Soran University

Faculty of Engineering
Petroleum Engineering Department

Aspects of porosity units and zonation in carbonate reservoir

A project report submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Petroleum Engineering

By:
Huner Salar Abbas
Rozhi Sarip Majid
Renas Karim Mohammed

Supervised by:
Shirzad B.Nazhat

(2016/2017)
 Declaration
We confirm that this work submitted for assessment is our own and is expressed in our own words.

Any uses made within it of the works of other authors in any form (e.g. ideas, equations, figures,

text, tables, programs) are properly acknowledged at the point of their use. A list of the references

employed is included.

Signed.

Date

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Date

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Date

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 Acknowledgement
We would like to take this opportunity to thank our supervisor, Dr. Shirzad Nazhat at the

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Soran University, for his

encouragement and intellectual thoughts throughout of this study. We would like to mention

that, when we first met with Dr. Shirzad, he introduced this project to us, his continuous

motivation, feedback, supervision and regular meetings have enriched our project and made this

study possible. We would like thank Soran University, Faculty of Engineering, for their support

during this research. We are also grateful to the Academic and Administrative members of

department of petroleum engineering for their cooperation in writing thesis.

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 Abstract
This study deals with establishing the Zonation of Lower Fars Formation by studying rock types

and porosity. It also deals with dividing the formation into units based on the outcrop and

subsurface data from well logs. During this study the recognized Members of Lower Fars

Formation(Upper Red Beds, Seepage Beds, Saliferous Beds, Transition Beds) are divided and

zoned such as: Upper Red divided to (R1-R8) and Seepage Bed divided to (B1-B4), Saliferous Bed

described as Salt Anhydrite Marl and S1. Transition Bed divided to (T1-T13) and Basal Fars

Conglomerate with Main Limestone.

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 Contents
Declaration........................................................................................................................................i
Acknowledgement .......................................................................................................................... ii
Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... iii
List of figures .................................................................................................................................. v
1 Introduction to carbonate reservoir .......................................................................................... 1
1.1 Research Objective ............................................................................................. 1
1.2 Overview ............................................................................................................. 2
1.3 Definition of carbonate reservoir ........................................................................ 3
1.3.1 Carbonates ................................................................................................................. 3
1.3.2 Reservoir.................................................................................................................... 4
1.4 Literature review ................................................................................................. 5
1.5 Depositional environment ................................................................................... 7
1.5.1 Marginal marine environments.................................................................................. 7
1.5.2 Tidal Flat ................................................................................................................... 7
1.6 Lower Fars ........................................................................................................ 10
1.6.1 The main characteristics of the formation ............................................................... 12
2 Chapter Two ........................................................................................................................... 21
2.1 zonation ............................................................................................................. 21
2.1.1 Aspects of Porosity units ......................................................................................... 21
2.1.2 Outcrop data ............................................................................................................ 23
2.1.3 The signals of the cyclicity ...................................................................................... 25
3 Chapter three .......................................................................................................................... 28
3.1 Discussion ......................................................................................................... 28
3.2 Conclusions ....................................................................................................... 31
4 References .............................................................................................................................. 32

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 List of figures
Figure 1 Deposition of sabkha (Anon., n.d.) .................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Figure 2 Coastal Plain Depositional Environment-Sabkha (Anon., n.d.)...................................... 10

Figure 3 Location map of the studied area). .................................................................................. 16

Figure 4 General view of the Lower Fars (Fatha) . ....................................................................... 11

Figure 5 The contact between Lower Fars Fn and Pilaspi Fn at south Mira De village. ....... Error!

Bookmark not defined.

Figure 6 Lower Fars outcrop near Mosul ...................................................................................... 24

Figure 7 Generalized columnar section of the lower fars formation ............................................. 26

Figure 8 Lithological section of lower fars Formation .................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Figure 9 Nodular gypsum from Dulab outcrop, west of Iraq ......... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Figure 10 Generalized stratigraphic columns for the geological succession in Kurdistan ............ 18

Figure 11 Lithological section of lower fars Formation ................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

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 1 Introduction to carbonate reservoir

1.1 Research Objective

The main purpose of this thesis deals with dividing and subdividing Lower Fars Formation members into

zones and subzones, tracts, unites, according to the existing evidence and outcrop characteristics correlated

with subsurface data, to introduce and explain parameters of Lower Fars Formation and be easy for reservoir

modular to use.

