Global warming and its effects on ocean environment

Introduction

Global warming is for real. Every scientist knows that now, and we are on our way to the
destruction of every species on earth, if we don't pay attention and reverse our course.

Theodore C. Sorensen

Global warming has been a topic of great concern in the scientific community, with its
detrimental effects already being brought to limelight by the recurring events of massive
floods, annihilating droughts and ravaging cyclones throughout the globe. The average
global temperatures are higher than they have ever been during the past millennium,
and the levels of CO2 in the atmosphere have crossed all previous records.

The recent catastrophic climatic events like the massive floods in Pakistan and India,
the Hurricane Katrina in the United States, the prolonged droughts in Australia, China,
Pakistan, India and Texas, are all the results of increased temperatures due to global
warming. During the 21st century, climatic disasters occurred five times as frequently
and killed or affected seventy times as many people. Between 2000 and 2004, an
average of 26 climatic disasters was reported each year. Thus, the immense geological
changes will continue their destruction unabated if steps to mitigate global warming are
not taken.

Global warming is the increase in the Earths temperature caused by increased

emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. The greenhouse gases, including
CO2, form a blanket in the Earths atmosphere that traps heat and causes global
temperatures to increase. This theory of global warming was first offered by a Swedish
chemist named Svante Arrhenius in 1896. Arrhenius estimated that doubling the level
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere would raise the mean global temperature by
several degrees. The theory of Arrhenius has manifested into the form of varied
climatic change happening across the globe.

Change for real

The Earth's climate has changed throughout history. The evidence of rapid climate
change are gripping

Sea level rise

Global sea level rose about 17 centimeters (6.7 inches) in the last century. The rate in
the last decade, however, is nearly double that of the last century

Global temperature rise

All major global surface temperature reconstructions show that Earth has warmed since
1880. Most of this warming has occurred since the 1970s, with the 20 warmest years
having occurred since 1981 and with all 10 of the warmest years occurring in the past
12 years.

Warming oceans
The oceans have absorbed much of this increased heat, with the top 700 meters (about
2,300 feet) of ocean showing warming of 0.302 degrees Fahrenheit since 1969.

Shrinking ice sheets

The Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets have decreased in mass. Data from NASA's
Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment show Greenland lost 150 to 250 cubic
kilometers (36 to 60 cubic miles) of ice per year between 2002 and 2006, while
Antarctica lost about 152 cubic kilometers (36 cubic miles) of ice between 2002 and
2005

Declining Arctic sea ice

Both the extent and thickness of Arctic sea ice has declined rapidly over the last several
decades.

Glacial retreat
Glaciers are retreating almost everywhere around the world including in the Alps,
Himalayas, Andes, Rockies, Alaska and Africa. Mountain glaciers and snow cover had
decreased in both the northern and southern hemispheres. This widespread decrease in glaciers
and ice caps has contributed to observed sea level rise

Extreme events
The number of record high temperature events in different parts of the world with
simultaneous increase in numbers of intense rainfall events.

Ocean acidification
Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the acidity of surface ocean waters has
increased by about 30 percent. This increase is the result of humans emitting more
carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and hence more being absorbed into the oceans.
The amount of carbon dioxide absorbed by the upper layer of the oceans is increasing
by about 2 billion tons per year

Decreased snow cover

Satellite observations reveal that the amount of spring snow cover in the Northern
Hemisphere has decreased over the past five decades and that the snow is melting
earlier then they use to as compared to the last decade.

Reasons for the same

Most climate scientists agree the main cause of the current global warming trend is
human expansion of the "greenhouse effect"

Certain gases in the atmosphere block heat from escaping. Long-lived gases that
remain semi-permanently in the atmosphere and do not respond physically or
chemically to changes in temperature are described as "forcing" climate change. Gases,
such as water vapor, which respond physically or chemically to changes in temperature
are seen as "feedbacks."

