6.1 - Shale and Clay Analysis

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6.1- Shale Analysis

'&(

)
&(#
&'

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!
$"
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!

Dr. M. Watfa
1 Copyright 2001-2012 NExT. All rights reserved Material Dr. M. Watfa

1- Shale and Clay: Rocks and Minerals

'&(

)
&(#
&'

!
!
$"
%

"#
!


Rocks vs. Minerals
Rocks Minerals

Compose of minerals Composed
(
of
)'
&
Described in visual '&

elements ( #

!& !% Al, Fe, K Ca, Si ...
terms
$"
! "# Described by their
grain size

angularity
chemical formula

color

Quartz, Calcite,
texture Dolomite,
Sand, Shale, Clay Minerals: Illite,
Carbonate Smectite, etc..
Shales and Clays
Shales and clays are often confused

Shale is most common rock drilled
)'&(
&(# '
Usually a very fine grained rock & unknown mineral

!%
with
!

clay
content, containing some
! " #$"
minerals (Clay>50%)

Clays (two valid definitions)

A grain size

(e.g.,
A mineral
Illite, Kaolinite, montmorillonite)
Clay corrections, largest corrections to logs
Logs only respond to clay minerals, not grain sizes

Shale and Clay
Shale and Clay: These two terms are often intermixed and used
alternatively to refer anon-permeable rock or mineral.

Clay:
'&(

)
Layered aluminum-silicate minerals
(#
Example of clay minerals: Illite, Kaolinite, Smectite-
&'Montmorillonite
& ,

Chlorite, etc.. They are defined by a specific
chemical% ! composition.
Clay minerals are not defined here by $"grain
their !
size (< 2 m) or to their

!"
#
textural indicator

Shale:

composed
This is a rock mixture,

silt-sized
of greater than 50% one or more of the
or
clay minerals,

quartz, feldspars and micas (carbonates)
On the average, the clay content of shales is 60%.
A wide range in composition and mixture and also in petrophysics and
acoustic parameters,
Some of the shale compositions include: silty-shales, clay-rich shales,
calcareous shales (marls).
Mineral, Rock and Lithology
Mineral
Naturally occurring substance with regular lattice spacing
and a fairly constant chemical composition

Example: Quartz, Calcite, Dolomite, Anhydrite, etc.. )'&(

(#
'&

& !
Rock:
! %
"#$" of one or more
Naturally occurring substance composed
minerals: e.g. Carbonates !

Lithology (or Rock
Type)

Limestone, Dolomite, Evaporites
Example: Sandstone,

on the face of it some overlap between Rock
There appears
and Lithology:
e.g. Dolomite refers to the mineral dolomite { CaMg(CO3)2 }
and also refers to the rock composed of more than 50% of
the mineral dolomite.

The Clay Minerals
The Clay-Silt-Sand
Triangle

Clay minerals (hydrous
)'& silicates), are the
(
Clayey
&(#
aluminum
(Very Fine)
end products of weathering.
&'

%!
!

$"
All clay minerals are sheet
Clayey
! "# silicates, each clay type
(Fine)

owing its distinctive character

to the cations such as:

sodium (Na+),
Sandy
Loamy
Fine

Fine Silty
Fine potassium (K+),

Coarse Loamy Coarse magnesium (Mg++)
Sandy
Silty
Coarse or calcium (Ca++),
100 80 60 40 20 0 These occupy positions in
Percent Sand and between the sheets.

The Clay Minerals
Clays are usually present as the units are milli-ion

sheet like particles with very equivalentper 100gr of dry
large surface areas compared to '&( (meq/gr)
(#)
clay material
their volume
Itis different
' & for each clay
There is an excess negative

type:
%
! &
charge inside the sheet due to $" !

Examples
"# Montmorillonite: 1.00
atoms with 3 units of positive !

meq/gr

charge (e.g. Al) being substituted
by atoms with 2 (e.g.
Mg)
Illite: 0.20 meq/gr

The system is by
balanced Kaolinite: 0.05 meq/gr
on the
positive counterions
surface of the clay sheets
This is measured by the Cation
Exchange Capacity - CEC

The Clay Minerals
Clay charge When the clays are immersed in

water (as in a reservoir)

)'&(
the force keeping &(# the counterions
on the &surface
clay ' are reduced

!
the !dielectric
%

by properties of the

water
"#
$ "
!

the counterions leave the clay

surface

they move in a layer of water
close to the surface
they contribute to the electrical
conductivity of the rock
The Clay Minerals
Diffuse layer
The sodium ions (Na+) from the
salt water are ata high
close&(

concentration
&( ) ' to the clay

surface
'
#

&
%
!

