Physics The diagram below represents the

Electricity and Magnetism situation when a piece of metal is charged

by induction.
HEAT AND MAGNETISM
Static Electric Charge
• All matter is made of atoms.
• All atoms contain particles which
possess electric charge. The situation is different when an
protons possess positive charge insulator is charged by
electrons possess negative charge induction, as shown by the following
• The unit of measurement of electric diagram.
charge is the Coulomb.
• If a body has equal quantities of
positive and negative charges, it is
said to be electrically neutral.
• If a material allows electrons to
move through it easily, it is a Electric charges which remain still
conductor. All metals are are called static charges.The only charges
conductors because they have which can move freely through metals are
free electrons (that is, electrons negative charges carried by electrons.
which are not bound to a particular A flow of electric charges is called
atom). an electric current
• A material through which electrons
cannot easily flow is an insulator. If the medium is a vacuum the
constant is written eo. The units of e
are N-1C2m-2, (this is usually written as
Forces between charges Farads per metre,
• similar charges repel Fm-1).
• opposite charges attract
• Also, a positively or negatively Electric Field Strength (E)
charged object will weakly attract The electric field strength at a
an object which is neutral. This point is the force acting on a unit
occurs because the charged object positive charge placed at that point.
has the effect of "rearranging" the
charges inside the originally ELECTROSTATICS
neutral object.
• When two different insulators are Electrostatics: the area of physics
rubbed together, electrons can be that deals
transferred from one insulator to with objects that have an
the other. The body which has electric
gained electrons has a negative charge
charge and the one which lost Electric charge: a property of matter
electrons has a positive charge of that is responsible for all
equal magnitude. electric and magnetic
• This process is called charging by forces and
friction. interactions.
Static electricity: a build-up of
A body can also be charged by stationary electric charge
simply placing it near a charged body. on a substance.
This process is called charging by
induction. This is the process of Principal Concepts in the Bohr-Rutherford
"rearranging" the charges mentioned model of the atom
above.
 1. Matter is composed of sub-
microscopic particles called atoms.
2. Electric charges are carried by
particles within the atom that are
called electrons and protons.
3. Protons are found in a small
central region of the atom called
the nucleus. They are small,
heavy particles, and each one
carries a positive electric charge of
a specific magnitude, called the
elementary charge (e).
4. Electrons move around the
nucleus. They are small, very light
particles (≈ 1/2000 the mass of a
proton) yet each carries a negative
electric charge equal to the
magnitude to that of the proton.
5. 5. Atoms are normally electrically
neutral, because the number of
(positive) protons is equal to the
number of (negative) electrons.
6. 6. Neutrons are small, heavy
particles (slightly heavier than the
protons) found in the nucleus. They
carry no electric charge.
7. 7. If an atom gains an extra
electron, it is no longer neutral but
has an excess of electrons and a
net negative charge. Such an atom
is called a negative ion.
8. 8. If an atom loses an electron, it
will have a deficit of electrons and
a net positive charge. Such an
e\atom is called a positive ion.
Particle Mass
Electric Charge
Proton 1.673 x 10-27 kg Positive
Electron 9.11 x 10-31 kg
Negative
Neutron 1.675 x 10-27 kg No net charge
The magnitude of the charge on
the proton exactly equals the magnitude
of the charge on the electron; the proton
carries a charge +e, and the electron
carries a charge of –e. In SI units the
electric charge is:
e = 1.60 x 10-19 Coulomb
The charge on an electron or
proton is the smallest amount of free
charge. Charges of larger magnitude are
built up on an object by adding or
removing electrons. Thus, any charge of
magnitude q is an integer multiple of e,
i.e.,
q = Ne, where N is an
integer.
Example.
How many electrons are there in one
coulomb of negative charge? [514p]
REASONING: The negative charge is due
to the presence of excess electrons, since
they carry negative charge. Because an
electron has a charge whose magnitude is
e = 1.60 x 10-19 C the number of electrons
is equal to the charge q divided by the
charge e on each electron.
Solution: The number N of electrons is
