THE 10th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON ADVANCED TOPICS IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
March 23-25, 2017
Bucharest, Romania
Challenges and Opportunities for Batteries of
Electric Vehicles
George Suciu1, Member IEEE, Adrian Pasat2
1
University POLITEHNICA of Bucharest
2
BEIA Consult International
george@beia.ro, adrian.pasat@beia.ro
Abstract- Following the path of energy efficiency and reduced
emissions, electric vehicles have been the focus of research over
the last decade. However, limitations as lengthy charging time,
modest range and relatively lazy performance of batteries
limited the commercialization of electric vehicles. So, numerous
R&D projects aimed to advance the area of hybrid propulsion,
thus striving to overcome most of these shortcomings, with
improved energy efficiency and reduced emissions compared to
conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). In
this paper we analyze challenges and opportunities for batteries
of electric vehicles, proposing a novel system designed as a
hybrid concept between Vanadium Redox Flow Battery and
Hydrogen Fuel Cell, for energy management in an electric
vehicle, with zero emission. Thus, the main purpose of this paper
is to present the components of the system as a reliable
alternative to the technical limitations of standard electric
storage systems based on lead-acid batteries.
Keywords: Electric Vehicle, Electrochemical Systems, Fuel Cell,
Redox-Flow Batteries.
I. INTRODUCTION
When compared to conventional combustion drives,
electric vehicles provide a number of advantages such as
lower local emissions, higher energy efficiency and minor
dependency on fossil fuel. There are significant barriers in the
adoption of electric energy as a main power source for
vehicles, including the high acquisition costs, limitations
imposed by actual battery technology itself and
poor/inexistent recharging infrastructure. Thus, to overcome
these barriers, numerous R&D projects focused on the
development of highly sustainable energy sources for vehicle
propulsion at an accessible adoption cost [1].
One key priority in the development of electric vehicles is
the energy storage system which is meant to replace engines
based on conventional fossil fuel or bio-fuel. Researchers are
focusing on two main alternatives for the development of
electric vehicles: electrical energy storage using batteries and
the storage of energy in chemical form as hydrogen [2].
Furthermore, gamification and crowd-sourcing can be used to
gather data for optimizing the infrastructure for electrical
vehicles [3].
This paper analyzes the challenges and opportunities of
developing a battery for electric vehicles, presenting the
novel approach of redox flow batteries as a power source for
electric vehicles, investigated in the EV-BAT project [4]. The
novelty of the proposed system consists of the development
and test of technologies such as: RF-6kWh-EV-BAT unit
ISBN: 978-1-5090-5160-1/17/$31.00 2017 IEEE 113
made to replace supply systems from conventional lead-acid
batteries or Li-ion batteries in electric vehicles, an
experimental electrode variant with improved electrochemical
performance on the basis of nanostructured carbon with
specific surface up to 1000m2/g, an experimental variant of
electrolyte to provide an energy density of the RF battery
higher than 25Wh/L, new nano-carbon materials on the basis
of graphene for improving the performance of
electrochemical electrodes, designing an bidirectional DC-DC
energy management system between battery and additional
system power (bank supercapacitors). Furthermore, we
present the design of the monitoring system and dynamic
real-time communication of the technical parameters of
operation of the vehicle that will be equipped with RF 6kWh
battery.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Section II
briefly describes the related research for developing effective
methods to store the energy for use on demand, Section III
provides an overview of the proposed system components and
experimental results achieved during various performance
tests, while Section IV concludes the paper.
II. RELATED WORK
Over the last decades, the energy storage manufacturers
have continued to adapt their solutions, so a vast amount of
research has been made in developing better effective
methods to store the energy for use on demand.
To better understand the distinct approaches currently
being developed around the world, we have structured them
into six main categories [5]:
1) Solid State Batteries - where we include advanced
chemistry batteries and capacitors;
2) Flow Batteries - are batteries where the energy is stored
directly in the electrolyte solution for longer cycle life and
quick response times;
3) Flywheels - mechanisms which harness rotational
energy to deliver instantaneous electricity;
4) Compressed Air Energy Storage - utilizing compressed
air to create a potent energy reserve;
5) Thermal - capturing heat and cold to create energy on
demand;
6) Pumped Hydro-Power - building large-scale reservoirs
of energy with water.
A. Use Cases for Electric and Hybrid Vehicles
One of the greatest achievement of modern technology is
by far the development of ICEVs (Internal Combustion
Engine Vehicles), especially automobiles. They have made
great contributions to the growth of modern society by
satisfying many of its needs for mobility in everyday life.
However, their large number around the world led to a
serious problem for the environment. In this regard, in the
recent period have been conducted many research and
development activities related to transportation, with an
emphasis on high efficiency, clean and safe operation.
