Toates clearly believes that Skinner Schlinger, H. D., J.R. (2011).
SKINNER AS MISSIONARY AND
got it right in many respects and attempts to PROPHET: A REVIEW OF BURRHUS F. SKINNER: SHAPER show some of the areas in which he thinks a OF BEHAVIOUR. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 44(1), Skinnerian perspective may prove to be the 217-225. Retrieved from most useful, in particular, in ethical behavior https://search.proquest.com/docview/857738952?accountid=37714 and in working toward a sustainable environment. Toates also appreciates the utility of the concept of positive reinforcement in both explaining behavior and changing it. In fact, one of the goals of his book is to present evidence of the centrality of the principle of reinforcement, while at the same time arguing that reinforcement is only one process amongst others in determining behavior Toates then cites Carpenter (1974) in Schlinger, H. D., J.R. (2011). SKINNER AS MISSIONARY AND claiming that operant conditioning cannot PROPHET: A REVIEW OF BURRHUS F. SKINNER: SHAPER account for some types of learning, including OF BEHAVIOUR. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 44(1), incidental learning that occurs on a single 217-225. Retrieved from response, such as the learning of isolated https://search.proquest.com/docview/857738952?accountid=37714 facts or what someone said on a particular occasion, claiming that it is highly speculative or tautological that reinforcement could be powerfully and selectively operating in all such instances Toates points out that we are victims of Schlinger, H. D., J.R. (2011). SKINNER AS MISSIONARY AND individual and social traps in which the PROPHET: A REVIEW OF BURRHUS F. SKINNER: SHAPER shortterm OF BEHAVIOUR. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 44(1), benefits of behavior occur at the expense 217-225. Retrieved from of longer term disadvantages and notes, https://search.proquest.com/docview/857738952?accountid=37714 correctly, that it is more useful to explain such phenomena in terms of maladaptive reinforcement that emerges in groups rather than as collective responsibility or social evil because the former can be tried (p. 162). Toates assumes a Skinnerian perspective in solving these problems by stating that Research efforts need to focus on how to get a reversal of reinforcers, so that ecologically desirable actions are immediately reinforced at an individual level Behaviorism was the dominant theoretical Ang Teoryang Behaviorism ang dominanteng Horton, L. R. (2014). The effects of problem-based learning perspective in instructional technology teorya para sa teknolohiyang pang- scaffolds on cognitive load, problem-solving, and student for over 60 years (Burton, Moore, & instruksyon. Binigyang kahulugan ni John performance within a multimedia-enhanced learning environment Magliaro, 1996). In 1913, John Watson Watson ang behaviourism sa kanyang akdang (Doctoral dissertation). defined Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It, behaviorism in his work Psychology as the isang obhetibong sangay ng agham na Behaviorist Views It. According to nakatuon sa paghula ng mga tugon sa stimuli Watson, behaviorism is a purely objective sa kapaligiran. Inilarawan ni Watson hindi branch of science concerned with the nakatuon sa estadong pang utak ang prediction of responses to environmental behaviourism, sa halip itoy nakapokus sa stimuli (Watson, 1913). Behaviorism, as nakikitang relasyon ng stimuli at mga tugon. described by Watson, is unconcerned with Ang relasyon sa pagitan ng stimuli at tugon internal mental states, focusing instead on the ay nakabatay sa modelong conditioning ni observable relationships between stimuli and Pavlov at naniniwala si Watson na itoy subsequent responses (Boghossian, 2006; nagpapaliwanag ng pagkatuto at pag-unlad ng Burton, Moore, & Magliaro, 1996). This personalidad (Horton, 2014). relationship between stimulus and response was largely based on Pavlovs conditioning model and believed by Watson to account for learning and personality development (Burton et al., 1996; Schunk, 1991). Behaviorism considers how consequences to Sa behaviourism, nalalaman kung paanong Horton, L. R. (2014). The effects of problem-based learning a given response shape behaviour (Burton et ang mga resulta ng mga tugong ibibigay ay scaffolds on cognitive load, problem-solving, and student al., 1996) and features prominently in the makakapaghubok ng pag uugali. Sa performance within a multimedia-enhanced learning environment work of B.F. Skinner (Delprato & Midgley, pamamagitan ng ganitong perspective, ang (Doctoral dissertation). 