtal sciencc -d- + '..os
o/ -
'/?'
sil
"l"| (2.3)

rvas ChLilcin-Newtolian ml](il1.|llics. 'fhe frrst ltw to bc louruliltcd "


Nas thc htr'ol in(irt;a: IJolicN utun tlLaul !.n intctlt:tian uitll 'Iltr
badies ailt confirtuc in tlrci stok^ C Mn t str.Li.lht'linc lnilornr tnatibn'
In oth.e|LDards, th. rnation d lLch b.dn\ is una..t htuhd.. :i+ _ o! r.* _t, 2or7i ,l
To crr)ress th(i hw ol inqiir in mit]r(xmtical for , we (l{r-rignrte thc '!j" : .'1t 2't",1 (2.4)
locrti@ ol a bolly bjr iis tlrr(t corjdiDri.-q, r, /, Dtl ,. \lr]rcr 11 bodv is
roi at rcst, its corjKlin:rt.s rre {ul(iti(nlr of tim.i. Accordilg to ihc lr\1' :+:0. )
ol incrr.ir, tlic s(icontl tinc deril'a:ii'cs ol thesc thrce 1un(iiions, th(i nc- It turns out Lhrt intle codrdirLrte svsteDi ,S* ihc second tinc ddiva-
cel(irrlions. v&nilh }h{)n lhe bo{lr- is not suLrjocted to lorces, thri is,
tives do not all ranisli. Occxsion lv it is {lcsiral)l(i to n,ork nii.h lrn.res
i-0, :o,ij ,:0. (2.1) of relcrence in $hirL n(jcelel.ai,ioDs o(r,ur llhiclr lrc not cruscd irr rcal
,1" .-. irtiir:r(iihns Liilrccx bo(lies. TL$(i ccceleraiirDs, muttipljcrt Ll. rte
:r'
\\..p,,u "c olpr" 2rP\ mlsscs, arc trerterl liltu real lorccs, ofrerl fullcd ,,rran.rport forrcs,,,
";.rl' "jneilial lorrcs," ar.:l so lorth. In slitc ol thesc nnnr.s, rhelc crlrcs-
prc-*scs tlio corstancx of tle trrrcc Yelo.itv corrPonentr,
sions arc nol rritnxl lorc.s; |her lllercl].r|pcrr ir th{r {rlllcrions fottnrltt,
r-.ii-, 1J - lL!t h the srlni w,t-lls lorcos do. In our ilLsc, thc lirsi |orms, o!:,;*, oly*,
multiplied br ihe Drass, arc.:r,ller:l "ft,i1,itugrt torc.js.,,and ihc hsr
Th.i cquatioDs e\pre,.sirs ll:re lan' ol incrl,ja cont{irl codrdiMtes and
reler, lLerclor(i, to a (iuuix codrdinaic sJ'siern. As lims $ this tu
tems, also mliiidni b).tlo mass, rrc llic so-crlrtt Coiotis torc{rs.
On the otllcr hald, thr'e arc elso t,r,]x]-" ol coorctiLri(j rrrnsforuaiions
ordirule srst{lr is roi spccilied, thc iidicize.l st{tcDient (loos not licYo Nhich tcal'e ihc lorlr of ihe lai' ot inertir (2.1) rurchrns.{I. r\s r, c:rsc
a prccise meurilg. lir, gilen arr-. Lodl', Ic cur a1wals intrcdut: t in point, ire shaLl co.smer lirst a tra$tormatiol s{n]h nr1.oh cs ro
lrarne ol rcnience vith respe.li 1io Nhicll it is rit resi rnd, th'ircforc, trnnsjtion to one$' Lnrne ol lcirrcrce, olthc tr.pe (i.il. .fhe dilTercnrir-
uDacceler:r"tird. TIL0 r(}il ,rssertidl is, uiher: ?'htr. .1:irtt a 'rdln)at' tiotr of cqs. (l-J) \ritl subsijtuiion of trt, r, tnd so for.th, trcn e.ts. (2.1)
sasten (.at cairdinat s1!sttnrs:) uittL r.::ipcct to thith all halies n't Nuti'cktl
and (2.2) produces Lhc oquaiiotrs
ta It ..s arc unatrLLoatld. Q)ijrdimte s].sitrrnN witli tlri! propcrLv and
thc frarn.s ol ref.rtince reprcscnie.l bl' tlrcn l''re c:Lllcd i,"lt"l svsl"?s' i' - + .oi! + crf), : d1.l
Of cixr$c. rot rll irames ol rclcreric trc inertiol sJstems iror n1
stance, lcl us st&rt out lron ru id!ft;rl ()drilirratc si siier! S, rnd 'r rv
i' :
:
^.n,
c^a" + c,'n." + .,n" : ,t,l e.i)
out E traDsforalti,ion (I 2), leadnrs kr S+, a slsien rottli;rs silh a 2' cna. + c'.ti. + ua, : n'.,)
constarlt ansuliir velociL]' o relati'e lo S In ordcr to oLtain thc 3lrd
trstrsiometior lR$! of eqs. (2 1) and (2 2), Ne dilTereniihLe thc lrans-
8 i:t:i':2t:(l (.2.A)
V

to CLASSICAL MECHANICS I Chdp. ll chdP tr l CLASSICAL MECHANICS 11

The l'elocitt- components translorn just as $'c Nould cxrtcl r vector term-r of citlicr set of coindiltat{)s, (e call thri ln\r in:uiant at cawidnt
i.o transforu. and c(rs. (2.1) are rcprodurnl ihe rrew co.jrdin.rtes $'itll- il,L rcspcct to the inn,.foruaii(Drs (Dsideicd. l'ho tarr ot jncrtia (2.1)
js corlrinnt $ith rcsrrcrt to lrsnsfomraijons (1.1) and (1.;l), trut roi,
othcr translornrlion prescn ins thelii' oI inertia is thc ivpe ( I 3) . wjth r(ispe(ii to (1.2).
^n
It.rorcsponrls to thc lransiti.n lrom ore lrule ol rcl.irdrcc to aootllcr T[nsfoDratioN (1.1) l1nd 11.3) rrc ol ihe grcciest jmporrance for oru
one $lich is in a siriic of strl1ig]ri,linc, nnifotn motidi itai,ir-e to thc Iurthu discussions. l hcv are usu tllr. reterrc d to as (iatit.m ttanslarna,
fil'st fnmc. Takirs lhe second de lctivcs ol eqs. (13), \'e ol,tain llors. ,1.{odiug lo l]lx.isi.al physics, any trvo inerrjilt systenN rrc iro -
nclLc.l by a Galil(ian tr:rnslorduti.nl.
t* - it. ii* : ii, 2'- 2; t.2.7)

(2.1) The force law and its tiansfomation prcpedies. 1\ e shalt ros, dis.uss
an,t thc mothn of tl,e bodt' s.l.tisfies tlrc hw ol inc ii.l
il thc co-
tho lmnsloruraLion prcperii.s of the b{ji. laws ot classicat m(,tranics.
ordinnl,c systom .S, \,e hr"-c !lso:
Thisc la]ls nar. lr loruruht(\l thus
(2.s) ll;hcll hot?s ate stbje.t. to [at.. , ILdr u.el.nLiaks (to na! tuttish, hut
o.. pturbrti.nal to UL.lar.cN u.btlt .11rhctt. Th. tatio.f fme ,, at:.t ten_
wliilc the lirst derivati!{,s ol the strrred coilrdinrtcs (il eqs. (2 2) arpl}'
Ihn is d ..nstanl, dil|ct.nt .for .to u intliNi.Iaol botlx; this c.jlstu t ;s t:a\.(l
to the uDst Tcd coir,dnitles) are
the ?lass .I the Lodu.
t'' : a" r,, : r'ij I I'lt J.tc. o.tnn on n11..l)od.! i,s tlc t)ettat sum oJ alt. t. Jar.E causftt.
totnl.
h! etra rth.l LadrJ .J thc nc.haniml sasktn. In atltt rods, thc t tlt
!l'- d,, ,,.,: r; ,l (2.e)
'intcra.IialL adon! a nu.|nb./ al lodit is th.. tj,LtrinnLion af int.j.utti,Ls al
t* : tL. - t), : it: .) pairs. 'l'lt. lottrs biich. tuo LolicN cxett on .nh .ther tu hL thei/ orot .t
itlq staigltt Utu. atd, arr tqtal .t pt thdt th.1! ,paikt in op.pas;t dneLtiat6;
Eq. (2.8) shl:,ws that ilrc hw of iricfiia holcls in ihe new sr-stcln as \'ell thdt is, tbt) bali,:s can eiLh.t otr.tc!, ar :r.t tut:tL othet. ,t'tu)n.aaniLlt. tf
l1s in thc old one. E(1s. (2.9) exprcss i.lre ll1tt that th{i trlociiv corn- thesc lotrcs is u funclit)n al th.it .Iisto& artu; tL.ith.r Nla.iti.es nar at
ponents in the new co,jrdimte s$id! S: arc r:qual to tliose in the old ,.1, t lo
svstcm nlinus thc coinponents ol ilre relatiRr \elociil' ol lhe tno .(F 'l.licsc la$.s rp|1y to srch phelorlcnr .ls sl:ivitrtjon, dix,rrostatics.
ordimtc s-lsterns tlrunselves. Ilis lal1 is olLrrl rclelrod l{, as the (il&s- and Yen I)er \\ alls forres, bui dc(itrod\rrmis is loi inctrd(li becllrso
sn,al) h$. ol 1hc tddition of rdociiies. the irri.or,(tior l){ii.Nmn lL'grtii(i fields ud elecr,jiir (irorscs prcdLLces
Fl.lmes ol rcldcrnce and coilrdinote s-vstunB in irhich rlhe 1a$-(2.1) is Iorces Nholc rlircftjim is .ot in iiio (onnecrtins str shr ljle. lnd ljctr
v|lid a.e jndiial s]'stems- ,{ll Cartesiur coordinntc slsteDrs r'hich are depend.,n the l.elocily ol the clus.d bodl rs r.elt :1s on its r)osjrion.
rt rest rchti'c to an inci:itl coorrlinrtc ststem 'rc tl'elr)n'h-cs inertial llut rrrrrci the ii.rLir:izecl corditirns arc saristicd. rtre torc.s .,.n be
sj'stems. Caltesir:n {!)ordirlte s'-stdns belongins lo a litne ot refer- rcpreseol({ br the rcslljr-o deiivriiyes ot ttr.j potcrri el]ersl.. .l.he
enco wliich is in a staic oI stEighi lirrc, nirorlr notion r(ti1,ive to an latter is i,l!r sLrnr ol thr: lxricntial crcrgies chrrtutedzirs th i!tcr:lcrior
inertirl slsleln are also ilcrtial s]'stcms. On lhc otler lmd, $hen vo of anr t1\.o Lodics or'lruss points,"
(rrry oul i1 traDsiiion to .l nerv framo ol relercnce rniL is in sone sftrte
of rcftlcrated motion rcl.rtil'e to the tilst oDc, the (orreslordins co-
i;rdirute transformatioll does noi rcFoduco eqs. (21) in terms ol thc (2.10)
r$\' cobrcliDatcs. The ac(eliir{tion ol th.i nc\\'fianc ol refer{Jicc rela-
tiie to an incrii:rl sr-stem rntnifesb itscLl ir apparcnt a(iclcfutioN of
Lodies not $uLrjcct to real forccs 'l'he indic.:s ; and /i reler to the int.racrion bch,en thc ttir and i,hc tih
m.rss points, arrl s" is thc (lisi:r.ncc l).rr1!een rtreDr. fhe furcr:ions
Galilean trarsformations. the turrn of a lilw is ot
If bv I/+(str) me en'cn bt' 1,hc speci nciule ot the t)robten, for erample,
'tienged
l$v
certrin .o,jrdirDte transfornations, ihat is, iI it is the -qdne in Lloolomb's law, Ne$'i,on's hry ot sravitatiox, :r,nct so lorth.
V

12 CLASSICAL MECHANICS I chap. (h"p. r I CLASSICAL MECHANICS t3

Thc force acting on the ;th mass point is siveD by (1.3), cor(spondhg to thc straightlirc, unl-t{,rrn moiion, leaves the
coiirdinate dilT.,rnces, for exrmplc, r; - .rr , unchenged, or,
.
r": .rI- +,,tr", ,, ..i
i)x,-- 2 Ji -' (2.14)

"
t":-rh: aV i, dl'a :r, - ir" (2.11)
Thercfore, the s* themselves trhc ihc srme lorm irr thc nc\v corjdinate
! lu , ' srstem S* flhnh thcv ha 'e tu ,S.
The ilYinsft,rnution cqurtbns (1.1) xpris th{r relatiorship l,clu'ccn
, dt i/ ,li',, ?r .,^rl tro mitrdinate svslems\,hich are at.est relativoto catfi otler and (liosr:
.,., ,t r/t,, N"{es arenot tl1rrlkt. Obvnnlsly, lhc distance betieen tl.lo points is
expressed in thc srm wat' in cithcr coordinate st'stem; so that
The set of equrtions (2.11), by its form, irnplies that thc force com-
pone.ts (lue to the irt( r:illii(m of lhe ith and the i.th bodies olon are v (xr rJ + \! - !t)'-l l- -^)-
I
equal, except lor opposite signs, thrl is,
: ^\/ (.,: ,',)' + 0: y')" + (z't ,;l , (2.15)
dv* alt
er. - - A4' )

Thiirefore, the.sum ol all fo.i,s rctiry on all r Inass points vanisht, A quantity s'lich does not rtrange its r.alue (at, a siven point) shcr r
codrdinitc iransfomratiorl is carried out is called an nrvariani Nilh
(2.12) rcspcci lo that transformrtion- The .listance bet$een t{'o points is rn

l\ic h{rc seen tlrat the arsuDrents of the lunction I', the s*, arc in-
The difiercntjai cquliors sovernins thc llotions ol the Lodies are variart rrith rcspe.t to CiaiilffLn 0oiir(linate tlansformntions- Tllorc-
forc, the lunction I/ its.tl, tlro totcl potentirl crcrsl' of the mcclnuic
system, i6 :Ln invariant, too; exprcsseii in tcNrs ol thc n.rw coil(limics,
: t,",1 (2.13)
ii hxs thc srm form and takes the sanc t'alus :L.s in ihc origin: co-
^,0,
ordinrtc sr-sti,m. E(r. (2.10) is covilrirnij \riilr rcss,ct to Golilcau

nberr: nr; is thc mass ol the trl]r bod-\'. lei us rroi{ul to cqs. (2.1i) antl asaln Lcgin {ilh trensformti.,n
\te &rc noN soirg to shon tlht l/rc slsl.u,/ eql Latirns dctttlnining the (1.3). 'rl,c risi,H[nd sidis ol (1.. (2.11) conhh ihc dcli livc-r ol r
bdtuiat aJ d ncclLani,cal systcrn, (2.10), (2 11), tnd (.213) is on|iant qrntiiir rLicl wc alrcrdy krow is rn nrt+ui:urt. Titcsc dirn rlir.es
bith t.s?t.t to Galiktn ttansJonndtton"\. {ith respccl to thc ino sets ol codrdirrtcs llre rclated io each olhcr b)'
lei us siart \riih eq. (2.10). l- depends on the dist ces s.,' ol the
l-rrious rnass poills Ircn esrh oiher. Hor do iho r,r chanco (tmns
fornt Nhen r iiodrdiuate tr.nsldrlaiion lr'1) or (r'3) is c,rriL{l out? av av ay: av dv: av (2.16)
ln order to l1ns$cr thDt r|rcsLior, it Dust bc l.ep1i in !ri.d th{l the co ar,: i:' ay, ii:' aa i4'
ordinaies ol thc ilh and ol ihc /illl bodl-are to lc 1,rken rt Ure samc and therclorc, thc dgrt-hand side of eqs. (2.11) is in'ariant 11ith respeci
timei in oth.r Noi.:ls, tliri tllc Llist:r...c l)cin'een the tNo l)odies is itsclf io transfomuiions (1.3). \Ii]r etr er the srme hol.ts trueforthe left hand
a fnnction of inre. Ol couNe, th. codldirrctcs ol ttrc variinis nass sidc, rve shell be rblc to decide alter discussing the transformation
points tr{nsform inrlet{rdcutl}' ol crch other, clch s.i (r,. 9r, :, bv properties ol eqs. (2.13). 1l is (tear, horrerer, that Ure eitratnrn rorains
itseu, {ccor.lins to tlte t.ansloN,,tion equttnrns (1.1) or (1il)' re- valid in the ncx' .(irdirate syslcn oxly il boih snles iranslorm tlie
same way. Othe vise, it is not covarjani, \ii,h rclpcci to tLe trans
Consnicrnie these poirns, it is sccn innncdirlell' ilut traLslormaiiion
lomation coxsidercd. $re shall h{ve to fiml out Fhether the tmns-
t
tl CLASSICAL MECHANICS ch.P. lt I CLASSICAL MECHANICS 15

lormatio propcrties ol tl,c right hmd sidc ol eqs (2 11) arc compatihle
thrt both cqs. (2.11) {rd (2.13) arc co'aria.t. ll,.i.tL t...spect to spukal,
nit| thosc ol tlie lclt hud side ot qs (2 13)' as bolh cletcrDine the ottrouanal ttai6to) nahJLs aJ tLc con dnnft: st/stem, IIE Jarc.s .)rc N.:tors,
etul th.1l atc intat;ont dtll ttspe.t ta rans.fal matians r..t)t.:tent;t4t a
t[o-liorn tion ph])trti.s ol the lorrlrs, fr ' sttaitht-lin unijonn maliatl oJ olle sxst.m rcIatiDe ta th. ath,.r. "lhcs.: rcl^-
Lct us 1i!rl translolm tlx: ris|t hrLIrd snlc ol eqs (211) bv r trans-
tions can lx cxpresscd ir e slightly ditlercni, form. lll' elimitrtl.ting the
fornatiou (1.1). ,\|t)lying thc rules ol lrtial difercntiation, ilc obtain
qnmiii.ics f, frori .qs. 12.11) and (2.13) we .an combine ihrl] into ncw
irT: dl- !1
,I- aT- equrrliurs ol the lorin
. ,'\i -t1
, 4,. dll ,t:,
nl .ll,.r1 + .r I',.--i dl (2.11)
'{,+ -",:
Ul - \1t Alt ,r--t.1'

nr av JY JI- ei,* a,1 (2.19)


+ -1,+--rr. "'0,:
The 3, equatn'rs (2 17) cnn be iepxnted into J? sroups of 3 equ'LtioN
t + ,,2, : .,]
each, tlrcsc groul)s lnrirtg nlcrlicl1l sailr lor th{i valuc ol i Each srcup
r.rrnsfom* rs t]!i coDiuonents ol a Lclor, thlL is, {r!ch (tnrl)oDenl i
fhcs{) {rluations corhin i.he esserlirl pLvsical statencnts ot eqs. (2.11)
.ine sy,i{r! is equrl i.., th. s Lr ol thc ])toje(itiols up'iri it of the i'lrrce
. . 2.t .1. rnn I c o-l ,

flrc rcsLrlii of the rln)1-e


considrtrtirn is that tirc iwo si:les of each oI
cornpon(lls in ilic or.hcr s)'siotr.
.,tLrn&r,s (2. il ) ald (2.13) tr.rllsntr]rl in the sarnc r,:rv, ard i,tr:rt, thero,
l\ihctLcr the lii.-liand snl{ s ol eqs (2.11) also h t vertor characler
lorc, tllisc c.1l1:1i.i.ins .emain vdid Nlren arbitrnry catitean transtounr-
mr.lst lnr de.i(l{:tl 1l'tiier disolssion ol t|e trrNlormtlion l)llrperti(is ol
eqs. (2.13).
tions.rc (arried out.
Thc lclihud ol eqs. (2 13) rre prodtrcts (tf nasscs rnrl arcclera- litu:lijons rhi(h do.ot chrDs. l1t all $ith i,lrc transfomation {th:rt
-.ides
is. th. torns oI Nli.h are irvuirnrs) arc crllcd ;,rdrionl. Eqrstions
tirns. ll'e hrtc rheadv slrted thal in .hssicrl |Ll si|s lLc na.s ir con
si{t(irctl to bc a coNtani. of 11 bod}', nrd.p(!de.i' ol iiis sirte ol tiotnm
$Lnlr r{rmrin vilid l,(\ialtse thcjr i,orDrs, thoush rloi, jnr-ariant. tr:Lnstorm
on(l irvalil1nt ritt rcspcci to .r)it.tineft: lixlslonnatjons . "ooi - , J.n l . t.. 'r,on ..,t,,. . ..r'l I .n,t
lhat ih.i {.rcelerxti(nts ol a lrrcly are iu icnl \rith rcspe.t io trsns- d),,
f<rrmtion rve lrtre alread,r' seen in cq. (2 7) 'll!1clor(i i'he l{rfi-
mi.', and so lorth, in u]s. (2.19)) rrc called drrdftfll.
11.3)
'r' rr' irl T|e.o1'adrnce.,l (iluatioN is the mathenjri(,al propcrtv Thich
r,l ,' ' l . l.lr ,
" ;L
(iorresponds to the cx tcnre of ,r rchtir-ity prirrcifle tor urc
&s rhe rigllr LrD.l sirl.s ol eqs. (2 11) d,vsicrl
:l\lrnins to tunslormrtion; (1 1), Nc htron' iliNt trl's e:pressed 1)r- rhos.i cqualions. ID lact, th{r relativii,t. prjn(jipte oI
{ilassical mecharici is equir.alcnt io our resul1,, tlrat Urc t$'s ot me-
i:'. : c,Jt + ctLi; l cr2t, and so lorth, (2 18)
chui.s i:r.ke ihe sam. fonD ill ell inertiol s].stnnrs, tLat is, in aL1 those
(ioiir.li.ate sl stcns lriii( h can bc olrtaired
l,ut becrusc lte ."' lrtre t|. sigrifi.0nce of rosinos ol anglrs, and ln:ause bJ, sDtrjectiI1g anr onc inertial
the valuc ol r cosilxi does n(n, depcnd on th| sign ol tie rlngle,
' ". .b:-,..|""r ,r
'l'Le other brarclics ol rnechDi|s, sucll l1s rhc ir.iltment of conrinuous
cos. : cos (-,t, i*rti.{r. (lihe Ureo'r of clxstic Lodics and hr drlxlln Dics) or rlrc m-
it is also tlue th.f clmirs ol risnt bodics, can be d.duc*lfrcn the nicr1ranics of frm mass
poirts l)v introducins ruitrble iutdr{riion euergirs of tne tvpc (2.10),
a, : .niij + .rrl1 l- .rrj , t d so iortli (2 rsr) cnd by carrJ-irrg out ccrtrin limitirs trocesses. lt is eridert, .jven
Igrir, thc loltlrand sides ol eqs (2 13) trrunrru in cxll(it\' ihc s'nic rrillont a deiriled trtmcrL ol thesc bunches ot niichanics, thrr th.
Is \ qrtors resuli! oLirinc.l rpply io thcDr lr'3 \'dt as t., iLc ta$s of motion ol frce
w:rt' :is tho righu,.r|d siclcs ol (2.11), ni {lris
to".2tJ,.r..-,".,, r,l .,. . ' .i, rh l"
'rs' F

