Management of

G a s t ro i n t e s t i n a l S t ro m a l
Tu mo r s
a b,c,
Emily Z. Keung, MD , Chandrajit P. Raut, MD, MSc *

KEYWORDS
 Gastrointestinal stromal tumor  GIST  Gastric mass  Abdominal tumor
 Tyrosine kinase inhibitor  TKIs  Imatinib  Sunitinib

KEY POINTS
 Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs) are the most common mesenchymal neoplasms
of the gastrointestinal tract, most commonly arising in the stomach.
 The introduction of effective molecularly targeted tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) signifi-
cantly improved the prognosis of patients with GIST.
 Surgery is indicated for primary resectable GIST. Recurrence is common; patients at in-
termediate or high risk of recurrence should receive imatinib postoperatively.
 The standard of care for unresectable or recurrent disease is TKI therapy with first-line im-
atinib, second-line sunitinib, and third-line regorafenib.
 Cytoreductive surgery may be considered in recurrent GIST in carefully selected patients
on TKI therapy, following a multidisciplinary approach.

INTRODUCTION

Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs) are rare neoplasms, accounting for 0.1% to
3% of all gastrointestinal malignancies.1,2 The most common mesenchymal tumors
of the gastrointestinal tract, GISTs have an annual incidence of 10 to 15 per million
people and as many as 5000 to 6000 new cases in the United States each year.26
GISTs can arise anywhere along the gastrointestinal tract, but develop most
commonly in the stomach and small intestine as a result of activating mutations in
KIT (CD117) or PDGFRA, genes encoding receptor protein tyrosine kinases.3 Over

Disclosure: The authors have nothing to disclose.

a
Department of Surgical Oncology, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, 1400
Pressler Street, Unit 1484, Houston, TX 77030, USA; b Department of Surgery, Brigham and
Womens Hospital, 75 Francis Street, Boston, MA 02115, USA; c Center for Sarcoma and Bone
Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, 450 Brookline Avenue, Boston, MA 02115, USA
* Corresponding author. Center for Sarcoma and Bone Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute,
450 Brookline Avenue, Boston, MA 02115.
E-mail address: craut@partners.org

Surg Clin N Am 97 (2017) 437452

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.suc.2016.12.001 surgical.theclinics.com
0039-6109/17/ 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
438 Keung & Raut

the past 2 decades, remarkable advances have been made in the understanding of
GISTs. The identification of key signaling transduction pathways and the development
of molecularly targeted therapies has dramatically changed management of GISTs
and improved patient prognosis.

EPIDEMIOLOGY

The median age at diagnosis is 60 years with no gender, racial, or ethnic predilec-
tion.2,3,7,8 Although GISTs can be secondary to germline KIT or PDGFRA mutations9,10
or as part of familial syndromes (including von Recklinghausen neurofibromatosis
[NF1]),11 Carney triad,12 or Carney-Stratakis syndrome13), most are sporadic.

CLINICAL PRESENTATION

GISTs most commonly arise in the stomach (50%60%) and small bowel (20%35%);
less common primary sites include colon, rectum, duodenum, and esophagus.2,3,6
Most present as a single, well-circumscribed nodule with a median size of approxi-
mately 5 cm at presentation. GISTs are generally centered on the bowel wall but
may form polypoid serosal-based or mucosal-based masses. Mucosal ulceration is
often associated with gastrointestinal bleeding.3
Two-thirds of GISTs present with symptoms related to the gastrointestinal tract,
including those caused by mass effect exerted by tumor within the abdominal cavity
(vague abdominal discomfort, dysphagia, early satiety, palpable mass, bowel obstruc-
tion, intestinal perforation) and bleeding (anemia, gastrointestinal bleeding).2,4,6
The remainder are discovered incidentally, during surgery for other conditions or at
autopsy.8
Approximately 15% to 47% of patients present with overt metastatic disease; com-
mon sites of metastasis include liver, peritoneum, and omentum.4,6,14 Lymph node
metastases are rare, usually occurring only in pediatric forms of the disease. Unlike
other sarcomas, lung and bone metastases are rare and occur late in the disease
course, if at all.

