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SITE PRODUCTIVITY
INTHECONSTRUCTION
INDUSTRY
34823
ISBN 92-2-105694-5
1
Introduction to work study, third (revised) edition, Geneva, ILO, 1979.
Vil
CONTENTS
P reface v
Acknowledgements v
1. Introduction 1
Productivity and the standard of living 1
Productivity of the construction enterprise 3
Work study and the construction ndustry 7
The techniques of work study 9
2. Method study 13
Basic procedures 13
Select the work to be studied 14
Obtain and record the facts 17
Examine the facts 29
Develop the new idea 31
Install the new method 32
Maintain the new method 33
Sitelayout 33
3. Work measurement 41
Uses and techniques 41
Time study equipment 43
Making the time study 46
Relaxation allowances 51
Derivation of standard times 54
Excavation and loading of soils by hand 61
Activity sampling 61
Feedback of output data 69
Using the output data 73
X
FIGURES
1. The management task 3
2. Work content of a construction project 4
3. Workstudy 9
4. Outline process chart 22
5. Flow process chart 23
6. Flowdiagram 23
7. Flow process chart for worker 24
8. String diagram 27
9. Site layout plan 38
10. Time study top sheet 45
11. Time study: Fixing precast wall units 55
12. Time study abstract sheet 56
13. Standard time summary sheet 57
14. Tabular recording of standard times 59
15. Graphic recording of standard times 60
16. Activity sampling record sheet 67
17. Activity sampling extract sheet 68
18. Daily work record sheet 71
19. Weekly work summary sheet 72
20. Weekly performance summary sheet 73
21. Stages of a construction project 103
22. General management structure of the enterprise 105
23. Mltiple activity chart 111
24. Mltiple activity chart: Altemative (a) 113
25. Mltiple activity chart: Altemative (b) 113
26. Layout of site for construction of radio transmitter station 118
27. Blank layout plan 119
28. Revised layout of site for construction of radio transmitter station 121
29. Rated activity sampling record sheet 122
30. Activity sampling extract sheet 123
31. Calculating the standard time 124
XI
INTRODUCTION 1
productivity and the standard
of living
THE STANDARD OF LIVING
What is the connection between site productivity in the
construction industry and the standard of living? The former
may seem to be of merely technical interest to contract
managers and site foremen. The latter is of direct interest to all
of us, since it measures our capacity to provide ourselves and
our families with a wide variety of goods and services that we
need n order to sustain and enjoy life. Some of these are
classified as prvate consumption, such as food, shelter and
clothing, while others are essential services provided by and for
the community, such as safe drinking water, sanitation,
transport, health and education.
Food, clothing and housing are generally things that
individuis and families have to obtain for themselves. Health
care, security and education are usually provided by the State
or other public authorities, but even these are ultimately paid for
by the individual citizen in the form of taxes. Therefore everyone
needs to earn enough to pay a fair contribution to these
common services, as well as to support himself and his family.
There are two main ways of increasing the amount of goods
and services produced. One is to increase employment; the
other is to increase productivity. Efforts to increase employment
are very important, and should go hand in hand with efforts to
increase the productivity of those already employed, but it is
with the latter task that we are concerned here.
The greater the amount of goods and services an individual
is able to buy, the higher his or her standard of living will be.
One way of achieving a higher standard of living is by
1 increasing productivity. By increasing productivity people will
earn more. By increasing national productivity n agriculture,
industry, health and security services and education, the goods
and services produced will be more abundant at a relatively
lower cost.
PRODUCTIVITY
This s defined as the ratio of output to input, that s the ratio of
the amount produced (the output) to the amount of any
resources used n the course of production (the input). The
resources may be land, materials, machinery, tools or
manpower. The input is generally a combination of all of them.
Productivity increases if a greater output is achieved for the
same input, or if the same output is achieved for a smaller input.
An increase in production or output does not necessarily
indcate an increase in productivity. If input rises in direct
proportion to output, then productivity will stay the same. And if
input increases by a greater percentage than output, then a
higher output will be achieved at the expense of a reduction in
productivity.
For example, a team of two workers produces 20 concrete
blocks an hour. The productivity is 20H-2=10 blocks per work-
hour. Owing to demand it is found necessary to increase input.
The team is increased to three men who now produce 27 blocks
an hour. Thus the output has risen, but productivity has fallen to
27-=-3=9 blocks per work-hour. The operation is studied, and
using an improved method, three workers can now produce 39
blocks an hour. Thus, not only has production increased, but
productivity is upto 39-^3= 13 blocks per work-hour.
WORK CQNTENT OF A
CONSTRUCTION PROJECT
Experience has shown that there is always room for
improvement in construction project execution. The total time
taken is often well in excess of what it would have been it the
designs, specifications and methods of construction were
properly planned and prepared, and it site management had
implemented them effectively so that there had been no loss of
working time. This is illustrated below.
- TOTAL ACTUAL T I M E
T O T A L WORK CONTENT-
INEFFECTIVETIME
This is time when workers and machines are standing idle.
Ineffective time may be due to extraneous reasons beyond the
control of management, or to the shortcomings of management
or labour.
WORKERS OR MACHINES?
One direct means of raising productivity is to replace manpower
by the purchase of modern high-capacity plant or equipment.
However, most developing countries are short of money and
have problems of high unemployment, so that to buy such
equipment may be neither possible or desirable. Furthermore,
due to lack of adequate maintenance procedures and a
shortage of spare parts, the benefits derived may be short-lived.
The cheapest and most effective way of raising productivity is
by better management. 6
work study and the construction
industry ~
DEVELOPMENT OF WORK STUDY
Work study is the study of methods of working n order to find a
better way of carrying out various activities. Although the term
was first used n the last century, the basic principies have been
practised since ancient times, in the building of the pyramids,
Romn roads and aqueducts and castles and cathedrals, where
large-scale systems of equipment and manpower were used.
There is nothing new about the investigation and improvement
of working methods, and managers of outstanding ability have
always existed. What is new is the systematic disciplined
approach to the investigation of working methods and
problems, and to the development of solutions. By using these
systematic procedures, quite ordinary people can achieve
results as good as the less systematic geniuses of the past.
The development of scientific management and work study
techniques originated in the factories established during the
Industrial Revolution of the nineteenth century. Further
development and application of these techniques occurred
during the early part of this century, fostered by the use of
production line and mass production technology. By 1930,
"scientific management" was an integral and necessary part of
the industrial routine in industrialised counthes.
APPLICATION TO THE
"CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
It was not until the late 1950s that major construction firms
began to appreciate the potential savings that could accrue by
adopting work study techniques and started to appoint work
study engineers to their building and civil engineering
departments. There were respectable reasons for this long
delay, since working conditions in the construction industry are
dramatically different from those in most factories. In a factory
the elements of work are highly repetitive. The nature of the
work and the layout of the workplace remain unchanged over
7 long periods of time. The climate inside the factory is generally
controlled and steady. On a construction site the various
construction activities are of relatively short duration, and, after
a few days or weeks, a construction operation may be taking
place in a different way at a different location under different
climatic conditions. Furthermore, although construction work
can be repetitive, cycle times are longer, and days may elapse
before a repetition occurs.
On construction projects employing large tems of
mechanical equipment, the high cost of work is generally
caused not so much by the low performance of the operatives
as by low equipment utilisation. On a labour-intensive project,
however, high costs are more likely to be due to inefficient
working practices. It is frequently the case that the workers are
working hard, but not very effectively. In such a case, work
study can enable operatives to achieve greater output while
reducing the physical effort that they have to expend.
It remains true that some work study techniques which are
suitable for factory conditions have only limited use on a
construction site. Nevertheless experience has demonstrated
that significant productivity improvements can be achieved if
these techniques are applied sensitively, and their application
helps to inclcate a productivity-oriented attitude of mind
among everyone concerned.
WORKING CONDITIONS
Often, quite small improvements in working conditions can
produce marked increases in productivity. Untidy sites and 8
stores can cause delays and accidents. Physical conditions
such as ventilation, temperature, Tighting, sanitation and so on
affect the human capacity for work. Bad working conditions are
uneconomic.
For example, to avoid the debilitating influence of various
mosquito- and fly-borne diseases, construction sites should be
kept clean and drained. Properly designated and maintained
latrine reas and adequate supplies of clean drinking water
should be available on site.
METHOD STUDY
The objectlves of method study are to:
- improve the use of materials, equipment and manpower;
- improve processes and procedures;
- improve workplace layout;
- improve the design of tools and equipment;
- reduce unnecessary work;
- develop a better working environment.
The British Standard Glossary of Terms in Work Study
defines method study as "... the systematic recording and
critical examination of existing and proposed ways of doing
work, as a means of developing and applying easier and more
effective methods of reducing costs".
WORK MEASUREMENT
This involves using time studies to find out how long a job ought
to take. The objectives are to:
- compare the efficiency of alternative methods;
- provide information upon which planning, scheduling and
control of work can be based;
- balance the work of components of a team;
- provide information for cost estimates;
- set standards of performance as a basis for incentive
schemes.
The British Standard Glossary of Terms in Work Study gives
the definition of work measurement as "... the application of
techniques designed to establish the time for a qualified worker
to carry out a specified job at a defined level of performance".
WASTAGE OF RESOURCES
Table 1 gives examples of wastage of resources, and the work
study technique appropriate to the analysis of the problem.
Table 1. Wastage of resources and work study techniques appropriate to the analysis of the
problem
11
METHOD STUDY
basic procedures
When a method of working contains an obvious difficulty, the
worker will usually take steps to get around t. But this method
adjustment deals only with that part of the method that attracts
his attention. It does not necessarily improve the whole method.
Planned method mprovement s a system of analysis which
studies the whole method. The basic procedures, which are
considered in detail later, are first given in outline below.