Electric vehicles (EV), hybrid electric vehicles (HEV), plug-
in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV), and fuel cell vehicles
(FCV) are meant to replace the internal combustion engine
(ICE) vehicles.
A HEV combines a conventional ICE and an electric
propulsion system. Fuel cell (FC) technologies are expected
to become an attractive power source for automotive
applications because of their clean, high efficiency, high
reliability.
Supposed to be one of the solutions which lead to reducing
global warming process, EVs have some limitations, as the
high initial cost, short driving range, long charging time.
Table 1 presents several important characteristics of EV,
HEV, and FCV [6].
TABLE I.
CHARACTERISTICS OF EV, HEV, AND FCV
PHEV offers improved performance and flexibility when
compared to conventional vehicles (plus the Zero exhaust
emission advantage). Also, in comparison with HEV, the
PHEV has a larger onboard battery pack and its battery can
be charged from an external electricity source [7]. Both EVs
and PHEVs save energy through the presence of regenerative
braking during the deceleration cycle. This generated energy
can be stored in batteries or ultra-capacitors.
B. Emerging battery technologies for electric vehicles
Numerous research has been conducted for enhancing
battery technology, with the aim of improving performance
while ensuring that batteries are lightweight, compact and of
course cost efficient. Further, we analyze what are the
114
advances in battery technology and what impact they have on
the EVs market.
1) Lithium-ion batteries. Some of the advantages of
Lithium-ion batteries (LIB) are: they have a high cyclability
the number of times the battery can be recharged while still
maintaining its efficiency but a low energy density the
amount of energy that can be stored in a unit volume. Also,
the LIBs on the market today primarily use graphite or silicon
anodes and a liquid electrolyte. A lithium anode has been the
holy grail for a long time because it can store a lot of energy
in a small space (i.e. it has a high energy density) and is very
lightweight [8].
2) Solid state batteries. Solid-state batteries have solid
components. This technology provides several advantages:
eliminates the electrolyte leaks or fires, extended lifetime,
decreases the need for massive and expensive cooling
mechanisms, and the ability to operate in an extended
temperature range.
3) Aluminum-ion batteries. Aluminum-ion batteries are
similar to Lithium-ion batteries but have an aluminum anode.
Their advantage would be the increased safety at a decreased
cost over LIBs. In recent scientific studies, has been proposed
a solution for one of the aluminum-ion batterys greatest
disadvantages, its cyclability, by using an aluminum metal
anode and a graphite cathode. This also offers significantly
decreased charging time and the ability to bend.
4) Lithium-sulfur batteries. Lithium-sulfur batteries (Li/S)
have a lithium anode and a sulfur-carbon cathode. This
technology offers a higher theoretical energy density and a
lower cost solution than LIBs, but have low cyclability.
5) Metal-air batteries. Metal-air batteries have a pure metal
anode and an ambient air cathode. Having a cathode made of
air is viewed as a significant advantage (regarding the weight
of the battery). There are many variants for the metal, but
lithium, aluminum, zinc, sodium remain the forerunners. A
major disadvantage would be that most metal-air or metal-
oxygen prototypes have problems with cyclability and
lifetime.
III. SYSTEM COMPONENTS AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
This section briefly presents the proposed system
components and the experimentation results achieved during
various performance tests.
A. RF-6kWh-EV-BAT redox battery experimenting
A prototype of redox battery (Fig. 1) was constructed with
electrolyte based on vanadium and three cells connected in
series (two-pronged), which provides electricity for 4 hours
with periodicity of 1/day.
The RF-6kWh-EV-BAT unit was made to replace supply
Fig. 1. Prototype of redox battery
systems from conventional lead-acid batteries or Li-ion the synthesis period). Top and transverse view are presented
batteries in electric vehicles. in Fig. 3.
The battery has the following characteristics:
1) Energy capacity: 100 Wh;
2) Nominal capacity: 7 Ah;
3) Nominal voltage of the cell: 1.4 V to 18 C (SOC
100%);
4) Nominal voltage at the battery terminals: Ua = 4.2 V to
18 C (SOC 100%);
5) Operating temperature: 10 C 40 C.
The experimental unit was tested through consecutive
charge-discharge cycles. A 4.9A electrical current has been Fig. 3. SEM images of graphene top and transverse view
applied while the potential voltage at battery terminals was
C. The experimental electrolyte
limited to 4.9V. Discharge tests were conducted over a 0.4-
An experimental variant of electrolyte has been developed
ohm resistive charge in a potential voltage of 4.8V-3.8V, for
in order to provide an energy density of the RF battery higher
200 min. The energy released was at minimum 105Wh. Fig. 2
than 25Wh/L. Special problems of RF batteries is the reactant
presents the discharge curve during the testing period.
solubility in the electrolyte solution. The solubility of species
is a function of temperature and therefore in designing of a
system and an application must be taken into account that
limit.