This ! decreases until far away
"#they
$"
reach equilibrium with the
!

chlorine

The negative chlorine (Cl-)

behaves in the opposite sense

The thickness of the layer where
the positive ions are at a higher
concentration is governed by the
Gouy model and depends on the
salinity of the water
The Clay Minerals
Analysis of shale waters show their

salinity composition is low and practically
Clay Conductivity uniform.

The clays in effect,as well as providing
compensatingions, )also (
'& exclude salt
(#
from the clay
surface
&'
&
area.

% !
"#salts
The !
$ " (Na ) ions are kept some
+
distance

! from the clay surface by
hydration water. This hydration water

area is very large due to the large surface

area of clays (e.g. 6300 acres/ft as

compared to 0.2 acres/ft for typical sand).
The number of (Na+) is also proportional

to the surface area. This implies a
constant salinity of the clay water (0.15
ohm.m at 25o C)
The Clay Minerals
Exclusion Layer The simple situation is

complicated by the finite size

'&( involved.
of the molecules
(#)

&
There
!is
&' a layer of water

molecules
%
! adsorbed on the
"#$"clay surface and a shell around
!

the sodium ion

This gives a minimum
thickness of the layer at the

Outer Helmholtz Plane of xH
This distance at standard
temperatures and pressures is
6.18 angstroms ()

The Clay Minerals
Diffuse layer thickness The diffuse layer thickness, xd has

its minimum of xh ata water

resistivity, Rwof 0.425
'&( ohm-m (at
&(# )
standard temperature
&'
and pressure)

% !
$" !
! Above
"
# this resistivity

xd = a xh where a depends on

the resistivity of the water.

at Rw < 0.245 ohm-m, a = 1 =
xh
xd / xh

The Clay Minerals
b N (thermal) Pe

Kaolinite 2.54 59.6

1.85
Illite 2.52 47.9 3.97
&(#
) '&(

&' 1.70
Smectite 2.02 87

!
Chlorite 2.73
59.6 ! %
4.07
"#$"
!
Most shales are comprised of
clay
these
together
minerals.
Clay minerals frequently

occur in "mixed layers", e.g. Illite -
Montmorillonite.

Kaolinite Si, little K
Al,
Illite K, Fe, Mg, Si
Smectite Very high porosity.
Chlorite Fe, Mg, no K

2- Shale Evaluations

'&(

)
&(#
&'

!
!
$"
%

"#
!


Laminated-Structural and Dispersed Shales
Laminated shale
Sand +
Pores filled completely

With dispersed shale
shale
'&(
Laminated

Sand(#+)
'&

&Dispersed Shale
!

! %
"#$" Laminated shale

!

Sand +

Structural Shale

Laminated shale
Clean
Sand
Laminated shale
Shale Distribution in a reservoir
Laminated Shale: These run parallel

to the sand layers. We can still have
porosity even when
&(Laminated)
some effective
we haveVsh ( as high

(#
as 90% ) '
'&
&

!
%
! deposited at the same time as the
Dispersed
Shale: These are
"#$"
! sand and fills the pores. The

maximum value of Vsh (dispersed)

= maximum Clean effective porosity

Structural shale: This is deposited
as grains, and essentially does not
affect the effective porosity as much
as the dispersed shale.

Shale distribution
Shaly Formation
Laminar Shale:

Sand porosity not affected
overall porosity decreases (# ) '&(
'&
response
Influence on the logging tool &

!

! %
Structural Shale "#$"

ornodules
!

exist as grains

similarproperties as laminar

shale

Dispersed
occupies intergranular space
reduce porosity
reduced permeability

Shale distribution
Clean (Shale-Free) Formation

Water / Hydrocarbon
'&(

)
Porosity
&(# ( )
&'

Oil !
!%
$" Water Matrix

"# (sand,
! Limestone,

Dolomite,

Mixture)
Matrix

Usually Good Permeability

Relatively: High Porosity
Easy to interpret and model

Shale distribution
Shaly Formation
Water / Hydrocarbon

Porosity
( )

'&(
(#)
Oil
' & Shale

Water &
!
Shale % Matrix
!
"#$" (sand,
Shale !

