Biology ICSE Keypoints

CHRIST SCHOOL
(Affiliated to the Council for the ICSE, New Delhi. Reg. No: KA260/2013)
ChristSchoolRoad,DharmaramCollegeP.O.,Bangalore560029,Karnataka
Cell Division – Keypoints

1. Cell division is a method of producing two or more new daughter
cells from a single mother cell.
2. Significance of cell division - Continuity of life depends on cell
division. Cell division also helps in
 Growth
 Replacement
 Repair
 Reproduction of an organism.
3. Cell division types – Amitosis, Mitosis, Meiosis
4. Amitosis
 Simple common process of cell division.
 Occurs in prokaryotic cells.
 Nucleus divides several times without the division of
cytoplasm.
5. Mitosis
 Cell divides into two daughter cells.
 Each having the same chromosome number and genetic
constitution.
 Ensures, all the cells of an individual is genetically
identical to each other.
6. Meiosis
 Cell divides into 4 daughter cells.
 Each having only half the number of chromosomes.
 Shows genetic variation.
 Ensures the production of gametes.
CELL DIVISION Key points; Prepared by Ms. Anitha Joseph Page Number: 1
7. The sequence of events including duplication of chromosomes
(DNA), synthesis of other cell constituents, growth and division
that a cell undergoes from the time of its formation up to its
division into daughter cells is called CELL CYCLE.
8. A cell cycle consists of two phases.

 Interphase – Resting phase (Non-dividing phase) -
Metabolically very active.
 Mitotic phase – Divisional phase (Dividing phase)
9. Interphase
 A preparatory phase.
 Non-dividing phase.
 Cell grows in to its maximum size.
 Chromosomes duplication occurs.
 Growth phase between two successive divisions of the cell.
10.Interphase is divided into 3 phases.
 G1 – First growth (gap) phase/ Post mitotic phase.
 S – Synthesis phase.
 G2 - Second growth (gap) phase/ Pre mitotic phase.
11. Interphase is the non-dividing preparatory phase of cell cycle
during which a cell grows in size and duplication of
chromosome take place.
12.G1 – First growth (Gap) phase/ Post mitotic phase.(10 hrs)
Longest phase of Interphase.
Also called first gap phase.
Preparatory phase for the oncoming cell division.
Major events
 Synthesis of RNA and proteins.
 Volume of cytoplasm increases.
 Cell organelles increases in number.
13.S – Synthesis phase.(8hrs)
 Duplication of chromatin fibres by the
synthesis of histones and DNA materials. ( So
that they are equally distributed among the
daughter cells during cell division)
14.G2 - Second growth phase/ Pre mitotic phase.(5hrs)
 Synthesis of RNA and proteins continues.
 Replication of centrosomes.
15.Mitotic phase (M phase) 1hr.
 It is the phase of cell division - Dividing
phase.
 Studied in two divisions.
 Division of nucleus (Karyokinesis) and
Division of cytoplasm (Cytokinesis).
MITOSIS
 Occurs in somatic cells.
 For growth, repair, replacement and asexual reproduction in
unicellular organisms.
 Maintain the chromosome number even after the division of
the cell.
 Called Equational division.
 Produce two daughter cells.
 Each having the same chromosome number and genetic
constitution.
 Ensures, all the cells of an individual is genetically identical to
each other
 Maintain the diploid condition of the cell.
 A cell division in which two identical daughter cells are
formed by the division of one parent cell.
1. Mitosis is a type of cell division that take place in somatic cells,
during which the cell divides into two daughter cells, each
containing the same and similar number of chromosomes as
present in the parent cell.
2. Karyokinesis occurs in 4 phases:
 Prophase
 Metaphase
 Anaphase
 Telophase
3. Prophase
 Longest and most complex phase.

 Lasts about 50 min.
Major Events – Early Prophase
 Condensation of chromatin fibres.

 Nuclear membrane starts gradually disappearing.
 Nucleolus also starts disappearing.
 Centrosomes with centrioles start migrate to the opposite
poles of the cell.
 A number of fine radiating fibre like structures arise from the
centrioles called Astral rays
 Centrioles along with astral rays are called Asters
 Asters get extended between the centrioles which move
towards the opposite poles of the cell.
 The very fine proteinaceous thread like structures that are
developed between the two asters are called Spindle fibres.
 Asters along with spindle fibres are called spindle apparatus
/mitotic apparatus.
 In animals spindle apparatus /mitotic apparatus formed as
amphiastral – Formed from asters.
 In plants spindle apparatus /mitotic apparatus formed (without
asters) as anastral – Formed from cytoplasmic strands called
microtubules.
Late prophase
 Nuclear membrane and nucleolus
Centromere
disappeared.
 Chromosomes can be seen Chromosome
prominently (as two longitudinal
chromatids joined by the
Spindle fibres
centromrere).
 Centrioles are reached the
opposite poles with spindle fibres.
 Chromosomes get attached to the
spindle fibers with the help of the
centrosome.
4. Metaphase
 Simple, Short, 2-10 min

 Chromosomes get aligned at the equator of the cell.
 Centromeres lie on the equator and the arms face towards the
poles.
 The arrangement of chromosomes on
the equator in such a way that their
centromeres lie on the equator and the
arms face towards the poles is called
Metaphasic plate/ Equatorial plate.
5. Anaphase
 Simple, Short, 2-3 min
 The centromere of each chromosome
divides (longitudinally) into two
halves. (Chromatids separated with
its own centromere).
 Each daughter chromosome retains
one of the two chromatids.
 The daughter chromosomes move
towards the opposite poles (due to
the contraction of spindle fibres &
the repelling force developed
between them)
6. Telophase
 Long, Complex, Reverse of
prophase.
 The daughter chromosomes
reach at the opposite poles.
 Start uncoiling, thinning and
elongating- chromatin
network.
 Nuclear membrane and
nucleolus reappear.
 Spindle fibres, astral rays
disappear.
7. Karyokinesis is followed by Cytokinesis.
8. Cytokinesis:
 Division of cytoplasm
 Begins during late Anaphase.
 Completed soon after the telophase.
 Different in animal and plant cell.
In animal cell:
 A furrow or constriction appears in the middle of the cell
membrane, parallel to the equator.
 Deepens towards the centre of the cell - CENTRIPETAL
In plant cell:
 A cell plate is formed at the centre of the equator.
 Extends towards the periphery – CENTRIFUGAL
Differences between mitosis in plant cell and animal cell.
Animal cell Plant cell
Cytokinesis By the appearance of furrow or By the formation of cell plate.

constriction.
It is Centripetal –Proceeds from It is Centrifugal -Proceeds from centre
periphery towards the centre. towards the periphery.
Asters Formed from the centrioles. (Due Not formed (Centrosome & centrioles
to the presence of centrosome) are absent)
Spindle Formed as amphiastral – Formed Formed as anastral – Formed from

fibres from asters. microtubules
Occur Most tissues throughout the body. Mainly at the growing tips.
9. Significance of Mitosis:
 Keeps the number of chromosomes constant in the daughter

cells.(genetic stability)
 Responsible for the growth of an organism.(increases the body
size)
 Helps in repairing damaged or wounded tissues.
 Helps in the replacement of old and dead cells – lost during
normal wear and tear.
 Method of reproduction in unicellular organism – Asexual
reproduction.
10. Meiosis (Reduction division)
 Produces sex cells or gametes.

 Occurs in the reproductive organs – reproductive cells.
(Testis – Sperm, Ovary – Ova/Egg in animals & Anthers –
pollen grains, Ovary – Ovules in flowering plants)
 Occurs in diploid cell – A cell which has full set of
chromosomes corresponding to the chromosome number of
that particular species is termed as diploid cell (2n).
 Cell divides into 4 daughter cells.
 Each having only half the number of chromosomes. (Haploid
cell) – A cell which has only half the number of chromosomes
corresponding to the chromosome number of that particular
species is termed as haploid cell (n).
 Meiosis is a reduction division as the chromosome number is
reduced to half in the daughter cells when compared to the
parent cell.
 Meiosis is completed in successive cell division – Meiosis I
and Meiosis II.
 Meiosis I – Reduction division.
 Meiosis II – Equational division
 Meiosis I is called Reduction division because the number of
chromosomes in this type of division is reduced to half in the
daughter cells.
 Meiosis I is followed by Meiosis II.
 Meiosis II is called Equational division because it is just
similar to the mitosis.
11. Meiosis is a type of cell division in which the cell undergoes
two successive cell division producing four daughter cells, each
containing half the number of chromosomes as compared to the
parent cell.
12. Meiosis I
 Condensation of chromosomes.
 Homologous chromosomes start to pair up.
 [A pair or of chromosomes which are similar in size, shape,
position of centromere and gene loci is termed as Homologous
chromosomes].
 A pair of homologous chromosomes is called BIVALENT.
 The process of pairing up of homologous chromosomes is
called SYNAPSIS.
 The four chromatids of a homologous chromosome or a
bivalent are called TETRAD.
 Pairs of homologous chromosomes line up on the metaphase

plate.
 Mutual exchange of genetic material between the non- sister
chromatids of the corresponding parts of the homologous
chromosomes takes place. This is called CROSSING OVER.
 The point at which crossing over occurs where the homologous

chromosome remain attached is called CHIASMA (Chiasmata [p])
13. Significance of Crossing Over:

 It results in genetic combination. (Paternal and Maternal
chromosomes get mixed up)
 Provides variation in the progeny.
 Variations lead to the evolution.
14. The homologous chromosomes separate completely and move
towards the opposite poles.
15. Significance of Meiosis
 Helps in the formation of gametes.
 Helps to maintain the chromosome number constant
generation after generation.
 Crossing over helps to produce variations and thus leads to
evolution.
CHRIST SCHOOL
Chromosomes – Notes
1. Chromosomes are highly condensed chromatin materials that carry genes

which is responsible for the transmission of hereditary characters from
parents to offspring.
2. Non dividing cell - Chromatin network/ chromatin fibres (Not distinct &
clear, very long like a network)
3. Dividing cell - Chromosomes (Distinct, short thick & darkly stained
structure)
4. Chromatids are the two longitudinal halves of a chromosome.
5. Centromere is the point at which the two chromatids are joined.
6. Function of centromere
 Joins the two chromatids together.
 Help the chromosome to get attached to the spindle fibres during cell
division.
7. Chromosomes according to the position of centromere:
 Metacentric
 Submetacentric
 Acrocentric
 Telocentric
8. Metacentric – Centre, Equal arms, V shape.
9. Submetacentric - Slightly away from the centre, one arm is

longer than the other, L shape.
CHROMOSOMES Key points; Prepared by Ms. Anitha Joseph Page Number: 1

10.Acrocentric - Near one end of the chromatid, one arm is very long and
the other is very short, J shape.
11.Telocentric - At one end, Rod shaped arm, I shape.
12.Chemical constitution of chromosomes:

 60% - Protein – Histones
 40% - nucleic acid – DNA (Deoxyribo nucleic acid)
13.DNA (Deoxyribo nucleic acid)
 Very large single molecule - Macromolecule.

 Two long parallel strands – polynucleotide strand –complementary.
 Composed of a unit – Nucleotide ( structural and functional unit of
DNA / Basic component of DNA)
14. Nucleotide -3 parts:

 Phosphate group - P
 Pentose sugar - S
 Nitrogen base - NB
15.Nitrogen base – 2 Types:
 Purines – Adenine, guanine
 Pyrimidines – Cytosine, Thymine
16.Nitrogen bases are complementary to each other.
 Adenine - Thymine (A – T)
 Guanine - Cytosine (G – C)

17.DNA molecule consists of two long parallel
polynucleotide complementary strands that wound
around each other in the form of a spiral stairs or
twisted ladder. So it is called double helical
structure.
18.The double helical DNA structure is studied by Rosalind
Franklin (1953) and Worked out by Watson and
Crick (1953). It is also called Watson and Crick
model.
19.A core of 8 histones is surrounded by a DNA molecule form a complex is
called a nucleosome.
20.Gene is a specific sequence of nucleotides on a chromosome that encode a

particular protein which controls a specific feature/behavior in the body.

