COMPANY PROFILE

IFFCO has 40,000 member cooperatives. IFFCO has

been ranked#37 in top companies in India in 2011 by
Fortune India 500 list.
Indian Farmers Fertilizer Co-operative Limited (IFFCO)
was registered on November 3, 1967 as a Multi-unit Co-
operative Society. On the enactment of the Multistate
Cooperative Societies act 1984 & 2002, the Society is
deemed to be registered as a Multistate Cooperative
Society. The Society is primarily engaged in production
and distribution of fertilizers. The byelaws of the Society
provide a broad frame work for the activities of IFFCO
as a Cooperative Society.
IFFCO commissioned an ammonia - urea complex at
Kalol and the NPK/DAP plant at Kandla both in the state
of Gujarat in 1975. Another ammonia - urea complex
was set up at Phulpur in the state of Uttar Pradesh in
1981. The ammonia - urea unit at Aonla was
commissioned in 1988.

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In 1993, IFFCO had drawn up a major expansion
programme of all the four plants under overall aegis of
IFFCO VISION 2000. The expansion projects at Aonla,
Kalol, Phulpur and Kandla have been completed on
schedule. Thus all the projects conceived as part of
Vision 2000 have been realized without time or cost
overruns. All the production units of IFFCO have
established a reputation for excellence and quality. A
new growth path has been chalked out to realize newer
dreams and greater heights through Vision 2010.
which is presently under implementation. As part of the
new vision, IFFCO has acquired fertilizer unit at
Paradeep in Orissa in September 2005.
IFFCO has made strategic investments in several joint
ventures. Godavari Fertilizers and Chemicals Ltd (GFCL)
& Indian Potash Ltd (IPL) in India, Industries Chimiques
du Senegal (ICS) in Senegal and Oman India .
Fertilizer Company (OMIFCO) in Oman are important
fertilizer joint ventures. Indo Egyptian Fertilizer Co (IEFC)
in Egypt is under implementation. As part of strategic
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diversification, IFFCO has entered into several key
sectors. IFFCO-Tokyo General Insurance Ltd (ITGI) is a
foray into general insurance sector. Through ITGI, IFFCO
has formulated new services of benefit to farmers.
'Sankat Haran Bima Yojana' provides free insurance
cover to farmers along with each bag of IFFCO fertilizer
purchased. To take the benefits of emerging concepts
like agricultural commodity trading, IFFCO has taken
equity in National Commodity and Derivative Exchange
(NCDEX) and National Collateral Management Services
Ltd (NCMSL). IFFCO Chhattisgarh Power Ltd (ICPL)
which is under implementation is yet another foray to
move into core area of power. IFFCO is also behind
several other companies with the sole intention of
benefitting farmers.
The distribution of IFFCO's fertilizer is undertaken
through over 38155 cooperative societies. The entire
activities of Distribution, Sales and Promotion are co-
ordinate by Marketing Central Office (MKCO) at New
Delhi assisted by the Marketing offices in the field. In

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addition, essential agro-inputs for crop production are
made available to the farmers through a chain of 158
Farmers Service Centre (FSC). IFFCO has promoted
several institutions and organizations to work for the
welfare of farmers, strengthening cooperative
movement, improve Indian agriculture. Indian Farm
Forestry Development Cooperative Ltd (IFFDC),
Cooperative Rural Development Trust (CORDET), IFFCO
Foundation, Kisan Sewa Trust belong to this category.
An ambitious project 'ICT Initiatives for Farmers and
Cooperatives' is launched to promote e-culture in rural
India. IFFCO obsessively nurtures its relations with
farmers and undertakes a large number of agricultural
extension activities for their benefit every year.
At IFFCO, the thirst for ever improving the services to
farmers and member co-operatives is insatiable,
commitment to quality is insurmountable and
harnessing of mother earths' bounty to drive hunger
away from India in an ecologically sustainable manner is
the prime mission. All that IFFCO cherishes in exchange

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is an everlasting smile on the face of Indian Farmer who
form the moving spirit behind this mission.
IFFCO, today, is a leading player in India's fertilizer
industry and is making substantial contribution to the
efforts of Indian Government to increase food grain
production in the country.

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6
For efficient and uninterrupted running of a fertilizer
plant a reliable source of power is very much essential.
All the major rotating equipments of Ammonia and
Urea plant are driven by electrical motor. To meet the
demand of high pressure steam and dependable
electrical power, the steam and power generators have
been installed. The steam generator of Aonla unit will
supply high pressure steam to process plants and Gas
turbine generators will meet the power requirement of
the plant. There are two Gas Turbine Generators (GTG),
one Steam Generator (SG) and two Heat Recovery
Steam Generating units (HRSG).
The GTG have been designed to operate on natural gas
(NG), high speed diesel (HSD) or Naptha fuels.
The exhaust of GT at about 500 deg C is used in HRSG
to generate steam at high pressure.
Two HRSG units each having capacity to generate 80
T/hr at 116 atm and 515O C is manufactured by M/s
Kawasaki heavy industries , Japan. HRSG is a packed