3M HCl / 3M H2SO4 (6:2,5) / 2,5M VOSO4 electrolyte
solution developed shows an energetic density of 53Wh/L
which gives them great potential in developing applications
such as energy storage and electric transport. Dilution
duplication possibility of active vanadium species in complex
HCl / H2SO4 offers significant advantages regarding
electrolyte volume ratio - energy density and thermal landing
operation also widening the electrolyte. Fig. 4 presents the
Fig. 2. Discharge curve of RF cell
electrochemical cell used for testing the experimental
electrolyte.
B. The nanostructures carbon experimental electrode
We present further three experimental types of electrodes:
1) Electrodes in thin film from nanostructured carbon type
Ketjen Black EC 300J (AkzoNobel), with a surface area of
600m2/g, on Toray Graphite Paper TGPH - 090 graphite
support;
2) Electrodes in thin film on graphitic support from carbon
nanowall (CNW) with surface area > 1000m2/g, on Toray
Graphite on Paper support TGPH - 090 graphite support;
3) Tridimensional electrodes from carbon felt type HFC-
CH, thickness 5mm(Henshcke) and specific surface area >
1000m2/g. Fig. 4. The electrochemical cell used for testing the experimental
Nano-structured materials type nanocarbon and nano- electrolyte
carbonic walls show increased application potential in redox
D. Design of the DC-DC system between battery and extra
batteries. Regarding the choice of an optimum electrode power system (bank supercapacitors)
(combination resistance polarization - capacity), felt carbon The batteries accumulate energy in electrochemical form
shows to be the best alternative electrode due to the 3D and are very common devices for storing electrical energy in
structure of the carbon felt [9], it is expected to support this various applications. The batteries are made up of several
type of electrode currents at high values compared with the electrochemical cells in serial-parallel combination to achieve
electrodes in a thin film. the desired capacity at the desired voltage and current. The
These structures can be viewed as a porous number of cells in serial varies in proportion to the voltage
microarchitecture, compounded by individual lamellar required. The considered storage system is represented by the
formations which have dimensions of 10 - 20nm thickness cell with a rated voltage Un = 1.2V at 30C. A (SOC 50%).
and lengths between 0.5 2 microns (their length depends on Since it is necessary to use a boost converter to achieve a
voltage of 72V, it has been considered 20 elements connected

115
in series, corresponding to a nominal battery voltage Ubatn =
24V. The maximum voltage of each element is 1.35V,
whereas the minimum voltage obtained at the end of
discharge is 1V; therefore battery voltage varies between a
maximum and a minimum Ubatmax = 27V and Ubatmin =
20V. In contrast to the other storage systems it was
considered a voltage of 72V.
The converter used is a bidirectional chopper. To define the
control logic of the system, it has been used as a reference
signal on the 72V voltage (Ucc). This choice is made because
the line voltage is a parameter directly related to the values of
the system, and the power demand is changed (supplied or
absorbed) by the storage system. Loading and unloading
operations must be controlled so as to limit the current to
acceptable levels and to determine the state of charge,
preventing the overcharging or uncharging process. Loading
and unloading processes are controlled by a control loop
which compares the voltage Ucc with two preset values Ustc
(state charge voltage, 80V) and Ustda (state discharge voltage
72V). The logic control converter was built taking into
account different operational conditions that characterize the
battery itself:
1) load phase: Absorption voltage (Ibat < 0) and terminal
voltage (Ubat) rising;
2) download phase: power supplied (Ibat > 0) and terminal
voltage (Ubat) down;
3) inert phase: the battery does not change the power (Ibat
= 0, constant Ubat).
Fig. 5 illustrates the bidirectional chopper representation in
ATPDraw [10].
Fig. 5. Bidirectional chopper representation
The charging process is achieved by maintaining a constant
current for a voltage greater than the preset Ustc at least for a
predetermined time (for example, 1 sec). The reference value
will have a value of load current. The reference value
becomes negative in terms of battery charging due to the
current storage system absorption .
E. Design of the monitoring system
A control system was designed for dynamic and real-time
communication of technical operating parameters of the
116
vehicle that will be powered by RF 6kWh battery. The
monitoring system [11] allows the operation, management
and monitoring of the system for a hybrid vehicle supply
network of electric car parks. The platform allows each
electric vehicle to measure and monitor at least four
parameters: electric current drawn from the ultra-capacitors
battery, electric current drawn from the Li-ion battery,
electrical current drawn from the charging system of Li-ion
battery and electrolyte pH of ultra-capacitors. The data is
received, processed and delivered to users as visual reports
and alerts. The user interface is built using cloud computing
technologies, making it easy to use and with high availability.
Access to the interface is done through a web browser from
any location where an Internet connection exists. Fig. 6
presents the logical chart of how the monitoring system
functions.