CHRIST SCHOOL
CLASS – X
TRANSPIRATION - KEYPOINTS
TRANSPIRATION is the process by which plants loss water in the form of water vapour
from the aerial parts of a plant.
KINDS OF TRANSPIRATION
 Stomatal – through stomata (Diffusion)
 Cuticular – through cuticle (Evaporation)
 Lenticular – through lenticels(Diffusion)
STOMATA (Diagram)
 Minute opening found in between the lower epidermal layer of the leaves.
 Large in number (1000-10000/cm3).
 Stomata helps in:
Transpiration.
Exchange of gases i.e. CO2 for photosynthesis and O2 for respiration.
 Stoma is surrounded by two specialized epidermal cells – Guard cells (Kidney /
Dumb-bell shaped).
 Guard cells control the opening and closing of stomata (Check transpiration).
 Guard cells are turgor operated valves i.e. Opening and closing of stomata is
regulated by turgidity of guard cells.
 Stomatal transpiration is controlled by the plant, by adjusting the size of the

stoma, where as it doesn’t happen in cuticular and lenticular transpiration.
 More transpiration occurs from the underside of the leaf as more stomata are on
the undersurface of the leaf.
REGULATION OF STOMATAL OPENING (diagram)
 Guard cells control the opening and closing of stomata.
 Guard cells are highly specialized epidermal cells with chloroplasts which
surround the stomata.
 The walls of guard cells differentially thickened.
 The inner wall facing the aperture (opening) is thick and inelastic; the outer wall
on the opposite side is thin and elastic. (Diagram)
 When the guard cells become turgid, the cells bugle outward due to thin and
elastic outer wall where as the inner wall is pulled inward due to its thick and
inelastic nature. This widens the opening (aperture) lying between them and the
stoma is opened.
 When the guard cells lose their turgidity, their inner wall straightens and stoma
is closed.
 Transpiration occurs as the stomata are open; it stops when they are closed.
 Transpiration is controlled in stomatal transpiration by adjusting the size of the
stomata.
THEORIES OF OPENING AND CLOSING OF STOMATA:
 Sugar concentration theory (OLD)

Day time guard cells photosynthesize – glucose is produced.
Higher glucose level in the guard cells increases their osmotic pressure -
Hypertonic.
Leads to endosmosis (Draw water from the adjoining cells).
The guard cells become more turgid.
Turgid guard cells open stoma.
Night time, Glucose production reduces.
Osmotic pressure of guard cells decreases - Hypotonic
Guard cells undergo exosmosis.
Cells become flaccid (Lose turgidity)
Losing turgidity of guard cells close stoma.
 K+ concentration Theory (NEW)
 Day time guard cells photosynthesize – ATP is produced.
 ATP is used to uptake K+ ions from adjoining cells to guard cells.
 Higher K+ ions level in the guard cells increases their osmotic pressure -
Hypertonic.
 Leads to endosmosis (Draw water from the adjoining cells).
 The guard cells become more turgid.
 Turgid guard cells open stoma.
 Night time, K+ ions leak out of guard cells.
 Osmotic pressure of guard cells decreases - Hypotonic
 Guard cells undergo exosmosis.
 Cells become flaccid (Lose turgidity)
 Losing turgidity of guard cells close stoma.
MECHANISM OF STOMATAL TRANSPIRATION (diagram)
 Opening and closing mechanism of stomata (turgidity of guard cells) is regulated

by the amount of water and solute present in the guard cells.
 Root hairs Cortical cells Root xylem Stem xylem Leaf
xylem Mesophyll cells Intercellular space Atmosphere
 Water escapes through stomata in the form of water vapors.
 The entire movement of water in the form of water vapour from the surface of
the mesophyll cells into the outside atmosphere results in transpiration.
 In the leaves of plants most of the water travels along the cell wall by
imbibitions.
 Some amount of water travels through the cell (cell cytoplasm) by osmosis.
 From the xylem vessels water moves to mesophyll cells by cell to cell osmosis.
 In the leaves a large number of spongy mesophylls are present.
 Spongy mesophylls are exposed to numerous intercellular spaces present
between them.
 Due to the turgidity, turgor pressure developed in the Spongy mesophyll cells
 Due to the turgor pressure of the mesophyll cells, some of the water forms a thin
film of water on the outer surface of the cells.
 The water from this film evaporates into the intercellular space.
 The water vapour then diffuses into other connecting intercellular spaces and
finally reaches the substomatal spaces(Space exposed to stomata)
 The water vapour from the substomatal space moves to outside through open
stomata by diffusion. (Water potential of the air in the intercellular spaces of the
leaf becomes higher than that of air present outside the leaf).
 The loss of water from the leaves creates a suction force in the leaf cells which
causes leaf xylem to pull water from stem xylem and root xylem in turn.
 The suction force which is developed in the leaf cells due to transpiration is
called transpiration pull.
 Transpiration pull is one of the most important factor of Ascent of sap
MOVEMENT OF WATER THROUGH A LEAF DURING TRANSPIRATION: (diagram)
LEAF XYLEM
Cell wall by imbibitions (Most of the water)

Cytoplasm by osmosis (Some of the water)
ADJOINING MESOPHYLL CELLS
Turgor pressure due to turgidity
OUTER SURFACE OF MESOPHYLL CELLS
Evaporation
INTERCELLULAR SPACES & OTHER CONNECTING SPACES
Diffusion
SUBSTOMATAL SPACES
Diffusion
ATMOSPHERE THROUGH OPEN STOMATA
 Cuticle – The waxy layer on the outer surface of the epidermis of leaves.
 Greater the thickness of the cuticle, the lesser is the evaporation.
 Lenticels – Minute opening on the surface of older parts of stem.
 Lenticels never close; they remain open all the time. No cells to guard them and
control their size of the opening.
 Stomatal transpiration is controlled by the plant, by adjusting the size of the
stoma, where as it doesn’t happen in cuticular and lenticular transpiration.
 Leaves of some plants wilt during midday and recover in the evening because
the rate of transpiration exceeds the rate of absorption; so the cells of plant lose
turgidity and get wilted.
FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSPIRATION:
 Light intensity - High

Higher rate of transpiration
Stomata are open.
 Cloudy days, stomata are partially closed, reduce transpiration.
 Temperature – High
More evaporation
 Velocity of Wind – High
Water vapour will be swept away faster and does not get saturated outside
the leaf.
 Humidity – Low
 Higher rate of transpiration
 Higher the rate of outward diffusion of water vapours.
 High humidity in the air reduces the rate of outward diffusion of water vapour ,
thus reduces the transpiration.
 CO2 concentration in the atmosphere – Low
 Stomata are open
 Higher conc. of CO2 in the atmosphere (over normal 0.03%) causes the closure
of stomata, thus reduces the transpiration.
 Atmospheric pressure – Low
 Higher diffusion of water vapour
 Atmospheric pressure – High
 Lower rate of transpiration
 Lower diffusion of water vapour
 Water content of leaf – High
 Stomata are open
 Larger surface area of leaf - Higher rate of transpiration
 Thick cuticle - Lower rate of transpiration
 Less number of stomata - Lower rate of transpiration
ADAPTATIONS TO REDUCE EXCESSIVE TRANSPIRATION :
 Sunken stomata - Nerium

 Fewer stomata
 Narrow leaves - Nerium
 Reduced exposed surface – Rolling, twisting, curling, wavy, folded
 Loss of leaves - Changed into spines(Cacti), drooped
 Thick cuticle – Banyan
 Stomata located on the lower surface - Dicot
 Leaf modifications – Leaf spines(Cacti), phylloclade, Scaly leaves
SIGNIFICANCE OF TRANSPIRATION:
 Transpiration helps in absorption of water.

 Transpiration provides cooling effect to plant.
 Transpiration helps in the distribution of water and mineral salts throughout the
plant body.
 Transpiration develops extensive root system.
 Transpiration affects climate – Brings rain. (Transpiration increases the
moisture in the atmosphere and brings rain).
 Transpiration pull is responsible for ascent of sap.(Ascent of sap is the upward
movement of water through the stem xylem).
 The loss of water from the leaf cells develop a tension in these cells i.e. the
osmotic pressure of the cells increase and they become hypertonic. This draws
water from the cells at the lower levels in a sequential manner (mesophylls
leaf xylem stem xylem root xylem) cause Ascent of sap.
 Ascent of sap favours the absorption of water from the soil by the roots.
TRANSPIRATION IS A PRICE FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS:
 As the stomata open for allowing CO2 to diffuse in for photosynthesis water
vapour escapes. Hence transpiration is incidental to photosynthesis .
GUTTATION is the loss of water in the form of water droplets through hydathodes of
leaves. (Loss water directly in the form of liquid)
Hydathodes are special pore bearing structures located on the margins of the leaves.
Hydathodes allow guttation or exudation.
CAUSES OF GUTTATION:
 Hydrostatic pressure develops inside the leaf due to the high rate of absorption
and low rate of transpiration. This forces water moves out of the opening.
Guttation cannot be controlled as transpiration:

 Guttation occurs through hydathodes which are always open, hence cannot be
controlled.
A humid environment hampers the transpiration, while the roots continue to absorb
water and minerals. This decrease the rate of transpiration & increase the rate of
absorption
Rate of absorption exceeds the rate of transpiration – Guttation
Rate of transpiration exceeds the rate of absorption – Wilting
BLEEDING is the exudation of cell sap from the injured part of the plant (Root
pressure causes it)
In GUTTATION and BLEEDING, a plant loses water in the Liquid form – water droplets.
Transpiration is a necessary process to facilitate gaseous exchange for photosynthesis
and respiration.
CHRIST SCHOOL
CLASS – X
PHOTOSYNTHESIS- KEYPOINTS
PHOTOSYNTHESIS is a physiological process by which green plants prepare

organic compound – Carbohydrate – using inorganic substances – CO2, H2O
in the presence of chlorophyll and light energy.
SIGNIFICANCE:
 Provides food for all organisms.
 Maintain O2 level.
CONDITIONS REQUIRED:
 Light energy
 Chlorophyll pigments
RAW MATERIALS REQUIRED:
 CO2
 H2O
LIGHT ENERGY
 Sun is the main source.

 Red and blue lights are more absorbed and most effective for photosynthesis.
CHLOROPHYLL PIGMENTS
 The vital plant pigment.

 Located in the chloroplasts of plant cells.
STRUCTURE OF A LEAF
STRUCTURE OF CHLOROPLAST
 Oval shaped cell organelle

 Bounded by double membrane
 Colourless ,living ground substance (Fluid) enclosed by the double membrane –
STROMA/MATRIX
 Flattened membranous sac like structure in the stroma - THYLAKOID

 Pile of thylakoid – GRANUM(s)/GRANA(p)
 Interconnection between thylakoids of grana – STROMA LAMELLA/ INTERGRANAL
THYLAKOID / FRET
 Chlorophyll pigments are present in the walls of thylakoid.
 Chlorophyll pigments are composed of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen and
Magnesium.
 Chlorophyll are of 9 types.
 Two most abundant Chlorophyll molecules are Chlorophyll a and Chlorophyll b.
 Light is essential for the formation of new chlorophyll molecule.In the absence of
light, new chlorophyll does not form, old chlorophyll get disintegrated. Hence the
leaves turn yellow.
 Too much light destroys chlorophyll pigment.
 The main element which is required for the formation of chlorophyll pigment is
magnesium.
 The accessory pigments which help in the transference of light energy to
chlorophyll a are xanthophyll and carotene.
CO2
 CO2 from the atmosphere, through stomata, by diffusion.
H2O
 H2O from soil by imbibition and osmosis.

