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INTRODUCTION:
The machine which does job of energy conversion is called an engine. An engine is a device which
transforms one form of energy into another form. However, while transforming energy from one form
to another, the efficiency of conversion plays an important role. Normally, most of the engines convert
thermal energy into mechanical work and therefore they are called heat engines.
Heat engine is a device which transforms the chemical energy of a fuel into thermal energy and utilizes
this thermal energy to perform useful work. Thus, thermal energy is converted to mechanical energy in
a heat engine.
Heat engine is a device which transforms the chemical energy of a fuel into thermal energy and utilizes
this thermal energy to perform useful work. Thus, thermal energy is converted to mechanical energy in
a heat engine.
In case of external combustion engines, the combustion of fuel takes place outside the cylinder. The
examples of are steam engines, hot air engine, steam turbines and closed cycle gas turbines. The
combustion takes place by two steps, first the heat of combustion is transferred to the working fluid
outside the cylinder and then the fluid is expanded to develop the power. For example, in a steam
engine or a steam turbine, the heat generated due to the combustion of fuel is used to generate high
pressure steam which is used at the working fluid.
In case of internal combustion engines, the combustion of fuel in the presence of air takes place inside
the cylinder and products of combustion directly act on piston to develop the power. The internal
combustion engines are further classified as petrol engines, diesel engines and gas engines according to
the type of fuel used. These are commonly used for road vehicles, locomotives and several industrial
applications. These types of engines are extensively used in practice.
CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT ENGINES
Heat engines
IC Engines EC Engines
As a matter of fact, the I.C. Engines are moving the world [universe], since the auto mobile are fitted
with I.C. engines as the prime mover. Due to its light weight and compactness, the I.C. Engines are very
much used in automobiles. Most of the two wheelers, Cars and Light Commercial vehicles (LCVs) are
fitted with petrol or gasoline engines. All of the trucks and Heavy Commercial Vehicles HCVs are fitted
with Diesel engines.
The E.C. Engines contains more no of individual parts such as Boiler, Economizer, Evaporator,
Condenser, Steam tubes etc., which occupies more floor space compared to I.C. engines, they are not
suitable for automobiles. Further the lower efficiency of E.C. engines is also an important factor for
deselecting the E.C. engines for automobiles. More over the starting of prime mover instantaneously is
not possible as in case E.C. engines. It requires preheating which takes hardly an hour for starting.
Finally the running speed of E.C. Engines is also very higher and so it requires higher order transmission
elements, bearings and vibration dampers. The I.C. Engines scores very much in the above said factors
and fits best for the automobiles. Owing to the high efficiency and easier to control the speed and
power, the I.C. Engines are used in variety of automobiles from two wheelers to trucks and in
locomotives, ships, airplanes standby power plants.
Cylinder Bore (d): It is the nominal inside diameter of the cylinder. It is represented by the letterd and
is expressed in mm.
Piston Area (A): Since the clearance between piston and cylinder is very very small and can be
considered as negligible. Hence piston area is equal to cylinder area. It is represented by the letter A
and is expressed as
Piston Area (A) = d2
4
Dead centre: It is the position of the piston, when it changes its direction at either end of the stroke is
called dead centre. There are tow types of dead centres in internal combustion engine terminology.
1) Top dead centre (TDC): It is also called as inner dead centre (IDC). It is the position of piston
which is farthest from the crankshaft.
2) Bottom dead centre (BDC): It is also called as outer dead centre (ODC). It is the position of
piston which is nearest to the crankshaft.
Stroke (L): The nominal distance travelled by the piston between the extreme upper and lower positions
of the piston (TDC & BDC) is termed as stroke. The stroke is represented by the letter L and is
expressed in mm.
Conventionally the cylinder dimensions represented by the size of bore and stroke.
Clearance Volume: It is the volume of the combustion chamber when the piston occupies top dead
centre. It is represented by the letter VC.
Swept Volume (or) Displacement Volume: It is the nominal volume swept by the piston when it travels
from one dead centre to the other. It is represented by the letter Vs and is expressed as
VS =4 d2L = AL
Cylinder Volume: It is the sum of swept volume and the clearance volume. It is expressed in CC or
Liters.