DIAGNOSIS
Radiographic Studies
The initial imaging study for a suspected or confirmed GIST is contrast-enhanced
computed tomography (CT) of the abdomen and pelvis to characterize an abdominal
mass and assess for the presence of metastasis at the initial staging work-up. Primary
GISTs are typically well-circumscribed masses within the walls of hollow viscera. MRI
may help characterize metastatic liver or primary perirectal disease. PET has no
defined role in the evaluation of primary disease.2,3

Preoperative Biopsy and Endoscopy

A preoperative biopsy is not routinely necessary for a primary, resectable neoplasm
suspicious for GIST if it is easily resectable and preoperative therapy is not required.
Biopsy may be needed if preoperative therapy is being considered to downstage the
scope of surgery (eg, from laparotomy to laparoscopy) (Fig. 1), for unresectable or
marginally resectable tumors, or if the differential diagnosis includes entities (eg, lym-
phoma) that would be treated differently.2,3 For suspected GISTs arising in the esoph-
agus, duodenum, or rectum, where surgical management may drastically differ based
on diagnosis, pretreatment diagnosis is recommended.
 Management of Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors 439

Fig. 1. GIST at gastroesophageal junction (GEJ). (A) A 6-cm GIST at the GEJ was treated with
neoadjuvant imatinib to facilitate sparing of GEJ after a confirmatory biopsy. Intratumoral
air was noted at presentation, caused by mucosal ulceration over the tumor. However, neo-
adjuvant imatinib was safely tolerated. (B) Tumor shrank sufficiently to enable a laparo-
scopic transgastric resection.

Endoscopically, a primary GIST may appear as a submucosal lesion with or without

ulceration in the upper or lower gastrointestinal tract. Although there are reports of
endoscopic treatment of small gastric GIST (<3 cm), this remains controversial
because of concerns about the risk of perforation, incomplete resection, and tumor
spillage.1518
Obtaining adequate tumor tissue for definitive diagnosis can be challenging. GISTs
are often soft and friable; preoperative biopsy may rupture a suspected GIST,
increasing the risk of dissemination. Endoscopic ultrasonography (EUS)guided
fine-needle aspiration may be attempted. Although not consistently diagnostic, it is
the generally favored approach for gastric and, in some cases, proximal small bowel
GISTs when a diagnosis is needed. Transrectal biopsy may be feasible for presumed
rectal GISTs.

CELLULAR AND MOLECULAR CLASSIFICATIONS OF GASTROINTESTINAL STROMAL

TUMORS

In a landmark article, Hirota and colleagues19 reported near-universal expression of

KIT and activating gain-of-function c-KIT mutations in GISTs. These findings led to
the use of molecularly targeted drug therapies such as imatinib mesylate (Gleevec,
Novartis), which targets and inhibits the activated KIT receptor tyrosine kinase.2022
More than 85% of GISTs have activating KIT mutations; these commonly occur in exon
11 (57%71%), exon 9 (10%18%), exon 13 (1%4%), and exon 17 (1%4%).4,20,23,24
Of tumors lacking KIT mutations, w80% have PDGFRA mutations and are more com-
mon in the stomach and omentum.3 Most PDGFRA mutations affect exon 18, and less
commonly exons 12 and 14.3,4,2426 A few GISTs, termed wild-type GISTs, show no
detectable KIT or PDGFRA mutations and presumably have alternative pathways for
pathogenesis.27 These mutations include succinate dehydrogenasedeficient
GISTs2730 and GISTs with BRAF mutations.31
The diagnosis of GIST is made on pathologic analysis of tumor specimens. The
cellular morphology of GISTs are in 3 categories: spindle cell (70%), epithelioid
(20%), or mixed (10%) types.3,4,23 KIT, DOG1, and CD34 are key immunohistochem-
ical markers to diagnose GIST.35 Although 95% of GISTs express KIT, 5% of GISTs
lack expression. DOG1, a calcium-dependent receptor-activated chloride channel
440 Keung & Raut

protein, is a more sensitive marker for GIST than KIT, detecting 36% of KIT-negative
GISTs.4,5