MECHANISM OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
 Site of photosynthesis – Chloroplast of Mesophyll cells in Plant cells.
 TWO PHASES
Light dependent phase (Photochemical phase/Hill reaction)
Light independent phase (Biosynthetic phase/ Calvin cycle)
 LIGHT DEPENDENT PHASE (PHOTOCHEMICAL PHASE/HILL REACTION)
Site – Grana of the Chloroplast (Thylakoid)
Take place only in the presence of light.
Mainly occurs in two phases
 Activation of chlorophyll
 Splitting of water
 ACTIVATION OF CHLOROPHYLL – PROCESS INVOLVED:
Activation of chlorophyll molecules by absorbing light energy as
photons(Smallest unit of light energy)
The low energy molecules move to a high energy state and emit electron
transport chain in chloroplast.
The emitted energy is used to split water molecules H2 and O2 -
PHOTOLYSIS
Light Energy
H2O H+ + OH-
OH-  OH * 4 2H2O + O2
OH- oxidized to O2 and H2O

O2 released during photosynthesis comes from H2O, not from CO2 .
H+ produced by the splitting of H2O molecule is used to reduce NADP –
Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate ( A low energy compound
present in the cell)
NADP + 2H+ + e-  NADPH (Reduced Nicotinamide Adenine

Dinucleotide Phosphate )
NADPH is the reducing power used in light independent phase.

The electron converts low energy compound ADP into high energy compound
ATP by adding one inorganic phosphate group -
PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION
Light Energy
ADP + iP ATP
PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION is the production of high energy compound ATP
from low energy compound ADP using inorganic phosphate and light
energy.
End products of Light dependent phase of photosynthesis – NADPH, ATP,
O2
NADPH – Reducing agent of Light independent phase
ATP – Energy source for Light independent phase
O2 – Utilized the cells for oxidation of glucose and released into the
atmosphere as a by product
 LIGHT INDEPENDENT PHASE (BIOSYNTHETIC PHASE/ CALVIN CYCLE)
Site – Stroma of the Chloroplast
Take place without using light energy.
Major event:
 CO2 is reduced to Glucose by H+ of NADPH using
energy from ATP(Fixation of CO2 – Glucose)
 Enzyme catalysed reaction.
 CO2 enters into a cycle of reaction with the help of a CO2 acceptor –
RuBP (Ribulose biphosphate)
 NADPH - NADP
 ATP - ADP
 RuBP - Regenerated after reaction.
 End products of Light independent phase of photosynthesis -
GLUCOSE
 End products of photosynthesis
 Glucose, Oxygen and Water
 Fate of the products of photosynthesis
 Glucose – Readily soluble in water
 Utilized the cells for its oxidation to release energy.
 Converted to starch for storage.(Conversion of several molecules of
glucose into one molecule of starch – POLYMERISATION)
 Convert to sucrose for translocation.
 Used to synthesize cellulose, fats and proteins.
 ADAPTATIONS IN LEAF FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Large surface area – maximum absorption of light
Arrangement of leaves – At right angle to the source of light to obtain
maximum light.
Cuticle and upper epidermis – Transparent and water proof to allow light to
enter freely.
Numerous stomata – Rapid exchange of gases
Thin leaves – Reduce distance between cells to facilitate rapid transport gases
Chloroplast more on upper layer – To obtain light energy quickly
Extensive vein system – rapid transport of water, minerals and food
Loosely arranged spongy mesophyll – sufficient space for the exchange of
gases
 FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Light intensity
CO2 concentration EXTERNAL
Temperature
Water content
Chlorophyll
Protoplasm INTERNAL
Structure of leaf
 CARBON CYCLE – Leads to the formation of fossil fuels
 CARBON CYCLE involves a series of chemical reactions in which Carbon in
CO2, from the atmosphere used by living organisms and finally returned to the air.

ABSORPTION BY ROOTS – Key points
 PLANT PHYSIOLOGY is the branch of biology which deals with the study
of the life functions of plants.
 ROLE OF WATER IN THE LIFE OF PLANTS:
 Water is the major constituent of plant body.

 Water constitutes more than 80% of the cell cytoplasm and it is
essential for the normal functioning of a cell.
 As water is the universal solvent, many substances can dissolve in it.
 It is a medium of transportation of soluble inorganic salts and minerals.
 Plants need water to carry out photosynthesis.
 Plants need water to carry out transpiration.
 Water is essential for proving turgidity (stiffness) to plants – As a
means of mechanical support.
 Water is essential for the germination of seeds.
 Water controls the opening and closing of stomata.
 It maintains the body temperature.
 Water is required for the absorption of mineral nutrients.
 Water is very much essential for carrying out normal physiological
activities of plants.
 Soil is the basic source of water to plants.
 Roots are the water absorbing organs of terrestrial plants.
 The basic Functions of Root:
 Fix the plants in the soil.
 Absorb water and minerals from the soil.
 Conduction of absorbed water and minerals.
 Storage of food.
 Helps in vegetative propagation.
 How are roots adapted for absorption of water?
 A great surface area provided by rootlets and root hairs.
 Higher concentration of cell sap in the root hairs.
 Thin walled root hairs.
 Root hair is the microscopic root epidermal outgrowth or extension / Root
hair is the extension of root epidermis.
 The various processes or phenomena which result in the absorption and

conduction of water in plants:
 Imbibition
 Diffusion
 Osmosis
 Active transport
 Turgidity and
 Flaccidity
 IMBIBITION is the phenomenon by which the living or dead plant cells
absorb water by surface attraction.
 EXAMPLE OF IMBIBITION
 Swelling of dry seeds, grains.
 Swelling of wooden doors.
 DIFFUSION is the free movement of molecules of a substance from the
region of their higher concentration to a region of their lower concentration
when the two are in contact.
 EXAMPLE OF IMBIBITION
 Spreading of perfume smell.
 Dissolving sugar in water.
 Coffee grains mix up with milk.
 OSMOSIS is the movement of water molecules from the region of their
higher concentration to the region of their lower concentration across a
semi-permeable membrane
 ACTIVE TRANSPORT is the movement of molecules from the region of
their lower concentration to the region of their higher concentration using
energy.
 OSMOTIC PRESSURE is the minimum pressure that must be exerted to
prevent the passage of solvent into the solution when the two are separated
by a semi permeable membrane.
OR
 OSMOTIC PRESSURE is a measure of the tendency of a solution to take in
water by osmosis.
 OSMOTIC PRESSURE
 It is a mechanical pressure and it is exerted by the solute molecule in
a solution.
 The osmotic pressure is directly proportional to the concentration of
the solution.
 Greater the concentration of the solute, greater the osmotic pressure.
 Osmosis from a region of lower osmotic pressure to a region of high
osmotic pressure.
 Inward diffusion of water through a semi permeable membrane is called
ENDOSMOSIS
 Outward diffusion of water through a semi permeable membrane is called
EXOSMOSIS
 Relative concentration of a solution is called TONICITY.
 TONICITY determines the direction and extent of the diffusion of water
molecule.
 Isotonic solution is a solution with relatively equal concentration of solute.
 Hypotonic solution is a solution with relatively lower concentration of
solute.
 Hypertonic solution is a solution with relatively higher concentration of
solute.
 A cell is Hypotonic solution – Osmotic pressure high -Cell loses water –
Exosmosis - Flaccid
 A cell is Hypertonic solution – Osmotic pressure low - Cell gains water –
Endosmosis -Turgid
 A cell is placed in Hypotonic solution – Cell gains water - Endosmosis -
Turgid
 A cell is placed in Hypertonic solution – Cell loses water – Exosmosis-
Flaccid
 A cell is placed in Isotonic solution – No gain, No lose.
 A cell which is fully distended and cannot accommodate any more water
due to endosmosis is called TURGID and the condition is called
TURGIDITY
 The pressure exerted by the cell wall on the cell content is called WALL
PRESSURE
 The pressure exerted by the cell content on the cell wall is called TURGOR
PRESSURE
 Shrinkage of cell protoplasm due to the exosmosis is called Flaccid and the
condition is called FLACCIDITY
 The phenomenon in which the cell protoplasm shrinks and the cell
membrane detaches from the cell wall due to the withdrawal of water due to
exsomosis when placed in hypertonic solution is called PLASMOSIS
 Flaccidity is the reverse of Turgidity.
 The recovery or reversal of plasmolysis is called DEPLASMOLYSIS
 When a plasmolysed cell is placed in water before it is dead, the protoplasm
again swells up and pressing tight against the wall and the cell becomes
deplasmolysed.
 Plasmolysis is due to the continuous out flow of water where as
deplasmolysis is the result of its reentry.
 Significance of TURGIDITY
 Movement of water from cell to cell.
 Provides rigidity to soft tissues of plants.
 Helps to localize cell organelles.
 Build up root pressure.
 Helps in stomatal movements.
 Helps in plant movements.
 Helps in scattering of seeds.
 Significance of PLASMOLYSIS
 Kills weeds by sprinkling salt around their base.
 Pickling meat and vegetable by adding salt.
 Salting meat kills bacteria by plasmolysis. Salting make the solution
hypertonic. Bacteria are killed by plasmolysis of their cells.
 Excessive use of fertilizers without proper irrigation kills crops. Fertilizers
make the soil water hypertonic and the root cells of crops loss water by
exosmosis and get plasmolysed.
STAGES OF PLASMOLYSIS
CHRIST SCHOOL
ChristSchoolRoad,DharmaramCollegeP.O.,Bangalore560029,Ka rnataka
Class X
EXCRETION KEYPOINTS PART - 1
 The process of eliminating the nitrogenous waste from the body is called
excretion.
 Excretory waste products in Humans:
SOURCE OF
MEANS OF
MAJOR WASTES CHEMICAL PROCESS PRODUCTION OF ELIMINATING ORGAN
ELIMINATION
WASTES
CO2, water Respiration Body tissues Lungs Exhaled air
Urea, uric acid Deamination Liver Kidney Urine

Lungs Exhaled air
Excess water Skin Sweat
kidney Urine
Excess Skin Sweat
minerals &salts kidney Urine
Bile pigments
Destruction of Large Intestine Faeces
(Bilirubin & Liver
RBCs Kidney Urine
Biliverdin)
Excretory organs in Humans:

EXCRETORY
MAJOR WASTES
ORGANS
Kidney Urea, uric acid, Excess water, CO2, Excess minerals
(Primary
excretory organ) &salts, Bile pigments
Lungs CO2, water
Excess water, Excess minerals &salts(As part of body’s

Skin
thermoregulation), Urea, uric acid,(Very small amount)
Liver Toxic substances

 Human excretory system mainly consists of:
 A pair of kidneys
 A pair of ureters
 Urinary bladder
 urethra
Kidneys
 Primary excretory organ.