1
1.2 Overview

Carbonate Reservoirs are account 40% of hydrocarbon production's today and because of there are

several large fields in the Middle East and they are predictable to control production through the

next century (Bjorlykke, 2010).So, understanding carbonate reservoirs and to produce them

efficiently have become industry priorities. Current efforts in carbonate exploitation focus on new

zonation for carbonate in order to targeting new wells, frequently horizontal, to optimize

production from reserves and on confirming that massive water injection planes deliver an effective

sweep of the reservoir (Akbar, et al., 1995). Geoscientists are trying to solve the problem of

carbonate rock's pore space and know how permeability and porosity barriers and conduits affect

reservoir behavior. Compared with sandstone reservoirs, carbonates are usually more

heterogeneous and more complex. Sudden localized changes in rock types, reservoir properties and

structure, and the impact of micro pores on permeability and total porosity make carbonates very

difficult to characterize interpret model and simulate (Bellen, 1959).

Lower Fars Formation (Carbonate Reservoir) includes 10% hydrocarbons of Kirkuk Oil Fields

(Nazhat, 2017), thats why we are doing Zonation For lower Fars Formation its Outcrop is located

in Kirkuk in northeast of Iraq at an area between foothill zone and folded zone. The formation

mainly composed of red claystone, sandstone and limestone while in the middle part of the basin

the share of green marls and evaporate increase expense of others. Because of these lithologic

variations and basin arrangement the thickness of the formation is extremely variable, which is

high in the middle part and low at the peripheral part. The greatest thickness of the formation is

600m in the middle depositional area, which is lying on the Foothill zone (Buday, 1980).. To make

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a zonation for Lower Fars, the formation must be selected and from the formation the dependable

parameter that has effective role to break down the formation such as porosity, permeability are

taken and correlated with subsurface data. Lower Fars Formation has four major members, each

member has different properties due to the depositional environment of Lower Fars formation

(Hyne, 2001).

1.3 Definition of carbonate reservoir

1.3.1 Carbonates

Carbonates are an ionic complexes of (CO3)2 with divalent metallic cations such as

Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, Zn, Ba, Sr, and Cu. The bond between the metallic cation and the carbonate group

is not as strong as the internal bonds in the CO3 structure, which in turn are not as strong as the

covalent bond in carbon dioxide (CO2). In the presence of hydrogen ions, the carbonate group

breaks down to produce CO2 and water. This breakdown reaction, commonly experienced

when acid is placed on limestone, is the chemical basis for the fizz test that distinguishes carbonates

from noncarbonates. It is also used to distinguish dolostones, which fizz slowly, from limestones,

which fizz rapidly. Carbonates occur naturally as sediments and reefs in modern tropical and

temperate oceans, as ancient rocks, and as economically important mineral deposits. The common

carbonates are grouped into families on the basis of their crystal lattice structure, or the internal

arrange-ment of atoms. The families are known by the crystal systems in which they form,namely,

the hexagonal, orthorhombic, and monoclinic crystallographic systems.

The most common carbonate minerals are in the hexagonal system, notably calcite (CaCO3) and

dolomite (Ca,Mg(CO3)2). Aragonite has the samecomposition as calcite, CaCO3, but it crystallizes

3
in the orthorhombic system.The monoclinic system is characterized by the beautiful blue and green

copper carbonates azurite and malachite, respectively. Calcite and aragonite are polymorphs of

calcium carbonate because they share the same composition but have different crystal structures.

Dolomite, like calcite, crystallizes in the hexagonal system, but it is different from calcite. The

small size of Mg ions compared to calcium ions causes a change in the dolomite lattice resulting

in a loss of rotational symmetry. Aragonite is common in the modern oceans but it is rare in the

ancient rock record; therefore it is safe to say that carbonate reservoirs and aquifers are composed

of calcite and dolomite limestones and dolostones. Together, those rocks make up about 90%

of all naturally occurring carbonates (Reeder, 1983 ). Only a small fraction of the remaining 10%

of carbonate minerals includes azurite and malachite, which are semiprecious stones and are

commonly found in jewelry or other ornaments.