1992; Schunk, 1991). Given this perspective, pagkatuto ng mga mag aaral ay nagaganap behaviorism views learning as sa pamamagitan ng mga reaksyon sa mga occurring through learners reactions to kondisyon nasa kapaligiran at nahuhubog sa conditions within the environment and pamamagitan ng pagpapatibay at pagtatama. shaped Ang mga nagpapatibay ay nagpapaganyak sa through reinforcement and correction (Ertmer mga mag aaral na magbigay ng tugon kapag & Newby, 1993; Winn, 1990). Reinforcers nakatagpo ng stimulus. Inilarawan ni Skinner enhance the likelihood that a learner will ang positibo at negatibong pampatibay. Ang provide a given response when encountering mga positibong pampatibay ay nagdaragdag a specific stimulus (Schunk, 1991). Skinner ng stimuli na magagamit sa paghubog ng pag describes both positive and negative forms of uugali habang ang mga negatibong reinforcement; positive reinforcements are pampatibay ay nagbabawas ng hindi kanais- additional stimuli that can be used to shape a nais na stimuli. Ang paggamit ng prosesong behavior, while negative reinforcers remove pagkondisyon ay nagreresulta ng sunod- undesirable stimuli. The use of conditioning sunod na pagtantya samantalang ang supports processes of successive pampatibay at pagpaparusa ay nagagamit sa approximation, wherein reinforcement and pagpapaunlad ng banayad na pagpapabuti ng punishment pag uugali ng mga mag aaral (Horton, are applied to promote a gradual refinement 2014). in the learners behaviors. Behaviorists believed that only observable, Naniniwala ang mga behaviourists na tanging measurable, outward behavior is worthy of ang nakikita, nasusukat at panlabas na pag scientific inquiry (Bush, 2006, p. 14). uugali ang karapatdapat ng pang-agham na Hence, their focus was on learning as pagtatanong. Kaya, ang kanilang pokus ay sa affected by changes pagkatuto na apektado ang pagbabago ng in behavior. They concluded that given the ugali. Pinalagay nila na ang mabuting right environmental influences, all learners impluwensya mula sa kapaligiran ng mga acquire mag aaral ay magreresulta ng pagtamo ng identical understanding and that all students magkakatulad na pagkatuto at ang lahat ng can learn. mga mag aaral ay matututo (Horton, 2014). Current behaviorists believe that students Naniniwala ang mga kasulukuyang learn by memorizing chunks of information behaviourist na ang mga mag aaral ay before higher-level, problem-based learning natututo sa pagsasaulo ng tipak na can take place (Shield, 2000). impormasyon bago ang mataas na antas at pagkatutong batay sa problema (Horton, 2014). By the 1920s, John B. Watson had left Noong 1920, umalis si John B. Watson sa McLeod, S. A. (2015). Skinner - Operant Conditioning. Retrieved academic psychology and other behaviorists akademiko ng sikolohiya at ang ibang mga from www.simplypsychology.org/operantconditioning. were becoming influential, behaviourist ay naging dominantet html proposing new forms of learning other than nagpanukala ng iba pang paraan ng pagkatuto classical conditioning. Perhaps the most maliban sa klasikong pagkondisyon (classical important of these was Burrhus conditioning). Maramhil ang Frederic Skinner. Although, for obvious pinakaimportante sa kanila ay si Burrhus reasons he is more commonly known as B.F. Frederic Skinner. Ang pananaw ni Skinner Skinner. ay hindi gaanong matindi kung ikokompara Skinner's views were slightly less extreme kay Watson. Naniniwala si Skinner na than those of Watson (1913). Skinner mayroon tayong talino ngunit mas uunlad ang believed that we do have such a pag aaral ng nakikitang pag uugali kaysa thing as a mind, but that it is simply more mga mental na pangyayari. Ayon kay productive to study observable behavior Skinner, ang mabuting paraan sa pag unawa rather than internal mental events. The work ng ugali ay ang pagtutok sa mga sanhi ng of Skinner was rooted in a view that classical aksyon at ang mga kahihinatnan nito. conditioning was far too simplistic to be a Tinawag niya itong operant conditioning. complete explanation of complex human Ibinatay ni Skinner ang kanyang teoryang behavior. He believed that the best way to operant conditioning sa pag aaral ni understand behavior is to look at the Thorndike. Sa operant conditioning, ang mga causes of an action and its consequences. He sinadyang kilos ay may epekto sa called this approach operant conditioning. kapaligirang nakapalibot. Operant Conditioning deals with operants - intentional actions that have an effect on the surrounding environment. Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Tinuring na ama ng Operant Conditioning si Conditioning, but his work was based on Skinner pero ang kanyang gawa ay nakabatay Thorndikes law of effect. sa Law of Effect ni Thorndike. Ipinakilala ni Skinner introduced a new term into the Law Skinner ang bagong katawagan ng Law of of Effect - Reinforcement. Behavior which is Effect ang pampatibay (reinforcement). reinforced tends to be Ang ugaling pinatibay ay gagawin ulit at ang repeated (i.e. strengthened); behavior which ugaling hindi pinatibay ay mawawala. Pinag is not reinforced tends to die out-or be aralan ni Skinner ang operant conditioning extinguished (i.e. weakened). sa pamamagitan ng pagpanukala ng mga Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning eksperimento gamit ang mga hayop na by conducting experiments using animals inalagay niya sa Skinner Box na katulad ng which he placed in a 'Skinner Puzzle Box ni Thorndike. Box' which was similar to Thorndikes puzzle box. Tinukoy ni