 Reddish brown in colour.
 Bean-shaped organs.
 About 10cm long and 6cm wide.
 Located below the stomach, one on
either side of the vertebral column in the
lower abdomen.
 Protected by last two ribs.
 The right kidney is positioned lower
than the left kidney because the right
kidney is pushed downward by the liver.
Kidney – External structure
 Kidney shows two main regions:-
 An outer region - Convex
 An inner region – Concave
 The notch present in the middle part of the inner concavity – HILUM
 The expanded funnel shaped part inside the kidney from the hilum – RENAL
SINUS/PELVIS
 Renal artery, renal vein nerve fibres, ureters etc. enter and leave the kidney
through the hilum.
 The thin sheet of white fibrous tissue which covers the kidney externally –
CAPSULE
 The structural and functional unit of each kidney – NEPHRONS/ URINIFEROUS
TUBULE
Kidney – Internal structure

 Outer CORTEX – Dotted appearance
 Inner MEDULLA – Striated appearance
 CORTEX has dotted appearance because
Nephrons are highly coiled in this
region.
 MEDULLA has striated appearance
because the nephrons run straight in
this region.
 A row of finely striped structures
arranged in the medulla – RENAL
PYRAMIDS
 The apex of the pyramids – PAPILLA

 Papilla projects into renal pelvis.
 Pelvis extends downwards and comes
out of the kidney – URETER
URETER
 A narrow tube running down from the inner concavity of the kidneys.
 It joins with the urinary bladder at the lower part of the abdomen.
 Carry urine produced in the kidneys to the urinary bladder
constantly.(FUNCTION)
URINARY BLADDER
 Located in the pelvic region (Lower

abdomen)
 Stores urine temporarily (FUNCTION)
URETHRA
 The opening of the urinary bladder

to the exterior.
 A ring of muscles at the opening of
the urinary bladder into the urethra
– SPHINCTER MUSCLE
 The expulsion of urine from the urinary bladder to the exterior through
the urethra – MICTURITION (URINATION) [Caused due to the relaxation of sphincter
muscle and contraction of urinary bladder]
CHRIST SCHOOL
Class X
EXCRETION KEYPOINTS - 2
 Each kidney contains millions of microscopic filtering units called

Nephrons or Uriniferous tubules or Renal/Kidney tubules – Structural
and functional unit of Kidney.
 NEPHRONS
Each Nephron is a highly coiled tube like structure.

It is blind at one end and open at the other end.
It has main two parts:
 Malpighian capsule
 Renal tubule
 Malpighian / Renal capsule

Lies in the COTREX of the kidney
It consists of BOWMAN’S CAPSULE and GLOMEULUS.
 BOWMAN’S CAPSULE
It is cup like structure formed by the

invagination of the blind end of the nephron.
It forms a double walled structure (Wall –
Single cell)
 GLOMERULUS
It is a knot of capillaries present in the cup of

Bowman’s capsule.
It is formed by the capillaries of incoming blood vessel (Afferent
arteriole) and outgoing blood vessel (Efferent arteriole).
 Renal tubule
The coiled tubular part continues from the Malpighian tubule.
It has three parts:
 Proximal convoluted tubule(PCT)
 Loop of Henle
 Distal convoluted tubule(DCT)
 PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE (PCT)
Closer to Bowman’s capsule.

Highly coiled.
Lies in the cortex.
Internally the cells of this part lined
with microvilli structure to increase
the surface area for absorption.
 LOOP OF HENLE
Middle part of the renal tubule.

Lies in the medulla of the kidney.
Consists of a descending limb, Hairpin
loop and an ascending limb.
 DISTAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE (DCT)
Last part of the renal tubule.

Highly coiled.
Lies in the cortex of the kidney.
Opens into collecting duct.
 COLLECTING TUBULE
Found in the medulla of the kidney

Receives contents (URINE) from many nephrons.
Opens into the pelvis.
 BLOOD VESSELS OF KIDNEYS
Dorsal aorta
Renal artery
Afferent arteriole
Glomerulus
Efferent arteriole
Peritubular network (Secondary capillary network)
Venules
Renal vein
 PHYSIOLOGY OF URINE FORMATION
Major toxic waste materials produced – UREA

Site of its production – LIVER
Process which leads to its formation – DEAMINATION
 STEPS OF URINE FORMATION:
Ultrafilration
Selective reabsorption
Tubular secretion
 ULTRAFILRATION
Occurs in the Glomerulus of the Bowman’s capsule.

The filtration of blood under great pressure.
The efferent arteriole is narrower than afferent arteriole. This
develops very high pressure in the glomerulus.(The blood proceeding
from the efferent arteriole is relatively thick)
Due to the high pressure, all that can pass through the capillary wall
get filtered out.
The filtration of blood in the glomerulus under extraordinary force is
called ULTRAFILRATION.
The liquid which filters out during ultra filtration is
ULTRAFILTRATE / GLOMERULAR FILTRATE.
 COMPONENTS OF ULTRAFILRATE
Water
Glucose
Amino acids
Urea
Uric acid
Inorganic salts
Pigments
 SUBSTANCES WHICH ARE RETAINED IN THE CAPILLRIES
Blood proteins
Corpuscles(RBC and PATELETS)
Fat
(Carried forward through efferent arterioles)
 Glomerular filtrate is received by BOWMAN’S CAPSULE
 The blood proceeding from the efferent arteriole is relatively thick
because it contains corpuscles (RBCs and PLATELETS), blood proteins
and other large molecules.
 SELECTIVE REABSORPTION
The process of absorbing useful substances from glomerular filtrate

into the blood in the secondary capillary network.
 SUBTANCES WHICH ARE REABSORBED
Most of the Water by Osmosis

Glucose
Amino acids
Inorganic salts of Na+ , K +, Cl - by Diffusion
[Takes place in Proximal Convoluted Tubule, Loop of Henle (Water, Na+)]
 TUBULAR SECRETION
The process of secreting harmful substances from the blood in the

peritubular network into the glomerular filtrate through the cells of
renal tubule.
 SUBTANCES WHICH ARE SECRETED
K+, H+, NH3, Uric acid, Hippuric acid, Creatinine, Chemicals like
Drugs, antibiotics(Penicillin) by active transport and diffusion)
[Takes place in the Distal Convoluted Tubule]
 Selective reabsorption and Tubular secretion maintain the components of

blood and the PH (acid-base balance) of the blood
 The filtrate which drains into the collecting duct after Selective
reabsorption and Tubular secretion is termed URINE
 Collecting duct Pelvis Ureters Urinary bladder urethra
 Urine passes into the collecting ducts to the pelvis and through the ureters
into the urinary bladder is due to ureteral peristalsis and gravity.
 Urine is expelled from the urinary bladder through the urethra is due to
the relaxation of sphincter muscles located at the opening of the urinary
bladder into the urethra.
 The expulsion of urine from the urinary bladder to the exterior through the
urethra is called MICTURITION (URINATION).
PARTS OF NEPHRON ACTIVITY
Glomerulus Ultrafiltration
Bowman’s Capsule Receives glomerular filtrate
Reabsorption of most of the water, Glucose, Amino acids,
Proximal Convoluted Tubule
Inorganic salts of Na+ , K +, Cl -
Loop of Henle Reabsorption of water and Na+
Tubular secretion - K+, H+, Chemicals like Drugs,
Distal Convoluted Tubule antibiotics etc, absorption of small amount of water and
ions.
Reabsorption of water, Collect and transport left over
Collecting Duct
filtrate(URINE)
 CONCENTRATION AND REGULATION OF URINE OUTPUT
Controlled by Antidiuretic hormone (ADH).

ADH is produced by the posterior lobe of Pituitary gland.
High production of urine due to the insufficient secretion of ADH is
called DIURESIS
Substances that increase the formation of urine are called
DIURETICS (Liquid diet, Tea, Coffee, Alcohol etc.)
 In summer – Less production of urine, more concentrated urine (thicker),

urinate fewer times:
Most of the water is lost as sweat through perspiration

Kidneys reabsorb water from glomerular filtrate making urine more
concentrate
 In Winter - Frequent urination, Dilute urine:
No sweating
Excess water needs to be eliminated
 Drinking enough water helps the kidneys to function properly.
More absorption of water – Diluted Urine, more amount of urine
Less absorption of water – Concentrated Urine, Less amount of urine
 FUNCTIONS OF KIDNEY
 Elimination of nitrogenous waste materials through urine.

 Osmoregulation – The process of maintaining the salt-water balance of
the body fluid (Blood) by regulating the composition of the blood.
CONSTITUENTS OF URINE (95% Water and 5% solid wastes)
ORGANIC INORGANIC OTHER SUBSTANCES (2.5)
Urea (2.3) NaCl (9.0) Hormones
Uric acid (1.5) KCl(2.5) Certain drugs, Antibiotics
Creatinine (2.6) NH (0.6) Excess vitamins

3
CHRIST SCHOOL
CLASS - X
NERVOUS SYSTEM - KEYPOINTS (1)
 Importance of Nervous System:
 Keeps us informed about the surrounding.

 Helps to react to the environment.
 Helps to think, remember and reason out.
 Controls and co-ordinates various body activities.
 Regulates the internal environment of the body.
 Controls and co-ordinates voluntary activities.
 Regulates involuntary activities.
 The Nervous system consists of BRAIN, SPINAL CORD, SENSE RECEPTORS and NERVES.
 The basic structural and functional unit of Nervous system is NERVE CELLS /
NEURON.
 NERVE CELLS / NEURON:
 Shows Irritability and Conductivity. (Properties)

 Receive stimuli and conduct them in the form of nerve impulses( Function)
 It has mainly three parts – Cell body, Dendrites and Axon.
Grade X Nervous System Key Points 1 Prepared by Ms. Anitha Joseph Page Number: 1
 Cell body or Cyton or Perikaryon
 It is the main part of the neuron.
 Contains a large, well defined nucleus and
cytoplasm.
 Cytoplasm contains cell organelles but not
centrosome (So cannot divide).
 Cytoplasm is granular – Nissl’s granules
(Fragments of Endoplasmic Reticulum
with Ribosomes, concerned with protein
synthesis).
 Dendrites
 The branched cytoplasmic extensions of the cell body.
 Branches are short and many.
 The finest branches help them to reach the tiniest part of the body.
 Receive nerve impulses and carry it to the cell body(Afferent processes)
– [Function]
 Axon (Nerve Fibre)
 Single, long, unbranched cytoplasmic extension of the cell body.