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type boiler having bank tubes, a set of super heaters,
De-super heaters and economizer.
The SG unit is a water tube double drum, natural
circulation, oil (low sulphur high start, LSHS) or natural
gas fired boiler manufactured by M/s Mitsui Engg. Co.
Japan.
The capacity of the SG unit is 150 tonns/hr of super
heated steam at apressure of 116 atm and temp 515
deg C. The SG is designed to use NG or LSHS fuel for
regular firing. For initial light up of the SG, HSD will be
used.
The SG is pressurized furnace with no induced F.D. fan.
Two F.D. fans, one turbine driven and other motor
driven have been provided to supply combustion air.
A direct spray type De-super heater has been provided
between primary and secondary super heater to control
steam temperature.
Super heater is of convection type, counter flow,
drainable, inverted U

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looped tubes with spiral fins. Super heater section is
located in the highest gas temp zone and materials are
designed to satisfy the requirement of opearation
conditions. Super heater elements are bottom
supported by lower header holding plates.
The MD type boiler is provided with a steam drum and
a water drum. Both of the drum have a main hole on
each end for maintenance and inspection. The steam
drum is equipped with sets of steam purifiers inside to
obtain the required steam purity.
The furnace has an ample volume to secure complete
combustion of specified fuel. The furnace walls are of
welded longitudinal fin tubes panels to form a
completely gas tight enclosure. The furnace floor is
covered with a layer of refractory bricks so as to shield
the tubes from radiant heat to secure a good circulation
of water.

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UREA

IFFCO's Urea is not merely a source of 46% of

nutrient nitrogen for crops, but it is an integral part of
millions of farmers in India. A bag of IFFCO's urea is a
constant source of confidence and is a trusted
companion for Indian farmer.
When farmers buy IFFCO's urea, they know that what
they get is not just a product but a complete package
of services, ably supported by a dedicated team of
qualified personnel. More importantly, they are aware
that it is their own urea, produced and supplied by a
cooperative society owned by themselves.

About Urea
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 Urea is the most important nitrogenous fertiliser in the
country because of its high N content (46%N). Besides
its use in the crops, it is used as a cattle feed
supplement to replace a part of protein requirements. It
has also numerous industrial uses notably for
production of plastics

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If urea is applied to bare soil surface significant
quantities of ammonia may be lost by volatilisation
because of its rapid hydrolysis to ammonium carbonate.
The hydrolysis of urea can be altered by the use of
several compound called urease inhibitors. These
inhibitors inactivate the enzyme and thereby prevent
the rapid hydrolysis of urea when it is added to soil. The
rapid hydrolysis of urea in soils is also responsible for
ammonia injury to seedlings if large quantities of this
material placed with or too close to the seed. Proper
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placement of fertiliser urea with respect to seed can
eliminate this difficulty.

INDIAN FARMERS FERILIZERS COOPERATIVE LIMITED

INTRODUCTION

Iffco Aonla complex is one of the giant cooperative

fetilizer manufacturing industries in India.
The Iffco complex at Aonla consists of two Ammonia
units of 1350 MT/day capacity and two Urea units of
1100 MT/day each capacity with the required offsite
facilities.

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For efficient and uninterrupted running of a fertilizer
plant a reliable source of power is very much essential.
All the major rotating equipments of Ammonia and
Urea plant are driven by electrical motor. To meet the
demand of high pressure steam and dependable
electrical power, the steam and power generators have
been installed. The steam generator of Aonla unit will
supply high pressure steam to process plants and Gas
turbine generators will meet the power requirement of
the plant. There are two Gas Turbine Generators (GTG),
one Steam Generator (SG) and two Heat Recovery
Steam Generating units (HRSG). One GTG will be in line
while the other is stand by. The stand by unit can come
on full load in 13 minutes.
The GTG, manufactured by M/S Hitachi limited, Japan
has a capacity to generate 25.280 MW at ISO base
rating (means atmosphere temperature 15deg C & 60%
humidity at sea level) or 18.320 MW power output at
the site conditions. The GTG have been designed to
operate on natural gas (NG), high speed diesel (HSD) or

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Naptha fuels. The exhaust of GT at about 500 deg C will
be used in HRSG to generate steam at high pressure.
There is a provision to by pass the GT exhaust in case it
is not required due to shut down of the respective
HRSG. In this case exhaust will be vented to
atmosphere. Two HRSG units each having capacity to
generate 80 T/hr at 116 atm and 515O C is
manufactured by M/s Kawasaki heavy industries , Japan.
HRSG is a packed type boiler having bank tubes, a set
of super heaters, De-super heaters and economizer. The
temp of exhaust gas from GTG is increased by
supplementary firing. The exhaust of GTG is having
sufficient quantity of excess air which is utilized for
combustion of supplement fuel and so no separate
Forced draft (F.D.) fan has been provided. For steam
temp control, direct water spray type attemperator has
been provided between primary and secondary super
heaters.
The SG unit is a water tube double drum, natural
circulation, oil (low sulphur high start, LSHS) or natural

15
gas fired boiler manufactured by M/s Mitsui Engg. Co.
Japan. The capacity of the SG unit is 150 tonns/hr of
super heated steam at apressure of 116 atm and temp
515 deg C. The SG is designed to use NG or LSHS fuel
for regular firing. For initial light up of the SG, HSD will
be used. The SG is pressurized furnace with no induced
F.D. fan. Two F.D. fans, one turbine driven and other
motor driven have been provided to supply combustion
air. A direct spray type De-super heater has been
provided between primary and secondary super heater
to control steam temperature.