1.3.2 Reservoir

Reservoirs are usually defined as storage receptacles. To a petroleum geoscientist, reservoirs are

porous and permeable rock bodies that contain commercial amounts of hydrocarbons. Reservoirs

owe their porosity and permeability to processes of deposition, diagenesis, or fracturing

individually or in combination. Although we will focus on hydrocarbon reservoirs in carbonate

rocks, many porous and permeable carbonates are groundwater aquifers. Reservoirs are three -

dimensional bodies composed of rock matrix and networks of interconnected pores. If the three -

dimensional geometry (size and shape) of a connected pore system is known, it is possible to (1)

determine drilling locations in exploration or development prospects,(2) estimate the volume of the

4
resource in the reservoir or aquifer, (3) achieve optimum extraction of the resource, (4) determine

the practicality of drilling additional (infill) wells to achieve the optimum spacing between field

wells during development, and (5) predict the path that will be taken by injected fluids as they

sweep remaining hydrocarbons during secondary and enhanced recovery.

1.4 Literature review

The Formation belongs among the most widespread and economically, extremely important

formations of Iraq. Simultaneously the formation is relatively well investigated too, due to the

extensive research work connected with the search for oil in Iraq. The formation was originally

described from lam. The type locality is unknown. The name was introduced according to (Bellen,

1959). The name Farsi is however is used in Iran itself in various senses so for instance designates

by the name a group divided into three formations of which only one is lithologically and facially

corresponding to the Iraqi Lower Fars. It seems that the evaporitic part of Iranian Fars Group of

Furst is more age-corresponding to the Iraqi Euphrates Group evaporites and that the Middle

Miocene of the eastern Zagros cannot be fully compared as far as facies is concerned with the Iraqi-

west Iranian Lower Fars. Later the Geological Survey of Iraq developed another scheme while they

divided the Lower Fars Formation into six units; each unit is assigned by an alphabetical letter starts (from

A to F). Some studied the cyclicity of the Lower Fars Formation widely and accordingly divided into two

members which are: Lower and Upper Members. The Upper Member starts with the first appearance of the

reddish-brown mudstone. Many authors proposed other scheme whereby they selected five laterally

persistent limestone marker beds. These marker beds are assigned as M1, M2 etc. M1 and M2 represent the

Lower Member and the rest represent the Upper Member [2]. Recent works on lower Fars more extended

5
by Bakhtiar M. Ameen He investigated geological relations between clastic, evaporate and

limestone layers of fatha formation in the high folded zone (Karim, 2016). Facies, Depositional

Environment and Cyclicity of the Lower Fars Formation East Baghdad Oil Field published by

Mazin Y. Tamar-Agha, Osama J. Mohammad Al-Aslami at Department of Geology, College of

Science, University of Baghdad,Iraq . (Nazhat, 2017) investigated The Environmental Aspects of

Underground Storage of Hydrocarbon Products in Lower Fars Salt Beds Kurdistan Region.

The present study is related with cyclitic analysis in term of relation of the dissimilar lithology in

the basin, which depends on field observation, for example lateral and vertical lithologic

variations and bedding boundary conditions in (nature of the boundary between dissimilar beds)

adding to thin studies section.

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1.5 Depositional environment
Depositional environment is part of earth surface that has certain chemical, biology, and physics

characteristics where sediments are laid on. There are three types of depositional environments,

they are 1_continental, 2_marginal marine, 3_marine environments. Each environments have

certain characteristic which make each of them different than others. And different depositional

environment, will have different structure and texture of sediments. Due to that Marginal Marin

Environment includes Lower Fars Formation origin we have to briefly discuss about it.

1.5.1 Marginal marine environments

The Marginal Marine is located around the boundary between the continental and the marine

depositional realms. The Marginal Marine is dominated by wave, river and tidal processes. The

characteristics of Marginal Marine are high-energy waves and currents. The depositional settings

in marginal marine sediment are Delta, Beach, and Barrier Island, Estuarine, Lagoonal, and Tidal

Flat .A wide variety of sediments including Conglomerates , sandstones, shales carbonate , and

evaporites can accumulate in these various marginal marine environment.

