Taylor and Maclaurin Series

Mathematics 55 - Elementary Analysis 3

Institute of Mathematics
University of the Philippines-Diliman

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Recall

A power series centered at a is of the form

X
cn (x a)n .
n=0

We are able to obtain power series representations of functions

using the identity

1 X
= xn |x| < 1
1x
n=0

What other types of functions have power series representation?

How do we find such representations?

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Representing Functions as Power Series
Suppose f (x) is a function which can be represented by the

cn (x a)n for |x a| < R, i.e,
P
power series
n=0
f (x) = c0 + c1 (x a) + c2 (x a)2 + c3 (x a)3 + . . . , |x a| < R

If x = a, then
f (a) = c0

Differentating both sides,

f 0 (x) = c1 + 2c2 (x a) + 3c3 (x a)2 + . . . , |x a| < R
f 0 (a) = c1

Differentiating again,
f 00 (x) = 2c2 + 2 3c3 (x a) + 3 4c4 (x a)2 + . . . , |x a| < R
f 00 (a) = 2c2

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Representing Functions as Power Series

Differenetiating again for |x a| < R,

f 000 (x) = 2 3c3 + 2 3 4c4 (x a) + 3 4 5c5 (x a)2 + . . .
f 000 (a) = 2 3c3

Continuing the process we obtain

f (n) (a) = 2 3 4 n cn = n!cn

f (n) (a)
cn =
n!

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Taylor Series

Definition
If f is a function which has a power series representation at a,
then it is of the form

X f (n) (a)
f (x) = (x a)n |x a| < R
n=0
n!
f 0 (a) f 00 (a) f 000 (a)
= f (a) + (x a) + (x a)2 + (x a)3 + . . .
1! 2! 3!
called the Taylor series (expansion) of f centered at a.

Remark. We adopt the convention f 0 (a) = f (a).

Definition
The Taylor series of f centered at 0 is called the Maclaurin
series of f .

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Taylor Series

We have seen that if f has a power series representation, then it

is given by its Taylor series expansion.
When is it true that f (x) is equal to the sum of its Taylor
series, i.e.

X f (n) (a)
f (x) = (x a)n ?
n=0
n!

Consider the partial sum of the Taylor series

n
X f (i) (a)
Tn (x) = (x a)i
i=0
i!
f 0 (a) f 00 (a) f (n) (a)
= f (a) + (x a) + (x a)2 + . . . + (x a)n
1! 2! n!

called the nth degree Taylor polynomial of f

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Taylor Series

We say that f is equal to its Taylor series if

f (x) = lim Tn (x).

n

Define Rn (x) = f (x) Tn (x), called the error term. Then

lim Tn (x) = lim [f (x) Rn (x)] = f (x) lim Rn (x).

n n n

This means that f (x) is equal to its power series if

lim Rn (x) = 0.
n

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Examples
Example
Find the Maclaurin series for f (x) = ex and determine its
radius of convergence.

Solution. Recall that the Maclaurin series is the Taylor series

X f (n) (0) n
of f centered at 0. It takes the form x .
n!
n=0
But f (n) (x) = ex for all n hence, f (n) (0) = e0 = 1. Therefore,

X xn
the Maclaurin series of f is .
n!
n=0
We have already shown this converges for all x R, i.e., R = .
In fact, we can show that the error term for this power series
representation approaches 0 (see Stewart). Hence,

X xn
ex = .
n!
n=0
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Examples
Example
Use the fourth degree Taylor polynomial for f (x) = ex centered
at 0 to approximate the value of e.

X xn
Solution. Since the Maclaurin series for ex is , the
n!
n=0
fourth degree Taylor polynomial is
4
X xi x x2 x3 x4
T4 (x) = =1+ + + +
i! 1! 2! 3! 4!
i=0

Therefore, ex T4 (x). When x = 1,

e T4 (1)
1 1 1 1
= 1+ + + +
1 2 6 24
1 + 1 + 0.5 + 0.1667 + 0.0417 2.7084

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Examples
Example
Find the Maclaurin series for cos x.

Solution. Let f (x) = cos x. Then

f 0 (x) = sin x f 0 (0) = 0 f 000 (x) = sin x f 000 (0) = 0
f 00 (x) = cos x f 00 (0) = 1 f (4) (x) = cos x f (4) (0) = 1
The derivatives repeat in a cycle of four, so

X f (n) (0) n f 0 (0) f 00 (0) 2 f 000 (0) 3
x = f (0) + x+ x + x + ...
n=0
n! 1! 2! 3!

x2 x4 x6 X x2n
= 1 + + ... = (1)n
2! 4! 6! n=0
(2n)!

It can be shown that for all x, Rn (x) 0 and hence

X x2n
cos x = (1)n
(2n)!
n=0

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Examples
Example
Find the Maclaurin series for sin x.
x2n
(1)n
P
Solution. Since cos x = ,
n=0 (2n)!
d
sin x = cos x
dx

X d  x2n

= (1)n
n=0
dx (2n)!

X (2n)x2n1
= (1)n+1
n=1
(2n)!

X x2n1
= (1)n+1
n=1
(2n 1)!
x3 x5 x7
= x + + ...
3! 5! 7!

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Examples
Example
Z 1
Evaluate cos x2 dx as an infinite series.
0

x2n
(1)n
P
Solution. Since cos x = ,
n=0 (2n)!

X x4n
cos x2 = (1)n
n=0
(2n)!
Therefore,
Z
x4n x4n+1
Z X X
cos x2 dx = (1)n dx = (1)n + C.
n=0
(2n)! n=0
(4n + 1)(2n)!
Hence,
1 1
x4n+1 (1)n
Z X X
2 n

cos x dx = (1)  =
0 n=0
(4n + 1)(2n)! 0 n=0 (4n + 1)(2n)!

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Exercises

1 Find the Taylor series of the following at the given center.

Determine also the radius of convergence.
1 c. ln x centered at 1
a. centered at 1
x

b. x centered at 4 d. sinh x centered at 0

2 Find the Maclaurin series of x sin x2 .

2
3 Obtain the Taylor series expansion of ex and use this to

X (1)n
find the sum .
4n n!
n=1

4 Use the fourth degree Taylor polynomial for3 x centered
at 1 and use it to approximate the value of 3 1.5.
Z 1
2
5 Approximate the value of ex dx.
0

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References

1 Stewart, J., Calculus, Early Transcendentals, 6 ed., Thomson

Brooks/Cole, 2008
2 Dawkins, P., Calculus 2, online notes available at
http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/

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