Summary

There have been claims that internet and videogame addiction affects the brain activity of
children. Studies were shown to back up this claim however there were also studies that showed
that playing video games has no direct effect to a person brain activity and capacity to function
effectively. To have a better glimpse of this research it is best to understand the research title first.
Neurobiology is the study of cells of the nervous system and the organization of these cells into
functional circuits that process information and mediate behavior. It is a subdiscipline of both
biology and neuroscience. Pharmacogenetics encompasses the discovery, testing, and application
of genetic variation as applied to therapeutic treatment and outcome.

Some evidence show that the psychobiological mechanisms of behavioral addictions such
as substance abuse can be closely interrelated to internet and videogame addictions. Problematic
internet use (PIU) or excessive internet use is characterized by excessive or poorly controlled
preoccupations urges or behaviors regarding computer use and internet access that lead to
impairment or distress. There is no diagnosis of internet addiction although it has been proposed
for inclusion in the next version of the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorder (DSM
V) that has been recently released1 (Weinsten and Lejoyeux, 2015).

PIU or addiction is characterized by excessive or poorly controlled preoccupations, urges

or behaviors regarding internet use that lead to impairment or distress. Internet addiction includes
three major components: communication (email, texting) gaming, and cybersex. Videogame and
computer game addiction are regarded as a component of internet addiction. (Weinsten and
Lejoyeux, 2015). There were brain imaging studies that were conducted and it showed that
excessive internet game use may be linked with abnormal neurobiological mechanisms that
definitely affects human behavior through the means of impulse control, reward processing, and
somatic representation of previous experiences in a study measuring regional cerebral metabolic
rates of glucose in positron emission tomography (PET) in normal and excessive internet game
users.

Functional connectivity among adolescents with internet addiction using fMRI was
reported. Functional magnetic resonance images were taken in adolescents with internet addiction
and control subjects in a resting state. Adolescents with internet addiction showed reduced
functional connectivity in a network of corticosubcortical circuits including the prefrontal and
parietal cortex. The results imply that internet addiction is associated with a widespread and
significant decrease of functional connectivity in corticostriatal circuits, in the absence of global
changes in brain functional network topology which may impair cognitive function in adolescents
with internet addiction (Hong, Zalesky, et al., 2013). Under structural studies on the neural basis
of videogame playing findings suggest widespread reductions of FA in major white matter
pathways and such abnormal white matter structure may be linked to the clinical characteristics of
anxiety and internet addiction.
 Different studies were conducted to support this research. First was the studies on
Dopamine Brain Mechanisms inn Internet Addiction where findings showed that Internet-
Addiction Disorder (IAD) may share similar neurobiological abnormalities with other addictive
disorders (Volkow, N.D., Fowler, J.S., Wang, G.J, 2004). Second was the study On
Neuropsychological Imaging Studies On Reward, Inhibitory Control, and Decision Making
wherein it showed that videogame dependent individuals manifest faulty reward, inhibitory control
mechanisms and decision making which are associated with changes in neural mechanisms that
are similar to drug dependent individuals. (Dong, J., and Du, H.J., 2011)
Third, PharmacoGenetic Studies, where it revealed that studies on the pharmacogenetics
of behavioral addictions are required especially due to the similarity of reward activation in both
types of disorders that should point out to the role of dopamine in behavioral addiction (Montag
C, Kirsch P, Sauer C, et al., 2011). And lastly, were studies on Recent Treatment Studies Using
Brain Imaging with Fmri that presented results on the discovery of bupropion that may improve
depressive mood as well as reduce the severity of excessive online videogame play in patients with
comorbid major depressive disorder and online game addiction.
 Analysis

Despite the opposing claims and studies of how internet and video game addiction among
children, one study would pursue more research to prove that their claims are more acceptable than
the other. Basically this research show that there is a similarity on the aspect of how addiction on
the internet and videogames can be relatively compared to alcohol or substance addiction. It may
be through behavioral response or through assessing and analyzing the brain activity of a person
addicted to videogames. Moreover, it shows consistent findings demonstrating the resemblance
between the neural mechanisms underlying drug and alcohol abuse and the behavioral addictions.