Water vapor. The most abundant greenhouse gas, but importantly, it acts as a
feedback to the climate. Water vapor increases as the Earth's atmosphere
warms, but so does the possibility of clouds and precipitation, making these
some of the most important feedback mechanisms to the greenhouse effect.

Carbon dioxide (CO2). A minor but very important component of the atmosphere,
carbon dioxide is released through natural processes such as respiration and
volcano eruptions and through human activities such as deforestation, land use
changes, and burning fossil fuels. Humans have increased atmospheric
CO2 concentration by a third since the Industrial Revolution began. This is the
most important long-lived "forcing" of climate change.

Methane. A hydrocarbon gas produced both through natural sources and human
activities, including the decomposition of wastes in landfills, agriculture, and
especially rice cultivation, as well as ruminant digestion and manure
management associated with domestic livestock. On a molecule-for-molecule
basis, methane is a far more active greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide, but
also one which is much less abundant in the atmosphere.

Nitrous oxide. A powerful greenhouse gas produced by soil cultivation practices,

especially the use of commercial and organic fertilizers, fossil fuel combustion,
nitric acid production, and biomass burning.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Synthetic compounds entirely of industrial origin

used in a number of applications, but now largely regulated in production and
release to the atmosphere by international agreement for their ability to
contribute to destruction of the ozone layer. They are also greenhouse gases.
On Earth, human activities are changing the natural greenhouse. Over the last century
the burning of fossil fuels like coal and oil has increased the concentration of
atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). This happens because the coal or oil burning
process combines carbon with oxygen in the air to make CO 2. To a lesser extent, the
clearing of land for agriculture, industry, and other human activities have increased
concentrations of greenhouse gases.

The consequences of changing the natural atmospheric greenhouse are difficult to

predict, but certain effects seem likely:

On average, Earth will become warmer. Some regions may welcome warmer
temperatures, but others may not.

Warmer conditions will probably lead to more evaporation and precipitation

overall, but individual regions will vary, some becoming wetter and others dryer.

A stronger greenhouse effect will warm the oceans and partially melt glaciers and
other ice, increasing sea level. Ocean water also will expand if it warms,
contributing further to sea level rise.

Meanwhile, some crops and other plants may respond favorably to increased
atmospheric CO2, growing more vigorously and using water more efficiently. At
the same time, higher temperatures and shifting climate patterns may change the
areas where crops grow best and affect the makeup of natural plant
communities.

The role of human activity

In its Fourth Assessment Report, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, a

group of 1,300 independent scientific experts from countries all over the world under the
auspices of the United Nations, concluded there's a more than 90 percent probability
that human activities over the past 250 years have warmed our planet.

The industrial activities have raised atmospheric carbon dioxide levels from 280 parts
per million to 400 parts per million in the last 150 years. The panel also concluded
there's a better than 90 percent probability that human-produced greenhouse gases
such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide have caused much of the observed
increase in Earth's temperatures over the past 50 years.

Solar irradiance
It's reasonable to assume that changes in the sun's energy output would cause the
climate to change, since the sun is the fundamental source of energy that drives our
climate system.

Indeed, studies show that solar variability has played a role in past climate changes. For
example, a decrease in solar activity is thought to have triggered the Little Ice Age
between approximately 1650 and 1850, when Greenland was largely cut off by ice from
1410 to the 1720s and glaciers advanced in the Alps.

But several lines of evidence show that current global warming cannot be explained by
changes in energy from the sun:

Since 1750, the average amount of energy coming from the sun either remained
constant or increased slightly.

If the warming were caused by a more active sun, then scientists would expect to
see warmer temperatures in all layers of the atmosphere. Instead, they have
observed a cooling in the upper atmosphere, and a warming at the surface and in
the lower parts of the atmosphere. That's because greenhouse gasses are
trapping heat in the lower atmosphere.

Climate models that include solar irradiance changes cant reproduce the
observed temperature trend over the past century or more without including a
rise in greenhouse gases.