r rt.., t-.t I' r'' "n ' - n " o


chap. lll l THE PROPAGATION OF LIGHT t7

h Nla,xwell's field thcory it is further assumed that Ure chaDge of tlie


fiekl triirbles rvitll tirnc at a giren sp:1ce point riepends o ll, on 1,he
CHAPTER III inmedirtc neishborhood of the space poirt. A disturbance of th., licld
at a point induces a chanse of ihc liekl in its inmediate reighborhood,
this nr iurn causes a chrnse farthd nw:ly, Anit thus the orieill l di$turb
The Propugution o[ Light
sncc has a tendcncy lo spread lviih a tuiitc \.clocity and to mako itsol{
Ielt cventuall). o\-iir a s.eat distl1ncc. 'rArtion at a distilrcc'J mat, thus
bc prcduced bl.th{) lid(], but alNil]. irl ()nne.tion 1\ith I d.tinite lapse
of liDle. Thc lo\.s of a field th(iory h.wc th forlr ol priii di$erentjal
The problem corJroniing classical opiics. Durhg ihe nindccnth cen- equction3 corilinins the parlial dcriyatir-os of the neld l.uiables i'ith
tul1, a nei' br lch ol pll"vsnis $':Ls dc\,eloped i'lrniL cor d not bc Lrousht rcspeNt to thc spaie ljoit.r:iinalcs rnrt $ith rcspect to limc.
\dthtu the renln ol n,echannrs. 1'hti br:,.ncn x'as ilcctrodl-nrmics. Is The lorce scti.s upon a nuss point is determined by th{r field jn the
ll)])g l13 onlr* el.utrosiatic and rnlrglclostatic efir(rts $cie knoN , ihe)' imediate neighborhoocL of thr mnss point. Conl-elsely, ilrc presence
irlrld be treated rillrlr ure lranteworh ol necnuri(ii l)y the iltroduction of tlie nlass poilt mar arld usu{]ly docs.nodit ihe field.
of dijcirostrti0 rnd rmgrclostati(i potcriids {hicL dtl)ende{l ollv on Sin(e the slmriuro ol nlaxr]dl's theorv ot e]ctronusnciism is so
th(i distailce of tlrc {rlccr.r'ic cf gos or u slretir: p(t.s lrodl ei(ilr olher. dilT{rr(int fronl N{\tonian rnechanics, iLc vllnlitv ol the ftrirtivitr prin-
Tlrc irrlelacinrr ol iliictric lnrl Drtgnetic firtds requircd l dil'lercnt ciplc in nrechadcs l,t no mealrs irDplics ils cxtension to elcci,mdlrnamics.
troitrn.nt. ']'llis 1'L. L,rougnt oul .loltrlJ bv O{aiicd's etpeimcrt tic $Ihelllrr or noi, i,lris princitte apllics lio the laws ol the electroDasntic
f(nxd lhat a rnrs ci.ized need|r wrs tlcUertrrl Irom its rornrrl NorfL- fiekl must be the "\rbjiirt of a neli i cstisation.
Souih ttircctbr bI n cutrert flo$'ing throusll iur ofrjnead \orUr Soutlr .{ conplete in\'cstisrti(,n of this hini $'ould have to estrLlish the
ii'irc. The sisn .il u)e,:lefie.ti(trr \r.rs rol'crs{{ $t1en inc dirccti.rn ol tLe translormction la$.s of iihc electric ald mgnctic fie1d iniensii,nrs Nith
curlint rl'as rcversecl. Ol,r-iursl.t', th. mngnci,ic a.tnDs uodu(lil Lv r-"specl to Crlilean tlaDsfomrtions, ard thcn dder.rine iheiher ihe
cl{rcllic cuDolris. tlat is, l)r'!].,\'ing <hl'rgrs, dcpertl not ori"v oL the tmnslouncd quantities oLcl.thc sane h\rs \ritli respect to the ncw
clisi,mce l)ut rlso on thc \llocitt' of tltcjc charges l'ulthernnrrc, ure coilr{linetes- Such in1esi,igribns vere carricd ont by 1-aious scieDtisl,s,
force .loes Loi, lle'o tlrc dircctior ol th{) c.Jn e.tins s|raight linc The among then H. Hetz rnd H. -{. LoreDtz. Dut nc can obtain thc most
coicepts ol Ne{tor's mcchatiics :r..e no l.,rger rflljirtble. important rcsult ol these irl.cstisations bv mucll sinpler considerations.
Ihxwcll succeedcd in lolmul ins Lhe las's of clcctrom.snctisrn l)v Itrslecd of trerting llaxwell's fi{rld equetions thcmsrtvc,., ne slatt con-
irlrcdu.ins the ncN (nrcept ol "n(td." ,\s (c hr\.e sc.n jrr the fr* ture oulseh.ell aL preseDt 10 .,Dc of their aspecis, tlro p$pasation of
c(dnrg (trt)lrj, m({j]luics a svsi.rrr ir conrplctcl) der.r.il)cd Nhcn tllc eleclromagnetic wei.es.
loQtions ol lne consiilucrt m.ss poirrls are k!(\rtr xi! lun(iiioos ol iiDe' Mnxwd hnlrlclf re.ios,rize,:l ih{t ele.jtromagnei,ic distur.bnnces, such
li llas'.ll's tlcorl., slr cxcount.ir t certe nuuLcr ol "fiild r'.rrialnr:r," as thosc produced by oscillating chorses, propagate througlr sta(je with
s[ch lls dx] c.impontlis of the {rl.clric and magretic fi(td strcnsths' a r.elocily rhich dcpcnrls on the clcctr.i. nature ol the n[ticr prcsent ;n
l lLile thc ro; t coiirdilrlcs oi DeclLui,:s arc drililcd xs htrrinr ol the sp:rce. In the drscnc.i ol nettcr, rhc rclocity ol trolllgrtion is inde-
1ir,. .oii.(LririL' alor.. |hc lield i-rrirlncl arc rli:ilutd nrr r11r':Llurs l'ollt pendnt of its dircciio., and equrl to aLout 3 X 10'r cm scc I. This jg
ol lhc tir! coirldnr.lii iuLd ol li|c thr.c splr.rc coordjrrtcs, ard a'f' tLus qurl io the kno\rr spced of lighi; trhxFell $sumed, ihcrlrforo, that
furction. of iorr nldcIlcrdert va [b]cs.1 lig]]t r\lts r tt-p ol clc.i,romagnetic r:ldirtion. Nihen IIcriz \'$ lble to
proftrce clcctroneglrcliu rariirtion by n.r'ns ol cn electronagnctic appa-
r rn 1r,,i nni.lnnies ol conliNous ridir. \r.lird variablos r!ic! r0sunll i!1'1 r{tus, ltNwdl's theorx !f the eiectroDrsndic fietd and hij ctcctro
yrrirLl$: Thc mxss .l.$i tI. mo fnl hri..sitLirr.ss0r'!lr'rdrts,andsoIorlni mrp.tic theorx ol light \y{rrc icceptd as u irrtegrat part of our phJ.riccl
tl(t,"rt,\ . i, ,,d, , l'-':
',". '"1".,4" i l
oJ 'l| :"/ni.lu,L"'q J knorlcdse.
ir.R.!,, ,hchl Io' .. Elo.trornasneiic radiation proprsat.s in emplJr sprcc witL a unitorm,
16 constaDt 1-elocitv (Lcrfflfter deDot.d br .). Tliis conc]usior can ire
v
]8 THE PROPAGATION OI L,GFIT
n. .. L.iri,u... j r.;r,s ij,u
!-.o,r, . ,,- j,, ,r.J u.
THE PROPAGATJoN oF LIGHT 19
lu
rs cFr nL. { Ftr.andpt,.tii.ricl,ls. .I.jj.i,< i,r,oi\FJ r, -J.' r..r',,.r""l.,,r ir ^te,r. tLr-r,,....,.rh: .,.n1.,1
:; ',-':;lr,l jr:'"Jli-,rr::i:,;,: it,ti io,.. \. r,..n. i.r ,.,.,.,.s,i.r.:r., ,.. ;.,.,to, 1".,...,n
l.i.,ar.o
"" i".,"_,"1 ..',.
, ,1'1, ; -",
r" ;,,r -"i,,,. '
''" ';,:::.:", _ il"; .:,;':
::,t';:;1;';;,, .:, ll:.t ;,i;::f: ,, 1 "ii:," I ; , ,..,',,','l
1,''^' - li". ; 'l" '.
I :l;-i;;'"i iil,, i';-'.:'l: '"'' ,1 l: ,hlt,,
,t.,li.:
.'
,,",, i.

::' : ," ,';


r
, ,, ":
.!i: "":
.""i.j ,.,..i.,,^.,..... .
;'.,,
...,..,, -
"j,;";'l ':ir . ;; tur.lnr.crr.,l
.": .;,""

,i{ ",;' " '" "rr'1" 'l", :i;;:" ', l:


I, 11 L oI rt!_ uL t" nt
l,". 1,"i ii,, ;'' ;.tllftl'":'"11.; :,
"1 ''l:"r,",,,',. 1',

:"ifi l:itff :'i.",T:lT::l:il1:":,:ixlt"; ,i


(3.1) ::#!,1:t"
i-::, 11:: ; ,
I :,.
,," ;' -', i:
i:ffi

1{itlr

_ns,"
r; ,' ;'.1 Ii,,:j, :,, 1-."."
li ":',, ::
\'u,ir . ,o .q. 2.J,. .h^,.
+ cus,B + cos, r = r. ti2l l:",. ,' :, ',' r. ui,
ro i, / co,. ,,.n.
") ,'''

l";; 1"'r;:'',',,,, ' ^r'


J
."r. J. a.. '' i,l i. t,bi
'o 1d.i * :9'. - '' '''o'' \ o.'.',..'
'''''''
,j:"""".-,.,) l ",'.'::l
',1' ', ;, ,' ; "o' 'l

:", " .''::i ;":;^'",.,,- '1r, ,, r-' '; ll"-,.1 ':


':i rr'r rt, rrrtt, r: I Lri l,.,,cp -rrrtrL '
::::;: _.; I
(3.3) ,, .i,

*"t oI lishi depcnds oa iis riirccrtun


",,,,'";i:
li:" +,;";;.t
as indicnre.t by ure

:l: -,"-i:,i;,,1
" l,':
,".
" :,:-
,

:,:
-. \/, . . .2. aJ-
:l':;r ",, ,
;::"t", ;.'",,::r ,r rn o,
".- ^
rr.e.1s:.,r,,,.,r.rorj,crri..o..,r,,i,,., " ' 3r' ,. ,irr,,r.,, n,..
,.:;;"";,y;1,;r;"i*, .ll
;i' ""il ';
a,,, ." ''-"
1

;l;.'
_fi,':",j,j,; .;':,:""; :: Io"-n ";
':.'1' ,1",;.1;:1""
,,..",:;,.1.' "'l
, ;:: r:1"' : ::;- l ;:ri, il.l;
,t
"1
t,
-
,'.; ," j ,
;-1"," r,,",1 :":t'I :1, ":r,.: J,:
:,:1, :. ;r ":'
"jl;l; . :;"li.lil:i ;lji i:,: -;,1,,;:",ill i ""liffiT..ltJ'.:iii1,.,:l,iitiltli:T,f.iI
.l;li,jff
:.il, i:.,1,: :l:l
20 THE PROPAGATION OF LIGHT lChap. lli chap. lrl THE PROPAGATION OF LIGHT
I 21

tancc divided by tlrc spocd ol lisht. If I is thc 1'ai:rtioD of


velocitv ol spccd o{ light, trizeau carried oLlt the lollowi.g eriporiment. He scnL a
one cc,nDonent ol the double slar, onc rvoLrll
hrt'e rav of light Urroush a pipe fillod rith a fLowing tirtuid, and n.jasurcd tlie
uLl sped ol ligbt in both the negrLive and t)ositir.e diftrcrjorrs of fio$,. He
t= (tlc. ar/ac - -{, determined lhiisc speds acculrtely blr m(jasurirg i,he po-riiion of iriter-

t? is lhe (listan(c betrreen rloubLr: star and earih, c is the spced ol light' The expcriment shoncd i,h.t tbe slxul ot lisht does dcpencl on tte
,',"a i l" i,r'" rncan iine for liglii to rr*ch thc earth) lleNonrble ldocilr of iho fiol1jrg li(tui.], trut Dot to the e\tcnt rhrr iiie \.etoc;tics ot
ol ihc qurntities d, &n'l c $re: thc lighi and of the n,cdirrm rould sinply lre addc(]. Fe denote ihe
assumptions for lLc ordor ol m,rgniitde ',
I - ro" c-' scc ', spcctl of lightb)'., ih{: l.clocity oI ilre liquid irv rr, rnd the;rlex oI
refr{cLbn bv r, we should expect, lccorcting to our prcsent $sumptionj
I- 10' ctn sec that the obserrcd sf.od ol ljsht is
d > 10" cm; "
(3.5)

> 103 scc.


the sign depcrldins on the rclative dircctions of rc ljeht and the flow.
^l fh' r' ,r., r ', .' ,- rhr' rl !' -! I. rpo ,.i tgi i., ,, ni, rtre
crn and
Is therc ar{r tnanv ,:louble star svstons for Nhicli d cxcecds 10" linits of experimcntal error, gir-en by
0ouid not
$Lich havc periods le"s than 106 soc' tlie lesuLting eficcts
n,rlo ,n,seri rtion.
Tr'i i
H","'.,",. ."no "r'y -u'l FTnrri .".r"noLrr'l hvpoihesis
lurtlicr consideratiorl of this
"-i-.(-*)
This cxpdmental rcsult is corlsistent rvith
(3.6)

su;cientty ct.,'rau"ive to rule ou ii tte first objecrion. For,


h]' :i the llrediuli] is increa"singly rerr:frcd, the nrdex of refraciion n ap_
The tansmitting medium as the frame of reference' Arolhcr proaches thc !:r,lue i, the dcpendencc ot I on r becornts neglisible. m.t,
,,.,r, i. -" .,""''".; '' rn:i 'r"" ll"sl inr'Flim':,,{ 1Fof ir'fir' "d.uri r. o.,4 r.rr,lh..
i",,, ,,," Another clTcct rfich indi.jates i.hut the specd ot tisht dos not deDercl
"i
$Jithin ihe rlmosrhere ol the orlth, Lhe sp(xrd of lighi shoLrld bc
uniloBn o,rh-lo'.,' iun,.. r,.., .. i,ittt .t-. olian.
$ilh rcspe{il, to a geo.cntric lmme ol relcrence' Fitedstars rt a sreat dis Lnce rh Bc thcir rehti'e positions iI tte strv
This irrpothesis, too, is unsatisfictorv in mm-v riispecis :l't us in a Sl.stetnatic walr $itL r peiod oI oxc year. Their |rlihs arc eIiDS;s
" .or "".r, rr'r'i. ''rr"r'irrr "n"l n
rro,,r,l r\"u".' " .s, , r .io"rri .n.t,, .!t..,r.rr,.i, r,,
"",;,.;. rh" :g r qlr ' F'
. i, "'.
. r.h o"r' n'n o "l
'dmijdiLrn ol 1r'. n ,' ! po.^ , r- o. n ,,, rc ., i rie
',f
,Lo,'. tlt* ,,f""t'.-ug-,tic rlltliatirn gocs lrour one
ni a cerl'rirt approxirnately clcles, s,hilc sii:rrs near ttrc ediptic hove p"ths wlich are
t,, , medium in a lliflerdrt st:rtc ol moiion The nearly straight lircs.
"tlti, "rut",'"ii""
llot,t -*",1a "*,"nd
r,,, t,ound to ch:1rgc, tlis chmso depcnding on ihe Fig. 2 illustll1tes tle (ay ttrr; star is sccn a1r.r.r fron its ,,normat',
""""a U", trvo rnedir antl or the dire(ition ol the udiaf ion position (tlic 0enier of the ellirsd at two tl.pical points oI the Dath ot
"i.ii",, ""t"it''
r,i""".,,r *-*", -'tU,
"r ailrt'rcrce ol incln:is o{ rclraciion) II this crreri- ,1"^dh. o,,J h ..n.
Nith iocrecsi gll'rareficd rn{{ia'-tlrc irter
-,r't .f'"tfa fr" "-"i,a "ut radirlion i'oLrld L'cconii less 'tnd lcis' as far
AbcrntioD crn be eii|hn1ed ihus (Fic. 3): as rhe tdescopc is dsidlv
.ll rr, d".. i, h r,..!,rr. i, Fop .r,._, .ir.i j,jrj.r,orm..,..!r-
r"il"r 1","'*r -rtu".nd (ihrnse ol z
i"i*"ti trr, ".tt'i"g, an.l so forth, re concelniid' but thcthat ol ;iv l0" n.F-'. lr-r .rc.\.1 rrleh -,t r4r..rt,a p...,.,".
"" r" tl" crs{r ol niinitc diluiion' r is' ol a '"' L. .1! ftom r,p ,.1... orp r,, I La ir, n"d i, rr..
"".'r,i '"-"r",r" ""-"
J',,r.1 .\. :. r:ir . mo , ^ io"r "P rp ' u'F' 'u,lr','pdnr1r,"r..orr. .t.\.r..d . irt,,."rtr;vc. r-:.h h.to,
"i,"","' ' h l'' 'rh"r' I'
"\t 'I n Ir'-'r' ofr!n' rh'.formpr l,.,irion or rh. r/,.,. n,d L,r ,, p , m.
'r!r rt.. t".i ":r h,r.
*i.1, "r,*- rli"-,,tnrn on tlte n LLencc a rnoviDs mtdntrn on the arrived at the lowcr end. The tauscnt ot tLc angtc of af,;raUon. ..
22 lHE PROPAGATION OF LIGHT I Ch"P' III chrp. r l THE PROPAGAT]ON OF LIGHT 23

bv ihe ciuth nnd the talicn tleil standarct lorm ri,irh resyjt t to th$t trarnc. As re accetera-
mnsi be th{i ratio bijtw(icn the {tistance tral'ersed
liili,'*" t'.'".""i i.':.rrc risht rsv dud.s -'nrnc time nrkr rl' or tlre
thc
right rlris
tions ol ch{rsed pul,irles xro proporiionai to tte field, this trane could
be expecL.i to bc lln jnerLial sJ'stcm, so thai, the acc.rtemtiors lyoukt l,cncl
;;ifiil;; i; qeccr oi thc'ea'ih &rd the speed of
iro zero with thc field.
raiio is
1"e-3Ir{--ro-;
c 3X l0u'
The expedment of Michelson and Mortey. On the bftsis of this
a:sum|tion, \Iich(:lson 3rd llorliy der.isod an cxpcinent $4lich \'lr.s
lnr n 20i pri_^ur 'oq'ErFt dcsi{3led to deterrnine thi: notion
rrc r^.r'ar-.rpo ':rr'ro of tlie earilr \liih rcst'ect to ilie
aLermiur rrom tl c c"nier ol tLL ettirr' pririlesed lrame of r'.fcrcncc in
wiich thr: speed oI ligit iras to Le
uDilorm. f|e csscntial i,:lcd ot
their exp{riment n'xs to cornprrc
tlie app:1rorf, specd.of liglrt jtl tNo
dficNnt dir tiollr.
B{)f ore studtiDg iLir c'pedmcn-
i{l s{rt-ut), l.t us di.rcu-\s tlrc .jr-
pecicd resulh trcll] the si'ndtrirt
ofthis new lr].poth csis- 1lr.relrrh
itseu cl1nnl:,l be the pri\itcAllt
fiame ol relocnce wit| rcsp..r i_o
n'Lich Lhe eqratiolls of ll.Lln cu
hti{:1, lor il js conti|uilUY subieci;
to the grrr,r-itrlidral ecijiorl of thc
sun; and in a fril,ne or retcrcnce
co.nditeil with Ur.r .erro ot grft1-
itation ol our solm sysior, ttr,"
vel.x,jlr ol i'he eutt is ot llie
b^-' o.dcl ol ;l X l0' dI r. 1r
scu
-ir,"i
r!.2. t-.,p,. ,1, ; ri ^ r "rinsr'"- V

,., - " :":. ' ,, ^" J o


chauges, thelelore, rirorit 6 X l0'
cm sec 1 Iis.3. Irplrution rlabcDr tjor.
in the coursr: of onc hr
ycrr rclati\-elv i.o a fi.rme of rclaclce rtintr approximetrs
an incrtial
ll,,-, \' ' I s " "rli lr"1 rr1l "r 'hx Nlrstqn beli,cr than i,he erfth does. l.treretorc,
erl! it
r"JLi thc earth
,r;,.,'.', t :' o " ' J'lirl" coukl aL :r,rx till( be iLlontilid $,jrh rtro siatc
ot morion of tho pdvi_
,.",,r-tr,- t",'" truij, tlio liglrl r|rvs, upor entedns our aimosphere' ieg^r ,r"ot rr.,a.. \ uJ ,.\^r ,of L / t0 ,.n .".
ii.ould Le "sxcl)t ' :iong, trid no ab{rrratnrx \tould take
place' lr.l . \.. ,r ,1," r.. .it"g,.r "l^
reference Alt thcse crsumots srggsled the
. rn",,y ..","
n.i, .u,.'. j'r,:i
ILrou.t, 0.,,.. f,...!- ,,1J.
The absolute lrame of u,."..,, u,t. ,. t..^..r... or.. I a
., 'r ,",i 1" Fr r"'i i'" rh' ly".',"- . ,"i.,, ." r :, r.
run li n rl" r''o rr"'i'"' r'8r .r' \.u oql co.. ,l .. ,ior. ...r,i.., .r"-r"i
i',.i.,. i::-..3 n ^ r tr : """...",,,
.;,,.; ' ^.t
' thal -.,,rr ., r. r,-. .n. -
n'.tt",',J """ *''., Lrp the principlc oi rcl3ti'it''- rnd to
'"$ume
ru. nd:l- r,."\ .i,.. L.",.r.i J ,,r u\.r .priur n-.a,.,irg C
",
ii,,i"i *l"ria r ulii'cisal |anc of rerercn(e with rcspcci to wliich the lllonlhs, the cflects ol i.he norior ot ihc eldh roul.l
,i: i^ s ,, i p. .6, o' , r ' iu, 'r" ' 1ro1 A
bccome Doticeable.
lve proccc.l now to a descdpr;on or juichelsor ,,,,1 [I.,.l"y,.
,i,.'r",,,i1.-,' r'" i," "' . rr'" r' "r:'r'" '"J w"udhl\
","..r ";;;;i_
% IHE PROPAGATION OF LIGHT IChap. lll
Chap. lll l THE PROPAGATJON OF LIGHT 25

L and l: . .Let us assune thnt ihe cn.th, en.l with it tlc appars,tus, is
rnenl,(Fig.4). Lisht lrom a tcrresirial source is separited irllo t$o mo\ine, relativclx to thc ,,a so1ure', frane of retcrc",je, ,tto;i rh,, cri;ec_
rv"r,J g'' !"1r' n \ ' "r'v'lrrl J'rr'' tion of lr.at thc rate of 6pecd ,. Iiith ftspect to the rpparuius, the
',.,...,t " 'f.,'r ol'r. sorrr orS 3nlS l:r"
,',,"l:, ,l a s ,+1"' -'*trr o"r" /' Th' r spccd.f light iiloDg thc path P
pb -lr" lr r.-' , b. r" :r"h '
' "'r"' ri ,o PitigG+?r). the - Sr equals (c - r), and atong ihe path
time req,rire,:l to tral.ct |hepr r
;,,; ,",.''" ,,r .., lnJ r., pi,.. . rr. r-" r'l or' ^51 Sl-p
"., I p. on /:. Sn-rlr. ':.' emlnr:rrs'roin LIa will be
"r,..^lr,r'-*r' 1r zt)|.
(3.7)
c-t c+u I - t|/r:'
The rehti!.e speed ol thc tishi travellins along rho parh p _ & _ p
liill also l,.r nrodificd. l1rhite ihc lighi tra:\.cts from ? to E,. thc $hotc
r.,o ,c i,l" \.J .r,t . .r,.F 6,

d
(s.8)
vL;+ij'
and the actual distrnce tru'etted by thc light is

1.!: \/-i+P
' - fr _L:t! /c, (3.e)

On the n.ry back, 1,he ligLt has to tra\.ct an cquat distance. The totai
time rerruircd by thc light lor Urc pai,h l,
- LSl - _1, is, ttreref(F.
21. /.
' \/1 - .^i,'
(3.10)

Ajrq r. rpp.-ru. 1.. b"-., sru,r 90. rtou, i.. rri", rl,. tin".
r'.u pd ror.d\cr tl,.p.b.t-., _ /,!..1 /,_ J, _ /,rr(. |F
!,,,
tively,

_ ]t,/"
(3.11)
-h: 21"/c
t -'uf""
Tbe ftne diiaafts bctrctj, tho ino rlr,"rnriire pri|s
Fig. .1 Th-'Xlicli.lson llo.lcj rlPa'atus beforc md alrt(ir the anrarairh tus beex s$u4r
l1le,
crouxl,
j' P - r nnd
tr .clled almost equal distanocs, L
- - 6r Ar : t\ t2 -
L P
- E"
an<t lheil e:mt
P I.
loc.rlion
rcsrectivelv,
dcpends on
irlerferc[ce
thc
fringes
diffclencc
are obsct'v-ed'
beti'eeD the dis-
ard
rriL,nQr,r;_r_ I (3.12)

S" l";, ]Lr",, that lhe spced ol lishl is the same in nll
"" is droPped, ihe losition oI thc inter - 7'
.tilectiorN. U
i"r"",,. r'i,'e*
this
i" r
'rssum(d
assumption
rtcpend on thc ctifiercrce thc speeds alons
^I:r-i,: V-1 -="?)
(3'12a)

"in "lso
-
26 THE PROPAGATION OF LIGHT l(hap rrr
Chdp. lll l THE PROPAGATION OF LIGHT 27

toct:ry hrs only lljstoicrl sig fifancc. l,hJ,sicists had been ,,ccustome.l
The .lHrge h dl whiiiir is brcusht aboui bv roiiatins thc apparatus is'
to think hs(tv iD terlrs ol nxljtralics. $'Lcn l.nladal., \Iaa-we , rn(j
Herriz rreated tlic fil,t lieLl ttrinry, jt r,r.s oniy naturrt that atteint)rs
zt \ were Dridc Lrv many pliysicisis to exptairl ihe rerv firjds iu terns o1
I- .,r''( ) 33,
Vl VL mcch.r csl concepts. XIar.ri,r:]] and Hcdz i,h.rrnset.!,es coDtributd to
^i " thesc .ifiolts. IiitLin the rcaln ot ]nechi1nnis itsdf, thcrc existcit .
,\s (,/.)'js of the ordcr ol magniiude of 10i, st shall exprnd the risLl- branch $hich us(l roncepts:rnd Droihods resemltins ihose of fietd
han;isitle ol q. (3.13) nrto a pouer sclnrs in ('/c)r and consido onh tlle physics, namcb., lhe mech,rnics of n'rtinuous nlcdi:r.. So rhe ctectr.j,
titst no vanishins term. lYe obtain the approximatc exprcssioD mrgneiic ficlds rrere exln,ri.ed l1s Ur{j strcsscs of ri Lypothoticd materir,l
(3.1r) mediunl lhc so called otlrer-
l'hcrc are Dany rc$sons nhy tlris intclpret:liion of Ure eicctromls-
nctic fitld finally hrd 1io be alendoned. ,\mona thun are: rhe cif.r
\lrc shor d e'{peci ihe int{xiererrce lriirses in the tclescopc to shilt ,.ort , t,.," o.....,t..\" i,t rc, i . r.^,.,."" Lr ." r, rn
berause ol ihis changc in tlic ti|re diflcrence Al Tlic rmornt ol this it
mcdiurn; rll tnatrtcr ilithout eiLil)iliiDg ,rr,r
l\,ould lir1.o to pcnct.ate
shifi, exprcsscd in terms of thc tidth ol one fringe, rYould be cqual to lrictjonal resisl.rD(ic; and ii
$.oulrt hrve no nass axd rout(i rror bc
1