Fig. 6. LabView logical chart representation of the monitoring system
The interface display can be designed from the information
retrieved during the experimental process. The associated
circuitry consists of both digital and analog parts which are
required to transmit the measured data to a PC. Hence the
myDaQ / myRIO [12] will be used in conjunction with the
designed analog circuitry. The myDaQ already possesses in-
built A/D (Analog to Digital) and D/A (Digital to Analog)
converters, so one needs to merely connect the wires from the
analog domain into suitable ports of the device.
Once the signals have been digitized, the acquired signals
must be charted on some kind of graph in the signal (voltage /
current) vs time format. It is intended that this graph will get
updated in real time as increasing number of samples is
acquired. In order to achieve this, the associated software -
LabView needs to be programmed accordingly. LabView
provides an advantage over other conventional script based
programming software like C etc. as it works on Graphical
Code (G-Code). We compared with other similar
experiments, regarding fuel cell measurings and visualization
in LabView environment [13]. The proposed LabView
interface consists of two main windows. One is the Block
Diagram where the G code is implemented. The other is
known as the front panel and is used to simulate the front
panel of an actual instrument, including windows where the
charts plot the values which can be read off directly (Fig. 7).
Moreover, the data can be stored in a file or database,
allowing further processing.
Fig.7. LabView interface of the monitoring component
This image was captured when an ongoing test with a
dummy cell was being performed. Crucial settings such as
sampling rate and number of samples (Buffer size) should be
carefully adjusted. The sampling rate must be chosen in
accordance with Shannons Theorem, else the signal being
sensed/generated would not be accurate due to probable
aliasing issues.
IV. CONCLUSIONS
Environment protection and energy conservation have
urged the development of EVs. However, the
commercialization of EVs is still facing challenges. The main
reason is that they could not satisfy the consumers need due
to high cost and short range. Consequently, HEV and FCEV
are recently rapidly emerging and seizing the chance to go to
market. The paper analyzed challenges and opportunities for
FCEV, which will have long-term potential to be the
mainstream vehicle in the future, because it is almost zero
emission and comparable driving range to ICEV.
Also, an innovative solution to optimize multiple energy
sources to obtain the best performance at lower cost was
117
proposed. Further research will be performed on system
components, such as the proposed experimental electrolyte or
the nano-carbon prototype electrode.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The work has been supported by UEFISCDI Romania
under grants TELE-GREEN, NMSDMON, MobiWay, EV-
BAT and 5C projects, and funded in part by grant no.
337E/2014 Accelerate project and European Union's
Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant
agreement No. 643963 (SWITCH project).
REFERENCES
[1] L. Yong, J. Yang, and J. Song. "Nano energy system model and
nanoscale effect of graphene battery in renewable energy electric
vehicle." Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol. 69, 2017,
pp. 652-663.
[2] U. Eberle, and R. V. Helmolt. "Sustainable transportation based on
electric vehicle concepts: a brief overview." Energy & Environmental
Science vol. 3, no. 6, 2010, pp. 689-699.
[3] G. Suciu, C. Butca, and L. Necula. "Gamification for accelerating the
go-to-market of Electric Vehicle Batteries." The International Scientific
Conference e-Larning and Software for Education. Vol. 1, 2016, pp.
547-551.
[4] EV-BAT project overview: http://www.beiaro.eu/ev-bat/
[5] Energy Storage Association, Energy Storage Technologies:
http://energystorage.org/energy-storage/energy-storage-technologies
[6] C. C. Chan, The SoTA of Electric and Hybrid Vehicles, 2002.
[7] F. Baronti, M.Y Chow, H. Rahimi-Eichi, and R. Saletti, E-
transportation: the role of embedded systems in electric energy transfer
from grid to vehicle, EURASIP Journal on Embedded Systems, vol. 1,
2016, pp. 11-15.
[8] J. Karsten, and D. West, Five emerging battery technologies for
electric vehicles, Techtank, 2015, pp. 1-4.
[9] K. J. Kim, et al. "A technology review of electrodes and reaction
mechanisms in vanadium redox flow batteries." Journal of Materials
Chemistry, vol. 3, no. 33, 2015, pp. 16913-16933.
[10] J. H. Kim, et al. "Modeling of Battery for EV using EMTP/ATPDraw."
Journal of Electrical Engineering and Technology, vol. 9, no. 1, 2014,
pp. 98-105.
[11] Y. Xing, T. Kwok, and M. Pecht, Battery Management Systems in
Electric and Hybrid Vehicles, 2011.
[12] H. Wang, F. He and L. Ma, Experimental and modeling study of
controller-based thermal management of battery modules under
dynamic loads, International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol.
103, 2016, pp. 154-64.
[13] B. Kumari, and R. Rana, Labview based sliding mode voltage control
of PEM fuel cell system, Journal of automation and control
engineering vol. 4, no. 1, 2016, pp. 1-8.