GAS TURBINE GENERATOR (GTG)

PRINCIPLE

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The gas turbine like any other heat engine is a
device of converting part of fuel's chemical energy
into useful available mechanical power.
It does this in the manner similarily in, many ways
to the system used by four stroke cycle
reciprocating internal combustion engine. Air is
drawn into the compressor, usually through an air
filter situated in a "Filter house" to remove any
harmful solid particle from the air stream. This air
is then compressed to a designed figure by a multi
stage axial compressor. The hot compressor air is
then fed to the combustion system where it is
mixed with injected fuel. Here the fuel burns and
add its energy to the air.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF STEAM

GENRATION
The Mitsui MD (middle to semi large industrial
boiler) type steam generator is of outdoor use, self
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standing natural circulation type. The steam
generator is designed to fire HSD, LSHS/FO, and
NG with four set of oil and gas combination
burners
The steam generator comprises a water cooled
furnace, a convection bank, steam and water drum,
headers for collecting and distributing water and
steam, primary and secondary super heater,
framed, casing insulation etc.

DRUM AND INTERNALS:

The MD type boiler is provided with a steam drum
and a water drum. Both of the drum have a main
hole on each end for maintenance and inspection.
The steam drum is equipped with sets of steam
purifiers inside to obtain the required steam purity.
The steam drum is equipped with internal pipes
for feed water, chemical and continous blow-down
as well as stream purifier. The internal pipes are
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arranged so as to ensure good distribution of feed
water and chemicals in the drum and to collect
relatively highly concentrated boiler water for blow
down. The nozzles for feed water and chemicals
are of double pipe type so as to reduce thermal
stresses due to the temp differences.
Finally the steam passes through the scrubbers.
This comprises a number of corrugated metal
plates. When the steam flows through it, any
remaining water particles are efficiently removed.
This occurs due to sharp change in the flow
direction.

FURNACE:
The furnace has an ample volume to secure
complete combustion of specified fuel. The
furnace walls are of welded longitudinal fin tubes
panels to form a completely gas tight enclosure.
The furnace floor is covered with a layer of
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refractory bricks so as to shield the tubes from
radiant heat to secure a good circulation of water.
The front wall is equipped with burner in two rows.
The rear wall forms a partition wall dividing the
convection section from the furnace. The rear
tubes form a nose baffle to provide a superheater
space at the upper part of the furnace. The side
walls are provided with lower and upper header
which is connected to water and steam drums with
connection pipes. Sufficient number of observation
holes are provided on the front side walls to check
the firing condition and for maintenance.

SUPER HEATER:
The super heater is provided with two stages of
super heaters. In primary and secondary super
heater both of then there are of convection and
pendant type. The primary super heater is located
at the lower gas temp part while the secondary is
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at the higher temp part. The steam flows, contour
to gas in the primary super heater and parallel in
the secondary heat.
The super heater tubes are hung to super heater
headers which are mounted on the furnace
header. Therefore, thermal, expansion of the tubes
are hung to the super heater headers which are
mounted on the furnace header. Therefore,
thermal expansion of the tubes and headers is
free, which avoids excessive stresses.
Retractable soot blowers and access doors are
provided between the primary and secondary
super heater for cleaning and maintenance.
DE-SUPER HEATER:
A de-super heater is also provided on the
connecting pipe between the primary and
secondary super heaters to control the final steam
pressure.
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Feed water is sprayed in the steam flow through a
spray nozzle which reduces the steam temp.
Immediately downstream of the nozzle, a thermal
sleeve is furnished so as to provide direct contact
of sprayed water to the connecting pipe wall.

ECONOMISER:
Economiser is furnished downstream the
convection bank to recover waste heat from flue
gases.
The economiser comprises a number of spiral
wound finned tubes, inlet and outlet headers and
sufficient frames and casing. It is supported by the
steel structure using slide shoes to cater with
horizontal thermal expansion.
Reciprocating type soot blower with multiple
nozzles is furnished to effectively clean the heating
surfaces.

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BOILER FEED WATER SYSTEM:
The requirement of water for the boiler is met
from the water treatment plant. In the water
treatment plant, DM water temp is raised to 60
deg C by passing it through return condensate
cooler before sending to steam generation plant.
In deaerator dissolve gases O2 and CO2 are
removed up to less than 0.005 ppm by raising the
wter temp to 126 deg C and stripping at a
pressure of 1.44 kg/cm sq. By steam in deaerator
storage tank, Cyclohexamine and Hydrazine are
dosed to raise the pH of water to 8.59.5 and
further chemical treatment of the boiler water to
remove the remaining oxygen to nil.
Boiler feed water pump takes suction from
deaerator. The pump discharge at pressure of 162
kf/cm sq g and temp 126 deg C through
economiser it enters the boiler drum. There is
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boiler feed water preheater located between pump
discharge and economizer to raise the BFW temp
from 126 deg C to 140 deg C in case the boiler is
on LSHS firing. This rise in temp is essential to
avoid condensation of oxides of sulphur on coil
surface and to prevent corrosion.
The outlet of BFW preheater is divided into two
branches, the small branch leads to the De-super
heaters of the SG and HRSG units to control the
steam temp and other leads water to SG and
HRSG units through respective economiser. In
economiser, feed water utilises the waste heat
from the flue gases and temp of water raised to
190 to 310 deg C respectively.