Limestone,

Matrix
Dolomite,

Mixture)

Usually Poor Permeability
Relatively: Lower Porosity
Difficult to interpret and model
Shale disguises thin reservoir beds in shale beds
Plays a critical role in producing the reservoir
Shale Effects on Logs
Why
Increasing Oil Saturation

bother

'&(

) computing
&(#
&'
Vsh?

!
!
$"
%

"#
! Effect of

decreasing

Sw on the

measured
Resistivity

50 0hm-m Why
bother

'&(
Increasing Vsh
Sw= 25%
) computing
&(#
&'
Vsh?

!
!
$"
%

"#
!

Effect of

Sw= 25%
Increasing

Vsh on the

measured
Resistivity
Sw= 25%

Shale Corrections
The electrical properties of shales greatly influencethe calculation of
)'&(
fluid saturations. &(#
&'
A layer of water close to the clay surface
!
! electrically charged.
is %

"#$"
Archie's equation assumes that the
! formation water is the only

electrically-conductive material
in the formation.

an additional term in the saturation equation.

The clay layerrequires

Porosity tools can be corrected for the shale effect. An "effective
porosity" e can be computed as compared to a "total porosity" t
which includes the shale effect.
Estimating Vsh
The law of superposition

is often used to estimate
thevalue of shale.
'&( A, B and C are
Imagine

#)
'density,
& (
acoustic and

! &

$" ! % logs.
#
Component -1 is sand,
! "

component-2 is shale and

and component-3 is

porosity (water). The

equations can be written

as such:
b ma . (1 Vsh ) sh .Vsh fl .
tl tma . (1 Vsh ) t sh .Vsh t fl .
l ma . (1 Vsh ) sh .Vsh fl .
Shales and appearance

on
Logs

)'&(
&(have
#

Shales
'
properties that

& important influences
% have
!
!on log readings: Shales

$" have porosity- but no
! "#

appreciable permeability.

The porosity is filled with

conductive water.

Shales are often
radioactive (Thorium and
Potassium).
Resistivity logs show
shales as low resistivity
zones.

Every log is a potential shale

indicator
Laminated This be used to obtain
can
Shale-Sand
Vsh '&(
&(The
# )
& '
%! defined
clean point need to be

! The shale point need also to

"#$" be defined

!

The resolution need to be
100% Shale high to have accuracy

If the clean point and the
shale point vary, this need to
100% Shale be incorporated in the
evaluation
Shaly-Sand The example shows the
effects of shale on GR,
Density, Neutron and Rt

The GR Log- Evaluation of Vsh
0 GR (API) 150
Shale
Gamma Ray Index= Igr

)'&(

&(#

&'

!
Shaly- % !

$"
"#Sand GR GR min

! I gr

GRmax GRmin

Sand

Shaly-
Sand
Shale
The GR Log
Evaluation of Shale volume
100
90 GR-Index (IGR) to obtain Vsh

GR-Index
Various correlations,
based on lab
80 Linear
measurements, are used to obtain
Clavier
)3'&examples
(

Vsh from IGR. are
&'
Stuibar
( #
70 &
%!
shown:
Other
60
!
$"

"#Stuibar : Vsh
0.5 I GR
!
Vsh
1.5 I GR
50

40

Clavier : Vsh 1.7 3.38 ( I GR 0.7) 2

30

20
1 2* I
10
Other : Vsh (2 1) GR
3
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
IGR: GR-Index
SP for shale evaluations
-150 SP 0 Example of a SP in an
interval of sandstone and
The 5 circled

Sand Line
shale.

sandstone
&(
) ' intervals are
'& shaly with poor permeability.
( #

&
!%
!
The SP log can also be used
"#$"
Shale Line
to evaluate Vsh. If the ratio

!

of Rmf/Rw, or Rw/Rmf is very

high (SSP is large) , this
could be an effective shale
indicator
SPlog SPsnd
Vsh
SPshale SPsnd
Courtesy of Schlumberger
29 Copyright 2001-2011 NExT. All rights reserved Material: M. Watfa 29
3- Total Porosity and Effective Porosity
The Density-Neutron X-Plot
)'&(
(#
'&

&

!
! %
"#$"
!