15
Example: On a project worth $100,000 one operation accounts for
50 per cent of the cost, while another accounts for only 1 per cent:
50 5
100,000 x x = $2,500.
100 100
1 50
100,000 x x = $500.
100 100
NEW OPERATION
ln this case it will be necessary to study previous experience of
the kind of job to be set up. The facts should be obtained, i.e.
everything that will affect the operation, such as:
Charting conventions
In using the standard symbols, certain conventions are used:
(i) Similar symbols are numbered consecutively. When two
different activities occur together the symbols can be 20
combined, for example, an operation nvolving elements of
inspection would be shown as .
(i) When a material or component s first introduced nto a
process t is shown as an arrow entering from the left.
(ii) Rejects are charted thus:
CT + CLEAN
MIX AND I
CONCRETE BENP
3TEE <?REASE[
FORMS
A5SEM0LE SETI
TRANSPORT | UP
CONCRETE ' ANDTIE
STEELf FORMSI
TRANSPORT/ rrrsTEEii
STEELV TOFORMS
POUR,
CONCRETEN
VBRATE ,
&ONCRETE>
CUREl
STI?IP FORMSI
MAMUFACTURE OF CUREl
REIMFORCED PRECAST
CONCRETE UNITS 5TACK
PRECAST (
UNITS
22
questioning technique (described in "Examine the facts")
to the outline process chart could lead to the elimination of
unnecessary work.
Figure 4 gives an example of an outline process chart
describing the manufacture of precast concrete units.
(b) Flow process chart
This gives a fully detailed account of the sequence of every
operation, inspection, delay, and transport or storage
activity occurring in a process or procedure. It contains all
the information considered desirable for analysis, such as
time required and distance moved. The chart can be used
to show either the activities of worker or machine, or what
happens to the material being processed. The chart is
sometimes used in conjunction with a flow diagram. See the
materials-type example shown in figure 5. A flow process
chart for a worker is shown in figure 7.
(c) Flow diagram
The flow diagram is most appropriate for use on
construction sites. The various movements and activities of
worker or machine are recorded on the plan of the worksite
(text continued on p. 26)
N
MOVE TO BErIDIKq
MOVE AND STORE CUTTINq
L_A> BENDIN5 BENCH BE. iCU y BENCH
STRAlQHT BARS
STACK WAITING
BENDINq ra) ^
BEND ACCORDIN5 \A\ STORAQE
W <^\
GD TO SCHEDULE
\7
Cii STRAiqHTBARS
STACK WAITING
j ) X
FABRICATOM
MAKE 0t>
COLUMN CA^BS
MOVE TO
^^''^STORAGE
BENT
BARS
A
STORE \7
STORE COLUMN STORAGE
\7 CA^ES CO LUMMW14ES II \Y( rofS"TEEL
BEN DiNQYARD
Figure 7. Flow process chart for worker
Flow process chart : Tiling to standard bathroom of hotel buildinc as shown on drawing
D50fa;.
Preliminar/ study of ORIGINAL METHOD
Study reference: 137 SAiee No. 1 of 2 Dale: 11.11.83
Localion: Bathroom to room 105
Details: Lay 7.5 sq m of 15cm x 15 cm tiles to 3 walls of bathroom
Workman: Mushkil Khan Study by: A Nobservah
Remarks. Time taken at present s considerad to be excessive.
Normal working hours: 0630-0930,1000-1200,1230-1530.
Distance Time Symbo Operation Remarks/tools/methods
(metres) (mins.)
O 23 256.10
E3 3 13.40
D 2 8.90
=> 14 45.30 1 690
45.30 not recorded
D 12 186.10
515.30 1690 +
PHOTOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES
An alternative to site studies is to record the work on either
photographic film or video tape, so that the work once recorded
can be studied and re-studied under office, as opposed to site
conditions.
(a) Memo-motion photography
The camera is set up with a view of the whole work to be
studied. Special automatic time-lapse cameras with zoom
lenses are used that can take one photograph at intervals of
between 1 and 4 seconds (or longer intervals) as the
situation demands, instead of at the normal 18 trames per
second. The processed film is then played back and viewed
at normal speed, so that an operation that has taken hours
to perform may be viewed in a matter of minutes. The
27 movements viewed will appear jerky, but if the time intervals
Example:
Three workers, A, B and C are pouring concrete in-
te- a column form using two buckets, a rope and
pulley to lift the concrete from the ground to plat-
form level.
A filis the empty bucket with concrete, taking 15 seconds, and hooks it onto the rope
taking 4 seconds;
B hauls the full bucket up to the platform (12 seconds) and, after C has unhooked the
full bucket and hooked on the empty bucket, lowers it to the ground (8 seconds),
unhooks it (2 seconds) for A to refill.
C unhooks the full bucket (3 seconds) hooks on the empty bucket (2 seconds) walks
to the formwork with the full bucket (4 seconds) empties it into the column form (12
seconds) and walks back to the pulley (3 seconds) to await the next bucket.
The mltiple activity chart for the existing method is:
time orttm
n - T I M E CYCLE 46SECONDS actuafty
scs o __20 30 40 5CL wofking
One way of improving the operation is to use 3 buckets instead of 2, so that A can be
filling the 3rd bucket whilst B is hauling up. Also B does not then have to wait whilst A is
filling the bucket.
The new chart would be:
- T I M E CYCLE 3 1 SECONDS-
i
A =hookt 1 Nhook^
1 ^ ^ 61
on
fill
on
fill
W
1
B haul up Vold lomar un ook ha ul up To 13 lower un nook
87
= j 1=1 E= E= - = 3 F 77
C hook off o nwalk empty \#l k hook off onwalk empty
Thus, the introduction of an extra bucket has improved productivity by nearly 50 per
cent.
The workload could be shared more equally by giving over the Job of hooking off the
empty bucket from B to A.
between trames were not too great, no information s lost,
and flow diagrams and activity charts can be drawn up f
needed. Also the work can be studied n great detail, trame
by trame.
(b) Micro-motion photography
This s not so applicable to construction work, but more to
high-speed factory assembly operations. In memo-motion
photography the film technique is used to speed up the
action. Micro-motion photography slows it down so that
very rapid movements of the hands, for instance, can be
studied in detail.
ALTERNATIVE METHODS
The secondary questions seek to determine and analyse
possible alternatives of place, sequence, person and means of
doing the Job. The following are some of the matters to take into
consideraron:
WORKPLACE - relocate storage points for ease of handling,
LAYOUT reduction of movement and elimination of
double handling;
- gravity feed of aggregatesetc;
- avoid mutual interference of trades or
equipment;
- improve ground conditions.
SAFETY
Check that the new method includes no unsafe practices.
TIMING
The correct time to install the new method will depend upon the
nature and complexity of the operation. For a new operation to
be started on site, the timing will depend upon the overall
programme and progress of the construction project as a
whole. If supervisors or workers require training, some
convenient period will be chosen, causing a mnimum of
interference with other related operations.
PILOTTRIALS
It may be advisable to try the new method out on a small section
of the works in order to -
- iron out unforeseen snags;
- test the effectiveness of operational and control
procedures; 32
- train supervisors who will introduce the method elsewhere;
- convince the workforce of the merits of the method.
site layout
~ THE PROBLEMS
Failure to plan the site layout in advance is a prime cause of
operational inefficiency, and can increase the overall cost of a
33 project substantially. In the absence of a precise site layout
plan, neither the site manager or his subordinates will have a
clear ndication of where various hutments, items of plant, etc.,
should be located, and the following problems may occur:
(a) Material stacks wrongly located
Materials arriving on site are off-loaded into what someone
guesses to be the correct location. This practice may
subsequently involve double or treble handling of materials
to another place because -
- they have been stacked over a drainage run, in the way
of the scaffolding, or too near the edge of an excavation;
- they are too far away from the part of the works where
they are to be incorporated;
- they are too remote from the hoist, or not within the
radius of the crane needed to place them in position;
- they impede the smooth flow of work traffic across the
site, causing deviations;
- they are too near works-traffic routes and may get
damagedorsoiled;
- their delivery was wrongly phased and they are not
needed until much later in the project;
- they are frage, and in their present location they are
likely to get damaged or pilfered.
(b) Plant and equipment wrongly located, for example:
- the mixer is inaccessible for the delivery of materials; not
enough room for the storage of aggregates; cement
store too far away; equipment wrongly located for ease
of delivery of mixed concrete;
- fixed cranes are unable to reach all parts of the works;
insufficient capacity in relation to loads to be handled at
various radii;
- hoists have insufficient capacity or height in relation to
the loads to be handled or the nature of the building, or
are badly located in relation to the floor layout of the
building.
(c) Inadequate space allowed
Where inadequate space is allowed for the stacking of
materials or ancillary activities such as steel storage, cutting
and bending and formwork manufacture:
- materials may be stacked too high or may intrude into
roadways or other reas, presenting hazards and
causing breakages; 34
- working reas may become too cramped for efficiency,
or additional reas may have to be allocated, with the
consequent waste of time caused by having to travel
between them.
(d) Site huts wrongly located in relation to their effective use
and convenience, such as:
- site office located too near noisy activities such as a
mixer or carpenters' shop; too near site or other roads in
dusty conditions; too remote, not giving a sufficient
overview of the site;
- stores having inadequate access for loading and
unloading, or being badly located with regard to
security;
- latrines located up-wind of office; or in badly drained
reas.
Therefore, before moving on to a site it s necessary to
prepare a detailed site plan, showing the positions to be taken
by every tem of equipment, accommodation, ancillary work
reas and materials storage reas.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The layout of a construction site will depend upon the methods
and sequence of operations to be employed in carrying out the
work, and on the space available. The methods and sequences
will themselves depend upon the space available, the time
allowed for construction, the relative costs of different methods
and the availability of equipment and materials. All of these
aspects will have been considered earlier at the time of
tendering for the works, and should be known before the site
plan is prepared. For a building on a restricted city site, the rea
available will dctate the equipment to be used and the methods
to be employed. The tighter the space, the more critical the
layout. In such circumstances it may be necessary to fabrcate
formwork and reinforcng steel off the site, and to have the
concrete delivered redy mixed.