PROGNOSTIC FACTORS

The 3 established prognostic factors are tumor size, mitotic index, and tumor site of
origin (Table 1).20,32,33 Additional negative prognostic factors reported in some studies
include KIT exon 9 mutations32 and KIT exon 11 deletions involving amino acid W557
and/or K558.24,32,3436 Point mutations and insertions of KIT exon 11 seem to have a
favorable prognosis.32 At present, mutational analysis is not routinely recommended
at initial diagnosis.3,4 However, genotyping may become integral to the clinical man-
agement of GIST in the future, aiding in prognostication and selection of drug therapy
and dosing (Fig. 2).30 Mutational analysis may be useful in selecting patients for post-
operative therapy after complete resection of primary GIST, such as to identify pa-
tients at higher risk for recurrence if considering postoperative imatinib therapy
(Table 2).3,3739 Mutational analysis should be considered for metastatic or advanced
disease; KIT exon 11 mutations are associated with higher response rates and longer
progression-free survival (PFS) than KIT exon 9 mutations.37 Exon 9 mutations are rare
in gastric GISTs, thus mutational analysis should only be considered in gastric GISTs
unresponsive to imatinib.3,4

TREATMENT OF RESECTABLE PRIMARY DISEASE

Surgery
All GISTs 2 cm or larger should be resected,33 as should any smaller GISTs that are
symptomatic (eg, gastrointestinal bleeding) or increase in size on follow-up. For pa-
tients with localized resectable GISTs, macroscopically complete (R0/R1) resection
remains the standard and only potentially curative treatment.6,40 A wedge or
segmental resection of the involved stomach or bowel is generally sufficient because
primary GISTs tend to displace rather than invade adjacent structures/organs beyond
the site of origin. However, tumor location may determine the extent or type of oper-
ation (Fig. 3). The goal of surgery is to achieve negative microscopic margins
(R0 resection), although there is no evidence to suggest that patients who have

Table 1
Risk assessment for primary gastrointestinal stromal tumors

Patients with Progressive Disease/Risk Classification,

Based on Site of Origin (%)
Mitotic Rate Tumor Size (cm) Stomach Duodenum Jejunum/Ileum Rectum
5/50 HPF 2 0 0 0 0
>2, 5 1.9/very low 8.3/low 4.3/low 8.5/low
>5, 10 3.6/low a
24/moderate a

>10 12/moderate 34/high 52/high 57/high

>5/50 HPF 2 a a a
54/high
>2, 5 15/moderate 50/high 73/high 52/high
>5, 10 55/high a
85/high a

>10 86/high 86/high 90/high 71/high

Abbreviation: HPF, high-power field.

a
Insufficient data.
Adapted from Miettinen M, Lasota J. Gastrointestinal stromal tumors: pathology and prognosis
at different sites. Sem Diagn Pathol 2006;23:75; with permission.
 Management of Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors 441

Fig. 2. Large gastric GIST. Although neoadjuvant therapy would have been ideal, this pa-
tients GIST had a PDGFRA exon 18 D842V mutation that was imatinib insensitive. Therefore,
the patient underwent an open partial gastrectomy.

undergone R1 resection with microscopically positive margins require reexcision.3

