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SIGNAL GENERATOR AND ANALYSER

Oscillator:
An electronic oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces a periodic, oscillating electronic signal, often a sine wave
or a square wave. Oscillators convert direct current (DC) from a power supply to an alternating current signal.
Oscillators are often characterized by the frequency of their output signal:
A low-frequency oscillator (LFO) is an electronic oscillator that generates a frequency below 20 Hz. This term
is typically used in the field of audio synthesizers, to distinguish it from an audio frequency oscillator.
An audio oscillator produces frequencies in the audio range, about 16 Hz to 20 kHz.
An RF oscillator produces signals in the radio frequency (RF) range of about 100 kHz to 100 GHz.

RF signal generator:
As the name indicates, this type of signal generator is used to generate RF or radio frequency signals. An RF signal
generator may use a variety of methods to generate the signal. Analogue signal generator types used free running
oscillators, although some used frequency locked loop techniques to improve stability.

RF signal generator operation:

The diagram shows a very simplified block diagram for an RF signal
generator.
Oscillator: The most important block within the RF signal generator is
the oscillator itself. This can be any form of oscillator, but today it would
almost certainly be formed from a frequency synthesizer. This oscillator
would take commands from the controller and be set to the required
frequency.
Amplifier: The output from the oscillator will need amplifying. This will
be achieved using a special amplifier module. This will amplify the
signal, typically to a fixed level. It would have a loop around it to
maintain the output level accurately at all frequencies and
temperatures.
Attenuator: An attenuator is placed on the output of the signal generator. This serves to ensure an accurate source
impedance is maintained as well as allowing the generator level to be adjusted very accurately. In particular the
relative power levels, i.e. when changing from one level to another are very accurate and represent the accuracy of
the attenuator. It is worth noting that the output impedance is less accurately defined for the highest signal levels
where the attenuation is less.
Control: Advanced processors are used to ensure that the RF and microwave signal generator is easy to control and
is also able to take remote control commands. The processor will control all aspects of the operation of the test
equipment.

RF signal generator functions:

Frequency range: Naturally the frequency range of the RF signal generator is of paramount importance. It must be
able to cover all the frequencies that are likely to need to be generated. For example when testing a receiver in an
item of equipment, be it a mobile phone or any other radio receiver, it is necessary to be able to check not only the
operating frequency, but other frequencies where the issues such as image rejection, etc.
Output level: The output range for an RF and microwave signal generator is normally controlled to a relatively high
degree of accuracy. The output within the generator itself is maintained at a constant level and then passed through
a high grade variable attenuator. These are normally switch to give the highest degree of accuracy. The range is
normally limited at the top end by the final amplifier in the RF signal generator.
Modulation: Some RF or microwave signal generators have inbuilt oscillators that can apply modulation to the output
signal. Others also have the ability to apply modulation from an external source. With modulation formats for
applications such as mobile communications becoming more complicated, so the capabilities of RF signal generators
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have had to become more flexible, some allowing complex modulation formats such as QPSK, QAM and the like. Signal
generators that support complex modulation are often referred to as vector signal generators.

AF signal generator:
As the name implies this type of signal generator is used for audio applications. Signal generators such as these run
over the audio range, typically from about 20 Hz to 20 kHz and more. They are often used in audio measurements of
frequency response and for distortion measurements. As a result they must have a very flat response and also very
low levels of harmonic distortion. Equipment distortion can be measured using a very-low-distortion audio generator
as the signal source, with appropriate equipment to measure output distortion harmonic-by-harmonic with a wave
analyser, or simply total harmonic distortion. A distortion of 0.0001% can be achieved by an audio signal generator
with a relatively simple circuit.

Function Generator:
A function generator is a signal source that has the capability of producing different types of waveforms as its output
signal. The most common output waveforms are sine-waves, triangular waves, square waves, and saw-tooth waves.
The frequencies of such waveforms may be adjusted from a fraction of a hertz to several hundred kHz.

The block diagram of a function generator is given in figure. In this instrument the frequency is controlled by varying
the magnitude of current that drives the integrator. This instrument provides different types of waveforms (such as
sinusoidal, triangular and square waves) as its output signal with a frequency range of 0.01 Hz to 100 kHz.
The frequency controlled voltage regulates two current supply sources. Current supply source 1 supplies constant
current to the integrator whose output voltage rises linearly with time. An increase or decrease in the current increases
or reduces the slope of the output voltage and thus controls the frequency.