N = q/e = 1.00 C/1.60 x 10-19 C = 6.25
x 1018
Coulomb’s Law
The figure shows two charged
bodies. These objects are so small,
compared to the distance r between them,
that they can be regarded as
mathematical
points.
The “point charges” have
magnitudesI q1 I and I q2 I. If the charges
have unlike signs, each object is attracted
to the other by a force that is directed
along the line between them; +F is the
electric force exerted on object 1 by object
2 and –F is the electric force exerted on
object 2 on object 1.
If the charges have the same sign,
each object is repelled from each other.
Whether attractive or repulsive, the two
forces are equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction. These forces always
exist as a pair, each one acting on a
different object, in accord with Newton’s
action-reaction law.
F = k _Iq1I Iq2I_
r2
where k is a proportionality constant
whose value in SI is k = 8.99 x 109 N-
m2 /C2
It is common practice to express k in
terms of another constant є0 , by writing k
= 1/4‫תּ‬є0
Є0 is called the permittivity of free
space and has a value of Є0 = 1/4‫תּ‬k =
8.85 x 10-12 C2 /N-m2
Example:
Two objects, whose charges are +1.0 C
and -1.0 C, are separated by 1.0 km.
Compared to 1.0 km, the sizes of the
objects are small. Find the magnitude of
the attractive force that the other charge
exerts on the other.
REASONING: Considering that the sizes of
the objects are small compared to the
separation distance, we can treat the
charges as point charges. Coulomb’s Law
may then be used to find the magnitude of
the attractive force, provided that only the
magnitudes of the charges are used for
the symbols Iq1I and Iq2I that appear in the
law.
Solution: The magnitude of the force
is
F = k (q1 q2) /r2
= (8.99 x 109 N-m2/C2)( 1.0 C)
(1.0C)/ (1000m)2
= 9.0 x 103 N
Example
In the Bohr model of the atom the
electron (-e) is in orbit around the nuclear
proton (+e) at a radius of
r = 5.29 x 10-11
m, as shown in the drawing. Determine
the speed of the electron, assuming the
orbit to be circular.
Insert: Any object moving with
speed v on a circular path of radius r has
a centripetal acceleration of ac = v2/r.
This acceleration is directed toward the
center of the circle. Newton’s second law
specifies that the net force ΣF needed to
create this acceleration is ΣF = mac =
mv2/r, where m is the mass of the object.
Solving for speed, v = (ΣFxr/m)1/2 .
Reasoning: Since the mass of the
electron is m = 9.11 x 10-31 kg and the
radius is given, we can calculate the
speed, once ΣF is known. For hydrogen
atom, the net force is provided exclusively
by the electrostatic force, as given by
Coulomb’s law. This force is toward the
center of the circle, since the electron and
the proton have opposite signs. The
electron is also pulled toward the proton
by gravitational force. However, the
gravitational force is negligible in
comparison
to the electrostatic force.
Solution: The electron experiences an
electrostatic force of attraction because of
the proton, and the magnitude of this
force is
F = k x (q1q2 )/r2 = _(8.99 x 109 N-m2
/C2)(1.60 x 10-19 C)(1.60 x 10-19 C)_
(5.29 x 10-11 m)2
= 8.22 x 10-8 N
v = (rΣF/m)1/2 = _(8.22 x 10-8 N)
(5.29 x 10-11 m)2 _
9.11 x 10-31
kg
= 2.18 x 106 m/s
This orbital speed is almost five million
miles per hour!
Inductance and AC Circuits
AC inductor circuits
 Whereas resistors simply oppose
the flow of electrons through them
(by dropping a voltage directly
proportional to the current),
inductors oppose changes in
current through them, by dropping
a voltage directly proportional to
the rate of change of current.
 In accordance with Lenz's Law,
this induced voltage is always of
such a polarity as to try to maintain
current at its present value. That is,
if current is increasing in
magnitude, the induced voltage
will “push against” the electron
flow; if current is decreasing, the
polarity will reverse and “push
with” the electron flow to oppose
the decrease. This opposition to
current change is called
reactance, rather than
resistance.
 Expressed mathematically, the
relationship between the voltage
dropped across the Inductor and
rate of current change through the
inductor is as such:

di/dt is from calculus, meaning the

rate of change of instantaneous
current (i) over time, In amps per
second. The inductance (L) is in
Henrys, and the instantaneous
voltage (e), of course, is in volts.

Sometimes the rate of

instantaneous voltage is expressed
as “v” instead of “e” (v = L di/dt),
but it means the exact same thing.
To show what happens with
alternating current, let's analyze a
simple inductor circuit: (Figure
below)

Pure inductive circuit: Inductor

current lags inductor voltage
by 90o.