1.5.2 Tidal Flat

The Tidal Flat is transition environment that still affected by tide. The tidal flat divided into 3

zones, Sabkha (Supratidal), Intertidal, and subtidal. Sediment characteristics of tidal flat is the

dominant of sand in shallow subtidal zone, intertidal bottom zone, and channel. There is cross

bedding sand in channel and abundance of mud in sabkha.fig()

1.5.2.1.1 Intertidal Zone

Located on between high and low tide level. This zone occurs the bed load and suspension load transportation.

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1.5.2.2 Subtidal Zone

, is under the water when low tide level. Tide influence in this environment is very important especially at tidal
channels, where bedload transport and deposition are dominant.

1.5.2.3 Sabkha

Sabkha is environmental deposition of Lower Fars Formation and it is an Arabic term for a salt

flat. Sabkha are Supratidal, forming along dry coastlines and are characterized by evaporite-

carbonate deposits with some siliciclastics. Sabkha form subaerial, pro-grading and shoaling-

upward sequences that have an average thickness of a meter or less. The lagoon water enters the

sabkha by continuous subsurface seepage and sometimes by occasional floods. In certain places, a

raised sandy berm separates the sabkha from the lagoon. In this part, the low-lying areas of the

sabkha nearer to the lagoon are occasionally filled with water and subsequently evolve in the brine

pools. The lower part of these brine pools is covered with algal mats. The lagoon water floods of

the sabkha after evaporation is covered with a thin sheet of the white salt crust. This salt crust is

dissolved in the following flooding but reappears after some days creating a cycle process. By way

of the subsurface water mostly originates from the adjacent lagoon, the ground water level in the

sabkha stays nearly at the lagoon water level. Pits dug in different parts of the sabkha showed that

the underground sea water extends more than 1km landwards. The Ghar formation is known to

pass gradationally upwards into Lower Fars in B.P.C. wells in the Basrah area. Cycles of limestone-

gypsum, mudrock-limestone-gypsum and mudrock-gypsum are analyzed as sabkha cycles

produced through the progradation of the sabkha over intertidal and subtidal sediments. Halite can

be precipitated subaerially in sabkha situations and sub aqueously in shallow or deep water

environments and the gypsum-anhydrite beds are interpreted as of sabkha (I. e. supratidal) origin.

The typical cycle then can be interpreted in terms of sabkha progradation, whereby supratidal

8
sediments (the sulphates) built out laterally seawards, over intertidal and shallow subtidal carbonate

sediments, which in turn prograde over deeper water muds. For example, sabkha cycles have been

described from many other sequences in the geological record (Gholam-Reza, 2009). In the lower

part of the formation, sequences may consist of lime stone-gypsum cycles with little or no mudrock.

These cycles represent sedimentation in an area distant from any continental influence so that only

carbonate sediments accumulated in subtidal and intertidal environments. See fig (1) .

9
 Figure 1 Coastal Plain Depositional Environment-Sabkha (Anon., n.d.)

1.6 Lower Fars

The Formation belongs among the most widespread and economically, extremely important

formations of Iraq. Simultaneously, the formation is relatively well investigated too, due to the

extensive research work connected with the search for oil in Iraq. The formation was originally

described from lam. The type locality is unknown. The name was introduced according to Bellen

et al. (1959) by Busk and Mayo in 1918. The name Farsi is. however. used in Iran itself in

various senses. so for instance Furst (1970) designates by the name a group. divided into three

formations. of which only one is lithologically and facially corresponding to the Iraqi Lower

Fars. It seems. that the evaporitic part of Iranian Fars Group of Furst is more age-corresponding

to the Iraqi Euphrates Group evaporites and that the Middle Miocene of the eastern Zagros cannot

be fully compared. as far as facies is concerned. with the Iraqi-west Iranian Lower Fars.

The Lower Fars Formation of Iraq was divided by the oil geologists into a number of informal

units, which might be partly recognized throughout the whole area of the Lower Fars distribution,

with the exception of the more northeasterly marginal facies belt. In general. the Lower Fars

Formation of Iraq is characterized by the prevalent evaporitic (sulphatic and halogenous) facies.

The rocks composing the formation are anhydrite, gypsum and salt, interbedded with limestone,

marl, and relatively fine grained clastics.