DEAERATING HEATER:
Deaerator is very important in the boiler feed
water system. Its basic function is to remove O2
and CO2 dissolved in water to a considerable
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extent and store water for supplying to boiler feed
pumps.

DEAERATOR:
The deaerator functions on heat and mass transfer
process. In deaerator the nozzles and trays have
been provided, through which water is sprayed
and distribute into fine droplets to increase the
surface area of the water. The process removes the
dissolved gases upto some extent. Then the
stream is mixed with water in mixed box named
scrubber. This process also removes the dissolved
gases. By the above process, in water, O2 contents
get reduced to 0.005 ppm.

STORAGE TANK:
This is for storing of the feed water which is
deaerated. The storage tank is designed to prevent
subsequent penetration of oxygen during the

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feeding water process after the necessary
deaeration. The temp of the water is also kept
constant inside the storage tank by covering the
tank with insulating material.

COMBUSTION AIR SYSTEM:

The air required for the combustion of air in steam
generator is meeting by two centrifugal types
forced draft fan (F.D. fan). One fan is driven by
electrical motor while other by steam turbine.
During the startup of the SG, motor driven fan is
taken in service in case steam is not available to
driven fan is taken in service in case steam is not
available to drive the turbine.
The FD fan sucks the air from the atmosphere and
discharge to the furnace at a pressure of 90mm-
500mm water gauge. The quantity of air is
controlled by the vane provided at the suction side
of FD fan. Two air heaters have been provided in
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the discharge duct of FD fans, which are known as
steam oil heater and gas air heater. These air
heaters raise the temp to 145 deg C.

DESCRIPTION OF HRSG:
GENERAL:
The boiler consists of and arranged in the same
casing as follows:
Super heater Evaporator with steam drum
Economiser
All tubes are spiral finned and are arranged in
vertical rows with staggered tube arrangement to
horizontal gas flow. All tubes circuits originate
from inlet header and discharge to outlet header,
and besides tubes and its header and discharge to
outlet header, and besides tubes and its header
are arranged so that all tube bank sections are

27
fully drainable. Whole boiler is supported with the
bottom casing on the foundation.

STEAM DRUM:
Steam drum is of all welded construction,
fabricated from carbon steel material and
equipped with steam purifier of baffle screen type
in steam drum and necessary nozzle and
connections. The drum has been mounted on
above the boiler and is supported with down
corner pipes.

EVAPORATOR:
Evaporator section is composed of several
components which consist of number of tube with
spiral fin and each inlet and outlet header. Each
component is made up of water circulation circuits
separately. Evaporator elements are bottom
supported by lower header holding plates.

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WATER CIRCULATION SYSTEM:
The water circulation circuit consists of steam
drum, down corner pipes, down corner headers,
supply pipes, steam generating tubes
(evaporators) and riser pipe. The basic system
functions are as follows:
Sub cooled water in the steam drum is led to the
down corner headers through heated down corner
pipes and is disrtributed to each evaporator inlet
header from down corner headers. The mixture of
water and steam generated by the heat absorption
of evaporator flows from evaporator outlet
headers to steam drum through the riser pipes.

SUPER HEATER:
Super heater is of convection type, counter flow,
drainable, inverted Ulooped tubes with spiral fins.
Super heater section is located in the highest gas

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temp zone and materials are designed to satisfy
the requirement of opearation conditions. Super
heater elements are bottom supported by lower
header holding plates.

ECONOMISER:
Economiser is of counter flow, drainable, vertical
tubes with spiral fines.

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31
The quality of steam for high pressure driven
turbines is very much essential to keep the
equipment in proper running condition and
achieve the high efficiency. The quality of steam
at Steam Generating Plant shall be maintained as
under:

pH of steam is maintained to prevent corrosion of

steam pipe line and return condensate line. The
Silica concentration in steam to lower value
prevents the Silica deposition on the turbine
32
blades. If it is not controlled in long run, this
deposition of Silica on the tip of blades reduces
efficiency of the blades, increases back pressure,
and at worst it makes the rotor unbalanced and
results in failure.
The analysis of steam for conductivity detects any
carry over of salts from steam drum due to some
or other reason. These salts, when carried over
with steam, get deposited on the turbine blades
and reduces the efficiency of the machine.
The total dissolved solids in steam are to be
maintained to lower value to prevent any
deposition in Super heater tubes and Turbine
blades. The deposition of solids in Super heater
tubes reduces the heat transfer to steam. This
causes the overheating of the tube metal and
finally failure of the tube.