Generally, the site will have to accommodate a varety of
temporary buildngs, materials and supples and plant and
equipment at different times during construction, and schedules
will be needed giving their respective times on and off the site.
Such tems must be located for ease of access and operation, to
35 ensure smooth work flow and avoid interference with
construction activities. The procedure s to list all the tems and
storage reas that will be needed on the site, and to indcate
their positions on a site plan.
1. Buildings
Offices for site manager, assistants and sup- Avoidance of noise, dust, good view of site
port staff
Stores (lock up for small tems) Security
Mess room, canteen, toilets, latrines Clear of the works
Gatekeepers' and watchmen's huts Good visibility
Ancillary shops (carpenters, steel benders, Adjacent to appropriate store (or mixer)-
blockmaker) within crane radius
3. Materials store
Cement Under cover. Security. Adjacent to mixer
Aggregates Possibility of gravity feed to mixer
Timber Within crane radius/adjacent access road
Steel Within crane radius/adjacent access road
Bricks, blocks Adjacent to hoist, adjacent access road
Doors, Windows and frames Safe storage rea, easily damaged
Earthenware and sanitary fittings, glass Safe storage rea, easily damaged
Fuel Isolate fire hazard
Formwork Fabrication, cleaning, within crane radius
4. Access roads
Site entrance Safety. Traffic control
Temporary site roads Ground conditions. Deliveries and unloading
Parking reas
SITE PLAN
A detailed site plan is required to a scale of at least 1:100 (or 8
feet to 1 inch). The plan will show the extent of the works,
including details of underground drainage and service runs,
extent of foundations, etc. The best position of the various tems
to be accommodated on site can be derived by trial and error,
using either pencil and rubber, clear plstic overlay and crayon
or cut-out models. The models would be the plan of the tem of
accommodation, plant or storage rea, cut out of cardboard to
the same scale as the site plan.
39
WORKERS' ACCOMMODATION
The construction of major projects in remote reas may
necessitate the provisin of accommodation for the workforce.
The cost of such accommodation would be a proper charge
against the works, whether t is built by direct labour (forc
account) or by contract. In the case of contract works, the client
authority should not only specify the mnimum requirements of
shelter, amenities and sanitary facilities but should also include
an tem in the Bill of Quantities against which the contractor can
price.
Accommodation for the workforce will normally lie adjacent
to, but outside the boundaries of the worksite.
SUBSITES
In cases where the works are spread over a considerable rea,
such as irrigation projects or new road construction, it may be
necessary to set up a series of subdepots for construction
bridges, concreting or asphalt plants, equipment harbours and
workshops, etc. The location of each subsite will depend on the
nature of the work and the proximity of materials sources, gravel
pits, quarries or bridge locations. However, the same general
considerations will apply for the layout of each site.
A practical example of site layout s included in Chapter 7 of
this manual.
WORK MEASUREMENT 3
INTRODUCTION
The construction of any project must be controlled to ensure
that the best methods are used, that the work flows easily
without delays, that t s completed on time to correct quality
standards and within the (correctly) estimated costs. This in turn
requires that the right materials, plant, equipment, workers
(skilled and unskilled) are employed at the right times and in the
right numbers. In order to control the works, planning and
programming are essential. To plan, programme and control
requires accurate knowledge of the work capacity of both
workers and machines and the cost per unit of work.
There are two ways of obtaining these output figures: one is
by the feedback of output data from previous construction
works, and the other is by work measurement, sometimes
known as time study.
The feedback of output data from construction sites gives a
purely hlstorical record of output and costs. The data are
derived by dividing the output by the time taken to achieve it.
However, these data will include the effects of ineffective time.
They do not show what output and costs could be achieved if
the job was properly managed and the workers or equipment
operators properly motivated to give of their best. Scientific
work measurement uses a series of techniques to identify
ineffective time and set sound time standards for the work.
This chapter covers the establishment of time standards
derived both by work measurement techniques and by
41 feedback.
DEFINITIONS
(a) Work measurement is the application of techniques
designed to establish the time for a qualified worker to carry
out a specified job at a defined level of performance.
(b) A qualified worker s physically fit, and has the required
level of education, ntelligence, skill and knowledge that the
job demands.
(c) The defined level of performance s the brlsk rate of worklng
of a well-motlvated qualified worker.
WATCH
A regular stop watch is best, although an ordinary wrist watch
with a legibile second hand can be acceptable for some
operations. On construction sites, most operations are of fairly
long duration, so that timing to the nearest five seconds is
generally accurate enough. A suitable specialist stop watch is
illustrated below.
CENTI-MINUTE FLYBACK
STOP WATCH
minute hand
The man scale is graduaUd
n V\oo minutes
43
To oprate: Button A winds up, starts and stops the watch.
With the watch running, pointers a and b go round together.
The first touch on button B stops pointer b, allowing the time to
be read off and recorded whilst pointer a is still moving. The
second touch on button B causes pointer b to rejoin pointer a.
Having stopped the watch (button A), one touch on button C
causes pointers a and b to fly back to zero.
STUDY BOARD
This is a fat plywood board, large enough to hold the study
sheets. Provisin is made for clipping on the watch, so that the
watch, study sheet and the actual job can be taken in at a single
glance.
di Wabcli
4-''
PENCILS
Two or three sharpened pencils are carried to avoid
interruptions to the study if the point breaks. Pencils are
preferred to ink - in wet weather or if the hands are sweaty, the
ink will run or smear.
44
Figure 10. Time study top sheet
ELEMENT WR OT BT ELEMENT WR OT BT
DESCRIPTION DESCRIPTION
45
making the time study
SELECTING THE JOB TO BE STUDIED
Some possible reasons for selecting a particular Job are:
- to study a new job, or a Job for which no reliable output
figures exist;
- tostudy achangeof method;
- to investgate workers' complaints that the time allowed for
a particular job is too tight;
- to investgate delays;
- to ascertain correct gang balance;
- as a preliminary to introducing an incentive scheme;
- when the cost of a particular job seems excessive.
BREAK POINTS
For ease and accuracy of identification each element will have a
distinctive start and finish known as break points. These should
be easily recognised by eye or ear, such as:
- labourers' hands grasp the handles of the gauge box;
- labourer's hand grasps the first brick;
- crane's hook touches precast wall unit;
- engine roars as driver prepares to move off;
- dragline bucket comes to rest.
RATING
It will be appreciated that timing alone does not produce a fair
assessment of the working ability or efficiency of a worker, or
whether he is working hard or going slowly. Also, many of the
labouring tasks on construction sites are carried out not just by
men in their prime, but also by older men, women and young
boys, who through undernourishment, etc., may not be 100 per
cent fit. It would be incorrect to time the work of the strongest,
best and fittest workers, and make that the standard for the
whole workforce. A system of rating has been derived so that
not only the timing but also the performance of the worker can
be measured.
m ph kph
0 Noactivity 0 0
50 Very slow, clumsy, fumbling movements. Worker ap- 2 3.2
pears half asleep with no interest in the Job
75 Steady, delibrate, unhurried performance, as of worker 3 4.8
not on piecework, but under proper supervisin; looks
slow, but time is not being intentionally wasted while
under observation
100 Brisk, business-like performance as of an average quali- 4 6.4
(standard fied worker on piecework; necessary standard of quality
rating) and accuracy achieved with confidence
125 Very fast; operator exhibits a high degree of assurance, 5 8.0
dexterity and co-ordination of movement, well above that
of an average trained worker
150 Exceptionally fast; requires intense effort and concen- 6 9.6
tration and is unlikely to be kept up for long periods; a
virtuoso performance only achieved by a few outstanding
workers
At the same time as the study specialist records the time of
each element, he will also assess and record the rate of working
(that is, the speed and effectiveness with which the work is
being done). In order to assess the performance or rate of
working, a rating scale has been drawn up, on which the valu
of 100 is given to the desirable rate at which the worker should
consistently work. This standard performance of 100 is defined
as the rate of output which the qualified worker will naturally
achieve over the working day or shift, without overexertion,
provided he knows and sticks to the proper method, and
provided he is motivated (by bonus payments, piecework) to
apply himself to the work. Table 3 gives examples of various
ratesof working.
(a) Qualified worker: The standard performance relates to a
"qualified worker" who has the necessary physical
attributes, possesses the required intelligence and
education, and has acquired the necessary skill and
knowledge to carry out the work to satisfactory standards of
safety, quantity and quality.
(b) Factors affecting rating are the effectiveness and speed of
the operators.
(i) Effectiveness - this means the application of acquired
skill given to the work by the worker. It implies
keenness, alertness and applied intelligence. The signs
of good application are:
- shortest path of movement - no detour;
- keeping consistently to the best method;
- sureness of touch and sequence;
- avoiding unnecessary actions or flourishes;
- effective use of both hands (or feet);
- intelligent anticipation of movements and events;
- tidiness and systematic arrangement of tools and
materials.
(ii) Speed (industrious application to the job) - this means
diligence, steadiness and continuity. The signs are:
- rhythm and consistency of movement;
- speed of movement;
- steady effort - no frequent small pauses;
- making the job look easy.
In general, workers under study tend to improve their
49 performance, simply as a result of the unaccustomed attention
they are receiving. This temporary rise of performance drops as
soon as the study specialist departs. On the other hand, f the
workers know the study is to be the basis for an incentive
scheme, they may put up a premeditated slow performance, in
the hope that this will result in easier bonus targets. Skilful rating
will detect both these deviations.