McCarter and colleagues41 reviewed outcomes among 819 patients who underwent
primary GIST resection from the American College of Surgeons Oncology Group
(ACOSOG) Z9000 and Z9001 clinical trials and found no difference in recurrence-
free survival (RFS) for patients undergoing R1 versus R0 resection, with or without
adjuvant imatinib. However, tumor rupture or tumor capsule violation during resection
is associated with an increased risk of recurrence.2 Because GISTs do not typically
spread to lymph nodes in adults, lymphadenectomy is not warranted.
Management of GISTs less than 2 cm is still debated. Given the more aggressive
behavior of GISTs of the small bowel and colon, tumors of any size in these locations
should be resected. However, small gastric GISTs are common. Subcentimeter
gastric GISTs were found in 22.5% of autopsies in adults more than 50 years old in
Germany42 and microscopic gastric GISTs were found in 35% of patients undergoing
gastrectomy for gastric cancer in Japan.43 Few seem to become clinically relevant,
thus management of these small tumors is uncertain. National Comprehensive Cancer
Network (NCCN) guidelines recommend surgical resection for gastric GISTs less than
2 cm with high-risk features on EUS (irregular border, cystic spaces, ulceration, echo-
genic foci, heterogeneity) followed by surveillance with abdominal/pelvic CT with
contrast every 3 to 6 months for 3 to 5 years, then annually.3
In the preimatinib era, RFS at 1, 2, and 5 years among 127 patients at the Memorial
Sloan Kettering Cancer Center with completely resected primary GIST was 83%,
75%, and 63%.32 Recurrence was associated with increased mitotic rate (>5/50
high-power field [HPF]), tumor size (>10 cm), and tumor location (small bowel, hazard
ratio [HR], 3.3 relative to gastric). These findings are consistent with those of pooled
population-based cohorts reported by Joensuu and colleagues44 in 2012. In addition,
tumor rupture was reported to be associated with poor patient outcomes.
 442
Keung & Raut
Table 2
KIT and PDGFRA genotype and response to imatinib in published clinical trials

SWOGS0033/CALGB150105 Phase III Trial

US-Finnish B222 Phase II Trial (n 5 127)36 EORTC-62005 Phase III Trial (n 5 377)35 (N 5 428)37
Objective Stable Progressive Not Objective Stable Progressive Not Objective Stable Progressive Not
Response Disease Disease Assessable Response Disease Disease Assessable Response Disease Disease Assessable
Gene Exon (%)a (%) (%) (%) (%)a (%) (%) (%) (%)a (%) (%) (%)
KIT 9 47.8 26.1 17.4 8.7 34.5 46.6 17.2 1.7 37.5 37.5 9.4 15.6
11 83.5 8.2 4.7 3.5 67.8 25.4 3.2 3.6 63.6 18.7 6.4 11.3
13 100 0 0 0 66.7 33.3 0 0 40 20 20 20
17 50 0 50 0 66.7 33.4 0 0 25 50 25 0
PDGRFA 12 66.7 0 33.3 0 30 30 40 0 100 0 0 0
18 0 0 66.7 33.3 25 50 25 0
WT-GIST 0 33.3 55.6 11.1 23.1 50 19.2 7.7 37.3 28.4 17.9 16.4

Abbreviations: CALGB, Cancer and Leukemia Group B; EORTC, European Organisation for Research And Treatment of Cancer; GIST, gastrointestinal stromal tumor;
NR, not reported; SWOG, Southwest Oncology Group; WT, wild type (no KIT or PDGFRA mutation).
a
Complete or partial response by RECIST (Response Evaluation Criteria for Solid Tumors) criteria.
Adapted from Demetri GD, von Mehren M, Antonescu CR, et al. NCCN Task Force report: update on the management of patients with gastrointestinal stromal
tumors. J Natl Compr Canc Netw 2010;8(Suppl 2):S17; with permission.
 Management of Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors 443

Fig. 3. (A, B) Prepyloric gastric GIST (red arrows). Gastric GIST was suspected based on radio-
graphic and endoscopic findings in this patient presenting with symptomatic anemia from an
upper gastrointestinal bleeding episode. No preoperative biopsy was performed, because
neoadjuvant therapy would not have altered management. Laparoscopic wedge resection
would have narrowed the pyloric channel. Therefore, laparoscopic distal gastrectomy with
Billroth II gastrojejunostomy was performed. Tumor measured 5 cm with a low mitotic count.
Adjuvant imatinib was not recommended.