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Steam System
The steam requirement for steam and power
generation plant for their auxiliaries and main
consumer plant (Urea) are at different pressures
and temperatures.
The requirements are as under:
1. High pressure steam at 116 Atm and
515C.
2. Medium pressure steam at 39 Atm and
478C.
3. Medium pressure steam at 39 Atm and
400C.
4. Low pressure steam at 4.5 Ata and 225C.

High Pressure Steam (116 Atm and

515C)

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The high pressure steam is generated in Main
Steam Generating unit and Heat Recovery Steam
Generating Units. The outlet of these units is
connected to a header, which is called High
Pressure Steam Header. This header supplies
steam at 116 Atm and 515C to Urea Plant and
Auxiliaries of Steam and power Generating Units
through Pressure Reducing and DeSuperheating
Station.
The requirement of Medium and Lower Pressure
Steam is met through Pressure Reducing and
De-Superheating Stations (PRDS). For this purpose
two PRDS have been provided in Steam
Generating Plant. In PRDS, firstly the pressure is
reduced through pressure Control Valve and then
boiler water is sprayed at controlled rate through
the nozzles to bring down the steam temperature
at required value. The requirement of steam for
Urea Plant is met from High pressure Header. The
35
High Pressure Header is charged from Steam
Generator and Heat Recovery Steam Generator
outlet.

Medium Pressure Steam (478C)

The medium pressure steam at 478C is required
for Boiler Feed Pump and F.D. drive turbines. This
is achieved after reducing the high pressure steam
to 39 Atm pressure by pressure Reducing Station
No.1.

Medium Pressure Steam (400C)

The medium pressure steam at 400C required for
the following equipment is drawn from Pressure
Reducing Station No.1 and further desuperheated
to 400C by De-Superheating station No. 1.
1. Boiler Feed Water Preheater 2. Atomising Steam
Header 3. Soot blowing header for SG and HRSG
soot blowers 4. Ammonia Plant Medium steam
36
pressure header 5. Furnace oil bulk storage tank
area. 6. Pressure reducing Station No. 2.

Low Pressure Steam (225C)

The exhaust of Boiler Feed Pump drive turbines at
4.5 Atm and 459C is de-superheated to 225C by
De-Superheating Station No.2 and discharge to
L.P. Steam Header. In this header Blow Down tank
vent steam and F.D. or drive turbine exhaust steam
is discharged. This Low Pressure Header supply
steam to the following:
1. Fuel Gas Superheater 2. HSD Heater 3. FO/LSHS
Heater 4. Steam Air Heater 5. Header for DM Plant
6. Deaerator
The shortfall of steam in L.P. header is met through
Pressure Reducing Station No. 2 which draws
steam from Medium Pressure Steam Header.

37
 Diagram of a typical water-cooled surface
condenser.
The surface condenser is a shell and tube heat
exchanger in which cooling water is circulated
through the tubes. The exhaust steam from the low
pressure turbine enters the shell where it is cooled
and converted to condensate (water) by flowing
over the tubes as shown in the adjacent diagram.
Such condensers use steam ejectors or rotary
38
motor-driven exhausters for continuous removal of
air and gases from the steam side to maintain
vacuum.
For best efficiency, the temperature in the
condenser must be kept as low as practical in order
to achieve the lowest possible pressure in the
condensing steam. Since the condenser
temperature can almost always be kept
significantly below 100 oC where the vapor
pressure of water is much less than atmospheric
pressure, the condenser generally works under
vacuum. Thus leaks of non-condensible air into the
closed loop must be prevented. Plants operating in
hot climates may have to reduce output if their
source of condenserThe condenser generally uses
either circulating cooling water from a cooling
tower to reject waste heat to the atmosphere, or
once-through water from a river, lake or ocean.
cooling water becomes warmer; unfortunately this
39
usually coincides with periods of high electrical
demand for air conditioning.

A steam generating boiler requires that the boiler

feed water should be devoid of air and other
dissolved gases, particularly corrosive ones, in

40
order to avoid corrosion of the metal. Generally,
power stations use a deaerator to provide for the
removal of air and other dissolved gases from the
boiler feedwater. A deaerator typically includes a
vertical, domed deaeration section mounted on
top of a horizontal cylindrical vessel which serves
as the deaerated boiler feedwater storage tank.
There are many different designs for a deaerator
and the designs will vary from one manufacturer to
another. The adjacent diagram depicts a typical
conventional trayed deaerator. If operated
properly, most deaerator manufacturers will
guarantee that oxygen in the deaerated water will
not exceed 7 ppb by weight (0.005 cm/L).

The fuels used in Steam Generator & Heat

Recovery Steam Generating units are HSD, Furnace
41
Oil/Low Sulphur Heavy Stock (FO/LSHS) and
Natural Gas.
The liquid fuels are stored in two Day Oil Tanks
located near Steam Generating Units The Day Oil
Tanks have a storage capacity of 80 tons and 175
tons of HSD and FO/LSHS respectively. The HSD
in day tank will be transferred directly from the oil
tanker received from Indian Oil Corporation and
FO/LSHS will be transferred from Bulk Storage
Tanks located in Naphtha Storage Tanks area.