Unless the supervisin and motivation of the workers is
exceptional, a standard performance will rarely be sustained for
long if a bonus is not paid. Without such incentives the normal
pace of work will normally lie between 50 and 75 per cent of the
standard performance.
The rating code of 100 represents standard performance.
The work study specialist will evalate the observed
performance in relation to this (e.g. 75, 90, 110, 120) during the
course of the element being timed. If the element is of relatively
short duration, one evaluation will suffice. For an element of
longer duration the performance of the worker may vary, so that
more than one assessment of rating may be needed to obtain a
fair average.
BASIC TIME
This is the time for carrying out an element of work at standard
rating. The basic times are calculated by the following formula:
Observed rating
Basic time = Observed time x
Standard rating
26 (79) 0
28(82) 10
30 (86) 20
32 (90) 40
34(93) 70
CONTINGENCY ALLOWANCE
There are many necessary elements of work and occasional
53 delays which occur during a working day but which are random
and of short duration. For instance, a joiner has to sharpen his
tools; materials may occasionally not be to the exact dimensions
and may need correction; work may be held up while
nstructions are received or problems discussed. It s usual to
make a contingency allowance to cover such eventualities. An
allowance of 5 per cent s normally adequate for most
construction Jobs.
ELEMENT WR OT BT ELEMENT WR
DESCRIPTION DESCRIPTION
OSO0-55 ( P 0
roo
(ta*ksn*u\<uijlanry S
V6r9M(fh[bmKf(M:- /00
I1S S
f)6*tgtoufo(J>.p.~
fUf&^SSigis cntu.h 100 100 /oourifkttpWs
100
zoo 2 00 100
K>0 0 * 0 OW 90
OO !*> l-O 100
no 210 2 * 1 9?
30 X>
110 f-o* 35
95 2-tO 100
R - Rating
ISL
WR - Watch Reading OT = Observed Time BT = Basic Time IT - Idle Time
55
4
4 X:
9 o
O ni O A
i VA
V 5 VA
O
VA
OA
VA
3: 3
* N
o
o
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5
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CD
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IA N >.
KA S S S T3
s
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IA
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s 4
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I m 56
Figure 13. Standard time summary sheet
S 5 S 1* Z95 / z-93
Rvtouf- ~p**p ouk Mk te
S-97 S 3 5 l 6-91 / 93>
(D \)SC6lwct anxneEclMxQ I0\ 5 /
@)$ou\y\$ OUrtU) per mxk u*b-
202. i n 236 f Z&,
TOTAL BASIC TIME IZ SI TOTAL STANDARD TIME IG06
S - Standard P - Position A = Attention C - Conditions 5A^ IOO\
E = Eftort M - Monotony Con - Contingency 0 - Quantity ST - Standard Time
Relaxation and contingency allowances are added on to the average basic times to derive the standard times for each element, and by
addition the total standard time for the whole operation.
cent. Next all elements of work are extracted and the times
extended to find the standard times, e.g. observed time x rating
+ relaxation and contingency allowances. To obtain a truly
representative time, the average of a number of studies is
required. Examples of the forms used are given in figures 11
to13.
RECORDS
A copy of the summary of every standards study will be filed
away for future reference, so that a reference library of standard
times can be built up for the use of all concerned, i.e. cost
estimating, planning, resource scheduling, control, and as a
basis for task work or incentive schemes. In setting targets, it is
necessary to define clearly the method of working so that the
people concerned, workers, supervisors and estimators,
understand the exact work content involved. The definition will
include details of workers, tools, equipment needed and quality
standards required.
Standard times can be recorded in tabular or graphical
fashion, depending on their nature. Alternative methods of
presentation are given in figures 14 and 15.
PRACTICAL DERIVATION OF
STANDARD TIMES
It has been stated above that difficulties may be encountered in
deriving standard times because of lack of experience and
confidence in rating and assessing relaxation allowances. The
explanations given are not so much intended to develop
expertise as to crate an awareness of the factors affecting
human work capacity, and an understanding of the scientific
method of assessing it. Most standard times will be arrived at
by studying the performance of daily rated labour. The
explanations above will enable these assessments to be made
with greater confidence. Even with a limited experience of these
methods it is possible to make a reasonably fair assessment.
Some organisations, experiencing significant seasonal and
other variations in working conditions, prefer to keep a record
library of basic, as opposed to standard, times and build in
relaxation and contingency allowances appropriate to each
individual site.
Figure 14. Tabular recording of standard times
HfTl-0-l-SvKc(r$ ttW
1 l (14 0 (6 /3S (O 1-36
2-
00 /*> 1-95 (Jo 1-90
* m.
* 0 ? ?
/52
342
* m
s
wfT $20vKcire5 AH
1 ro ISS Ift) (S
2- 170 65 170 \n n
3
f s-zo 5-10 115 VIS ?
5
A/OTE: As the results of new studies come in, they will be entered in the appropriate
column, and the mean figure adjusted as necessary. When sufficient data is
obtained, missing figures can be interpolated. The above information can also be
59 ptotted graphically as shown in figure 15.
Figure 15. Graphic recording of standard times
DESCRIPTION
EQUIPMENT
4T
UJ
or
\~
L
O 3--
CO
r>
o
ce
UJ
LOADINQ
a 2-- HEIQHT
IN METRES
O
rs
o
X
I
z< 1 --
0
2 3
SOILTYPE
NOTE: The data shown in tabular form in figure 14 are here reproduced .
graphically. See table 6 for soil classification chart. 60
excavation and loading of
soils by hand
SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Productivity is related to the soil type. The following table gives
a rule-of-thumb classification for easy dentification of soil types
on site.
activity sampling
Activity sampling can be used to assess the degree of activity on
the various sections of a construction site, to check the amount
of time wasted and the reasons, and to check the balance of a
gang. It may also be used for developing standard times,
especially of gang work.
DEFINITION
Activity sampling is a technique in which a large number of
instantaneous observations are made over a period of time, on a
group of machines, operations or workers. Each observation
records what is happening at that instant. The percentage of
61 observations recorded for a particular activity or delay is a
measure of the percentage of time during which the activity or
delay occurs.
If t were possible to look down on the whole construction
site continuously throughout the day or week, and record every
stoppage of worker or machine, a complete picture of effective
and ineffective time could be obtained. However, to do this.
would take up too much time and staff. Instead a series of tours
of the site are made at irregular intervals. Each time the
observer notes what a particular worker or machine is doing at
the instant he or it is observed. If a sufficiently large number of
observations are made, the percentage of readings that show a
worker or machine as working will tend to equal the percentage
of time that they actually were working.
It is important to make the observations at irregular
intervals, to avoid observing the activities at the same point in
the work cycle each time.
DETAILEDANALYSIS
For a more detailed analysis of activities, instead of recording
just "working/not working", the observer could use a code
letter to describe what the worker or machine is doing at the
time of observation, such as:
Machine excavating E Worker working W
Machine travelling T Worker resting R
Machine breakdown BD Worker absent A
Machine maintenance M
Machine refuelling F 62
These could be recorded on the form llustrated below:
ACTIVITY _f 1
SAMPLE u j
Machine Tour of Inspection N /
or
Worker 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
ACCURACY
The larger the sample, Le. the greater the number of nspections
or observations, the nearer the data will be to presenting a true
picture of the facts. There is a formula which glves an
approximate valu of the accuracy of the results of the sample.
It can be wrltten n two ways:
V
4(1 - P) 4(1 ~ p;
either N = orS=
2
SP pN
63
EXAMPLE OF ACTIVITY SAMPLING
TO DETERMINE INACTIVE TIME
(a) Ouery
These observations indcate that on average the machines are idle-
288
x 100 = 60 per cent of the time.
120 x 4
Solution:
/4(1 - p)
UsingS= -y / where p = 0.6 and N = 480
(b) Query
If a degree of accuracy of 5 per cent is required, how many more
observations would be needed?
Solution:
4(1 - p)
Using N = where S = .05 and p is approximately 0.6
S2P
ThenN = 1067
Since there are four machines, the number of observations to be
made is
1067
2 8 7 , that is,
4
an additional 167 observations are needed.
64
EXAMPLE OF USE OF ACTIVITY CHART
IN CHECKING GANG BALANCE
A concrete slab s being poured. The activities and labour forc
are as follows:
Activity Labour
1. Load aggregate into mixer 3 labourers
2. Load cement 1 labourer
3. Add water. Discharge mixed concrete
on to the ground 1 operator
4. Load the concrete into wheelbarrows 3 labourers
5. Barrow the concrete away, and deposit
in slab forms 6 labourers
6. Spread the concrete 4 labourers
7. Tamp the concrete 2 labourers
8. Float the concrete 1 masn
During the course of the day, the Job s inspected 80 times,
and the activities of every worker are noted. The summary is as
follows:
65
The analysis of the results is:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Load Load Empty Load Wheel Spread Tamp Float
agg. cement mixer barrow barrow
Average percentage of
lime working 50 70 80 90 70 42.5 80 80
O.T. = Observed Time B.T. = Basic Time Rated Activity Sampling - Record Sheet
Since observations are made every minute only, there s a
chance that ele.ments of work lasting less than one minute may
be missed. The method is obviously not as accurate as a normal
time study, but provided that sufficient observations are made, it
is sufficiently accurate for most purposes of construction work.
The methods of recording and evaluation are shown in
figures 16 and 17.
Total BT
Total BT
Total BT
Total BT
No.
Total BT
Total BT
Total BT
Total BT
Rating
of
Total
Total
Total
Total
Total
Total
Total
Total
Obs.
ACTIVITY SAMPLING EXTRACT SHEET
Regardless of which worker performs the element of work,
elements are abstracted from the rated activity sampling record
sheet nto the appropriate element column, and opposite the
approphate rating. An example is shown n figure 17.