Addiction predominantly involves reward processes and dopamine release and this activity
is mediated by limbic circuits and other brain regions such as the frontal cortex and the anterior
cingulate gyrus (Goldstein, R.Z., 2002). The mentioned region is responsible for the cognitive and
motivational functions. Such functions include regulation, control and inhibition of responses and
emotional processes. Just like addictions with drugs, addiction with internet and video games
activates areas in the brain like the amygdala, dorsolateral and orbitofrontal cortex, anterior
cingulate.

Studies of videogame addiction of the resting state, functional and structural studies
provide evidence that the brains reward system and other related systems mediating loss of control
and inhibition are undergoing changes as result of prolonged videogame addiction. Furthermore,
studies on gaming cueinduced reactivity have shown an activation pattern that is similar to drug
dependent patients who were exposed to drug cues. There is also some evidence that
pharmacological treatment with medication such as bupropion can alter this activity and attenuate
cueinduced brain activity in excessive videogame users, similar to the attenuation that occurs in
nicotine dependent users. Despite the findings presented in this research there should still be
further studies about this to support the claims of this study. Since videogame addiction is closely
comparable to drug addiction this is something parents should look into. This can be a concern
since any form of addiction can initiate detrimental effects to the person itself or to other people.
Moderation will always be better. Children should also learn to be responsible and balance
playtime from their school activities. And on the part of the parts, monitoring their children and
disciplining them accordingly would be good for their children.
 Summary
The world is basically made up 71% water and only 29% is made up land. Out of 70%,
96.5% are salt waters and only 3.5% are fresh waters. Most of the biospheres marine diversity are
found under oceans along seafloors across continents around the world. The ocean is a home to
various kinds of plants and animals. Marine life is also crucial to human life and being part of the
biosphere, it is also prone to the negative effects of climate change. This article presents how a
better understanding and knowledge to species adaptive responses, including transgenerational
plasticity, epigenetics and natural selection are crucial factors in studying the effect of climate
change to marine biodiversity.

The investigation of trans-generational plastic and evolutionary responses of fitness-related

traits under global change scenarios, and the identification of the underpinning physiological
genetic and nongenetic mechanisms, is central to advance our current understanding of how marine
organisms will be able to cope with future environmental challenges. Using an evolutionary
approach will help us avoid potential overestimations or underestimations of the biological
implications of global change (Dam, 2013).

This article also emphasizes on 6 main experimental and modelling approaches first is to
investigate plastic and evolutionary responses of marine species to major global change drivers;
second, to ask relevant broad eco-evolutionary questions, implementing multiple species and
populations studies; third, to show the advantages of using advanced experimental designs and
tools; fourth to construct novel model organisms for marine evolution; fifth to aid in identifying
future challenges for the field; and lastly to highlight the importance of incorporating existing
evolutionary theory into management solutions for the marine realm.

The IPCC or the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change seems to lack behind their
research on biological evidence corroborating the existence of ubiquitous mechanisms governing
species towards climate change despite their efforts to assess and analyze biological implications
of global change What appears to be certain is that we are on the brink of a global biodiversity
crisis (Barnosky et al. 2011). It is thus unlikely that any extant species and ecosystem will be able
to survive the ongoing planetary environmental changes without actually changing. In fact, whilst
migration can temporarily help prevent a species global extinction, ultimately it is only through
evolutionary adaptation that populations and species can be rescued from local and global
extinction.

