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COI..]TENTS CONTENTS
Ii YE(lron -4.ND Trrrson Cs-cIII,]]s rN ,\N n DNrNsro\.\L XIL'L'rrE Irr,jLD ll.rrr.\rroNs or rrrD GI:t:R.rt, l'Huory or
( omrrn,v (Conr.) REr,.r1.rvr.r,Y . 175
T.mo. dcnsities. Loti Civiia ic.sor dcnsilv TcNor miltBii Th. pordcroriorjv..qurlions ol ihe erlviirtiolxL 6eld. :r'!e r.p-
Geodcsi. Lines. Ilirl(Nski Norld ard Lorniz innsfornaiiors rcsentrti.ra ,, mart.r nr ihe fiei.l eqrltio's. Tl'o dillcrertial
lJr rs $ortd ]nios. r'rcble.t3. irleuiitics. TIt licld cquriions. 'l'|c lincur ulpr.rirtriidL anrl
the studrd .oardinrfu cordiiions. Soiulions of rlrc liocrized
\L Rrx,rrr\,'rsrrc XllEcn^\rcs on lll^ss Pol\xs 85
ield rt,iil,ions. lhc 6.ld ol r n$s loinl. GNvjtrli.n,al r.rves.
frosfun lor rchii'islic ncclLrni.s :lhe lorm ol the con6frttii.r Tl,c virirl,ioral prifciple Tl'e c.dn,i.iii.n .l l,hc grrvl tioral
la{s. L nodel c\rInplc. T,,)(nlz .ovalianco ol llic nc\Y.ons.rva- .nd clcciromagnciic t.l.ls. Tlic c.rs.rvil,ion larr iD rhcgo.ernl
tio, his. R.lil,ion lrhr.dr cnersy Did nnss lhe Conptor 1!.ory of rolriivity.
cll..r. ltehiilistic rnrllLi.rl nerhtics Rcliii!'isiic lorce
XIII. Iareonous Soi,ul,roNri or TiID Frn],D Ean.rrroNs or rIrD
\ lt. ,tLr . r.\ r r tr r fr'oDl 10ti GEND1i,!I 'l'HnonY or R . 198
T14 soluiion ol Sch$rrzschil.l.'l'h. "-s.hDrzsclil.l singuhritI."
X'hx(eLl's fiel.L.quatirns n.limiliry icmerks or transiormr-
lion trrolrc,li.s l!c rc|rcs.ntatiot ol lo"r nimorsi'nal ii-rn*
Th. freld ol trr .l.clacilly chrrg.d mass totut. 'I!c solurions
ir thrc! tlusone dnnc.sjors Thela,.nlz irrariaDce olXlr\wdll's Fith rotriioul suncl,rv.
ickl cquarioDs. 'fhc th-tsiciL si.srin.an..^ ol ihe tran6loruLion XI\i. THr, IxpnRr\rENr,lr, TESrs oF lIIE GrNDn11 TEEoRy or
l[rs. Carse tonslormatiors. Th. PoDrleromotivc cqu'rl,ions R!ri,ArryrrY 211
VIIT. TrrE l,IDcHAircs oF CoNUNnovs XI{fi liri l2l adrtrro.r lli. Fri!.li.n ol llcrcuy. l'he deflectior oi liFLt
'l'hc
Ir|roductory Jcmarks. N.nrcliliristi0 trcaiment ,\ gp..ial ! S.lMrzs.hild nel.l. l'he crariiatioul 6lilt oi sl]ccir{l lirr.
in
codrdnmh svslem 'l'cts.r lorm ol the equ.iion$. Thc strcss- XY. TrD Eau,\rloNs o!. l{ouoN rN Tr{n C;nNnri1i, 'l'Hlroriy
eDcr$ lcnsor ol elect.oriynanios Pr.llcn on Rnr,\rNrY 22;l
IX A!pr,r.,\rro\s on rrD SrrcllL 'fHtronY of Rnr,.i.1rrvl1.Y . 133 Ior.. laqs nr chs-.ical physies ard i'! llccir.dtd.mics, l'he h$
!lporin.rtrL verincnri.ns ol tIc sf..ial theory ol rclutivilt. ol moiion jr ihc -qor.rl lllrr'!.1 4lil,i!ilv. Thc cptr.\nnrln l
alh,rg.d prticl.s nr .Leoiromrgncljc fi.ld3 1'he licld .l o r'rfi.1Lt DeilLorl. 1-l'. lrsl, an.l ihe mrss ..N.rvilion
'rftroxinalioDaDd ihe equtio4 ol rnotioD,
lrs.. 'fh. sccond rtprcximaiior
di.virs prrtj.lc. Somnerlel..L's ih.ory ol ilte liydrcgcn nne sinc-
ture. D. Brcgljc $rvcc, llobleDs Cor.hsior. l'roblem.
PdJ III
P.\FT II LINII'IDD I"II]],D TI]Ii]ORIDS
TIIN GXNERAI, THEORY OF IIEI,I'1'IVITY XVI. Wtryr,'s G,lfcD INvrlRr.{Nr Gi,oM!,rrii 2+5
The g.onetry. ArrLFis nL gxuse invuiant seomciry. l'hysical
L lnr tr,r 'rLcot Ia v 151 nrteurreiatnm ol \{erl'B seomet.y. Weyl's vdririiorul pri,rciple
Irtrcdr0li!'i. i
The pturcifl. ol equivel.nce lol.,uruiions lor The .qurtions Gp, - 0.
rDlativistic Urcorl ol srr\irition Or inol,irl stslcns lln!
stcin's "olcvr|or." 1'l,c p.iroir,le .l gcDcml covaiance The X\III. Tl,!Lrrz-{'s Frvn DrMDNsroN,u, Trtrony AND rrrn PRoJric-
nttLtro .l lLe eEvi iionaL lield r\.f .rD Tr
Kihzi's iheory -\ I.u dh.nsionrl l.dnrlism jn D nr. din.r-
Xl. THi,r Rrrir.{NN OERISIorrur, CuEvArunD T 1{i1
$i,mrl lprce. AnrlJsis nr ihe ?-loDralisn. -{ spe.iil i)r,c rl
Th. ohrructerinlnrn ol lticnrnnirn spxcos Thc idLcqrabiliiv ot coij.dirrlc sjsloni. Cova.iatri lornulrtio! o1 lGluza's ilrnrv.
ilie.ftrcconncciion. nuclidioityc,rlinieerabilitv, TL.cliteion Projeoti! lield t!orics.
.l i.l,.grabi1iiy. Thc cornnurttior lit lor oo rjan| diilerentin- XYUI. ,{ GnNrH{i,rz{rroN of IL!',riz^'s TIrLor 271
rior. tl'c lcN.r characicr ol l?*l lr.tr.rties ol llic .urvainrc
lossibl. gcno.ilizrti.ns ol lG]rLza's thc.N. Tlc g.omct.y ol rlc
iensor. Thc covaiartfo.dr oi lhe cuNirl,uretensor' Conimete{l closc,l, nvc dinasi.ml 1rorl.l. hiroductior ol ill. st]ccjrl cl)
fo.ms oi inc curl'ntue tc.s.r' 'l'hc conimcted Birnchi ideDtirics.
rjrdinrl,c s!sl.n. 'l.l'c dcdratior oI fL.ld cqLrdii.nB lrom r vr r-
The nunl,er ot rlgebni0rllt indeleDdcnlcornlonenls olt|e c!r'r
", . ." lt1
I!nLx 281
rF
lntroduction
Almost all the laws of phJ,sics deal {ith ihe beharior ol certain objects
in space in i,he cour'.sc oI time. The position of a body or the location
of an event can be cxpresscd only os a locetion rclativc L0 somc otbr
body suitable for that |uryosc. For instance, in an crpcrimcnt with
Atwood's machire, the r.olociiics and accdcr'ttions ol thc l'ishts are
refered to the machire itself, th!1i is, ulLinrtcl]. to the earth. An
astronomer may refer the motion ol the plcncts to thc center of gravitt
of the sun. All motions are dcscribid cs motions relrtiYe to some
CHAPTER I
rnd the coiirdinstes ol a certain another one rigidly con,rectcd the s&ne rcterencc bodx, such as rhc
and the scco d coilrdinate system 'vith
'S/,
point P with respect to S (r, y, :) and the codrdinates of the same point earth. But (odrdinrte transformation oflcls an important method lor
invstigating Ure relationship tr{rtieen two ditTelenr lrames ot reterencc
with rcspect to S' (x', 1/', ,'). Then, r' , y', ard ,/ arc connected $-ith
$,hich mo\' relatil.cl"r' to each ot|er. In such a casc, $e reprcsent c&ch
,, s, and z by quations ol ihe foul:
of the t{'o francs by one co,irdjnate sxsi,cm.
r': c,rr * * cB: * i','l
c"y l.et us comparo .r {ramc of rcferencc rigirllv connc.ied \rirl the cnrth
y' : c",x + cev + c'z + tt' ,\ (1.1) and another orrj oonnectcd \rith Ncwtorl's nail. Ihjch lio:ss|mc iq
ror! lq \irh on. r p ;.,1"r rpo J. \i. .n r, ,oJ r,r ..^
:,"'. + + + 2'. ordinate sl.steIn-c \lrnrh emLlc us to dcse be qu$ntirr,tivetJ.rtre toftrtion
o-
" """y """. )
of anv point \\.iih rcspect to cither {ratuc ot refcrcn.e. Ltjt us cxlt these
(i/, i', :') ai ti,e co,rrdinrles ol tne poinli of orisin o{ S Fith rcspect
to S'. 'Ihe 0onrtanls c,L are the cosiDes c,f the lngles bets'ccD ure axes tFo coindinai,e sxsiems S (1,his S is xot i:texi,nr vith i,tre fotmijr S)
ol S ard S'. .rd rldrina 1,o ihe rnsle betwccn iihe X- and tlic -Xraxis, ard
'S*,
re+eciiity, :1nd lci us choosc tlre poilts ot orisin so thnt they
both lje on thc rxis ol the t)r;l and coin.ide; ttrc Z axis aDcl thc Z+ axis
c{ to Lhe allgle bet$een thc l-- ftnd the Xlaxis, c' to the anglc Lrct\i'eeD
may tre ideDticd And poinlins stmiglli, up. If the pajt rotatcs vjth r
the -Y- rnd the llaxis, ard so fori,h.
'l'lie transition lrom one codrdilate system to flnothel is cclcd a constant anglrlar r.rlocitl' o rclative 10 the cardi, and it at ihe tinic
co(tudinate bonsf.)rnition, and the equations comecting the point co-
I : 01ihe X-ariis is p l1llcl i,o the -{*-!xis, the co.ifttjnu.te tra$forrna-
ordinates of the two co.irdin{te systems arc c^lle,l twnslarnanan
tioD cquatioDs trirc ilre fotn
.oujsa, on ILF r'le i!. mol or o' b^ rno h'mps ot r"'r'n'p L'ut il that is, we essume that we can constmct rigid me$uring mcls whose
;i;;;;.;;^.FJd tu.,mprions Fg,'dirg rh' na'rrre o mp ,rd lensth js independent of their state of motrion. Eqs. (1.t) shov Nith
;;;-"; ii; t ..- 'o' ro. 'o a" n- , I r'
/ nd'u"' d4n v ol particular clerity how this essumption is e{pressed by the fo]m of the
"'* "" "'
p""r;"r. rr"-" " "t" ne or.inorh" rvo'd' rrar ir is r'os'ible transformation equations. For thc distancc bet$ecn two points & and
rn ouilcl c"ocks \\hi"h xrc Dot !ffe.red bl 'h'ir "r-t" o rno i",}
Tbir Pz with thc coijrdinates (rr, lr, a) and (x,,
"i,y a,, ,,:) js
s.-VIr, -J) (u" !.t, .: _-,rt, (1.5)
and obviously
(1.6)
li2l.'o".o.]rJi'aP6ys'.mc'$||h'l,."oo'di'D'"s
,"r-i:'r' -,1. .-..-..r,." t,"-," n l,'1,' o" r'1rP6 r'J r$rrh l"
expressine
-The the univc$al chaxacter ol timc erylicitlv'
other assu-ptio" concems lengih mcasurcments We assume
ihat the distance [etvecn two points-thev mav be particles at a
sivcn time is quite inclependent of anv particular frame ol reference;
V
lomrliorl cqli.li(tr,s fl.2) orce xnd tll! r s{rxnrd tirne $iih rcsl(:ct
to l. ]'hc rcsuliils (rtuitnrns conrdr i, !, ?. x+, r+,llsi
zt, rrrl lLc
CHAPTER II a,,J. o l'. oi ' "'t I
The l'elocitt- components translorn just as $'c Nould cxrtcl r vector term-r of citlicr set of coindiltat{)s, (e call thri ln\r in:uiant at cawidnt
i.o transforu. and c(rs. (2.1) are rcprodurnl ihe rrew co.jrdin.rtes $'itll- il,L rcspcct to the inn,.foruaii(Drs (Dsideicd. l'ho tarr ot jncrtia (2.1)
js corlrinnt $ith rcsrrcrt to lrsnsfomraijons (1.1) and (1.;l), trut roi,
othcr translornrlion prescn ins thelii' oI inertia is thc ivpe ( I 3) . wjth r(ispe(ii to (1.2).
^n
It.rorcsponrls to thc lransiti.n lrom ore lrule ol rcl.irdrcc to aootllcr T[nsfoDratioN (1.1) l1nd 11.3) rrc ol ihe grcciest jmporrance for oru
one $lich is in a siriic of strl1ig]ri,linc, nnifotn motidi itai,ir-e to thc Iurthu discussions. l hcv are usu tllr. reterrc d to as (iatit.m ttanslarna,
fil'st fnmc. Takirs lhe second de lctivcs ol eqs. (13), \'e ol,tain llors. ,1.{odiug lo l]lx.isi.al physics, any trvo inerrjilt systenN rrc iro -
nclLc.l by a Galil(ian tr:rnslorduti.nl.
t* - it. ii* : ii, 2'- 2; t.2.7)
(2.1) The force law and its tiansfomation prcpedies. 1\ e shalt ros, dis.uss
an,t thc mothn of tl,e bodt' s.l.tisfies tlrc hw ol inc ii.l
il thc co-
tho lmnsloruraLion prcperii.s of the b{ji. laws ot classicat m(,tranics.
ordinnl,c systom .S, \,e hr"-c !lso:
Thisc la]ls nar. lr loruruht(\l thus
(2.s) ll;hcll hot?s ate stbje.t. to [at.. , ILdr u.el.nLiaks (to na! tuttish, hut
o.. pturbrti.nal to UL.lar.cN u.btlt .11rhctt. Th. tatio.f fme ,, at:.t ten_
wliilc the lirst derivati!{,s ol the strrred coilrdinrtcs (il eqs. (2 2) arpl}'
Ihn is d ..nstanl, dil|ct.nt .for .to u intliNi.Iaol botlx; this c.jlstu t ;s t:a\.(l
to the uDst Tcd coir,dnitles) are
the ?lass .I the Lodu.
t'' : a" r,, : r'ij I I'lt J.tc. o.tnn on n11..l)od.! i,s tlc t)ettat sum oJ alt. t. Jar.E causftt.
totnl.
h! etra rth.l LadrJ .J thc nc.haniml sasktn. In atltt rods, thc t tlt
!l'- d,, ,,.,: r; ,l (2.e)
'intcra.IialL adon! a nu.|nb./ al lodit is th.. tj,LtrinnLion af int.j.utti,Ls al
t* : tL. - t), : it: .) pairs. 'l'lt. lottrs biich. tuo LolicN cxett on .nh .ther tu hL thei/ orot .t
itlq staigltt Utu. atd, arr tqtal .t pt thdt th.1! ,paikt in op.pas;t dneLtiat6;
Eq. (2.8) shl:,ws that ilrc hw of iricfiia holcls in ihe new sr-stcln as \'ell thdt is, tbt) bali,:s can eiLh.t otr.tc!, ar :r.t tut:tL othet. ,t'tu)n.aaniLlt. tf
l1s in thc old one. E(1s. (2.9) exprcss i.lre ll1tt that th{i trlociiv corn- thesc lotrcs is u funclit)n al th.it .Iisto& artu; tL.ith.r Nla.iti.es nar at
ponents in the new co,jrdimte s$id! S: arc r:qual to tliose in the old ,.1, t lo
svstcm nlinus thc coinponents ol ilre relatiRr \elociil' ol lhe tno .(F 'l.licsc la$.s rp|1y to srch phelorlcnr .ls sl:ivitrtjon, dix,rrostatics.