Having derived the basic times for each element of work in
the whole operation, standard times can be derived by
summation after adding in appropriate relaxation and
contingency allowances.
An example of the use of this technique is given in
Chapter 7.
DETAILREQUIRED
The benefits derived from the system will be balanced against
the cost of running it. It will be necessary to decide upon the
nature and frequency of the data required. Generally, feedback
is necessary from all major cost tems, and tems where prompt
completion is critical to progress as a whole. Feedback may
69 also be called for from those items on which information is
lacking, either to fill a gap in the record library, or for bonus
target setting. It is generally adequate to analyse feedback
information weekly, but occasions will arise when a daily
analysis s required. It will also be necessary to decide upon the
amount of detall required. For nstance, n pouring a concrete
floor slab, the cost and productlvlty of the concreting gang as a
whole can be measured, or else the breakdown details of
mlxlng, transportlng, placlng and flnishlng. The more detalled
information would be useful for syntheslslng the times of
dlfferent but similar operations. It s mportant that feedback
information includes comprehenslve details of the condltlons
under which the work was carrled out, not only the physical and
technical details, but also ground and weather condltions, type
of worker and method of payment; n fact, everythlng that could
nfluence productlvity.
COLLECTION OF DATA
The work carried out by men and machines will be shown on a
daily work record sheet. The actual work done may be shown
on the same sheet or it may be measured and recorded
separately. The two are brought together on a summary sheet
(generally weekly) where the analysis is made. In some
countrles some of the data may be recorded by the foreman or
ganger in charge of each particular operation, depending on the
complexlty. However, it is usually more satlsfactory to appoint a
production control technician both to collect the data and make
and present the analysis to the site management. Examples of
the forms used for data collectlon are given in figures 18-20. It is
usual to give each construction activity a code number, to
faciltate filing and retrieval of information.
Output rates calculated on the weekly work summary sheet
can be presented to site management on the sheet showing the
summary of weekly performances for all operations. This may
show both output rates and costs. Records kept of feedback
data will normally be output figures rather than costs, since cost
of labour and plant hire vary with time, and would require
frequent updating. Against each operation is shown both the
output for the week under revlew, and the cumulative figures to
date. Site management can then compare the achievement with
the original targets, and also observe the trends. If on any
particular operation the weekly achievement deviates
significantly from the target figure, the figure can be entered in 70
red nk to draw the site manager's attention to t. The site
manager can then study the operation and decide what action
to take. This could result in either improving an inefficient
method, or correcting an inaccurate target figure.
PROJECT GANG
FOREMAN
DATE
WORKFORCE OPERATION No. IDLE TOTAL
TIME HOURS
AME No. 3RAFT
TOTALS
REMARKS
LU LU LU LU
ce CO W ce TOTAL TOTAL TOTAL
i
CE OC 3
l
3 WORK IDLE HOURS
PLANT O < O
3
< < O
3
<
O 5 ti O
O
O O
HOURS TIME
TOTALS
REMARKS PREPARED
BY
DATE
OPERATION HOURSWORKED
No. M T W Th F S Sun rOTAL
DESCRIPTION LABOUR
CRAFT
PLANT
WORK
COMPLETED
OUTPUT LABOUR PLANT
RATES
REMARKS
OPERATION HOURSWORKED
No. M T W Th F S Sun TOTAL
DESCRIPTION LABOUR
CRAFT
PLANT
WORK COMPLETED
Quantity
Quantity
Quantity
Output
Output
Output
OUTPUT
Cost
Cost
Cost
No. DESCRIPTION COST RATE
WEEKLY
CUMULATIVE
WEEKLY
CUMULATIVE
WEEKLY
CUMULATIVE
WEEKLY
CUMULATIVE
WEEKLY
CUMULATIVE
PERFORMANCE
It should be remembered that standard times derived by work
study represent a performance rating of 100, whereas those
derived from feedback have no scientific measure of
performance assessment rating built in. In applying output data
it will be necessary to forecast the expected performance of the
workforce. This will depend on the quality of labour in the
73 locality of the works, the quality of the site management and
supervisin, and whether any incentive schemes are to be used
on the project. A very approximate indication of the per-
formance that might be expected from the labour forc is:
SYNTHESIS
From time to time, especially early on, there will be some work
operations for which no output data are available. ln these
cases it will be necessary to synthesise the data required.
Although the operation is a new one, it will probably contain
elements of other jobs carried out previously, details of which
have already been fed into the library.
The new operation is therefore broken down into its
component elements and, where they exist, the appropriate
elemental times are selected from the library. Where no
corresponding time exists, then the elemental time must be
estimated either by modifying the nearest appropriate time, or 74
by skilled judgement. This estimation may be made using the
judgement of an experienced foreman or reliable craftsman, by
simulating and timing the movements nvolved or by reference
to data lists from textbooks or makers' handbooks.
The time for the new Job will be obtained by summing up
the elemental times. When assessing the times for the new job,
the anticipated working conditions will be borne in mind to
ensure the validity of any relaxation or contingency allowances
incorporated, and to forecast performance.
75
WORK STUDY 4
THE GENERAL APPROACH
TO SOME MAJOR
CONSTRUCTION OPERATIONS
plant utilisation
Where mechanical equipment s used extensively on a project, it
will form a major part of costs, and its effective management
and operation are critical to profitability. In selection and
purchase of plant there are conflicts of interest. Snior
management s preoccupied with capital costs and availability of
back-up services and spare parts. Site management is
preoccupied with problems of suitability for the job in hand and
true operatlng costs. Work study is necessary to evalate
suitability and operating costs, and in the general absence of
such studies and feedback data, considerations of capital cost
will predomnate, so that the most effective tems of plant may
not be acquired.
Operator efficiency will affect operating costs. Plant
operators are either direct employees of the construction
organisation, or may be seconded to the site by plant hire firms.
Direct employees are generally self taught, having first
understudied a regular operator on the site. Though such
operators are keen and acquire a high level of dexterity, they
may pick up bad habits and their lack of formal training means a
lack of knowledge about the mechanics of the machine, metal
technology and safety. This may result in negligence, misuse,
serious breakdown and accidents, leading to excessive
standing time and overhead costs. Operators from plant hire
companies are more likely to have had formal operator training,
but present different, supervisory problems. Their principis are
77 preoccupied with the long life of their machines and continuity
of hire, so that the operators are required to nurse their
machines rather than achieve record-breaking outputs, and
productvity will therefore be less than it could be.
In both circumstances, time assessment of potential outputs
can only come about as a result of studies of operation and
performance.
The work study approach will therefore consider not just
the selection of plant but also every aspect of its operation. Thus
in the case of eartfi-moving plant, the following factors are
examined in detail to arrive at the true potential output of the
machine:
- selection of plant (e.g. excavator or scraper);
- location and direction of working;
- suitability of attachments;
- requirements, availability, suitability and balance of support
labour and equipment;
- operator handling;
- routes travelled to tip, full and empty;
- tipping and cleaning-out times;
- refuelling methods and times;
- routine maintenance and servicing;
- fuel and lubricant consumption;
- inactive or down time, and reasons for this.
machine excavation
STUDY OF THE EXCAVATING MACHINE
The work study specialist focuses his attenton not on the
machine driver, but on the machine itself so as to find out
whether the machine is the right one for the particular type of
operation. Very often it is either too small or too large. He must
establish the elements contained in the work, and the capacity
of the bucket (allowing for bulking). He must also time the
working elements and, from their duration, decide which can be
reduced by changes of method. He must find out from his
studies the potential output per hour of the excavator, and then
ascertain the factors affecting the utilisation of this machine. It is
unusual for an excavator to work in isolation. Usually the
machine loads the spoil into tipper trucks, which take it away to
the disposal point or tip. One of the most common causes of
high excavation costs is that the excavating machine has either
too few trucks or too many. If there are too few, the excavator
must wait for them and lose potential ouput, while if there are
too many, the trucks must queue for long periods to be loaded.
It will be appreciated that whether a machine works or not, it
must be paid for.
concreting operations
There are several distinct but inter-related activities to be
studied:
(a) Mixer set-up - layout of machinery, delivery and storage of
cement, delivery and storage of aggregates and supply of
water.
(b) Transportation - of the concrete from mixer to placing-
point. Comparison of the effectiveness and costs of lifts;
crane skips; conveyor belts; concrete pumps; dumpers;
wheelbarrows and head-pans. Ready-mixed concrete
delivery may also be studied for comparison.
(c) Placing concrete - most effective methods of placing
concrete to slabs, walls, columns, beams, pile caps, etc. At
every floor level the transportation conditions may change,
and the method of work may be different to those used on
the level below.
(d) Curing the concrete - or special finishes such as
81 granolithic, mosaic, etc.
For an effective study of concreting and related formwork
and reinforcement operations, the full support of the supervisor
n charge isessential.
CARPENTERS' SHOP
The work study specialist will usually commence by making a
sketch of the carpenters' shop layout. This will be shown on the
site plan layout. All movements of raw materials and completed
formwork will be studied and recorded in the shop and on the
site.
Possible savings in the movement of men, materials or the
finished product will be sought. The potential cost of every
alternative will be worked out and the cheapest method will be
discussed with the shop supervisor as a possible new method. If
a supervisor is against the recommended method and supports
his rejection by a constructive criticism, the work study
specialist must find and try another alternative. If no alternative
is acceptable, the chances are that the existing site method is
the best one.
FORMWORK ERECTION
The method study of these operations should be done jointly
with a work measurement study. If method study is separated
from work measurement, the element of comparison between
methods is not effective. The erection of formwork always offers
a good opportunity for method and cost improvement. 82
" REMOVAL OF FORMWORK
There is a tendency amongst operatives to take formwork from
walls or ceilings in large strips and drop them down to the
ground, often from considerable heights. After this treatment
more than 60 per cent of the formwork s damaged beyond
repair and has to be replaced by completely new units. By doing
this, the operatives hope to save a considerable amount of time,
and thus achieve a higher weekly bonus payment. From the
employer's point of view, the loss is double the cost of new
formwork plus the cost of an incentive which was not really
earned.