 Highly specialized to conduct nerve impulses.
 Carry nerve impulses away from the cell body(Efferent processes) –
[Function]
 It varies in length from few mm (in the brain) to a metre or more
(between spinal cord and toes).
 Axon is surrounded by multilayered insulation sheath called Myelin
Sheath/ Medullary Sheath.
 The cylindrical cell which covers the myelin sheath is called
Neurolemma / Schwann Cells – Produce myelin sheath.
 The gap between the myelin sheath or neurolemma is called Nodes of
Ranvier (Impulse jump from one node to another)
 Myelin Sheath/ Medullary Sheath – Functions:

 Greatly increase the speed of impulse along the axon.
 Preventing the mixing up of impulses with adjacent neurons.
 The axon ending have bulb like swellings called synaptic lobes.
 Synaptic lobes store certain chemicals called Neurotransmitters -
ACETYLCHOLINE.
 The side branches of axon in some neurons are called Collaterals.
 The narrow or microscopic gap between the axon ending of one neuron and
the dendrites of adjacent neuron is called Synapse or Synaptic cleft.
 Synapse is bridged by the neurotransmitter – Acetyl choline produced by

the axon endings.
 Synaptic cleft / synapse helps to control and receive many information from
different parts of the body at different times.
 Conduction of nerve impulse:
 Impulse is a wave of electrical disturbances (irritability) that sweeps

over the nerve cell.
 Nerve impulses travel along the axon in the form of electrical impulses.
 Nerve impulses travel across the synaptic cleft in the form of chemical
impulses (due to the neurotransmitter – acetylcholine).
 Mechanism of generation and conduction of nerve impulse:
 Normally the outer surface of the axon membrane carries positive

charge. This state is called polarized state. It is due to more
concentration of Na+ ions outside the axon membrane (while K+ ions
are more concentrated inside the membrane).
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
POLARISED STATE
 On being stimulated, the axon membrane at that spot becomes more

permeable to Na+ ions. Hence the interior of the neuron (axon
membrane) becomes positively charged while outer surface become
negatively charged. This state is called depolarized state and the
region is known as excited region.
_ _ _ _ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
+ + + + _ _ _ -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ + + + + + + + + + + + + +
DEPOLARISED STATE
 This point of depolarization becomes a stimulus for the next

neighbouring area of the membrane, which in turn becomes
depolarized.
 The previous area becomes repolarized due to the active transport of
Na+ again to the outside. This balance is maintained by the active
transport of ions to reset the membrane known as Sodium pump.
+ + + + _ _ _ _ + + + + + + + + + +
_ _ _ _ + + + + _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
_ _ _ _ + + + + _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
+ + + + _ _ _ _ + + + + + + + + + +
REPOLARISED STATE
 Changed polarity of membrane results in propagation of the nerve impulse
along the membrane.
 Conduction of nerve impulse is a wave of depolarization followed by
repolarization.
 TYPES OF NEURONS
1. Sensory neurons (Afferent neurons)
The nerve cells that transmit impulses from the sense organs
(Receptors) to brain or spinal cord (CNS) are called Sensory
neuron /Afferent neuron.
(Have long dendrites, short axon and cell body is centrally located)
2. Motor neurons (Efferent neurons)
The nerve cells that transmit impulses from the brain or spinal cord
(CNS) to sense organs (Receptors) are called Motor neuron /
Efferent neuron.
(Have short dendrites, long axon and cell body is terminal)
3. Association neurons (Intermediate / Relay neurons)
The nerve cells that are located in the brain or spinal cord and
connect Sensory neurons and Motor neuron are called Association
neuron / Intermediate / Relay neurons.
 The nerve cell dendrites which respond to stimuli and convert them to
sensory impulses are called Receptors.
CHRIST SCHOOL
ChristSchoolRoad,DharmaramCollegeP.O. ,Bangalore560029,Karnataka
CLASS - X
 NERVE
 A bundle of nerve fibres (axon) of neurons enclosed in a tubular sheath
is called a nerve.
 They are white thread like structures emerging from Brain and Spinal
cord.
 The bundle / aggregate of cell bodies of the nerve cell are called
Ganglion(S) / Ganglia (P).
 KINDS OF NERVE CELL
1. Sensory Nerves
 The nerves which contain only sensory fibres, bringing impulses
from the sense organs (Receptors) to brain or spinal cord(CNS) are
called Sensory nerves.
 E.g. Optic Nerve
2. Motor Nerves
 The nerves which contain only motor fibres, carrying impulses
from brain or spinal cord (CNS) to the effector organs (muscles or
glands) are called Motor nerves.
 E.g. A nerve from the brain to the muscles of the eyeball
3. Mixed Nerves
 The nerves which contain both sensory and motor nerve fibres are
called mixed nerves.
 E.g. All spinal nerves SENSORY NERVES
MOTOR NERVES
NERVOUS SYSTEM Key points – 2; Prepared by Ms. Anitha Joseph Page Number: 1
 DIVISIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Nervous System – Includes Central Nervous System and Peripheral

Nervous System
 Central Nervous System (CNS) – Includes Brain and Spinal cord
 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – Includes Somatic Nervous
System and Autonomic Nervous System
 Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) – Includes Sympathetic and
Parasympathetic nervous system
 Somatic Nervous System (SNS) – Includes Cranial nerves and Spinal
nerves
 Three regions of the brain – Fore brain, Mid brain, Hind brain.
 Fore brain consists of Cerebrum and Diencephalon.
 Diencephalon consists of Thalamus and Hypothalamus.
 Hind brain consists of Cerebellum, Pons varolii and Medulla
oblongata.
(PNS) (CNS)
Connection
Cranial Nerves Spinal nerves
Cerebellum
Diencephalon Cerebrum
Pons varolii
Thalamus Hypothalamus
Medulla oblongata
 BRAIN
 A protective skeletal structure of brain – Cranium of the skull

 A protective membraneous covering of brain – Meninges
 Meninges - Surrounds the Brain (Location) Protects the brain from
shocks and jerks (Function).
 Meninges is three membraneous –
 DURA MATER (Outer, tough)
 ARCHNOID (Middle, thin and

delicate)
 PIA MATER (Inner, highly
vascular)
 The space between the

membraneous coverings of the
brain is filled with a watery fluid
called cerebrospinal fluid.
 Cerebrospinal fluid protects the

brain from shocks and jerks by
acting as a cushion or shock
absorber (Function).
 Three regions of the brain – Fore brain, Mid brain, Hind brain.
 Fore brain consists of Cerebrum and Diencephalon
 CEREBRUM
 The largest portion of the brain.

 Divided into two cerebral
hemisphere – Right and Left
 The two cerebral hemispheres are
connected by a sheet of nerve fibres –
Corpus Callosum.
 Corpus Callosum transfers

information from one cerebral
hemisphere to another (Function).
 Outer part of the cerebrum is called Cerebral cortex and inner part of the
brain is called Cerebral medulla.
 Cerebral cortex consists of cell bodies of neurons and shows grayish in

colour. Hence the outer cortex forms grey matter.
 Cerebral medulla consists of nerve fibres (axons) of neurons and shows

whitish in colour. Hence the inner medulla forms white matter.
 Cerebral cortex is highly convoluted

with a lot of ridges or grooves –To
increase the surface area to
accommodate more neurons.
 The ridges are called GYRI and the
grooves are called SULCI.
 Cerebrum shows four lobes
 FRONTAL – Reasoning,
thinking, speech, memory
(Intellectual activities)
 PERIETAL – Movement,
Sensation like touch, taste,
pressure, pain, heat, cold etc.
 TEMPORAL – Hearing,
Processing language, meaning
of words.
 OCCIPITAL – Vision
 Main functions of cerebrum:
 Seat of intelligence, think, reason out, invent, plan, memorise,
consciousness, will power etc.
 Controls voluntary actions.
 Sensations
 Past experiences may be recalled cerebrum hypnotized and skillfully
questioned.
 Diencephalon consists of Thalamus and Hypothalamus.
 THALAMUS acts as a relay centre for sensory impulses going to the
cerebrum.
 HYPOTHALAMUS(Major Homeostatic centre), controls body temperature,
water balance, sleep and wake up pattern, hunger, thirst, blood pressure
etc. and also controls pituitary gland.
CHRIST SCHOOL
CLASS - X
 Hind brain consists of Cerebellum, Pons varolii and Medulla oblongata.

 CEREBELLUM
 Cerebellum is located below the

cerebrum above medulla oblongata
and behind the pons varolii.
 It has no convolutions, but has
numerous furrows.
 Outer cortex forms grey matter and
inner medulla forms white matter.
 Helps to maintain body balance and posture.

 Controls and co-ordinates muscular activities of the body.
 An alcoholic person when drunk generally walks clumsily because
cerebellum is influenced by alcohol. Due to the effect of alcohol,
cerebellum is unable to co-ordinate muscular movements properly.
 MEDULLA OBLONGATA
 Medulla oblongata is located at the

base of the brain extensions of the
pons varolii.
 It controls the involuntary activities
of the internal organs breathing,
heartbeat, peristalsis etc.
 Damage to Medulla oblongata causes sudden death.

 PONS VAROLII
 Pons varolii is located in the centre of the brain below the cerebellum.
 It carries impulses between the two cerebellar hemisphere and co-
ordinate muscular movements on both sides.
 Carries impulses from medulla oblongata to forebrain.
 Thalamus / Hypothalamus lies between the cerebrum and midbrain.
 STRUCTURE OF THE BRAIN
 SPINAL CORD
 Spinal cord extends from the medulla to the lumbar region of the
vertebral column.
 Spinal cord is located within the neural canal of the vertebral column.
 Unlike the brain, the white matter surrounds the grey matter – the grey
matter containing the cell bodies of motor neuron and association
neuron is inside and the white matter containing axons running
longitudinally to and from the brain and even crossing from one side to
the other is outside.
 The grey matter forms an H shaped area. In the centre is a small central
canal along the entire length and contains cerebrospinal fluid.
 Meninges continue over the spinal cord from the brain and protect the
spinal cord from the mechanical shocks and jerks.
 Hollow cavity at the centre of the spinal cord which is filled with
cerebrospinal fluid is called central canal.
 Function
Conduct sensory impulses from the skin and muscles to the
brain.
Conduct motor responses from the brain to muscles of the
trunk and limbs.
Controls reflexes (involuntary) below the neck.
 Spinal nerve originates from the spinal cord by means of two roots—a
dorsal root & a ventral root.
 Every spinal nerve is mixed nerve having both sensory and motor nerve
fibre (axon).
 The sensory nerve fibres take up the dorsal root.
 The motor nerve fibre takes up the ventral root.
 In the grey matter, the dorsal and ventral roots enter and relay/inter
neuron connects the sensory nerve and motor nerve.
 The dorsal root has dorsal root ganglion which contains the cell bodies
(cyton) of sensory neurons only.
 The grey matter of spinal cord contains the cell bodies of relay neurons
and motor neurons.
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)
 All the nerves which connect the various parts of the body with CNS.
Cranial nerves
Spinal nerves
CARNIAL NERVES SPINAL NERVES
Originating from Spinal cord

brain
12 pairs in number 31 pairs
Sensory, motor or Only mixed type

mixed types
AUTOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (ANS)
 Consists of a pair of chains of nerves and Ganglia on either side of the backbone.
 Consist of a group of nerves, working along with Medulla Oblongata - Nerves
connected with internal organ.
Sympathetic
Parasympathetic
SYMPATHETIC PARASYMPATHETIC
Stimulatory in function Inhibitory in function
Accelerates body activities Restore body activities
Nerves between neck and Nerves above neck and below
waist sacrum
 ANS carrying out the orders of Medulla oblongata and assisting in

controlling the involuntary activities of internal organs.
 Sympathetic nervous system (ANS) is stimulated by the hormone
Adrenalin secreted by adrenal gland.
 Sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for violent actions during
emergency by speeds up the activities of the internal organs.
 Parasympathetic nervous system helps in re establishing the normal
conditions by slow down the activities (giving a break).
 The balance between the Sympathetic nervous system and
Parasympathetic nervous system maintaining the normal involuntary
action of internal organs.
 ANS is strongly under the influence of emotions like anger, fear, grief etc
 The effect of the two parts of ANS on various organs.
SYMPATHETIC N S PARASYMPATHETIC N S
Heart Heart beat accelerates Retards

Blood vessel (except
Dilated Constricted
coronary)
Sphincter relaxed muscle Sphincter contract
Urinary bladder
contract muscled relaxed
Pupil of eye Dilation Constriction
Sal. glands Inhibits secretion Stimulate secretion
Lacrimal glands Stimulate secretion Inhibits secretion
Body (as a whole) Ready for action Relaxation
Intestine Decreased peristalsis Increased peristalsis
Lungs Dilates Constricts
ACTIONS
 Involuntary Actions
 Voluntary Actions
REFLEXES (Involuntary actions)
 An inborn, rapid, automatic response to a given stimulus without

involvement of brain.
 Two types
 Simple reflexes/Unconditioned/Natural
 Conditioned reflexes/Acquired
 Simple reflexes/Unconditioned/Natural
 Inborn reflex with no previous experience or learning
 Inherited from parents
 Protective and provide functional efficiency
 Simple reflexes involves two or three neurons only ie., Sensory
Neuron, Motor Neuron and Relay Neuron.
 The nervous pathway of simple reflex is Reflex arc.
 Reflex arc is the shortest route that can be taken by an impulse
from a receptor to an effector.
Examples:
Blinking, Coughing, Sneezing, Salivation (while chewing food),
Swallowing, Peristalsis, Knee-jerk, Withdrawal of hand when
suddenly pricked, Sudden closure of eyelids on exposed to strong
beam of light.
Reflex arc:
Stimulus  Receptor (sense organ)  Sensory neuron  Association
neuron (spinal cord)  Motor neuron  Effector  Response
 is a muscle or gland that produces a response or reaction to