ordimtc s-lsterns tlrunselves. Ilis lal1 is olLrrl rclelrod l{, as the (il&s- and Yen I)er \\ alls forres, bui dc(itrod\rrmis is loi inctrd(li becllrso
sn,al) h$. ol 1hc tddition of rdociiies. the irri.or,(tior l){ii.Nmn lL'grtii(i fields ud elecr,jiir (irorscs prcdLLces
Fl.lmes ol rcldcrnce and coilrdinote s-vstunB in irhich rlhe 1a$-(2.1) is Iorces Nholc rlircftjim is .ot in iiio (onnecrtins str shr ljle. lnd ljctr
v|lid a.e jndiial s]'stems- ,{ll Cartesiur coordinntc slsteDrs r'hich are depend.,n the l.elocily ol the clus.d bodl rs r.elt :1s on its r)osjrion.
rt rest rchti'c to an inci:itl coorrlinrtc ststem 'rc tl'elr)n'h-cs inertial llut rrrrrci the ii.rLir:izecl corditirns arc saristicd. rtre torc.s .,.n be
sj'stems. Caltesir:n {!)ordirlte s'-stdns belongins lo a litne ot refer- rcpreseol({ br the rcslljr-o deiivriiyes ot ttr.j potcrri el]ersl.. .l.he
enco wliich is in a staic oI stEighi lirrc, nirorlr notion r(ti1,ive to an latter is i,l!r sLrnr ol thr: lxricntial crcrgies chrrtutedzirs th i!tcr:lcrior
inertirl slsleln are also ilcrtial s]'stcms. On lhc otler lmd, $hen vo of anr t1\.o Lodics or'lruss points,"
(rrry oul i1 traDsiiion to .l nerv framo ol relercnce rniL is in sone sftrte
of rcftlcrated motion rcl.rtil'e to the tilst oDc, the (orreslordins co-
i;rdirute transformatioll does noi rcFoduco eqs. (21) in terms ol thc (2.10)
r$\' cobrcliDatcs. The ac(eliir{tion ol th.i nc\\'fianc ol refer{Jicc rela-
tiie to an incrii:rl sr-stem rntnifesb itscLl ir apparcnt a(iclcfutioN of
Lodies not $uLrjcct to real forccs 'l'he indic.:s ; and /i reler to the int.racrion bch,en thc ttir and i,hc tih
m.rss points, arrl s" is thc (lisi:r.ncc l).rr1!een rtreDr. fhe furcr:ions
Galilean trarsformations. the turrn of a lilw is ot
If bv I/+(str) me en'cn bt' 1,hc speci nciule ot the t)robten, for erample,
'tienged
l$v
certrin .o,jrdirDte transfornations, ihat is, iI it is the -qdne in Lloolomb's law, Ne$'i,on's hry ot sravitatiox, :r,nct so lorth.
V
Thc force acting on the ;th mass point is siveD by (1.3), cor(spondhg to thc straightlirc, unl-t{,rrn moiion, leaves the
coiirdinate dilT.,rnces, for exrmplc, r; - .rr , unchenged, or,
.
r": .rI- +,,tr", ,, ..i
i)x,-- 2 Ji -' (2.14)
"
t":-rh: aV i, dl'a :r, - ir" (2.11)
Thercfore, the s* themselves trhc ihc srme lorm irr thc nc\v corjdinate
! lu , ' srstem S* flhnh thcv ha 'e tu ,S.
The ilYinsft,rnution cqurtbns (1.1) xpris th{r relatiorship l,clu'ccn
, dt i/ ,li',, ?r .,^rl tro mitrdinate svslems\,hich are at.est relativoto catfi otler and (liosr:
.,., ,t r/t,, N"{es arenot tl1rrlkt. Obvnnlsly, lhc distance betieen tl.lo points is
expressed in thc srm wat' in cithcr coordinate st'stem; so that
The set of equrtions (2.11), by its form, irnplies that thc force com-
pone.ts (lue to the irt( r:illii(m of lhe ith and the i.th bodies olon are v (xr rJ + \! - !t)'-l l- -^)-
I
equal, except lor opposite signs, thrl is,
: ^\/ (.,: ,',)' + 0: y')" + (z't ,;l , (2.15)
dv* alt
er. - - A4' )
Thiirefore, the.sum ol all fo.i,s rctiry on all r Inass points vanisht, A quantity s'lich does not rtrange its r.alue (at, a siven point) shcr r
codrdinitc iransfomratiorl is carried out is called an nrvariani Nilh
(2.12) rcspcci lo that transformrtion- The .listance bet$een t{'o points is rn
l\ic h{rc seen tlrat the arsuDrents of the lunction I', the s*, arc in-
The difiercntjai cquliors sovernins thc llotions ol the Lodies are variart rrith rcspe.t to CiaiilffLn 0oiir(linate tlansformntions- Tllorc-
forc, the lunction I/ its.tl, tlro totcl potentirl crcrsl' of the mcclnuic
system, i6 :Ln invariant, too; exprcsseii in tcNrs ol thc n.rw coil(limics,
: t,",1 (2.13)
ii hxs thc srm form and takes the sanc t'alus :L.s in ihc origin: co-
^,0,
ordinrtc sr-sti,m. E(r. (2.10) is covilrirnij \riilr rcss,ct to Golilcau
nberr: nr; is thc mass ol the trl]r bod-\'. lei us rroi{ul to cqs. (2.1i) antl asaln Lcgin {ilh trensformti.,n
\te &rc noN soirg to shon tlht l/rc slsl.u,/ eql Latirns dctttlnining the (1.3). 'rl,c risi,H[nd sidis ol (1.. (2.11) conhh ihc dcli livc-r ol r
bdtuiat aJ d ncclLani,cal systcrn, (2.10), (2 11), tnd (.213) is on|iant qrntiiir rLicl wc alrcrdy krow is rn nrt+ui:urt. Titcsc dirn rlir.es
bith t.s?t.t to Galiktn ttansJonndtton"\. {ith respccl to thc ino sets ol codrdirrtcs llre rclated io each olhcr b)'
lei us siart \riih eq. (2.10). l- depends on the dist ces s.,' ol the
l-rrious rnass poills Ircn esrh oiher. Hor do iho r,r chanco (tmns
fornt Nhen r iiodrdiuate tr.nsldrlaiion lr'1) or (r'3) is c,rriL{l out? av av ay: av dv: av (2.16)
ln order to l1ns$cr thDt r|rcsLior, it Dust bc l.ep1i in !ri.d th{l the co ar,: i:' ay, ii:' aa i4'
ordinaies ol thc ilh and ol ihc /illl bodl-are to lc 1,rken rt Ure samc and therclorc, thc dgrt-hand side of eqs. (2.11) is in'ariant 11ith respeci
timei in oth.r Noi.:ls, tliri tllc Llist:r...c l)cin'een the tNo l)odies is itsclf io transfomuiions (1.3). \Ii]r etr er the srme hol.ts trueforthe left hand
a fnnction of inre. Ol couNe, th. codldirrctcs ol ttrc variinis nass sidc, rve shell be rblc to decide alter discussing the transformation
points tr{nsform inrlet{rdcutl}' ol crch other, clch s.i (r,. 9r, :, bv properties ol eqs. (2.13). 1l is (tear, horrerer, that Ure eitratnrn rorains
itseu, {ccor.lins to tlte t.ansloN,,tion equttnrns (1.1) or (1il)' re- valid in the ncx' .(irdirate syslcn oxly il boih snles iranslorm tlie
same way. Othe vise, it is not covarjani, \ii,h rclpcci to tLe trans
Consnicrnie these poirns, it is sccn innncdirlell' ilut traLslormaiiion
lomation coxsidercd. $re shall h{ve to fiml out Fhether the tmns-
t
tl CLASSICAL MECHANICS ch.P. lt I CLASSICAL MECHANICS 15
lormatio propcrties ol tl,c right hmd sidc ol eqs (2 11) arc compatihle
thrt both cqs. (2.11) {rd (2.13) arc co'aria.t. ll,.i.tL t...spect to spukal,
nit| thosc ol tlie lclt hud side ot qs (2 13)' as bolh cletcrDine the ottrouanal ttai6to) nahJLs aJ tLc con dnnft: st/stem, IIE Jarc.s .)rc N.:tors,
etul th.1l atc intat;ont dtll ttspe.t ta rans.fal matians r..t)t.:tent;t4t a
t[o-liorn tion ph])trti.s ol the lorrlrs, fr ' sttaitht-lin unijonn maliatl oJ olle sxst.m rcIatiDe ta th. ath,.r. "lhcs.: rcl^-
Lct us 1i!rl translolm tlx: ris|t hrLIrd snlc ol eqs (211) bv r trans-
tions can lx cxpresscd ir e slightly ditlercni, form. lll' elimitrtl.ting the
fornatiou (1.1). ,\|t)lying thc rules ol lrtial difercntiation, ilc obtain
qnmiii.ics f, frori .qs. 12.11) and (2.13) we .an combine ihrl] into ncw
irT: dl- !1
,I- aT- equrrliurs ol the lorin
. ,'\i -t1
, 4,. dll ,t:,
nl .ll,.r1 + .r I',.--i dl (2.11)
'{,+ -",:
Ul - \1t Alt ,r--t.1'
1{itlr
_ns,"
r; ,' ;'.1 Ii,,:j, :,, 1-."."
li ":',, ::
\'u,ir . ,o .q. 2.J,. .h^,.
+ cus,B + cos, r = r. ti2l l:",. ,' :, ',' r. ui,
ro i, / co,. ,,.n.
") ,'''
:l: -,"-i:,i;,,1
" l,':
,".
" :,:-
,
:,:
-. \/, . . .2. aJ-
:l':;r ",, ,
;::"t", ;.'",,::r ,r rn o,
".- ^
rr.e.1s:.,r,,,.,r.rorj,crri..o..,r,,i,,., " ' 3r' ,. ,irr,,r.,, n,..
,.:;;"";,y;1,;r;"i*, .ll
;i' ""il ';
a,,, ." ''-"
1
;l;.'
_fi,':",j,j,; .;':,:""; :: Io"-n ";
':.'1' ,1",;.1;:1""
,,..",:;,.1.' "'l
, ;:: r:1"' : ::;- l ;:ri, il.l;
,t
"1
t,
-
,'.; ," j ,
;-1"," r,,",1 :":t'I :1, ":r,.: J,:
:,:1, :. ;r ":'
"jl;l; . :;"li.lil:i ;lji i:,: -;,1,,;:",ill i ""liffiT..ltJ'.:iii1,.,:l,iitiltli:T,f.iI
.l;li,jff
:.il, i:.,1,: :l:l
20 THE PROPAGATION OF LIGHT lChap. lli chap. lrl THE PROPAGATION OF LIGHT
I 21
t? is lhe (listan(c betrreen rloubLr: star and earih, c is the spced ol light' The expcriment shoncd i,h.t tbe slxul ot lisht does dcpencl on tte
,',"a i l" i,r'" rncan iine for liglii to rr*ch thc earth) lleNonrble ldocilr of iho fiol1jrg li(tui.], trut Dot to the e\tcnt rhrr iiie \.etoc;tics ot
ol ihc qurntities d, &n'l c $re: thc lighi and of the n,cdirrm rould sinply lre addc(]. Fe denote ihe
assumptions for lLc ordor ol m,rgniitde ',
I - ro" c-' scc ', spcctl of lightb)'., ih{: l.clocity oI ilre liquid irv rr, rnd the;rlex oI
refr{cLbn bv r, we should expect, lccorcting to our prcsent $sumptionj
I- 10' ctn sec that the obserrcd sf.od ol ljsht is
d > 10" cm; "
(3.5)
bv ihe ciuth nnd the talicn tleil standarct lorm ri,irh resyjt t to th$t trarnc. As re accetera-
mnsi be th{i ratio bijtw(icn the {tistance tral'ersed
liili,'*" t'.'".""i i.':.rrc risht rsv dud.s -'nrnc time nrkr rl' or tlre
thc
right rlris
tions ol ch{rsed pul,irles xro proporiionai to tte field, this trane could
be expecL.i to bc lln jnerLial sJ'stcm, so thai, the acc.rtemtiors lyoukt l,cncl
;;ifiil;; i; qeccr oi thc'ea'ih &rd the speed of
iro zero with thc field.
raiio is
1"e-3Ir{--ro-;
c 3X l0u'
The expedment of Michelson and Mortey. On the bftsis of this
a:sum|tion, \Iich(:lson 3rd llorliy der.isod an cxpcinent $4lich \'lr.s
lnr n 20i pri_^ur 'oq'ErFt dcsi{3led to deterrnine thi: notion
rrc r^.r'ar-.rpo ':rr'ro of tlie earilr \liih rcst'ect to ilie
aLermiur rrom tl c c"nier ol tLL ettirr' pririlesed lrame of r'.fcrcncc in
wiich thr: speed oI ligit iras to Le
uDilorm. f|e csscntial i,:lcd ot
their exp{riment n'xs to cornprrc
tlie app:1rorf, specd.of liglrt jtl tNo
dficNnt dir tiollr.
B{)f ore studtiDg iLir c'pedmcn-
i{l s{rt-ut), l.t us di.rcu-\s tlrc .jr-
pecicd resulh trcll] the si'ndtrirt
ofthis new lr].poth csis- 1lr.relrrh
itseu cl1nnl:,l be the pri\itcAllt
fiame ol relocnce wit| rcsp..r i_o
n'Lich Lhe eqratiolls of ll.Lln cu
hti{:1, lor il js conti|uilUY subieci;
to the grrr,r-itrlidral ecijiorl of thc
sun; and in a fril,ne or retcrcnce
co.nditeil with Ur.r .erro ot grft1-
itation ol our solm sysior, ttr,"
vel.x,jlr ol i'he eutt is ot llie
b^-' o.dcl ol ;l X l0' dI r. 1r
scu
-ir,"i
r!.2. t-.,p,. ,1, ; ri ^ r "rinsr'"- V
L and l: . .Let us assune thnt ihe cn.th, en.l with it tlc appars,tus, is
rnenl,(Fig.4). Lisht lrom a tcrresirial source is separited irllo t$o mo\ine, relativclx to thc ,,a so1ure', frane of retcrc",je, ,tto;i rh,, cri;ec_
rv"r,J g'' !"1r' n \ ' "r'v'lrrl J'rr'' tion of lr.at thc rate of 6pecd ,. Iiith ftspect to the rpparuius, the
',.,...,t " 'f.,'r ol'r. sorrr orS 3nlS l:r"
,',,"l:, ,l a s ,+1"' -'*trr o"r" /' Th' r spccd.f light iiloDg thc path P
pb -lr" lr r.-' , b. r" :r"h '
' "'r"' ri ,o PitigG+?r). the - Sr equals (c - r), and atong ihe path
time req,rire,:l to tral.ct |hepr r
;,,; ,",.''" ,,r .., lnJ r., pi,.. . rr. r-" r'l or' ^51 Sl-p
"., I p. on /:. Sn-rlr. ':.' emlnr:rrs'roin LIa will be
"r,..^lr,r'-*r' 1r zt)|.
(3.7)
c-t c+u I - t|/r:'
The rehti!.e speed ol thc tishi travellins along rho parh p _ & _ p
liill also l,.r nrodificd. l1rhite ihc lighi tra:\.cts from ? to E,. thc $hotc
r.,o ,c i,l" \.J .r,t . .r,.F 6,
d
(s.8)
vL;+ij'
and the actual distrnce tru'etted by thc light is
1.!: \/-i+P
' - fr _L:t! /c, (3.e)
On the n.ry back, 1,he ligLt has to tra\.ct an cquat distance. The totai
time rerruircd by thc light lor Urc pai,h l,
- LSl - _1, is, ttreref(F.
21. /.
' \/1 - .^i,'
(3.10)
Ajrq r. rpp.-ru. 1.. b"-., sru,r 90. rtou, i.. rri", rl,. tin".
r'.u pd ror.d\cr tl,.p.b.t-., _ /,!..1 /,_ J, _ /,rr(. |F
!,,,
tively,
_ ]t,/"
(3.11)
-h: 21"/c
t -'uf""
Tbe ftne diiaafts bctrctj, tho ino rlr,"rnriire pri|s
Fig. .1 Th-'Xlicli.lson llo.lcj rlPa'atus beforc md alrt(ir the anrarairh tus beex s$u4r
l1le,
crouxl,
j' P - r nnd
tr .clled almost equal distanocs, L
- - 6r Ar : t\ t2 -
L P
- E"
an<t lheil e:mt
P I.
loc.rlion
rcsrectivelv,
dcpends on
irlerferc[ce
thc
fringes
diffclencc
are obsct'v-ed'
beti'eeD the dis-
ard
rriL,nQr,r;_r_ I (3.12)
S" l";, ]Lr",, that lhe spced ol lishl is the same in nll
"" is droPped, ihe losition oI thc inter - 7'
.tilectiorN. U
i"r"",,. r'i,'e*
this
i" r
'rssum(d
assumption
rtcpend on thc ctifiercrce thc speeds alons
^I:r-i,: V-1 -="?)
