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ABSTRACT: Although reservoir quality cut-o criteria have been used for
more than 50 years as a guide for economic decisions, there is still no rational
procedure for identifying and applying them in Iranian oil and gas fields. In
other words, there are dierent rules-of-thumb in dierent sections of the
National Iranian Oil Companies for determination of cut-o values. For
instance, in one section, values of 10%, 50% and 50% are used for porosity,
water saturation and shale content cut-os, respectively; in another section,
cut-o criteria are not used at all, simply an estimate of the time when 20%
of oil-in-place could be produced. This paper addresses the optimization of
cut-o value estimation from raw and processed petrophysical data based on
extracting the most appropriate relationship for permeability as a function
of porosity, water saturation and shale content k = $(, Sw, Vsh). The
procedure starts by looking at permeability as the key parameter in choosing
a cut-o value because sometimes the minimum value (the permeability
cut-o) is directly related to economic circumstances and is defined by the
client. Regression analysis coecients of 0.936 and 0.870 were achieved for
relationships of the form k = $ (, Sw, Vsh) in the two petrofacies intervals
studied. This leads to specification of minimum k values of permeability and
determination of optimum cut-o values for , Sw and Vsh. This method is
then used to determine optimum cut-o values for the Burgan Member
(sandstone) in the Kazhdumi Formation in an oshore oil field in the Persian
Gulf. The calculated cut-o values for this case for k = 1.0 mD are = 12.5%,
Sw = 60% and Vsh = 27%, as opposed to the standard corporate values of
= 10%, Sw = 50% and Vsh = 50%.
Petroleum Geoscience, Vol. 17 2011, pp. 355363 2011 EAGE/Geological Society of London
DOI 10.1144/1354-079311-005
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more complex in contemporary integrated reservoir studies, for permeability is calculated directly. We successfully use this
which are systemic rather than parallel or sequential in nature, method for well A in an oshore oil field in the Iranian sector
so that all components of the evaluation process are inter- of the Persian Gulf (Fig. 2).
linked. Integrated evaluation means that the execution of a
task on any process component has ramifications for the
others (Fig. 1); therefore, a necessary characteristic of such CASE STUDY CHARACTERISTICS
a systemic approach is the provision for iteration as the
knowledge-base advances. For example, simulation is used in Site information
early reservoir studies to choose well configuration, identify
the dominant oil production mechanism and choose a produc- In this study, data from two wells spaced about 16 km apart
tion strategy. However, once the development plan has been (well A and B) are examined. Data from well A are used for
formulated, the dynamic simulation model must be re-visited calculation and data from well B for formation correlation.
and progressively updated, and data deficiencies must be Figure 3 shows the stratigraphic column of wells A and B
continually identified as development gets under way and more and formation top depths for the reservoir (Burgan sandstone
and better data become available (Worthington & Cosentino member) analysed for cut-o estimation. The primary reser-
2003). voir in this interval is formed by the coarse-grained clastic beds
The principal use of cut-os is to delineate net pay, of the Kazhdumi Formation, referred to as Burgan A & B
described broadly as the summation of those depth intervals units. The Kazhdumi Formation sandstone reservoir in this
through which hydrocarbons are (economically) producible. In block has probably been charged from Cretaceous source
the context of integrated reservoir studies with mathematical rocks, and the hydrocarbon is expected to become more
simulation, net pay plays an important role both directly and mature towards the north of the block.
through defining the net-to-gross pay ratio. Net pay criteria The carbonates in the Burgan member mainly consist of
demarcate the reservoir intervals that become the focus of Fe-oolitic grainstone with some rounded quartz grains.
further study (petrophysics, detailed logging, simulation mod- Cementation is fairly well developed and some of the oolites
els etc.). These criteria define eective thicknesses that are used are squeezed because of compaction. The source of Fe is
to identify or specify hydrocarbon flow units, that are used to unclear; a process of halmyrolysis in relation to volcanic
identify target intervals for well completions and stimulation exhalations has been hypothesized (Van Buchem et al. 2006).