Effector
motor nerve impulse.
 Response is a change or a reaction to a stimulus.
 Conditioned reflex/Acquired reflex
 Acquired during life time due to experience or learning.
 Conditioned reflexes are not inborn and are not inherited or

cannot be inherited.
Examples:
Salivation on sight of food(smell), stand up when teacher comes to
class, tie shoe lace without seeing, playing musical instrument,
applying breaks while driving, using key of a computer keyboard etc..
 All reflexes are involuntary, but all involuntary actions are not reflexes.
 Certain voluntary actions become involuntary by consciously repeating
them with specific stimuli and such actions are called conditioned
reflexes.
NATURAL REFLEXES ACQUIRED REFLEXES
Inborn Acquired during life time
Inheritable Cannot be inherited
Developed by experience or
No previous experience required
learning
Brought about by a
Directly related to stimulus condition totally different
from direct initial stimulus
Similar in all humans / Similar Differs in different
among all individuals of any one individuals – subject to
species. learning experience
Voluntary action Involuntary action

Initiated by willing thought Initiated by stimulus
Fulfill a desired goal Self protective
Commands originate in brain In spinal cord and ANS
Involves only muscles Involves muscles and gland
CHRIST SCHOOL
GRADE X SENSE ORGANS - EYE Key points
 Location – In front of the head, in the orbits or sockets in the skull.

 Function - Provide the sense of vision.
 Eye ball is connected to the orbits by muscles. Muscles help the eye ball to
move up and down and sides
 Accessory Structures – For protection.

Eyelid – Protect the eye from dust particles, excessive light, helps to
spread tears over eyeball.
Eyelashes – Protect the eye by preventing larger particles fall into the
eyes.
Eyebrows – Protect the eye from raindrops or sweat trickling into it.
Lacrimal glands (Tear glands)
Location – Upper, outer end of the eye ball beneath the eyelid.
Function – Produce tears.
 Functions of Tear
 Washes out dust particles (Clean the eye).
 Moistens and lubricates the eye.
 Contains enzyme lysozyme (antibacterial) which
protects the eye by destroying bacteria.
EYE KEYPOINTS PREPARED BY ANITHA JOSEPH; PAGE No. 1

STRUCTURE OF EYE
 3 Distinct layers
Outer – Fibrous sclerotic (sclera)
Middle – Vascular choroid
Inner – Nervous retina
 SCLERA
Completed layer of eye
Forms the white part
Thick, white, tough, fibrous, non elastic, opaque (expect the front …)
Functions
 Gives shape to the eye ball
 Protects the inner parts of the eye
Cornea – The part of Sclera which is transparent and slightly bulged
out in front of the eye.
Conjunctiva – The entire front part of the eye (only) is covered by a
thin transparent membrane which continues with the eyelids (not a
part of eyeball)
 Functions – Protect the eye in front part.

 CHOROID
Incomplete layer
Dark brown, highly supplied with blood vessels
Pigment melanin present
A part of it can be seen through transparent cornea. (iris)
Functions –
 Preventing reflection and scattering of light inside the eye by
absorbing them.
 Also nourishes the cells of retina
Iris
 A circular disc of choroid which can be seen through the
transparent cornea, with an opening at the centre.
 Eye colour refers to the colour of iris
 Functions – Helps to control the size of the pupil.
Pupil –
 The circular opening at the center of iris
 Function – Helps to regulate the amount of light enter into the eye
Iris has two sets to muscles which are antagonistic to each other in their
function - Radial muscle and Circular muscle.
Dim light Bright light
Radial muscle Contracts (R C) Relax (R R)
Circular muscle Relax( C R) Contract( C C)
Pupil Dilates Constricts

The adjustment of the size of pupil regulates the amount of light entering
the eye.
Difficulty in viewing objects while moving:
 From bright light – dim light -- Dark adaptation
 From dim light – bright light -- Light adaptation
Reasons of Dark adaptation. (From bright light – dim light)
 Regeneration of visual purple(rhodopsin)
 Dilation of pupil, allowing more light to enter the eyes.
Reasons of Light adaptation. (From dim light – bright light)
 Degeneration of visual purple(rhodopsin)
 Constriction of pupil, reduce the amount of light entering the eyes.
Ciliary body – The expanded portion of choroid at the junction of choroid

and iris, which is very thick.

Ciliary body has ciliary muscles, which on contraction and relaxation
change the shape of the lens.
Suspensory ligaments – Fibers arising from the ciliary body, holding the
eye lens in its position.
Eye lens – Transparent elastic biconvex crystalline body located just
behind the pupil, held by suspensory ligaments from both sides.
Power of accommodation – Ability of the eye to view objects at different

distances by changing the curvature of the eye lens.
Ciliary muscles, which on contraction and relaxation helps to change the
curvature of eye lens.
Focal length is changed by making the lens thinner or thicker.
Focal length – The distance at which something in focus/ The distance of
focus from optic centre of the lens.
Accommodation apparatus which includes Ciliary muscles, suspensory
ligaments, elasticity of eye lens

Distant Object Near Object
(Normal view) (Closer)
Ciliary muscles Relaxed Contract
Susp.ligaments Pulled tight Slacken or loosen

(Tension relaxed)
Eye lens Less convex More convex
(long, thin) (thick, short)
 RETINA
Incomplete layer
Most sensitive layer
Contains photosensitive receptor cells – Rods, Cones.
Function – Provide surface for image formation
Rods Cones
Rhodopsin(visual
Pigment Iodopsin
purple)
At the periphery of In the centre of the
Location
retina (mostly) retina (mostly)
Sensitive To dim light To bright light
Vision Black and white Colour
Types Only one type 3 types
Regeneration Rapid Slow
Yellow spot/ Forea centralis/ Macula lutea

 Lie almost at the centre on the horizontal axis of the eyeball.
 Contain maximum number of cone cells.
 Region of best/brightest vision of normal eye. (also colour vision)
We move our eyes from word to word as we read a line through a printed
page. This is because the best vision is possible on the yellow spot.

Blind spot
 Lateral to the yellow spot on the nasal side.
 Contain no sensory cells.
 The optic nerve leaves the eye ball at this point. (The nerve fibres
from all the photo sensitive cells of the retina converge and bundle
together to form optic nerve)
Chambers of the eye

 Anterior chamber – Aqueous chamber
 Posterior chamber – Vitreous chamber
Aqueous chamber Vitreous chamber

Anterior – small Posterior – large
Between cornea and lens Behind the lens

Filled with clear watery fluid – Filled with jelly like thick fluid –
aqueous humour vitreous humour
Functions
Keeps the lens moist Helps in maintaining the shape of eye
ball
Protects lens from physical shocks Protects retina and its nerve endings
Refracts light

 WORKING OF EYE
Object (light trays) Conjuctiva  Cornea  aqueous humour  Pupil 

Lens  Vitreous humour  Yellow spot of retina Optic nerve Occipital
lobe (cerebrum)
Structure of eye which converge the light rays

Cornea, Aqueous humour, Lens
Site of image formation
Yellow spot of retina
Image formed on the yellow spot
Real, inverted and small
Visual centre of brain
Occipital lobe of cerebrum
Stereoscopic vision / Binocular vision
Stereoscopic vision is a three dimensional effect of the image in which

man can perceive relative distance or depth of the object. This is due to
the simultaneous focusing of an object in both the eyes from different
angles. (The two images which are formed get overlapped in the brain
and give a 3D effect)
Advantages of having two eyes:

Gets 3D effect of the object can be perceived i.e., able to perceive
depth, height and relative distance of the object
 Donation of eye – cornea of eye
 Visual centres of cerebrum is affected by alcohol – Double vision

Common eye defects
(Diagrams – REFER TEXT BOOK)
Defect Cause Correction

1. Myopia (short Eyeball Concave lens
sightedness) lengthened from (Diverging lens)
(Diffculty to view front – back
far ojects) Lens is too curved
(short, thick)
Images of distant objects form in front of the retina
2. Hyeropia (long Shortening of Convex lens

sightedness) eyeball from front (Converging lens)
(difficulty to view – back
near objects) Lens becomes too
flat (thin, long)
Images from near objects falls behind the retina
3. Astigmatism Uneven curvature Cylindrical lens
(Some parts of the of cornea
objects are seen in (eyelens)
focus while others
are blurred)
4. Presbyopia (in old Lens loses it Convex lens
age) -- Diffculty in flexibility
viewing near
objects. (A kind of
long sightedness
5. Cataract (Partial or Lens turn opaque Surgical removal of eye
Total Blindness) lens and using
spectacles which is
highly convex lens
6. Night blindness Non formation of Supplement of Vit A

(difficulty in visual purple of food in diet
viewing dim light) the rod due to the
deficiency Vit A
in the diet
Vit A is essential for the production of rhodopsin pigment which are essential
for viewing objects in dim light

7. Colour blindness Due to the
(cannot presence of a
discriminate defective
between certain recessive allele on
colours such as the ‘X’ chrom
red and green)
8. Glaucoma – Sees Due to increased Drain excess fluid by
flashes of light intra occular operation and restore
and coloured rings pressure and normal intra occular
around the object hardening of eye pressure
ball

CHRIST SCHOOL
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM - Keypoints
 Endocrine glands are duct less gland which secrete hormones.

 Exocrine glands are ducted glands which produce various secretions like saliva,
tear tc.
 Purely endocrine glands are called Holocrine which produce hormones only.
 Partly endocrine and partly exocrine are called Heterocrine.
 Hormones – characteristics:
Chemical messengers
Secreted by endocrine glands directly into the blood (by endocrine
gland) and transported by it
Produced in small quantity
Specific in their function
Protein, peptide , steroid in nature
Secreted in response to specific stimuli
Acts on particular target organ
Helps to maintain Homeostasis
Hormonal control Nervous control

Work slowly Fast, Quick
Transmitted chemically Electrically, chemically
Conducted through blood Nerves
Target organ can be any body parts Specific muscles and glands
Short term or long term effect(mostly) Short term
Affect growth Does not affect growth
Cannot be modified Can be modified by learning experience
Regulate metabolism Cannot regulate metabolism
Can bring about specific chemical Does not influence chemical changes
changes
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM – Keypoints Prepared by Ms.Anitha Joseph pg. 1

ADRENAL GLAND
 Also called super gland as they are placed on the top of each kidney.
 Structure – Two small cream coloured cap like structure
 Location – On top of each kidney
 Adrenal gland consists of two parts:
Adrenal cortex
Adrenal medulla
 Hormones of adrenal cortex
Gluco corticoids
Mineralo corticoids
Sex corticoids
Gluco corticoids
Eg: Corticosterone
Functions
Regulates metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, proteins.
Control salt water balance of the body.
Mineralo corticoids
Eg: Aldosterone
Functions
Regulate mineral metabolism.
Control Na and K ratio in the body.
(Increase reaborsption of Na+ in the renal tubules)
Sex corticoids
Eg: Androgen
Functions
Stimulate the development of sexual characters in male and
female.