\/ A,ui!i"dbyr" rircol ".l" "iolo''lJ:on ' a.frected b)' grlritatiul. Also, NlaxNelt,s eqrations ]l.re difio.ert n1
manJ na]s fron t|e equrtions io whjch ctrsric Nrres:lrc suLj.ct.
!: -lrl +u.r'. (3.15) 'flue ed-rts, for iNtance, rc analogy in elecirodvl:uics to l.tre ,,t.rnlri_
tudiDal" cl$ini $r11'e.q.
,{ii l,hc cnd of the ninelctDth cenlurr,, hor\rr.j., 1h. crher r,ll's r.eglnl.rl
, is the vclocity of the earth relative to the "rbsolutc" Iramc ol
as a nosl pronisnB and $.cn neccssary, LJ-pothesis. Nrrlll'al,r, at_
p."",,-"l,ty *t least of lhe ordcr 3 X 10' cm sc ' (|'/")'i",
""t,,.",,,"", tcnpl! rror) Darle to appll' iliis .onccpt to ihc p.oblern discuss(it ir ttris
ther(iior, ol the order lo
3 l is tLc rvave nunber, and for visillc light, ctrapler, n!m(l]., to find i,hal, ooordixat-" syst(n jn \lri.lr th(: spetd ot
lighl is eqrrrl 1,o c in all directions. The icter ot tne eitr$ ,rusg.st eil ttrlLt
rbout 2 X IOa cn '. \To haye, therclore,
it mighii bc Lho .oor{linetc s-vstn ir ii.|ich th.j ether is :r.t j.si. .t't,Nr
as lL*lr (3.15a) tleory, hostvr:r, does ljttlc ro sol\? tlie turrdlurlenful rjifliculr\._ Alt
,s 5 x 10rcm rlr' i oo". fi, o ,, '6 t,
o I. r :ror, i. ,, u"r ,, :r,r.,,, . ,.. .e- ar,l
ct|e. really is, 1le Noul(l lavc ro othcr nle $ inan io
of motion of tlic
usiq mr iilne refleirtlon, Nlichelson snd Xlorta,v *'ere a|lc lo *ork
Ry
mcasule the sp(id of light. The ouhlme of rhe ]l;{jhetsor i\l.,tr:r.
Nith (fl.ctive ldrgths 11 aud 7r ol sevcrrl meten Anv ficci shoL d prp.:n.n .\. l.rh","or. .s6.r rr.r rr.....'* i. ,,.^
h 'e bu,o cleadr* observablc aJier all ile usual sourccs ol error, 'quch as
$ir. 1-, .r. -r! rh, irn"d. "igr ,".1ooJ,.r ...-r",,^
stress{,s, iemperj]ture elTeds, :l!d so forth, lrnd been olininated. Nc{er- r:
concertred. Tirc motion of smali m$scs, such a-\ in l.izcau,s erpcrirterr,
thelcss, ro elTecl $'an observcd.
\rould callr lhc ctlr.rr along, Lut not completety. tsut i,hcse h-\,poihcs.s
,\n inpessc irm at han<l: No consistent theory Nould agree wiih the cor d not rcconnt for aberl:liion. Thc existercc ot rhe obeDation ef(rit
results of f izc:ur's expednirrl, the NlicLclsou--uorlev expeimcnt, and
\yor d be co[$tcnt niih &n ether h].potbesis ontv if rtre e th coutd
tlrc ill-ect ol:$crlrtion. ,{ great numbcr of ldditioual erperinctrts *ere
pcrforoed :Llolle simihr lines Their discussion ciin be omitiiid here, Slidc throush the eihcr withoLrt cauyirg ii along, c\n riglt on its
stnface, &hcre our telescope pickn up the ligtrt.
bcceuse they did not chrngc the situaiion mteiallv. \\ hat ms nccded
(&r rrot rnorc e\pe rc]rts, but sone ncs'theorv vlich would explain
the app:r,rcrt contradictioD!

The ether hypothesis. Bcfore laun.iLnrg nrto en explutiion ol tliat


new theory, the theory of rel:rti'ity, $e ncrlion 11 hvpothcsis $'hich
tE-

Chap. lV l THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION

In writirig <lown transformaiion eqrulions, Ne rhvrJ.s mdc rno


assumtiiinrs, dtlrougli \o djd not ahvals strcss tlen:l'hlt there c\ists
CHAPTER IV a unirtirsxl time I ilhidr js de{incd irdctnll(Jitlr of tlie coindjnxi(j s1-s-
tenr or trane of relercnce, l1nd tlut tlrc distuce betw(in tlvo "\imulia-
The Lorentz Trans[ormation neou! er,ents i! eD invarisnt quartity, l.hc \'.rlue of n4irlr js jndc!(vlent
ol the co.jdimle srstclr us(id.

The relative character of simultaneity. Let us takc up the frrst


assumption. -\s soon as \re sot orL to d.rfir1e a univos tine, ire are
Scveral decadcs ol cxperimental rcscarch sho$e|l thrt thre s'as no confronted Nith the necr:ssil,y ol dclining snrlullii1rlciiy. $-e crn coDr-
wiit ol detunnrirrg the -qtete ol motion ol the eaxth tltrough the "ether'" parc ltld adjust iincrncmuring (lcl.ices in a uniqui $.:ry ody it thc
All iln) criden0e sdrtrcd to point toN.ud the eristen(i of a "rclltivitr statcment "The t\ro cvdns I ind B occurred sinultcneousl]J' can bc
princilnc" in optics rnd clectrodl'urnics, even thoush the Galile:rn eil.(xr a lreanir4 irrdcpcrrddrt ol a frarne ol relercnc{r. Thrt tlis can trc
trarslornrtion equati.Ds ruled thrt out. donc is one ol thi: niosl iDrDrtant assumpljons of clnssical phrsicsi rnd
Nev.irtlritcss, litzseml(t and especi:Ll1y H. A. Lorerrtz ttid to pr+ this assunpiiol hm l,t:comc so Druch a parl oI our wav ol thinking, thar
scrve th{r irldition trlnsfotmation equri,io s and still a..ounli theo- almosi cwyorc lns grert difiicultrr in malJ zirrs its factual bosis.
rci.ically for lhe expcrin(ltrl results. InndrLz \vas able to sho$ that 'lo cxminc tlis h,1.tn)thesi.q, {e musi defis{) !n experlicntcl test
the noinni ol a lmnni r)l rclcrence thrcush thc ct|er with a \-{tocily u sl,ich \rill dccidc Nhether two eveuts occur sinultnneously. $ittrout
woukl prodrrcc olllv "scrord-older efie.ts"j ihrt is, all obsc\-lLlc de\-ia- such an cxpc m(int (shioh car be perforjicd, {t l.$t in pincide), the
tioDs lrom lhe l|1 rs s'li.h \rere 1.: id $ith (:rfcct to the lr:Lm{r connccted strtc ert iTliotNo e\.erts d aird ,B occuDed simuiii&ncously" is dcvoid ol
Nith thc cther itseu \ro,,lcl be propofi(nirl not to r/c, but to (r/c)j. physica,l signifr can,,e.
One of those expccicd secondirrl:r cficcts \\'as thrt, itL t system l\ihen 1\ro cv{lts occur close together in spme, n'e can sct up a
rnol.ins rchtivel,l' to l,lrc elher, a lisht rty \lould take lonscr lo go out mecha sm soncii'][L 1ik{r thc ooincideDce courltcr$ uscd in the inr-csti-
ard brck o1.er a hxrr:l di-qlance prnllcL lo the dirertnD of tLc motion grtion ol cosrric ys. 'fhis mechanism rdll react oriy il the two evcnts
iihan o\u aD equrl distrnce perpendi(! :r.r to the motnrn Thc Michel- oc.ur sinuliancously.
sor-Iollcy experindil nas desisnd 1,o lleesurc that iii}{rct. In order lf the t$o e\.crls occur a consiclerable distancc apa*, the coincidcnce
to exrhin the n.igriire outromc of the experimnt, lilzgcrald and app{rotus is not :rdcqtrlrt(i. In such a case, dguls h:Ne to trallsmit
Lorell,z msumd tltrt scales and othcr '!igid" bodi,rs mov g lhroLtgh the knowledge lhrl e:tch criit has occurred, io somo to0ation \'lriirc
the.rllrcr contt.lirtcd h lhe dirc(iinn of the motion just srficienUy to the coincidence appfl:ltus has l,(icn s.t up. II we h{d c nthod of
oflset ltis efie(t. Thi-\ h"vpotlrcsis prisr:Ned tu]I1'the prir-ik:ged char- tran$nittnrg sigr]r,ls Nith jrrE te l-elo.iiy, no grcri corltlic:r,tion \lorLld
acter of one lmnc of teleren.e (ihc (itlrcr). The nesatilt rcsuli, ol the axise. Br "nrtnite velocity" x.c mean that rhe sjgtrai tr'ansmii,rod
X{jch.lso -]Iorlcv oxlcriment rvll's uot cxphined bv thc {:xisterce oI aD lrom a point 7]1 to aoothcr iroint fx and then bach lo 1l1 {ould rerurn
to l'1 at tho same tilne as ii, startcrl from Urerc.
"opti.!1 rchtivity I'inciple," brt v$ rti,ributed to an ullorluule com-
binatnD oI effe.ts rllich made it itrrossible to deicrDim cxperiurentally I;r ortruratolv, no sigmt Nirh tlris properlJ is t<no{a1. AI actual
the motion ol ihc ({rlh through tlrc cihcr. siglrrls tahc o li.ite time lo irrrcl out a:nd back io th{r point of oligin,
EnNioin, on th. conllar't', acceptcd tllc cipedments as corclusifc cvi- and tlis iin{) in(reases rriilr ilic djstsnce tlar.crscd. tn choosing tLc
dencc thrt the rchlifity pr;n.iplc s'rs valid ;n the ilcld ol electro- t)?e of signxl, iilr should naiur{lh fa1'or a sigml \hcre rhe speed of
d)r:Lmics a3 $ell !s irr rneclani(is. fl]crcfor, his .riTorl-c \rele direcircd
trtnsrnission depends or as le$ la(itors as porsiLlc. Ehtrornagnciic
$aves are Dost suii,{blc, becausc ihcir transmissior docs not rcquirc
toFrrd an anrl-'sis rnd modificatnD of i.he Grllilcrn traNlomatioD
the preseDce of r mateli ndliurn, ard bdiause their spced in emptl
qurli.,ns so thrt tLey (ould be.omc compatibl{r Nith Ure rclativitv
EpAce doos not dcpcnd on thcir direction, thcir $ave lengrtr, or thejr
pdrciple in or)tics. l\ie shrll noi! rctrace this antlysis in order to deril'e
the new trurslornation hNs. Dtcnsitr. As the recodirs dcdce. I,e can use a coin.idence circuit
2S
\!iih tiro photon couDtcrs.
--
30 THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION t chap, tv Chap. lV l IHE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION 3]

To account for the inite time losi in transnission, n'e set rp our strike).r Iii is undcrsiood that all these simultaneities are detncd vith
opporatus at the iidpoint ol the str ght lifur rjom(:ting the sites of respect to thc lrslrc S.
the two events .4 and B. Each eve|t, ns it occurs, enits a lighl sigral, Bccausc ol thc []il,c tjDre Deeded by the ljeht signals to relch C and
arrd Nc shall call the e1'ents simult:rD.olll il the two light signrls aDive d*, C* iravols io the lelt (Iis. s, stases b, ,, .J). Thi, sislal issuirg
simultarrously lrt ihe midpoiri. Tlris cxpeiment has been d{rsisnd {ron,{, 1+recches d, therelore, only altcr prssi e C+ (st'{res b, c);
to dctcDairlc tLc simult&ncity ol t$o.irent.q $ithout the usc of specitic {hile the light signal lloln ,8, -B* rcachljs C bclorc iii scis to C* (stages
timc mecsrrins dc\i(ics. It is assume,:l tlnt simrltrncity as defined by c, d). -\s a result, ihe train obR.rrcl turds tl,&t the sisnal lrom,4,,4*
this experiment is "transitife," meaning thftN if tiro i\.cnts:1 ard 3 reaches his coincideDce apt) &tus sooner than the signal lrct B, B+
occur sinultaneorlsly (by our definition), and if thc two cvents.{ ard C (stases D, .J).
also occul simultanously, then , and C arc siDl tnneous. It nust
be understood that this assumption is a irl.pothcsls conceming the
behavior of electromqnetic sisnals.
Grsntcd that this hypotirosis is correct, we still havc no issurance
the,t our dclidiion of simnltrncitl. is independent of the franc ol rcler-
0ncc to i.hich Ne rcler our dcscription of nrtrre. Locating tw) erents
rnd construciring tht point midNry on the connecting struisht line
necessadly involvcs 11 padiculir lrumc and its state ol nrotion.
Is our delinilion invadrnt dii respect to the tramitior from one
frure to another lrame in a {iifi{rrent state ol motion? To rnswer this
question, $e shall considcr l$'o lrames of reference: Onc corncted
Fith the fl th (S). the othd wilh r v.iry loDs train (S+) movine .rlons
a straisht track at a constant ralc ol sp..xl. lye shalt hrrc i,rro ob-
strtioned on the ground nloxgsi.le the railrcad tr$ck, the
other (lins or the train. Each ol ihc t\ro obsn-ers is eqr ppcd yith
a rccor.lins dcl.ice ol the t-vpe descriLrcd and a measuring rod. Their
mruur g rods nee{l not be the same lcngrlhj it i,c sufiicient thai c:r.h
obs{:rvcr bc &b1o to determine the poirt nidrrll' letrveen t$o points . Iis. ii. TIe two ersris occtr ins ol ,4, 1* .nd rt 3, Be, resllciively, atpc.r
b",A:,g,"r " "b''lr -o,u r'r,i .
sinultueoG to
ob. r,
.bscrvcr rr rcsi rclative ro Uic a.ourd {i). bui;oi l.o r"
. 'n-,' 11 i
Lci us tssrunc nory tliat two thundelbolis strik, each hitting ttre /41'1. ig .d lr o, L i
trah as Ne]] as thc ground and leafing permancni, ma.lis. r\lso sup- ;. .i",.1.r.
'i. lmn 3, ,* ,rrivcs ,o. c, tr-,
arrive al C, ud (.?) the ljght sisDrl ai Cr.
pose that cffh obscrvcr tuds rftrwar,:ts that his rccordiDs rpparatus
was statjoned cracilr- Didii'ay behveen the marl$ lcft on his relrencc This does not impl)'thii rh{i ground has a propefty not possessed
body. ID liig. 5, r.hc muhs {rc dnoted blr ,4, 3, ,{*, rnd 3.. and the by the tnin. It js possiblc lor thc thunderbolij-c to strikc so thar the
cojncidence app rlius b]. C lnd C+. Is it possiblc ihrt thii lisLi sig- light sigMls rca.rlr C+ sinultxrtjousll.. lirt Urcn the signal trom 7{, ,{*
nals issunrg lrom.1, l* l1lld lrom A, B+ aDil'e sjJrrlii,anouslx dL C and will &rivc rL C after the signal lron R, n+. In anl, case, it is impos-
dso simultaneorlsl). rt C+? Bible lor boih r.xxr n,s ilrst1un(i,ts, :rt C and rr al*, to indicric ihar
It tlre instant that thc iihur (irbolt .qtrikes at /1 ard rt+, these two the t\yo thundelbolts struck sia! taneousty.
poirits coiDci<le. The same js t r. oL Arit B'N. Il elcDtnrlltr ii tuns
ouii that rllrc trro bolts struck simulriadcouslr $ ol,scrl.cd Lv ih{r ground I OtlrerFis.,, tlic disiin.cs -41Cr rnd B+aj nodd nor
appeu cquat nirn the
obscrvcr, thor C+ must coincide with C aii thc saDre line ilixl,4 ooin- Jo',,.oL o "o ,',,rvt."rv. ",. I,",, , ...;;a
Jr 1tl r ol r|is LirLl
cides lvii,h,4* and B iith B* (thrt is, r,hcn ttre t$o thunderbolts
V

THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION l Chdp. lV Chbp. lV l THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION

We conclude, thercforc, ihat t o erdris $hich arc simullaDeou-' ifith Brrl aficr a irliile,I)* arld, \'jll be a consid.mbte distmce ar)rrr; and,
respect to one lrame ol rcfcrcnce are in gcncr not snnultaneous witlt as \ic loorr lrom our earlier corsi(lclltions, rl.n tands cannoi xssl.)e
respect to anotherlrarnc.' etruivalirii positions snrultercousl]. frorn th.i points of view borh ot
thc grourd ol,scrver ard ol thc trriD obserinir.
The length of scales. Onl conclusion dlccts thc cvaluation o{ lensilr
nca,surcnents. l\ie hrvu :r.ssLlmed tl[l thc grcun.] obserler :rrld lihc The Lorentz iransformation. Tlrc aborc considcratnrns hr:tp us to
tra obsen'er llrc able to cnrry out icngih meisurdncnts in thir IL' rcmo\r tlLc rppnrent contrsdictjon betrcu the 1a\\, of ihe tropasarior
spectirt lranes ol releren.e. Two rods s'l,ich are ct r(ist relativeh to of clqi:roDusretic vares and the princirnc of rctai.ivjt1,. it is iur-
the samc lram of rclerence arc considererl cqual in length iI lhe]'can possible to dofiDe a univchil tine, :l:lld iI ih lengi.tr of gid rods caDnoi
be plrr:rd alongsidr: cich otLcr so that their rc-rpectil'o (iid p.,ints l, be dclind ind,"pendently of tlie lrame ol rclcrencc. ii is quiic ,]ln,ceir.aLtc
n+ lrnrl I, r+ coi ,ide. Tivo dislances whn:h rre mlrrli(icl oil on two that tho speed of light is jrrtncllv lhc srme wiLL respcct ro rl:fferent
ctiflerni relercn.c bodieg nrving rclatir.elv io cffh oth(ir crn be com- {rlncs ol rclerence nlinrh are Do\iLrg rotativdt ro c:rch otner.. \1.e
pare.l l)l the stm{r method, rrofided these tlistanres trc parlllel 1.o a.e no\r a position i,o sloil. tlrri, ih{r .ltussicrl rmnslormatjons {jon_
cech oihcr and pirpendicul:rr io Uie dne(itior of the r{:l:!li1'e moti(D nectj s t$o nlcrtid systcms (Cialilcar |ransforntrrtjon equrrj.'B) crn bc
Tlowevcr. il the lNo dist lrcs lrrc lrarallel io the dirr(rtion ol rlttivi) replrrrxi br- new equatio$ {hn h arc lot baired or the assrnnDtiors of
motio . and il thev ue trav:lling alons rhij same sliniight line, th{rir . r'n" I ;rl. or -'l -, L,. \..i I I :unc
', 'r i\'
resf(ictite urtl poitlts $'ill cerisinlJr connrnlc st certain limes Tlie t\ro at Urc otrtset the jn\-atirnt.rlr actcr of rhe spccd ot ]jghii.
distrnces Z? and s*l+ are considered cqual if t]rc tNo coin(iidurccs h llnr derivition oI il.se new tmrNlormatioo cquations, *.c shall
oc<)v timtlldneaut!. But l'hetner thcv occur sinultaneousLv de- acccpi lh(i rin.iple ol rcl,riir-itr as ftirdxn.ntal;thai, is, thc trxnsfoDna-
nFnrls on tl,c fraDr(i ol relercnce ol the oLsen'er'. Thus, in the cl1se ol tion cqLutirrN nnrst coDttr nothnrg l\'hich iloutd glre ont ot thc rrvo
ihe thun<lcrbolts, tltc two distances lB and,'1+R* sppear eq!:rl to the coorrlinalc sl.st.ns a prefdr.d position as 0oDparod {jrtr ihe orter
ground obscrver; the trl1in observer, on the oth{rr ha:nd' li ds 1'hat 't svstern. In addiin)n, $.e sh.rll assrDre that tne i,lanstoDn:Ition cqna_
coircides Nitr ,4'' l,elore B coinc s $'iih.B*, and concludes thri '4:B* tions presewc ihc hoDrogenciiy of space; :rll toi.ts spacc rnd iime
is longer than,lB. In othcr Nords, roi orlv the s;multmcitl of evenis, shlli be equivalcnrl, lrom the poirt of vje\r of the trl1lsiormri,i(,r. fhe
but alo ihe rcsult of length mesurcments, dcpends ou the lrame of ectu{tiurs nrrlst, thcr(ilore, be li rr trinstourtion cqurti.rn-r. This is
referencc. vhtr \'. rjonsidered rL{) trro distinc(js.l*0+ ard A+C+ rrruat in ten,s of
S-o'r.; ..! .l I ri.o,J,'p .,nS"-.
The mie of clocks. The fr,rmc of relerencc ol the obscrver also detor- Lel us (lDsider tlyo i rrtill .ionrdiDrio slsrcms, ti and ,!i+. S+ nlores
mines Nhether t$o.locks:rt a considerable distance lronl each otlr'rr r{rhtivcly to S at the (Dsta.t mtc I rlonq th(j -Y-axis; at thc,)--rim
&gree (that is, 1lhetlicr their ]rards assrmc cquil'alent rcsitions sinul I : 0, rhe points of orignr ol S and S* (Irin0ide. T|e I* rxis is pa|dlel
taneously). Uoreotr, il the tNo clocks ar' in 'lificrorlr st'ies ol m(F to the I axis and, in fuct, .oincidcs i'iill it. Ponrts \rtrj.h ,.re ai I.cst
tion. wc cannot even (r] par thcir lates in{l{r|(indentl-v ol ihe trame of rel:rtilc to S+ $ill rrovc wiih speed I dative to S in i,he -{-difeciion.
rclercnce. To illustfutc lbis, let us coDsider tNo clocks D rd -D*, orr Thc fitst of our translormrtion equriiorls wilt, L1rus, takc the folm
ststioncd :rlongside th{r track !,n(l thc other on thc trair' Lci us assumc
that the t$o clocks h{ppen to {grce at the moment irhcn -D+ prsscs D' (1.1)
jl
IVe ixL]l sry that D' and t so rL the sarle rate thcv continuc to agree
$herc a is a consiiant to L0 ,letermired laier.
--, ilo. O"tlni,in" ol simtrlitrn.itI is, ol c.u.se, to r cerrrin d'qrce arbitra'v'
I1i ;s turt quite ollious thit .r strdshi, ]nre \rtri.li is
,s;\ , i- n- l, ,.-.',,\ra r.'- ra-r'. eo l, ', 'v DcrDen.ticutar to
,"i,.t. -" . r.l r " '^,.. '" r" m " '^ l'"r" l oL""- the h-axis shoukl al-*o be pert)ollicr ,rr to the I* aris (the angtes to
il" rri"laso"-n*t"r: "v,orini.Dt, {e eoidudc thrt thc law ol prolasuiion ol bc rnms{red Lr-. obsetrl,rs n, S rn.L Se, rcspecrirr{1.). But iI ile dnt
i;'''" - ,:',, \o r' r'o "d"o'rr, rioL assnne ihrt ii \rls, thc lert ligtr, srnDrerr \. r,irh l.spect ro
ili"r*" ' xI.- 'n.q' i ,,. ' I rr " " 1_ thc
,. a"i.ii"r".i .r,."rmo " ", r, .r r',r r\ '\" 'r X-axis Nould bc dcstrol.ed tr thc ti.tnsfor.lribn. l'or sirnilar rcasors
on t! lrrmc or rcr.rcrcc codectcd I'ilh thc 'rher' \' ',,,1 " rlr I . r", ..no .t 7_.t :" n,,\.qn 1 ro..,.h
""ia"i'iU""
&nd "l "i-"tt,*iiv
tlercbv lerc siven jt lbsolntc sisninolr'e '
v
31 THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION I ch"p rv ChiP. IV 1 THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION 35

othcr, as olserl'cd lrom eithcr svstcnr, xnd tfxi l|e same is true ol tlie Bt' rcrrmnsins thc t{irms, ir. obtrin
ft and Ziare.
As mcntion(rl before,$.i crn (1ntrparr l'he l'nslhs ol rods in djfi'irclt l.'t' t";)f : 6' ,,'r);'+ y'+ z'- z(t"' ;-
c'tt1) . e.7)
strtes of motion in ln invrrixnt rnrnncr il thet arc prrulicl to crlch This q,,rinn go{:s .ryd irli.o ixt. (1..1) .,nLt. il tlr: r:oc1{icir:nts of l! :Lnd /
otlrcl an.l orttrogontl to ilrc dir(iioD oi lel'ti\-e noiion ll their rc- sre thc sxh(i in f(rs. (1.7) as h rs. (1.-r), cnd il the coeilicieDt of.r, in
."*ri , .',a r ir '"r'rl', i' o o l u r" l" r"l 'r'il eq. ('1.7) t.unislics. flurcforc,
'; '" ". "h"s 'r''r r'\ cil
and ,S+ vould not be rcciprocrl.
On the basis ol this, $e cxn for rltie two lurthd tr&$fonlation a l: 1: rl (r.8)
la i.irt: 0
v'' : li,l 11.2) l\re solve these thrcc (turti(Ds ior tlr. th!e. unkDo*ns o, d, and .1. by
lirst ehninrtins a':. \\Jc ol)trtu tll.i.rtr
To.oniDletc tlris sc1 of.qu.tions, nc lra!{r to lomrulato ltlr eqtttion PG+,r): l.
,,,"-,rr.;.. 1"r, , r'..'li '.r l. r'.' 1'-1J - I