programmes, and that are needed to estimate permeability Because of depositional environments, orbitolinids and other
(and hence productivity index) through the analysis of well-test carbonate-precipitating organisms appear to have been absent
data. The net-to-gross pay ratio and geometric pay disposition during oolite formation, some of which have quartz grain
in wells are used directly in volumetric computations of nuclei that served as the initial substrate for precipitation from
hydrocarbons in place and thence lead to static estimates of CaCO3-saturated solutions. Sandstones are interpreted to be
ultimate hydrocarbon recovery. These also form key indicators
of hydrocarbon zone continuity and connectivity, so they
contribute to the development of the dynamic model used
in simulation, thus aiding dynamic estimates of ultimate
hydrocarbon recovery (Worthington & Cosentino 2003).
There is no universal definition of net pay, nor does there
appear to be general agreement on how it should be delineated;
hence, net pay has been incorporated within integrated reser-
voir studies in dierent ways that have not always been
optimally fit-for-purpose. In an attempt to rectify some of
these shortcomings, this paper describes a method to deter-
mine optimum values of reservoir cut-os. Simply put, using
regression methods, we wish to extract relationships between
permeability as the dependent factor using reservoir porosity,
water saturation and shale content (, Sw, Vsh), as independent
parameters. Economic evaluation will define a minimum value
/
of mobility (M) for the net pay, defined as M = k , where
is viscosity. Based on a defined minimum economic value for
W'
mobility and a constant viscosity, a minimum economic value Fig. 2. Location map of the studied field.
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Interval (m) Recovery (%) Formation Fluorescence/cut & odour Gross lithology
22942306 90 Burgan A Dark brown/flash, bright brown cut Mainly sand, siltstone & shale, soaked
23062318 88 Burgan A & Burgan B Dark brown/flash, bright brown cut with oil
23182327 100 Burgan B Dark brown/+ve cut Sand, shale and silty shale, upper part
oil-bearing
Downloaded from http://pg.lyellcollection.org/ at University of Waterloo on May 20, 2015
Net-pay: after porosity cut-o of 5% and water saturation cut-o of 70% ( > 5% and Sw < 70%).
the other items will be explained briefly in the following in well B, data from well A were used for determining a
section. permeability relation.
Net-pay: after porosity cut-o of 5% and water saturation cut-o of 70% ( > 5% and Sw < 70%).
large porosity and permeability range, and the relation demanding and, in general, may prove tedious and with no
between porosity and permeability in the Fontainebleau is well guarantee of enhanced relationships being found. Hence we
defined (Kameda et al. 2006). One reason for this distinct trend adopted well A as our type or marker well due to its
is that the Fontainebleau samples are extremely clean and well
sorted, consisting of 99.8% quartz. After deposition, the sands
underwent quartz overgrowth to dierent degrees, which pro-
duced a large span of porosity among the samples (Kameda
et al. 2006). In spite of its uniqueness, the Fontainebleau
dataset is relevant to hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir sand-
stones.
Figure 5 shows permeability versus porosity in well A,
demonstrating the lack of a strong (statistically significant)
relationship in this well. Making predictions using this dataset
by linear regression methods will lead to poor results/matches;
therefore, multiple regression methods are suggested because
permeability depends on other parameters as well as porosity
in this kind of reservoir. The other influential parameters are
water saturation and shale content which were added to
porosity to form the independent parameter set for developing
a multiple regression model to predict permeability.
Based on the research referred to above, it is clear that there
is no formula to predict permeability exactly, so we used our
data to find the best relationship of the form k = $ (, Sw, Vsh).
Determining the optimum set of cut-o values of these para-
meters was our final goal. Based on MDT sampling pressure
analysis on well A in the Burgan member, it was concluded
that there were two main sections that could be called reservoir
intervals (22222239 m and 22462250 m; Fig. 6), which are
referred to as Petrofacies I and II.
The multiple regression technique was used to extract the
permeability relationship for well A and, subsequently, this
relationship was used for permeability estimation in well B
(Balan et al. 1995a, b). This approach proved to be more
accurate than empirical models obtained from literature
(Timur 1968; Ahmed et al. 1989).