When fixing incentive targets, a work study specialist must
be aware of this type of "short cut" and must design an
appropriate defence system.
steel reinforcement
Variations in design, shape, size and weight of reinforcing bars
make the planning and control of steel fixing very complicated.
Any work study may spread over the whole duration of the
construction work. The high cost of steel fixing may also be due
to shortage of supplies - if steelfixers notice that steel is in short
supply, they may go slow to make the Job last longer and so
avoid lay-off.
There are a number of related studies which may be carried
out at different times and places for particular steel-fixing
operations. These are:
- the study of all costs connected with the fixing of concrete
steel reinforcement;
- the study of bilis of quantities and detail drawings, with
83 particular reference to the design of steel reinforcement;
- the study of the deliveries of steel reinforcement to the site;
- studies of the general layout of steel reinforcement on the
site;
- observation and study of all elements connected with
transporting steel reinforcement on the site;
- studies of the steel-cutting shop and of steel-cuttlng
operations;
- studies of steel bending;
- studies of actual fixing of steel for concrete structures.
Seprate studies must be done to cover floor slabs,
reinforced walls, reinforced columns and reinforced pile caps.
On all of them there will be substantial design differences to
cope with varying heights from floor to floor and from one
structuretoanother.
TRANSPORTING STEEL
The elements to be studied are:
- walking or travelling empty towards a steel stack;
- selecting the required length of steel rod;
- loading the steel rodson toa vehicle ora cranewinch; 84
- swinging the crane jib towards the waiting transport;
- depositing a bunch of steel on the transport vehicle;
- returning the empty jib to the stack and repeating the
operation;
- vehicles travelling to the cutting rea;
- unloading the steel at the cutting shop;
- returning the empty vehicle to the stacking point and
repeating the operation as required.
Whether the steel is handled by workers or machines, the
elements will be similar. No studies of more than two workers
should be attempted at the same time. If the work is carried out
by a gang consisting of several people, each person should be
studied separately.
STEEL CUTTING
The work study specialist should study only one worker at a
time cutting one specific gauge of steel. Sometimes, in the case
of heavy and long rods, two workers are used - one for holding
the steel and the other for operating the cutting equipment. The
usual work study breakdown of elements is as follows:
- setting the bench and the nail marker;
- selecting steel from the stack and dragging it to the cutting
bench;
- cutting steel to the required length - the study specialist
records length and time taken per cut. As cutting times are
short, a stop watch is needed. Alternatively, the time taken
to make several cuts can be measured and divided by the
number of cuts to obtain the average individual times.
STEEL-BENDING STUDIES
When bending a specific gauge of steel the work study
specialist studies only one worker at a time. If several different
gauge sizes are used on site, each gauge should be studied
separately. The time taken for a changeover from one gauge to
another will also be recorded. On some sites the steel is
prefabricated weeks or months before fixing takes place. In
these circumstances, the cutting and bending becomes a
continuous operation and the change of gauge may occur only
periodically. On some other sites cutting and bending may be
85 carried out as dictated by the progress of the Job. The work
study specialist will need to adjust his observations and
recording methods to suit the site conditions and the
requirements of management and supervisin.
The usual elements observed in steel bending are:
- collection of steel bars from the cutting place and
transportation to the bending bench;
- adjustment of the bench for the new gauge and design of
steel and the nailing of the markers;
- bending the length of every bar; the number of bends made
will be recorded and a three-dimensional sketch made of
the particular design being studied;
- placing bent steel on to a stack (in some cases it may be
built into a prefabricated reinforcement cage);
- delivering bent units to the fixing position (this may take
place on a different occasion).
control of materials
One of the responsibilities of site management is the control and
storage of construction materials. There is always some
wastage of materials: indeed studies indcate that it is not
unusual for wastage to amount to as much as 10 per cent of 86
materials used. On some projects materials can make up two-
thirds of the total construction cost so that wastage of materials
s a significant factor affecting the profitability of a construction
project.
MATERIALS AT RISK
Apart from tools and small tems of equipment, the main group
of construction materials in danger of wastage or loss can be
classified as follows:
- basic materials, e.g. bricks, sand, aggregate, cement,
structural and reinforcement steel, piles, drainage ware,
construction timber, stone and precast units, roofing
materials, etc.;
- built-in components, e.g. Windows, doors, trames, wash-
basins and sanitary ware, electrical components, heating
appliances, timber fitments, etc.;
- equipment, e.g. refrigerators, air conditioners, ovens,
miscellaneous electrical appliances, etc.;
- finishing materials, e.g. bitumen, felt, glues, paints,
varnishes, wallpapers, tiles, mosaics, cladding, etc.
ADMINISTRATIVE PROCEDURES
It is not possible effectively to control the use of materials unless
the organisation has a proper system for materials accounting,
which should include - 88
- materials schedules abstracted from the project master
plan showing the nature, quantity and timing of materials
requirements;
- procedures and documentation for orderlng and receiving
materials on site;
- stores control procedures and documentation for orders,
receipts, issues and control of stock balances.
89
MOTIVATION AND
INCENTIVES
productivty of labour
On any construction site the contractor's financial gain is
dependent, amongst other things, on completion of the work n
good time and at the least cost, and the productivity of labour
has a direct bearing on this being achieved. The factors
affecting the performance of labour generally fall into three
categories -
(a) the human capacity for work;
(b) the competence of site management;
(c) the motivation of the workers.
motivation of workers
Workers are motivated in their work by a variety of methods, all
of which may be present in varying degrees. They include-
- fear;'
- discipline;
- jobsatisfaction;
- financial incentives.
Age Peak capacity for physical work is In older persons, especially in skilled
generally reached between the Jobs, experience and efficiency
ages of 20 to 35. compnsate for lower work capacity.
Nutrition Capacity is related to calorie and Establish project canteens to provide
protein conten of food. balanced meis. Arrange talks on
nutrition.
Temperatura, Affect the rate at which heat can Start work at first light and avoid
humidity be dissipated from the human working during the heat of the day.
body by radiation, convection and
evaporation of sweat. Heat and
humidity increase dangers of heat
stroke and reduce work capacity.
Health Resistance to disease is affected Enforce strict site hygiene. Arrange
by diet. Good hygiene and talks on hygiene and sanitation.
sanitation is essential to avoid
occurrence of debilitating
intestinal parasites.
Acclimatisation, New workers, or workers given Unpractised workers would initially
adaptation, new tasks, need time for their have a lower productivity, which
learning bodies and muscles to adapt to would improve as they become
the work. acclimatised to the work, and are
instructed in the best methods of
working.
FEAR
This ncludes fear of the supervisor and fear of losing a Job and
being out of work and destitute, especially n a country where
no form of social security exists. This is a negative and
unsatisfactory form of incentive.
DISCIPLINE
This is exemplified by punctuality, lack of absenteeism, good
standards of workmanship and the observance of site
cleanliness and hygiene. When discipline is lacking, site morale
is generally low and productivity is unsatisfactory.
Ways of achieving site discipline include:
- site rules drawn up and explained to all workers by their
supervisors;
- supervisors, by personal example, setting a high standard
in self-discipline;
- workers encouraged to feel that they are working with,
rather than under, the supervisor (but at the same time the
supervisor should leave no doubt in their minds that he is
the leader);
- retribution should be a matter of inevitability rather than
severity. No breach of discipline should go unchecked;
- developing self-discipline through pride in achievement.
Good work should always be praised;
- taking a personal interest in the worker, discussing
problems fairly, never showing favouritism;
- disciplinary action should be taken as soon after an
infringement as possible.
JOB SATISFACTION
Apart from work providing the means of satisfying the workers'
basic needs as to food, clothing and shelter, Job satisfaction is
obtained when the higher psychological needs of the worker,
e.g. self-respect and personal dignity, are met. Individuis have
a need to belong and for their usefulness to be apparent. Job
satisfaction is obtained through a sense of achievement as to
quality, output or other contributions, particularly if that
93 achievement is recognised and acknowledged. Pride in craft
and skill and a sense of responsibility are to be encouraged, and
rewarded with opportunities for advancement and promotion.
Negative aspects which detract from job satisfaction and
morale, and which consequently affect productivity, are to be
avoided. These are generally aspects which imply that the
worker is held in low esteem by management and include:
- poor working conditions and terms of employment;
- poor or subservient relations with supervisors.
FINANCIAL INCENTIVES
Incentive schemes of this nature are widely used in
industrialised countries, but are often a source of contention
and dispute between management and workforce. The schemes
enable workers to earn bonuses over and above the normal rate
of pay for achieving a rate of output at or above a
predetermined standard. It is not always easy to work out what
this standard performance should be, so that the output targets
set by management on which the bonus earnings depend are
often inaccurate. Different schemes are discussed below.
PIECEWORK
Piecework is the payment of a fixed price per unit of work done.
The price is fixed so that a 75 performance would earn the
equivalent of the basic daily wage, and any output in excess of
that would provide the bonus.
133/3
25 50 75 100
PERFORMANCE AS % STANDARD
Solution
A 100 performance of 0.75 m3 per day earns 33V3 per cent bonus,
i.e. $2.66
1
Therefore 1 m3 earns 2.66 x = $3.55
0.75
3.55
Therefore Va m3 earns = $0.45
8
Thus, a fair piecework rate is $0.45 per pile.
The cost of breaking per m3 is $3.55
95
The piecework system s particularly applicable to repetitive
work, or to the manufacture or preparation of materials.