 Effect of hypo secretion of adrenal cortex hormones
Addison’s disease
Symptoms
Hypoglycemia (low blood sugar)
High concentration of K+
Pigmentation of skin
 Effect of hyper secretion of adrenal cortex hormones
Cushing’s syndrome
Symptoms
Hyperglycemia
Moonshaped face
Hypertension, obesity
THYROID GLAND
 Structure : Brownish red butterfly shaped, bilobed gland

 Location : Infront of the neck, below the larynx
 Hormones of Thyroid gland
Thyroxine
Calcitonin
 Functions (An Iron containing hormone)
Regulate the basal metabolic rate
Control oxidation of glucose and energy production in cells and
tissues
Helps to maintain the body temperature
(Helps to regulate the general growth and development of the body by controlling
the metabolic activities and oxidation process in cells and tissues)
 Hypo secretion of thyroxine
Cretinism (Infancy)
Myxoedema(Adulthood)
Simple goiter (Iron deficiency)

Cretinism
Due to thyroxine deficiency in infancy(improper functioning of
thyroid gland)
Symptoms
Stunt physical growth(short stature of miniature forms)
Mental retardation
Pot belly, pigeon chest
General weakness and low resistance
Myxoedema(Gull’s disease)
Due to throxine deficiency in adults
Symptoms
Swollen face and hands(oedema)
(Oedema is the thickness or swelling of skin due to the accumulation
of fluid in the subcutaneous tissue)
Physical and mental dullness
Sluggishness and laziness
Low body temperature and slow heart beat
Simple Goitre
Due to the lack of Iron in the diet leads to enlargement to thyroid
gland—Hypertrophy (Inorder to absorb more I2)
Symptoms
Enlargement of thyroid gland as a swelling in the neck region
Rectification
Addition of iodized salt in the diet
Simple goiter is commonly observed in people live in hilly areas and is seldom
observed in people live in coastal areas. Why?
In hilly areas most of iodine in soil is washed away by running water. So
water and food produced in this area are devoid of iodine – leading to goiter
(endemic disease)
In coastal region people depend largely of seafoods which are rich in iodine.
So seldom occur

 Hyper thyroidism – Exophthalmic goiter (Grave’s disease)
Due to hyperactivity of thyroid gland
Symptoms
Protruded eyes
Increased metabolic rate, increased heart beat, increased breathing
rate
Nervousness, irritability
Rectification
Surgical removal of a part of thyroid gland
PANCREAS -- Heterocrine gland (Partly endocrine, Partly exocrine)
 Structure
Flattened triangular shaped structure
 Location
Just below (posterior) to the stomach
attached to the duodenal loop in the
abdominal cavity.
 Endocrine part
Islet of langerhans—produces hormones.
 Exocrine part
Accini—produce digestive juice.
 Hormones of Pancreas
α cells(Alpha) –Glucagon
β cells(Beta)—Insulin
δ cells(Delta)—Somatostanin
INSULIN—Antidiabetic hormone
Helps to lower the blood glucose level:

by promoting body cells to increase glucose oxidation
by initiating the conversion of glucose—glycogen and store in liver
cells and muscle cells
GLUCAGON
Helps to raise the blood glucose level
by stimulating the breaking down of glycogen to glucose
Insulin and Glucagon – helps to maintain the blood glucose level
 Hypo secretion of Insulin – DIABETES MELLITUS
Symptoms
Hyperglycemia (high conc.of blood glucose)
Urine is loaded with glucose
Loss of weight and weakness(Fatigueness)
Thirst
Frequent urge of urination
Failure of conversion of glucose – glycogen
Body cells cannot utilize glucose though the glucose level in the blood is
very high because hypo secretion of insulin retards glucose oxidation in
tissues and conversion glucose to glycogen. So glucose gets
concentrated in blood (Hyperglycemia) and goes waste along with urine.
Remedy
Cut down carbohydrate rich food in the diet
Regular injection of insulin
Overdose of insulin to a diabetic patient leads to insulin shock
(Unconciousness) due to sudden fall of glucose than the required level.
A bite of candy/sweet biscuit or drinking sugar solution is advisable.
 Hypersecretion of insulin – State of unconsciousness/Coma
Symptoms
Hypoglycemia (drastic lowering)
Slip into a state of unconsciousness and into coma
Too less glucose in the blood fails to supply sufficient glucose to brain
cells for their energy production.
(Brain cells need continuous supply of oxygen and glucose)

PITUITARY GLAND—THE MASTER GLAND
 Secretions of pituitary gland control and regulate the secretions of other
endocrine gland
 Structure
Pea shaped
Small structure
 Location
Base of the brain attached to
hypothalamus
 Forms a link between Nervous
System and Endocrine System.
 Consists of three lobes:
Anterior lobe
Intermediate lobe
Posterior lobe
 Hormones of anterior lobe of Pituitary
1. Growth Hormone (Somato tropic hormone)
Stimulate the growth of bones and muscles (soft tissues of the
body)
Hypo secretion of Growth Hormone
Dwarfism—Under secretion in early age of life
Short stature of body (Body is fully developed but retains the size of a
child)
Hyper secretion of Growth Hormone
Gigantism—Over secretion in childhood
Abnormal height with long bones (Height is not proportionate to the
age group)
Acromegaly—Over secretion in adolescence or adulthood
Disproportionate growth of bones and body gets a giant structure
2. Thyroid stimulating Hormone TSH

Stimulate thyroid gland to secrete thyroxine

3. Adreno cortico tropic Hormone ACTH
Promotes and maintains the growth and development of adrenal
cortex and stimulate it to stimulate its hormones.
4. Follicle stimulating Hormone FSH
Stimulate the development of seminiferous tubule and helps in the
production of sperms.
Stimulate the development of ovarian follicle and help in the
production of ovum.
5. Luteinizing Hormone LH
Stimulate ovulation
Helps in the formation of corpus luteum
Stimulate corpus luteum to secrete progesteron
6. Interstitial cell stimulating Hormone ICSH
Stimulate the development of interstitial cells and its secretion i.e.,
testosterone
7. Luteotropic Hormone or Prolactin
Enlargement of breasts during pregnancy
Controls secretion of milk after delivery
FSH, LH, ICSH—Gonadotropic Hormones - Control gonads and their

secretion.
Except growth hormones all other Hormones by anterior pituitary are
Tropic Hormones - Hormones which control the secretion of other
endocrine glands
 Hormones of posterior pituitary
1. Antidiuretic Hormones or Vasopressin(Water retaining Hormone)
Promotes reabsorption of water by the kidney tubules(collecting ducts
of nephrons)
Helps the body to maintain water balance and controls the secretion of
urine.

Hyposecretion of ADH
Diabetes insipidus
Frequent copious urination(A great amount of water is lost as
urine)
No glucose is lost in the urine(dil.urine)
Severe dehydration (may lead to even death)
2. Oxytocin –(Birth Hormone)
Causes contraction of uterus during child birth
Ejection (secretion) of milk during lactation
FEED BACK MECHANISM
Hormones work on the principle of Feedback mechanism—Secretion of a
hormone is inhibited or stimulated by the end product of its activity.
If stimulated positive feed back
If inhibited negative feed back
EXAMPLE
↑Blood glucosestimulate βcellsinsulin↑glucose↓βcells inhibit production
–ve  insulin↓falling glucoseαcell stimulate +veglycogen↑
Feed back control mechanism enables to maintain homeostasis by

hormones. Their secretions are to be regulated in co-ordinated manner so
that the right hormome is secreted at the right time in the right quantity.
Adrenalin by Adrenal medulla(link between N.S & E.S) - (Epinephrin)
Adrenalin cts on organs supplied by sympathetic nerve fibre of autonomic
nervous system. It is produced when the body is in stress like anger, fear, grief
etc. It helps the body to face physical stress like muscular exertions, emotional
stress etc … So it is called emergency hormone.
The various effects of adrenalin on internal organs (increased heart beat,

increased blood supply to muscles, release more glucose to blood,
increased blood pressure, increased breathing rate etc…) allow the body
to operate with extra speed, awareness and efficiency.

CHRIST SCHOOL
REPRODUCTION - KEYPOINTS
1. REPRODUCTION is the process of producing young ones of its own kind by

an organism.
2. Significance of reproduction:
Helps in the continuity of species
Helps in the existence of life on earth
Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
Offspring produced from a single Offspring produced from two
parent parents, male and female
Gametes are not formed (no fusion Gametes are formed (fusion of
of gametes) gametes)
Offsprings will be exactly like the Offsprings show difference
parent
3. Puberty —The age at which the reproductive system begins to function.
Boys—between 13-17yrs
Girls—between 11-16yrs
4. Secondary sexual characters —The outwardly differentiation features
shown by males and females called secondary sexual characters
 Male
Growing hair on face (beard, moustache), armpits, chest, pubic
region etc…
Broadening of shoulders
Deepening of voice with the enlargement of larynx
Body become muscular
Penis, scrotum enlarges
 Female
Growing hair in armpit and pubic
Widening of hips (Pelvic region broadens)
Enlargement of breasts
Menstruation begins
Reproductive structure enlarges
REPRODUCTION Key points Prepared by Ms.Anitha Joseph 1

5. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS:
 The organs of the human reproductive system are divided into two:-
The primary reproductive parts (Include the gonads which
produce the gametes).
The accessory reproductive parts (all those structures which help
in the transfer and meeting of gametes leading to the fertilization
and growth and development of the zygote).
6. Male Reproductive System:
 The male reproductive system consists of:
A pair of Testes(p)
A duct system
Accessory glands
A penis
Urethra
 Testes (Testicles) — Primary sex organ.

Function
Produce sperms
Produce sex hormone testosterone
Location
Outside the abdomen in the scrotal sacs just behind the
penis(extra abdominal)
Why extra abdominal?
To keep the testes at a temperature 2-30C lower than the body temperature,
because the production and maturation of sperms is feasible at lower
temperature than normal body temperature.
 Testes are descended into scrotal sacs through inguinal canal just before
birth
Inguinal canal
Helps the testes to descend into scrotum just before birth
Passage of nerves, blood vessels, vas deferens etc…
 The process of formation of sperms from germ cells is called
spermatogenesis.

 Seminiferous tubules (sperm producing structure)
Location—Testis
Function—Produce sperm
 Leydigcells or Intestitial cells or Tunical albugenia —The packaging tissue
(connective tissue) present between coils of seminiferous tubules.
Location—Between the coils of seminiferous tubules in testis
Function—Produce testosterone
Pathway of sperm
Seminiferous tubules  Efferent ducts (vasa efferentia)  Epididymis Vas

deferens (vasa deferentia / sperm duct) Urethra
 Epididymis -- A tubular knot on the upper posterior of the testis.