Shaly Formations
In Shaly formations, the points

will shift from
'&( the lithology line
towards
the
#) shale point.
' & (

The
%!higher
& the shale volume, the
greater
!

is the shift.
"#$"
! Example shows the -rays

plotted on the z-axis.

This shows higher values of -

Shale rays as we approach the shale
Shale
PointPoint point..
Shale The -rays is generally a good
Trend
shale indicator in sandstone
formations.

Density-Neutron
'&(
Cross-Plot
#)
& (
A classical
&'

% ! Example of a
!Density-Neutron cross-plot

$" over a long interval of the
! "#

formation.

Such a plot is fundamental
for interpretations to
evaluate the lithology and
porosity.
Courtesy of Schlumberger

Cross-Plots and

their Applications

& ()'

This( # is a classical
&
&' example of using z-axis

%!
! plot
$"
! "# The z-axis here is the

Gamma Ray, which is
Gas Trend

an indicator of

shaliness.
Shale Higher intensity of green
blue signifies a
higher value of GR on
Low Porosity-gas bearing- carbonates the z-axis.
This in turn, indicates an
increase in the volume
Courtesy of Schlumberger of shale (Vsh).
Estimating the Dry Colloid Point
Estimate the Shale

Porosity:
b
d n

&sh
(
)'

'& ( # 2
x
&

d ma b

%!

$" !

ma fl
"#

! y sh

x 1 sh

Sand

Point
This will allow the
y
Wet Shale Dry Colloid point to
Point be determined
Dry (colloid) n
Shale Point
Total Porosity and Effective Porosity
1.0
Water Total Porosity (total)

Isobars of Porosity for the
)'&(
0.8
Porosity
total (# total. These

&'
&
Density Porosity

! lines parallel to the
are
0.6
!
$"
%

"#
matrix-dry colloids line
!

This the sum of the shale
0.4

and sand porosity.

total is not the effective

0.2
Wet Clay porosity-
18, 42 the main application of total
0
Matrix 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 is in computing the effective
(sand/silt)
Dry Neutron Porosity
Colloids
water saturation values (Sw).
-6, 35
Water
1.0 Effective Porosity (e)

&(

Isobars ' effective
)of
0.8

'& . These are
( #

Density Porosity

&
!
porosity e
0.6
! lines parallel to the matrix-
$"
%

"#
! clay line.

0.4

The isobars also define

the shale correction line

0.2
This plot gives both the
Clay
value of porosity and the
0 value of Vsh when the HC
Matrix 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
(sand/silt) correction is negligible.
Dry Neutron Porosity
Colloids

Density-Neutron Cross plot using Wet Clay
Field Example
The point is
shale
'wet
the &( shale

point(#
)
& obtained

'
& directly from logs
!%
!

$"
"# Isobars of Vsh
A ! and e (Effective

B porosity) can be

made.

The isobars of
Effective porosity
show a variation
between 5% to
18%.

Density-Neutron Cross plot using Dry Colloid Point
Field Example
This is same field
the
'&( as that of
(#)
example
previous
& figure.

%!The shale point is the
& '
!
"#$" dry colloid point
!

estimated from logs

Isobars of Vsh and

t (total porosity) can

be made.
Note the isobars of t
that shows almost a
constant value of
around 18%.


'&(

)
&(#
&'

!
! % Log
$" Example-1
! "#

Shaly

Formation



'&(

)
&(#
&'

!
! % Log
$" Example-2
! "#

Shaly

Formation



'&(

)
&(#
&'

!
! % Log
$" Example-3
! "#

Shaly

Formation

CourtesyNExT.
41 Copyright 2001-2012 of Schlumberger
All rights reserved Material Dr. M. Watfa
4- Silt Trends
'&(
)
&(#

&'

!
!
$"
%

"#
!


The silt point
Dry Colloids (zero porosity

clays) dont
exist, and the

dry-clay point'&( is a theoretical
&(# )
&'
point.

!
!Likewise:
%

zero porosity silt or

"# $ "
! sand do not exist

The silt point can be

determined from drawing a
Silt
Point
line from zero porosity to the
wet clay point, and a vertical
line from clean sand porosity
to intercept the previous line

Shale Trends
Log data in a sand-shale
sequence usually follow an L

shape on the
density-neutron
cross-plot. )'&(
&of(# that: as the
&'
Causes
sequence

! coarsens-up from
!shale to sand, it progresses
%

"#$" through poorly sorted silts and

!
silty-sands with lower porosity.