,,'r(r, l. r,^r) :
11.9)
.r ,,',;. I u , i l l ' l : " h
r"'c calr,,a tl,, "homogcncit,v" r:rf space tiue lror r'asons of
and Then wc (tini atc 1 and ol)irh lor 9r ihe .I]rr.ssbn
"c J '"o I |' rJ
oul l:'r'rr :-r"' ,l
,','i rr..,-r,lo. t \/ P": ) )r-r. (4.10)
rs ob*nerl llon 'S Chooilrg ilrc Pirrt ol tinni orisilt "co ihxl the
nlh.n gon.ous ju
(rlritant) iernl equttion .Lis|es'
thc lrrnslornr0iiou P is not eq1u.l to unitt-, I1s it is ir the.hssiocl truslormation lhcory-
But bv choosins thc rosiinlr root of C1.10), ft
can mnke it nearl) eqrul
t+:itt+7:t. (1.3) to unity for 6m l vrltn's ol r,/.i its deviatioD lrorn uliiy is ol tlc secord
order. 7 is br thc c(tu{tion
l irrllv, re mu-.li.ltltrtc t|e rorslants o of r:q ('l 1) xnrl p in'l "f 'ri\.c!
e,l. (I.;Jj'.' \-ii slrall lntl iLal, th.I arc (lclerniied hl tI' iNo condi tF (4.11)
ti.": ll;,i, t1', spc.(t ol liglrt bo rhe srhc' l1iill rcst)|ct to S 3nd S+' rlJ
:rnrl lbit Lhe nq| trrnsirrnrrtion cqurtions so ol'u iulo tltc ch''sictll an.l noallr', ,! is obtained fro.r the equation
erlualions llcn z'is suLrll <rrrprnd riilL ihe slxcd ol ligit, '
l,ct ns $srrnr ihtt xt thc Linc I : 0 rn clcclionu!:nctic spheri'tl a.: ..a1,h: s'. (4.t2)
rr$e lctves thc ]).,int ol orisin ol ,S, Nhich coirtcjd'rs tl' thtt onniit Agnin $'e cloose the positire sign ol the root.
NitlL th(i |oint oi orish ol S* 'l'hc spcd ol proprsNtion ol ihe $av{i By substitrtins all these \-rlues into eqs. (a.1), (a3), wo get the ne\,r
is tl,e s,','e nr all rliiL:ctjons:Lnd (luil t'o r in tc|ms ol citlior set ol tmnslormrtion equations,
coiir,lnttes. Iis proges" is lher(ilore (lcsc b'rd b)'ciiher ol thc t$'o
- t/'-'u'.',t'
,' -',t" -l ," : c't", (.1.-1)

,+ a 0,. ,, ,*' - c\{. (1.5)


(r.13)
ll\ 'rnl.i; n,. .' Il I l r" s "r r'l r' "l
l- rr' '' 1.,!,
rr'. ; ' "" l: o,' ' '. rr " 'r'r'' L* :
drit/ I rrl :o'1 ir' Fr'+:' ( 1.it
-c'
v-
36 THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION ChAP. IV ] THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION 37

Thcsc cqurtions are the so-c )el Lo tt


bdnsJotn&L;an ..ir atians. Fal coming lisht rdth respeot to trlo lrames of lelercnce, that oI the sun and
small1'rlues or ,,/.i, tlic,r uc rl)|roimated b-\' thc GalilearL tltrnslorne- thrt ot the ecrth. 'l'he oDrount of aberration depends on tl1e angle
btr\'een th incomins light and the rehtive motion ol these h\,r,fml]rcs
ol rclirr:llcc. Iie s|ell cau thlt anSle a.
Rorh coordinate s)-slcms c
,11 to bc arra gcd so lhat rhcir ritrtire molion is :ilong 1,L.ir connion
tt* : !, -I-axis, drd illaii thc |alh of llLc lighi ray lics (rtLirc11' r ithin tlrc II-
(,r . r.r) plere. lvith rspcct to th{i !LrD, ilrc }LtL of i}u: lighl y is sivcn by
r = rl-cos aj y : cl sin d. (4.16)

$iitl, rcspc.t to thc novins ctui,h, \'c lnd i.]rc qnations of nrotion Lrt'
Thc dc\''iations arc rll of tlic sccorrd otdcr in r/r (or:r/cl). \\'e can applvirs thri i!\1xicd (lruti.nN ol ihr lo(]oiz irmsfornatioo, (4.15).
thcrclole test the I,l)ll'ntz tr!nsfrtrDirlion cqurlions experimentally onlt'
il we arc d,lc to jncrease (r'lc)' bevond thr: rrrol,abl; cxpdin,ntal i:rror.
Irlichelson rnd Nlollet, in their laDrous xpodmcnt, vere able to ir-
crcase the a.!ur!cy 1,o such Iln cxtcrt tLrL i,hcy could mcllsuro r sccond-
Eq. (1.16) tl'Il$ llrc lo,rn

u..,/t
"t
. .(r' + r/c1 i-+) sin d. ]
(+.r7)

order eflect :Lnd prort cxprrinrltr11y tllc inadcqu$y ol tho Calilcan -.,i,:
translolmatioD equc'lions. By solvins th.s..(lurtnns \rith rcsr)(t to r* nnd s'r, ne cet
\!hc we solve the equations (.1.13) x,ith respect to x, y,:, and I, lic r* - cos ,',
.1,, - "i, - ,1, ,,r,. o*,
1 - r/t.t6 -- (1.18)
, - r,ll .c
, \ I , 'i o
l
lt : !+, Ihe cots.sent ol the nerv (lire(iti(r1 is
(1.r 5)
,,is
"-
: !1c1. /ll99r!i . (1.1e)
141.* ^\/ 1 - DllC

" t/ t ,,",r' A.codiry lo thc cLassical exphnation gir.en oD page 21, the angle
would tuln out io be
Compiring eqs. (1.15) i'ith e.js. (+.13), rve concludc uxlt ;][s tl, re]a- :
tivc \.clocily ( d {iih rcsp.rit to S.. This is not r triri: conr:lusirm,
cts a* - rir coscc ..
cts a (4.20)

lor ncilher the unit lctL,tth ror the unit time js dircctly comparrble in If rl.e wish to compnrc c<1. (1.19) ritli rrr. (1.20), nc herc to hrr:p nr
mind rhat rl, is & snull qur tity (rboul. 10 a).
Thcrcl.ire, wc oxpmd
in S rnd S+.
Thii vciocity of r lislrt signl1l ema.ating lrorn l1lt'poirt rt anv tiue both iormrlas into pow(ir s:ics NitL rcsttct to r/d. 1Ve get
is erruri to c rviih respe.t to ant'one s)'stem il it is (rrul to. in the cisa*.",: ctsa r/'c.{iosec a + +(t/c)'<'NE a+. ., (4.19r)
other sl'stcm, for the ooindnrcte:Lnd time dificrilcrs of tlit e\.nts
tr:lnsfomr exactlv like ., r/, z, l1nd I themselves- and
Tlic Lorentz tr{nsformaiion (lultions do airay ri.ilh lhe clssicrl :
notions rcgardins sta(ic rnd timc. TLcy iixtrrd l|e y:rliditlr ol thc
ctg a*.h"" cts d - ,/c cosec a. (a.20:!)

r(tntivitJ pdncitnc to thc ldir of proprgatirn ol light. 'Ihe obsewed eflect i! the firsl-order cfrcci,, $.hilc thc rclatiristic sccon.l-
So frr, (e havc f$lti(,n.il our trrnsfomuti.,n tneory to lit thc out- ordcr eficct is frr below the attairable accu}acv oI obserration. 'fhc
come ot the Xlich.lson X{orlcy cxpcrincrlt. JIoN does this nc]v theory rclatiristic c(1uatn)n (a.19) is, tlierefore, in agreemeni $ith the observt{l
scconnt for dLdrralior? \ie hate to comtarc tlic direction ol thc in-
V
3S THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION IChap. rv {hAP. IV ] THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION 39

\Ye orn exll:l,ilr lri.ed1is ery)erincnt bv conrecting th(i conrdirai: 1'h clock mry be locoiicd at thc poirt (rr , 1/, , ?r, and thc stoned time
sl.stern S $ir,ti ttle earth md 3" sill tlic flo\irrg ln]{dcl. \\'iih rcs|c'l
js coDnected $,ith tho time il.licatcd bv the S-clock thrcush the
i; S', ihc lqu is at rcst, and tlle qu[tion ol thc ]ig|t rlr]s lDust Lc
ol lhe forn j* L-t/t:1\
r+ - qr(r* - r;). t..t.2t) \l
\t, r- r,s h" r.l.{ . \ " ' r' ,{gain t|e reldirgs ol the r--cLoch rn r.hted to ar ^Sttime inidyri
(+.22)

1\'c obt:riri t\:: rdor:ii]'ol llie light rrl Nitll l.s|ect to b1'so1!i]4 lltis L: t;:t, rr) \l-,i (1.25)
^S
dlLatior ri'ith r{]slicct to tr,
Itappcrrs rlli:lt tlro ^S-dock i!sldrd do{n, Dreasrul!l in telnls of,S*-time,
I r
r:l;_r+i;,.1, I ..,. .,.".i. and thal ii, is dr.rrl of an S-c1rxk placed ai llrc origin, it its o$rr
:D-codtdinri{) is positive.
IIoN is i1, l.hrt rn olse]\lr cornected iirh.it|er tram. of reterercc
-\sxirL tlLc obscil'NLl. lirst ordcr ellci:t is in ryrceDent \liilr Lhc
finds lhc fut(i ol the clocl|s in tL. othel sr-\t(jn sloii,? 1'o D1*Lqufe rh{l
ratc oI r cldrh r vhich is nol rt r.ist relatirc\. to lis fmll]c of reterenrc,
an olJscr\u.ornp.res il \riilr rll thc clocks in hjs s-v-\ttrr v|ich ?'
The "kinematic" efrects of the Lorenfz transformation \V' dlllll pas!e"\ in tL{: corrrse oi tillr. Thlt is to srl, an S-obseNcr (x'npar.rs
non stu(l] iu moif (tttail th(i rilcct oi ilrc Lolertz (]{1urtions oD ](!iglh
or. i"+-clocli r.ith r srccc,ssio ol S<,loclrs, fl,il,: rn ,r'+-olsorcl corr
rn(l iirne turl1luremt]l]ts in difillcnt lrtmcs ol lelciu](](r' parcs fl. -c-cluih iritl sclelxl S" (ldrks. ]'hc f', clocli j)rsscs, ir the
L.l rs (usi.lcr r cloclr thai ir riqnlh (r!u{lcd (irh the "t.rrrr:d (ourse ol tlnx, S ( lxilis n hich l1r. hriler aDd ldiher atong iL(j positirc
lrtnr ol renrr:ncc, si,itirllccl ri soni |oirt lrJ, rlrl', zi) r,,1us co- -I axis rnd thtrforti nrr.asinglt.l$t (ith resp(t to !S,,; cons.{tLlenUx,
prrc tfe tinc intiicric<l l)) t|3t dllrh \rilh the ti!!c I rnersurcd in ihe
thc mte ol the,S+-clorli lpp rls sloN in corrlp:rrison. Conrtrsc)1', an
rnslsucd sliidn. \(!r)rding to c,l (1.15), thc nstaDrd 1,iue co- S-clo(iLr p. sses .Sr:clorlis fl irther and frrt|o rloDg thc neAariFj -Iraxis
or.limtc 0l ihe cl '1i is siren Lv anC iln.elorc jncreNingl! llst {jLli r.s|crt to S. The retc ot the
E-cloch tppcars slor c.,!r|rr(!l l1ith ,S+ cldfts.
a/ 1 _ r:/cl h iLc rtse ol lengih niaturernents, cotrditions rrc somenhai more
in\.oh td, lr{lirlse the i]rNfonnltion tqrrrtions contrin 3 ard z iI:r
Ar S tir c irt.r1d, (l: - /,), is tl(rcloic l'|.ltt({ ro tho r.tclirg'r 1i' rntl
difioenl \!t- thin r, thc dir.riiion ol tull1tiri morion. rr gid -.c!te
ll'ol ihe cloili rs lollo\s: thai is lcr|uli.rl.r to tt( dirc.tior1 ol rthtir(i motiol tras the saDre
," ,, - \rli r+)rvi 1tir. (r '-r) lcrBth in cillcr .oiir.linctc st stcm- Honevcr, Nhen rhc scrto is paftllel
to thc ,I-axir au(l iho -\+-:lxis, rt ha\-e to Llislirrsrish *h.jlrcr thc s.nte
'l'hrs. tlrc mL r)l lhe cl(r'h rppc s sl<\ cd do\:r, lron thc lDjn't ol 1 iel'
is at rest rdrii\1 rio orc, coilrdilate stslcn or to lc orher. Lct us
ol S, by the lacror r/r -lj..:- Iltri uol onll't|ri Ol)-'.l\'cLt f'oni fint consitlrr r mri rigitlly cornecied rl.iih S., rhe (!l potuts ot whjch
thc msterrdl lrame ol rcfc|ercc, difiixcnt lj'r (toirhs go rt thc srme hai-e r}e codrdimtcs (/i, 0, 0) and (,f , 0, 0). rio tcirgth in its orn
r'&tc, but $iitr r ph:Lsc const.ul depenthrs on tlrir l)osil;or. The
hftlrcr'alr'at-ur S+.clorli is sttiioncd lmm tiic |oilt ol origirr along
thc posili\'e,Y* txis, the sl(N(irit at)l)earc to hc. T,vo e'cDts iltxt occur r.:.! ,i (4.26)
sinullrneorslt wii| resf.rt 10 S.re not in scncral sirnultrncous rjUl
resp{ict to ,S1', urd \ice versr.
An obserq:r connrr:teci nii,h .S rjtt consi(ler fls thc lcnsth of the rocl rhil
\{c can rulrse oru sctup .lnrl comprrc an S-cloch Nitb S* Line to,lrdilrte diir.rence (r, r, of irs end points al tlre sallc rime, L
y-
.10 THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION I Ch"p. rv chdp. IV ] THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION 41

Thc coordinsies r' ,rnd


"l -c rclrtcd to r,, r,, and I by e.tuatjons
(4.13), yieldins
Norv rvc cxprcss
'l; in ierns ol ,S-qualiiins, r.cording to eqs. (1.1),
(a.2), and (1.3), jnsi as ve did ;n the discussion ol eq. (1.5), rnd oLt$nr

.'t-t- uc' ,:;- a o'z'.:'l..t I


..,'l,-,, t'
(42i)
I t- t.lt..,-.,. 2.. - Bj,rz-. , j
B.frrp lr,o , , -11 .orJ ., ..r..prrrJ.r!l
Therelore, the codrdnHtu difierences arc .i r.r 'n . . rr, \ i5 r".t , r ., hr rr, I.io.m. I.on Fqrry iu.-
(,1.13), or,
-r-ilc,
a/r
(.1.28)
(1.33)
- f /c'
ff - rJ by l, \'e obtain
we denote the lensth (:r, It is rlso inl.ariant $'iih rspect lo srrtiil orthosonal transfourtions
(1.r).
l: \/t G.29) Hc]Iarli(ir, ne shall call rll the lincrr transformatnms 1\,irh resDccr to
-"i"".1'. $ii. .1i r,., .'.Lartt.,a
The rod appeflrs oontrAct.rd by tlie lactor /1 - e2 This elTect is J' ,, "ts..,t ..r,.r..,....,h-
c IIed the
Larartz .otutta.tian. relalive notion of the tno svstems trkes ptafulong the conimon
A calculation that rcvc$cs tlie roles ol thc iiilo coijdinrt.i systems .I-axis or not. Obvioush, tlro invrrim.o of ,r? nnplies ihojnvarnrnce
shows that a rod :rt rest in tlie rEstarred systd appcars contmctql in oI the spccd of-lislrt, lor tlio ptrth oI a lisht ray is cliaracterizrrl by the
tho st:irred system. vanishins of ?,? for all pairs ol point-q akqt it! prrh.
Thus, we ha1.e the ttles: Etoy cloclt at pedrs to go .tt its lastest rdt i $ilrt is tlc phlsical sig ficance of thjs qumiitv ,,3 t rf tle,e
uh.oL it is at rcst reldtit:.Iu to tlu. absett:cr . II it nL,rcs rclati\.lu to tlLe exists a lra r of relercncc Nith resrcct to $hich borl e'ents tatre ptrce
absetter uilll the EIu:itU r, iL\ rate upp.a slauql tloun b! the Ioltnr it the s n{) spoce poinli, tlien nj (iLij po,qjtive sqLLue root of ni) i-. rhe
\/I , ,f/ii. ltwA rit|i(1, t)..1a appcars to L.long.tst ul*:n at test rela- time record<rl bv a clocli at resi, tliat trllnlc of retercnce. rj, is
tiu..La to Ilrc abserl)eL llhen it is rat dt rcst, it appcars conh @ted i|L the thcrelore clllcd th protet tin.. inlenat (ot .igen tima inten)uL).
tt ",anoI;L tatt 1o.t, y'1 - , D-.1 ;ud;n"n- Does therc :rls.cys exisi s fnme oI r.fcrence rdrh respcct to \rtrich
sions perpetuliculv tn the d.iredian al motion dre utudfeded, two cl-ents tahc pltue at 1,hc ;{ne sprcc ponrt? tf jye vcre de nll
with lLe classic:11 trlnsformal.jm equations, rhe answe. \roukt be l.cs;
The proper time hterval. In.ontra.qt to thc clrissical trrnslolmrtion unless tlic t1!o evcnts took placc ,,simultanijdrsty.,' But rhe (rtuations
th{!rJ', \re no longcr colltidcr lurgth sDd timc inieNalq a.s invadants. of the Lorntz tra$fornrtion, (1.i3), trecone sinsuld rhcn L rhc
But the invariant ch,ractcr ol tLc spccd ol lighl gi\s rise to the exist- rclative rcloritv ol ikr tro fi.an:s, becorncs equat io the sred of
ence of rnother jnvariant. ]et us retum 1() dlu,tions (a.1), (a.2), antl itshr lo .,.n-or A...,I h"r ..",r,r.,, t.13. s,irto t,,.t o
(a.3), rnd conditions (4.8). $re shall consider two events hrvnrs $e
space and timc cobrdinrres (r1, 3/,, ,r, ,r) ard (r, yr, a, 6), respec- are, tllN, defined only lor rdntive l.clociries oI itrc trro trnms of rcfer_
tively. The dilTerencc bctween thc squared tine intrva1 and the ence Blllll,rr tlur c. Ther{:fore, iJ i,\.o {)l.eDis occur in suctr raDid sn._
squcrcd clistance, divnl:d by c:, shall be called n3, or .pisiorr, h6i,-dlr,..",r,...rnar..Jel
Ly.irrr 'r... ror'j\, .. t,..1 r,. J ,.."h^r ..., t. .\or\,j
., 1 .. no frr'on ot r(r, .eJ..,.x r- sirr rpFt.i r, $ i.h L
,:. ', ' _..|., '''. rr'-z'.. ..1':o' I

a similar quintily with to 1\h np\'r 1"r.o".n,.,...., 1.,. is],,,..) st ,t,


Correspondinsly, wli deline respect S+, ,lFi!.srrns.,..to.r ,irn ir. ,r.j Lj irc-rr h. r.
,i: = atr " - r/c'I(.x: - '\)'+ tr/t vl)'+ G; -,l)'1.(.1.31) nr-hent,rpv,,,-,.t,..ri. h. 1,.,;.;',, ;.;,,;,. ;;,."
V
12 lHE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION t (hap. lV ihdp lV l THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION 1:l

them !rni.sli{:c. \Yhdlerer the sequdce ol t1'o .\'cnts is slrch th:lt a rve hsRj to subsl.i],tri. tjr lirst sci, of eqnations irl the second set. TL!
lisht rry coniing frou eitlld c'ent uri\'cs rt tln si|l] ol th' oLhcr onlv result ol thc strriehtforwrrl calculrtion is
,ir,". lt nas occu"""d. '1; is nesctnnj l'hen wr inlmdnc. inricxd ol
-,' thc nvrr'mt d'3 - ."'i ,
-
q7.

| ,. . ord
hr :r,)" * (v, !,)' 1 (.," - z')" c'1" t)'
,"o S'' '
(131)
o i -l ' ':rr
; l:=j,; I (13',
.. .o"'f-l r'.rro "on r " l'l'r
io \vljch the cllIis
'"
\nrts. th(ic e\isis :r lnLme of rclcrencc wiih resD.rrl
oc.|r simuLLrfcousl)'. ln th.t frx'ne ol r.lelelre, llrc s])atiol disil1n0c -"i--'Y;),
Lct{(:ll thc l\ro {rYcnts is sinrfll o .
Jrrcrlucrtl,r-, eiihcr ou is rcft:rred to as the spn'c i'imc iuterlal
rr or .l.tc wiih
bcl$,c.n i|e tso ev.Il!. iniorxl js (rllcd li'rr /'/r i'hcn 'r is
rc.Ll, and rpo& lilr: {hcn dr! is rcxl \ifcth"' r1'' innj\''l ln i\r(rn the
(,r.37)
t{o crcni-* is t;nclih(i .,r sptcciikc does not dcpend on thc frllc ol
rclcreDi(j or thc conrdinoto sl -.teDr urtd. bui, i-r an in{rrirlt l)roleltv Th s, tll,o loreniz Lrrnsfornltiuls, cxrded out one alter the other,
ol lhe t\o e'{!ls. are iiqr lalcnt lo orc ]-ordriz iransfornation. But tLe lehiivii \(tocity
11ie mcrtiol(id belorc Lhri lhc Iir(inlz tll.nsfornati'rn is drililc(l oDlv ol S** ri'ith tr:spcct to S is turt siniph the suir ol I and o. Is long as
lor rehtive (tocitnis smsll(r Urrn 1,ltc s|o.il ol lignt ll r lrane ol both u/c a d rrlc .rrc snall .xrmlared tr unity, 1r is v{)ryncrrlv equal
r)lercrcc could nrorc as hs1, .rs or l[.il, Uran Light' it \onlll lx. indeed, to l) + o; bnt $ or(i of the two velocities approaciics {, tlre(le\irtion
irnfossil)lc lor light io piol)igetc rt rLl in tllli lorward dir(r'iion, rlurli bccomcs inport&1. Ell. (1.J7) .an be xritten in the lorn
lcss \riih thc sPeeil . rr i/.)1l
,: "[, 1+rr''r "l] (a.37s)
The relativisiic law of the addition of velocities ls il Possil)lc to lind
I I

t\ro hrlnes oi lclenrce irhich 3r.i Doling rol:itil'elv to oech olher 1\'ith In tlis f.,rn, ii is obfiors tli.t 1l cannot Lccomc rrlual to or grcilhrr
r velt)ciiJ'sr(lller tharr c bI ccrr]ixg out ! s'rics ol succcssire l-orentz than c, ls linis m both r and ru are smaller than .. lherelole, ii is
tlansfornatidrs? lo ans$'cr this (1trcslion, r't' shrll shrtll the super- impossiLlc io combnr scrcral Lorcntz trarslonnaiiors in ore n1\'otr.ing
ol two (or nore) l-orcniz ir.rrslollriions \\ir shrll irt'roduce a r.tati\e rclocity grcrto rl1n c.
|.rsitidr
ilx', tr,r-"" ol rcnrcnrc, S, S!, S*+ ,r"+ ]rts the 1'elooitl-'r rrhtiYe Eq. 11.37) cu l)c ilteryrctcd in a slis{1ur difrcrcnt $'rv, lor a borly
to ri, an,:l 3** hxs tllc vel(xiL! u rlalile to S* 11' ilrni to llnd lhe ll'lich ]rl1s thc \lrlo.iitv r, {ith respect to S* hxs thc vclocit}. r Niih
lranslor atn)! eqrrriion: colfeotirs S*+ $ith S Startnis witL ihe resrect to Ls. llx,n e.l. 11.37) c:ln be leeard{,d rs the tra.slornertion
Lrlv lor velociiics (nr the ,t-dircction). In ilis c$c, it $oukl Lo l,r{if-