H.S.D.
H.S.D. is required for warming up guns while
starting the steam Generator from cold condition
when steam is not available for heating FO/LSHS.
HSD has the advantage of being less viscous at
ambient temperatures, requires no heating and
has low sulphur contents. The low sulphur reduces
the chances of low temperature corrosion in the
42
Air Heater area, which arises due to condensation
of sulphur trioxide in the flue gas in low
temperature regions. Having negligible carbon
residual, HSD burns completely in a cold furnace
and leaves no soot deposits on the colder heat
transfer surfaces.
Specification of H.S.D.
GCV K.cal/kg - 10000
H Hv K.cal/kg - 9500
Sulphur Wt% - 1.0
(Max)
Pour Point - 6 C
(max)
The HSD pump draws oil from day tank through
strainer and delivers the oil to Steam Generator.
The oil pressure at pump discharge is controlled at
about 20 kg/cm2 through a pressure control valve
43
automatically. The outlet of the pressure control
valve leads to day oil tank. The HSD flow at 20
kg/cm2 is controlled through a flow control valve
to achieve the required oil flow for the Furnace
and thus pressure reduces to 6-10 kg/cm2
After flow control valve a Trip Valve has been
provided which cut off the HSD supply to furnace
in unwanted condition. This trip va]ve operates
through a Signal received from Burner
Management System. The HSD line after Trip Valve
gets divided into two branches and supply HSD
only two lower tier burners. Trip valves have been
provided in each HSD burner line. The HSD burner
valve operates through a signal from Burner
Management System. The HSD oil in burner gets
atomised automatically due to high oil pressure
and burns in the furnace.

L.P. Gas Ignitors

44
To ignite the HSD and F.O. burners, the L.P. Gas
Igniters have been provided with each burner. The
L.P. gas stored in cylinders is led to ignitors located
near F.O./HSD burners. The L.P. Gas pressure in the
line is controlled through a self pressure control
valve. The gas line is divided into four branches,
lead to each ignitor. In each gas ignitor line, a Trip
valve has been provided which cut off the gas
supply when not required. The signal to operate
the Trip valve is received from Burner
Management System.

FO/LSHS
FO/LSHS is required for oil guns to generate
steam, Preheating of this oil is necessary to reduce
the viscosity for easy transportation and better
atomisation.
Specification of F.O. and LSHS

45
 F.O.
LSHS
GCV K.Cal/kg 10,000
10,000
LHV K.Cal/kg 9,500
9,500
Sulphur Wt% 4.5
1.0
Pour point C 37
72
Sp. Gravity at 15C 0.95
0.93
Viscosity 170 Cst
23.87 Cst
at 50C
at 95C

46
Furnace oil/LSHS from storage tank is led to the oil
pump located near day oil tanks at a temperature
of 50C to 6.0C. This temperature is achieved by
using a steam coil heater located in the bottom of
the oil tank. The F0/LSHS oil passes through the oil
strainer on the suction side of the high pressure
gear pump and gets pressurized to about 12
kg/cm2 required for atomization. The pressure
control valve, connected to the delivery side of the
pump controls the oil header pressure
automatically and leads to the day tank. FO/LSHS
from the delivery side of the pump enters the oil
heater where it is heated from pumping
temperature to about 110C. The outlet
temperature of this oil from the oil heater is
automatically maintained at a constant value by
automatic temperature regulating valve mounted
on the steam supply line to the heater. The
temperature regulating valve controls the quantity
47
of steam to heater to maintain the heater outlet
oil temperature. The flow of FD/LSHS at 110deg C
is controlled through a flow control valve. The oil
pressure after flow control valve reduces to 6-8.5
kg/cm2. The flow control valve operates through a
signal fed from Automatic Combustion Control
System. After this flow control valve there is a Trip
valve, which cut off the oil supply to the furnace in
unwanted conditions. This valve is operated
through a signal from Burner Management
System. The main oil header divided into four
branches to supply Fuel oil to four branches. In
each burner oil line, one Trip Valve has been
provided, which cut off the Fuel oil supply to the
individual burner, when required. This Trip valve
operates through a signal received from Burner
Management System.

48
49
The air is required for combustion of fuel in Steam
Generating Unit. To meet this requirement of air in
Steam Generator two centrifugal type forced Draft
Fans (F.D. fan) have been provided. One fan is
driven by electrical motor while other by steam
turbine. During the startup of the SG, motor driven
fan is taken in service in case steam is not available
to drive the turbine.
The F.D. fan sucks the air from atmosphere and
discharge to the furnace at a pressure of 90 mm-
550 mm water gauge. The quantity of air is
controlled by the vane provided at the suction side
of the F.D. fan. Two air heaters have been provided
in the discharge duct of F.D. fans, which are known
as Steam Coil Heater and Gas Air Heater. These Air