To get the best from this approach, it may be necessary to
treat each well independently since the reservoir is hetero-
geneous and may, therefore, not reveal the same hydraulic
properties across the entire field and, perhaps, not even within
the same petrofacies. However, due to the large number of Fig. 6. Petrofacies I (22222239 m) and Petrofacies II (22462250 m) of
wells being investigated, this would have been excessively well A.
Downloaded from http://pg.lyellcollection.org/ at University of Waterloo on May 20, 2015
Table 5. Dierent cut-o values based on dierent minimum expected Table 7. Lithology of Burgan sandstone member in well B
permeability
Member Depth (m) Lithology
k (mD) (%) Vsh (%) Sw (%)
A 22542285 Shale: Grey, olive-green, greenish, moder-
0.8 12 28 60 ately hard to very hard, splintery, slightly
1.0 12.5 27 60 silty.
1.4 13 25 61 Sand: Translucent, fine to very fine-grained,
2 18 14 67 occasionally coarse-grained, sub-angular,
sub-rounded, well-sorted, hard, loose.
Sandstone: Transparent, translucent, brown-
complete and relatively modern dataset. Nevertheless, we note ish, moderately hard, very fine to fine-
22852315 grained, occasionally medium-grained, sub-
that in appropriate circumstances, multiple wells, properly angular, sub-rounded, moderately sorted.
divided into consistent petrofacies, may enhance the predictive Siltstone: Brown, dark brown, moderately
strength of such models. hard, friable slightly silty.
Rather than having just a unique value as the result, we Shale: Grey, olive-green, greenish, moder-
decided to use a dynamic approach by having some scenarios ately hard to very hard, splintery.
with one action as the base case, then at one extreme the most B Sand: Translucent, fine to very fine-grained,
occasionally coarse-grained, sub-angular to
pessimistic option and at the other the most optimistic option.
sub-rounded, well sorted, hard and loose.
Using this approach, sets of cut-o values were generated. Siltstone: Brown, dark brown, moderately
Based on production histories, cut-o values were variable; we hard, friable slightly silty.
showed that when minimum expected permeability changed, 23152327 Shale: Grey, olive-green, greenish, moder-
other related variables changed accordingly (Table 5). ately hard to very hard, splintery.
Sandstone: Transparent, translucent, brown-
ish, moderately hard, very fine to fine-
RESULTS grained, occasionally medium-grained, sub-
angular to sub-rounded, moderately sorted.
Limestone: White, o-white, cream, soft to
Rock type and porosity type study of wells A and B moderately hard, friable, sub-blocky.
(Kazhdumi Formation, Burgan sandstone member) Shale: Grey, olive-green, greenish, moder-
23272336 ately hard to very hard, splintery.
Tables 6 and 7 present the lithology and porosity types of the Sand: Translucent, fine to very fine-grained,
Burgan sandstone member at wells A and B. The main sub-angular to sub-rounded, well sorted,
lithology of these sections is sandstone with some intervals of loose.
limestone and shale. Marl: Grey/greenish, soft to very soft,
sticky.
Limestone: White to o-white, cream, soft
Fluid properties 23362348
to moderately hard, friable, sub-blocky.
Shale: Grey, olive-green, greenish, moder-
Well A: Based on production testing, the following measure- ately hard to very hard, splintery.
ments were carried out to obtain the oil API gravity; two zones Clay/Claystone: Grey to dark grey, soft,
within Burgan B sand were tested by a TCP-DST assembly. occasionally blocky, sticky, washable (dis-
persable).
+ Object I in the interval 22452250 m on nitrogen applica- 23482354 Marl: Grey/greenish, soft to very soft,
tion indicated the presence of little heavy oil with water sticky.
during reverse out. Shale: Grey, olive-green, greenish, moder-
+ Object I was isolated by placing a bridge plug at 2243 m. ately hard to very hard, splintery.
+ Object II in the interval 22222239 m, 15.5(API oil @ 438 Argillaceous limestone: Beige, cream, rarely
light brown, soft, blocky-sub-blocky.