(3'12a)
"in "lso
-
26 THE PROPAGATION OF LIGHT l(hap rrr
Chdp. lll l THE PROPAGATION OF LIGHT 27
toct:ry hrs only lljstoicrl sig fifancc. l,hJ,sicists had been ,,ccustome.l
The .lHrge h dl whiiiir is brcusht aboui bv roiiatins thc apparatus is'
to think hs(tv iD terlrs ol nxljtralics. $'Lcn l.nladal., \Iaa-we , rn(j
Herriz rreated tlic fil,t lieLl ttrinry, jt r,r.s oniy naturrt that atteint)rs
zt \ were Dridc Lrv many pliysicisis to exptairl ihe rerv firjds iu terns o1
I- .,r''( ) 33,
Vl VL mcch.r csl concepts. XIar.ri,r:]] and Hcdz i,h.rrnset.!,es coDtributd to
^i " thesc .ifiolts. IiitLin the rcaln ot ]nechi1nnis itsdf, thcrc existcit .
,\s (,/.)'js of the ordcr ol magniiude of 10i, st shall exprnd the risLl- branch $hich us(l roncepts:rnd Droihods resemltins ihose of fietd
han;isitle ol q. (3.13) nrto a pouer sclnrs in ('/c)r and consido onh tlle physics, namcb., lhe mech,rnics of n'rtinuous nlcdi:r.. So rhe ctectr.j,
titst no vanishins term. lYe obtain the approximatc exprcssioD mrgneiic ficlds rrere exln,ri.ed l1s Ur{j strcsscs of ri Lypothoticd materir,l
(3.1r) mediunl lhc so called otlrer-
l'hcrc are Dany rc$sons nhy tlris intclpret:liion of Ure eicctromls-
nctic fitld finally hrd 1io be alendoned. ,\mona thun are: rhe cif.r
\lrc shor d e'{peci ihe int{xiererrce lriirses in the tclescopc to shilt ,.ort , t,.," o.....,t..\" i,t rc, i . r.^,.,."" Lr ." r, rn
berause ol ihis changc in tlic ti|re diflcrence Al Tlic rmornt ol this it
mcdiurn; rll tnatrtcr ilithout eiLil)iliiDg ,rr,r
l\,ould lir1.o to pcnct.ate
shifi, exprcsscd in terms of thc tidth ol one fringe, rYould be cqual to lrictjonal resisl.rD(ic; and ii
$.oulrt hrve no nass axd rout(i rror bc
1
\/ A,ui!i"dbyr" rircol ".l" "iolo''lJ:on ' a.frected b)' grlritatiul. Also, NlaxNelt,s eqrations ]l.re difio.ert n1
manJ na]s fron t|e equrtions io whjch ctrsric Nrres:lrc suLj.ct.
!: -lrl +u.r'. (3.15) 'flue ed-rts, for iNtance, rc analogy in elecirodvl:uics to l.tre ,,t.rnlri_
tudiDal" cl$ini $r11'e.q.
,{ii l,hc cnd of the ninelctDth cenlurr,, hor\rr.j., 1h. crher r,ll's r.eglnl.rl
, is the vclocity of the earth relative to the "rbsolutc" Iramc ol
as a nosl pronisnB and $.cn neccssary, LJ-pothesis. Nrrlll'al,r, at_
p."",,-"l,ty *t least of lhe ordcr 3 X 10' cm sc ' (|'/")'i",
""t,,.",,,"", tcnpl! rror) Darle to appll' iliis .onccpt to ihc p.oblern discuss(it ir ttris
ther(iior, ol the order lo
3 l is tLc rvave nunber, and for visillc light, ctrapler, n!m(l]., to find i,hal, ooordixat-" syst(n jn \lri.lr th(: spetd ot
lighl is eqrrrl 1,o c in all directions. The icter ot tne eitr$ ,rusg.st eil ttrlLt
rbout 2 X IOa cn '. \To haye, therclore,
it mighii bc Lho .oor{linetc s-vstn ir ii.|ich th.j ether is :r.t j.si. .t't,Nr
as lL*lr (3.15a) tleory, hostvr:r, does ljttlc ro sol\? tlie turrdlurlenful rjifliculr\._ Alt
,s 5 x 10rcm rlr' i oo". fi, o ,, '6 t,
o I. r :ror, i. ,, u"r ,, :r,r.,,, . ,.. .e- ar,l
ct|e. really is, 1le Noul(l lavc ro othcr nle $ inan io
of motion of tlic
usiq mr iilne refleirtlon, Nlichelson snd Xlorta,v *'ere a|lc lo *ork
Ry
mcasule the sp(id of light. The ouhlme of rhe ]l;{jhetsor i\l.,tr:r.
Nith (fl.ctive ldrgths 11 aud 7r ol sevcrrl meten Anv ficci shoL d prp.:n.n .\. l.rh","or. .s6.r rr.r rr.....'* i. ,,.^
h 'e bu,o cleadr* observablc aJier all ile usual sourccs ol error, 'quch as
$ir. 1-, .r. -r! rh, irn"d. "igr ,".1ooJ,.r ...-r",,^
stress{,s, iemperj]ture elTeds, :l!d so forth, lrnd been olininated. Nc{er- r:
concertred. Tirc motion of smali m$scs, such a-\ in l.izcau,s erpcrirterr,
thelcss, ro elTecl $'an observcd.
\rould callr lhc ctlr.rr along, Lut not completety. tsut i,hcse h-\,poihcs.s
,\n inpessc irm at han<l: No consistent theory Nould agree wiih the cor d not rcconnt for aberl:liion. Thc existercc ot rhe obeDation ef(rit
results of f izc:ur's expednirrl, the NlicLclsou--uorlev expeimcnt, and
\yor d be co[$tcnt niih &n ether h].potbesis ontv if rtre e th coutd
tlrc ill-ect ol:$crlrtion. ,{ great numbcr of ldditioual erperinctrts *ere
pcrforoed :Llolle simihr lines Their discussion ciin be omitiiid here, Slidc throush the eihcr withoLrt cauyirg ii along, c\n riglt on its
stnface, &hcre our telescope pickn up the ligtrt.
bcceuse they did not chrngc the situaiion mteiallv. \\ hat ms nccded
(&r rrot rnorc e\pe rc]rts, but sone ncs'theorv vlich would explain
the app:r,rcrt contradictioD!
To account for the inite time losi in transnission, n'e set rp our strike).r Iii is undcrsiood that all these simultaneities are detncd vith
opporatus at the iidpoint ol the str ght lifur rjom(:ting the sites of respect to thc lrslrc S.
the two events .4 and B. Each eve|t, ns it occurs, enits a lighl sigral, Bccausc ol thc []il,c tjDre Deeded by the ljeht signals to relch C and
arrd Nc shall call the e1'ents simult:rD.olll il the two light signrls aDive d*, C* iravols io the lelt (Iis. s, stases b, ,, .J). Thi, sislal issuirg
simultarrously lrt ihe midpoiri. Tlris cxpeiment has been d{rsisnd {ron,{, 1+recches d, therelore, only altcr prssi e C+ (st'{res b, c);
to dctcDairlc tLc simult&ncity ol t$o.irent.q $ithout the usc of specitic {hile the light signal lloln ,8, -B* rcachljs C bclorc iii scis to C* (stages
timc mecsrrins dc\i(ics. It is assume,:l tlnt simrltrncity as defined by c, d). -\s a result, ihe train obR.rrcl turds tl,&t the sisnal lrom,4,,4*
this experiment is "transitife," meaning thftN if tiro i\.cnts:1 ard 3 reaches his coincideDce apt) &tus sooner than the signal lrct B, B+
occur sinultaneorlsly (by our definition), and if thc two cvents.{ ard C (stases D, .J).
also occul simultanously, then , and C arc siDl tnneous. It nust
be understood that this assumption is a irl.pothcsls conceming the
behavior of electromqnetic sisnals.
Grsntcd that this hypotirosis is correct, we still havc no issurance
the,t our dclidiion of simnltrncitl. is independent of the franc ol rcler-
0ncc to i.hich Ne rcler our dcscription of nrtrre. Locating tw) erents
rnd construciring tht point midNry on the connecting struisht line
necessadly involvcs 11 padiculir lrumc and its state ol nrotion.
Is our delinilion invadrnt dii respect to the tramitior from one
frure to another lrame in a {iifi{rrent state ol motion? To rnswer this
question, $e shall considcr l$'o lrames of reference: Onc corncted
Fith the fl th (S). the othd wilh r v.iry loDs train (S+) movine .rlons
a straisht track at a constant ralc ol sp..xl. lye shalt hrrc i,rro ob-
strtioned on the ground nloxgsi.le the railrcad tr$ck, the
other (lins or the train. Each ol ihc t\ro obsn-ers is eqr ppcd yith
a rccor.lins dcl.ice ol the t-vpe descriLrcd and a measuring rod. Their
mruur g rods nee{l not be the same lcngrlhj it i,c sufiicient thai c:r.h
obs{:rvcr bc &b1o to determine the poirt nidrrll' letrveen t$o points . Iis. ii. TIe two ersris occtr ins ol ,4, 1* .nd rt 3, Be, resllciively, atpc.r
b",A:,g,"r " "b''lr -o,u r'r,i .
sinultueoG to
ob. r,
.bscrvcr rr rcsi rclative ro Uic a.ourd {i). bui;oi l.o r"
. 'n-,' 11 i
Lci us tssrunc nory tliat two thundelbolis strik, each hitting ttre /41'1. ig .d lr o, L i
trah as Ne]] as thc ground and leafing permancni, ma.lis. r\lso sup- ;. .i",.1.r.
'i. lmn 3, ,* ,rrivcs ,o. c, tr-,
arrive al C, ud (.?) the ljght sisDrl ai Cr.
pose that cffh obscrvcr tuds rftrwar,:ts that his rccordiDs rpparatus
was statjoned cracilr- Didii'ay behveen the marl$ lcft on his relrencc This does not impl)'thii rh{i ground has a propefty not possessed
body. ID liig. 5, r.hc muhs {rc dnoted blr ,4, 3, ,{*, rnd 3.. and the by the tnin. It js possiblc lor thc thunderbolij-c to strikc so thar the
cojncidence app rlius b]. C lnd C+. Is it possiblc ihrt thii lisLi sig- light sigMls rca.rlr C+ sinultxrtjousll.. lirt Urcn the signal trom 7{, ,{*
nals issunrg lrom.1, l* l1lld lrom A, B+ aDil'e sjJrrlii,anouslx dL C and will &rivc rL C after the signal lron R, n+. In anl, case, it is impos-
dso simultaneorlsl). rt C+? Bible lor boih r.xxr n,s ilrst1un(i,ts, :rt C and rr al*, to indicric ihar
It tlre instant that thc iihur (irbolt .qtrikes at /1 ard rt+, these two the t\yo thundelbolts struck sia! taneousty.
poirits coiDci<le. The same js t r. oL Arit B'N. Il elcDtnrlltr ii tuns
ouii that rllrc trro bolts struck simulriadcouslr $ ol,scrl.cd Lv ih{r ground I OtlrerFis.,, tlic disiin.cs -41Cr rnd B+aj nodd nor
appeu cquat nirn the
obscrvcr, thor C+ must coincide with C aii thc saDre line ilixl,4 ooin- Jo',,.oL o "o ,',,rvt."rv. ",. I,",, , ...;;a
Jr 1tl r ol r|is LirLl
cides lvii,h,4* and B iith B* (thrt is, r,hcn ttre t$o thunderbolts
V
We conclude, thercforc, ihat t o erdris $hich arc simullaDeou-' ifith Brrl aficr a irliile,I)* arld, \'jll be a consid.mbte distmce ar)rrr; and,
respect to one lrame ol rcfcrcnce are in gcncr not snnultaneous witlt as \ic loorr lrom our earlier corsi(lclltions, rl.n tands cannoi xssl.)e
respect to anotherlrarnc.' etruivalirii positions snrultercousl]. frorn th.i points of view borh ot
thc grourd ol,scrver ard ol thc trriD obserinir.
The length of scales. Onl conclusion dlccts thc cvaluation o{ lensilr
nca,surcnents. l\ie hrvu :r.ssLlmed tl[l thc grcun.] obserler :rrld lihc The Lorentz iransformation. Tlrc aborc considcratnrns hr:tp us to
tra obsen'er llrc able to cnrry out icngih meisurdncnts in thir IL' rcmo\r tlLc rppnrent contrsdictjon betrcu the 1a\\, of ihe tropasarior
spectirt lranes ol releren.e. Two rods s'l,ich are ct r(ist relativeh to of clqi:roDusretic vares and the princirnc of rctai.ivjt1,. it is iur-
the samc lram of rclerence arc considererl cqual in length iI lhe]'can possible to dofiDe a univchil tine, :l:lld iI ih lengi.tr of gid rods caDnoi
be plrr:rd alongsidr: cich otLcr so that their rc-rpectil'o (iid p.,ints l, be dclind ind,"pendently of tlie lrame ol rclcrencc. ii is quiic ,]ln,ceir.aLtc
n+ lrnrl I, r+ coi ,ide. Tivo dislances whn:h rre mlrrli(icl oil on two that tho speed of light is jrrtncllv lhc srme wiLL respcct ro rl:fferent
ctiflerni relercn.c bodieg nrving rclatir.elv io cffh oth(ir crn be com- {rlncs ol rclerence nlinrh are Do\iLrg rotativdt ro c:rch otner.. \1.e
pare.l l)l the stm{r method, rrofided these tlistanres trc parlllel 1.o a.e no\r a position i,o sloil. tlrri, ih{r .ltussicrl rmnslormatjons {jon_
cech oihcr and pirpendicul:rr io Uie dne(itior of the r{:l:!li1'e moti(D nectj s t$o nlcrtid systcms (Cialilcar |ransforntrrtjon equrrj.'B) crn bc
Tlowevcr. il the lNo dist lrcs lrrc lrarallel io the dirr(rtion ol rlttivi) replrrrxi br- new equatio$ {hn h arc lot baired or the assrnnDtiors of
motio . and il thev ue trav:lling alons rhij same sliniight line, th{rir . r'n" I ;rl. or -'l -, L,. \..i I I :unc
', 'r i\'
resf(ictite urtl poitlts $'ill cerisinlJr connrnlc st certain limes Tlie t\ro at Urc otrtset the jn\-atirnt.rlr actcr of rhe spccd ot ]jghii.
distrnces Z? and s*l+ are considered cqual if t]rc tNo coin(iidurccs h llnr derivition oI il.se new tmrNlormatioo cquations, *.c shall
oc<)v timtlldneaut!. But l'hetner thcv occur sinultaneousLv de- acccpi lh(i rin.iple ol rcl,riir-itr as ftirdxn.ntal;thai, is, thc trxnsfoDna-
nFnrls on tl,c fraDr(i ol relercnce ol the oLsen'er'. Thus, in the cl1se ol tion cqLutirrN nnrst coDttr nothnrg l\'hich iloutd glre ont ot thc rrvo
ihe thun<lcrbolts, tltc two distances lB and,'1+R* sppear eq!:rl to the coorrlinalc sl.st.ns a prefdr.d position as 0oDparod {jrtr ihe orter
ground obscrver; the trl1in observer, on the oth{rr ha:nd' li ds 1'hat 't svstern. In addiin)n, $.e sh.rll assrDre that tne i,lanstoDn:Ition cqna_
coircides Nitr ,4'' l,elore B coinc s $'iih.B*, and concludes thri '4:B* tions presewc ihc hoDrogenciiy of space; :rll toi.ts spacc rnd iime
is longer than,lB. In othcr Nords, roi orlv the s;multmcitl of evenis, shlli be equivalcnrl, lrom the poirt of vje\r of the trl1lsiormri,i(,r. fhe
but alo ihe rcsult of length mesurcments, dcpends ou the lrame of ectu{tiurs nrrlst, thcr(ilore, be li rr trinstourtion cqurti.rn-r. This is
referencc. vhtr \'. rjonsidered rL{) trro distinc(js.l*0+ ard A+C+ rrruat in ten,s of
S-o'r.; ..! .l I ri.o,J,'p .,nS"-.