V = VC+VS
Compression Ratio: It is the ratio between total volume of the cylinder to the clearance volume. It is
represented by the letter r.
Mathematically,
Total volume
Compression Ratio (r) = Clearance volume
= V/ VC
= (VC + VS) / VC
For petrol engines, compression ration varies from 6:1 to 10:1. For diesel engine, compression ratio
16:1 to 26:1.
Indicated power (I.P): It is the actual power developed by and engine by the combustion of fuel in the
cylinder. It is represented as IP.
Brake Horse Power (B.H.P): It is the power available at the crankshaft of the engine. It is actually the
useful power output from the engine. It is represented as B.H.P.
Mechanical Efficiency ( mech): Mechanical efficiency is defined as the ration of Brake Horse Power (BHP)
to Indicated power (IP).
BHP
mech = IP
In a four stroke engine, the cycle of operation is completed in four strokes of the piston or two rotations
of the crankshafts. During the four strokes there are five events to be completed, viz., suction,
compression, combustion, expansion and exhaust. Each stroke consists of 180o of crankshaft rotation
and hence four stroke cycle is completed through 720o of crank revolution.
The cycle of operation for an ideal four- stroke spark ignition engine consists of the following four
strokes.
In the four stroke engine, there is one power stroke in every four strokes or during two revolutions of
the crank.
The details of various process of a four stroke Spark Ignition engine is shown is in the figure
1. Suction stroke: During this first stroke the inlet valve opens, fuel and air mixture is sucked into
the cylinder through inlet open valve.
The opening of valve is performed by the Cam shaft. When the piston moves from TDC to BDC
a vacuum is created inside the cylinder. Atmospheric pressure forces the air-fuel mixture into
the cylinder to fill the vacuum. As the piston passes through the BDC, the intake valve closes.
During this stroke the exhaust valve remains closed.
2. Compression stroke: This is the second stoke, during the period, both inlet and exhaust valves
are closed. The air-fuel mixture gets compressed as the piston moves upward from BDC to TDC.
As a result of compression, pressure and temperature of the charge are increased.
Shortly before the piston reaches TDC, the charge is ignited by means of a spark plug. It
suddenly increases the pressure and temperature of the products of combustion, but the
volume practically remains constant.
These two stokes are complete in one revolution of the crank shaft.
3. Power stroke: During this stroke, both the valves remain in closed position. Due to the rise in
pressure, piston is pushed down with a great force. The hot burnt gases expand thus pushing
the piston from TDC to BDC.
It is called as power stroke or working stroke as the work is done by the expansion of hot gases
on the piston.
4. Exhaust stroke: During this stroke the inlet valve is closed and exhaust valve opens. The piston
moves up from BDC to TDC, it pushes the burnt gases out of the cylinder through the exhaust
valve into the atmosphere.
When the piston nears TDC, the inlet valve opens. Now, as the piston passes through the TDC
and starts moving down again, the exhaust valve closes, another intake take place and the cycle
is repeated.
The power and exhaust stroke will be completed during one revolution of the crank shaft.
Diesel engine is a compression ignition. Since the ignition takes place due to the high temperature
produced during the compression of the air in the engine cylinder. Diesel is injected into the cylinder in
the form of fine spray with the help of fuel pump and injector. When the air is compressed the pressure
gets increased.
The compression ration is about 20:1. Due to this high pressure, temperature increases to as high as
538oC. Due to this high temperature the fuel is burned and power is obtained. So diesel engines have
no spark plug.
In a four stroke cycle diesel engine, the four strokes are completed in tow revolutions for one cycle.
1. Suction stroke: This is the first stroke. The inlet valve opens and the exhaust valve remains
closed. The piston travels downwards from TDC to BDC a vacuum is created inside the cylinder.
Air alone is drawn in form outside and enters into the cylinder through the inlet valve till the
piston reaches BDC. Since the air is sucked from atmosphere it is at atmospheric pressure.
2. Compression stroke: This is the second stroke. Both inlet and exhaust valves are closed. The
piston compresses the air as it moves from BDC to TDC. The compression creates a high
pressure and temperature with a decrease in volume.
These two strokes will be completed in one revolution of crank shaft.