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 Figure 2General view of the Lower Fars (Fatha) in the proximal area showing main lithology,
M: Marl, S: Sandstone, R: Red clay stone, G: Gypsum or anhydrite (Haji, 2007).

The quantity and mutual relation of the individual rock types is the basic criterion for the

differentiation of the informal units. The introduced informal units according to Bellen et al,

(1959. pp. 166-167). from bottom to top are:

a) the Transition Beds are composed mostly of anhydrites separated by frequent. but relatively

thin. limestones. and mudstone. The transition beds rest usually on the so-called Basal Fars

Conglomerate. which. however. is now included into the Jeribe Limestone Formation.

b) The Saliferous Beds are composed of rock salt and anhydrite with some siltstones. mudstones.

and with less frequent limestone intercalations.

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c) The Seepage Beds consist of anhydrites interbedded with siltstones and mudstones and with

limestone beds.

d) Upper Red Beds composed of reddish mudstones and siltstones with relatively frequent

limestones and some anhydrites. The division quoted above is also recognized by Ditmar et at.

(1971, p. 105). The described informal units are easily recognizable in the Kirkuk part (Buday

and Vanecek. 1971). of the Lower Fars Basin i.e. on the Foothill Zone of north Iraq. In the Jezira

basin and in the southeastern areas of Iraq i.e. on the Mesopotamian Zone and on the southeastern

extensions of the Foothill Zone the informal units are not clearly distinguishable.

1.6.1 The main characteristics of the formation

1.6.1.1 Composition of lower fars

In general, the Lower Fars Formation of Iraq is characterized by the prevalent evaporitic

(sulphatic and halogenous) facies. The lower part contains more carbonate and evaporite, and the

upper part is dominated by multiple cycles of varicolored silty-sandy mudstone, green silty

mudstone, red silt-sandstone, and evaporite. The facies evolution indicates decreasing marine

influence.

The rocks composing the formation are anhydrite, gypsum and salt, interbedded with limestone,

marl, and relatively fine grained clastics fig (8). From the beds of lower Fars different

characteristics and composition recognized and specialized. The quantity and mutual relation of

the individual rock types is the basic criterion for the differentiation of the informal units. The

introduced informal units according to (Bellen, 1959)from top to bottom are: The first bed of

lower Fars from top is Upper Red bed which is composed of reddish mudstones and siltstones

with relatively frequent limestones and some anhydrites. The second bed is The Seepage Beds

12
consist of anhydrites interbedded with siltstones and mudstones also with limestone beds. Third

bed is The Saliferous Beds which are composed of rock salt and anhydrite with some siltstones.

Mudstones and with less frequent limestone intercalations. The forth beds from bottom is the

Transition Beds which are composed mostly of anhydrites separated by frequent but relatively

thin limestones and mudstone. The transition beds rest usually called Basal Fars Conglomerate.

Which however is now included into the Jeribe Limestone Formation (Nazhat, 2017)

1.6.1.2 The thickness of the formation

Is greatly variable. In the central parts of t-he basin thickness up to 900 m. was reported.
The thickness of the Lower Fars formation varies a great deal but can reach as much as 2500 feet

(762 meters), as in the area of Chia Surkh. Over the Kirkuk structure the thickness varies from

about 1000 feet (305 meters) in the northwest to about 2000 feet (610 meters) in southeast. (Nazhat,

2017).

1.6.1.3 Fossil of lower fars formation

The formation represents the deposits of a relatively strongly sinking basin, which had been

often separated from the open sea by rising ridges. 198 Fossils were found rarely. This is due to

the hypersaline character of the basins. The . assemblages are composed. mostly of minute

Foraminifera, mainly miliolids. Besides, ostracods were more frequently found too. Useful fossils

are Clausinella (?) amidei, Clausinella ssp., Ostrea latimarginata (considered to be an index fossil

of the formation), Rotalia beccarii, and Elphidium sp. (Bellen et al., 1959, p.167). Ctyroky and

Karim' (1971,' p.4l) mention the presence of Sigmoilina sp., S. tschokrakensis, Quinqueloculina

akneriana, Q. sp., plecto Frondicularia sp., Cytheriedeis sp. and Cardium sp.