(.r.38)
"': 1. u.tc'
lvherc u hal lren replacerl bv l,i. 1\:e.onclude tl[r & body hm:r
(1.35)
I'elocity smrLler ihan.r in c\.r')' inorfjrl s]'stem jl its vclo.ity i! less
than c with respect to orxi iD.rtial ststcm.
The T,orcrtz tmnslormriiox cqul1tions inpty ihat no mrrcrirt body
can |avc a 1'elocitr sF,ter tlal. i'ith rcspe(i to anv inerii:i] svstem.
l o- '. cr r
' " , l L,,"lt r,r' 1.. r.,di. ,,"ot.i.',,.;.,d ri.
V
]] THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION ICh"P' ]V chap. IV ] THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION 15

is rcnoml lLom iri(irrclion $iih otlo lr ics and docs not rotrtc ShoN that this {l.liniti{)n lcads clso to the Lordltz coiltr'lciim for-
orr(1 iis o\r1 ..rn.r ol sr:r-itv, it drlincs a ncrv inertirl s1'sitrr. mula, cqnltirn (+.20).
'1lx!. jl lnr body could usLLne t rd,riil grcriur 1,11n .r \ilh re-(irecl 2. Trro rorls r'llirfi arc |amllel to {rrch olhiir mo\c rcLrlivcl-\'l.) cach
to Nnt.irnrlirl stttem, this sl-stcri lllrd 1,lie orc connectst si|h thc other irr thcir ldrsih dir.rlj(ns. L;l)ldn lhc al)lrrcnL perldori tlillt
body nrirltl ha ri r relatil'c \-clotit\- gr(iat.r lhtn c. eitlrer io.l na1' rp!.iar l(ms(ir tlrm lLe olt]cr, dc!.ndiDg on i]!j strtc
ol nrotion ol ure obselr(r.
ThF proper rise of a marerial bodi. \\. " Iu
'r' l" o lr"
.t)rci.-tnlii ifter! bcli\lc.n rlro ol(rrts. Thc rl)plitriion of tlris con- 3. Srr|os(i lLai thc lrequcnc)'oi a light rrr is / rith rfspect to a
(!r)L r.o 1h{r motiol of a mit.lirl t)rxll'ard to lhrr sl)rce-lime poiliir lrame ol rinJr!! ,S. Ils ireq,.rercy !+ in rloih{J hrnn, ol referefce,
rL(ng its |rll1 is luiicularlv nnP.trnt lor th! tlc'clolnlent ol r(ta- ,s*, dcpcnds on {lrc a slc d L.lNcen lhc (lirc.tion ol tlie lisht ral and
1i\istic m1rcl]l1nics. Sincr thc 1'elo(]it{ ol a mricrirl Lodl rcmrirs the direriirn oi rchtiYc Dtolior ol.S ard ii+. l)oil.o lxrih the classicd
bdo$. 0 at r'll times, srcl :Lr1 ilte]\' is rlNar-s titri-likc ll the mo and ihe r{rhiiri.tic ccturlions strl.ing ho\r !+ depcnds on / and l.hc
tnn ol thc lod) i.q rhi ttlaightlnre and rrnifoul, *: car sijll delinc tlitr anglc o.
p:r*lncler rl(nq iis uth Ly ihe diflercntial eqru.ttun Iror this puryos(i, thc liglll, lrlr bc tleated as a plane scalar nr1rt
movirrg Niill tlic \dociil. ..
dr' : rt'I - ril t (tt/' +.1;)
,1. - ,(r cos d
'ic),
t - l t(#) . (?)'' (,j;)'ll
'"
1.1.39) .
,.,.
I -,os-r',1 | '.o. '.'. "
VI - 'r c:
r is tie time shom try a .l(!rh risidll conn.ri,cti \i'ith thc mol-ing Lodv' The first ord(r efiect comrnoD to Loth lor!]ulas i-r thc "cll1.*sicd" Dor)llcr
r|allt'its '!nopcr ti,!e" (iis oirn lnle). \Vllcreq (139) is dividttl bv cfiect, tlrti slicond-order tern is called ihe "rchtir.islic" Doptld cti{)cL.
///: aDrt tlrc root is hken, irc oLlain thc rdaiior b.lNeen roordinate It is irxlqrrdnl nl th :rnsl. a.
ti e ldcl plop.r tine, 4. H. r\- ],orcrlz oeated :i tlL{ro{ $hjch was Lhc lorerunnor to l,iic
oj: (.r..r0) relatilitv tlr$ry as lr'e kno!" it tod.r). Insicrd oI l[ing 1o c\td]d ih(i
",r-,:,"y;, rdatii it]- t)rirrcil)lc lo elert r oduLanics, he assurncd Lhrt Lhcrc cxists .i[]
pirilcs(l lrine ol refelcn(c. \iilr rcst)ccl to 1'hich thc cl,her n:1s io l)c
$hcre z is dre r'locit,v of tlrc Lod-'. lhi! rcl.ti(u i. val for scceler-
at rcst. ln ordcr to a.(innt for ihc our.orle ol the lficLc{son-lforh-\'
atcd as rvcli as uraccelcrticd bodies e:?eincrl, hc lrssllrned tlrrt tlru cillcr alierls scales and clocls \llich
Ilotli dr and r, rvhir:h is delircd b1- the irtegrul
are nloving tllrougn it- ,\(!r)rdins l.o lhis h-rpotlresis, cloclrs are slo$ed
down and scales rrc contm(tul irr th', dilcci.ion ol thcir Dotion. Il is
.:/rf,i-,ri, (a.$t)
possible 1,o derire tho qunntiirij\1i cxr)rcssions lor the lrctors of time-
.rnJl," -o -. r'' 1. I r' '^rr' 'oio1-
arc inr.drirnt wiih resl*t lo T,or.riz tnnsfor aiions, though dl and
(d) Issunin,j i][t ilio Ge]iLr:an h:lllslormation equations are appli-
cable, dcrirc thc rigororb cyt)rtssion lor the tnre thrt a light rarv needs
PROBLEMS to trivcl r txrsrucd dislancc I jn boi| clirctions .l(Jns r sr,rajght path
in :r \lichtson llork:y lu)uatus, ])rovidod that ihe veldritv ol the
1. On paAe 39 r'e IIAYC tliscusscd one mi:1,hod ol roeasuring lhe lensth apparatlLs rdatiKj to thc |ilil(igcd sJsicn is r 0nd thct tho {nsle
ol a Dorins rocl. \\ie corll rlso delirc thrt k\rgi| lls ihe produ.t ol bet$ccn ihe p:rih and the direction ot I is d.
the lclocitt ol the rrol'jns rod Lj thc i'irDe n1t(lral b'itii'ctn !r irrixnt
rrhcn one cnLl point ol lhc notins rcd passc-* lr firt{ rnulic'r rD'l thc At,st(t: 1 : 2t]/r.!Ic.E ! (4.p1)
instrnl \\,h{ai Urc orher .nd point pxsses tle samc nrrrkcr'
V
'1ti THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION t ch"F. rv

(b) iiol' th't (!tu!1.i('1


wc nriroduce i.orentz' lil'|otlrcsis rnri rssunc
(1.p1) Lolds lor the tN., (ol1,nr,Lid l(lgtlr I and ihc Lr!r, di-(rlort.d
argle a- Thc tine nllnirtrd bt' tlru ol)srir.r's clock ir trot tlrc r.!1 CHAPTER V
l,ime t, but llrc clock tirne, l+. l nrth.rnorc, $c m.il;nr(i tlrii lorstlr (ith
that llrc (lrtreclcd thernselr-es; ihat is, $h:rt r. rnaFurc is not
scrl'r-c Vector and Tensor. Culculrs in an n Dimnsiondl
th.lrue. contr!:ril l rslh l, Lut th eplarent, uncontr ricrl l.Dsth l*.
'fho leletion bct]ic(ll lhe clock-time l+ and the apparcnt lcruth l* i,.
Continuum

,*
, 2l* (a. r'2)
;.,
rrcolrling to tlio orLtcomc of the llirhrlson-florler c\lerjncnt. \\'e Thc chssicel tranlfoltllaliion theorl- dra$'s a sharp dividins ljne be-
di1] lhe lactor ol li re-contHciion 4 rnd th. fa.ior ol loLstll .ontrnction tweensfrlt rnd tirne corirdinaics. The Linc c.,ordimio is ahrlt-s tmrF
in tlLc dircctirtrr ol 1,,\. Deiil-e the lrhtn)ns lctwen I aul l+, I rnrl 13. lormed inio itsrtl. Lrcrn:r: timc intcr\.als arc cons crcd nr cl$si{al
and (hteunine]\ ard d so thrt eqs. ( l.p l) rlrd (.1.p2) lxr(lnc c(tiriv,lcrt. physics to bc inrtitnt.
The relaiiristic translornrtiiD tli()r]. dcstrot's thi$ dctachcd position
ol the tnne .roiirrhr.tc nr diat tllr tirnii .oi;rdi rt.i ol onc rcilr(liniic
sysleJn.:l.rp,rn.ls on botli thc tini{r and sl{it co,jrdimi{:s ol anoth.r sys-
;" l:In,,,,, ,, """",,l (1. r3) tell 1]hcncl.cl th(i t\o slst{inr con:idcrcd arc rot at rcst .dativc to
r-r:v1 -iirc:. ) The h$s of ilmsical phl sics r.r'e ahia)s lonnullird so thrt thc tim{)
(c) In o cr to oLliajn ilx, (lrnt)Lcle l.orcnlz i.r.|1l1slouration cquatioN coa.dinrlii is soi rparl lron the spatial coitdinrtes, and l,his is quitc
1.1.1;l), nrr.rodrce tN) (!)ijr{lirric srsleD];l, rrne at rest ard.rne moring appropirtc ])ccrlLtsc ol lle clar:Lcter ol the trxnsfolmations \yilh rc-r|ccl
thro,,.qlL llic clfer (S d(L S*). I)tternrine the rpprtcnt dislances ol covariant. It is possible to lourulate r clal il islj c
to wlriclr 1hcse ]t1\rs rle
pointii.n the stl1rrlll ()ilrdirrt(i rxcs lron illc slalrnl poirtt ol .,rigin. phlsici so r.hrt the time coinllilate retrins i1s customerJ' spcciel posi-
liinalll., thd oui lon movnrs clo.hs nnr.l lxr rdjrrslcd $ t][l i. siqral tion, bui \e s|all nnd th.Lt this form thc relatir-istic la$s arc cumber-
st)r'.rrdnrs h:r1l dircctiorr3 lron thf sirD.d pirrt ol r)i$rr in(l stnrlirg some ard ollcn difti.Ilt io afflt..
d llre tinc I : lr' : 0l)&s tirc Nurrr.rt slrtxi d iu xll dircotio$- -{ proper formjllism niust l)(i rdaptc(l to thc theory v|jch it n to
relrscnt. The Lor{:ntz translormati{nr {\lurtn)ns susgcst the unilorm
treatment ol th./,ar .oilrtliratcs r, y, :, rnd L Hoiy this mislt Le d,rne
rlas llroirn bv ri. iUi n^rdri. \\ii slall lul th.Lt tlie rpplicatjon ol his
lormalism rill sirlplilt- rmtrt. probitns, and thrt lrith its nelp man}-
rcl{tiriitic linrs { tl (xturtiu$ 1.urD out to be morc lucid than their noD-
relatif istic anrlosn{rs.
Classir.rl drvsn,,. is i:lLancterizerl bv the nl':rriance of lenglh and
tiDrc. 1\'e can lomnlit chrr.r.tc ,(i rclrtil-istic phl'sics Lv the inlrri-
aLce of the express;on

.z ." zt.. i.
Tlro invuirn{rc ,,r tr'j" qu"a""ii" forn of thc coijritinaie d fcrcnccs
rest cts the glotp of all corccirable lineir lrarislormatnDs ol rhe loLu
47
J

18 VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS 4e

coordinat{rs:r, ?, ?, and I to that of t]]e Lorentz traLsformations, just as 'Ihe ne\v coLjrdinrte sr.sicrn is a rectansular Cart{rsicn
eq. 15.1i) is lormalll' irleniicsl with eq. (5.2a), thar is, ii
the invadnnce ol the cxt,ression
g n it t,t
: (:r,
s!' L)' + Q" ID' + Q, ,')'
ort ollolrnl tralrsnrrmations. The
(5.2)
l.' " -\, ;t "- '.1 (5.7)

clefines thc group of throe dimensional


four cli-cnsional co"tinuurl (r, ?, z, l), {itlr il,E invar rii lorm af, car
These equ.ltiors take a more coDcisii
'.
form if use rc so-calltd
Iironecker st-nbol ,l'r , whiclr is delincd bv thc cquatioLl
b{, treated as a lour dimonsionaL "space," iri 11hich 7D is thc "distancc"
betircdr the two "points" (r', 1/1 , ,' , l') and (,, , v: , z: , l:). ilhis pro- 6u:0, k+t,\
cedurc permits f,trc development ol a sort ol generdized lector c culLts b.r:1, h=1.)
(5.8)
in thr: "Nlinkorvski n'orld," snd thc formr ation of ft]l in'adrnt rel|.
iions in i! clear !,nd concise ray. Eq. (5.7) takes ihe form
$-e shnllbesin thc sludl ol this mathcnaiical netho.l lviih arecapitu-
lrtion ol clcmentary vector ftrlculus, fo{irsing our attention on jts formal
Aspects. Then c shall gencralize thc lolmalisnl so that it be{,omes
rppticabtc to the space-time conlinuun. Eq. (5.7a) is the condition $hich nust be s&iislied jt thc tmnsfour]atioD
cquntnr;s (5.3) arc 1(r rcpresent thc transitjon from oDe Curesian coijrdi-
Orthogonal tmnsfomations. tct us start \Yiih a rectugular Car nate srstem to another.
tcsian codldinrte systen rnd call il-q tltee rc.jrdinates r, ' r,, and r' $Je can easilv for)1lrtlntc tlle condition to be satisjied by itrc.r& then-
(inste,r.d ol r, s, and z). Call thc codrdirate.lifidences bct$tcn tr1o sclr-es. BJ' substitutins oqs. (5.a) in cqs. (5.b) $c obtein
points P a:nd P', LJa, Arz, and Ari The dist&nce betn'ecn the txo ,r'
points is given by Ar. - -!
)"...^r t t.2.3. ,S.o

s : z! drr. (s 2c) ar(t becausc i,his eqLuri n. -on*." ,., , *" ,to
','i"u,"
Il ile carry out a linear coijdin:rte transiormation, (5. r0)

l{ow \rc cr.n nLrliilty e.ts. (5.7s) by cr", md surn ovcr ihe thre{, possibte
J,: Lcl\r\t r" 7,2, 3, (5 3)
values of l. 1\-e oliiLn,, becausc of (5.10),

the new codrdinatc difiernccs are


.>,.,:,"L",-: "i,.: Xr,,o",: "-. (5.1r)

aal :Ir*ar', i-1,2,3' (;.-1) By subsiitutnrs c,,, for .ir, and so fo|th, nr e.ls. (;.in), ve oLtain

These cqualio$ can b{i solved wiih respe(i to the Ar!; L"", , 6". k, I : 1,2,3, (5.7b)

a.-:I,:'j,1, k=r,2,3 (5.5) end eqs (5.10) take the rorm

\-- (5.10r)
Eq. (5.24) expresss itscll in t.iDis ol thc ne$'cocirdinxiirs thusl
fther cqs. (5.?b) or (;.10a), tosether \dth eqs. (5.3), delnc the
s: 2- .,,..,,Arr1\J'. (5.6)
ol o ,1,. Aor.. I -e.'1 -urmr ione
erouD

t.
v-
50 VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS I Chdp. V VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS 5I

Tmnsformaiion determinant. \\:c sh:!11 nox' irvestigate (2) L.n:h litenl index vhich aattrs triu in a ptodu.:t is 6 :;umnatian
'., ,'r i^1s i..{ rr ,. i , L,) , I' r. indcx, tlihere Llt Nunntation is to hc catti.n. altt orct all y)ssiL)Lj 1)alll.
:l'he deternirurli oI the coofti{rj(lts .,/, , Thus, wri rvrite qs. (5.3) anrl (;.ti) like ihis:
l,t : c',t, )' ::,; ,

' : r :.1.
Sunuaiiion i dices are oltcn cxll(ll .l?r?,i,rf l?rd?.rs or sbply rftrarzer.
js i\|Lal to +1. T., frove tliis slrl(rrcill, \\' rlake use of th. nultil,li- TlIr siltrifiorncc ol an exr)r.ssirD is n.rt cbmg(i(l if c pajr oI dumnies is
(irtion law of d.t{rrninmts, irhic}r si'ltlls that the produ.rt of trvo d{rt.r repl.,i0cd by some oilrcr l(ittr, lor erlr(l]|lc,
mi nls a* {Ld lir to ilrc dcl.,rrinant Xq,O,.
is equeL . No"
Ne lom tho delemnrant ol l,oth sides ol eqs. (5.7b),
Vectors. The traLl"lornlrtion l:rn' ol x, a'|r, (5.1), is th s.nerrl

!"'",1: * (5.12) tl.l]nslornalion l$! ol \'kiors \\ith rcsl)(r.t to o hogoDxl trlnstornx-


tions,.,r, rrtiicli,\ lector is dfir tll ts r sc,t oI ilrr() (tuontities ihi.lr
tansforu likc (oii inate difT.eJlresl
Accor(lirs to the aboredeninn:d niulti/ication la$', the left+:rnd sid(i
l5.t 6l
$rh(\i the l'ctor corirpordnis ir. .gjl en r\ ii.h lcst.ct to anv orc Cut(jsjan
2".,",1:]:",,",,-.",1 .t,r= ci, 1.,, -rcl,'. (b.14)
coilrdjn0te system. thc\' .irrr be co puled \ritlr respect Lo cvory r)rller
{lrfiesian codrdituic st.t.n.
The v:Llue of tlrc riglLhrnd side ol eq. (; 12) js (xturl to unity, since
Tlr non| oI a uxt.t is d.lin.tL as tttt sun oJ rA. Nttuarcd rr:.tat.rrt-
I00
6,. : 0 1 U : 1. (5.1+) l\ c sh"lL tn!1-e thrli tiii, rio[r ii rn inr. il1nt \rilL r(],rxrit to orthosoml
franifoDnth.s, or. U :rl
0il t
(5.t;l
Thereforc, n'e redly ha{e
Substituling for ai its cxpiessic,n (5.16), rDd makins usc uf oq. (5.i0i),
(5.1s)

Thc r.alLre 11 of ttr{) delcrminant belongs to tLc "tnopcr" rohlnms. :,,,.".",,., : : a,,,,
6ra;a,
liilc the uhrr 1 bclongs to orthogon,l trtNfo.Imtions inloLlnrg.r 'ki
$li,,h provos thrt !q. (5.17) holds lu orihor.onal tran-\fomrations.
Tlic stdo.Fattltct al tua u(Lots is n..Ji11cd as tlL surn aJ th.) ?toducts
Improved notalion. r '1' r:r'- t ,, . ot ,tr o'- . u,-' g r' o! .orrcspt)ndtt Ls t..tot canpanel LtN,
lree dnnorsionrl l.ector (rnd i.t!sor) ,,!lc,,lus, cvcr'] litoral index $hich
(5.18)
wlriill o.crui rl\ricc in x pmdrlct is r surnaiion indea.
c\.er)' lileral inrl.x Tlxrt this .t-l,ressiorr !s rll inr.:r.riant NitI rcspect to oriLogonal trius-
From nolr on, tli(r.forc, \'c shrll omit all snmnxiion siqns anrL rll folnutions is shou bl' a conifutatjon ardogous to thc troot ot clt_
remarks of thc t]fc (t, r : 1, 2, 3), anrl it shiLl be underitooll lllal,: (5-17). The norn of a rcctol iJ the scalar. product of itrc l.ctor Ly
(.1) Io.h lite4l nnl.r ul&l1 ac.uts ottu i7L a padr.t asszn.s oll t1s itsclf
Tlrc $ord scalor frequently used i rajtor and t.nsor catculus in-
tr
52 VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS 53

ste d of ituaiunl. "scalar produci," mrns "irvariart product " Tiic three quantities lr,r traDslorm rccodins lo eq. (5.11); thercforc,
srms and ditrcrences of lctols ar.i, 4ain' vcctom, thcl' are the componcnt"r of r vector, $4nch is called ure gradient ol ure
o;+A;:s.,1 (5.1q) 't'hree nctians of the cadtLlkales, V t(., , r' , r'), dte tn utnpok:nts af a
l
at-bt:dt.) Nctot I.Ltl i.f at eacl1. space-point th.! tt ans|.tm ds thc &,i1!'Lqts d a
That thc rew quantitics sr and d, reallv lrarlslom accordins to c'1' ,cclr'. The lurctions I'; oi thc codrdinates rl arc, tLus, gir-cn by tlrr:
(5.11i) Iollo$s from thc lnriar, hotlosencous ol thrt h:rns
'lirractcr
YJt.r: c,Ii \rt, (5.1ra)
T11 produot oI a vcctor and a sc (nlvrriant) is a vccior,
'rr \,/here tle r" are con.ected with tlr(i i,]'thc trrnsformation cquatioLi.
(5.20) 'l
The gradieDt crertos a vector licld oui ol a scelar lield.
The dirergence does the oppositc. Ci\1xI r \..cior licld I/r, \'e lorm
'l'hc Drool is lelt to the rc'rder.
tlic surD ol tle thrce derir.rlti\-es ol c$cL conrx)nlnt $'ith respcct t., thc
The cliscussion of the rcnainnrg algebraic vector operation, the 1'ecto'
eoiirdinate r'lith the sa]rre nrdcx.
r, .Ju.r, m o-orle -:unr Ir"r', b 'I'ql r"r.t ':u" 1"rran''
inro.L ro , n. ori, 'i.' 'b^ ' ol0 vp'ror. (5.21)

Vector analysis, lve e no rerdv to go or to thc sirnplest difier-


\\p .. ,. ,., .,o, rhr hi..ylrp.:o..:j:.n:1,d..j,,(o.s,.1 ,.\
ential opemtions, the grrdient and thc di\.ergence' ln the three dnncn-
sc:rhr iield Ir'
v1.,, : v,., . 15.25)

"i,-"1
+""" ot thc thrcc coilrdinctes rr , 1et us tak) isa iDvariarll $'iilr Thc froccdui is e{acil-v the sarne as befor{r. \\-c rcplacc tlri) prirnr:d
that js,-r, lunction ot thi: threc codrdinrires r, vhich
quanLitie! and de vrtives b"\' tho uDlrirncd quariiitics,
reslcct i,o coilrdin:Ltc trrnslornation3. llc lorm ol the nrnction I/ ol
the coilnhntes will, ol cours.i, depend on thc codrdinate st-*tem uscd'
js
vi." - ,;,,,,(.c"v,) .,, : ,""1-,v,.^ . (5.26)
but in such a lvay lhai its valuc at a lixcd point P not ehmgcd bv the tle isht-hand
Because of eq. (5.10), ihis lasii cxpression is equal to side
tmnsformation.
y of eq. (5.25).
\\rlct is tlic hansfomttion l&w of the dedvrt'ives of $'ith respcct 'fhe ,:lir-ersenc.r of a gHdient ol a scalar fiel(1 is the Laplacian of that
to thc l,luec co6rdinatca, scalar field .Lrd, ol course, is it.sell c scalor 6cld,
,,: 'i:, (r.21) cliv grrd Ir = f." = v:Y. (5.27)

\\ie mr1st .xpress the .leri1-rli\.es with rc-.pect to ci in inns .'r th(i Tensors. In maDy palts of phr',.ics 1to crcou tcr qftrntiliics $'hrse
J ri\. ,i' i l. ' l lu, tralNlonalion laws are sone{trat niorc h\'.ilved lhan thoso .rf vcctors-
As an example, let us consider tlro so 0 1iit "''cci,or srnlicnt." \\'l](a
aI' a.r r al' (5.22) a l.criior ncld J'r is eivcn, lle can obtain & r$t ol iluarijtics 1i'Lich dcter
ar; 6,',, rtt; mine the chanse of ca{ih conlponcnt of tr'; a"s l'e proocql from :t point
\cc r,Lnc ^ pr. :.3, r\. r-ri' i^n' of 1," . t 'J \ riitlr the coo.dinaics tu l]n arhihar"v direction to tlrc i idtcsimally
"-i
n n r ,r.r .ln l rh"J lrr- I' cor " 6:li . l'he thrt!
'r +
,.,s,_ t, rct.,. ' near point 1'ith ihc codnthat(s incrcncnts of ilrc
o; dr:lined by ccLs (5 5). \\'e ha!c' thcrclore,
dll, : y, r6xr , (5.28)
v*-cl',v,
and thc nine quantjtics yi /, uc c&tlcd thc vccbor gradient of Iz;. 11ie
and, a,ccording to eq. (511), caD easily derive ;is l,lansfolnaiion lew in the usual DanDer:
(5.23)
v;.. : cL?-tr).r : c-tc,* t'*. (s.2e)
i4 VECTOR AND ]ENSOR CALCULUS I (hap. V chdp. v l VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS 55