3. Expansion stroke: During this stroke both the valves remain closed. The pressure and
temperature is high due to the compression created in the previous stroke. The compression
ratio is as high as 20. Just before the beginning of this stroke fuel is injected in about 100
kg/cm2 and temperature is high as 2480o C. Due to this high pressure the piston is pushed down
wards. The fuel is continuously injected for 20% of the expansion stroke.
4. Exhaust stroke: During this stroke the inlet valve is closed and the exhaust valve opens. The
piston moves up from BDC to TDC, it pushes the burnt gases out of the cylinder, through the
exhaust valve into the atmosphere. This complete the cycle and engine cylinder is ready to suck
the fresh air once again.
Basically, every engine has to repeat four operation i.e. suction, compression, power and exhaust.
In two stroke cycle engine, these four operations are completed in one revolution of crankshaft. In two
stroke engine, suction and compression strokes and power and strokes are combined. This permits the
engine to produce a power stroke every two piston strokes, or every crankshaft rotation.
The two-stroke cycle engine having no valves. So it is simple in construction. Instead of valves, ports are
cut is in the cylinder walls. There are three ports, namely, inlet, exhaust and transfer ports. The closing
and opening of the port is obtained by the movement of the piston. The crown of the piston is made of
a particular shape. This is to deflect the fresh change upwards in the cylinder.
a) Compression: Figure. The piston moves up from bottom dead centre to top dead centre. Both
the transfer and exhaust ports are covered by the piston.
Air-fuel mixture which is transferred already into the engine cylinder is compressed by the
moving piston. The pressure and temperature increases at the end of compression.
b) Suction: Figure. The piston almost reaches the top dead centre. The air- fuel mixture inside the
cylinder is ignited by means of an electric spark produced by a spark plug. At the same time, the
inlet port is uncovered by the piston. Fresh-air-fuel mixture enters the crank case through the
inlet port.
c) Expansion: Figure. The burning gases expanded in the cylinder. The burning gases force the
piston to move down, thus useful work is obtained. When the piston moves down, the air-fuel
mixture in the crank case is partially compressed. This compression is known as crank case
compression.
d) Exhaust and Transfer: Figure. At the end of expansion, exhaust port is uncovered. The burnt
gases escape to atmosphere, during this time the transfer port is also opened. The partially
compressed air-fuel mixture enters the cylinder through transfer port. The crown of the piston
is made of a deflected shape so the fresh charge entering the cylinder is deflected upward in the
cylinder. Thus the escape of fresh charge along with exhaust gases is reduced.
Also the exhaust gases are removed from the cylinder with the help of fresh compressed charge.
This process of removing exhaust gases is called Scavenging.
Again the piston moves up, the transfer port is first closed and then the exhaust port is closed.
The compression of air-fuel mixture takes place inside the cylinder. When the piston is nearing
TDC the inlet port is uncovered and fresh charges enter into the crank case. After compression,
the ignition of charges and the cycle is repeated.
All the events are completed in two strokes and crank makes one revolution.
a) Compression: Figure. The piston moves upwards from BDC to TDC. Both transfer and exhaust
ports are covered. Air which is transferred already into the engine is compressed by the moving
piston. The pressure and temperature are increases. At the same time fresh air entering into
the crank through inlet port.
b) Ignition: Figure. The piston almost reaches the TDC, the fuel is injected into the hot compressed
air inside. The fuel mixes with hot air and burns. The admission of fresh air into the crank case
continues till the piston reaches the TDC.
c) Expansion: Figure. The burning gases expand in the cylinder, thus it forces the piston to move
down, and thus useful work is obtained. At the same time air in the crank case is compressed by
the downward movement of the piston. All the ports are in closed position.
d) Exhaust and Transfer: Figure. At the end of expansion, the exhaust port is uncovered. The burnt
gases escape to the atmosphere through the exhaust port. Transfer port is also uncovered
shortly after the exhaust port is opened. The partially compressed air enters the cylinder
through transfer port.
The air is deflected upwards by the deflected shape of the piston. Thus the entering air helps in
forcing out the combustion products from the cylinder. The inlet port remains closed in this
period. Then the cycle is repeated.
Comparison between petrol (S.I) engines and diesel engines (C.I) engines