OR

Effects on weather: Increasing temperature is likely to lead to increasing precipitation but the
effects on storms are less clear. Extratropical storms partly depend on the temperature gradient,
which is predicted to weaken in the northern hemisphere as the polar region warms more than the
rest of the hemisphere. Regional effects of global warming vary in nature. Some are the result of
a generalised global change, such as rising temperature, resulting in local effects, such as melting
ice. In other cases, a change may be related to a change in a particular ocean current or weather
system. In such cases, the regional effect may be disproportionate and will not necessarily follow
the global trend. There are three major ways in which global warming will make changes to
regional climate: melting or forming ice, changing the hydrological cycle (of evaporation) and
changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the atmosphere. The coast can also be
considered a region, and will suffer severe impacts from sea level rise. Glacier retreat and
disappearance: Mountain glaciers and snow cover had decreased in both the northern and
southern hemispheres. This widespread decrease in glaciers and ice caps has contributed to
observed sea level rise. Predictions relating to future changes in glaciers. x Mountainous areas in
Europe will face glacier retreat x In Latin America, changes in precipitation patterns and the
disappearance of glaciers will significantly affect water availability for human consumption,
agriculture, and energy production x In Polar regions, there will be reductions in glacier extent
and the thickness of glaciers. Oceans: The role of the oceans in global warming is a complex one.
The oceans serve as a sink for carbon dioxide, taking up much that would otherwise remain in
the atmosphere, but increased levels of CO2 have led to ocean acidification. Furthermore, as the
temperature of the oceans increases, they become less able to absorb excess CO2. Global
warming is projected to have a number of effects on the oceans. Ongoing effects include rising
sea levels due to thermal expansion and melting of glaciers and ice sheets, and warming of the
ocean surface, leading to increased temperature stratification. Other possible effects include
large-scale changes in ocean circulation. Health: Human beings are exposed to climate change
through changing weather patterns (temperature, precipitation, sea-level rise and more frequent
extreme events) and indirectly through changes in water, air and food quality and changes in
ecosystems, agriculture, industry and settlements and the economy. The effects of climate change
to date have been small, but are projected to progressively increase in all countries and regions. It
is concluded that climate change had altered the seasonal distribution of some allergenic pollen
species. With medium confidence, they concluded that climate change had altered the
distribution of some infectious disease vectors and increased heat waverelated deaths.

Ocean environment

Earth is often referred to as the Water Planet. It is the only planet in our solar
system known to have living oceans that are home to marine life.
Ocean environment encompasses marine habitat.

Marine species affected by climate change include plankton - which forms the basis of
marine food chains - corals, fish, polar bears, walruses, seals, sea lions, penguins, and
seabirds.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change predicts a further rise of between

1.4C and 5.8C by the end of the century. Climate change could therefore well be the
knock-out punch for many species which are already under stress from overfishing and
habitat loss.

The marine environment is already registering the impacts of climate change. The
current increase in global temperature of 0.7C since pre-industrial times is
disrupting life in the oceans, from the tropics to the poles.

The key impacts of climate change on the marine environment are...

Coral bleaching
One of the most visually dramatic effects of climate change is coral bleaching, a stress
response caused by high water temperatures that can lead to coral death.

Recent years have seen widespread and severe coral bleaching episodes around the
world, with coral mortality reaching 70% in some regions.

More on coral bleaching

Stormy weather

Most scientists believe that global warming will herald a new era of extreme and
unpredictable weather.

Tropical storms and heavier rainfall may increase and so too would the consequent
physical damage to coral reefs, other coastal ecosystems, and coastal communities.
Hurricanes Hugo and Marilyn hit the US Virgin Islands National Park in 1989 and 1995,
respectively, and did massive damage to coral ecosystems.

More on extreme weather

Moving homes?

As the oceans warm, the location of the ideal water temperature may shift for many
species.