The mie of clocks. The fr,rmc of relerencc ol the obscrver also detor- Lel us (lDsider tlyo i rrtill .ionrdiDrio slsrcms, ti and ,!i+. S+ nlores
mines Nhether t$o.locks:rt a considerable distance lronl each otlr'rr r{rhtivcly to S at the (Dsta.t mtc I rlonq th(j -Y-axis; at thc,)--rim
&gree (that is, 1lhetlicr their ]rards assrmc cquil'alent rcsitions sinul I : 0, rhe points of orignr ol S and S* (Irin0ide. T|e I* rxis is pa|dlel
taneously). Uoreotr, il the tNo clocks ar' in 'lificrorlr st'ies ol m(F to the I axis and, in fuct, .oincidcs i'iill it. Ponrts \rtrj.h ,.re ai I.cst
tion. wc cannot even (r] par thcir lates in{l{r|(indentl-v ol ihe trame of rel:rtilc to S+ $ill rrovc wiih speed I dative to S in i,he -{-difeciion.
rclercnce. To illustfutc lbis, let us coDsider tNo clocks D rd -D*, orr Thc fitst of our translormrtion equriiorls wilt, L1rus, takc the folm
ststioncd :rlongside th{r track !,n(l thc other on thc trair' Lci us assumc
that the t$o clocks h{ppen to {grce at the moment irhcn -D+ prsscs D' (1.1)
jl
IVe ixL]l sry that D' and t so rL the sarle rate thcv continuc to agree
$herc a is a consiiant to L0 ,letermired laier.
--, ilo. O"tlni,in" ol simtrlitrn.itI is, ol c.u.se, to r cerrrin d'qrce arbitra'v'
I1i ;s turt quite ollious thit .r strdshi, ]nre \rtri.li is
,s;\ , i- n- l, ,.-.',,\ra r.'- ra-r'. eo l, ', 'v DcrDen.ticutar to
,"i,.t. -" . r.l r " '^,.. '" r" m " '^ l'"r" l oL""- the h-axis shoukl al-*o be pert)ollicr ,rr to the I* aris (the angtes to
il" rri"laso"-n*t"r: "v,orini.Dt, {e eoidudc thrt thc law ol prolasuiion ol bc rnms{red Lr-. obsetrl,rs n, S rn.L Se, rcspecrirr{1.). But iI ile dnt
i;'''" - ,:',, \o r' r'o "d"o'rr, rioL assnne ihrt ii \rls, thc lert ligtr, srnDrerr \. r,irh l.spect ro
ili"r*" ' xI.- 'n.q' i ,,. ' I rr " " 1_ thc
,. a"i.ii"r".i .r,."rmo " ", r, .r r',r r\ '\" 'r X-axis Nould bc dcstrol.ed tr thc ti.tnsfor.lribn. l'or sirnilar rcasors
on t! lrrmc or rcr.rcrcc codectcd I'ilh thc 'rher' \' ',,,1 " rlr I . r", ..no .t 7_.t :" n,,\.qn 1 ro..,.h
""ia"i'iU""
&nd "l "i-"tt,*iiv
tlercbv lerc siven jt lbsolntc sisninolr'e '
v
31 THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION I ch"p rv ChiP. IV 1 THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION 35
othcr, as olserl'cd lrom eithcr svstcnr, xnd tfxi l|e same is true ol tlie Bt' rcrrmnsins thc t{irms, ir. obtrin
ft and Ziare.
As mcntion(rl before,$.i crn (1ntrparr l'he l'nslhs ol rods in djfi'irclt l.'t' t";)f : 6' ,,'r);'+ y'+ z'- z(t"' ;-
c'tt1) . e.7)
strtes of motion in ln invrrixnt rnrnncr il thet arc prrulicl to crlch This q,,rinn go{:s .ryd irli.o ixt. (1..1) .,nLt. il tlr: r:oc1{icir:nts of l! :Lnd /
otlrcl an.l orttrogontl to ilrc dir(iioD oi lel'ti\-e noiion ll their rc- sre thc sxh(i in f(rs. (1.7) as h rs. (1.-r), cnd il the coeilicieDt of.r, in
."*ri , .',a r ir '"r'rl', i' o o l u r" l" r"l 'r'il eq. ('1.7) t.unislics. flurcforc,
'; '" ". "h"s 'r''r r'\ cil
and ,S+ vould not be rcciprocrl.
On the basis ol this, $e cxn for rltie two lurthd tr&$fonlation a l: 1: rl (r.8)
la i.irt: 0
v'' : li,l 11.2) l\re solve these thrcc (turti(Ds ior tlr. th!e. unkDo*ns o, d, and .1. by
lirst ehninrtins a':. \\Jc ol)trtu tll.i.rtr
To.oniDletc tlris sc1 of.qu.tions, nc lra!{r to lomrulato ltlr eqtttion PG+,r): l.
,,,"-,rr.;.. 1"r, , r'..'li '.r l. r'.' 1'-1J - I
,,'r(r, l. r,^r) :
11.9)
.r ,,',;. I u , i l l ' l : " h
r"'c calr,,a tl,, "homogcncit,v" r:rf space tiue lror r'asons of
and Then wc (tini atc 1 and ol)irh lor 9r ihe .I]rr.ssbn
"c J '"o I |' rJ
oul l:'r'rr :-r"' ,l
,','i rr..,-r,lo. t \/ P": ) )r-r. (4.10)
rs ob*nerl llon 'S Chooilrg ilrc Pirrt ol tinni orisilt "co ihxl the
nlh.n gon.ous ju
(rlritant) iernl equttion .Lis|es'
thc lrrnslornr0iiou P is not eq1u.l to unitt-, I1s it is ir the.hssiocl truslormation lhcory-
But bv choosins thc rosiinlr root of C1.10), ft
can mnke it nearl) eqrul
t+:itt+7:t. (1.3) to unity for 6m l vrltn's ol r,/.i its deviatioD lrorn uliiy is ol tlc secord
order. 7 is br thc c(tu{tion
l irrllv, re mu-.li.ltltrtc t|e rorslants o of r:q ('l 1) xnrl p in'l "f 'ri\.c!
e,l. (I.;Jj'.' \-ii slrall lntl iLal, th.I arc (lclerniied hl tI' iNo condi tF (4.11)
ti.": ll;,i, t1', spc.(t ol liglrt bo rhe srhc' l1iill rcst)|ct to S 3nd S+' rlJ
:rnrl lbit Lhe nq| trrnsirrnrrtion cqurtions so ol'u iulo tltc ch''sictll an.l noallr', ,! is obtained fro.r the equation
erlualions llcn z'is suLrll <rrrprnd riilL ihe slxcd ol ligit, '
l,ct ns $srrnr ihtt xt thc Linc I : 0 rn clcclionu!:nctic spheri'tl a.: ..a1,h: s'. (4.t2)
rr$e lctves thc ]).,int ol orisin ol ,S, Nhich coirtcjd'rs tl' thtt onniit Agnin $'e cloose the positire sign ol the root.
NitlL th(i |oint oi orish ol S* 'l'hc spcd ol proprsNtion ol ihe $av{i By substitrtins all these \-rlues into eqs. (a.1), (a3), wo get the ne\,r
is tl,e s,','e nr all rliiL:ctjons:Lnd (luil t'o r in tc|ms ol citlior set ol tmnslormrtion equations,
coiir,lnttes. Iis proges" is lher(ilore (lcsc b'rd b)'ciiher ol thc t$'o
- t/'-'u'.',t'
,' -',t" -l ," : c't", (.1.-1)
$iitl, rcspc.t to thc novins ctui,h, \'c lnd i.]rc qnations of nrotion Lrt'
Thc dc\''iations arc rll of tlic sccorrd otdcr in r/r (or:r/cl). \\'e can applvirs thri i!\1xicd (lruti.nN ol ihr lo(]oiz irmsfornatioo, (4.15).
thcrclole test the I,l)ll'ntz tr!nsfrtrDirlion cqurlions experimentally onlt'
il we arc d,lc to jncrease (r'lc)' bevond thr: rrrol,abl; cxpdin,ntal i:rror.
Irlichelson rnd Nlollet, in their laDrous xpodmcnt, vere able to ir-
crcase the a.!ur!cy 1,o such Iln cxtcrt tLrL i,hcy could mcllsuro r sccond-
Eq. (1.16) tl'Il$ llrc lo,rn
u..,/t
"t
. .(r' + r/c1 i-+) sin d. ]
(+.r7)
order eflect :Lnd prort cxprrinrltr11y tllc inadcqu$y ol tho Calilcan -.,i,:
translolmatioD equc'lions. By solvins th.s..(lurtnns \rith rcsr)(t to r* nnd s'r, ne cet
\!hc we solve the equations (.1.13) x,ith respect to x, y,:, and I, lic r* - cos ,',
.1,, - "i, - ,1, ,,r,. o*,
1 - r/t.t6 -- (1.18)
, - r,ll .c
, \ I , 'i o
l
lt : !+, Ihe cots.sent ol the nerv (lire(iti(r1 is
(1.r 5)
,,is
"-
: !1c1. /ll99r!i . (1.1e)
141.* ^\/ 1 - DllC
" t/ t ,,",r' A.codiry lo thc cLassical exphnation gir.en oD page 21, the angle
would tuln out io be
Compiring eqs. (1.15) i'ith e.js. (+.13), rve concludc uxlt ;][s tl, re]a- :
tivc \.clocily ( d {iih rcsp.rit to S.. This is not r triri: conr:lusirm,
cts a* - rir coscc ..
cts a (4.20)
lor ncilher the unit lctL,tth ror the unit time js dircctly comparrble in If rl.e wish to compnrc c<1. (1.19) ritli rrr. (1.20), nc herc to hrr:p nr
mind rhat rl, is & snull qur tity (rboul. 10 a).
Thcrcl.ire, wc oxpmd
in S rnd S+.
Thii vciocity of r lislrt signl1l ema.ating lrorn l1lt'poirt rt anv tiue both iormrlas into pow(ir s:ics NitL rcsttct to r/d. 1Ve get
is erruri to c rviih respe.t to ant'one s)'stem il it is (rrul to. in the cisa*.",: ctsa r/'c.{iosec a + +(t/c)'<'NE a+. ., (4.19r)
other sl'stcm, for the ooindnrcte:Lnd time dificrilcrs of tlit e\.nts
tr:lnsfomr exactlv like ., r/, z, l1nd I themselves- and
Tlic Lorentz tr{nsformaiion (lultions do airay ri.ilh lhe clssicrl :
notions rcgardins sta(ic rnd timc. TLcy iixtrrd l|e y:rliditlr ol thc
ctg a*.h"" cts d - ,/c cosec a. (a.20:!)
r(tntivitJ pdncitnc to thc ldir of proprgatirn ol light. 'Ihe obsewed eflect i! the firsl-order cfrcci,, $.hilc thc rclatiristic sccon.l-
So frr, (e havc f$lti(,n.il our trrnsfomuti.,n tneory to lit thc out- ordcr eficct is frr below the attairable accu}acv oI obserration. 'fhc
come ot the Xlich.lson X{orlcy cxpcrincrlt. JIoN does this nc]v theory rclatiristic c(1uatn)n (a.19) is, tlierefore, in agreemeni $ith the observt{l
scconnt for dLdrralior? \ie hate to comtarc tlic direction ol thc in-
V
3S THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION IChap. rv {hAP. IV ] THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION 39
\Ye orn exll:l,ilr lri.ed1is ery)erincnt bv conrecting th(i conrdirai: 1'h clock mry be locoiicd at thc poirt (rr , 1/, , ?r, and thc stoned time
sl.stern S $ir,ti ttle earth md 3" sill tlic flo\irrg ln]{dcl. \\'iih rcs|c'l
js coDnected $,ith tho time il.licatcd bv the S-clock thrcush the
i; S', ihc lqu is at rcst, and tlle qu[tion ol thc ]ig|t rlr]s lDust Lc
ol lhe forn j* L-t/t:1\
r+ - qr(r* - r;). t..t.2t) \l
\t, r- r,s h" r.l.{ . \ " ' r' ,{gain t|e reldirgs ol the r--cLoch rn r.hted to ar ^Sttime inidyri
(+.22)
1\'c obt:riri t\:: rdor:ii]'ol llie light rrl Nitll l.s|ect to b1'so1!i]4 lltis L: t;:t, rr) \l-,i (1.25)
^S
dlLatior ri'ith r{]slicct to tr,
Itappcrrs rlli:lt tlro ^S-dock i!sldrd do{n, Dreasrul!l in telnls of,S*-time,
I r
r:l;_r+i;,.1, I ..,. .,.".i. and thal ii, is dr.rrl of an S-c1rxk placed ai llrc origin, it its o$rr
:D-codtdinri{) is positive.
IIoN is i1, l.hrt rn olse]\lr cornected iirh.it|er tram. of reterercc
-\sxirL tlLc obscil'NLl. lirst ordcr ellci:t is in ryrceDent \liilr Lhc
finds lhc fut(i ol the clocl|s in tL. othel sr-\t(jn sloii,? 1'o D1*Lqufe rh{l
ratc oI r cldrh r vhich is nol rt r.ist relatirc\. to lis fmll]c of reterenrc,
an olJscr\u.ornp.res il \riilr rll thc clocks in hjs s-v-\ttrr v|ich ?'
The "kinematic" efrects of the Lorenfz transformation \V' dlllll pas!e"\ in tL{: corrrse oi tillr. Thlt is to srl, an S-obseNcr (x'npar.rs
non stu(l] iu moif (tttail th(i rilcct oi ilrc Lolertz (]{1urtions oD ](!iglh
or. i"+-clocli r.ith r srccc,ssio ol S<,loclrs, fl,il,: rn ,r'+-olsorcl corr
rn(l iirne turl1luremt]l]ts in difillcnt lrtmcs ol lelciu](](r' parcs fl. -c-cluih iritl sclelxl S" (ldrks. ]'hc f', clocli j)rsscs, ir the
L.l rs (usi.lcr r cloclr thai ir riqnlh (r!u{lcd (irh the "t.rrrr:d (ourse ol tlnx, S ( lxilis n hich l1r. hriler aDd ldiher atong iL(j positirc
lrtnr ol renrr:ncc, si,itirllccl ri soni |oirt lrJ, rlrl', zi) r,,1us co- -I axis rnd thtrforti nrr.asinglt.l$t (ith resp(t to !S,,; cons.{tLlenUx,
prrc tfe tinc intiicric<l l)) t|3t dllrh \rilh the ti!!c I rnersurcd in ihe
thc mte ol the,S+-clorli lpp rls sloN in corrlp:rrison. Conrtrsc)1', an
rnslsucd sliidn. \(!r)rding to c,l (1.15), thc nstaDrd 1,iue co- S-clo(iLr p. sses .Sr:clorlis fl irther and frrt|o rloDg thc neAariFj -Iraxis
or.limtc 0l ihe cl '1i is siren Lv anC iln.elorc jncreNingl! llst {jLli r.s|crt to S. The retc ot the
E-cloch tppcars slor c.,!r|rr(!l l1ith ,S+ cldfts.
a/ 1 _ r:/cl h iLc rtse ol lengih niaturernents, cotrditions rrc somenhai more
in\.oh td, lr{lirlse the i]rNfonnltion tqrrrtions contrin 3 ard z iI:r
Ar S tir c irt.r1d, (l: - /,), is tl(rcloic l'|.ltt({ ro tho r.tclirg'r 1i' rntl
difioenl \!t- thin r, thc dir.riiion ol tull1tiri morion. rr gid -.c!te
ll'ol ihe cloili rs lollo\s: thai is lcr|uli.rl.r to tt( dirc.tior1 ol rthtir(i motiol tras the saDre
," ,, - \rli r+)rvi 1tir. (r '-r) lcrBth in cillcr .oiir.linctc st stcm- Honevcr, Nhen rhc scrto is paftllel
to thc ,I-axir au(l iho -\+-:lxis, rt ha\-e to Llislirrsrish *h.jlrcr thc s.nte
'l'hrs. tlrc mL r)l lhe cl(r'h rppc s sl<\ cd do\:r, lron thc lDjn't ol 1 iel'
is at rest rdrii\1 rio orc, coilrdilate stslcn or to lc orher. Lct us
ol S, by the lacror r/r -lj..:- Iltri uol onll't|ri Ol)-'.l\'cLt f'oni fint consitlrr r mri rigitlly cornecied rl.iih S., rhe (!l potuts ot whjch
thc msterrdl lrame ol rcfc|ercc, difiixcnt lj'r (toirhs go rt thc srme hai-e r}e codrdimtcs (/i, 0, 0) and (,f , 0, 0). rio tcirgth in its orn
r'&tc, but $iitr r ph:Lsc const.ul depenthrs on tlrir l)osil;or. The
hftlrcr'alr'at-ur S+.clorli is sttiioncd lmm tiic |oilt ol origirr along
thc posili\'e,Y* txis, the sl(N(irit at)l)earc to hc. T,vo e'cDts iltxt occur r.:.! ,i (4.26)
sinullrneorslt wii| resf.rt 10 S.re not in scncral sirnultrncous rjUl
resp{ict to ,S1', urd \ice versr.