Piecework rates can also be expressed n time units, by
giving the worker a target time to complete a certain task. If a
target of five hours is given and the Job is completed in four
hours, the worker is still paid five times the hourly rate, earning a
bonus of 25 per cent. He then moves on to the next Job. This
system requires the work to be pre-measured in order to set the
target.
25 50 15 \00
PERFORMANCE AS % STANDARP
50 66% 100
75 100 116%
100 1331/3 133%
125 166% 150
97
Example of target time for the whole operation: The work content of a
particular task is 120 standard hours. It is proposed that a 100 per-
formance shall earn a 33Ms per cent bonus.
(1) What target times should be set if the bonus is to be:
(a) 100 per cent of time saved?
(b) 50 per cent of time saved?
(2) What will the bonus payments for various other performances
under each scheme be?
Strip formwork
towalls m2 0.5 84 42 24 4 28
Clean and repair
wallforms m2 0.25 84 21 8 8 16
Fix column formwork m2 2.50 36 90 16 16 8 8 48
Fix beam formwork m2 2.00 24 48 16 16 32
Fix wall formwork m2 1.20 100 120 24 16 16 16 72
Make beam
formwork m2 1.50 64 96 16 12 8 16 8 60
M T w Th Fr s Total No. $
Foreman 8 8 8 8 8 4 44 66 17.07
Carpenter 1 8 8 8 8 8 4 44 55 14.24
Carpenter 2 8 8 8 8 8 4 44 55 14.24
Carpenter 3 8 8 8 8 8 4 44 55 14.24
Labourer 1 8 8 8 8 8 4 44 44 11.40
Labourer 2 8 8 - 8 8 4 36 36 9.31
Totals 256 311 80.50
task work
This s another form of incentive, though not as effective as
financial incentives. The incentive is to finish a task early and go
home, but be paid for the full day's work. The task set requires
pre-measurement, such as excavating a given length of
roadside ditch, or completing a specified concrete pour. The
task will generally equate to a 75 performance over a full eight-
hour day. Thus if the worker's rate of working is 100, he will
finish h i s t a s k i n -
75
-X8 = 6 hours,
100
giving a time saving of two hours.
advantages and disadvantages of
financial incentive schemes
These are summarised as follows:
ADVANTAGES - the worker s given an opportunity to
earn more than the basic wage as a
reward for higher output;
- the worker's output will be higher, so that
the Job should be completed n less time,
with a more predictable performance
and at lower cost;
- the systems encourage self-discipline,
and supervisin can concntrate on
quality rather than output;
- the worker himself will try to improve the
efficiency of the method. Where a gang
is bonused, it will organise itself for
mximum efficiency, and the better
workers will encourage the inexperi-
enced or less hard-working members;
- the operation of the scheme should keep
site management on its toes, since the
workers will protest against any delays
or mismanagement that reduce their
opportunity to earn bonuses.
DISADVANTAGES - in striving for higher output, quality and
safety may be neglected;
- if bonus rates are too low, the incentive
to work hard may be destroyed;
- differences in earnings between good
and poor workers, or due to inaccurate
bonus rates, may give rise to bad feeling
and labour problems on the site;
- bonus systems are more complicated to
oprate, and require special staffing and
organisational procedures.
101
rules to be observed in operating
financial incentive schemes
(a) When it s proposed to introduce a bonus system on a
project site, the project manager should first discuss and
agree the principies and operation of the scheme with
workers' representatives.
(b) The method of payment and the targets for the work set
should be understood by the workers before starting any
particular item of work. The system should be simple and
easy to oprate.
(c) Once a particular item of work has started, the bonus rate
should not be changed unless it is found to be too low to
offer any incentive, and then only after investigation and
agreement with the workers. If the rates are found to be too
high, they should not be reduced during the duration of the
particular task for which they were set.
(d) The rates set should be high enough for an average worker
who does a good day's work without over-exertion to be
able to earn a reasonable bonus above the ordinary daily
rate.
(e) The workers should not be penalised for matters outside
their control (e.g. delays), and where workers are required
to work a full normal day they should never receive less
than the daily rate for a normal day's work.
(f) The bonus rate should be offered to individuis or small
groups of workers rather than to large groups, so that
individual earnings do not become dependent on the efforts
of other workers.
(g) Dangerous work should not be offered on a bonus work
basis.
(h) Since bonus schemes can lead to substandard work,
penalties for such work must be enforced. Very high-quality
work should only be offered on a bonus work basis if the
supervisin is adequate to ensure no loss of quality.
(i) Any dispute about earnings should always be investigated
fairly and at once.
(i) Care should be exercised when setting bonus work rates
for raw, unpractised workers.
ORGANISING FOR 6
WORK STUDY
This section identifies the contribution of the construction
enterprise to the overall construction process, and outlines the
management structure of such an organisation and the role of
work study within this general framework.
{
approvals, costs.
Except in the case of large
DESIGNING
Technical investigations.
Detailed design, working
drawings, planning and
organisations having both a
design and construction capacity
Nil
}
approvals.
Bills of quantity and
estimates.
Obtain information on special
techniques or materials.
Issue of invitations, Obtain quotations from sub-
preparation and contractors.
TENDERING Assess alternative
submission of tenders.
Award of contract. construction methods.
Devise construction programme.
Prepare and submit tender.
GENERAL MANAGER
1 Sand and gravel are loaded into the mixer hopper by two labourers using shovels
and a 1 cubic foot gauge box. Four boxes of gravel and two of sand are needed
per batch of concrete.
One bag of cement s loaded Into the hopper per batch of concrete by the mixer
operator.
O Concrete s mixed n a 10/7 mixer, 4:2:1 volume per batch of 5 cubic feet.
At the working point, one masn spreads, tamps and floats the concrete smooth.
LABOURER
1and2 42
MIXER
37
OPERATOR
llfH W
54
BARROW
wtrvl
MAM bHIti 68
mixtp
Operation: Mixing and delivering and spreading concrete to upper floor slab.
Original method: 10/7 mixer; 1 ton hoist; two 2 cubic foot barrows; 1 masn; 1 mixer operator;
4 labourers.
Cycle time: 5.70 minutes.
60 x 8 80
Daily output: x 5 x = 331 cubic feet = 12.3 cubic yards.
5.7 100
Operating costs per day = 20 + 25 + (4 x 4) + 6 + 5 = $72.
Cost per cubic yard: $5.85.
IMPROVED METHODS
lf the operation is subjected to the work study questioning
technique, several alternatives present themselves. These
alternatives can be analysed, costed and compared to select the
most appropriate. Examples are:
(a) Use larger wheelbarrows.
(b) Discharge the full mix on to the ground, and engage
additional labour to shovel the concrete into the
wheelbarrows.
(c) Discharge the full mix into a small hopper, from which it will
discharge into the wheelbarrows. This assumes that
m sufficient height is available at the mixer.
(d) Move the mixer nearer to the hoist.
(e) Move the mixer nearer to the hoist and use a concrete hoist
with a 5 cubic foot skip.
Alternatives (a) and (b) are examined in greater detail
below.
ALTERNATIVE (a)
ALTERNATIVE (b)
Discharge the full mix and hand load concrete into wheelbarrows. For
this method, one additional labourer and a spare wheelbarrow are
needed. The concrete is discharged from the mixer on to a raised
platform from which one labourer can shovel 5 cubic feet of concrete
into wheelbarrows in 3.00 minutes. A time of 0.1 minute is allowed for
changing barrows. Thus, the various time cycles become:
Standard
Element Labour Minutes
Fill mixer hopper 2 labourers 2.4
Fill mixer, mix, discharge Operator+mixer 2.7
Fill wheelbarrows 1 labourer 3.3
Barrow to hoist and return with
empty 1 barrowman 3.9
Barrow, hoist to workpoint and
return 1 barrowman 2.7
Spread, tamp and float 1 masn 3.0
Hoisting time, loading and
unloading 2.4
This arrangement, which is shown on the mltiple activity chart (fig-
ure 25) would give a revised time cycle of 3.90 minutes, a daily out-
put of 18.2 cubic yards at a unit operating cost of $4.17 per cubic
yard. The time cycle is restricted to 3.9 minutes by the barrowman at
ground level, and could be reduced further still by employing an ad-
ditional barrowman.
Note that barrowman 2 has spare time, which will allow for a change
of workplace at the upper level.
112
Figure 24. Mltiple activity chart: Alternative (a)
1.AB0URER
Und2
MLL HOPPIK FILL HOPPCR 59
WKER
44
OPERATOR
ht Ui a| j-
68
BARROW
MAN hmlar \ta& 63
load, i
39
BARROW
MAN 2 44
Operation: Mixing and delivering and spreading concrete to upper floor slab.
Improved method: Using larger (2V> cu ft+) wheelbarrows
Cycle time: 4.10 minutes
60 x 8 80
Daily output x 5x = 467 cubic feet = 17.3 cubic yards
4.1 100
Operating costs per day: $72.
Cost per cubic yard: $4.16.
LAB0URER
1ind2
62
MIXER
?? 43
OPERATOR
JflI
empty empty 69
LA80URCT
3 77
BARROW
: loparanc
MANH wSMIto 100
mutr
Operation: Mixing and delivering and spreading concrete to upper floor slab.
improved method: Discharging mixer to platform and hand loading concrete into wheelbarrows.
Cycle time: 3.90 minutes.
60 x 8 5 80
Daily output: x x = 18.2 cubic yards.
3.9 27 100
Operating costs per day: $76.
Cost per cubic yard: $ 4.17.
gang balance
Where a construction operaton s carried out by a team of
workers and/or machines whose work s interdependent then
the output of the gang will be restricted by the performance of
the slowest or least productive member. It s mportant that the
gang should be properly balanced so that each member of the
team can achieve full potential output.