A study has shown that fish in the North Sea have moved further north or into deeper
water in response to rising sea temperatures. Other species may lose their homes for
other reasons. The distribution of penguin species in the Antarctic Peninsula region, for
example, is changing with reductions in sea ice due to global warming.

Changes to marine ecosystems from rising global temperatures will have an impact on
walrus and other marine mammals.

Altered lifestyles

Rising temperatures can directly affect the metabolism, life cycle, and behaviour of
marine species.
For many species, temperature serves as a cue for reproduction. Clearly, changes in
sea temperature could affect their successful breeding.

The number of male and female offspring is determined by temperature for marine
turtles, as well as some fish and copepods (tiny shrimp-like animals on which many
other marine animals feed). Changing climate could therefore skew sex ratios and
threaten population survival.

Rising sea levels

Global sea levels may rise by as much as 69cm during the next 100 years due to
melting of glaciers and polar ice, and thermal expansion of warmer water.

Rising water levels will have serious impacts on marine ecosystems. The amount of
light reaching offshore plants and algae dependent on photosynthesis could be
reduced, while coastal habitats are already being flooded.

Rapid sea level rise will likely be the greatest climate change challenge
to mangrove ecosystems, which require stable sea levels for long-term survival.

More on rising sea levels

SUNDARBANS

Decreased Mixing

Vertical mixing in the ocean is important for many reasons, including transporting
nutrients from deep to shallow waters, and surface water rich in oxygen into deeper
waters. In some areas, changes to ocean temperature profiles induced by climate
change are causing a reduction in the amount of mixing, and for example, reducing
oxygen levels at depth.

Acidic oceans

After absorbing a large proportion of the carbon dioxide released by human activities,
the oceans are becoming acidic. If it werent for the oceans, the level of carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere would be much higher.

The effect could be that fish, squid, and other gilled marine animals may find it harder to
"breathe", as the dissolved oxygen essential for their life becomes difficult to extract as
water becomes more acidic. And shellfish, crabs, lobsters, and corals may find it more
difficult to build their calcium carbonate shells. In some areas, calcium carbonate shells
may even start to dissolve

Climate change is affecting ocean temperatures, the supply of nutrients, ocean

chemistry, food chains, wind systems, ocean currents and extreme events such as
cyclones. All of these, in turn, affect the distribution, abundance, breeding cycles and
migrations of marine plants and animals that millions of people rely on for food and
income.

Evidence is emerging that marine organisms may be responding faster toclimate

change than land-based plants and animals. As the climate warms, marine plants and
animals are shifting towards the poles changing marine food webs and impacting the
plants, and animals (including people) that depend on them. The slower ocean
dynamics also means that some changes, such as ocean acidification, will be
irreversible this century.

The key impacts of climate change on our marine environment include:

Coral bleaching: Coral bleaching is the whitening of corals, due to stress-induced

expulsion or death of their symbiotic protozoa, zooxanthellae, or the loss of
pigmentation within the protozoa.

Once bleaching begins, it tends to continue even without continuing stress. If the coral
colony survives the stressful period, zooxanthellae often require weeks or months to
return to normal density. New residents may be of a different species and change the
make up of marine ecosystems dramatically. Often biological diversity is reduced
making the reef even less resilient to future environmental change. Some species of
zooxanthellae and corals are more resistant to stress than others.

Temperature change is the most common cause of coral bleaching. Large coral
colonies, such as porites, are able to withstand extreme temperature shocks. Other,
more fragile branching corals, such as table coral, are more susceptible to stress
following temperature change.

Increasing ocean acidification likely exacerbates the bleaching effects of thermal stress.
The Great Barrier Reef experienced bleaching in 1980, 1982, 1992, 1994, 1998, 2002
and 2006. While most areas recovered with relatively low levels of coral death, some
locations suffered severe damage, with up to 90% of corals killed. The most widespread
and intense events occurred in the summers of 1998 and 2002, affecting about 42%
and 54% of reefs, respectively. Under the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Changes
(IPCCs) moderate warming scenarios, corals on the Great Barrier Reef are very likely
to regularly experience summer temperatures high enough to induce bleaching.