An obserq:r connrr:teci nii,h .S rjtt consi(ler fls thc lcnsth of the rocl rhil
\{c can rulrse oru sctup .lnrl comprrc an S-cloch Nitb S* Line to,lrdilrte diir.rence (r, r, of irs end points al tlre sallc rime, L
y-
.10 THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION I Ch"p. rv chdp. IV ] THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION 41
them !rni.sli{:c. \Yhdlerer the sequdce ol t1'o .\'cnts is slrch th:lt a rve hsRj to subsl.i],tri. tjr lirst sci, of eqnations irl the second set. TL!
lisht rry coniing frou eitlld c'ent uri\'cs rt tln si|l] ol th' oLhcr onlv result ol thc strriehtforwrrl calculrtion is
,ir,". lt nas occu"""d. '1; is nesctnnj l'hen wr inlmdnc. inricxd ol
-,' thc nvrr'mt d'3 - ."'i ,
-
q7.
| ,. . ord
hr :r,)" * (v, !,)' 1 (.," - z')" c'1" t)'
,"o S'' '
(131)
o i -l ' ':rr
; l:=j,; I (13',
.. .o"'f-l r'.rro "on r " l'l'r
io \vljch the cllIis
'"
\nrts. th(ic e\isis :r lnLme of rclcrencc wiih resD.rrl
oc.|r simuLLrfcousl)'. ln th.t frx'ne ol r.lelelre, llrc s])atiol disil1n0c -"i--'Y;),
Lct{(:ll thc l\ro {rYcnts is sinrfll o .
Jrrcrlucrtl,r-, eiihcr ou is rcft:rred to as the spn'c i'imc iuterlal
rr or .l.tc wiih
bcl$,c.n i|e tso ev.Il!. iniorxl js (rllcd li'rr /'/r i'hcn 'r is
rc.Ll, and rpo& lilr: {hcn dr! is rcxl \ifcth"' r1'' innj\''l ln i\r(rn the
(,r.37)
t{o crcni-* is t;nclih(i .,r sptcciikc does not dcpend on thc frllc ol
rclcreDi(j or thc conrdinoto sl -.teDr urtd. bui, i-r an in{rrirlt l)roleltv Th s, tll,o loreniz Lrrnsfornltiuls, cxrded out one alter the other,
ol lhe t\o e'{!ls. are iiqr lalcnt lo orc ]-ordriz iransfornation. But tLe lehiivii \(tocity
11ie mcrtiol(id belorc Lhri lhc Iir(inlz tll.nsfornati'rn is drililc(l oDlv ol S** ri'ith tr:spcct to S is turt siniph the suir ol I and o. Is long as
lor rehtive (tocitnis smsll(r Urrn 1,ltc s|o.il ol lignt ll r lrane ol both u/c a d rrlc .rrc snall .xrmlared tr unity, 1r is v{)ryncrrlv equal
r)lercrcc could nrorc as hs1, .rs or l[.il, Uran Light' it \onlll lx. indeed, to l) + o; bnt $ or(i of the two velocities approaciics {, tlre(le\irtion
irnfossil)lc lor light io piol)igetc rt rLl in tllli lorward dir(r'iion, rlurli bccomcs inport&1. Ell. (1.J7) .an be xritten in the lorn
lcss \riih thc sPeeil . rr i/.)1l
,: "[, 1+rr''r "l] (a.37s)
The relativisiic law of the addition of velocities ls il Possil)lc to lind
I I
t\ro hrlnes oi lclenrce irhich 3r.i Doling rol:itil'elv to oech olher 1\'ith In tlis f.,rn, ii is obfiors tli.t 1l cannot Lccomc rrlual to or grcilhrr
r velt)ciiJ'sr(lller tharr c bI ccrr]ixg out ! s'rics ol succcssire l-orentz than c, ls linis m both r and ru are smaller than .. lherelole, ii is
tlansfornatidrs? lo ans$'cr this (1trcslion, r't' shrll shrtll the super- impossiLlc io combnr scrcral Lorcntz trarslonnaiiors in ore n1\'otr.ing
ol two (or nore) l-orcniz ir.rrslollriions \\ir shrll irt'roduce a r.tati\e rclocity grcrto rl1n c.
|.rsitidr
ilx', tr,r-"" ol rcnrcnrc, S, S!, S*+ ,r"+ ]rts the 1'elooitl-'r rrhtiYe Eq. 11.37) cu l)c ilteryrctcd in a slis{1ur difrcrcnt $'rv, lor a borly
to ri, an,:l 3** hxs tllc vel(xiL! u rlalile to S* 11' ilrni to llnd lhe ll'lich ]rl1s thc \lrlo.iitv r, {ith respect to S* hxs thc vclocit}. r Niih
lranslor atn)! eqrrriion: colfeotirs S*+ $ith S Startnis witL ihe resrect to Ls. llx,n e.l. 11.37) c:ln be leeard{,d rs the tra.slornertion
Lrlv lor velociiics (nr the ,t-dircction). In ilis c$c, it $oukl Lo l,r{if-
(.r.38)
"': 1. u.tc'
lvherc u hal lren replacerl bv l,i. 1\:e.onclude tl[r & body hm:r
(1.35)
I'elocity smrLler ihan.r in c\.r')' inorfjrl s]'stem jl its vclo.ity i! less
than c with respect to orxi iD.rtial ststcm.
The T,orcrtz tmnslormriiox cqul1tions inpty ihat no mrrcrirt body
can |avc a 1'elocitr sF,ter tlal. i'ith rcspe(i to anv inerii:i] svstem.
l o- '. cr r
' " , l L,,"lt r,r' 1.. r.,di. ,,"ot.i.',,.;.,d ri.
V
]] THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION ICh"P' ]V chap. IV ] THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION 15
is rcnoml lLom iri(irrclion $iih otlo lr ics and docs not rotrtc ShoN that this {l.liniti{)n lcads clso to the Lordltz coiltr'lciim for-
orr(1 iis o\r1 ..rn.r ol sr:r-itv, it drlincs a ncrv inertirl s1'sitrr. mula, cqnltirn (+.20).
'1lx!. jl lnr body could usLLne t rd,riil grcriur 1,11n .r \ilh re-(irecl 2. Trro rorls r'llirfi arc |amllel to {rrch olhiir mo\c rcLrlivcl-\'l.) cach
to Nnt.irnrlirl stttem, this sl-stcri lllrd 1,lie orc connectst si|h thc other irr thcir ldrsih dir.rlj(ns. L;l)ldn lhc al)lrrcnL perldori tlillt
body nrirltl ha ri r relatil'c \-clotit\- gr(iat.r lhtn c. eitlrer io.l na1' rp!.iar l(ms(ir tlrm lLe olt]cr, dc!.ndiDg on i]!j strtc
ol nrotion ol ure obselr(r.
ThF proper rise of a marerial bodi. \\. " Iu
'r' l" o lr"
.t)rci.-tnlii ifter! bcli\lc.n rlro ol(rrts. Thc rl)plitriion of tlris con- 3. Srr|os(i lLai thc lrequcnc)'oi a light rrr is / rith rfspect to a
(!r)L r.o 1h{r motiol of a mit.lirl t)rxll'ard to lhrr sl)rce-lime poiliir lrame ol rinJr!! ,S. Ils ireq,.rercy !+ in rloih{J hrnn, ol referefce,
rL(ng its |rll1 is luiicularlv nnP.trnt lor th! tlc'clolnlent ol r(ta- ,s*, dcpcnds on {lrc a slc d L.lNcen lhc (lirc.tion ol tlie lisht ral and
1i\istic m1rcl]l1nics. Sincr thc 1'elo(]it{ ol a mricrirl Lodl rcmrirs the direriirn oi rchtiYc Dtolior ol.S ard ii+. l)oil.o lxrih the classicd
bdo$. 0 at r'll times, srcl :Lr1 ilte]\' is rlNar-s titri-likc ll the mo and ihe r{rhiiri.tic ccturlions strl.ing ho\r !+ depcnds on / and l.hc
tnn ol thc lod) i.q rhi ttlaightlnre and rrnifoul, *: car sijll delinc tlitr anglc o.
p:r*lncler rl(nq iis uth Ly ihe diflercntial eqru.ttun Iror this puryos(i, thc liglll, lrlr bc tleated as a plane scalar nr1rt
movirrg Niill tlic \dociil. ..
dr' : rt'I - ril t (tt/' +.1;)
,1. - ,(r cos d
'ic),
t - l t(#) . (?)'' (,j;)'ll
'"
1.1.39) .
,.,.
I -,os-r',1 | '.o. '.'. "
VI - 'r c:
r is tie time shom try a .l(!rh risidll conn.ri,cti \i'ith thc mol-ing Lodv' The first ord(r efiect comrnoD to Loth lor!]ulas i-r thc "cll1.*sicd" Dor)llcr
r|allt'its '!nopcr ti,!e" (iis oirn lnle). \Vllcreq (139) is dividttl bv cfiect, tlrti slicond-order tern is called ihe "rchtir.islic" Doptld cti{)cL.
///: aDrt tlrc root is hken, irc oLlain thc rdaiior b.lNeen roordinate It is irxlqrrdnl nl th :rnsl. a.
ti e ldcl plop.r tine, 4. H. r\- ],orcrlz oeated :i tlL{ro{ $hjch was Lhc lorerunnor to l,iic
oj: (.r..r0) relatilitv tlr$ry as lr'e kno!" it tod.r). Insicrd oI l[ing 1o c\td]d ih(i
",r-,:,"y;, rdatii it]- t)rirrcil)lc lo elert r oduLanics, he assurncd Lhrt Lhcrc cxists .i[]
pirilcs(l lrine ol refelcn(c. \iilr rcst)ccl to 1'hich thc cl,her n:1s io l)c
$hcre z is dre r'locit,v of tlrc Lod-'. lhi! rcl.ti(u i. val for scceler-
at rcst. ln ordcr to a.(innt for ihc our.orle ol the lficLc{son-lforh-\'
atcd as rvcli as uraccelcrticd bodies e:?eincrl, hc lrssllrned tlrrt tlru cillcr alierls scales and clocls \llich
Ilotli dr and r, rvhir:h is delircd b1- the irtegrul
are nloving tllrougn it- ,\(!r)rdins l.o lhis h-rpotlresis, cloclrs are slo$ed
down and scales rrc contm(tul irr th', dilcci.ion ol thcir Dotion. Il is
.:/rf,i-,ri, (a.$t)
possible 1,o derire tho qunntiirij\1i cxr)rcssions lor the lrctors of time-
.rnJl," -o -. r'' 1. I r' '^rr' 'oio1-
arc inr.drirnt wiih resl*t lo T,or.riz tnnsfor aiions, though dl and
(d) Issunin,j i][t ilio Ge]iLr:an h:lllslormation equations are appli-
cable, dcrirc thc rigororb cyt)rtssion lor the tnre thrt a light rarv needs
PROBLEMS to trivcl r txrsrucd dislancc I jn boi| clirctions .l(Jns r sr,rajght path
in :r \lichtson llork:y lu)uatus, ])rovidod that ihe veldritv ol the
1. On paAe 39 r'e IIAYC tliscusscd one mi:1,hod ol roeasuring lhe lensth apparatlLs rdatiKj to thc |ilil(igcd sJsicn is r 0nd thct tho {nsle
ol a Dorins rocl. \\ie corll rlso delirc thrt k\rgi| lls ihe produ.t ol bet$ccn ihe p:rih and the direction ot I is d.
the lclocitt ol the rrol'jns rod Lj thc i'irDe n1t(lral b'itii'ctn !r irrixnt
rrhcn one cnLl point ol lhc notins rcd passc-* lr firt{ rnulic'r rD'l thc At,st(t: 1 : 2t]/r.!Ic.E ! (4.p1)
instrnl \\,h{ai Urc orher .nd point pxsses tle samc nrrrkcr'
V
'1ti THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION t ch"F. rv
,*
, 2l* (a. r'2)
;.,
rrcolrling to tlio orLtcomc of the llirhrlson-florler c\lerjncnt. \\'e Thc chssicel tranlfoltllaliion theorl- dra$'s a sharp dividins ljne be-
di1] lhe lactor ol li re-contHciion 4 rnd th. fa.ior ol loLstll .ontrnction tweensfrlt rnd tirne corirdinaics. The Linc c.,ordimio is ahrlt-s tmrF
in tlLc dircctirtrr ol 1,,\. Deiil-e the lrhtn)ns lctwen I aul l+, I rnrl 13. lormed inio itsrtl. Lrcrn:r: timc intcr\.als arc cons crcd nr cl$si{al
and (hteunine]\ ard d so thrt eqs. ( l.p l) rlrd (.1.p2) lxr(lnc c(tiriv,lcrt. physics to bc inrtitnt.
The relaiiristic translornrtiiD tli()r]. dcstrot's thi$ dctachcd position
ol the tnne .roiirrhr.tc nr diat tllr tirnii .oi;rdi rt.i ol onc rcilr(liniic
sysleJn.:l.rp,rn.ls on botli thc tini{r and sl{it co,jrdimi{:s ol anoth.r sys-
;" l:In,,,,, ,, """",,l (1. r3) tell 1]hcncl.cl th(i t\o slst{inr con:idcrcd arc rot at rcst .dativc to
r-r:v1 -iirc:. ) The h$s of ilmsical phl sics r.r'e ahia)s lonnullird so thrt thc tim{)
(c) In o cr to oLliajn ilx, (lrnt)Lcle l.orcnlz i.r.|1l1slouration cquatioN coa.dinrlii is soi rparl lron the spatial coitdinrtes, and l,his is quitc
1.1.1;l), nrr.rodrce tN) (!)ijr{lirric srsleD];l, rrne at rest ard.rne moring appropirtc ])ccrlLtsc ol lle clar:Lcter ol the trxnsfolmations \yilh rc-r|ccl
thro,,.qlL llic clfer (S d(L S*). I)tternrine the rpprtcnt dislances ol covariant. It is possible to lourulate r clal il islj c
to wlriclr 1hcse ]t1\rs rle
pointii.n the stl1rrlll ()ilrdirrt(i rxcs lron illc slalrnl poirtt ol .,rigin. phlsici so r.hrt the time coinllilate retrins i1s customerJ' spcciel posi-
liinalll., thd oui lon movnrs clo.hs nnr.l lxr rdjrrslcd $ t][l i. siqral tion, bui \e s|all nnd th.Lt this form thc relatir-istic la$s arc cumber-
st)r'.rrdnrs h:r1l dircctiorr3 lron thf sirD.d pirrt ol r)i$rr in(l stnrlirg some ard ollcn difti.Ilt io afflt..
d llre tinc I : lr' : 0l)&s tirc Nurrr.rt slrtxi d iu xll dircotio$- -{ proper formjllism niust l)(i rdaptc(l to thc theory v|jch it n to
relrscnt. The Lor{:ntz translormati{nr {\lurtn)ns susgcst the unilorm
treatment ol th./,ar .oilrtliratcs r, y, :, rnd L Hoiy this mislt Le d,rne
rlas llroirn bv ri. iUi n^rdri. \\ii slall lul th.Lt tlie rpplicatjon ol his
lormalism rill sirlplilt- rmtrt. probitns, and thrt lrith its nelp man}-
rcl{tiriitic linrs { tl (xturtiu$ 1.urD out to be morc lucid than their noD-
relatif istic anrlosn{rs.
Classir.rl drvsn,,. is i:lLancterizerl bv the nl':rriance of lenglh and
tiDrc. 1\'e can lomnlit chrr.r.tc ,(i rclrtil-istic phl'sics Lv the inlrri-
aLce of the express;on
.z ." zt.. i.
Tlro invuirn{rc ,,r tr'j" qu"a""ii" forn of thc coijritinaie d fcrcnccs
rest cts the glotp of all corccirable lineir lrarislormatnDs ol rhe loLu
47
J
coordinat{rs:r, ?, ?, and I to that of t]]e Lorentz traLsformations, just as 'Ihe ne\v coLjrdinrte sr.sicrn is a rectansular Cart{rsicn
eq. 15.1i) is lormalll' irleniicsl with eq. (5.2a), thar is, ii
the invadnnce ol the cxt,ression
g n it t,t
: (:r,
s!' L)' + Q" ID' + Q, ,')'
ort ollolrnl tralrsnrrmations. The
(5.2)
l.' " -\, ;t "- '.1 (5.7)
s : z! drr. (s 2c) ar(t becausc i,his eqLuri n. -on*." ,., , *" ,to
','i"u,"
Il ile carry out a linear coijdin:rte transiormation, (5. r0)
l{ow \rc cr.n nLrliilty e.ts. (5.7s) by cr", md surn ovcr ihe thre{, possibte
J,: Lcl\r\t r" 7,2, 3, (5 3)
values of l. 1\-e oliiLn,, becausc of (5.10),
aal :Ir*ar', i-1,2,3' (;.-1) By subsiitutnrs c,,, for .ir, and so fo|th, nr e.ls. (;.in), ve oLtain
These cqualio$ can b{i solved wiih respe(i to the Ar!; L"", , 6". k, I : 1,2,3, (5.7b)
\-- (5.10r)
Eq. (5.24) expresss itscll in t.iDis ol thc ne$'cocirdinxiirs thusl
fther cqs. (5.?b) or (;.10a), tosether \dth eqs. (5.3), delnc the
s: 2- .,,..,,Arr1\J'. (5.6)
ol o ,1,. Aor.. I -e.'1 -urmr ione
erouD
t.
v-
50 VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS I Chdp. V VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS 5I
Tmnsformaiion determinant. \\:c sh:!11 nox' irvestigate (2) L.n:h litenl index vhich aattrs triu in a ptodu.:t is 6 :;umnatian
'., ,'r i^1s i..{ rr ,. i , L,) , I' r. indcx, tlihere Llt Nunntation is to hc catti.n. altt orct all y)ssiL)Lj 1)alll.