Skinner ang tatlong uri ng tugon B.F. Skinner (1938) coined the term operant para sa pagpapabuti ng ugali. Una ay neutral conditioning; it means roughly changing of operants na mga tugon mula sa kapaligiran na behavior by the use of magpapataas o magpapababa ng reinforcement which is given after the desired pagkakataong maulit ang ugali. Pangalawa ay response. Skinner identified three types of Reinforcers at itoy mga tugon mula sa responses or operant that kapaligiran na nagpapataas ng pagkakataong can follow behavior. maulit ang ugali. Ito ay maaring positibo o Neutral operants: responses from the negatibo. Pangatlo ay ang Punishers at itoy environment that neither increase nor mga tugon mula sa kapaligiran na decrease the probability of a nagpapababa ng pagkakataong maulit ang behavior being repeated. ugali. Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative. Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior. We can all think of examples of how our own behavior has been affected by reinforcers and punishers. As a child you probably tried out a number of behaviors and learned from their consequences. For example, if when you were younger you tried smoking at school, and the chief consequence was that you got in with the crowd you always wanted to hang out with, you would have been positively reinforced (i.e. rewarded) and would be likely to repeat the behavior. If, however, the main consequence was that you were caught, caned, suspended from school and your parents became involved you would most certainly have been punished, and you would consequently be much less likely to smoke now. Skinner showed how positive reinforcement worked by placing a hungry rat in his Skinner box. The box contained a lever on the side and as the rat moved about the box it would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately it did so a food pellet would drop into a container next to the lever. The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box. The consequence of receiving food if they pressed the lever ensured that they would repeat the action again and again. Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by providing a consequence an individual finds rewarding. For example, if your teacher gives you 5 each time you complete your homework (i.e. a reward) you will be more likely to repeat this behavior in the future, thus strengthening the behavior of completing your homework. The removal of an unpleasant reinforcer can also strengthen behavior. This is known as negative reinforcement because it is the removal of an adverse stimulus which is rewarding to the animal or person. Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior because it stops or removes an unpleasant experience. For example, if you do not complete your homework, you give your teacher 5. You will complete your homework to avoid paying 5, thus strengthening the behavior of completing your homework. Skinner showed how negative reinforcement worked by placing a rat in his Skinner box and then subjecting it to an unpleasant electric current which caused it some discomfort. As the rat moved about the box it would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately it did so the electric current would be switched off. The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box. The consequence of escaping the electric current ensured that they would repeat the action again and again. In fact Skinner even taught the rats to avoid the electric current by turning on a light just before the electric current came on. The rats soon learned to press the lever when the light came on because they knew that this would stop the electric current being switched on. These two learned responses are known as Escape Learning and Avoidance Learning. Punishment is defined as the opposite of reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or eliminate a response rather than increase it. It is an aversive event that decreases the behavior that it follows Like reinforcement, punishment can work either by directly applying an unpleasant stimulus like a shock after a response or by removing a potentially rewarding stimulus, for instance, deducting someones pocket money to punish undesirable behavior. Note: It is not always easy to distinguish between punishment and negative reinforcement. There are many problems with using punishment, such as: Punished behavior is not forgotten, it's suppressed - behavior returns when punishment is no longer present. Causes increased aggression - shows that aggression is a way to cope with problems. Creates fear that can generalize to undesirable behaviors, e.g., fear of school. Does not necessarily guide toward desired behavior - reinforcement tells you what to do, punishment only tells you what not to do. Imagine a rat in a Skinner box. In operant conditioning if no food pellet is delivered immediately after the lever is pressed then after several attempts the rat stops pressing the lever (how long would someone continue to go to work if their employer stopped paying them?). The behavior has been extinguished. Behaviorists discovered that different patterns (or schedules) of reinforcement had different effects on the speed of learning and on extinction. Ferster and Skinner (1957) devised different ways of delivering reinforcement, and found that this had effects on 1. The Response Rate - The rate at which the rat pressed the lever (i.e. how hard the rat worked). 