Rising sea levels: Global sea levels may rise by more than 60 centimetres during the
next 100 years due to the melting of glaciers and polar ice, and thermal expansion of
warmer water. Rising water levels will have serious impacts on marine ecosystems. The
amount of light reaching offshore plants and algae dependent on photosynthesis could
be reduced, while coastal habitats are already being flooded.

Acidic oceans: After absorbing a large proportion of the carbon dioxide released by
human activities, our oceans are becoming acidic. In fact, the IPCC has reported that
the uptake of anthropogenic carbon since 1750 has led to the oceans becoming more
acidic. Increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations lead to further
acidification. Projections estimate a reduction in average global surface ocean pH of
between 0.14 and 0.35 units over the course of the 21st century.

While the effects of ocean acidification on the marine biosphere are not yet fully
documented, the progressive acidification of our oceans is expected to have negative
impacts on marine shell-forming organisms (e.g. corals) and their dependent species.
Fish, squid, and other gilled marine animals may also find it harder to breathe as
extracting the dissolved oxygen from acidic waters becomes more difficult.

Altered lifestyles and locations: Rising temperatures can directly affect the
metabolism, life cycle, and behaviour of marine species. For many species, temperature
is a cue for reproduction, so temperature changes could affect successful breeding.
Temperatures also determine the number of male and female offspring born to marine
turtles, as well as some fish and copepods (tiny, shrimp-like animals on which many
other marine animals feed).

Changing climate could, therefore, skew sex ratios and threaten population survival. As
the oceans warm, the location of the ideal water temperature may shift for many
species. A study has shown that fish in the North Sea have moved further north or into
deeper water in response to rising sea temperatures. Other species may lose their
homes for other reasons. The distribution of penguin species on the Antarctic
Peninsula, for example, is changing due to the reductions in sea ice caused by global
warming.

Stormy weather: Most scientists believe that global warming will herald a new era of
extreme and unpredictable weather. Tropical storms and heavier rainfall may increase,
causing physical damage to coral reefs, other coastal ecosystems, and coastal
communities. Hurricanes Hugo and Marilyn, which hit the US Virgin Islands National
Park in 1989 and 1995, respectively, did massive damage to coral ecosystems

Higher seas endanger coastal communitieswhere 40 percent of the world's

population livesand threaten groundwater supplies.

See how sea-level rise from global warming puts New York City at riskand find other hot spots threatened by
rising seas on the Climate Hot Map.

Two major mechanisms are causing sea level to rise. First, shrinking land ice, such as mountain glaciers and
polar ice sheets, is releasing water into the oceans. Second, as ocean temperatures rise, the warmer water
expands. Trapped within a basin bounded by the continents, the water has nowhere to go but up. In some parts
of the world, especially low-lying river deltas, local land is sinking (known as subsidence)making sea levels
that much higher. The consequences of sea level rise include:

Threats to coastal communities. Some 40 percent of the world's population lives within 62
miles (100 kilometers) of the ocean, putting millions of lives and billions of dollars' worth of property
and infrastructure at risk.

o High tides and storm surges riding on ever-higher seas are more dangerous to people and
coastal infrastructure.

o Natural protections against damaging storm surges are increasingly threatened. Barrier
islands, beaches, sand dunes, salt marshes, mangrove stands, and mud and sand flats
retreat inland as sea level rises, unless there are obstructions along the retreat path. If they
cannot move, these natural protections are washed over or drowned.

o Many shorelines have sea walls, jetties, and other artificial defenses to protect roads,
buildings, and other vital coastal resources. In these areas, sea-level rise increases erosion of
stranded beaches, wetlands, and engineered structures

Saltwater intrusion. Sea-level rise can mean that saltwater intrudes into groundwater drinking
supplies, contaminates irrigation supplies, or overruns agricultural fields. Low-lying, gently sloping
coastal areas are particularly vulnerable to contamination of freshwater supplies.
Sea Ice

Loss of sea ice accelerates warming, threatens animals and peoples living in the
Arctic and raises global security concerns.