The role of laparoscopic resection of gastric GISTs continues to expand, although

data on laparoscopic resection of GISTs at other anatomic sites are limited. Two early
studies showed the safety and feasibility of this approach.45,46 Otani and colleagues46
reported a series of 35 gastric GISTs (25 cm) resected laparoscopically with no local
or distant recurrences seen for tumors less than 4 cm during a median follow-up of
53 months. Novitsky and colleagues45 performed 50 laparoscopic or laparoscopic-
assisted gastric GIST resections (18.5 cm), all with negative microscopic margins.
At mean follow-up of 3 years, 92% of patients were disease free. Recent larger studies
show no oncologic difference between laparoscopic versus open resection of gastric
GISTs and report shorter hospital stays and low morbidity associated with laparo-
scopic resection.4751

Neoadjuvant Therapy for Primary Disease

Neoadjuvant therapy may be considered for patients with large or unresectable
tumors or poorly positioned small GISTs that are considered marginally resectable
on technical grounds.3,4,5255 In select cases, neoadjuvant imatinib may also facilitate
laparoscopic resection of GISTs that otherwise would require open resection
(see Fig. 1).
The Radiation Therapy Oncology Group (RTOG) 0132 was the first prospective non-
randomized phase II trial to evaluate the efficacy of neoadjuvant imatinib in patients
with potentially resectable disease. Patients with advanced primary GIST (n 5 30)
and potentially operable metastatic/recurrent disease (n 5 22) received imatinib
600 mg/d for 8 to 12 weeks.52 Postoperatively imatinib was continued for 2 years.
Neoadjuvant imatinib was well tolerated and the delay in time to surgery did not
seem to have any adverse effects. RFS at 2 years was 82.6% and compared favorably
with historical single-institutional surgical series for patients with intermediate-risk/
high-risk GIST. However, it is unclear whether the RFS benefit seen among patients
in RTOG 0132 was attributable to the 2 years of postoperative imatinib therapy or to
the neoadjuvant imatinib.
444 Keung & Raut

Adjuvant Therapy for Primary Disease

Among patients with localized resectable GISTs at high risk of recurrence after sur-
gery, multiple studies have shown improved RFS and overall survival (OS) with adju-
vant imatinib.28,5658 The ACOSOG Z9000 multicenter, single-arm, phase 2 trial
showed that 1 year of adjuvant imatinib prolonged RFS after complete resection in
106 patients with primary GIST at high risk of recurrence based on clinicopathologic
factors.58 The ACOSOG Z9001 phase 3 double-blind randomized trial showed
increased RFS among patients treated with 1 year of adjuvant imatinib following com-
plete resection of GISTs 3 cm or larger compared with patients who received placebo
(97% 1-year RFS vs 83% placebo).28
More recently, several trials have evaluated the impact of duration of postoperative
imatinib on RFS.56,59,60 The Scandinavian/German SSG XVIII/AIO trial was a random-
ized, open-label trial of 1 year versus 3 years of postoperative imatinib at 400 mg daily
after resection of high-risk primary or metastatic GIST. Improved RFS and OS was
observed with 3 years of adjuvant imatinib treatment compared with 1 year among pa-
tients with primary resectable GIST with high-risk features (at least 1 of the following:
tumor diameter >10 cm, mitotic count >10/50 HPFs, tumor diameter >5 cm and
mitotic count >5/50 HPFs, or tumor rupture before or at surgery).56
In 2013, the European Organisation for Research and Treatment of Cancer (EORTC)
62024 phase III trial reported outcomes of patients with localized, surgically resected,
high-risk/intermediate-risk GIST randomized to receive 2 years of postoperative ima-
tinib versus no further therapy. The primary end point was originally OS but was modi-
fied in 2009 to imatinib-free survival (time to death or starting a tyrosine kinase inhibitor
[TKI] other than imatinib).59 Median follow-up was 4.7 years. Three-year and 5-year
RFS were 87% and 69% in patients treated with imatinib following surgery compared
with 66% and 63% in patients who underwent surgery alone.
Observation is the current standard of care for patients with primary GIST of low
recurrence risk after complete macroscopic resection. Patients with primary GIST at
intermediate or high risk of recurrence should be treated with imatinib for 3 years post-
operatively. Those who received preoperative neoadjuvant imatinib should continue
imatinib postoperatively for a cumulative 3-year course. The rationale for continuing
all patients who receive neoadjuvant imatinib on adjuvant imatinib is that once a pa-
tient has been treated with neoadjuvant therapy, mitotic count is no longer reliable
and patient risk for recurrence can no longer be assessed accurately. Therefore, the
recommendation is to continue adjuvant imatinib to complete a total of 3 years of ther-
apy (cumulative preoperative and postoperative course) under the assumption that
risk of recurrence may have been intermediate or high at presentation. Dosing for ima-
tinib is usually 400 mg/d, although patients with KIT exon 9 mutations may benefit from
a dose of 800 mg/d, although this has not been confirmed prospectively. Patients who
progress on the lower dose of imatinib may respond to dose escalation to 800 mg/
daily.1,61