2. The Extinction Rate - The rate at which lever pressing dies out (i.e. how soon the rat gave up). Skinner found that the type of reinforcement which produces the slowest rate of extinction (i.e. people will go on repeating the behavior for the longest time without reinforcement) is variable-ratio reinforcement. The type of reinforcement which has the quickest rate of extinction is continuous reinforcement. (A) Continuous Reinforcement An animal/human is positively reinforced every time a specific behaviour occurs, e.g. every time a lever is pressed a pellet is delivered and then food delivery is shut off. Response rate is SLOW Extinction rate is FAST (B) Fixed Ratio Reinforcement Behavior is reinforced only after the behavior occurs a specified number of times. E.g. one reinforcement is given after every so many correct responses, e.g. after every 5th response. For example a child receives a star for every five words spelt correctly. Response rate is FAST Extinction rate is MEDIUM (C) Fixed Interval Reinforcement One reinforcement is given after a fixed time interval providing at least one correct response has been made.
A further important contribution made by
Skinner (1951) is the notion of behaviour shaping through successive approximation. Skinner argues that the principles of operant conditioning can be used to produce extremely complex behaviour if rewards and punishments are delivered in such a way as to encourage move an organism closer and closer to the desired behaviour each time. In order to do this, the conditions (or contingencies) required to receive the reward should shift each time the organism moves a step closer to the desired behaviour. According to Skinner, most animal and human behaviour (including language) can be explained as a product of this type of successive approximation. Behavior modification is a set of therapies / techniques based on operant conditioning (Skinner, 1938, 1953). The main principle comprises changing environmental events that are related to a person's behavior. For example, the reinforcement of desired behaviors and ignoring or punishing undesired ones. This is not as simple as it sounds always reinforcing desired behavior, for example, is basically bribery. There are different types of positive reinforcements. Primary reinforcement is when a reward strengths a behavior by itself. Secondary reinforcement is when something strengthens a behavior because it leads to a primary reinforcer. Examples of behavior modification therapy include token economy and behavior shaping Token economy is a system in which targeted behaviors are reinforced with tokens (secondary reinforcers) and later exchanged for rewards (primary reinforcers). Tokens can be in the form of fake money, buttons, poker chips, stickers, etc. While the rewards can range anywhere from snacks to privileges or activities. Token economy has been found to be very effective in managing psychiatric patients. However, the patients can become over reliant on the tokens, making it difficult for them to adjust to society once they leave prisons, hospital etc. Teachers also use token economy at primary school by giving young children stickers to reward good behavior. In the conventional learning situation operant conditioning applies largely to issues of class and student management, rather than to learning content. It is very relevant to shaping skill performance. A simple way to shape behavior is to provide feedback on learner performance, e.g. compliments, approval, encouragement, and affirmation. A variable- ratio produces the highest response rate for students learning a new task, whereby initially reinforcement (e.g. praise) occurs at frequent intervals, and as the performance improves reinforcement occurs less frequently, until eventually only exceptional outcomes are reinforced. For example, if a teacher wanted to encourage students to answer questions in class they should praise them for every attempt (regardless of whether their answer is correct). Gradually the teacher will only praise the students when their answer is correct, and over time only exceptional answers will be praised. Unwanted behaviors, such as tardiness and dominating class discussion can be extinguished through being ignored by the teacher (rather than being reinforced by having attention drawn to them). Knowledge of success is also important as it motivates future learning. However it is important to vary the type of reinforcement given, so that the behavior is maintained. This is not an easy task, as the teacher may appear insincere if he/she thinks too much about the way to behave. Schneider and Morris (1987) suggested that Moore, J. (2013). THREE VIEWS OF BEHAVIORISM. The