There are efforts that are focused on individual species abilities to cope with short-term
changes through plastic responses, in order to make critical predictions of long-term responses and
it is essential to gain an understanding of the mechanisms behind the complex interactions between
plasticity, evolution and nongenetic inheritance (epigenetics).
 In understanding the correlation of the mentioned concepts there are four main approaches
used to study the development of marine global change research. These include first, the
investigation of the significance of local adaptation in defining populations responses. And that it
suggests that local adaptation to future conditions may not be a ubiquitous process in the marine
environment. Large variability in evolutionary and plastic responses may exist, most likely
resulting from differences in life-history strategies, population size, fecundity and gene flow.
Second, is the importance of trans- and multigenerational responses to mediate species plastic
responses. Trans-generational effects, defined as changes in offspring phenotype due to stress
exposure of the parental generation, have the potential to buffer species against environmental
changes (Sunday et al. 2014).The researchers also discovered that gradual warming in about over
two generations led to greater plasticity of the reproductive traits investigated when compared to
a different species that has experiences the same increase within one generation.

Third is the possibility for rapid evolution to occur. And lastly, the relevance of epigenetic
mechanisms, as well as evolutionary trade-offs, in mediating species responses. Among the
mechanisms underlying both plastic and evolutionary processes, especially trans-generational
effects, epigenetic mechanisms (e.g., DNA methylation or histone modification) have to date been
understudied within the context of marine organisms responses to global change (Bonduriaski,
R., et al. 2012). This may have been primarily caused by the lack of well-developed model
organisms and tools for the marine realm, as well as the relatively recent discovery of the
importance of these mechanisms. However, many current initiatives address this issue, with new
technological advances making it possible to study epigenetic patterns even in less-than-fully
developed model systems (Putnam, H. M., et al, 2016).
 Analysis
Life may definitely found ways to further study marine biodiversity and the effects of
climate change towards it. Through various approaches presenting advanced experimental designs
are also viable to study on the marine biodiversitys evolutionary response. In this study it was
shown that some populations of some marine species have the ability to adapt to future global
change conditions. And that it illustrates, through transgenerational and epigenetic studies some
of the evolutionary pathways and mechanisms of adaptation that may occur over the next decades.
Moreover, the marine organisms capacity to cope and adapt is finite due to existence of
evolutionary trade-offs among different traits most especially when global change drivers are
present.

Considering also the possibility that influences genetic diversity that would eventually
allow such organisms to adapt to the changing environment. However, it should also be everyones
concern that no matter how some organisms are capable of adapting, some populations of marine
species are prone to extinction due to global climate change. This critical understanding of how
marine organisms will change under the selective pressure of future global change drivers should
be harnessed to help us better predict population-, community- and ecosystem- level responses.

Further, studies of species local adaption, their capacity for trans- and multigenerational
plasticity and rapid evolution, and the existence of epigenetic responses mediating species
plasticity need to be increasingly incorporated into future models of evolution under global change.
Such studies will provide powerful tools in our efforts to promote marine conservation and provide
increasingly reliable projections on changes in marine biodiversity in the face of global change. It
is crucial to note that with the emergence of such approaches on studying the ability and capacity
of marine organisms to cope to climate change, it is more crucial to use this to identify conservation
efforts that would prevent marine populations from extinction. And lastly, scientists like marine
biologists should continue to increasingly incorporate our current, and rapidly increasing,
knowledge on marine biological systems evolutionary responses to rapid environmental changes.
 Summary
Melting of ice caps, sea level rise, massive migration of animal species, fish kills and
natural disasters are some ways that prove that climate change does exist. Climate change is widely
acknowledged to be one of the most serious global threats to future human population health and
international development (Costello et al.2009; Stephenson et al. 2013; Woodward et al. 2014).
According to the Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC), it affirms that recent decades everyone has seen and observed warming air and
ocean temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, rising sea levels, and changes in the frequency
and intensity of some extreme events such as droughts, floods, and storms and such events will
continue and accelerate to more destructive measures.

Generally countries located in the Pacific are prone to natural disasters because they are
mainly situated along the Pacific Ring of Fire and the Typhoon Belt. Pacific island countries (PICs)
are among those most vulnerable to the health impacts of a changing climate (Hanna and McIver
2014; Woodward et al. 2000). This vulnerability is a function of their exposure to changing
weather patterns associated with climate change, the health risks entailed, and the limited capacity
of these countries to manage and adapt in the face of such risks. The climate change phenomena
occurring in the Pacific pose a suite of health hazards to the island communities across the region.