:l'he deternirurli oI the coofti{rj(lts .,/, , Thus, wri rvrite qs. (5.3) anrl (;.ti) like ihis:
l,t : c',t, )' ::,; ,
' : r :.1.
Sunuaiiion i dices are oltcn cxll(ll .l?r?,i,rf l?rd?.rs or sbply rftrarzer.
js i\|Lal to +1. T., frove tliis slrl(rrcill, \\' rlake use of th. nultil,li- TlIr siltrifiorncc ol an exr)r.ssirD is n.rt cbmg(i(l if c pajr oI dumnies is
(irtion law of d.t{rrninmts, irhic}r si'ltlls that the produ.rt of trvo d{rt.r repl.,i0cd by some oilrcr l(ittr, lor erlr(l]|lc,
mi nls a* {Ld lir to ilrc dcl.,rrinant Xq,O,.
is equeL . No"
Ne lom tho delemnrant ol l,oth sides ol eqs. (5.7b),
Vectors. The traLl"lornlrtion l:rn' ol x, a'|r, (5.1), is th s.nerrl
Thc r.alLre 11 of ttr{) delcrminant belongs to tLc "tnopcr" rohlnms. :,,,.".",,., : : a,,,,
6ra;a,
liilc the uhrr 1 bclongs to orthogon,l trtNfo.Imtions inloLlnrg.r 'ki
$li,,h provos thrt !q. (5.17) holds lu orihor.onal tran-\fomrations.
Tlic stdo.Fattltct al tua u(Lots is n..Ji11cd as tlL surn aJ th.) ?toducts
Improved notalion. r '1' r:r'- t ,, . ot ,tr o'- . u,-' g r' o! .orrcspt)ndtt Ls t..tot canpanel LtN,
lree dnnorsionrl l.ector (rnd i.t!sor) ,,!lc,,lus, cvcr'] litoral index $hich
(5.18)
wlriill o.crui rl\ricc in x pmdrlct is r surnaiion indea.
c\.er)' lileral inrl.x Tlxrt this .t-l,ressiorr !s rll inr.:r.riant NitI rcspect to oriLogonal trius-
From nolr on, tli(r.forc, \'c shrll omit all snmnxiion siqns anrL rll folnutions is shou bl' a conifutatjon ardogous to thc troot ot clt_
remarks of thc t]fc (t, r : 1, 2, 3), anrl it shiLl be underitooll lllal,: (5-17). The norn of a rcctol iJ the scalar. product of itrc l.ctor Ly
(.1) Io.h lite4l nnl.r ul&l1 ac.uts ottu i7L a padr.t asszn.s oll t1s itsclf
Tlrc $ord scalor frequently used i rajtor and t.nsor catculus in-
tr
52 VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS 53
ste d of ituaiunl. "scalar produci," mrns "irvariart product " Tiic three quantities lr,r traDslorm rccodins lo eq. (5.11); thercforc,
srms and ditrcrences of lctols ar.i, 4ain' vcctom, thcl' are the componcnt"r of r vector, $4nch is called ure gradient ol ure
o;+A;:s.,1 (5.1q) 't'hree nctians of the cadtLlkales, V t(., , r' , r'), dte tn utnpok:nts af a
l
at-bt:dt.) Nctot I.Ltl i.f at eacl1. space-point th.! tt ans|.tm ds thc &,i1!'Lqts d a
That thc rew quantitics sr and d, reallv lrarlslom accordins to c'1' ,cclr'. The lurctions I'; oi thc codrdinates rl arc, tLus, gir-cn by tlrr:
(5.11i) Iollo$s from thc lnriar, hotlosencous ol thrt h:rns
'lirractcr
YJt.r: c,Ii \rt, (5.1ra)
T11 produot oI a vcctor and a sc (nlvrriant) is a vccior,
'rr \,/here tle r" are con.ected with tlr(i i,]'thc trrnsformation cquatioLi.
(5.20) 'l
The gradieDt crertos a vector licld oui ol a scelar lield.
The dirergence does the oppositc. Ci\1xI r \..cior licld I/r, \'e lorm
'l'hc Drool is lelt to the rc'rder.
tlic surD ol tle thrce derir.rlti\-es ol c$cL conrx)nlnt $'ith respcct t., thc
The cliscussion of the rcnainnrg algebraic vector operation, the 1'ecto'
eoiirdinate r'lith the sa]rre nrdcx.
r, .Ju.r, m o-orle -:unr Ir"r', b 'I'ql r"r.t ':u" 1"rran''
inro.L ro , n. ori, 'i.' 'b^ ' ol0 vp'ror. (5.21)
"i,-"1
+""" ot thc thrcc coilrdinctes rr , 1et us tak) isa iDvariarll $'iilr Thc froccdui is e{acil-v the sarne as befor{r. \\-c rcplacc tlri) prirnr:d
that js,-r, lunction ot thi: threc codrdinrires r, vhich
quanLitie! and de vrtives b"\' tho uDlrirncd quariiitics,
reslcct i,o coilrdin:Ltc trrnslornation3. llc lorm ol the nrnction I/ ol
the coilnhntes will, ol cours.i, depend on thc codrdinate st-*tem uscd'
js
vi." - ,;,,,,(.c"v,) .,, : ,""1-,v,.^ . (5.26)
but in such a lvay lhai its valuc at a lixcd point P not ehmgcd bv the tle isht-hand
Because of eq. (5.10), ihis lasii cxpression is equal to side
tmnsformation.
y of eq. (5.25).
\\rlct is tlic hansfomttion l&w of the dedvrt'ives of $'ith respcct 'fhe ,:lir-ersenc.r of a gHdient ol a scalar fiel(1 is the Laplacian of that
to thc l,luec co6rdinatca, scalar field .Lrd, ol course, is it.sell c scalor 6cld,
,,: 'i:, (r.21) cliv grrd Ir = f." = v:Y. (5.27)
\\ie mr1st .xpress the .leri1-rli\.es with rc-.pect to ci in inns .'r th(i Tensors. In maDy palts of phr',.ics 1to crcou tcr qftrntiliics $'hrse
J ri\. ,i' i l. ' l lu, tralNlonalion laws are sone{trat niorc h\'.ilved lhan thoso .rf vcctors-
As an example, let us consider tlro so 0 1iit "''cci,or srnlicnt." \\'l](a
aI' a.r r al' (5.22) a l.criior ncld J'r is eivcn, lle can obtain & r$t ol iluarijtics 1i'Lich dcter
ar; 6,',, rtt; mine the chanse of ca{ih conlponcnt of tr'; a"s l'e proocql from :t point
\cc r,Lnc ^ pr. :.3, r\. r-ri' i^n' of 1," . t 'J \ riitlr the coo.dinaics tu l]n arhihar"v direction to tlrc i idtcsimally
"-i
n n r ,r.r .ln l rh"J lrr- I' cor " 6:li . l'he thrt!
'r +
,.,s,_ t, rct.,. ' near point 1'ith ihc codnthat(s incrcncnts of ilrc
o; dr:lined by ccLs (5 5). \\'e ha!c' thcrclore,
dll, : y, r6xr , (5.28)
v*-cl',v,
and thc nine quantjtics yi /, uc c&tlcd thc vccbor gradient of Iz;. 11ie
and, a,ccording to eq. (511), caD easily derive ;is l,lansfolnaiion lew in the usual DanDer:
(5.23)
v;.. : cL?-tr).r : c-tc,* t'*. (s.2e)
i4 VECTOR AND ]ENSOR CALCULUS I (hap. V chdp. v l VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS 55
The vector glrdient is one example of the nen' chss ol quantitics Il r tensor is noi. chrnced irlroi two or rnori: irdices a"!'c crchanged,
\i'hich ivc are no\i' goiDg to tre&t, the t.nsors llr g'tl'ral' a tt6ot hi:i then it is sl/rrr.rz ni these i nls. Tnstxtrctis .ue
N ;nnit^. atl oI uhich lalre atl Mlucs r t) 3 'i he tr1Lsa1 lns ttl'rdott! t: : Irt.
3" rnnpontnts. Thsr 3r camrntzrtts Ltansfatn ac(a ling to the tra'tv
tt),": tii,,: tr-i-: l1],G, - tat- = lt;a.
't'^.," : ".;e,,, ' .l"L (5.30) Tlrc firs1i tensor is
"vnli1riri.r in ils nrst t$o indic(i; the sccord tensor is
slnrritrir ii its lirsl, llrrco irdiccs.
'il'l uonbet aJ intli(.s. N, is catle'1its rank Tle v(ri'or gradicnt is I \\-hen s lcnsor rr${ins tle srD( or clungcs tlc sigr ot .crl.corn
n$or ol rrlh 2, \'c.itols rri tensom of rr k 1, l1rd scrla's ttru'bc pollirrl upor the pl.lmrlltio. ol celtein ir(l!,cs. tllc sign rlopcndiris on
c^lled li.nsors oI rlrlh 0 lrhdl]cr it js an ij\ur .r cn odd pijrrnrintioD, 1!. s{r'ihaj. ih(j icnsor is
One v.ry irn|ortrrt lensor is tle t{roner kcr sYmbol Tts vllues ir
jrto cq (5 30), lield lire sanc anlislr1])t.ttit Al:. Nlit,t:s! 1tut).it: ot .tlt tnatitll) 1lith rei|cct to i.hcsc
on(i corirdimte srstem, \l'hen substitut(rl indi0es. IDSi.Dc.s rrc
ir'loes jr rnothcr coordinxte svsi,em'
,ir : c.r,;ar; : .ki.b : 6 ' (5 3r) lu : ht,
acoordins to cq (s 7b). t&l: t$,,.: ttr"- = -t;t^: -]4th,,: -hrt*.
fLc srui ilillcrerce ol two tcrrsoN ol cquil ranh is a tens)r 'if th'i
or' All sncl sru rtrr prolcr|ius ol i tclrsor i.o irlllriant. Thc proot
slLrac lank. \Ve lormuhte this hN for icrsoF ol rrnk 3l is e\trenrell sirtrl)1. ar!l slralL l)c lrrt to rLc slullrnt
TnIU*t:Vrt, (5.32) The Tiloleclicr rixrsor is slrnnorlir irl iis 1,\!o in.:tices.
T. IrQ: It'r,. (5.33)
Tenso! analysis. \Vh.n 11 tcJ$or is dilTercrtirt(t \ jth rcsl)ect to Llic
l1s lor lfe rx'r$pondnrg laivi1'r \'ectors,
(iq (5 19) coindirrrics, I ne\! idlsor is obi rul, rlxi ll1nli ot irhich is sr.[icl.by 1.
The pr.iol is thes.mc _11. , r.
'Ihc pioduct of t*'o tetsors ol ranks rU :ind N is a ne$'tcdsor ol rank r. , ,, i ,t ",..rr' ra
(il + x), r:.., ..,. : (l',(!",,(:",,. :,,,r,,* ... c.jri...,,. (5.86)
:t',1, ) t
(5.31)
\\'hen Ure rc'slltirrg t{rsor js coxiucted rith r{rspect to th! in.l.x ot
The rank of a lrcnsor nay be lo\rcred bv 2 (rr Lv anv even number) difi(ir(intirlijon and .llotlxj incle\, kr.v.rple, ?'./, ...r , ir i-. otien cdt(ll
by ltn operrlion called "contmotioD " '{nv t]'o indices rlo conlert'd
iito a pair ol clunmy inllicc-c lin il1stru(1j, r'e (.ln contn'i lbe tensor Tensor densiiies. Tfc "\.rtor product,'of ttro \rytors a rud b is
?ri... io r-rLiair ilio tensorq ?",r ' or ?'." 'fh{r prool tlitii' these
usnrll! dclxlll rs r rectof rrlrjr,li is pcrpdrdicutar i.o a rnd io b xnd
Lr$' contncttai lensors 3,rc qla t(DsoIS is vcrv sinpie lror re first $'lich hxs LlLc nqtnitu,lc a . b sirl (a. b). As tii.rc arc rli,rr,; t$o
era plc gjl.cr ]re]e, it runs rs lolloirs I r,. r'l' /.. P. 1n,P
1",^, is nnrle bcl.rixr these t\yo r{ltorls b) LL{: tnrUrcr a)ndiijon rtrlt a, b,
s c is (lLlal to
risht lLrnrl an(l P slall lo[n r "scr.en" ol il. scn]c t].lnr as r.llc.oin.difai.c des in
Bec:luse of cq. (;10.rJ, tho
thc sequorc i, t/. .. I. lig. 0, ttrc rcclor pr s{ristics ihis c.jn(ljrion,
T',",...: a,.,,,., ?'r,-.. - c1,," ' Tt"" ' (5.35) but orl-\- ln.arsc ilr.hosc; roi;r(tnr.tc s$tdr is 11 ,! iAhtJrm(lc.l';
coitrlinatc srstdn. Tl \c (ar,! nur a '!.cltccln,r', itor .xrmpti,,
Nhcn {e conl.r.lct tlrc rector gi li(rll (tens''r ol l.rrk 2)' \e obtri]I ihc sn.e
the positi!. I-axis th. diroctim io it,. r.ir ot tlrc ljBu() nrsimLl oi io
(livers,ince (tcnsor.il rcrl0). rle op{aaLion* Pro(Lrrcl, (s'31)' l1nd ihe
t'nirrE such as ?'n'-rt tho lronl), & bcco.r.s rlutonaiicaitr rhc rccror t),o{lu.r: ot a rnrt b.
funtmcr,iur car bc conbDcd so thct tlic)' : nrLd
' The i_octor procluct is, ihns. lot in ordinar rror. Lut .hroAr ils
:1 II| G,,'lnL; *, T,.t'],t
fc;l";,',",r,. j,.," "17- n.:Lr! pnpotirs \riih rc-\p'(t io tlicir indiccs'
sign irnen \rc tr.nsftrro .r rishrhndc.L coi',duDrc slstcnr iDh; tcft-
V
values in every coiir.linaic s)stom. Likenisc, thcre exisls a coNttlnt Bccaus{j these tryo v{rjtor d.nsitics []r rtrd 6r hansfon titre v{ltors
t;";. J;"t,r: "f ra:nk 3, thc Ll-i-Civitr tensor donsiiv'alLdefincd a-r
con;
cxcct)t lor tle changc ol sign 1rr rhe casc oI (!)in.ciine1,c retectii,rs, $ex
r"ii""". ;'.,,, "1"""y.ltl.'ltic in its Lht'c i1trL es; tl1c4ott' thosc arc irlrt(ll a:! \'ll]].ors in l(rior cxl.ru|rs, but Llxiv arc, rct.irred ro lls
'rt o I Tt 4 J4' 'lirial" rectors, inlplyins ihrt 1h{y Ia1,e sonething to do \rirh
'".,,r, - , .r' d -l 1 t' n'tun tt t ' l 1
\o*,1,x \'l: '" i,1..' rill l)c at)t)iical)1(i to the trrol)lcms \\1 shitt djscuss lrter.. Tnc gdrd.alizr
p,-"ntll ot" obtrin{rd snDplv bv using the svmmetrv properties tion it to l)c (jLDied .iui. in tto siqrs. Iirsi:, ve hrrc to cxr.r.d i.hc
They llrc forllr,lism so ihat il .il)|lics to ary tositi\c jrt.srat nuD$cr ot dinjcr-
D:",: Di,,: D,,": -D"," - -n;'": t'"" 15.12) siom; sccord. rl'e "nrall hr1-c to corlsid.r (ioardinat(j trcnslorDarjons o ,.r
tLon ortlllgorrl lrDsf oDlatiors.
In oiher Fords, the ,1,,. are ag&ni equal to 6,,,^" , and the prool is
n dimensional contjnuum. 'llo lirsr gencralizrtion is alDrost trivirt.
Instcr(l ol threc codrdiui.s :r,, hr1.c ,r coi'dinarcs.