John B. Watson was the first to invoke the Psychological Record, 63(3), 681-691. Retrieved from term behaviorism. Moore (2008, 2011) https://search.proquest.com/docview/1442999258?accountid=37714 recently argued that there is a lot of debate about just what behaviorism means and whether it is in fact a broadly monolithic viewpoint, appropriately understood in a majority of cases. The present article examines three views of behaviorism, in a further effort to clarify an understanding of behaviorism. We noted earlier that Fodor (1968, p. 55) held behaviorism to differ significantly from the mentalism of cognitive psychology. That view is surely correct if View 3, radical behaviorism, is taken as the exemplar of behaviorism. It would not be correct if View 2 were taken as the exemplar. Indeed, legitimate questions arise as to (a) whether we should regard View 2 as substantially different from View 1, and indeed (b) whether we should therefore regard View 2 as a behaviorism at all.The radical behaviorism of View 3 is a thoroughgoing scientific epistemology, in the sense that a causal account of the predicting, theorizing, and explanatory behavior of researchers and theorists uses the same behavioral analytical concepts from the behavioral dimension as does a causal account of the behavior of the participant. As Skinner (1957) once put it, One of the ultimate accomplishments of a science of verbal behavior may be an empirical logic, or a descriptive and analytical scientific epistemology, the terms and practices of which will be adapted to human behavior as a subject matter (p. 431).The radical behaviorism of View 3 is further a thoroughgoing pragmatism. According to one interpretation, pragmatism means that the value of any statement is how well it promotes effective action in those who entertain it when they interact with nature. Behaviorism is the movement that has argued Arturo Clavijo, A. (2013). THE PSYCHE AS BEHAVIOR. Revista Colombiana for behavior as the Psyche, or subject matter De Psicologa, 22(2), 377-387. Retrieved from of psychology. According to the Merriam- https://search.proquest.com/docview/1677204645?accountid=37714 Webster Dictionary (2013), behaviorism is a school of psychology that takes the objective evidence of behavior (as measured responses to stimuli) as the only concern of its research and the only basis of its theory without reference to conscious experience, and according to the Encyclopedia Britannica (2013): Behaviorism was a highly influential academic school of psychology that dominated psychological theory between the two world wars. Classical behaviorism, prevalent in the first third of the 20th century, was concerned exclusively with measurable and observable data and excluded ideas, emotions, and the consideration of inner mental experience and activity in general (para. 1). Watsons behaviorism had strong roots in Darwinism and functionalism, so his version of the Psyche was not exclusive to humans. Since he assumed continuity among species, he believed that research with other animals would help in the understanding of the human Psyche, just as research with humans would help in the understanding of the other animals Psyche. His interest in animal behavior was one of the reasons for rejecting mental states and consciousness as the subject matter of psychology; it would not be possible to introspect the mental states of an animal. According to Watson (1913, 1930), an observer could measure the behavior of another organism in physical terms, find the variables that regulate its behavior in the environment, and describe its behavior in a stimulus-response framework. In his view, the behavior of an organism was a physical phenomenon that consisted of responses to the different forms of stimulation in its environment. He defined a response as an observable and measureable movement that always involved the whole organism; however, the response could be so slight that an observer would require instruments to record it (Watson, 1930). Watson (1930) assumed contiguity and immediate efficient causation in each S-R relation so that every response was an immediate reaction to a present, effective stimulus. The way in which he dealt with apparently delayed responses shows his strong commitment to a strict S-R psychology. According to Watson, a response that seems to occur a long time after a stimulus just results from the accumulation of sequential S-R units that altogether conformed a habit. In relation to learning, Watson believed that responses to stimuli could be innate or learned, although he gave more importance to the environment as a determinant of behavior. He supposed that organisms have a set of unlearned, reflex responses to few stimuli. The size and characteristics of the innate-response set would depend on the species. For example, humans would have fewer innate and more conditioned responses than insects. The learning of fear responses to new stimuli was a frequent subject in Watsons texts. According to Watson (1913, 1930), all be- havior, even feelings and thinking, is