TREATMENT OF ADVANCED/UNRESECTABLE PRIMARY, RECURRENT, OR METASTATIC

DISEASE
Targeted Therapy
Although surgery is the treatment of choice and is effective for patients with resectable
disease, recurrence is common and occurs in up to 50% of patients. However, con-
ventional intravenous chemotherapy for advanced GIST is highly ineffective, with me-
dian survival of 10 to 20 months and 5-year survival less than 10%.62 Since the
introduction of imatinib in 2002, multiple studies have shown the efficacy of tyrosine
 Management of Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors 445

kinase inhibition in GIST with manageable toxicities. In a landmark multicenter phase II

study of 147 patients with advanced unresectable or metastatic GIST, imatinib (400 or
600 mg daily) showed impressive objective partial response (PR) rates of 53.7% and
achieved stable disease (SD) in 27.9%. Overall median time to disease progression
was 24 months and median OS was 57 months.63
The starting dose for imatinib is generally 400 mg once daily. Although initial therapy
with a higher dose of imatinib confers a small PFS advantage, this is primarily in pa-
tients with KIT exon 9 mutations64 and is associated with greater toxicity. Imatinib
should be continued indefinitely, with multiple studies showing that patients with
GIST on imatinib who stop imatinib therapy after 1 and 3 years had significantly higher
rates of disease progression compared with those who continued on therapy.65,66
However, imatinib is not curative. Both primary and secondary drug resistance are
well described and studied. Fourteen percent of GISTs have primary resistance to
imatinib and progress within 6 months of initiating imatinib therapy. These tumors
either lack mutations in KIT or PDGFRA or have a specific imatinib-resistant PDGFRA
exon 18 D842V mutation. Secondary resistance occurs in patients who initially
respond to imatinib and develops as a result of clonal evolution with accumulation
of additional secondary mutations that render them resistant to the drug (most
commonly in KIT exons 13, 14, 17, and 18).67 Among patients who have an initial
PR or SD with imatinib therapy, the median time to progression on first-line imatinib
is 2 to 2.5 years.61 In these patients who develop disease progression, dose escalation
to imatinib 400 mg twice daily is effective.68,69
In patients who develop resistance and disease progression on imatinib at standard
(400 mg daily) and higher (600 or 800 mg daily) dosing, sunitinib is started as second-
line therapy. Sunitinib is a second-generation, multitargeted TKI that has shown signif-
icant improvement in time to progression compared with placebo in a phase III,
double-blinded study of patients with advanced GISTs that had progressed on or
were intolerant of imatinib.70 The primary end point was time to tumor progression
with secondary end points that included PFS and OS. Patients treated with sunitinib
showed increased time to tumor progression compared with placebo (27.3 vs
6.4 weeks; HR, 0.33 [95% confidence interval, 0.230.47; P<.0001]). Initially dosed
at 50 mg daily in a 4-weeks-on-2-weeks-off cycle, George and colleagues71 showed
that continuous daily dosing at 37.5 mg is as effective but better tolerated.
Regorafenib is third-line treatment of GIST based on phase III data showing
improved PFS and disease control rate (disease control rate [DCR]; defined as rate
of durable SD lasting >12 weeks plus complete response or PR) compared with pla-
cebo in patients with advanced GIST after imatinib and sunitinib failure (median PFS,
4.8 vs 0.9 months; DCR, 52.6% vs 9.1%).72
Patients failing existing lines of systemic treatment should be considered for
protocol-based therapies.