Climate change and health impact pathways relevant to Pacific island countries is shown
in a diagram wherein increasing air temperatures, altered rainfall patterns, accelerating sea-level
rise, changing ocean salinity & acidity, altered frequency and/or severity of extreme weather
events (including extreme heat, floods, storms and associated phenomena) are among the climate
change-related phenomena in the Pacific. Potential pathways for health impacts of climate change
in the Pacific include, first, the direct exposures such as storms, floods, inundation, and extreme
heat. Second, indirect exposures such compromised safety and/or supply of food, water & clean
air, potential loss of land & livelihoods, potential for population displacement, altered disease
exposure risk (e.g. due to spread of vectors/hosts, population movement/overcrowding)
compromised health systems. Third, social disruption and lastly, detrimental impacts on economic
and human development. For potential health effects of climate change in Pacific island countries,
among them are Increasing incidence of vector-borne disease & zoonosis, water insecurity &
increasing incidence of water-borne diseases, increasing risk of food-borne diseases (including
ciguatera), malnutrition (including increasing dependence on imported foodstuffs), increasing
morbidity and mortality due to non-communicable diseases, traumatic injuries and deaths
,increasing risk of mental health disorders, and disruption to health services
 Analysis
As the article suggests it may be impossible to address vulnerability and adaptation to
climate change in the Pacific without pointing out the gross inequities and injustice that are
involved. Initially, we should first consider what are the reasons why we have such negative
occurrence due to climate change? Why do most typhoons occur in the Pacific? Why do these
natural hazards continue to become more detrimental over time? The answer to that may be finite
in the sense that we humans are the primary reasons why climate change exists. Too much carbon
released in the atmosphere from cars, power plants and factories causes the depletion of the ozone
layer. And when the ozone layer continues to deplete the suns heat will penetrate the earths
atmosphere causing global warming and fish kills. Eventually the melting of polar caps will lead
to sea level rise. Another is the destruction of forests that may lead to flashfloods and landslides
since trees are being cut down from mountains by illegal loggers. Include humans activities for
commercialization to the extent that they end up destroying the natural habitat of animals. The
reasons why pacific countries experience more natural hazards and effects of climate change is
also because of themselves.

Industrialized countries have a clear responsibility to both scale up mitigation efforts to

arrest climate change and to provide the necessary financial, technical, and support to developing
countries to strengthen their coping capacity. Finally, recognizing that PICs are among many
countries in the world battling climate change as one of a number of significant impediments to
social, economic, and health development. WHO is in the process of providing detailed guidance,
in the form of frameworks, to assist member states in scaling up essential public health packages
for health adaptation and building climate-resilient health systems (Neira, M., 2014). With the
impeding threat to humanity and the entire environment and global sphere it is only crucial that
we humans should do something to stop climate change. It isnt really an easy task, however we
can still do something. The earth is the only planet that is viable that would be our refuge for
survival. Change must come within us through small or simple ways of conserving and preserving
our environment. Being advocates for the conservation and preservation of this planet is not only
for this generation but for the future generation as well. We cannot wait until it becomes too late
before to act, so for now, now is the time to act.
 Summary
The researched mainly assessed the costs, risks, and benefits of possible future major policy
decisions on vaccination, surveillance, response plans, and containment following global
eradication of wild polioviruses. A decision analytic model to estimate the incremental cost-
effectiveness ratios and net benefits of risk management options for polio for the 20-year period
and stratified the world according to income level to capture important variability between nations
was developed. And eventually it showed that for low-, lower-middle-, and upper-middle-income
groups currently using Oral Poliovirus Vaccine (OPV), it was shown that after a successful
eradication of wild polioviruses, OPV cessation would save both costs and lives when compared
with continued use of OPV without supplemental immunization activities.