It is only when the better sorted

sands are deposited that we

see the higher porosity trend
again.
A point in the cloud the effective porosity e,
Total Porosity total and Vsh can be
computed from the cross-plot

A real
data example
Density-Neutron
of
)'&(

&(# cross-plot in a shaly-

&' sand sequence

!

! %
The data shows the

"# $ "

! silt point and the clay

point.

The data also show

the presence of a gas
shift

6.1 - Shale and Clay Analysis

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6.1 - Shale and Clay Analysis

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NExT, A Schlumberger Company

5599 San Felipe, Suite 100

Copyright 2012 NExT. All rights reserved.

1 Copyright 2001-2012 NExT. All rights reserved Material Dr. M. Watfa

2 Copyright 2001-2012 NExT. All rights reserved Material Dr. M. Watfa

Described in visual  '&

Shales and clays are often confused 

4 Copyright 2001-2012 NExT. All rights reserved Material Dr. M. Watfa

6 Copyright 2001-2012 NExT. All rights reserved Material Dr. M. Watfa

7 Copyright 2001-2012 NExT. All rights reserved Material Dr. M. Watfa

Clays are usually present as the units are milli-ion

charge inside the sheet due to  $"   !

8 Copyright 2001-2012 NExT. All rights reserved Material Dr. M. Watfa

Clay charge When the clays are immersed in

Analysis of shale waters show their

The number of (Na+) is also proportional

Exclusion Layer The simple situation is

12 Copyright 2001-2012 NExT. All rights reserved Material Dr. M. Watfa

Diffuse layer thickness The diffuse layer thickness, xd has

13 Copyright 2001-2012 NExT. All rights reserved Material Dr. M. Watfa

14 Copyright 2001-2012 NExT. All rights reserved Material Dr. M. Watfa

15 Copyright 2001-2012 NExT. All rights reserved Material Dr. M. Watfa

 "#$" Laminated shale

Laminated Shale: These run parallel

17 Copyright 2001-2012 NExT. All rights reserved Material Dr. M. Watfa

Structural Shale  "#$"

18 Copyright 2001-2012 NExT. All rights reserved Material Dr. M. Watfa

Clean (Shale-Free) Formation

Usually Good Permeability

19 Copyright 2001-2012 NExT. All rights reserved Material Dr. M. Watfa

Increasing Oil Saturation

21 Copyright 2001-2012 NExT. All rights reserved Material Dr. M. Watfa

22 Copyright 2001-2012 NExT. All rights reserved Material Dr. M. Watfa

  an additional term in the saturation equation.

The law of superposition

Shales and appearance

25 Copyright 2001-2012 NExT. All rights reserved Material Dr. M. Watfa

Every log is a potential shale

  ! The shale point need also to

26 Copyright 2001-2012 NExT. All rights reserved Material Dr. M. Watfa

90 GR-Index (IGR) to obtain Vsh

to evaluate Vsh. If the ratio

30 Copyright 2001-2012 NExT. All rights reserved Material Dr. M. Watfa

   This shows higher values of -

32 Copyright 2001-2012 NExT. All rights reserved Material Dr. M. Watfa

Estimate the Shale

36 Copyright 2001-2012 NExT. All rights reserved Material Dr. M. Watfa

37 Copyright 2001-2012 NExT. All rights reserved Material Dr. M. Watfa

38 Copyright 2001-2012 NExT. All rights reserved Material Dr. M. Watfa

39 Copyright 2001-2012 NExT. All rights reserved Material Dr. M. Watfa

40 Copyright 2001-2012 NExT. All rights reserved Material Dr. M. Watfa

42 Copyright 2001-2012 NExT. All rights reserved Material Dr. M. Watfa

Dry Colloids (zero porosity

43 Copyright 2001-2012 NExT. All rights reserved Material Dr. M. Watfa

 "#$" through poorly sorted silts and

44 Copyright 2001-2012 NExT. All rights reserved Material Dr. M. Watfa

45 Copyright 2001-2012 NExT. All rights reserved Material Dr. M. Watfa

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Described in visual '&

Shales and clays are often confused

charge inside the sheet due to $" !

"#$" Laminated shale

Structural Shale "#$"

an additional term in the saturation equation.

! The shale point need also to

This shows higher values of -

"#$" through poorly sorted silts and