Function—Storage and maturation of sperms.
 Vas deferens – Partially coiled tube ascended into abdomen through
inguinal canal from the testes.
Function—Carry sperms from testes to urethra.
Accessory glands (Male)
 Seminal vesicle
Location – Between the posterior surface of urinary bladder and
rectum
Function—Secrets alkaline fluid which acts as a medium for the
transportation of sperms

 Prostate gland
Location — Surrounds the urethra close to its origin from the
urinary bladder.
Function — Secretes an alkaline fluid which increases the mobility
and viability of Sperms.
 Cowpers gland
Location—opens into urethra just before it enters into the penis.
Function—Secrets a lubricating fluid and lubricates penis during
copulation.
Semen
An alkaline milky fluid which contains secretions of seminal vesicles, prostate
gland, cowpers gland and a large number of sperms.
 Penis
Function
Copulatory organ of male, serves as a passage for both semen
and urine.
Helps to transfer sperms into the female genitalia during
copulation
Location—In front of the testicles
Duct system
A pair of epididymis
A pair of vas deferns
A pair of ejaculatory ducts (from seminal vesicles)
Urethra
7. Female reproductive System
 The female reproductive system consists of :
A pair of Ovaries
A pair of oviducts
Uterus
Vagina and
Vulva

 Ovary
Location — On the lower part of abdominal cavity one on each side of
body attached to uterus.
Function
Produce ovum
Produce female sex hormone Oestrogen, Progesterone
 The process of production of ovum from
the germ cells is called Oogenesis
 The fluid filled cellular sac in which egg
cell (ovum) mature is called Graafion
follicle
 The process of releasing mature ovum
by the rupturing of graafion follicle is
called ovulation
 An yellow mass formed from the
remnant of graafion follicle after
ovulation is called corpus luteum
 Corpuslutem — produce progesterone
(progesterone — pregnancy supporting hormone)
Pathway of ovum
Ovary(graafianfollicle)  Fimbriae  Ostium  Oviduct  Uterus 

Vagina  Vulva

 Fallopian tube (oviduct)
Function - Site of fertilization
Movement of ovum — Peristaltic movement of the muscular wall of oviduct
By the lashing of cilia, located in the inner wall of oviduct.
 Uterus
Location - In the lower abdomen (pelvic cavity) between the urinary
bladder and rectum.
Function - Harbor, protect and nourish the growing embryo.
 The lower narrow neck region of uterus – cervix
 The internal mucus membrane lining of uterus – Endometrium
 Vagina
Receives semen (sperms) during copulation.
Acts as a passage for menstruation (uterine secretion).
Birth canal(passage for child birth).
 Vulva
External female genital organ.
Receives openings from vagina & urethra.
Has two folds skin on side (labia majora, labia minora).
Parts of female reproductive system homologue of male reproductive system

Testes — Ovaries
Vas deferens — Fallopian tube
Scrotum — Labia majora
Penis — Clitoris
Clitoris is a small rod like structure located in front of urethral opening.

 The onset of puberty in female is marked by menstruation
 Menstruation is the discharge of blood due to the rupturing of endometrium
along with unfertilized egg and ruptured tissue through the vagina
 Commencement of menstruation is called Menarche
 Stoppage of menstruation is called Menopause
 Reproduction life of female (around)32years
 Approximate no.of eggs reach maturity—416 eggs
 The recurrence of ovarian cycle about 28 days in the reproductive life of a
female is called menstrual cycle
I. Menstrual phase (3—5 days)

Uterus — Discharge of blood due to rupturing of endometrium.
Ovary — Degeneration of corpus luteum.
Formation of new ovum in the follicle.
II. Follicular phase(5—12days)
Uterus — Regeneration of uterine wall with thickening of blood
vessels.
Ovary—Maturation of ovum in the graafian follicle. oestregen FSH

III. Ovulatory phase (13th or 14th day)
At the midst of menstrual cycle oestregen, lutenizing H
Uterus—Thickening of endometrium with blood vessels
Ovary—Ovalution LH
IV. Luteal phase(15-28 days)
Uterus—Uterine wall keeps thickening
Ovary—Formation of corpus luteum LH
Hormones involved
FSH  Spermatogenesis (seminiferous tubule)
 Oogenesis (graafian follicle)
LH Ovulation
Maintenance of corpus luteum
Secretion of progesterone
CSH Secretion of testosterone
8. FERTILIZATION
 Process of fusion of nuclei of male and female gametes(sperm, ovum)
 Sperm (motile)
Acrosome
Location -- at the top of head of
human sperm
Function — Produce enzyme sperm
lysine (hyaluronidase) which
facilitate the entry of sperm into the
egg by dissolving the cell membrane
of egg
Nucleus – Haploid – 23 chrom. – 22
atuosome + X or Y
Middle piece
Mitochondria—provide energy for
the activity of sperm to swim
Tail
Helps in lashing movement for
propulsion

 A chemical barrier prevents the entry of more than one sperm nucleus
into the egg.
 Fertilization
Restore the chromosome number to diploid
Helps to fertilize the egg
 Fertilized egg—Zygote
 The repeated mitotic division of zygote — Cleavage
 The mass of cells (ball) formed by the cleavage of zygote — Blastocyst
 The process of attachment of blastocyst(fertilized egg) to the uterine wall
is Implantation (a week after the fertilization)
 Implantation produces the state of Pregnancy
 ZygoteMorulaBlastula (Blastocyst)
 The outer most layer of blastocyst—Trophoblast
 Trophoblast develops into two membranes.
Amnion (inner)
Chorion (outer)
 Extra embryonic membrane
Chorion, amnion, allantois, yolk sac
Chorion—helps in the formation of placenta
Amion—protective membrane cover
Allantois &yolksac—provide nourishment and stores waste
materials.

 Placenta
An intimate connection established between the mother and the
foetus by the interlocking of chorionic villi and uterine villi
Functions—Placenta acts as:
Nutritive organ—supply nutrients
Respiratory organ—exchange of respiratory gases
Excretory organ—removes waste material like urea
Endocrine gland—produce oestrogen, progesterone
Protective—prevent the passage of germs
Why Placenta?
The high blood pressure of mother’s blood may seriously damage the soft and
delicate tissues of the foetus, so direct blood supply, only through placenta.
 Placenta is permeable to nutrients, respiratory gases, antibodies, urea,
certain viruses like HIV
 The placenta is connected to the foetus by a cluster of blood vessels—
Umbilical cord.
 Umbilical cord – blood vessels—Umbilical artery, Umbilical vein
 Umbilical artery—Deoxygenated blood, urea from foetus to placenta
 Umbilical vein—Oxygenated blood, nutrients from placenta—foetus
 The blood of foetus and mother never mixes up.
 Exchange of matters take place at placenta by diffusion.

Amnion
Protects the embryo
Produce amniotic fluid
Function of amniotic fluid
Acts as a shock absorber and protect the embryo from
mechanical shock and jerks
Keeps an even pressure all around the embryo
Allows the foetus some restricted movements
Prevents the sticking of the foetus to the amnion
 Gestation—The full term of the development of an embryo in the uterus
 Gestation period 280 days
 Parturition—The expulsion of fully developed foetus from the uterus

through the vagina is parturition.
 Hormone—Oxytocin
 After birth—The placenta which comes out after parturition
If fertilization does not occur

Corpus luteum degenerate
Progesterone stops producing
Disintegration of the uterine wall(Degeneration)
Menstruation occurs
If fertilization occur
Corpus luteum persists
Progesterone continues to thicken
Uterine wall continue to thicken
Menstrual cycle stops temporarily
9. Twins
Identical (monozygotic)
Produced from one fertilized egg

Both are of same sex
Identical to each other

Fraternal (Dizygotic)
Produced from two different fertilized egg
Either a boy and a girl or both boys or both girls
Non identical
10. Important definitions:
Reproduction—The process of producing young ones of its own kind by an

organism
Puberty—The period during which the reproductive system begins to

function/The age at which the boy and girls attain sexual maturity
Spermatogenesis—The process of formation of spermatozoa (sperm) from

germ cells
Oogenesis—The process of formation of ovum from germ cells
Ovulation—The process of releasing mature ovum by the rupturing of graffian

follicle is ovulation
Menarche—Commencement of menstruation
Menopause—stoppage of menstruation
Fertilization—Process of fusion of the nuclei of male and female gametes
Implantation—The process of attachment of blastocyst(embryo) to the uterine

wall
Placenta—is an intimate connection established between the mother and the

foetus by uterine villi and chorionic villi
Gestation—The full term of the development of an embryo in the uterus
Parturition—The expulsion of fully developed foetus out of the uterus due to

powerful contraction
Contraception—Methods to prevent pregnancy
Vasectomy—Surgical method of contraception in male by cutting and ligating

sperm duet

Tubectomy—surgical method of contraception in female by cutting and
ligating fallopian tube
Demography—Statistical study of human population
Population density—The number of individuals per square kilometer at any

given time
Natality—The number of live births per 1000 people of population per year
Mortality—The number of deaths per 1000 people of population per year
Growth rate of population—The difference between the birth rate and death
rate
Differences:
 Sexual and asexual reproduction
 Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis
 Sperm duct and fallopian tube
 Sperm and ovum

Biology ICSE Keypoints

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Biology ICSE Keypoints

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CHRIST SCHOOL

Cell Division – Keypoints

8. A cell cycle consists of two phases.

 Longest and most complex phase.

Major Events – Early Prophase

 Condensation of chromatin fibres.

 Simple, Short, 2-10 min

Differences between mitosis in plant cell and animal cell.

Animal cell Plant cell

Cytokinesis By the appearance of furrow or By the formation of cell plate.

Spindle Formed as amphiastral – Formed Formed as anastral – Formed from

 Keeps the number of chromosomes constant in the daughter

10. Meiosis (Reduction division)

 Produces sex cells or gametes.

 Pairs of homologous chromosomes line up on the metaphase

 The point at which crossing over occurs where the homologous

13. Significance of Crossing Over:

1. Chromosomes are highly condensed chromatin materials that carry genes

9. Submetacentric - Slightly away from the centre, one arm is

CHROMOSOMES Key points; Prepared by Ms. Anitha Joseph Page Number: 1

11.Telocentric - At one end, Rod shaped arm, I shape.

12.Chemical constitution of chromosomes:

 Very large single molecule - Macromolecule.

14. Nucleotide -3 parts:

CHROMOSOMES Key points; Prepared by Ms. Anitha Joseph Page Number: 2

20.Gene is a specific sequence of nucleotides on a chromosome that encode a

CHROMOSOMES Key points; Prepared by Ms. Anitha Joseph Page Number: 3

 Stomatal transpiration is controlled by the plant, by adjusting the size of the

THEORIES OF OPENING AND CLOSING OF STOMATA:

 Sugar concentration theory (OLD)

MECHANISM OF STOMATAL TRANSPIRATION (diagram)

 Opening and closing mechanism of stomata (turgidity of guard cells) is regulated

MOVEMENT OF WATER THROUGH A LEAF DURING TRANSPIRATION: (diagram)

Cell wall by imbibitions (Most of the water)

ADJOINING MESOPHYLL CELLS

Turgor pressure due to turgidity

OUTER SURFACE OF MESOPHYLL CELLS

INTERCELLULAR SPACES & OTHER CONNECTING SPACES

ATMOSPHERE THROUGH OPEN STOMATA

 Light intensity - High

 Sunken stomata - Nerium

 Transpiration helps in absorption of water.

TRANSPIRATION IS A PRICE FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS:

Guttation cannot be controlled as transpiration:

PHOTOSYNTHESIS is a physiological process by which green plants prepare

 Sun is the main source.

 The vital plant pigment.

 Oval shaped cell organelle

 Flattened membranous sac like structure in the stroma - THYLAKOID

OH- oxidized to O2 and H2O

NADP + 2H+ + e-  NADPH (Reduced Nicotinamide Adenine

NADPH is the reducing power used in light independent phase.

 Water is the major constituent of plant body.

 The various processes or phenomena which result in the absorption and

CO2, water Respiration Body tissues Lungs Exhaled air

Urea, uric acid Deamination Liver Kidney Urine

Excretory organs in Humans:

Excess water, Excess minerals &salts(As part of body’s

Liver Toxic substances

 Primary excretory organ.

Kidney – Internal structure

 The apex of the pyramids – PAPILLA

 Located in the pelvic region (Lower

 The opening of the urinary bladder