Over 350,000 children were affected by wild polioviruses globally in 1988 before the
World Health Assembly made efforts to eradicate the said virus. Policymakers anticipated that
vaccination would stop following global eradication of wild polioviruses, similar to the cessation
of vaccination that occurred after the eradication of smallpox. Anticipation of large economic
savings and demonstrated successful use of the inexpensive and effective trivalent oral poliovirus
vaccine (OPV) to eradicate wild polioviruses in the Americas supported this international
commitment. The Global Polio Eradication Initiative to date has reduced the annual burden of
disease by more than 99% to less than 2000 cases of paralysis annually and has achieved
eradication of wild poliovirus type 2. Currently, wild poliovirus types 1 and 3 remain endemic in
only 4 countries (Nigeria, India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan). Recent importations of wild
poliovirus into previously polio-free areas demonstrate the importance of finishing the job of
eradication, maintaining high levels of vaccination coverageat least until successful
eradicationand carefully considering the risks, costs, and benefits of alternatives.

This vaccine has continuously increased the rate of success on the eradication of the virus
despite the fact that this vaccine can actually be expensive. IPV gradually has become the vaccine
of choice for routine immunization in many high-income countries that seek to eliminate cases of
vaccine-associated paralytic polio while remaining protected from polio. Policymakers will face a
number of difficult choices and trade-offs in managing the risks of polio following eradication of
wild polioviruses models like this will provide constructive insights. Given the different risks and
conditions, policymakers may rationally prefer and pursue different policies. For example, the no-
routine option remains cost and life-saving compared vnth OPV without SIAs in each of the lowest
3 income groups, but countries with relatively higher income and abilities to pay may prefer to
switch to (or continue to use) IPV (as we assumed for the high-income group). Successful
eradication must be a starting point, and before eradication, clinicians and public health leaders
must keep coverage and population immunity high via routine vaccination and campaigns. Two
tables were presented to classify and organize the data gathered. Table one shows the Base Case
Values or Distributions of Inputs and Alternatives Considered in the Model Exploring Global
Policies for Managing Polioviruses. The second table
 Analysis

It was estimated that the highest risks of outbreaks after OPV cessation will occur
immediately after cessation. It occurs when circulating vaccine- derived poliovirus risk is highest.
And that policymakers should plan for at least 1 outbreak to occur somewhere in the world and
prepare to respond. In addition, although we expect the probability of virus introductions to decline
over time, the increasing buildup of susceptible persons means that any outbreaks that occur in the
future that will lead to much larger numbers of expected cases. Thus, the quality of ongoing
surveillance will affect our ability to rapidly detect and respond to any outbreaks and will
significantly influence the size of outbreaks that may occur in the future. Efforts to sustain
surveillance should address the difficult reality of maintaining recognition for a disease that we
hope will no longer harm people following success of the Global Polio Eradication Initiative and
implementation of coordinated and well-informed policies. Given the great economic benefits to
pursuing a policy of global OPV cessation after successful eradication of wild polioviruses, global
policy discussions will need to coordinate and effectively implement post eradication risk
management activities. However, countries should not stop vaccination efforts until such a global
agreement exists.

Thus OPV has definitely improved the lives of so many people. Eradication promises
billions of dollars of net benefits, although global health policy leaders face difficult choices about
future policies. Until successful eradication and coordination of post-eradication policies, health
authorities should continue routine polio vaccination and supplemental immunization activities.
 Summary
A GMO, or genetically modified organism, is a plant, animal, microorganism or other
organism whose genetic makeup has been modified using recombinant DNA methods (also called
gene splicing), gene modification or transgenic technology. Genetically modified organisms

(GMOs) have been altered by changing their genetic make-up. The most familiar ones are
used as food and in medicine. There are advantages and disadvantages to their use. Foods can be
pest-proofed, food production can be increased, and the food can be nutritionally improved. The
disadvantages are that GMOs can be harmful (Goldbas, A., 2014). Caution must be used when
dealing with GMOs. More research has to be conducted to determine benefits and risks. While
regulations are being enacted, a wide grass-roots movement is currently promoting non-GMO
foods and agriculture because many people believe they must protect themselves and the
agricultural environment.