See how diminishing sea ice amplifies warming in the Arcticand find other hot spots threatened by higher air
temperature on the Climate Hot Map.

Polar sea ice melts each summer and reforms each wintera freeze-thaw cycle that in the Arctic has been
dramatically altered by global warming. Not only is summer sea ice shrinking rapidly in the Arctic, but so is the
average thickness of sea ice. Where in the past, some Arctic sea ice grew to 10 feet (3 meters) thick over
multiple years, now much of the ice has only one year of growth, making it much more susceptible to melting in
the summer. Scientists project that the Arctic Ocean may be ice-free in summer in just a few decades. The
cascade of consequences include:

Accelerated warming from albedo. Lost sea ice exposes dark, open waters, dramatically
shifting the ocean surface from highly reflective to one that absorbs most of the sun's energy. This can
set off a vicious cycle: ice loss leads to further warming of the ocean surface, which can lead to more
ice loss. The loss of polar reflectivity (albedo) is one climate-related amplification that has scientists
losing sleep at night.

Accelerated warming due to higher Arctic temperatures. The loss and thinning of Arctic
sea ice raises regional temperatures, delaying the formation of sea ice in the fall, and transferring
more heat from the ocean to the air. If higher air temperatures speed the degradation of frozen ground
(permafrost) on adjacent lands, they could release vast stores of carbon often trapped in the
permafrost for thousands of yearsfurther amplifying climate change.

Severe threats to polar creatures. Polar creatures that depend on ice for all or parts of their life
cycle are highly threatened by a warming world. In the south polar region, some penguin colonies are
moving to new locations because their main food sourcekrill, small creatures near the bottom of the
marine food webis changing in response to shifting ocean temperatures. In the Arctic, polar bears
must swim greater distances in open water to find the sea-ice habitat that is home to their prey: seals,
which use breathing holes through the ice.

Threats to indigenous ways of life. These changes in animal habitat and abundance threaten
indigenous ways of life, some of which have flourished in the Arctic for thousands of years. Traditional
hunting methods, for example, are becoming more risky because of thin ice, and because the dates
when ice forms and thaws are less predictable.
 Shoreline erosion in Arctic. The loss of sea ice also exposes Arctic coastal areas to severe
erosion from wind and wavessometimes forcing entire communities to move further inland to avoid
collapsing shorelines.

Security concerns from new shipping routes. An ice-free Arctic Ocean might open up more
efficient global shipping routes, and provide easier access to oil and gas deposits. However, both
developments could bring security concerns, as Arctic countries vie for access to valuable resources or
feel compelled to protect these natural and commercial resources.

Loss of sea ice does not raise sea level (though loss of land ice does). Because sea ice forms from the sea
and floats on the sea, it behaves like ice cubes in a glass of watertheir melting does not cause the glass to
overflow.

Ocean Chemistry

The world's oceans are becoming more acidic, threatening sea life.

See how increased ocean acidification from global warming threatens the Carribean's coral reefsand find
other hot spots threatened by higher air temperature on the Climate Hot Map.

The acidification of the oceans due to climate change impairs the ability of coral reefs and shelled
organisms to form skeletons and shells.

Acidification occurs when the oceans absorb CO2 from the atmosphere. Here is how this works. The ocean
has dissolved inorganic carbon in three formsmost as bicarbonate, a little bit as carbonate and a very tiny
part as carbon dioxide, or CO2. As more CO2 from the atmosphere dissolves into the ocean, it changes the
relative proportion of these three, making the water more acidic. Specifically, it reduces the concentration of
carbonate ions in surface ocean water by 10 percent, compared with pre-industrial levels. This is significant
because coral reefs and shelled marine organisms need carbonate ions to form the lime or calcium carbonate
that composes their skeletons and shells.