Vector prcduci and curl. Iiitli Ure lich "f rlrc l'e!i Ci1'ita
tensor
iiensors ol rar* 2 vit]r vector r, .. x,., dcsr!.itri.g an n diircnsnmrl nranilold. l\i. aslumc, aEain,
densitl,, 11t can associ!,te skewsvDuEtric rh, 1,, \: "1 ,o "inr-,
(5.13) (5.2b)
rvhcrc the sruun:itidr is to be cuirrt oui o'd all n vatucs oI tLe
The conYorse rclaiion is
inclex i. llq. (5.2L) is irrariani \itl respect io tte group of n dimen-
(5.41)
sional, ortLosonal tll],nslormrtioDs,
curl' dlined bv
-{pplving e(1. (5'13) 1., thc vcctor Produci antl to the
irs. (5.37) ard (5.3s), r.spectiv{tv, rvc obtain
,:, : """,,
+ ri , (5.3a)
$herc the .'* hale to satisf}. the con{lirions
F, : 6"rrorb!,
(5.371)
(5.38b) (5.10b)
60 VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS tchaP v ch3p. v I VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS 61
rt, in.t,co. ra;..J' ..,r -1..... .'.r, i": vauisirc-r nor.hcrc; end thet the frarc mrl lor all rcrl values c,t rhe
; ';;;r. f,'4 14, ni,"1 '" ; hw -rin q'r ro-r'
vrt,rs are Llefincd bv thc trunslornution . r.,r.:r,
" r. .1. ,J ,n at,
" ir iq ot.r. a,,.
(5.16:l) But tlro s(tr c ol ihe distaDce bcirv(lJr tno inlidt$iDrLlly rc,r ponrts
ronrins a quadutic lorm ol thc coinrlinate d;ilcrtintials. II1 1cnrs ot
ibe nlgelrra lind :Iat1]l'sis
ald t}]cir algrt,ra and nndlsis are identical i'ith (.. r" i.n.oo'li h rr r'rr. ir d rlr . ,j!i\r' ur
ol lhrce dinltusnm rectlrrc '
'r,
'l'en.ors and tlrnsor drinsitn's aIe (lcfincd os in tluce
dinensionil tl" : drrdxL (5.47)
1 to ?r. a,r is agrin s}-rnnretri(i
sprce, cx(pt that 1 irdiccs mn from
11
and rhr can be exprcsstd in t{Jn$ ol the ,tr,
, otr ,-t
(5.48)
,ri
SuL)-{tiiutidi jrito {rr. (5.-17) r'i.,ldj
,.'.,h. r i- ' ,on / r' ' I \ 'l' lla trm rr'rrr"i : (5.51)
il., .";;.; ;;. ,, i ,. r '. r Ln" r"rin r ri-u' "'|:tr'|l " dl".
.l'coLir of thc transformrlion, The sun or tlie dilTerencc of contravarit.nt \.ectors, anrt the producr ot a
contu,vadtrnt reclor: rd d s.,lar arc rlso contHvariarii rcdols.
d't ;"lt l
It is inipossiblc to form scahr products ol roDtrava;ont vectors rtone.
62 VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS lChap. V VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS Ii3
To fin,l out irlnt rcrresDonds to the s.rhr prochlct in our fonulisnr, rnd, because eq. (5.55) holds for all translormetions, it fotlo$,s {ron eq.
N. shalL co si:ler tu sceler lield l'(t', , t"). The change ol Ir alons (5.7b) tl1l1t (rr,/drj), too. is
ar infioitesinal disl)lac.mcnt dli is sivcl Lv
. ,I' (5.5t)
bl-: I.6< l.':;F. (5.52)
vlLi<ti cxprc-r-.cs lhe irr.ariance ol dsr. \Vhtrr rvr: rcplrcc thc dlron thc
eq. (s.1s), sn : ii: i;, r tcnsor when we cri$nse rrom &
l.ft-lritI)d side bl' (d!','rf"") .d{"", ilc obt:'ni
to
"-*--. "s
d{^ a{"
arr af;
::
',:,
.'Far''''
" ''f
.a! ,!'.J
)
,',, le(rnsc tlc d{"" c a$itmr}', it follo$s that the coefficients on both
sides aro cqual,
Il
ihl
tlic (ltitoDirrDt ol
is, cit. (;.60) is satisned.
l,hc coDponents of
rrossible to drfinc n{xv rturntitics girby lhe equatioDs
g! does Dot \anish, it is
'r' d inor,.r s"rd., r ',r'.'J \" r." 'b i, o ,,r"J ',scrr ihat is, the grrr are thc coniporcnts of r contravsriant tcndor. This
ro n':ol $ie can sho\y l,l,is by mulliplyins
tensor is syrinnetric. cc}. (5.64) bJ.
r'.;,n,o,:rJ.-r'-. r'l' r- '|r'i r'ri6q4tt
arc intlcpcndenb of tlis cssunpii{m, \rc shall consnlo the equttion 9&s". Thc lcft hand si.lc l)(om.s
,r,,,t.t' (1tt : (5.62) gtLg glg - gttg g tln: .& |tr: Atu ,
s:.,dt"",Jt'",
CALCULUS t Ch"P' V
chdp. v I VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCtiLtJS {i7
66 VECTOR AND TENSOR
It' is a conNtdnt thc t)alue aj uhidr is charuttct*tic lor an! li,rctL tt:ttsot
rdile tLe fighlhrnd s e is equal to tli': car.stant * caLl.ctl the u..ighl oI th. tensoT rlrrrly. TdNors
.lens.it!;
;:ig,.u" - g,(t" : s",s" : {"' arc td$or densilics of ircisht zer.,. Decnding on ihc runbcr of in-
diccs, {e speak also ol scrlar dcnsitics and l,ector densirics.
Thesurrlol t\ro cl{Dsitios\iih thc s:rme nur$e$ of likc indices and the
Itl same eipihl is r d.nsitt $ith th. same characicr.istics. In the rnulti-
plication, thc ircishts arc adcl{rl.
Comprrins tlris equition with ctl (5 0'l), rve tind thrt Thc L(\.i Oiviia st'mbols 4.,. .." and 6" '" arc densities of l!.ciglrr
s :g (5.68) (-1) :lnd (+i), res]xictir.rlv. (,, is ihii number of dincnsions.) Tlro
plool is snrple and in osons to lho on{r si1.en lor orihosonat trans-
, i-, L,l r ' - ,,,1 rilr'r : 1o T !" o 'or-
,l-,'r 'o | | :ru.'"r I J r" r" 'rl l^r ''
;"" TIle determinant of the covaiurt mtric tensor,
"', ^ :*;
: *e lr. " (5.71) .cedcd ur.rvnerc in the sp@iaL ihforJ ol rl:ii,iviir, .nd nry l,e lDifa.d by ihosc
slo rre not inircsted in lhc sux,{t th.r.ry oI ..taiivity.
v-
Chap, V ] VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS 69
68 VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS I ch.p v
ai l,he sam difierorce is gi\'n by,{r..d:'". If it $ere
point. The Thc coefficients r;1 rnd lli ol ih{,sc r!r$' lenhtil'e h11s are, so fcr,
possible to defin. "thc s r)e \-e(tor'r ol
lrthe parjlllul Yecto." !t ft neigh- cniirel"v unliDoirx (Ltrrntitics. But Ne cen deterDrnre tllir trtnslolna
ln)ring foint, the din.rcnce bet\r.(n the parallel tlisplacerl vci:tor and
ti.in la\rs. 6d' ;s tLc differcrrc bct$'ccn t\o l.eclors rt trvo pr)iDts,
thc :r0tu!l tcctor at a cighborins point would be subject only to the chanctciized bI the coiirrlinate r.elrcs tr rnd tr I ,l'. In tlre ccso of r
trarsformition la]r at thrt point. coordirutr lrl1nslolrrration, thc nclv Da"' arc given l))' the frnLoving ex-
A definitiin ol prmli.l d;-*l)lacenent is acluallj' possil,lc in a com-
prralil.ell' sirilfle \st'. Ol course, the vdrt: ol tne (lisl)hccd vector
d{rinnds on tlic original 1'ecior itscll ard on 1.hc direction ol displace-
: (.i*.),,,, - (i1.),, -,t. (#,)u
m.nt. Let rls nrsi tunsi:lel a ltxrlidcsn spsce, 11herc rre can introduce
:l Cartcsian coindinrto s)sten). l\'itli rcspect to srr:li |r, codrdinstc svs- : il't" 0".-,
oi i- irt'r0" rot.-r (5.80)
tem, t1n la\r of tlrellcl displacencnt takcs t|e form a!;i]gr "-
,t'." u - +at
:.,11! a af ^, '''
\herc 6ri r{rprcsents the i
inilesinul disphccment. L+ us nox'intro-
duce a! coorthxlh trrnsfo.mttion (5.10) Thc vcctor conF ,\s stakr:l bcforc, ad'docs not trenslorm lihc a lcclor;this was the
'rrlii,aly
ponents $ith rcspect to thrt ne1v codrdirratc system nav be denot.d or;gnid sourrr. ol orr riilliculll.
by a p mc. Then rvc have xc substitute the exp(:ssion (;.80) n,to t],o lcll,-]Iend side ot the
a' : a,i""
6d't : -r:..o"'5t"'
do" . J. '1."u: o, ,r," L o r
l4 ,-) d tia' I n, ; ai,a/.
d:. :rnd replace a'- ard a" l,y l|e erpr(issnnls lrorn etts. (5.51) :rn,t (;.50).
.'r^ \/. /
^'
6i,r ifLrFiorms a0cordins to.x]. (s.18), and we obiAnr
I'or "
0 " 6 -1,.,..."'...'.
'
.d
rl'. ;;Ut/ o!,., 'dt ,"J ' o, a, o''
ujji Substitutire 6d' lron err. (5.78), Nc sci
,l rn" itu:ll jrcremcnt ol tl
a result or rh" disphcenent,
as
^
snd sh:rll bc deroted Ly oaj. Iuliit,Lying the dsht-hrnlt si(l{r of eq. (#, . i')' at :,i:,r"'l,i'jl', *'
"
1lh.n no Crrlcsian coiird;n:rte s\'stdtr can be iniroduced, x'e slull '"' L' t'' -r.',
retrir ure li rrr lorm ol Lhe l:LSt equttion aDd assulre thrt, i)cc:ltic.'l
a tlie inliritlsima] ch:lDges ol ihe 1'ector com-
parl1]]e] disr)hcement, Tlre l,rmsfornatior 1iN' ol ure li is obttlined bt' multiplic$tion by
ponents rrc bilin(llr lunctions ol ihe 1'ertor cornpotrcnts and ihe coln- d!" at'
pon.nts ol tho iDlinitesim::il displacemcui, dab a{L'
(5.78)
(5.7s)
i:,:; ;; ('' i: *+) (5.E1)
70 VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS I ch'p v ch"p v l VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS 7I
stroDgly sussested not onlv becausc in Cartesian codrdjna{cs lihe inncr
Thr l:rst tern on the ight-hrrld sidc c|rn l)e w ttcn in & slishtl]' difrcrent
produci, ol two conslillnt vect.,$ is itself a consirnt. bLLt t)(!r)se of
\xy. LJ r,r.r ; I ' or'l o', ' " Tr ' {rother considcrrtion $hich.]{)cs not rcld ro Crrrcsirn cortrdi.rtes.
or"rl < r dl1. \ ""af a.a/{') l3y extendins ilxr ]trr or defiirtnrn of ,,p:rralld,, disdrc(Denr (5.is),
ui ". r.- ' o"\"''"4/ "."i \" / (5.79) frorn l'cctors to tensors, \rc can disl,ljco rnl, tclsor ,,parr1|1,,
t,r itsell accordins to the rule
- t' a o ' (i br)
p:lrentlicsis
a,"t = ri1:.r..j +'ir",.,: -
ij",,,:tae".
Thc ilrst tcrnr on tle rigbtlhmd sirlc r.anish's, lnrca:usc the This rul.r is deil.ed rio,! th{i postr rrti, tl,xr the ,l)rr^ltet djsrhcernenr,,
in thrt tcrm is consta i, Iq (5.81) tlni be(rnncs ol r prorluct is givcn by t|e same lils,ihat ruptics to rtie .lificrdrtirri.xr
lr
v
72 VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS {ChdP' V
(hap, V ] VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS 73
ol t]]c same veclor (a + aa). at thc point (t' + ,l'), is exprcsscd bv t}rc
Thc ].,ft-hcnd side ol eq. (5.89) is called the Christoflet s]-mbol of rhe
first kind. It is denoi,ed by the sign [tA, s],
at + 6at = ls., + 6s")(ai+ ra'), (5.88)
: i(g,., .t- eA,' (5.8e!)
ur,,
"l 1] .J.
In ih{: c:rse ol C-rartesian conrd;Ht(is, both kinds ol Chrisiofrcl three-
aq -1 6. indcx svnbols 1'rnish.
Tlr! loncept ol parallit rli,.placement is lxl.pendentj of the eriistcncc
nq. (5.88) must bc setjslied up to lirrr:ir terns i]l t e dillcrentials md oI a metric tensor. $ c c,rll a space \i.irh a ll1$ ol t,:1r. t.l Cisplaccm.nt
lol nrL)itr l' or an(l at'. Il \rc multipl]- out the dglrt hlnd side ol an oLlnelu .otuL.t:tcd spacc end ihc rji thc canpa\ents ol thc.rfirL..rn-
i!1. (5.88), we oltanl
?ledllolr. [rhen a metric is d(]End. covarianb ond contravariffrt \'ec-
6a dtq a, ! g 6t'
.,r,,.r.r .rr .,,u.,..,.",,r.,../,J.",..,
S,,bstittrtins 60r and aar lrom (rs (5.78) llnd (5 79)' Nc obtain l,tl
tho pardlrt disphcemert ol a I'cctor does not dcpcnd on $hich of ilic
Iild,ar: dit.i.Jlt t i'i,a'agi two rcprcs{ltlti(rrs lLrs been choscn.
Wc shaLl l:iurn noir to oru oisnral program, ilic {orm!,t:ion of n{:rv
tensors br dilT.rcnriatiorl. U.insj{lr a "tensor ndd,r' that is, a tcLso.
o'6t (s",r'|, + I,Nl:! u*'):0 (5 88c) thc c.,npononts ol \vhich arc lunotions of thc coordjnates. l{o$,, $e
can ta]rc thc v.Llue ol tliis t{$or At a DoiDr (!') and rhen disptr.e ir
a" urd 6grare arLitmr)'; therelor{r, thc cont{) ts ol the p'rorihcsis pamll.l to itseu lo ihc point (l' * 6t). l'he value of th{r t.jnsor fie]d
sL lhe r)oint (i + af), Dirus thc v'r1rrc of the parallrt displaced tensor,
Now n'e nalre rNc ol ure svnmctry condition ar(l wiio the vaDisling is itself a tensor. In thc casc ol a mix(ll tensor ot ranh two. i}e vahe
bracket tlown threc times, iriiL diflerent nrdex combirrtio s: of the tensor at 1,he poirt (f' I at') is
ri,g,, I llil" - gir.":0, ,il + r,i."6t",
riLs. * r'lrr- g;i:0' and the 1.aluc of thc prnllel displaced tensor
|lj/7," i. r'lrs,r 0t"t: A.
,: ,(\1. f. 'f:lt';
1.. /
\
\\'(i sublr rt the lirst ol tl1lrslr equatnDs lrom the suni oI the other
tll'o equrliions. Serdxl terDrs cancel, rnd we obfirin thc equntion rr a riFp'or .4 lp wFAl I a p ..o i.r1. ...r.
r "-
g-rl": l(gr.* * sn n".") (i 8e)
$'e nNltiply i,ltis qurliior b,1'1,r"' lo obtoin lhe final cxlRrssion tor ft" i;)'.:'{i:},,)." (5.9r)
ri', This cxpression is a tensor bccrusc of the rvay $c ha!'e obtaincd ir.
rjL : lsr'(r," r l- eh., r* r. (5.e0) As 6t" is itsolf r 1'ector and arbiirary, the expression ir tLc parenrhcsis
is r tensor. Tlis tensor is (irlle.l th," covrriant dcft,ative of t,..r wirh
This e:r)rcssiorl is usually rrilcrred to ts 1,he C-rhdsloiTel tl1rcc-index sspd ,o t. l, :. d Dr -.1 \.ir' rrp ordir. \ .,,.-\'' !^ ,nFr, rl,,
1it
... , .r oi ,1" - c n I :irJ. r'J i. reno'JLJ h.J'oLo ;l 1_;
irtrl
f\rn.1,,.1., r.r{"", n.ni.,.!,1, ,, rl, -."i,1r.i..(L-
otdinAte!. Two of the morc usual noi,atioLs ot the covariart dcriv&ti'e
:'" +!t. '-ou)' (5.90a) arcv.,,1 anr,.. \\,,."1.., t. "1",
{,i The corarianl deriraLtir.s of ar arb;trarr tcnsor are fomcd by a.ld-
l..,
F
71 VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS I chip v ChdP. V ] VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS 75
Ir.r'..: r"',' ji \ol r"'Lr "r nr 'r'l and the cltremals arc given br ihe cquntions
,.',r. ,','',i'o"'r'1: irJi' IrF-"
#" *ci"):,
'
";,,,. (5.115)
]''' , Irl .