50
Heaters raise the air temperature to 145C. The hot
air helps in proper combustion of fuel.
The Forced Draft fans supply cold atmospheric air
through Steam Air Heater and Gas Air Heater to
the furnace for combustion of fuel. The Gas Air
Heater takes up waste heat from the flue gas of
Steam Generator and adds it to the combustion
air.
The Counter Current parallel flow of the gas and
atmospheric air results in good transfer of heat,
thus bringing coldest metal elements in contact
with less hot flue gas. If metal temperature is too
low, there is a chance of condensation of corrosive
gas on the elements of GAH and consequent
corrosion of the heating elements. Generally
during cold season and low load operating
condition, such troubles are encountered. To
prevent or reduce chances of this type of

51
corrosion, the inlet temperature of cold air to Gas
Air Heater is controlled by heating it in a steam air
heater. The low pressure steam is passed through
the heating coils and F.D. fan discharge air is
allowed to flow over it. The steam gives up heat,
gets condensed and the condensate is drained
through a trap. The cold atmospheric air at about
20 to 40C while passing over the steam coil picks
up heat and gets heated upto about 50C.
Thus when air of 50C is allowed at cold end of
Gas Air Heater, there is no condensation of
corrosive gases and so chance of chemical
corrosion is reduced.

Since there is continuous withdrawal of steam and

continuous return of condensate to the boiler,
52
losses due to blow-down and leakages have to be
made up for so as to maintain the desired water
level in the boiler steam drum. For this, continuous
make-up water is added to the boiler water
system. The impurities in the raw water input to
the plant generally consist of calcium and
magnesium salts which impart hardness to the
water. Hardness in the make-up water to the boiler
will form deposits on the tube water surfaces
which will lead to overheating and failure of the
tubes. Thus, the salts have to be removed from the
water and that is done by a water demineralising
treatment plant (DM). A DM plant generally
consists of cation, anion and mixed bed
exchangers. The final water from this process
consists essentially of hydrogen ions and
hydroxide ions which is the chemical composition
of pure water. The DM water, being very pure,
becomes highly corrosive once it absorbs oxygen
53
from the atmosphere because of its very high
affinity for oxygen absorption.
The capacity of the DM plant is dictated by the
type and quantity of salts in the raw water input.
However, some storage is essential as the DM
plant may be down for maintenance. For this
purpose, a storage tank is installed from which DM
water is continuously withdrawn for boiler make-
up. The storage tank for DM water is made from
materials not affected by corrosive water, such as
PVC. The piping and valves are generally of
stainless steel. Sometimes, a steam blanketing
arrangement or stainless steel doughnut float is
provided on top of the water in the tank to avoid
contact with atmospheric air. DM water make-up is
generally added at the steam space of the surface
condenser (i.e., the vacuum side). This
arrangement not only sprays the water but also
DM water gets deaerated, with the dissolved gases
54
being removed by the ejector of the condenser
itself.

A heat recovery steam generator or HRSG is an

energy recovery heat exchanger that recovers heat
from a hot gas stream. It produces steam that can
be used in a process (cogeneration) or used to
drive a steam turbine (combined cycle).

General usage
A common application for an HRSG is in a
combined-cycle power station, where hot exhaust
from a gas turbine is fed to an HRSG to generate
steam which in turn drives a steam turbine. This
combination produces electricity more efficiently
than either the gas turbine or steam turbine alone.
Another application for an HRSG is in diesel

55
engine combined cycle power plants, where hot
exhaust from a diesel engine, as primary source of
energy, is fed to an HRSG to generate steam which
in turn drives a steam turbine. The HRSG is also an
important component in cogeneration plants.
Cogeneration plants typically have a higher overall
efficiency in comparison to a combined cycle
plant. This is due to the loss of energy associated
with the steam turbine.

HRSGs
HRSGs consist of four major components: the
economizer, evaporator, superheater and water
preheater. The different components are put
together to meet the operating requirements of
the unit.
Modular HRSGs can be categorized by a number
of ways such as direction of exhaust gases flow or
number of pressure levels. Based on the flow of
56
exhaust gases, HRSGs are categorized into vertical
and horizontal types. In horizontal type HRSGs,
exhaust gas flows horizontally over vertical tubes
whereas in vertical type HRSGs, exhaust gas flow
vertically over horizontal tubes. Based on pressure
levels, HRSGs can be categorized into single
pressure and multi pressure. Single pressure
HRSGs have only one steam drum and steam is
generated at single pressure level whereas multi
pressure HRSGs employ two (double pressure) or
three (triple pressure)
steam drums. As such triple pressure HRSGs
consist of three sections: an LP (low pressure)
section, a reheat/IP (intermediate pressure)
section, and an HP (high pressure) section. Each
section has a steam drum and an evaporator
section where water is converted to steam. This
steam then passes through superheaters to raise

57
the temperature and pressure past the saturation
point.

A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is

a type of internal combustion engine. It has an
upstream rotating compressor coupled to a
downstream turbine, and a combustion chamber
in-between.
Energy is added to the gas stream in the
combustor, where fuel is mixed with air and
ignited. In the high pressure environment of the
combustor, combustion of the fuel increases the
temperature. The products of the combustion are
forced into the turbine section. There, the high
velocity and volume of the gas flow is directed
through a nozzle over the turbine's blades,
spinning the turbine which powers the compressor

58
and, for some turbines, drives their mechanical
output. The energy given up to the turbine comes
from the reduction in the temperature and
pressure of the exhaust gas.
Energy can be extracted in the form of shaft
power, compressed air or thrust or any
combination of these and used to power aircraft,
trains, ships, generators, or even tanks.