The vector glrdient is one example of the nen' chss ol quantitics Il r tensor is noi. chrnced irlroi two or rnori: irdices a"!'c crchanged,
\i'hich ivc are no\i' goiDg to tre&t, the t.nsors llr g'tl'ral' a tt6ot hi:i then it is sl/rrr.rz ni these i nls. Tnstxtrctis .ue
N ;nnit^. atl oI uhich lalre atl Mlucs r t) 3 'i he tr1Lsa1 lns ttl'rdott! t: : Irt.
3" rnnpontnts. Thsr 3r camrntzrtts Ltansfatn ac(a ling to the tra'tv
tt),": tii,,: tr-i-: l1],G, - tat- = lt;a.
't'^.," : ".;e,,, ' .l"L (5.30) Tlrc firs1i tensor is
"vnli1riri.r in ils nrst t$o indic(i; the sccord tensor is
slnrritrir ii its lirsl, llrrco irdiccs.
'il'l uonbet aJ intli(.s. N, is catle'1its rank Tle v(ri'or gradicnt is I \\-hen s lcnsor rr${ins tle srD( or clungcs tlc sigr ot .crl.corn
n$or ol rrlh 2, \'c.itols rri tensom of rr k 1, l1rd scrla's ttru'bc pollirrl upor the pl.lmrlltio. ol celtein ir(l!,cs. tllc sign rlopcndiris on
c^lled li.nsors oI rlrlh 0 lrhdl]cr it js an ij\ur .r cn odd pijrrnrintioD, 1!. s{r'ihaj. ih(j icnsor is
One v.ry irn|ortrrt lensor is tle t{roner kcr sYmbol Tts vllues ir
jrto cq (5 30), lield lire sanc anlislr1])t.ttit Al:. Nlit,t:s! 1tut).it: ot .tlt tnatitll) 1lith rei|cct to i.hcsc
on(i corirdimte srstem, \l'hen substitut(rl indi0es. IDSi.Dc.s rrc
ir'loes jr rnothcr coordinxte svsi,em'
,ir : c.r,;ar; : .ki.b : 6 ' (5 3r) lu : ht,
acoordins to cq (s 7b). t&l: t$,,.: ttr"- = -t;t^: -]4th,,: -hrt*.
fLc srui ilillcrerce ol two tcrrsoN ol cquil ranh is a tens)r 'if th'i
or' All sncl sru rtrr prolcr|ius ol i tclrsor i.o irlllriant. Thc proot
slLrac lank. \Ve lormuhte this hN for icrsoF ol rrnk 3l is e\trenrell sirtrl)1. ar!l slralL l)c lrrt to rLc slullrnt
TnIU*t:Vrt, (5.32) The Tiloleclicr rixrsor is slrnnorlir irl iis 1,\!o in.:tices.
T. IrQ: It'r,. (5.33)
Tenso! analysis. \Vh.n 11 tcJ$or is dilTercrtirt(t \ jth rcsl)ect to Llic
l1s lor lfe rx'r$pondnrg laivi1'r \'ectors,
(iq (5 19) coindirrrics, I ne\! idlsor is obi rul, rlxi ll1nli ot irhich is sr.[icl.by 1.
The pr.iol is thes.mc _11. , r.
'Ihc pioduct of t*'o tetsors ol ranks rU :ind N is a ne$'tcdsor ol rank r. , ,, i ,t ",..rr' ra
(il + x), r:.., ..,. : (l',(!",,(:",,. :,,,r,,* ... c.jri...,,. (5.86)
:t',1, ) t
(5.31)
\\'hen Ure rc'slltirrg t{rsor js coxiucted rith r{rspect to th! in.l.x ot
The rank of a lrcnsor nay be lo\rcred bv 2 (rr Lv anv even number) difi(ir(intirlijon and .llotlxj incle\, kr.v.rple, ?'./, ...r , ir i-. otien cdt(ll
by ltn operrlion called "contmotioD " '{nv t]'o indices rlo conlert'd
iito a pair ol clunmy inllicc-c lin il1stru(1j, r'e (.ln contn'i lbe tensor Tensor densiiies. Tfc "\.rtor product,'of ttro \rytors a rud b is
?ri... io r-rLiair ilio tensorq ?",r ' or ?'." 'fh{r prool tlitii' these
usnrll! dclxlll rs r rectof rrlrjr,li is pcrpdrdicutar i.o a rnd io b xnd
Lr$' contncttai lensors 3,rc qla t(DsoIS is vcrv sinpie lror re first $'lich hxs LlLc nqtnitu,lc a . b sirl (a. b). As tii.rc arc rli,rr,; t$o
era plc gjl.cr ]re]e, it runs rs lolloirs I r,. r'l' /.. P. 1n,P
1",^, is nnrle bcl.rixr these t\yo r{ltorls b) LL{: tnrUrcr a)ndiijon rtrlt a, b,
s c is (lLlal to
risht lLrnrl an(l P slall lo[n r "scr.en" ol il. scn]c t].lnr as r.llc.oin.difai.c des in
Bec:luse of cq. (;10.rJ, tho
thc sequorc i, t/. .. I. lig. 0, ttrc rcclor pr s{ristics ihis c.jn(ljrion,
T',",...: a,.,,,., ?'r,-.. - c1,," ' Tt"" ' (5.35) but orl-\- ln.arsc ilr.hosc; roi;r(tnr.tc s$tdr is 11 ,! iAhtJrm(lc.l';
coitrlinatc srstdn. Tl \c (ar,! nur a '!.cltccln,r', itor .xrmpti,,
Nhcn {e conl.r.lct tlrc rector gi li(rll (tens''r ol l.rrk 2)' \e obtri]I ihc sn.e
the positi!. I-axis th. diroctim io it,. r.ir ot tlrc ljBu() nrsimLl oi io
(livers,ince (tcnsor.il rcrl0). rle op{aaLion* Pro(Lrrcl, (s'31)' l1nd ihe
t'nirrE such as ?'n'-rt tho lronl), & bcco.r.s rlutonaiicaitr rhc rccror t),o{lu.r: ot a rnrt b.
funtmcr,iur car bc conbDcd so thct tlic)' : nrLd
' The i_octor procluct is, ihns. lot in ordinar rror. Lut .hroAr ils
:1 II| G,,'lnL; *, T,.t'],t
fc;l";,',",r,. j,.," "17- n.:Lr! pnpotirs \riih rc-\p'(t io tlicir indiccs'
sign irnen \rc tr.nsftrro .r rishrhndc.L coi',duDrc slstcnr iDh; tcft-
V

chap, v I VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS 57


5(i VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS IChdp. V
c,: t' 1,.,]
hard{:d system, or Yice v{rrsa. Su.rli quantiLies arc calld
lrrs," irhile ordnrrl)' vectors are cxlliid "palane.tots."
c, : l-,,, - I, .,
I
(b.s8)
c,: I., I-,.,.J
Iiron thc point ol ri{r' ol t{jnsor catcuhrs, {e crn avoid the conijepi
oI "axial \.ijctor" by inlroducitrg rector r)roduct and curl ilJ ske$,svn_
metlic tc$or; ol lanli 2,
Pi:air-atb., (5.37a)
and

C,," : Vu ViL, (5.38c)


It ctln L{, shoNn lhrt all equations ir l'hich ,,axial vecron,, appear cm
bc l\dtlcn irr tlre col.:lriiLrt merllrcr with rtre help of such stre\ysrmm,,t .
r.n-o . ), rh"l...r | ,,.".. f.
connecti.in lnrtween ilr(i rran-\tormari.iD l,ln.oI a skeNsnnnchnr if{,
ot "! 12.,. ".,,.. \\' ,.,-.,o.o-...r.,,,
,rp '"1 .., "".., r'..t -., -t.,r- ,,,.,1 .,s;,,,d',.,.
r r.n tl pc of .luanfii:\,,
to tensors the 'ttcnsor tLttNiricN.')
'Lire lensor d.nsitics irr.slorrD tike tcnsors, c,xccpt rhat
u atso
iher
multiltjed b) ilr(i tl1lrtslornratio rlererninrnr (i.15). .\s ro.s rs this
deidmiu.i equrls +1, tL:Lt is, \iien thc rrxnstormrtion is c,i)roDer
orl,hosonal translorniai.iorii Niibout rellcction, l,trcrc is no ct jfcr;ce
belnttn a rcllsrr nnd l1 tensor dorsity. Lnrt a dijnsiiv undergo.s a
charse ol sisrr (innparllnith 11 icnsol) n.t!r a reficdion oi rh ;ij(li_
nate svsten I oaDied oui. Thctonsor d(insities hare. itrus. re slnrp
r..1 (r.h:1 t,n .. 3.rip . .t "-or. t.v or'.c mt,r.,,ro :
'lh r rr. r,.l" ,,ri , ,.,1," .i er.-r-.
tric.6. Th.v..lorprothcl ln arigl,l hinded coiiftlilit.slsicn'Prreprcs'nis (5.3e)
tbe vlct,)r prodtrct ol a bl b 1'L(i laNs of tensor (l,"nsiiv rtsebra ard crtlxrlus Ttre s,n, or
d '"r" o ,..,... ,..,r . , F t . t . . . . . a '1Ie: . . , , r.l r.\
. .

X ith rcspect to 1 Certesi^n ooordjnrte s]-sLem, thc components of P


, , r

ol ', ,,-r.,'. f,, r". , .. , .t


arc given by thc expressiotis " J, is a tejN,.. .l.t,p
temor drn.iiJ.. The froduct of tr:o Lcosor ctc|jtifs
'f\,.i -. l-i r" rr ,r. ;,r. -u\..r,l
P.: a"tt' - otb".)
,i. ,;;..."..,;.., .i",r,,1
r, : .tl't rrt\, I
I
(5.37) rr".,.r oi r..i, L n gl ";,,,",,;
r"r rJ I t,.I
tre I urk ot ttr orisjnrt d,,!.irj.
Pt - a'1" - atrt'. J
The tensor densit./ of Levi-Civira. nir iound tlat ihe
IGoneckd
Similerly, tl1e cul ol r vecior fi.ttl l , i. !l fined r.3n 'r\iel lector" synbol is a terB.,r, the corrponuts of $hicli takc the
same corstani
witlr lhc componcDis
58 VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS tchap v VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS 59

values in every coiir.linaic s)stom. Likenisc, thcre exisls a coNttlnt Bccaus{j these tryo v{rjtor d.nsitics []r rtrd 6r hansfon titre v{ltors
t;";. J;"t,r: "f ra:nk 3, thc Ll-i-Civitr tensor donsiiv'alLdefincd a-r
con;
cxcct)t lor tle changc ol sign 1rr rhe casc oI (!)in.ciine1,c retectii,rs, $ex
r"ii""". ;'.,,, "1"""y.ltl.'ltic in its Lht'c i1trL es; tl1c4ott' thosc arc irlrt(ll a:! \'ll]].ors in l(rior cxl.ru|rs, but Llxiv arc, rct.irred ro lls
'rt o I Tt 4 J4' 'lirial" rectors, inlplyins ihrt 1h{y Ia1,e sonething to do \rirh
'".,,r, - , .r' d -l 1 t' n'tun tt t ' l 1

'- dn er. ar ak o.]d wrnuttJtith ol lr,2,3)


is l.licl.reallv do hfir ;omolilinrq to clo \rirh rotrlion. Thc rnsular
1\r har.c yet to sLoll that a*' arc reall]' t|e iomponents ol rhas tensor
ihe
rnonentum. loi instrn.c, is ihri 1-..tor plodu.t of Ure r tjrls vcctor anrl
a"""itr'. il a" ,"t, r"t us consi.ler r tensor densitv Nhich tlic orrlinary moin(]l1t m,
A-, i"ol., svstdn ll it turns'[iout that il's com-
""'"n""t"*"
p",,,1"" ;" othcr codr.linai,c svstcrn ue :Lgain 6*t, 'ur rlsscrtion
"odr.liDatc 3,-d^,r^p. (5.15)
"ti",, In thc cas. ol a relleci.ior, it rranslorms as en odina4\-\.ector Noukt,
ihe co-po""nis of ,iu in uothcr conrdinrtc svstem arc crrcpt f.ir it. sis.. ,\ssLLtrlr t|at ol ilr(j i,r orJl.ri does noi 1.rni-di, rnd
(;.10) ih:Li- p lus onlr thlr comrxtrrot p:. flcrl thij jingutrr inrmetliun hl1s
Ll^"" : c, c,,,ic,,kc"t6*L od]' l,lio compne.t Si \Ye cxrl Qnl. orii .r. rcteci.ior in rhcc difrrdrt
i\s the skeNsymm{rtry of l)ru is prcseN(rl bv tllc corirdittttc lrans- navs: \\re crn rllelri r:j b). ( -r,) or \re .an (to thij s.me rhinlt ll'iih r!
i.],.'ir,,", '*'t*"" it'.t alt ,xunpulent" iith at lcNt t$o equrl or $jth rr , tfe oih.r liNo coirllinates rcniirjns rnchane(l in q or.
;",ir""" \Vc ia'e to .ourpute 'L^,
onll- roDrponilrts $ith rll thre ',-. j.. .. '- ir '.. Lr o-'.-.,.i"
"O"n. ^,ct:r ,l
l.,ii""" ain,""*. Thc componenli l1:, is gn on bv ihe cxprcs-*ion f i i,.li._ .,.(.Ltl ..,.i ,r:n ir. .j. ,

onlt' when ri is r(tnarftl by (-.t.


Di- : ca c'tc'!"6rd . (5.11)

o rJ Generatization. No\r lhat wc h .c r.ricrrcd briety \.c(tor eDd tcnior


Thr ri_l r tran.t .i,1" . Frll! l.-q:: :'r' rJ.l
"'J h"" l"rFrr c:rlcLllus in ihrixr dnnensioN $'irlr rcspcct ro o{hoso.al rr!nstorrnotior,a.
iD1
l .I :' u.h Fd . ' . ! inrt .,i .r,,nt. .Lr"ir.., o
"q o 'rni t l" rrair'nc" n-
r

\o*,1,x \'l: '" i,1..' rill l)c at)t)iical)1(i to the trrol)lcms \\1 shitt djscuss lrter.. Tnc gdrd.alizr
p,-"ntll ot" obtrin{rd snDplv bv using the svmmetrv properties tion it to l)c (jLDied .iui. in tto siqrs. Iirsi:, ve hrrc to cxr.r.d i.hc
They llrc forllr,lism so ihat il .il)|lics to ary tositi\c jrt.srat nuD$cr ot dinjcr-
D:",: Di,,: D,,": -D"," - -n;'": t'"" 15.12) siom; sccord. rl'e "nrall hr1-c to corlsid.r (ioardinat(j trcnslorDarjons o ,.r
tLon ortlllgorrl lrDsf oDlatiors.
In oiher Fords, the ,1,,. are ag&ni equal to 6,,,^" , and the prool is
n dimensional contjnuum. 'llo lirsr gencralizrtion is alDrost trivirt.
Instcr(l ol threc codrdiui.s :r,, hr1.c ,r coi'dinarcs.
Vector prcduci and curl. Iiitli Ure lich "f rlrc l'e!i Ci1'ita
tensor
iiensors ol rar* 2 vit]r vector r, .. x,., dcsr!.itri.g an n diircnsnmrl nranilold. l\i. aslumc, aEain,
densitl,, 11t can associ!,te skewsvDuEtric rh, 1,, \: "1 ,o "inr-,
(5.13) (5.2b)
rvhcrc the sruun:itidr is to be cuirrt oui o'd all n vatucs oI tLe
The conYorse rclaiion is
inclex i. llq. (5.2L) is irrariani \itl respect io tte group of n dimen-
(5.41)
sional, ortLosonal tll],nslormrtioDs,
curl' dlined bv
-{pplving e(1. (5'13) 1., thc vcctor Produci antl to the
irs. (5.37) ard (5.3s), r.spectiv{tv, rvc obtain
,:, : """,,
+ ri , (5.3a)
$herc the .'* hale to satisf}. the con{lirions
F, : 6"rrorb!,
(5.371)
(5.38b) (5.10b)
60 VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS tchaP v ch3p. v I VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS 61

rt, in.t,co. ra;..J' ..,r -1..... .'.r, i": vauisirc-r nor.hcrc; end thet the frarc mrl lor all rcrl values c,t rhe
; ';;;r. f,'4 14, ni,"1 '" ; hw -rin q'r ro-r'
vrt,rs are Llefincd bv thc trunslornution . r.,r.:r,
" r. .1. ,J ,n at,
" ir iq ot.r. a,,.
(5.16:l) But tlro s(tr c ol ihe distaDce bcirv(lJr tno inlidt$iDrLlly rc,r ponrts
ronrins a quadutic lorm ol thc coinrlinate d;ilcrtintials. II1 1cnrs ot
ibe nlgelrra lind :Iat1]l'sis
ald t}]cir algrt,ra and nndlsis are identical i'ith (.. r" i.n.oo'li h rr r'rr. ir d rlr . ,j!i\r' ur
ol lhrce dinltusnm rectlrrc '
'r,
'l'en.ors and tlrnsor drinsitn's aIe (lcfincd os in tluce
dinensionil tl" : drrdxL (5.47)
1 to ?r. a,r is agrin s}-rnnretri(i
sprce, cx(pt that 1 irdiccs mn from
11
and rhr can be exprcsstd in t{Jn$ ol the ,tr,
, otr ,-t
(5.48)
,ri
SuL)-{tiiutidi jrito {rr. (5.-17) r'i.,ldj

,"": F?,i,,'or. (5.,rs)

dsl is a quadrrtic form ol the dg', rcgnrdl{,ss of thc coijrclinatc system


u("d. - i- .uco,..r. , , .,, . ,o','.. . Jr.r n,s.. "r ,,J tr ti-
tance difierential .ls x'ill, irr rl,c field ol sdcral coordinrk, transtom&-
tions, take tlio plilcc of the coordjnaic dili.rcnces ,4'r and the disilnce s,
ll'lich arc rd{ptd to Oartesian coijrdinates and orthosoDa,l trans-

Vectors. Lct us sce liow the codrd;nnie difrerentials tnnsform in thc


case ol i g{Jxrr:rl (i).n inate transform&tion. Let ', f,r be t1'o sel-e of
non-Caltesiiur coiidnutes. Then i,h{r ()drdinate di$crentiats are coD-
nccted bv the equeliorlrj

ar' - l! ar'. (;.;u)


The tr:Lnsformcd coijrdinrtc difierentiats rllr' nle lincar, homogcnrmrs
functnnis ol the dii: Lrul i1,. tfuDslormaii.,D coricients (at,r/,]f) are nor
consiant, but liuctions of ilro l'. Neil,hcr is theb dcrermin.rnr,
dt"/,ltr , :r cdnsixo|- \Ve shatl u".c thon lor the purpose of dc0nins
a tf,pc of geometlic: ituontitli, lhc "()ntrnvc anl \.cctor,,: ; dolihd-
,ariant uectar has n co.npatLents, uLich trunganr like caorctinate rtifet
{' _ /i,,, ... ,,), i = t. n. (5.ilti)

,.'.,h. r i- ' ,on / r' ' I \ 'l' lla trm rr'rrr"i : (5.51)
il., .";;.; ;;. ,, i ,. r '. r Ln" r"rin r ri-u' "'|:tr'|l " dl".
.l'coLir of thc transformrlion, The sun or tlie dilTerencc of contravarit.nt \.ectors, anrt the producr ot a
contu,vadtrnt reclor: rd d s.,lar arc rlso contHvariarii rcdols.
d't ;"lt l
It is inipossiblc to form scahr products ol roDtrava;ont vectors rtone.
62 VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS lChap. V VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS Ii3

To fin,l out irlnt rcrresDonds to the s.rhr prochlct in our fonulisnr, rnd, because eq. (5.55) holds for all translormetions, it fotlo$,s {ron eq.
N. shalL co si:ler tu sceler lield l'(t', , t"). The change ol Ir alons (5.7b) tl1l1t (rr,/drj), too. is
ar infioitesinal disl)lac.mcnt dli is sivcl Lv
. ,I' (5.5t)
bl-: I.6< l.':;F. (5.52)

Thai is why tlle dislinciion betiiqJr contml.ari'rnt md covariant vec-


Thc lclt hanrl sicle is ol,\jorrsll jn'arjmt. Thc riglrt hand sidc has th<r tors docs not exist h tho realn of ofthogonal tr{nsfonutions.
ior of l1n innd prodrrct; one fa(rtor is thr contraraliant vcctor 6f',
th. olhor is thc gradiint ol i'-, I/.r . Tensors. ?.nrrrs dte defln..I as tms ui L; conpanenrs (N beins
y
'l'he conponcniis ol tle srrdient of trllDsfo1l]l ac'ording to ihe h$' th. mnk o! the rctusot), :hictL transJatm bitll restn t t ) ru.:lr dQ tike o.
reckif. 'l'lrcu may be .o\itidnt.in dl indi&s, ..ntrawr|dllt irl .tlt inttiu!:j,
u"-S",, (5.53)
at nix.l, that is, contmainnt in sanc itudic.s, ca1)ariant in otltrs. llia
contarDiant indiccs uo wdtte. as su|.F.ripts, ih(j ijol.ariant indices
The I/,r rrc linear, hornogeneous lLlnctions of ille I/I The trans- $ subsoitts. T|e cxdrflc ol a rnixcd toso| oI ra* threc mrv j[us-
fornation lav (5.53) is ,lot thrt or :!.onLra'ldant vector' \\'' call thc tr&tc tlxr delinition i
or:t.I. ,1. * ti. . l. lr'J .1r. r ts.1"',i:r o-
..:rn.Lc."t o ofttrn fu"o J'tJt'|t 'l d! a{ at'" 16
., (5.;8)
uh at" att '
,
at:
n!"
al (5.54)
ai Symmetrr propertics ol tensors arc nrl.ariallt vitl rcsl)cct to cocirdi-
naic lirmsfornrtions onh-il t}ey cxist 11ith rcsp{rct to irldices oI tlic
The sum or.lificrencc ol covariant vectors' and thc produr* of a co- ram(i irlc (covariant .,r tu1irai-arin i).
\-a arL ve(ilor erd a sc er arc, tlgain, cotari!'nt vectors Thc l{ronecker syJnLol is r mixed icnsor,
Tn ordcr lo distiDguish beiNccn coDtlal':rlilnt ard r;ovariant vec-
tors, i'e sldl alwrrs \rritc contrrvariant l'ectols ilith supcrscripts, and (i ;r)
col.rriert vccl.ors NitI $lbsciipts
Thc lranslom,tion coefiicicrts ol contral'arialll and covariant vectots The product.,l two tensors ol ranks .u;LD(l N js a tuisor ot irnt(
arc diflerelt. but tl,cv :1r ri,lelerl. 1'hc (r{"/dtr) ol q. (5 51) and lihe 01 + N), ard eruv index of .iiber lcclor liecps its cLnactcr xs a
ldtr/rt") oI eq. (5.51) ar) connected bv the tu: erlu:rti.us contrr\.x ant .,r comricni nld.x. furthtrnor., iusl as the s.rt:1r
prodrrct of a corarirnt and I conLrrl-,riant \ cctor is a scatu. so l1nv illo
'#301,:',, irrli'. 'rdT.r, t.,.r,r.j l- ..1 r." ",i o . ,,-' r,,t .
rosult is n loNerins ol the terNor rank b)' 2. l-aunpjes ot such prod-"
s4,ere al is, aeain, thc lirone.trcr srmbol Recrusi, ol eq (555), the
inner pro.luct ol r (ioi iuli md I conirev iart icclor is an inririint'
tLt,tt,::
n',ti : ", ",,1u,:: ", ",,!r,,:.:,.
",1" \\ hcn ilr{i .oDespondirs compondrts ot t\\o tcnsors of .rqual ra* arc
addcd or sulrtracted. ihr sums or dilTgence! ar. componcDrs of a ne$,
Let us rctuln lor a lrorncnt io the ortliog.mll translormerjons Thcir
ir.nslormrtion (xxrflicients. /j , satisl! lhe sltr:ilionr (5 7]r) aDd (5 10a) teror, providr:d that ilr{i tilo origxrri tens.,N ][ve equal nrnnbers ot
indiccs ol the samc tt-pc.
ln the {aNe ol orthogon:Ll trtrslornttions, tlic coddin&te tlrDslo natiorl
Thesc {rc the siDplc rulcs ot tensor alsebra. .l.hy jndicaie hon- ner,
qurntitics mav be lomed which trrnstorm accordjng to taws of Ure
a." Datterrl (5-5t).
A", Metric tensor, RiemaDian spacs. The expressioD s.hjch oceurs in
F

VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS 65

vlLi<ti cxprc-r-.cs lhe irr.ariance ol dsr. \Vhtrr rvr: rcplrcc thc dlron thc
eq. (s.1s), sn : ii: i;, r tcnsor when we cri$nse rrom &
l.ft-lritI)d side bl' (d!','rf"") .d{"", ilc obt:'ni
to
"-*--. "s

,, !1,, !!,*'" ot' : s^,'.tt'",t"'


coajrdinite systcn !' !'"',
(5.c3)

d{^ a{"
arr af;