just a set of learned habits. As Verdu-Rico and Bentes de Carvalho-Neto (2010) pointed out, scholars may have overlooked and misrepresented Watsons theories on thinking and language. In Watsons (1913, 1930) view, each stimulus produced a response, so the environment acted on organisms. Organisms reacted by responding all the time to some stimulus. Each response would be a discrete event, but behavior seemed continuous due to the amount of stimuli that incessantly assailed organisms. Like Watson, Skinner assumed that discrete and observable responses compose the behavior of an organism. Skinner (1938, 1974) acknowledged that Watsons S-R psychology accounted for a small portion of behavior, but not for the largest and more significant part. According to Skinner, the responses of organisms could be voluntary-emitted or in- voluntary-elicited. Classically conditioned andreflex responses exemplified elicited behavior. As emitted or voluntary behavior composed most of mammals behavior, Skinner deemed insufficient an S-R framework in which behaving is just reacting. Skinner adopted an R-S framework. He ar- gued that the stimulus that modifies an emitted response is the one that follows it rather than the one that antecedes it. For instance, if by pressing a lever (R) in a Skinner box, a rat obtains pellets (S), it is more likely that the rat will press the lever again. As long as lever-pressing results in pellets, the rat will keep pressing it. If the rat does not receive any more pellets by pressing the lever, lever pressing will decrease or disappear. It is evident that no antecedent stimulus evokes a lever-pressing response. An S-R psychology assumed that the stimulus is an efficient cause that evokes, elicits, or produces a response. According to Skinner, the stimulus selects responses by making more likely those that produce reinforcing consequences and less likely those that produce punishing or no con- sequence at all. Skinner himself described his causal model as selection by consequences in an analogy with Darwins explanation of evolution (Skinner, 1984). In synthesis, Skinner shared Watsons core argument about psychology as a science of behavior. Both argued for behavior as the subject matter of psychology, rejected mental explanations, and adopted an environmental determinism. Neither Skinner nor Watson denied the importance of the organism, and both argued for historical factors in explaining behavior by relying on learning to explain new responses. Watson denied a place for consciousness and immediate subjective experience in a science of behavior, while Skinner argued that a complete science of behavior should deal with subjective experience. Although Skinner moved away from an S-R psychology, his commitment to a molec- ular analysis might have preserved something of the S-R logic in his conception of behavior. Operant conditioning can be used to explain a Ang operant conditioning ay nagpapaliwanag wide variety of behaviors, from the process ng maraming pag uugali mula sa proseso ng of learning, to addiction pagkatuto hanggang sa pagtamo ng wika. and language acquisition. It also has practical Mayroon din itong aplikasyon sa loob ng application (such as token economy) which klasrum, prisinto at mga saykayatrikong can be applied in ospital. Gayunpaman, nabigo ang operant classrooms, prisons and psychiatric hospitals. conditioning sa pagpapahalaga sa papel ng However, operant conditioning fails to take minanang salik ng kognitib sa pagkatuto kaya into account the role of inherited and hindi kompleto ang pagpapaliwanag sa cognitive factors in learning, and proseso ng pagkatuto ng mga tao at mga thus is an incomplete explanation of the hayop. Halimbawa, nakita ni Kohler na ang learning process in humans and animals. unggoy ay nakakahanap ng solusyon sa For example, Kohler (1924) found that problema sa isang kislap ng kaalaman kaysa primates often seem to solve problems in a sa trial at error na pagkatuto. Sa teoryang flash of insight rather than be trial social learning naman ni Bandura, and error learning. Also social learning nagmumungkahi ito na ang mga tao ay theory (Bandura, 1977) suggests that humans agarang natututo sa pamamagitan ng can learn automatically pagmamasid kaysa sa sariling karanasan. Ang through observation rather than through paggamit ng hayop sa operant conditioning personal experience. na pag aaral ay nagtataas ng isyu sa The use of animal research in operant extrapolation. Ilan sa mga sikologo ang conditioning studies also raises the issue of nangatwiran na hindi maaaring gawing extrapolation. Some pangkalahatan ang pag aaral mula sa mga psychologists argue we cannot generalize hayop tungo sa mga tao dahil ang kanilang from studies on animals to humans as their anatomy at pisyolohiya ay kaiba sa mga tao at anatomy and physiology is hindi sila nakakapag isip tungkol sa different from humans, and they cannot think kanilang sariling karanasan at about their experiences and invoke reason, nakakapagpangatwiran, pasensya, memorya patience, memory or self-comfort. at kaginhawaan sa sarili.