They have been successfully used for years in a variety of fields such as in medical and
biological research, drug production, and medical treatments (Phillips, T., 2008). They are also
used in the development of biodegradable plastics and the development of bacteria for bioremedial
treatments of oil spills (Macaulay, B.M., 2014).

There have controversies about GMOs as to how safe they can possibly since they also use
it with food. For people questioning how GMOs emerged, animals have been genetically modified
since they were first domesticated around 12,000 BCE and altered plants were available around
10,000 BCE (Root, C., 2007). More recently, in 1973, the process of genetic engineering, which
is the process of directly transferring DNA from one organism to another, was developed (Collins,
F. S. et al, 2003).

Among the advantages of GMOs are in the field of medicine. It wherein plants, animals,
and bacteria have been used since the 1980s, for instance in the production of pharmaceutical drugs
(biopharmaceuticals) such as the hepatitis B vaccine as well as in gene therapy (Phillips, T., 2008).
And second, it becomes an advantage since it is used on plants and other foods. To many,
especially those charged with preventing starvation and malnutrition in developing countries,
GMOs are considered major biotechnical advancements in agriculture.

Breakthroughs include food plants which have been altered to be pest-resistant and have
greater nutritional values (Goldstein, 2014). A case in point is South African white corn that can
now be enriched to have greater protein content (Sayre et al., 2011). Additionally, plants have been
modified to be resistant to herbicides and virus damage. Plants are also being developed for
increased yields which can grow in heretofore useless geographical areas plagued with droughts
(Phillips, 2008).
 However there are disadvantages too wherein there are concerns about ethical and
philosophical issues. The uncontrolled combinations of genes and the release of hazardous GMO
viruses are real, and frightening risks as well. Second, both scientists and consumers world-wide
do not completely understand GMO food crops, neither their benefits nor their risks (Hinneh,
2012).

In a research about the history and vagaries of modern food consumption noted that more
than 17,000 processed food products are introduced in the U.S. each year. They contain high
fructose corn syrup, unhealthy fats, and undisclosed chemicals (Pollan, 2007).
 Analysis
Genetically modified organisms are created mainly with a purpose to lessen world hunger
and poverty in the world especially the malnourished children. Nearly a million children die every
year because they are weakened by Vitamin A deficiencies and an additional 350,000 go blind.
While, the only problem is the strength and power of the government to start-up or maintain the
process of distribution of GMOs in their country. Having foods is very important to human life to
maintain good health and to survive. It is not secret that GMO-ed foods have spread out rapidly to
the whole world. If we could not stop the proliferation of GMO, we should know why it is harmful
to our health and how we can prevent it.

GMOs are not all bad. If fact, if used appropriately, they can relieve much human suffering,
whether it be due to malnutrition or disease. But safety is the issue. Research and regulation are
paramount. It was suggested that due diligence and thorough attention to the risks associated with
each new GMO on a case-by-case basis (Philipps, 2008).

There are many misunderstandings and misconceptions around genetically modified

organisms that are caused by misleading arguments and ignorance. It is my belief that more
consumers need to be knowledgeable on the subject of genetically modified foods so that they can
be used to their fullest potential and benefit the world we live in today.

Taking a stand against GMOs is important. If we want local farmers to continue growing
their crops without genetic mutations, we need to support them by buying their produce rather than
a brand name. Not only does buying locally grown produce healthier, but also gives promise that
the healthy food you are purchasing will still be available for years to come. Although the pricing
may differ, you are paying for the quality of the food and essentially, your quality of life. GMOs
were not meant to be consumed and conflict with our bodys natural biochemical balance. By
consuming GMOs you are putting your own life at risk. Its your body and only you can decide
what to put in it.