::
',:,
.'Far''''
" ''f
.a! ,!'.J

)
,',, le(rnsc tlc d{"" c a$itmr}', it follo$s that the coefficients on both
sides aro cqual,
Il
ihl
tlic (ltitoDirrDt ol
is, cit. (;.60) is satisned.
l,hc coDponents of
rrossible to drfinc n{xv rturntitics girby lhe equatioDs
g! does Dot \anish, it is

ln oth{Y \\,{]r ds, sx is ll co'cdmt svnmeiric tensor of rard' 2 Ii is (5.61)


coll{d th(i ,?cirz. l.zsor'
Thcre cxist "spriccs" rlxrre it is not lnrssible to inliroduce a Csrtesian h order to deternjne tle transloniutioD lair of thrsc qumtities, rie
coordinatc systcrn. Two dirrrersioml 'sprce3" ol th't hiid ircludt the trrnsloror lilst tle tri . $-e retln(i. tlion l)t' ih.i cxpr{:ssiui
su r<r: ol a spLcre. ll Ne introduc. ts rl coiirdimie svstc tle htitude
sr.l lonsitudc, e r!r.1tl, it is lrossible to .\preqq r1r' disr'r'{r i)'tweent$'o sr. : te itt e^ ' (5.6s)
infiniiesirral\. ncar poinls on l,he sllrcricrl strd3ce ir tcrms ol tlrcir
r..irdin, t e diff creniials.
&" : n'(tl"" + coi edt') ._!- I a;
dt nt'
In ortlcr to inclLrde srr:h conti rorLs nalrilolds Niihin lilio scope ol our
nrYcstisrtions, wc shall consid(l spaccs f itli l1 hetriu itnsor, \'ithout .hp. ,p, h" II.l..o, IoI .o./5.;'/
"'r.. ot ot
rlisins tlrc qrcstion, lor 1,11e tirne being, ol Nh'rih'r a Carl'csim coi'd-
nutc systcm r:an be iutrodrr(d or nol 1\ilrerev.r a "lquare{L infiJi thrt l.lt lrand s e becones
tire right-hand side beconres 6: ; and tho
tcsinal distanrc," thet is, an ini'a rnt hoD!)scneous (Iuadlatic funciion a!i" a! , \ta^ H attN "- 1 at'" at'" Lt
ol1,|e ilor.lhrtc clificrcnti,ls. is defin,id, 1re (xrll the mmilold a 'lnctric r aYw"'*a 1{:o'1- a{ als
slrrce" or a "liicmannirn spa.c " Tl it is pos.ible to introdn{t in a
Iticrnannirn sfacc a coi)rdinate slsiem \Yith respe.t to nhich the conF =
poncnts ol the mclric t.nsor assumc the rnlus r* l1t crcrl-Point, such r ':"?:';'l; "' '
coclrdnrat{r sJstem is a O:'rtesiin .oorlinrt{r svstem, rnd lhr space is
calli:d a Euclidetr sp.rc' liu.lidcan spa.cs arc, th'rcl'Jrr', 3 specirl
crLs(i ol Ri.llannim spa.(is , a{ ato a
,-. (5.0c)
'[,|enevcr rhe innnitesinial distrnce i,. sil'cn by equnlions ol the fona .,, .,.,
4s : g 1J1t,ltt, (5.61) By comparin'{ cq. (5.66) \'it}r eq. 15.61), \rc thd t ali

rvhorc ds'!is en jnvnri$nt,


js c rtlvariant iensor' Our prcvious prcol
tr :s (;.(,7 )
$rs based o! th dssumption ihat lhe t ilere siver hl'tlc crxPression N d.s ;

'r' d inor,.r s"rd., r ',r'.'J \" r." 'b i, o ,,r"J ',scrr ihat is, the grrr are thc coniporcnts of r contravsriant tcndor. This
ro n':ol $ie can sho\y l,l,is by mulliplyins
tensor is syrinnetric. cc}. (5.64) bJ.
r'.;,n,o,:rJ.-r'-. r'l' r- '|r'i r'ri6q4tt
arc intlcpcndenb of tlis cssunpii{m, \rc shall consnlo the equttion 9&s". Thc lcft hand si.lc l)(om.s
,r,,,t.t' (1tt : (5.62) gtLg glg - gttg g tln: .& |tr: Atu ,
s:.,dt"",Jt'",
CALCULUS t Ch"P' V
chdp. v I VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCtiLtJS {i7
66 VECTOR AND TENSOR
It' is a conNtdnt thc t)alue aj uhidr is charuttct*tic lor an! li,rctL tt:ttsot
rdile tLe fighlhrnd s e is equal to tli': car.stant * caLl.ctl the u..ighl oI th. tensoT rlrrrly. TdNors
.lens.it!;
;:ig,.u" - g,(t" : s",s" : {"' arc td$or densilics of ircisht zer.,. Decnding on ihc runbcr of in-
diccs, {e speak also ol scrlar dcnsitics and l,ector densirics.
Thesurrlol t\ro cl{Dsitios\iih thc s:rme nur$e$ of likc indices and the
Itl same eipihl is r d.nsitt $ith th. same characicr.istics. In the rnulti-
plication, thc ircishts arc adcl{rl.
Comprrins tlris equition with ctl (5 0'l), rve tind thrt Thc L(\.i Oiviia st'mbols 4.,. .." and 6" '" arc densities of l!.ciglrr
s :g (5.68) (-1) :lnd (+i), res]xictir.rlv. (,, is ihii number of dincnsions.) Tlro
plool is snrple and in osons to lho on{r si1.en lor orihosonat trans-
, i-, L,l r ' - ,,,1 rilr'r : 1o T !" o 'or-
,l-,'r 'o | | :ru.'"r I J r" r" 'rl l^r ''
;"" TIle determinant of the covaiurt mtric tensor,

/'- r ir'o 'I (5.6e) lt: sa ), (5.75)

is c scalllr' dersitj of srisht 2.


In the case of Cart.sixn cordintle svslcm., gr" cquc! 617 '
Nc sh.lll hc\' \eD.lill.lc occasion to x.ork niih tc$or densities.
Raising and lowering of indices -\ co'ari:I1t vector crn l)c obtairlcd
Tensor analysis.l Thc consnlcrntion of i{rrsor {lensitics &rmpletes the
f,."- "i,t,"*.;""t rle.ior bl. muLtipllnrg it l)y th(i co1'[rii1nt mciric
" c}tcr a loir ol indi(tr, discussion of icnsor algdrr L.lar lS ii is nccded in this book. ,{.q tor
tensor and -{LJnniins
tensor analysis, f. ii$.c alrearly lorLnd thrt tle ordin t dcdlcti\.es ot
(5.70)
:r scalar field .rrij lili{: {irnponents ol I co dant vector field. In aeneml,
br nnrli'iplvirs "r bv the contft:\'ari:1nt however, lhe duriruiircs of a insor llcld do rot {orm a nc$- t.nso. tield.
'lhis process can be rcvers.dl
let us tl1]ie tli{: d(iri1-arii1.e ol a 1.ecior. llrc .leri1'rtivc coDrprres the
value ol a \'.rtor at onc point 1.!ith ils vahr. at anolncr infinitcsirnrll).
near poini, irr r givcn {lircctior. In th{r casc of a cortrdinetc trins-
FDm the dcfi lion ol ilre ('itrruriant etric tcrsor'
(5 61)' it nnloris forlllaliorl. thc \lci.{)rs .t tli. trvo poinls do xot tmnsfol]r \ritii th. sane
ir'"i,,". O.;Ll is ctlui\alort to (iq (570);h other i'od'r' ctl (57i) tmnslolrrliioo cocfinrnJrts, lor the coelllcidrts of the translormation are
ctr' (5 70)'
i",,i" l,l t t" *" *."" "ontrili'arimt ltctor whicL appcrr: in thenBclvcs lurlri.nn$ ol the coiidinat.s. fhcrefore, the duivativos of
in" ,'* "*u,^ .' -a ,t can' tllrelorc bc proln'r\' comidercd $ ilo the translo]lirl,ion (xiliiricnts enter inlo rLc trrnsformriior Ls .f ihc
.. ,io". '- sn -: .i r' on,Y- deril'ativcs oi lh. \-{!,tor.
.;;' ,,." ,1,
". r"l o ,13'r'r
,,"". t.j,, ,,4 ;l ' g'i I i" Honevcr, ihcrc is a s.at irhich clr ll(s \ to obtrin nc\r t{:nsors bv
o"..t,'",,t,..". o i-.' rrr'Jr rh"":r""t dificrentiai,ion. TLo mcthod is suggrste{l Lx our cxpc ence tLc rcatDl
TIF n. rm o, a I l' l't ol Cirtesirn c.,ordinrtcs. lhere 1re c.ln r:i( s.ribe the dcrii-rtii-c ot a
(5.t'2) 1'ector or tcnsor ilius: The lcctor is fiist curi(] ro thc ,higlibo ns',
a' : g,,o',,0 : g''".",. : "'", , p.,;rt $ithoui changins the \,-rhres ol its conponcnts: it is <lisplaced
{hilc the sc{tar rroduci ol t}'o 1'ccto$ can bc Nritten h the sllemrtil'e ?aruLbl t itselt. (As bng 1ie use Cartcsiln conrdinaics, thet strte-
^s becrusc ],hc trrnslorm:riion
nent ][s an nNr|ixot mcannrg, ilclticients
g"rt,rtr. (i.;r) are 1,hc srmc ct boih poi ,r.) Then this rrrallel displaccd 1-ector is
a;bt - a;b;:11,.u'a'- com|ared \ i ih thc ra\Le oI ihc vc.tor (as a fuocti.,n of the codrdinarcs)
e &Il a tar:tar dolsitu
Tensor densities, l-evi-Civita tensor densitv' If
a qual ita 1thi.h ttans|anns a'canliL(t ta ULc t'u
L I'eNor rulr.6is {ii! rcspc.t
io sereral ..drdinaics is diseu6eed here t.cause
ii is nec.ssar)- to u urdost,ulling;l tlc scrcral iheory.t n,laririly. lr i;;ol

"', ^ :*;
: *e lr. " (5.71) .cedcd ur.rvnerc in the sp@iaL ihforJ ol rl:ii,iviir, .nd nry l,e lDifa.d by ihosc
slo rre not inircsted in lhc sux,{t th.r.ry oI ..taiivity.
v-
Chap, V ] VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS 69
68 VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS I ch.p v
ai l,he sam difierorce is gi\'n by,{r..d:'". If it $ere
point. The Thc coefficients r;1 rnd lli ol ih{,sc r!r$' lenhtil'e h11s are, so fcr,
possible to defin. "thc s r)e \-e(tor'r ol
lrthe parjlllul Yecto." !t ft neigh- cniirel"v unliDoirx (Ltrrntitics. But Ne cen deterDrnre tllir trtnslolna
ln)ring foint, the din.rcnce bet\r.(n the parallel tlisplacerl vci:tor and
ti.in la\rs. 6d' ;s tLc differcrrc bct$'ccn t\o l.eclors rt trvo pr)iDts,
thc :r0tu!l tcctor at a cighborins point would be subject only to the chanctciized bI the coiirrlinate r.elrcs tr rnd tr I ,l'. In tlre ccso of r
trarsformition la]r at thrt point. coordirutr lrl1nslolrrration, thc nclv Da"' arc given l))' the frnLoving ex-
A definitiin ol prmli.l d;-*l)lacenent is acluallj' possil,lc in a com-
prralil.ell' sirilfle \st'. Ol course, the vdrt: ol tne (lisl)hccd vector
d{rinnds on tlic original 1'ecior itscll ard on 1.hc direction ol displace-
: (.i*.),,,, - (i1.),, -,t. (#,)u
m.nt. Let rls nrsi tunsi:lel a ltxrlidcsn spsce, 11herc rre can introduce
:l Cartcsian coindinrto s)sten). l\'itli rcspect to srr:li |r, codrdinstc svs- : il't" 0".-,
oi i- irt'r0" rot.-r (5.80)
tem, t1n la\r of tlrellcl displacencnt takcs t|e form a!;i]gr "-
,t'." u - +at
:.,11! a af ^, '''
\herc 6ri r{rprcsents the i
inilesinul disphccment. L+ us nox'intro-
duce a! coorthxlh trrnsfo.mttion (5.10) Thc vcctor conF ,\s stakr:l bcforc, ad'docs not trenslorm lihc a lcclor;this was the
'rrlii,aly
ponents $ith rcspect to thrt ne1v codrdirratc system nav be denot.d or;gnid sourrr. ol orr riilliculll.
by a p mc. Then rvc have xc substitute the exp(:ssion (;.80) n,to t],o lcll,-]Iend side ot the
a' : a,i""
6d't : -r:..o"'5t"'
do" . J. '1."u: o, ,r," L o r
l4 ,-) d tia' I n, ; ai,a/.
d:. :rnd replace a'- ard a" l,y l|e erpr(issnnls lrorn etts. (5.51) :rn,t (;.50).
.'r^ \/. /
^'
6i,r ifLrFiorms a0cordins to.x]. (s.18), and we obiAnr
I'or "
0 " 6 -1,.,..."'...'.
'
.d
rl'. ;;Ut/ o!,., 'dt ,"J ' o, a, o''
ujji Substitutire 6d' lron err. (5.78), Nc sci
,l rn" itu:ll jrcremcnt ol tl
a result or rh" disphcenent,
as
^
snd sh:rll bc deroted Ly oaj. Iuliit,Lying the dsht-hrnlt si(l{r of eq. (#, . i')' at :,i:,r"'l,i'jl', *'
"

1s.;6:1r I v !: , \,c rFr ri!.11.\


.{s both o" and 6{t ore lrl,itrerJ, quantitics, thcil coefiicients c,n both
sides musli be equal,
(5.r7)
,t ,' .

1lh.n no Crrlcsian coiird;n:rte s\'stdtr can be iniroduced, x'e slull '"' L' t'' -r.',
retrir ure li rrr lorm ol Lhe l:LSt equttion aDd assulre thrt, i)cc:ltic.'l
a tlie inliritlsima] ch:lDges ol ihe 1'ector com-
parl1]]e] disr)hcement, Tlre l,rmsfornatior 1iN' ol ure li is obttlined bt' multiplic$tion by
ponents rrc bilin(llr lunctions ol ihe 1'ertor cornpotrcnts and ihe coln- d!" at'
pon.nts ol tho iDlinitesim::il displacemcui, dab a{L'
(5.78)

(5.7s)
i:,:; ;; ('' i: *+) (5.E1)

6dL : +li,& 6tt.


.'_

70 VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS I ch'p v ch"p v l VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS 7I
stroDgly sussested not onlv becausc in Cartesian codrdjna{cs lihe inncr
Thr l:rst tern on the ight-hrrld sidc c|rn l)e w ttcn in & slishtl]' difrcrent
produci, ol two conslillnt vect.,$ is itself a consirnt. bLLt t)(!r)se of
\xy. LJ r,r.r ; I ' or'l o', ' " Tr ' {rother considcrrtion $hich.]{)cs not rcld ro Crrrcsirn cortrdi.rtes.
or"rl < r dl1. \ ""af a.a/{') l3y extendins ilxr ]trr or defiirtnrn of ,,p:rralld,, disdrc(Denr (5.is),
ui ". r.- ' o"\"''"4/ "."i \" / (5.79) frorn l'cctors to tensors, \rc can disl,ljco rnl, tclsor ,,parr1|1,,
t,r itsell accordins to the rule
- t' a o ' (i br)
p:lrentlicsis
a,"t = ri1:.r..j +'ir",.,: -
ij",,,:tae".
Thc ilrst tcrnr on tle rigbtlhmd sirlc r.anish's, lnrca:usc the This rul.r is deil.ed rio,! th{i postr rrti, tl,xr the ,l)rr^ltet djsrhcernenr,,
in thrt tcrm is consta i, Iq (5.81) tlni be(rnncs ol r prorluct is givcn by t|e same lils,ihat ruptics to rtie .lificrdrtirri.xr

i., li (*i; i. - ,",'. ) (- s2)


d(abc) : di, ac + dr al) + bc D.'. (5.85)
D ,.,\ir,q."r , ' i . : " i l'' Applt.irs tirc l:lw (5.81) ro the paral.l disptemmrnr of the tr]olccker
l,ranslormrtion r'"' r.. i1,. It is nlcrtical s'ith ihat ol l 16 '
\\ic.!n now sxbj(l r5 lLlrd Ir, 'lto conditnnN vhi'h aro cornprtille 616") : lfi r..,61)A.': 1f1, l':,a!.
\hl,, . n.r,irl.r r''n 1r'1
" '\'o ol '|
Now applr ert. (5.86) :L.d tlt
ll-, r' pro,:lncr rure (5.8i;) to ttrc ,,parrl.j
' ,,'. Ocr, ' ' I
displuienient" oI ihc lrcduct ar6'j. The roqrtt js
ruci has cxrcr,l1' tLo s n(i lorm !s th! il.lnslornlrtion lm' ol a tcnsor'
'l'hc s(ond tern d.,es nol, tlcp.nd on tLe fir' t1nd a(lds :lI c\pressn)n
-.t"'",".r" aGT) : oba' + d'D(r:) -+ aia(D).
rdt
-ri'in'i" in thc tNo tubs.rrir)ts so' evdi r'h rsh urc f:'
jD otllcr tllr ihc t)roduct di6i is (lrct to a". llij t[ve,
mrv nuish in orc codriLntc sJrten, t|c' do not \anislr On other hind. r]roretorc,
slsiens. llui il i e r.r \erc slrnm'tric it1 r'Lcir sul)loir)is in orc ,a.:60*+oiii(a).
rr)ilxlnnle s}''stem, r,hc.r \roulrL L)c s-l'nmclli' ir t{cr-r' oilrer toordintt{i
srstem as well. This ii'oLrld Le particularh li\c il Le I5 \'erc io Thcrcforc, s(a:) nust 1'airislr. ,\ccordilgty, r'e lrave
mnjsl in onc s)strlll. Iiulhermore, il ihe ii rvere ltual to ihe 15' j::" : ii". (5.87)
nr one coarilinat.i sysiem, Lhis c(lualit-v nould l)o l)rescnnd b! ubitl:lry
i,inrlirlte transl(trDiatio s Wc shrll 1x1.1thlt gcomctricrl (ursiderl Hencefortl, rve shall omit the disiiryuishins j.xrtrs I rnd II.
tions lcrrl us to trclt orlv svsrrns ol l}, rlliich srtislv botL tllese As mrntioned beloro, the l':, arc strilmetri.j in ulcjr subs(ripts it il
corlditions. is possiblc to i.trodrcc ri coordinaic sr.steD h $ii(jh thrjl.ranish .r
Ii't us tlisDhcc t\ro YectoN ar and brporallel to the'rs{:h'es ulong 1,. ,, . fa" " 2. aL.o.,t,.
:rn infinitr:snra1 path, 6er. 'fhe chMge ol their s0rllr product, drL" onty sanmeLtic li". rle 11".rre siilt, ro i1 hisrr dcarce, arbir:Drv
I " r"" ro\\ ', . .n: tL,... ,t"r"rl. h. 1 ,, I h.
(5.13) nrtric tersor 9.,, L1.the lolloniDg (,rd[ion: Tte lcsdrj of rhe r)i1mtipl
.(d,r,i) = ai6lr + l,toa : o,bl(ri, - ri,)lt'. ,li.r .. , ",r nllt ,. ,t ,,.i
tlzn*llcs' LIL'it scalat ptutluct
pdtaltel to larv of parallel disjrlaccrxrt (5.78) to its rcnrlavr ant reprr:sdLration
lYlan tua L.clan are alispLtLc.a]
or lhc Lln, (5.79) to its ol-cli i rcPrescrrriion. Tne rw; rc]rr.scnrl_
allnays remoills c.)nstdnt il and onl! iI the tiL arc uludL Ia the corre- tiors.a' and ar l[ve, rr tne pojnt (t' + 0t.), ihe coD]porc.rs 6' + da.)
spondittg t tnd (o, + 6ar), rcspectivc\,, r,her{, dd'and 6oi arc si\cn b),equarn,rs
(5.78) and (5.79). Thjt these tFo \'ecrom are agah
,\ciuallx, tlre {ssuniption thaL thc two tlpes .,1 f;, arc equal is to be renrcs.ntr i io ns

lr
v
72 VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS {ChdP' V
(hap, V ] VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS 73
ol t]]c same veclor (a + aa). at thc point (t' + ,l'), is exprcsscd bv t}rc
Thc ].,ft-hcnd side ol eq. (5.89) is called the Christoflet s]-mbol of rhe
first kind. It is denoi,ed by the sign [tA, s],
at + 6at = ls., + 6s")(ai+ ra'), (5.88)
: i(g,., .t- eA,' (5.8e!)
ur,,
"l 1] .J.
In ih{: c:rse ol C-rartesian conrd;Ht(is, both kinds ol Chrisiofrcl three-
aq -1 6. indcx svnbols 1'rnish.
Tlr! loncept ol parallit rli,.placement is lxl.pendentj of the eriistcncc
nq. (5.88) must bc setjslied up to lirrr:ir terns i]l t e dillcrentials md oI a metric tensor. $ c c,rll a space \i.irh a ll1$ ol t,:1r. t.l Cisplaccm.nt
lol nrL)itr l' or an(l at'. Il \rc multipl]- out the dglrt hlnd side ol an oLlnelu .otuL.t:tcd spacc end ihc rji thc canpa\ents ol thc.rfirL..rn-
i!1. (5.88), we oltanl
?ledllolr. [rhen a metric is d(]End. covarianb ond contravariffrt \'ec-
6a dtq a, ! g 6t'
.,r,,.r.r .rr .,,u.,..,.",,r.,../,J.",..,
S,,bstittrtins 60r and aar lrom (rs (5.78) llnd (5 79)' Nc obtain l,tl
tho pardlrt disphcemert ol a I'cctor does not dcpcnd on $hich of ilic
Iild,ar: dit.i.Jlt t i'i,a'agi two rcprcs{ltlti(rrs lLrs been choscn.
Wc shaLl l:iurn noir to oru oisnral program, ilic {orm!,t:ion of n{:rv
tensors br dilT.rcnriatiorl. U.insj{lr a "tensor ndd,r' that is, a tcLso.
o'6t (s",r'|, + I,Nl:! u*'):0 (5 88c) thc c.,npononts ol \vhich arc lunotions of thc coordjnates. l{o$,, $e
can ta]rc thc v.Llue ol tliis t{$or At a DoiDr (!') and rhen disptr.e ir
a" urd 6grare arLitmr)'; therelor{r, thc cont{) ts ol the p'rorihcsis pamll.l to itseu lo ihc point (l' * 6t). l'he value of th{r t.jnsor fie]d
sL lhe r)oint (i + af), Dirus thc v'r1rrc of the parallrt displaced tensor,
Now n'e nalre rNc ol ure svnmctry condition ar(l wiio the vaDisling is itself a tensor. In thc casc ol a mix(ll tensor ot ranh two. i}e vahe
bracket tlown threc times, iriiL diflerent nrdex combirrtio s: of the tensor at 1,he poirt (f' I at') is
ri,g,, I llil" - gir.":0, ,il + r,i."6t",
riLs. * r'lrr- g;i:0' and the 1.aluc of thc prnllel displaced tensor
|lj/7," i. r'lrs,r 0t"t: A.
,: ,(\1. f. 'f:lt';
1.. /
\
\\'(i sublr rt the lirst ol tl1lrslr equatnDs lrom the suni oI the other
tll'o equrliions. Serdxl terDrs cancel, rnd we obfirin thc equntion rr a riFp'or .4 lp wFAl I a p ..o i.r1. ...r.
r "-
g-rl": l(gr.* * sn n".") (i 8e)

$'e nNltiply i,ltis qurliior b,1'1,r"' lo obtoin lhe final cxlRrssion tor ft" i;)'.:'{i:},,)." (5.9r)

ri', This cxpression is a tensor bccrusc of the rvay $c ha!'e obtaincd ir.
rjL : lsr'(r," r l- eh., r* r. (5.e0) As 6t" is itsolf r 1'ector and arbiirary, the expression ir tLc parenrhcsis
is r tensor. Tlis tensor is (irlle.l th," covrriant dcft,ative of t,..r wirh
This e:r)rcssiorl is usually rrilcrred to ts 1,he C-rhdsloiTel tl1rcc-index sspd ,o t. l, :. d Dr -.1 \.ir' rrp ordir. \ .,,.-\'' !^ ,nFr, rl,,
1it
... , .r oi ,1" - c n I :irJ. r'J i. reno'JLJ h.J'oLo ;l 1_;
irtrl
f\rn.1,,.1., r.r{"", n.ni.,.!,1, ,, rl, -."i,1r.i..(L-
otdinAte!. Two of the morc usual noi,atioLs ot the covariart dcriv&ti'e
:'" +!t. '-ou)' (5.90a) arcv.,,1 anr,.. \\,,."1.., t. "1",
{,i The corarianl deriraLtir.s of ar arb;trarr tcnsor are fomcd by a.ld-

l..,
F

71 VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS I chip v ChdP. V ] VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS 75

Ir.r'..: r"',' ji \ol r"'Lr "r nr 'r'l and the cltremals arc given br ihe cquntions
,.',r. ,','',i'o"'r'1: irJi' IrF-"
#" *ci"):,
'
";,,,. (5.115)

]''' , Irl .
In oul ca.re, the Lagrangi:ur is the integmn.t of the lasi explcssion of
p. s.tJ. h " h"r.. i. 1.r.. , ! "rr.,o,, rir | .. Tr. ., x i.p
r hi. ro- ',rr ' I' lr' ' dL . aL r'r l ,1t'
oa "r,i
-, ".).,""'"nt'
,.] ,
't Al
dl. 4.t \ |
(ii cFDtirtion' J. nL..! zrg t.{, -2J l : t,tto
,"'
this deftiiion sriisfics th. rLrlc lor product
i-4r. .),.: l:.R '+-'l'B" + , dL : tt,t" -r rtt,
+t
-f u.'-,*: r '
leJrxltltcss olshctler solre of ine irclices ol 'l' B, , are dumnics
:rhe ror.nri.rnt rlon'rti\es ol i|e Dlctrio ttnsor \rridr, bec'usc ol ille
vlrlisl,irs pNrcrth{:sis ol cq. (5 ssa) An(l sin'c lhe 'o!'ari:rlt dif #(#,).
ft*.iirti"r,i ,,l,"ys tlrc l:rii'ol lr.'tluct dlHc*niirtion, nLdices 'i1n be
Discd aud los'cred under i,tle dificrenti{fion, hW) -;il,,.,t't'+ n,,t" *'*' #^41,7
at" : s r!j'.", rnd so frrth. (5.e2)

Geodesiclines.'fhcChristoficlsvinbolsalrlxrarnolonlvirconncciion
- * su.*)t't' - sut '
Fitlr coldirDli ttifierntirtion rrd prrrltel disl)h(orent, Lut also in 'r," 1,.,"'ft {r+,,,,
r:orncctirxL riitli a problem Nlicll is norc di"utl) rlated
t'' the mLric (5 eu)
,,i . . . . ' . r . , t' , 'r'c l"ll, ilnr 'r r' o or'r 'rtI - t,t'ffi\1at'an.
"
ri.,,or or.rl,n r' .o;r6r'.or r ". l 't 'l' '
.;,.. " .,' i .o.., i,r|r ir' ll. Be.{Lrse tlle parcnthc-qis is multipli{al bv an exi)rcssnD svmmeidc with
,r",1-r"' lr''.n', 1'. "' 'n l \ir'. resfect to i rncl A, e s)umctrize lho psr.jrihesis iLsolf ald writel
rli tlic pnpertns ol straisllt liles, Lut tlrcre is, irr geneul, I uniqull r' ,t,
rlcic.miircJ shortest ,]onnecii4 ltuc Lretw:'n tllo poinls ln the cl1sri 6s,,: ..
1

J., ,i; ,2h, ^ + t , + l/* )E {


ol lhc -cLrrftce ol a sphrre, tor instl ce, tlicie lines ue sr'rl circles
-, 1! t ,.r
(5.s7)
Such short{rst connoctins lines are crlLcd t"d6ics lhe
lc gth of a:n
luLitury ]nie conaectins lNo points P,
js anrl lr, !r,.1 "1 ot,to.
",
\up ,
''1.