The voltage comparator multivibrator changes state at a predetermined maximum level, of the integrator output
voltage. This change cuts-off the current supply from supply source 1 and switches to the supply source 2. The current
supply source 2 supplies a reverse current to the integrator so that its output drops linearly with time. When the
output attains a pre-determined level, the voltage comparator again changes state and switches on to the current
supply source. The output of the integrator is a triangular wave whose frequency depends on the current supplied by
the constant current supply sources. The comparator output provides a square wave of the same frequency as output.
The resistance diode network changes the slope of the triangular wave as its amplitude changes and produces a
sinusoidal wave with less than 1% distortion.
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Function generators are capable of producing a variety of repetitive waveforms, generally from the list below:
Sine wave: A function generator will normally have the capability to produce a standard
sine wave output. This is the standard waveform that oscillates between two levels with
a standard sinusoidal shape.
Square wave: A square wave is normally relatively easy for a function generator to
produce. It consists of a signal moving directly between high and low levels.
Pulse: A pulse waveform is another type that can be produced by a function generator.
It is effectively the same as a square wave, but with the mark space ratio very different
to 1:1.
Triangular wave: This form of signal produced by the function generator linearly moves
between a high and low point.
Saw-tooth wave: Again, this is a triangular waveform, but with the rise edge of the
waveform faster or slower than the fall, making a form of shape similar to a saw-tooth.

Controls on the function generator may include:

Frequency: As would be expected, this control alters the basic frequency at which the waveform repeats. It is
independent of the waveform type.
Waveform type: This enables the different basic waveform types to be selected.
DC offset: This alters the average voltage of a signal relative to 0V or ground.
Duty cycle: This control on the function generator changes the ratio of high voltage to low voltage time in a square
wave signal, i.e. changing the waveform from a square wave with a 1:1 duty cycle to a pulse waveform, or a triangular
waveform with equal rise and fall times to a saw-tooth.

Pulse Generator:
A device that produces an electrical discharge at regular intervals, which can be modied as needed, as in an electronic
pacemaker.
A pulse differs from a square wave in
that it needs neither base line nor left-
right symmetry. Pulse generator consists
of three parts called square wave
generator (i.e. stable multivibrator).
Monostable Multivibrator {i.e. one shot)
and an attenuator. The pulse generators
can be used to generate pulses that can
stimulate logic circuit. In order to be able to provide the right kinds of pulses a considerable degree of adjustment is
required for the pulses in terms of length, delay, repetition rate and the like. Many of the functions of a pulse generator
are similar to those of a function generator or arbitrary waveform generator. As a result, many function or arbitrary
waveform generators include function generator capabilities, making them multi-purpose test instruments.
Figure shows the block diagram to contract a pulse generator. A Monostable multivibrator i.e. one shot follows a
square wave oscillator. The pulse repetition rate is set by the square wave frequency. The one shot triggers on the
leading edge of the square wave and produced me output pulse for each input cycle. The duration of each output
pulse is set by the one-time of the one shot, and may be either very short or may approach the period of the square
wave.

Pulse generators are used to provide pulses for use in a variety of electronic applications. Typically pulse generators
will provide a number of functions and capabilities:
Rectangular wave generation: As the name implies a pulse generator is designed to produce pulses that are
rectangular in nature, often capable of driving logic circuitry, although they are not necessarily confined to just this
type of application.
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Pulse width: In order to produce a variety of waveforms, the pulse width can be varied.
Repetition rate: The repetition rate is a key parameter. When used in a "free run" mode, the repetition rate can be
varied.
Pulse trigger: Using an external waveform, it is possible to trigger the pulse generator. Pulse triggering can normally
occur on either the negative or positive edge via a selection switch.
Pulse delay: When a pulse is triggered it is normal to be able to select a delay for the pulse from the pulse generator.
This delay is adjustable.
Pulse amplitude: Although the pulse amplitude will normally be required to drive logic circuits, the amplitude is
normally adjustable. If nothing else this is required because there are many standard logic levels in use today.
Pulse rise and fall times: For some applications it may be necessary to be able to adjust the rise and fall times of the
logic outputs. This facility is available on many pulse generators.
Pulse generators may use either digital or analogue techniques, or a mixture of both. Elements such as triggering and
the pulse generation will almost certainly utilise digital technology, but aspects such as the rise and fall time control
on the pulse generator are likely to use analogue techniques.

TDM & FDM:

In communication, under the simplest conditions, a medium can carry only one signal at any moment in time. For
multiple signals to share one medium, the medium must somehow be divided, giving each signal a portion of the total
bandwidth.
Multiplexing means sharing a medium. It is a form of data transmission in which one communication channel carries
several transmissions at the same time. In simple words, the method of dividing a single channel into many channels
so that a number of independent signals may be transmitted on it is known as Multiplexing.

Multiplexing techniques can be divided into two basic categories:

1. Frequency Division Multiplexing-FDM:

In FDM the available bandwidth is divided into a number of
smaller independent logical channels with each channel
having a small bandwidth. It assigns frequency ranges to
each user or signal on a medium. Thus, all signals are
transmitted at the same time, each using different
frequencies. The method of using a number of carrier
frequencies, each of which is modulated by an independent
signal is in fact frequency division multiplexing.