Gases passing through an ideal gas turbine

undergo three thermodynamic processes. These
are isentropic compression, isobaric (constant
pressure) combustion and isentropic expansion.
Together these make up the Brayton cycle.
In a practical gas turbine, gases are first
accelerated in either a centrifugal or axial
compressor. These gases are then slowed using a
59
diverging nozzle known as a diffuser; these
processes increase the pressure and temperature
of the flow. In an ideal system this is isentropic.
However, in practice energy is lost to heat, due to
friction and turbulence. Gases then pass from the
diffuser to a combustion chamber, or similar
device, where heat is added. In an ideal system this
occurs at constant pressure (isobaric heat
addition). As there is no change in pressure the
specific volume of the gases increases. In practical
situations this process is usually accompanied by a
slight loss in pressure, due to friction. Finally, this
larger volume of gases is expanded and
accelerated by nozzle guide vanes before energy is
extracted by a turbine. In an ideal system these are
gases expanded isentropically and leave the
turbine at their original pressure. In practice this
process is not isentropic as energy is once again
lost to friction and turbulence.
60
If the device has been designed to power a shaft
as with an industrial generator or a turboprop, the
exit pressure will be as close to the entry pressure
as possible. In practice it is necessary that some
pressure remains at the outlet in order to fully
expel the exhaust gases. In the case of a jet engine
only enough pressure and energy is extracted from
the flow to drive the compressor and other
components. The remaining high pressure gases
are accelerated to provide a jet that can, for
example, be used to propel an aircraft.
As with all cyclic heat engines, higher combustion
temperatures can allow for greater efficiencies.
However, temperatures are limited by ability of the
steel, nickel, ceramic, or other materials that make
up the engine to withstand high temperatures and
stresses. To combat this many turbines feature
complex blade cooling systems.

61
As a general rule, the smaller the engine the
higher the rotation rate of the shaft(s) must be to
maintain tip speed. Blade tip speed determines the
maximum pressure ratios that can be obtained by
the turbine and the compressor. This in turn limits
the maximum power and efficiency that can be
obtained by the engine. In order for tip speed to
remain constant, if the diameter of a rotor is
reduced by half, the rotational speed must double.
For example large Jet engines operate around
10,000 rpm, while micro turbines spin as fast as
500,000 rpm.
Mechanically, gas turbines can be considerably
less complex than internal combustion piston
engines. Simple turbines might have one moving
part: the shaft/compressor/turbine/alternative-
rotor assembly (see image above), not counting
the fuel system. However, the required precision
manufacturing for components and temperature
62
resistant alloys necessary for high efficiency often
make the construction of a simple turbine more
complicated than piston engines.
More sophisticated turbines (such as those found
in modern jet engines) may have multiple shafts
(spools), hundreds of turbine blades, movable
stator blades, and a vast system of complex piping,
combustors and heat exchangers.
Thrust bearings and journal bearings are a critical
part of design. Traditionally, they have been
hydrodynamic oil bearings, or oil-cooled ball
bearings. These bearings are being surpassed by
foil bearings, which have been successfully used in
micro turbines and auxiliary power units.

63
Industrial gas turbines differ from aeroderivative in
that the frames, bearings, and blading are of
heavier construction. Industrial gas turbines range
in size from truck-mounted mobile plants to
enormous, complex systems. They can be
particularly efficientup to 60%when waste
heat from the gas turbine is recovered by a heat
recovery steam generator to power a conventional
64
steam turbine in a combined cycle configuration.
They can also be run in a cogeneration
configuration: the exhaust is used for space or
water heating, or drives an absorption chiller for
cooling or refrigeration. Such engines require a
dedicated enclosure, both to protect the engine
from the elements and the operators from the
noise.
The construction process for gas turbines can take
as little as several weeks to a few months,
compared to years for base load power plants.
Their other main advantage is the ability to be
turned on and off within minutes, supplying power
during peak demand. Since single cycle (gas
turbine only) power plants are less efficient than
combined cycle plants, they are usually used as
peaking power plants, which operate anywhere
from several hours per day to a few dozen hours

65
per year, depending on the electricity demand and
the generating capacity of the region. In areas with
a shortage of base load and load following power
plant capacity or low fuel costs, a gas turbine
power plant may regularly operate during most
hours of the day. A large single cycle gas turbine
typically produces 100 to 400 megawatts of power
and has 3540% thermal efficiency.

The study of the Steam & Power Generation Plant

at Iffco Aonla was an interactive as well as practical
industrial experience.
The production of power from the fuel, the heat
recovery system, boiler configurations, turbine
working, condenser working, and many more
processes were made clear with the visual and
practical analysis.

66
Apart from the theoretical knowledge gained in
the classroom, the industrial exposure was an
opportunity to have real life shop-floor experience.

67
68