' l
J, - i rr "'r / tl
r" ' 't rp
;e3r Thc parenthcsis is no$' an e:pression enco(uicr(xl lri,lore, eq. (5.89a).
""'tP Thc dificrcntirl equ:Ltiors lor thc good{rsic hrcs ar.c, thrN,

\h.rc, xrl,il,.r\ l.rrlmctcr'


N rn '
, i' 'f ' I' l"- ' ro p"in' "' l*, Ilt'' !' + e,,t" + o, t" ':',,t.ul u'
', "i,-." '" '"r ' ',, "t-" theEuler .o
intcg|atn)n, on. hls to carrv out tlrc fuiatnrn accordins to or, multiplicd by rr',
Loglansc equrtions,

u
!" r.1,",,'"ya" - I.+l!!" !r(!!,)]n",', t"'t ." +
{;}"d' *' P,,,'}',, =
"
(5.e8)
v
VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS 'i1-
76 VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS tchap' v
Tlic (rtxlitio$ for Lor{ltz transloural,ioD-* trc th,t
il Ne choosc as tllc p:rrrmetcr tlic arc ldrgtli s itscu, the last teln
vanishcsi and lve ltdve: ,r,lr*r^t:1 : ?"^jr'lr" (J.10+l
ax'. By substitLLlirg A:'*" iron
{!.'l/141{: o. (5.S!) for arbitrary
r7,,7u,1'"1:u'.\e"
eq. (5.103), we st
: ?""4r'Ar", (5.105)
$ilcn tho codrdiMt svstem is Certsian, tLe second tcrm mnish's and, bccausc thc A:r" l]rc rrbitrary,
ii"",i""ii", cq (5.1e) simpLv stcics tli&i thc :' niust l'c linedr
""4 (5.106)
'flrcsc rre thc conditims lortle transformalion coefrcients oI lorclrtz
Minkowski s'orld and Lorentz tGnsformations ll'e can now return iransfor! aiions, corrcspntlins io tle conditions (5.10a) for orthoeonal
iro our ltartirq poinii, llinko$shirs truim'i t of the thcory
ol rcl'rliviiv
n" iL,, or.Lnrar], tlrcc dinensbnal sPacc Plus the ti e.&s 'llro rli]}.rcnc. bclir(n r Ituclidean fotll dimonsjonel space md rhc
",-'ia".,,i
r"r. ,ii'.",.i.ll1r *.inuun, the "ri'o|lcl," $ith tlrc invcixnt "lc stll" Minkowski r(,rld is lhal il thc l&tter t]lc irrQLriut ruj is not posiri\1]
"." l;i',t".*r" d(iline.l Lv eq (sl). A'\i'orldpoini" is ano inarv dclinite. Thlt is wht' I]o rcd coordjrat{) iirl.slom]lltion cl1]l ccrty i]q.
ur codtu:n.t'^, ,l "rd
/'
hir' tr
(5.1{11) over nrto e.1. (5.2b), page 50. \Ie hai1,, thercfore, io dis-
"rl ';.,i' nor , r lI r, , r, ard
". ,'r.,
",,:',L
o lr "r, 'c teDsoi'" trurr1\'ilh '" By rrrro'l 'nr thguish between contEvariant and (tr-&rirnt indiccs-
a "met 4!, tlic components h order to recognizc coordinrtcs rn(l ter$o$ ol thc lrjDkowski
as !uch, ric shll adopt the conveni.ion of rrsing in seneral the
1
a' 0, 0, 'rorld {\nurbet for nldices belonsn}s io tli{r or.inrarr- spnce,
Latnr nulnil,j

"l
from 1to 3, and ol usjng Grcek lott.$ for lTinhos.sli indiccs, rlrrnils
0, 1
0, lrom 1 lo 4. \1ie shall call1'ectols :ln(] tenso$ of thc Vinkowski rvorld
, (5.100)
"$orld vectors" ,nd '$orld tensol.s."
0, 0, '.',l The contravarimt lnctrjc teDsor has ihc ooDrponent!

0, 0, 0, + o, o. ol
0, r, u, 0l
\'e i.an \\'rrt( eq. (J.r) Ln rrr' lonn
(s r01)
0, 0, -c, 0l' (5.r07)

0, 0, 0, I
+11
The LoreDiz trarsformations arc lhos linerr codrdinnte transtoNr- Whc[ contravalirnt tcnsors translorm iliil, the corflio;fnts.rp" which
tions NhicL cart' ihc metrio tensorya, over into itsell' The
niertial
satislr the conditions (5.100), tlre c.icfli(injrts or urc cor.rrianr rmns,
rDr.il I'i:\ rh"u'vi " 'h rr'tsou to I
-.r.m.,,1 u"' ion I I id'-
Lnc lormatidr lar' rre the solutions of thc cquations
i'r.te',rn '^n Ji u dr r-v rhr Ll
g*'""t"t,.rlta tllc hrcntz tr$slormations to l'he thre'
correspond (5.10s)
co-
ii-".'i.r"r ofthosonirl trrnslornntions Their tmn'slomntion
Tn old.ir to nnd an cxplicit e\prlrNsn)n for these co{:lfirients
...\\'h;; ftrc also subjcct to oonditnns similar lo
efhcients (5'10r)' 1,", one cao
multiply tlrc trmslorrnetion equaiioN ol !, co{alianr
linear ilanslomrtion lnot nccessarilJ 'r 'ector
". "*-v ""t ".."
r".""i, t'"""i".'i"t."), thc iransformrtion oquciiions :ut ol the lorm ,! 1J,x : (5.1ur)
." : r^,r' + .,,i ,
(5.102)
by ,"! arld rcphce r, by 13;f. Thc rcsult is
Rnd tlle codrdinttc diHerenrcs tnnslom as contrl\'sricni vcctors' :
(5.10t1
n,,",,!, n"\ ! n,,,,

L,&
78 VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS I chap v (hap. V j VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS 7g

zof, Convemely, we can compute the velocity of S* with respect to S


Now, the left hand side is equal to ,*0, l,rd, therefore, to
by employing the ',iDve$e,,
transforma,tion coefrcients 1", given by
'y'et' - 1'"v!,tru". eq. (5.108). Because they are the transfomation coeficients of the
transfoma.tion 3+ - ) S, we ca,n write, releDing to q, (b.114),
Further, since u' is e,rbitrarv, the coefrcients must be equa'l,
(5.110)
(5.r15)
' - 1"t'
Fha[y, by multiptyhg by 4",,?"' and switching sides, we obtain
By making use ol eqs. (5.111), (5.100), and (d.102). lve c&n xrfte t})e
(5.111)
righthand side in the folIll
All lhe aicebrai. opera ioD. of LhF getre'al tcnsor nalnuLus nan be appLed
io *o"talu*o... As in thc cas o orlhogoDtu Lransromltions L\F t: -t!:. (5.116)
a"*r*i"t"t of the traDsfomla|ion coefrcients takes onlytensors' the values
Non it is easy to show that in generul ,*1 is equat to ,,. Let us jirst
*f. fn*, the densities of even weight translolm like !a'xi''I"
aDd
form the three dimensional norm of u+r, eq. (b.1l4),
ine aensities of oaa rveight tre"asform similarlv to the vectors We hs,ve
olthogona.l forma'lis"n'
of the three dimensional
The .omoonenr. of rLF mpti. tFrso- n/ arF ronsran': tlprebrc, Lhe ,*, \-At\y.
\'t t

Chrislotr.l s;,mbol vao sh. sio {he .o\a-:rDL dFriv,L:\er arF s


mDl}
We shall denote such ordiaa'ry derivatives Because of eq. (5.106) the numerator can be rcwlittn,
the odinary delivetives.

(5.i12)
Do1)": ""16r - 1t,

and we find, therefore,

We shall now alemonstmte ho$' the trt'nsformation coefficieDts of a ,,'" ,' lt"(1.')- t
Lorcntz traDsfomaiion arc rclated to tle retative velocitv o{ the two
(5.117)
codralinate systems S s,nd S+. WLen a point is in a' state of stuaight-
ro- Now we trcat eq. (5.116) in aD r,nalosous way. Ir
line. lnjlorm n otiou, i's velo.iLy i5 dF..ibeo b)' thF ral oa oI l'be is
nfllinare difiereD.F. o[ aDv L\ro world poiots aloog its pstL
,,,= ljl
",' (Y")'-
, Ari
u.= {Ja. =
Again we haye
.)'stem S+ is 1be velociiJ
The \elo"itv of lbe syslem S relati!" Lo lbe
ol a panicle P. whi.b ic ar "F"t i" S rFl,live to Sr' Tbe 6rst rbr-ed I (r".1 :i ltr'"f - rt.
am*u"*" of P with respect to S, Acr, varish The co-
""otil""t"
orclinate difierences with rcspect to S+ s,r, therfore, given by

ax" = Yr{ar',), (5.113) ' ,(r'.)'- t (5.118)


or*' : 1n,a.n l et"
, we find that is atways given by the expressior
S hes, thIelore, rcla,trive to 3*, ih velociiv "1
'' :
-'' 1
1'4 (5.114) (5.11e)
'*t
" --11 \4 - ,'/c''
s0 VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS lchap v Chap. Vl VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS 81

Paths' world lines. Ordin ilv, ilic motnn ol a particlc alone iis peth The velocit]' ol a body in terms ol the usurt desc ption (i.120),
is dcsc;bed by stnting thc lunctional dependencc ol the threr sp:r0c (5.121) ;s rcphced by the dir(ictioD ol i.h{,11orld ]ilro iD itre lour dinlen_
..nrdinatcs on the time t, sjonxl descliptior. \\'hen ihc l)odv is at rcsr, ttle line is tr.al(d to the
lt = f (5.120) I'rxis; and \1l,en rhe body js nlovins, rhe tine wil rlu ar nn arokl
(.t).
,1,.,,u r,.Yr-,:.. \\n.. ".1, ir-oi,, ion:r r"rlnr,Iir
The components ol tlle rclocitl' are siven as lhe dori\'ativcF'
(5.12r ) (5.126)
'lhe lour quantiiiics 4,":rrc the cornlonenis ot a contra\arriant unjt
ol rel&tivitv
This kincl ol desoription is, ot coune, possiblc in the theory
* i" non-;ehiivjstic phvsics Ho\rc'er, it is oltcn uselul to
"r '"al
choose a description in rvhi.h the time is not sct apart lrom tllc spati rpul'1.:" - 1. (s.t2i-)
coorrlinates ls eqs (5.120) c d (5 121)' l'hrs can be verilicd {).isilt'b} rel)lacirg d, in eq. (5.126) bx iis de[ni_
ihe,notion ol a moss point is, in tnns ol thc X{inko$slii llorld'
, t..-"nr" r 1.,) a lrr.. " IlI rr' ' hi'' \!" ' ro cd\" PeouJ\
.lFscriLt L,\' N Jjrr, rneil r rclr lenlniron' tl, : \/,t*dt, tt?.
(5.122) Th. a:' are lchlttl i1r1. sim|lr lo 1.h. l'elocitv coriponcnts z"of
(t.
ool-r , b,r'1rr fn r 'l'ri 'J "'u'g'h $'i' :P S'r'h c(1. i5.121);rnaklrs usc ol (5.125j, \,c haye
'n,
,,,r,er'd r:nr'o r'p, rnr "r I u_'.:n'D': r'' gro \' r:t :'!:d- 1 I
t, td e ,r.." -. l'" rr' l"n: l' ' ' ' o'p r"-b4 ^,/t -,i, I
,,..m.1er. l- r.. 1h....i s'.1.s",rrr'P'. In"l! 1r '"r h" (5.123)

rr
'.
\1
rl',nqc norll 'n" J'E'lr'r'IrgbSi orrlharr ,":'#:'!;#-",,,)
'',,
qcomctry is defined :rs u1(i line i iegrol
In the follo$ing chrt)t.Is, Ne slrl1Ll use ,,irnd t.Ir corlsistenih, i. fl,F
'. 1,,\,\'' ', o..,r. J 1,.' I r..u., , r',..o,.,.
' 1" J 'rd' t r''
'lr. l'. noinor "'..,
\ ,,.^.rir.I -"r,..
rlong the Forld line ol [rhen a irody mo\'e! \riilurt bcjng rc(derated, irs dir.cotion in itre
r is sir.en lr, thc intcgr:rl ol u1c diJT{:rential rJ'z
\{nrkowski norl<l is consiant rnd its rfo.ld line is i1 ,.traighr lnre. .fhe
lsl1 ol inrtia i,rkcs a ver) simplc lonn irr our new dcsclipl;on:

I * : I f - ttr'x" +,La' +,t!)


" PROBIEMS
{5.12!)

:[ f u, ,u"'t
^/;,tu,t"': l ^"4;) ";,1 1. I'roro that thc risht-h:iDd snlc oI cq. (5.s0a) iiiustornN lccordnrs
to eq. (5.32).
\1ie 0an. therelcre. descril)c th(i Path bv equrtioD3 ol the lorm
(s.t21) 2. I'rove thl1l tirc sxrrr.trr propcrtj.rs {ith resp0ct to hdiccs ot thc
r':11'lr.). s,]re translormrtion ch:uicter arc ir\"L ant.
ris rh1,cd to tlli: n" Lv a difllrr'nfial {tlLratir)tr \\'lrol] Rc divide tllc 3. For thrce dineDsionol RiernD,ian space, dc{inc rhe dj$erenri:
(5 i21)' $'e obtanl
nrtcgrard of cq. (r'r23) bv.ll antl trkc tccounL ol (1 o]rcrstio:Is smdiert (oi a scslcr), divcrgonce, and curt, and pmve dret
the rclation holds:
';: \/'- lr (4,r' : "\/1- 'xtc (5.125)
cu.l sr. Y-0.

t-
v
82 VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS I ChAP. V VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCI]LI]S 83

Treating "a\ir,l" vcctors as skcNsJmnetric tc]Isors oI unk 2' d!ftre n."wl: Tlrc ltiernriDirn coi)rdirutcs nic obtrined b)' e conlorDral
ll
also thc di'ivcrgence of an tiriiaL vector d provc the relation translorttrlli.irrr lerdins fiorn.r t)Linc to r spherical surftrn:, lanilitr
divcurlA:0, lro lllr tL.oN ol compley iurci.i(rLs.
9. Tlrc T,aplrciar ot)crl1i.or i]r,,linleDliors i",lcfincd as the diver-
$hcre A is & Polar vector' genrc ol the gr:ldient oi r scrhr, in sereral condimi.s:
4. Prole tlrat the folloilbs lel't'ions Lold in ihee rlnnen''nrnai
sprcc:
r,I' : ,-1,....
6,iiti'- - 26i; 0,,,,6'-" - afai - t;6i (a) Usin,j thc [J,. ], Nritc out thc ghl l,rnd sjde.
Statc sirdltd lelatio s lor thc llirkow-'lri
11o|l'l' (ir) Introrlr0c 11 coiirdlnl1ic s!.tcm 1lLc .oi]l.clinei.cs of $hicl ar.e
in ]|e C{rtesian thrce c\,er)'\'hcre orlh.iConal io c.rcii othl]l, ir other $1rrds. where thc lilrl
5. $ith the help ol l'robicDl 4' prove tl'ili
{rlemeDt td(cs thc form
dn en-*i ial geometrY tiic r'li'tnn holds:

crrl curl A : qrrd div A V:A, l l'


"
A bcing eitlrer u, polar lector or an axial v{r'tor'
tr\nc products ol The l; rrc irnr:iions ol f'.
0. Conrpule in tlirc .limcnsi('nal space the tii'o .',i,n, .. u I.r
tlre t]rrO Poler veotors:
C]I, (A,IB X C])'
JA X IB X r+/ n \
rr" L\..,/ n i.r......,
;. ln n ,ir "od "r" ''"lrr't j tt'ar .,
" ,.',,,,,,t"
I ]or" '" l' m'
ra,:',.,iT", I r. l'' ncnatl: 'this
Schroed;nger equation
is lri:rlnnt1r. used in ordo. to ol,litnr the
exl rcssion
in
orlh.r tl.ln Ocriesian coijrdjnrr$. Thij
s Oo the surfacc ol { splrcre ol ladnrs 7?, nrlro|Lrce the so-called shrl(nt crn ersill dcli|c lhc (xprcirsnr. lor rri; nr thrcc djmcnsions
&rc chxncterized bv an
ni".".";"" r'"-"ge]""ns coiirclinrl'cs, $ltichforn lor sphericel codlrlirrlcs, c-\.lir cr .oiir(lnrctus, &d so lorth.
expressiori lor thi: inflnitcsinxrl lensill ol l|e 10. (o) thai ilris rohii{rr holds in /z climensions:
: "i(f'+ '.")@.jt'+,Lt'), \'ith/(o) : 1. "<Low
d,r
l.l I
\ r'
,,, S .-tc Lr" n, r;or /, a 1r'l h" r n nl I D -'uq iul Wt 'l
r, ' . ' i,: -"""',,. ""o 6,,1" , lil-lr" o lonrl J
' (L) Show that u,e lollofi,ls r:rlrc"sirn: are :l. sc'l:Lr and a vc.tor,
an(l latitude, restr.ctil.ely, $'heD I'r is :r r.cctor atxl -l 'r a sker r-rrnu.trjc, coxtral irLDt

rhl
i 'lr'.' -"1 ' ./, , .,
vt/ vt ,l.r
,

! : zil'o:j ,), (r) In seneral cool.dnralcs, Idns rlIr inl.o 11 lom l\,tricL is a scncl.atizr,
' 1+ sin{, "." tion oI thai sub lil).
2ts o ' ,r,r,.,. 'ri\or
11. I'; is r litor. /x:r slicssttmetric tcNor. Sliow thrr rhc tot-
,,
"- 1+sio+ lo{ing expressions rrr: t(r$orll1\irtl r..rc.t lo.rhiirar.-v trllnsforlmtions,
gte:rt circles in eiilrer
cl.cr r.Lough thc .lerir.riivc! rr. .ll/t/rarx .le1.i\-3tir-es,
(b) Cornpute thc difierinlial cquaiions lor tlic
c.indin{Le s1'stem. I'i.r - li r; Irt + r,,L.t + FbL.
v
84 VECTOR AND TENSOR (ALCULUS
12. Sdrwarz's nrequalitv,

t (,,)' t (r,)'> La,t't', (F{APTER VI


siates;n {.Scct that, irl rn 2 dirncnsio al Euclitlean spacci rny sidc of a Relativistic Mechanics of Mass Points
triangle is sliorlcr thaD the suDr ol tlio tlro ofiers. Iror the htter
stat( ent crn bo \rriiien in the lorm
a + b > la+b.
1\hen both sides rR, squarcd, Program for lelativistic mechanics. In CIL!,ptcr lV, \.o havc toi,:l th.
a .lbl >
fru. rr' o, or r'. .D4.: l rl. or'. . f i.'. ,i i J. .{. .,. r.. \.p . J\e
a'+b" +2 a' +b'+2(a.b), dealt only \vith milorm, straighr line notjon. The clocks r.,:l scrtes
the squrrcs on eithu sidc r:ancel; ard vhen thc r{rmaining tcrns aro which w! used lor the dctetrnxltior ot codrdinare \-rtucs veri r.l
squcr(t once morc, "seLi'arz's inequ:rliiy is obtrirxid. r.."1 r".J. \\ '.-,,r',,1 L U, it". 1 ll.,.. d ., .,ir,,-
Ilv irilorlucins a sui|sblc Cartesian coiirdimtc st'tst{m, pror.l n"r i ; rqo:n..nir'-,.," ,.., . t I h" ",o, n ..13, ".,,_
-.*r,. ",ru,,,
Schwnrz's inequrlit)', and tLctl'bl-Lhat the: rove st:lt{rnflit al)out th The Lorentz cqu:rtions are lincrr rransrormalion equrtions, jusr rs itic
sides ol trirrlglcs is tiue resartllcss ol the nuuber of climrnsions. Gatilcan equaiions 11.cr{,; that is, the n.rv coofttinare r&htes (sprce and
,{nothcr nlciho.l ol prool uscs the positil'e nolm ol the skevsym- time) rre linear function,c of ihc old oncs. Ttrereforc, anunaccr:tcmt.
metdc producl, moiiior in one incrtial sl.srern ritl remilin unac{jelemtq:l $hcn a Lorcntz
transf.,rmation is ranied out.
r X ("'b' a,"h)" : I^ xbl'. The lalt) of inotia (2.1) .:s im.tridnt uith respect ro Lorcnk bmstom.d-

13. In an 1' dimension:rl Iu(ili.loin sprce. t rrit vectors may be


.ii,,,, The relllinirg chapters .'f I'art I wilt clisouss acrjelelrtocl rnorion if
i^, ( n, iriiich are llruluall)' orthosonal to each .,rr ".,o.J.. : o".,,," rt., :,.,r,, -t,..i... th:,i-llern.r
iq\^1..J r.'o rn ,.. tLDr,,F,.,. .tr..i,r, r.,..rni... ,edltrcr,tr;.
,i"1, : a,,, t\',t. = rre \,io. l: I r . ' .. o.r, ". I'p"q,r" or ..i.tr..i.. -".t,,":" .,.
thrt lor l1]lr l ector /. , Bess.l's in(Iudil,l h.ilds: 'ovrriln rl' F.t,.r, u crt hr ,-rn.o"r1 ion., ,i,, ,1o. n ,,.
Sho$,
.D" '.,to,., /',r.i,.n,rio,- Ttr rcto.. ":
"., L pru,r..!t.,1,
a loriintz inv:ldant nnmatisn so tirrt our statenolts
Eft. irr,;,ri. ,lr* p ,J",, -i,1",.,or1 ,,,| .r.,.n ,,. J. Tr. -".o,.t ,iT.,ir, bci ird{-
mav
mo,,
The incquditt' gocs over into rn .queliLr il ,l : trolo,r',': l'.'. ..ilr'..n.r,. :.h..r"o. 1-,,.h.r ,
?1.
gi\a, rn"i r.r,:ir,.. t,..h,.- i,...,". rA
14. lrcvo thrt a vcctor liekl I" jn ar n di,ncnsional space crn ]x) bo'i" , " ,'. ':, ... A , ,ior . r.,-,.. .... o-. ta\.
rcprcscnted as t|c sfudi{rl lield oi a st* u Iunciion if and only jf iis
f.n t,.
lonul r.o:lr ri i. m""r.,,,,i ,.-1,.h,.. t.. r,.: ior,.",,"
slic\rsyDnlretic dcrivrtiycs vrnish,
^lF ir , |.'cl"d" , rn ., p i^. ,,.,i,i,r,-..-rru. rn..l
Yrr-Yl,i-0. rs .1"t,...1,. rr o' "'rrr. "ot . ;."n... .nu. t h:.,,,. d:r:uar r. kno",
runs cotrnter to thc thcorl, oI r|tati\'itt-.
It js, therelor{r, nrpossible to trarcfom automrticall
'.:'r r-.1,. i.rj'... or n.r" i.:op,.orcnrz,ov".:,", tr,.. rr..:rn
*rt .,nly Urosc theori.s lrom vhich the concerrt o{ actioD at a distuncc
.an Le elnninated. This possitrititv oxjsrs in the Ureor_T of co|jsn,rs,
!5

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