Time Division Multiplexing-TDM:

In TDM, sharing is accomplished by dividing available
transmission time on a medium/channel among users.
Each user of the channel is allotted a small time interval during
which he transmits a message. Total time available in the
channel is divided, and each user is allocated a time slice. In
TDM, users send message sequentially one after another. Each
user can use the full channel bandwidth during the period he
has control over the channel.
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Spectrum Analyzer:
The information desired from the spectra to be
analyzed determines the spectrum analyzer
requirements. Real-time analysis is used if a
particular point in the frequency spectrum is to be
analyzed, such as a line spectra display.
Continuous- or swept-frequency analysis, which is
the most common mode of observation, is used to
display a wider portion of the frequency spectrum
or (in some cases) the entire range of the spectrum
analyzer in use. Changing the spectrum analyzer
setting from one mode to another is accomplished
by varying the scan time and the bandwidth of the
spectrum analyzer or a combination of the two. Most real-time spectrum analyzers, however, are preceded by
mechanical filters, which limit the input bandwidth of the spectrum analyzer to the desired spectra to be analyzed.
Tuneable- or swept-spectrum analyzers function basically the same as heterodyne receivers, the difference being that
the local oscillator is not used but is replaced by a voltage-controlled oscillator (Vco). The Vco is swept electronically
by a ramp input from a sawtooth generator. The output of the receiver is applied to a CRT, which has its horizontal
sweep in synchronization with the Vco. The lower frequency appears at the left of the CRT display. As the trace sweeps
to the right, the oscillator increases in frequency. Before the frequency of a signal can be measured on a spectrum
analyzer, it must be resolved. Resolving a signal means distinguishing it from other signals near it. Resolution is limited
by the narrowest bandwidth of the spectrum analyzer because the analyzer traces out its own IF bandwidth shape as
it sweeps through a signal. If the narrowest bandwidth is 1 kilohertz, the nearest any two signals can be, and still be
resolved, is 1 kilohertz. Reducing the IF bandwidth indefinitely would obtain infinite resolution except that the usable
IF bandwidth is limited by the stability of the spectrum analyzer. The smaller the IF bandwidth, the greater the
capability of the analyzer to resolve closely spaced signals of unequal amplitudes. Modern spectrum analyzers have
been refined to the degree that IF bandwidths are less than 1 hertz. It is important that the spectrum analyzer be more
stable in frequency than the signals being measured. The stability of the analyzer depends on the frequency stability
of its Vco. Scan time of the spectrum analyzer must be long enough, with respect to the amplitude of the signal to be
measured, to allow the IF circuitry of the spectrum analyzer to charge and recover. This will prevent amplitude and
frequency distortion.

Logic Analyzer:
A logic analyzer is an electronic instrument that captures and displays multiple signals from a digital system or digital
circuit. A logic analyzer may convert the captured data into timing diagrams, protocol decodes, state machine traces,
assembly language, or may correlate assembly with source-level software. Logic Analyzers have advanced triggering
capabilities, and are useful when a user needs to see the timing relationships between many signals in a digital system.
Logic analyser key characteristics:
Provide a time display of logic states: Logic analysers possess a horizontal time axis and a vertical axis to indicate a
logic high or low states. In this way a picture of the digital lines can be easily displayed.
Multiple channels: Logic analyzers are designed to monitor a large number of digital lines. As logic analyzers are
optimised for monitoring a large number of digital circuits, typically they may have anywhere between about 32 and
200+ channels they can monitor, each channel monitoring one digital line. However some specialised logic analyzers
are suitably scaled to be able to handle many more lines, and in this way enable tracking and fault finding on much
more complex systems.
Displays logic states: The vertical display on the analyser displays the logic state as a high of low state. The signals
enter the various channels and are converted into a high or low state for further processing within the analyser. It
provides a logic timing diagram of the various lines being monitored.
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Does not display analogue information: These test instruments do not present any analogue information, and in this
way they differ from an oscilloscope. They are purely aimed at monitoring the logic operation of the system. If any
analogue information is required, then an oscilloscope must be used in addition.

Let's assume that you need to simultaneously look at the inputs and outputs of a 16-bit counter to determine a timing
error, but you have only a 2-channel scope how do you look all of the required signals? Or let's suppose that you've
just developed timing diagrams for a board full of digital circuitry.

Oscilloscope or logic analyzer?

When given the choice between using a scope or a logic analyzer, many engineers will choose an oscilloscope.
However, scopes have limited usefulness in some applications. Depending on what the user is trying to accomplish, a
logic analyzer may yield more useful information.

When to use an oscilloscope:

When it is required to observe small voltage excursions on the signal.
When high time-interval accuracy is required.
When to use a logic analyzer:
When one wishes to observe many signals at the same time.
When it's necessary to look at signals in the system the same way hardware does.
When it's required to trigger on a pattern of highs and lows on several lines and see the results.
A logic analyzer reacts the same way as a logic circuit does when a single threshold is crossed by a signal in the system.
It recognizes the signal to be either low or high. It can also trigger on patterns of highs and lows presented on these
signals.
In general, you should use a logic analyzer when it's necessary to look at more lines than can be monitored on an
oscilloscope. Logic analyzers are particularly useful for looking at time relationships or data on a bus for example, a
microprocessor address, data, or control bus. They can decode the information on microprocessor buses and present
it in a meaningful form.