In oul ca.re, the Lagrangi:ur is the integmn.t of the lasi explcssion of
p. s.tJ. h " h"r.. i. 1.r.. , ! "rr.,o,, rir | .. Tr. ., x i.p
r hi. ro- ',rr ' I' lr' ' dL . aL r'r l ,1t'
oa "r,i
-, ".).,""'"nt'
,.] ,
't Al
dl. 4.t \ |
(ii cFDtirtion' J. nL..! zrg t.{, -2J l : t,tto
,"'
this deftiiion sriisfics th. rLrlc lor product
i-4r. .),.: l:.R '+-'l'B" + , dL : tt,t" -r rtt,
+t
-f u.'-,*: r '
leJrxltltcss olshctler solre of ine irclices ol 'l' B, , are dumnics
:rhe ror.nri.rnt rlon'rti\es ol i|e Dlctrio ttnsor \rridr, bec'usc ol ille
vlrlisl,irs pNrcrth{:sis ol cq. (5 ssa) An(l sin'c lhe 'o!'ari:rlt dif #(#,).
ft*.iirti"r,i ,,l,"ys tlrc l:rii'ol lr.'tluct dlHc*niirtion, nLdices 'i1n be
Discd aud los'cred under i,tle dificrenti{fion, hW) -;il,,.,t't'+ n,,t" *'*' #^41,7
at" : s r!j'.", rnd so frrth. (5.e2)
Geodesiclines.'fhcChristoficlsvinbolsalrlxrarnolonlvirconncciion
- * su.*)t't' - sut '
Fitlr coldirDli ttifierntirtion rrd prrrltel disl)h(orent, Lut also in 'r," 1,.,"'ft {r+,,,,
r:orncctirxL riitli a problem Nlicll is norc di"utl) rlated
t'' the mLric (5 eu)
,,i . . . . ' . r . , t' , 'r'c l"ll, ilnr 'r r' o or'r 'rtI - t,t'ffi\1at'an.
"
ri.,,or or.rl,n r' .o;r6r'.or r ". l 't 'l' '
.;,.. " .,' i .o.., i,r|r ir' ll. Be.{Lrse tlle parcnthc-qis is multipli{al bv an exi)rcssnD svmmeidc with
,r",1-r"' lr''.n', 1'. "' 'n l \ir'. resfect to i rncl A, e s)umctrize lho psr.jrihesis iLsolf ald writel
rli tlic pnpertns ol straisllt liles, Lut tlrcre is, irr geneul, I uniqull r' ,t,
rlcic.miircJ shortest ,]onnecii4 ltuc Lretw:'n tllo poinls ln the cl1sri 6s,,: ..
1
' l
J, - i rr "'r / tl
r" ' 't rp
;e3r Thc parenthcsis is no$' an e:pression enco(uicr(xl lri,lore, eq. (5.89a).
""'tP Thc dificrcntirl equ:Ltiors lor thc good{rsic hrcs ar.c, thrN,
u
!" r.1,",,'"ya" - I.+l!!" !r(!!,)]n",', t"'t ." +
{;}"d' *' P,,,'}',, =
"
(5.e8)
v
VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS 'i1-
76 VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS tchap' v
Tlic (rtxlitio$ for Lor{ltz transloural,ioD-* trc th,t
il Ne choosc as tllc p:rrrmetcr tlic arc ldrgtli s itscu, the last teln
vanishcsi and lve ltdve: ,r,lr*r^t:1 : ?"^jr'lr" (J.10+l
ax'. By substitLLlirg A:'*" iron
{!.'l/141{: o. (5.S!) for arbitrary
r7,,7u,1'"1:u'.\e"
eq. (5.103), we st
: ?""4r'Ar", (5.105)
$ilcn tho codrdiMt svstem is Certsian, tLe second tcrm mnish's and, bccausc thc A:r" l]rc rrbitrary,
ii"",i""ii", cq (5.1e) simpLv stcics tli&i thc :' niust l'c linedr
""4 (5.106)
'flrcsc rre thc conditims lortle transformalion coefrcients oI lorclrtz
Minkowski s'orld and Lorentz tGnsformations ll'e can now return iransfor! aiions, corrcspntlins io tle conditions (5.10a) for orthoeonal
iro our ltartirq poinii, llinko$shirs truim'i t of the thcory
ol rcl'rliviiv
n" iL,, or.Lnrar], tlrcc dinensbnal sPacc Plus the ti e.&s 'llro rli]}.rcnc. bclir(n r Ituclidean fotll dimonsjonel space md rhc
",-'ia".,,i
r"r. ,ii'.",.i.ll1r *.inuun, the "ri'o|lcl," $ith tlrc invcixnt "lc stll" Minkowski r(,rld is lhal il thc l&tter t]lc irrQLriut ruj is not posiri\1]
"." l;i',t".*r" d(iline.l Lv eq (sl). A'\i'orldpoini" is ano inarv dclinite. Thlt is wht' I]o rcd coordjrat{) iirl.slom]lltion cl1]l ccrty i]q.
ur codtu:n.t'^, ,l "rd
/'
hir' tr
(5.1{11) over nrto e.1. (5.2b), page 50. \Ie hai1,, thercfore, io dis-
"rl ';.,i' nor , r lI r, , r, ard
". ,'r.,
",,:',L
o lr "r, 'c teDsoi'" trurr1\'ilh '" By rrrro'l 'nr thguish between contEvariant and (tr-&rirnt indiccs-
a "met 4!, tlic components h order to recognizc coordinrtcs rn(l ter$o$ ol thc lrjDkowski
as !uch, ric shll adopt the conveni.ion of rrsing in seneral the
1
a' 0, 0, 'rorld {\nurbet for nldices belonsn}s io tli{r or.inrarr- spnce,
Latnr nulnil,j
"l
from 1to 3, and ol usjng Grcek lott.$ for lTinhos.sli indiccs, rlrrnils
0, 1
0, lrom 1 lo 4. \1ie shall call1'ectols :ln(] tenso$ of thc Vinkowski rvorld
, (5.100)
"$orld vectors" ,nd '$orld tensol.s."
0, 0, '.',l The contravarimt lnctrjc teDsor has ihc ooDrponent!
0, 0, 0, + o, o. ol
0, r, u, 0l
\'e i.an \\'rrt( eq. (J.r) Ln rrr' lonn
(s r01)
0, 0, -c, 0l' (5.r07)
0, 0, 0, I
+11
The LoreDiz trarsformations arc lhos linerr codrdinnte transtoNr- Whc[ contravalirnt tcnsors translorm iliil, the corflio;fnts.rp" which
tions NhicL cart' ihc metrio tensorya, over into itsell' The
niertial
satislr the conditions (5.100), tlre c.icfli(injrts or urc cor.rrianr rmns,
rDr.il I'i:\ rh"u'vi " 'h rr'tsou to I
-.r.m.,,1 u"' ion I I id'-
Lnc lormatidr lar' rre the solutions of thc cquations
i'r.te',rn '^n Ji u dr r-v rhr Ll
g*'""t"t,.rlta tllc hrcntz tr$slormations to l'he thre'
correspond (5.10s)
co-
ii-".'i.r"r ofthosonirl trrnslornntions Their tmn'slomntion
Tn old.ir to nnd an cxplicit e\prlrNsn)n for these co{:lfirients
...\\'h;; ftrc also subjcct to oonditnns similar lo
efhcients (5'10r)' 1,", one cao
multiply tlrc trmslorrnetion equaiioN ol !, co{alianr
linear ilanslomrtion lnot nccessarilJ 'r 'ector
". "*-v ""t ".."
r".""i, t'"""i".'i"t."), thc iransformrtion oquciiions :ut ol the lorm ,! 1J,x : (5.1ur)
." : r^,r' + .,,i ,
(5.102)
by ,"! arld rcphce r, by 13;f. Thc rcsult is
Rnd tlle codrdinttc diHerenrcs tnnslom as contrl\'sricni vcctors' :
(5.10t1
n,,",,!, n"\ ! n,,,,
L,&
78 VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS I chap v (hap. V j VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS 7g
(5.i12)
Do1)": ""16r - 1t,
We shall now alemonstmte ho$' the trt'nsformation coefficieDts of a ,,'" ,' lt"(1.')- t
Lorcntz traDsfomaiion arc rclated to tle retative velocitv o{ the two
(5.117)
codralinate systems S s,nd S+. WLen a point is in a' state of stuaight-
ro- Now we trcat eq. (5.116) in aD r,nalosous way. Ir
line. lnjlorm n otiou, i's velo.iLy i5 dF..ibeo b)' thF ral oa oI l'be is
nfllinare difiereD.F. o[ aDv L\ro world poiots aloog its pstL
,,,= ljl
",' (Y")'-
, Ari
u.= {Ja. =
Again we haye
.)'stem S+ is 1be velociiJ
The \elo"itv of lbe syslem S relati!" Lo lbe
ol a panicle P. whi.b ic ar "F"t i" S rFl,live to Sr' Tbe 6rst rbr-ed I (r".1 :i ltr'"f - rt.
am*u"*" of P with respect to S, Acr, varish The co-
""otil""t"
orclinate difierences with rcspect to S+ s,r, therfore, given by
Paths' world lines. Ordin ilv, ilic motnn ol a particlc alone iis peth The velocit]' ol a body in terms ol the usurt desc ption (i.120),
is dcsc;bed by stnting thc lunctional dependencc ol the threr sp:r0c (5.121) ;s rcphced by the dir(ictioD ol i.h{,11orld ]ilro iD itre lour dinlen_
..nrdinatcs on the time t, sjonxl descliptior. \\'hen ihc l)odv is at rcsr, ttle line is tr.al(d to the
lt = f (5.120) I'rxis; and \1l,en rhe body js nlovins, rhe tine wil rlu ar nn arokl
(.t).
,1,.,,u r,.Yr-,:.. \\n.. ".1, ir-oi,, ion:r r"rlnr,Iir
The components ol tlle rclocitl' are siven as lhe dori\'ativcF'
(5.12r ) (5.126)
'lhe lour quantiiiics 4,":rrc the cornlonenis ot a contra\arriant unjt
ol rel&tivitv
This kincl ol desoription is, ot coune, possiblc in the theory
* i" non-;ehiivjstic phvsics Ho\rc'er, it is oltcn uselul to
"r '"al
choose a description in rvhi.h the time is not sct apart lrom tllc spati rpul'1.:" - 1. (s.t2i-)
coorrlinates ls eqs (5.120) c d (5 121)' l'hrs can be verilicd {).isilt'b} rel)lacirg d, in eq. (5.126) bx iis de[ni_
ihe,notion ol a moss point is, in tnns ol thc X{inko$slii llorld'
, t..-"nr" r 1.,) a lrr.. " IlI rr' ' hi'' \!" ' ro cd\" PeouJ\
.lFscriLt L,\' N Jjrr, rneil r rclr lenlniron' tl, : \/,t*dt, tt?.
(5.122) Th. a:' are lchlttl i1r1. sim|lr lo 1.h. l'elocitv coriponcnts z"of
(t.
ool-r , b,r'1rr fn r 'l'ri 'J "'u'g'h $'i' :P S'r'h c(1. i5.121);rnaklrs usc ol (5.125j, \,c haye
'n,
,,,r,er'd r:nr'o r'p, rnr "r I u_'.:n'D': r'' gro \' r:t :'!:d- 1 I
t, td e ,r.." -. l'" rr' l"n: l' ' ' ' o'p r"-b4 ^,/t -,i, I
,,..m.1er. l- r.. 1h....i s'.1.s",rrr'P'. In"l! 1r '"r h" (5.123)
rr
'.
\1
rl',nqc norll 'n" J'E'lr'r'IrgbSi orrlharr ,":'#:'!;#-",,,)
'',,
qcomctry is defined :rs u1(i line i iegrol
In the follo$ing chrt)t.Is, Ne slrl1Ll use ,,irnd t.Ir corlsistenih, i. fl,F
'. 1,,\,\'' ', o..,r. J 1,.' I r..u., , r',..o,.,.
' 1" J 'rd' t r''
'lr. l'. noinor "'..,
\ ,,.^.rir.I -"r,..
rlong the Forld line ol [rhen a irody mo\'e! \riilurt bcjng rc(derated, irs dir.cotion in itre
r is sir.en lr, thc intcgr:rl ol u1c diJT{:rential rJ'z
\{nrkowski norl<l is consiant rnd its rfo.ld line is i1 ,.traighr lnre. .fhe
lsl1 ol inrtia i,rkcs a ver) simplc lonn irr our new dcsclipl;on:
:[ f u, ,u"'t
^/;,tu,t"': l ^"4;) ";,1 1. I'roro that thc risht-h:iDd snlc oI cq. (5.s0a) iiiustornN lccordnrs
to eq. (5.32).
\1ie 0an. therelcre. descril)c th(i Path bv equrtioD3 ol the lorm
(s.t21) 2. I'rove thl1l tirc sxrrr.trr propcrtj.rs {ith resp0ct to hdiccs ot thc
r':11'lr.). s,]re translormrtion ch:uicter arc ir\"L ant.
ris rh1,cd to tlli: n" Lv a difllrr'nfial {tlLratir)tr \\'lrol] Rc divide tllc 3. For thrce dineDsionol RiernD,ian space, dc{inc rhe dj$erenri:
(5 i21)' $'e obtanl
nrtcgrard of cq. (r'r23) bv.ll antl trkc tccounL ol (1 o]rcrstio:Is smdiert (oi a scslcr), divcrgonce, and curt, and pmve dret
the rclation holds:
';: \/'- lr (4,r' : "\/1- 'xtc (5.125)
cu.l sr. Y-0.
t-
v
82 VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCULUS I ChAP. V VECTOR AND TENSOR CALCI]LI]S 83
Treating "a\ir,l" vcctors as skcNsJmnetric tc]Isors oI unk 2' d!ftre n."wl: Tlrc ltiernriDirn coi)rdirutcs nic obtrined b)' e conlorDral
ll
also thc di'ivcrgence of an tiriiaL vector d provc the relation translorttrlli.irrr lerdins fiorn.r t)Linc to r spherical surftrn:, lanilitr
divcurlA:0, lro lllr tL.oN ol compley iurci.i(rLs.
9. Tlrc T,aplrciar ot)crl1i.or i]r,,linleDliors i",lcfincd as the diver-
$hcre A is & Polar vector' genrc ol the gr:ldient oi r scrhr, in sereral condimi.s:
4. Prole tlrat the folloilbs lel't'ions Lold in ihee rlnnen''nrnai
sprcc:
r,I' : ,-1,....
6,iiti'- - 26i; 0,,,,6'-" - afai - t;6i (a) Usin,j thc [J,. ], Nritc out thc ghl l,rnd sjde.
Statc sirdltd lelatio s lor thc llirkow-'lri
11o|l'l' (ir) Introrlr0c 11 coiirdlnl1ic s!.tcm 1lLc .oi]l.clinei.cs of $hicl ar.e
in ]|e C{rtesian thrce c\,er)'\'hcre orlh.iConal io c.rcii othl]l, ir other $1rrds. where thc lilrl
5. $ith the help ol l'robicDl 4' prove tl'ili
{rlemeDt td(cs thc form
dn en-*i ial geometrY tiic r'li'tnn holds:
rhl
i 'lr'.' -"1 ' ./, , .,
vt/ vt ,l.r
,
! : zil'o:j ,), (r) In seneral cool.dnralcs, Idns rlIr inl.o 11 lom l\,tricL is a scncl.atizr,
' 1+ sin{, "." tion oI thai sub lil).
2ts o ' ,r,r,.,. 'ri\or
11. I'; is r litor. /x:r slicssttmetric tcNor. Sliow thrr rhc tot-
,,
"- 1+sio+ lo{ing expressions rrr: t(r$orll1\irtl r..rc.t lo.rhiirar.-v trllnsforlmtions,
gte:rt circles in eiilrer
cl.cr r.Lough thc .lerir.riivc! rr. .ll/t/rarx .le1.i\-3tir-es,
(b) Cornpute thc difierinlial cquaiions lor tlic
c.indin{Le s1'stem. I'i.r - li r; Irt + r,,L.t + FbL.
v
84 VECTOR AND TENSOR (ALCULUS
12. Sdrwarz's nrequalitv,