Some research shows that if atmospheric concentrations of CO2 reach 520 parts per millionwe are at 382
ppm now, and 520 ppm is plausible by mid-centurymost of the coral species living in warm ocean waters
could scarcely support further growth such as species that have larvae that respond negatively to higher ocean
acidity.

Immediate
Mediate

Long term

OR

Solutions to Global Warming

There is no single solution to global warming, which is primarily a problem of too
much heat-trapping carbon dioxide (CO2), methane and nitrous oxide in the
atmosphere. (Learn more about the causes of global warming.) The technologies
and approaches outlined below are all needed to bring down the emissions of these
gases by at least 80 percent by mid-century.

Boosting energy efficiency: The energy used to power, heat, and cool our homes,
businesses, and industries is the single largest contributor to global warming. Energy efficiency
technologies allow us to use less energy to get the sameor higherlevel of production, service, and
comfort. This approach has vast potential to save both energy and money, and can be deployed
quickly.

Greening transportation: The transportation sector's emissions have increased at a faster rate
than any other energy-using sector over the past decade. A variety of solutions are at hand, including
improving efficiency (miles per gallon) in all modes of transport, switching to low-carbon fuels, and
reducing vehicle miles traveled through smart growth and more efficient mass transportation systems.

Revving up renewables: Renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, geothermal and
bioenergy are available around the world. Multiple studies have shown that renewable energy has the
technical potential to meet the vast majority of our energy needs. Renewable technologies can be
deployed quickly, are increasingly cost-effective, and create jobs while reducing pollution.

Phasing out fossil fuel electricity: Dramatically reducing our use of fossil fuelsespecially
carbon-intensive coalis essential to tackle climate change. There are many ways to begin this
process. Key action steps include: not building any new coal-burning power plants, initiating a phased
shutdown of coal plants starting with the oldest and dirtiest, and capturing and storing carbon
emissions from power plants. While it may sound like science fiction, the technology exists to store
carbon emissions underground. The technology has not been deployed on a large scale or proven to
be safe and permanent, but it has been demonstrated in other contexts such as oil and natural gas
 recovery. Demonstration projects to test the viability and costs of this technology for power plant
emissions are worth pursuing.

Managing forests and agriculture: Taken together, tropical deforestation and emissions from
agriculture represent nearly 30 percent of the world's heat-trapping emissions. We can fight global
warming by reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and by making our food
production practices more sustainable.

Exploring nuclear: Because nuclear power results in few global warming emissions, an increased
share of nuclear power in the energy mix could help reduce global warmingbut nuclear technology
poses serious threats to our security and, as the accident at the Fukushima Diaichi plant in Japan
illustrates to our health and the environment as well. The question remains: can the safety,
proliferation, waste disposal, and cost barriers of nuclear power be overcome?

Developing and deploying new low-carbon and zero-carbon technologies: Research

into and development of the next generation of low-carbon technologies will be critical to deep mid-
century reductions in global emissions. Current research on battery technology, new materials for solar
cells, harnessing energy from novel sources like bacteria and algae, and other innovative areas could
provide important breakthroughs.

Ensuring sustainable development: The countries of the worldfrom the most to the least
developedvary dramatically in their contributions to the problem of climate change and in their
responsibilities and capacities to confront it. A successful global compact on climate change must
include financial assistance from richer countries to poorer countries to help make the transition to low-
carbon development pathways and to help adapt to the impacts of climate change.

Adapting to changes already underway:, the impacts of a warming world are already being felt by
people around the globe. If climate change continues unchecked, these impacts are almost certain to get
worse. From sea level rise to heat waves, from extreme weather to disease outbreaks, each unique challenge
requires locally-suitable solutions to prepare for and respond to the impacts of global warming. Unfortunately,
those who will be hit hardest and first by the impacts of a changing climate are likely to be the poor and
vulnerable, especially those in the least developed countries. Developed countries must take a leadership role
in providing financial and technical help for adaptation.