BOPD through a $ choke (FTHP: 19 psi). The zone,
Limestone: White to o-white, cream, soft
retested with ESP, flowed oil @ 2124 BOPD through $ 23542360
to moderately hard, friable, sub-blocky.
choke at 58 Hz (FTHP: 115 psi); the gravity of the oil Shale: Grey, olive-green, greenish, moder-
ranged between 14.1 and 14.6(API. ately hard to very hard, splintery.
Limestone: Light grey, white, light cream,
Well B: Based on production testing, the following hard, blocky to sub-blocky, locally fossilifer-
measurements were carried out to obtain the oil API gravity; 23602367 ous.
two zones within Burgan A sand were tested by TCP-DST Shale: Grey, olive-green, greenish, moder-
assembly. ately hard to very hard, splintery.
Table 8. Regression equations for the two petrofacies units with coef- meability), calculated cut-o values should be optimized using
ficient of determination multiple parameters. A good cut-o selection procedure will be
a useful input in integrated field management studies. Follow-
Petrofacies Regression equation R ing this study, a number of suggestions can be made.
Petrofacies 1 Log (k) = 0.868+16.4711.522Sw1.015Vsh 0.936 1. Permeability is a key factor in determination of cut-o
Petrofacies 2 Log (k) = 1.379+4.2600.452Sw6.068Vsh 0.870
values (along with viscosity).
2. It is necessary to determine a permeability prediction based
on combining the influences of porosity, water saturation
these two equations are 0.936 and 0.870, respectively, far better and shale content, for individual petrofacies.
than any single-parameter, linear-regression approach. On the 3. Based on the data studied here, it is possible to develop
other hand, regression coecients (R2) are 0.8755 and 0.7577. a very strong statistical predictor approach based on a
These equations are then applied to the other wells which have multiple regression method for these petrofacies. There
been previously and carefully correlated with petrofacies. is a significant dierence between regular cut-o values
( = 10%, Sw = 50%, Vsh = 50%) obtained from standard
petrophysical analysis and our optimum determination (for
CONCLUSION k = 1.0 mD, = 12.5%, Vsh = 27% and Sw = 60%).
There are no universally accepted definitions for the net-to- 4. It should be noted that the reservoir cut-o values are not
gross parameters and the cut-o criteria by which they are constant values and depend on minimum expected per-
obtained. To reduce the ambiguity surrounding the usage of meability, viscosity and economic factors.
these terms, there is a need for geologists, petrophysicists,
The authors would like to express their gratitude to Prof. Jack
engineers and even resource economists to clearly define what
Dvorkin of Stanford University for help in showing us the key aspects
they mean and to specify the yardstick used to arrive at of the cut-o problem and introducing some useful papers and theses.
decisions. As permeability is related to porosity, water satura- They would also like to thank Prof. Mohammad Ghavidel Syooki
tion and shale content in the two studied petrofacies, while from the University of Tehran and Prof. Maurice B. Dusseault from
economic mobility is associated with a minimum expected the University of Waterloo for scientific suggestions. Thanks go to Mr
permeability (cut-o value for permeability or economic per- Mohsen Yazdimoghadam for correcting geological sections and to Mr
Fig. 7. Plot of measured and predicted permeability values for Petrofacies I using the multiple regression technique for (a) well A and (b) cross-plot
of predicted and measured permeability.
Downloaded from http://pg.lyellcollection.org/ at University of Waterloo on May 20, 2015
Fig. 8. Plot of measured and predicted permeability values for Petrofacies II using the multiple regression technique for (a) well A and (b) cross-plot
of predicted and measured permeability.
Reza Khayam (Head of the Board, Petro Gostar Permayon Co.) and Cobb, W.M. & Marek, F.J. 1998. Net pay determination for primary and
Mr Shervin Nejatian (Director Manager of Petro Gostar Permayon waterflood depletion mechanisms. Paper presented at the SPE Annual
Co.) for support and co-operation. The use of trade names within this Technical Conference and Exhibition, 2730 September, New Orleans,
article should not be taken as an endorsement. Louisiana.
Kameda, A., Dvorkin, J., Keehm, Y., Nur, A. & Bosl, W. 2006.
Permeabilityporosity transforms from small sandstone fragments.
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