Surgery
The current indications for considering cytoreductive surgery in recurrent or metasta-
tic GIST include3:
1. For SD (disease that is stable or responsive to TKI therapy) when complete gross
resection is possible
2. For limited disease progression (isolated clones progressing on TKI therapy after
initial response, indicating secondary drug resistance)
3. For oncologic emergencies, including hemorrhage, perforation, obstruction, or
abscess
446 Keung & Raut

Surgery alone
In the preimatinib era, surgical resection of metastatic GIST was associated with
improved survival if R0/R1 resection could be achieved. Gold and Dematteo7 reported
a single-institution experience of 119 patients with metastatic GIST before the intro-
duction of imatinib. Median OS was 19 months, with 41% and 25% 2-year and 5-
year OS. Eighty-one patients (68%) underwent resection of metastatic GIST and 50
patients (42%) received conventional chemotherapy. Surgery was associated with
improved median OS (27 vs 8 months) and longer 2-year OS (53%), with the best out-
comes observed among patients in whom R0 resection had been achieved at some
point in their disease course (median OS, 61 months; 2-year and 5-year OS, 84%
and 52%).

Surgery after treatment with imatinib

With the introduction of imatinib and the marked improvement in patient outcomes
associated with its use in metastatic GIST, multiple groups have examined
the question of whether patients with metastatic GIST on imatinib would benefit
further from surgery. Although 2 clinical trials to address this question were
started (NCT00956072 in Europe, ChiCTR-TRC-00000244 in China), both failed
to recruit fast enough to meet target accrual. However, multiple retrospective
studies have consistently reported that patients whose disease responds to imati-
nib treatment benefit more from cytoreductive surgery than those with disease pro-
gression on imatinib.7385 Cytoreduction before initiation of imatinib offers no
benefit.86
Maximal response to imatinib is typically achieved within 2 to 6 months after treat-
ment initiation, with a median time to recurrence/progression on imatinib of less than
2 years. Although the benefit of surgery in selected patients with metastatic GIST after
treatment with imatinib has not been proved in a randomized clinical trial, surgery
should be considered in patients whose disease is rendered resectable on medical
therapy.1,3 The authors and others recommend considering cytoreductive surgery of
residual metastatic disease no earlier than 6 months after TKI initiation (to confirm
whether patients have PR or SD) and preferably no later than 2 years after TKI initia-
tion.77,80,83,87 The best candidates for surgery among patients with metastatic GIST
are those with tumors that are stable or responsive to TKI therapy, fewer metastatic
foci, and the possibility of a macroscopically complete resection. Imatinib can be
given to patients up until 24 hours before surgery and restarted as early as possible
postoperatively once the patient is tolerating a regular diet (because imatinib should
be given with food).3

Surgery after treatment with sunitinib

The impact of surgery in patients with imatinib-resistant GIST on sunitinib is unclear.
Raut and colleagues84 showed that cytoreductive surgery on sunitinib in heavily pre-
treated patients is feasible (R0/R1 resection achieved in 25 of 50 patients), although
incomplete resections were frequent and complication rates were high. Sunitinib is
stopped 5 to 7 days before surgery and restarted 2 weeks postoperatively.3 As al-
ways, patient selection is important.

SURVEILLANCE

The NCCN consensus panel recommends that patients who have had resection of a
primary GIST undergo a history, physical examination, and abdomen/pelvis CT scans
with intravenous contrast every 3 to 6 months during the first 3 to 5 years and then
annually thereafter.2,3
 Management of Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors 447

SUMMARY

Remarkable advances have been made in the management of GIST over the preced-
ing 2 decades. Surgery remains the only potentially curative treatment of GIST when
complete resection (R0/R1) can be achieved. Although TKI therapy has dramatically
improved patient prognosis, development of drug resistance is common and new
drugs are needed. The optimal management of GIST requires multidisciplinary man-
agement involving medical oncology, surgical oncology, and radiologic and pathology
expertise at both initial evaluation and follow-up.

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