Analysis
Effective utilisation of excavator and lorries is
70
44 X = 30.8 hours/week
100
Effective output of excavator s 30.8 x 23 = 708 m3/week
60
Average number of lorry trips = = 2.03 trips/hour
29.5
Average number of trips per week = 30.8 x 2.03 = 62.6 trips/week
Average output of lorry is 62.6 x 2.5 = 156.5 m3/week
Average output of 2 lorries is 156.5 x 2 = 313 m3/week
Since the excavator cannot dig more than the lorries can cart away, the ex-
cavator is restricted to the capacity of lorries, viz. 313 m3 per week.
114
313
The excavator is therefore only x 100 = 44 per cent effective
708
Weekly costs are: Excavator 16 x 44 = 704
Lorries 2 x 10 x 44 = 880
Total $ ,584
9,175
Duration of Job s = 29.3, say 30 weeks
313
9,175 9,175
Duration of Job = 14.65, say 15 weeks 12.95, say 13 weeks
626 708
Total weekly cost 4 X 10 X 4 4 = 1,760 5 X 10 x 44 = 2,200
16 X 44 = 704 16 X 44 = 704
$2,464 $2,904
Total cost 2,464 X 15 = $36,975 2,904 X 13 = $37,752
Unit cost 36,975/gl75 = $4.03/m3
3 7 , 7 5 2 / Q 1 7 5 = $4.1 f/m3
Solution:
1. Cycle time for tractor/trailer-
2x2
Haulage time x 60 = 16.00 minutes
15
Hitch on/off + tipping = 8.5 minutes at 75 performance = 11.33 minutes
Total 27.33 minutes
2. Daily output-
Actual working time 90 per cent of 8 hours = 7.2 hours
7.2 x 60
No. of trips per day = = 15.81, say 16
27.33
Daily output = 16 x 2.5 = 40 m3
3. Labour force-
(a) Excvate and load: work-hours needed at 75 performance are
100
40 x 1.7 x = 90.6
75
90.6
No. of labourers required is = 11.33, say 12
8
Summary: The gang would be working a tractor and two trailers (one being hauled whilst
the other is loaded); 12 labourers excavating and loading; four labourers spreading. The
daily output should be 40 m3.
site layout
The plan n figure 26 illustrates the site layout for the
construction of a radio transmitter station on a remote site in
open country.
Question 1: What are your criticisms of the present site
layout (see figure 26)? Tablate these criticisms and then
compare them with the list given below and on page 120.
Question 2: Assuming you were the engineer in charge of
the construction works, where would you have located various
tems of equipment, storage, work reas, etc., at the very start of
the job?
A blank layout plan is provided in figure 27. There are
several acceptable alternative site layouts, one of which is
illustrated in figure 28.
TO QUARRY
9ITE
E l HOIST
SEALEDCOMTAINERS HOLPINq
SEMERAToRS^SWITCH^EAR AMD
TRANSMnTER COMPONENTE.
^
S T E E L L A I 0 AT R A N D O M
ONGROUD'.^
AWDCJTIN ^ \ ^
I^TACKof 171 .SITU
D a PYLON B^O j FA3RICATI0N AND STACKIMq
a a .QIRDERSB D T I M B E S STORAQE BENDIN^ BENCH
IAVWUTUCV I I NEW, U S E P A N D
ISCRAPTIM8ER SANITARY FITTINqS+PIPES
^ERECTIOM Nj
14 -J METAL D 0 O R +
WINDOW FRAUES
, UNE
3EWER
_ WATCHMANfe
HUT
CENTrtLlNE
R.C. PYLON O F PROPOSED WCJRKERS'QUARTE RS
BASES STATION ACCESS I C A N T E E a n d LATRINES
ROAD SEPTIC
a
TAKIK
200 meh-es DISTANT
LEQEND I
i . ALLSITE TRANSPORTATION M A N U A L O R BY WHEELBARROW.
2. ALLTECWNICAIEOUIPMEHTWASDEUVEREOBEFORE BUILDIUq FOUNDATIOMS
WERE COMPLETE. A L L O T H E R F n T l N q ALSO DEUVERED(DOoRS, SANITAH^etc).
3 . QEWERATORHOUSE COMPLETED AND WATERTl^nT. COMCRETINq OF Ai* '
FLOOR O r T R A N S M I T r E R BUIL.DIN1, IN PRoqRESS. HOIST W A S NOT
AVAILABLE AT CCMMENCEHENT ANO HAS OHL-C JUST BEEN DELIVERED. TO MAJOR
4 . NEAREST PUR WATER IS IN T H E TOWN O K m A W A Y . WATER DELIVERED H I Q H W A Y , . ^ ^ '~l*\
BYTANKER A N D S T O R 6 D I N 6 20CH-ITRE DRUMS. SCALE
5 . PYLON BASES A N D S E W 6 R / S E F T I C T A N K NOT YET STARTEO.
6 . AGENTS OFFICE IS S I T E D T O C A T C H T H E P R E V A l L I N q B R E E Z E A N D ENJOY NEAREST T O W N 10 %0 30 AO
T H E BEST V I E W I T IS S I T E P M E A R SMALL STORES A M D C B M E N T 2 0 Km DI9TANT METRES
S T O R E FOR SETCURlTY.
7 . S O R E H 0 l FOR WATER SUPPWBY SEPRATE A<5ENCY NOT Y E T S T A R T 6 D .
Figure 27. Blank layout plan
qEHERXTOR
TRANSMITrER BUlLDINCj HOUSE
D D
O D
R.C.PVLON
BASES
UNE
of
SEWER
CEMTRE LlrJE
OF PROPOJED
STATION ACCESS
ROAD
o a a D 1SEPTIC
J
a a TANK
o a
SCALE
40 20 30
METRES
(f) Surplus excavation should nave been led directly to the
erosin nullah to avoid double handling.
(g) Pylon girders have been stacked over foundation bases,
necessitating double handling.
(h) Stonemason's yard intereres with the movement and
handling of technical equipment from the sealed containers.
(i) Site office is badly sited. As the building rises the view of the
site is completely blocked.
Q) Cement store is too far from the mixer.
(k) Concrete aggregates are tipped haphazardly, causing
waste and impurities. Access by lorry is also difficult.
(I) Hoist is on the wrong side of the building, too far from the
work reas.
(m) Mortar-mixing and block-making reas are too far from the
building.
(n) Temporary buildings and storage reas are sited over the
line of the sewer. The sewer should be constructed early, to
freetheground.
(o) Steel is laid haphazardly on the ground and not stacked in
an orderly manner. Bending and fabrication benches are
wrongly placed.
(p) Timber storage rea appears disorganised.
(q) Sanitary fittings, pipes and trames are stacked too near to
the access road for their safety.
Figure 28. Revised layout of site for construction of radio transmitter station
. To
QUARRY
QENERATOR
MASONS TRANSWUTTER BUILDINIq HOUSE
MOIST I I RAMP
SEALED
.MIXERS-. ,<<.* CONTAINERS
n
BIOCKS
nf TIMBER STORE
AMD CARPENTERS'
SHOP
D D a a
D D D D
SURPLUS EXCAVATION
R.C.PVLON CONSTRUCT SEWER
8ASE9 CARTED DIRECTlY ^ EARLV BEFORE ERECTIOM
TONULLAH OFCARPENTERS'WORK REA
M>YLOig LIME
of
SIRDERS | STORES |
ESITE I
'Frica!
SEWER
: i i LATRINES
CENTRE UNE
OF PROPOSEP
D
a o a a STATION ACCESS I SEPTIC
1
D D a a FtOAD TANK
I
JO 2o 30 40
METRES
Figure 29. Rated activity sampling record sheet
bOm 27 2T
<&M$ u/*H\tepsse*to(eueC af u4^<le ofpipt.
60>\ 241 24-7
On*- II2- 00>
5 5^^<)u^lCoI?0m^a^<5W>^te(tfcfp6itv4. 60m J2) 191-7
Om (7S /6-7
60n<\ Z2-
"73
<p |UPrp>etAa/ivvSyutvJKt<iA^. 7S
3*?
No.ol DETAILS OF WORKER
observation
mase* UMUrC*' ' f c a t u c r lAhauurr
2 3 5 6 7 8
1 4
Code Rate Code Rate Code Rate Code Rate Code Rate Code Rate Code Rate Code Rate
1 Q <? <? Q
2
<? <? 4 <? <?
3
4
<*
L 100
0 <? <?
(00 u 100 0
$
L- u 30
5 L 100 U too u 90 u 50 u 90
6 L (06 L 100 U 9o u fo u 0
7 L- 100 L- 90 u 00 u to p
8 - 30 L 90 D u 10 u 909>
9 U 90 /- W f) u so u
10 P L- 90 u too u tfO i 90
11 i- 100 L (00 u 100 p u to
12 L. 100 L. (OS u 50 IA 90
p )0
13 U 1(0 L 110 u 90 U 90 u
IM 90 U 90 u 90
14 U (10 U u 70
15 <? t> p U D
16 <? 0 4 P D
17 <? P <? <? <?
L. IfO t_ 110
<?
18 <?
19 U (10 L. r 90 0 * 0
110 p
T VO
20 L 1(0 U T 30 T 1(0
21 D 1> r 90 T r> T
T
r>
22 0 D r 90 r r> 3o
23 > l> T 90 T ?o r 90
24 <* D <* * T 90
25 S so S 90 T 100 r 90 T to
O.T. = Observed Time B.T. = Basic Time Rated Activity Sampling Record Sheet
u Q
No.
II of
obs.
SO atl 21 s-edl
WfWt
55
JM1IMI
10 55 2 IZ
60 1-2 5P I? H II _ 12 7* 3 120
mi* i^nrwt 12-7$
6S lili <f t . U M *
,HIM
UHUf s
70 un n '0 7-0 rK S
75 urUH 75 Mtt 9-O* ni
mu tNv wKO i n
0 I II
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Figure 31. Calculating the standard time