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1.6.1.4 The age of the formation

Middle Miocene and the unit, according .to Ponikarov at (1967~ pp.140-142), belongs' to the

Tortonian (higher Middle Miocene) stage. This is in contradiction with the age of the Gachsaran

Formation of the Fars Group of Iran. which is -attributed by all 'modern authors to the Lower

Miocene (james and Wynd. 1965. p.2236; Furst. 1970. p.35). The formation. as defined in Iraq. is

without any doubt middle Miocene. as it is proved by the position of the formation 'above the

'Orbulina datum too (Karim and Prazak. 1973 - oral communication). Essentially'. the formation

is somewhat a diachronous representant of the lagoonal - evaporitic facies of the Middle

Miocene.

1.6.1.5 Regional correlation of the formation

The lower contact of the formation is conformable. The underlying unit usually the Jeribe

Limestone Formation. where the Basal Fars Conglomerates belong too (Ditmar et al.. 1971. pp.

105-106). In some areas. however, the formation overlies sediments older than the Jeribe. It is so.

mainly in the shore areas. where the formation has a transgressive character. In such areas slight

unconformities might be postulated. The upper contact is gradational and most probably

somewhat diachronous. This was claimed by Bellen et al. 09';9. p. 166). while discussing the so

called Middle Fars Formation. a unit. which is not recognized in Iraq and which is mostly

abandoned in its type area in Iran.

14
The distribution of the formation in Iraq is wide. Its sediments cover the marginal areas of the

Stable Shelf and almost the 'whole Unstable Shelf. On the Stable Shelf to the south and southwest

of the Euphrates River. i.e. , on the slopes of the Rutbah uplift. The formation occurs as a narrow

stripe only. To the north of the Euphrates River. the Lower Fars basin (the .Jezira Basin) covered

the whole Stable Shelf. The Foothill and Mesopotamian Zones are the main areas of the

formation's distribution.

15
 Figure 3Location map of the studied area and outcrops distribution of the Lower Fars (Fatha)

Formation (modified from Sissakian, 2000). B: Isopach-Facies map of Lower Fars Formation.

(Dunnington, 1957).

On the High Folded Zone the Formation is missing or-what is not yet fully proved-replaced (west

of the (greater Zab river) by a clastic facies with some gypsum intercalations. The formation

then.' i . described together with the upper Fars and called the Undifferentiated Fars

Formation by bellen et al. 1959. p. 121). McCarthy et al. 1958. p. 14). etc. These bed include

the so called Sinia Volcanics (\1itchell. 196()) too. which. however. were not mentioned in the

latest reports of Hall (1958) at all. The presence of the Lower Fars Formation in the

undifferentiated Fars to the west of the Greater Zab remains obscured. Lithologically those

beds belong to the Upper Fars Formation or. should the presence of the volcanics he proved, to

yet another formation. Southeast of the Greater Zab river. the southwestern parts of the High

Folded Zone might he originally covered by' Lower Fars sediments too. This is evidenced by the

16
conspicuous thickness of the Lower Fars and its saliferous facies near to the superficial

northeastern boundaries of the formation in the Taq-Taq and Chemchemal wells (Anon. 1961;

Melville and Fothergill. 1954: Jameson. 1961). The formation correlation is easy in Iraq. with

the exception of the formation of the Imbricated Zone dominated by limestones and mainly

terrigenous clastic red beds. and. partly. of the clastics in the synclines of the Northern High

Folded Zone. It might be supposed that the Govanda Limestone Formation represents an

equivalent of the Jeribe Limestone Formation. In that case part of the overlying Merga Red Beds

might be contemporaneous with the Lower Fars. The same holds good for parts of the

Undifferentiated Fars in the synclines of the Northern High Folded Zone. where the presence of

some anhydrites might indicate the partial equivalence with the basinal Lower Fars.

17
Figure 4 Generalized stratigraphic columns for the geological succession in Kurdistan, Iraq,
modified after (Dunnington, 1968).

18
This more' possible. because the facies change from the marine calcareous-evaporitic Lower Fars

to the marine- 199 continental clastic-dominated Upper Fars is the result of the orogenic uplift

and subsequent erosions. Those events are somewhat older in the northwest and. Therefore the

facies change might occur there in somewhat earlier times. In general. we suppose. that the

calcareous. - evaporitic Lower Fars facies passes laterally to the northwest and to the northeast

too into the partly contemporaneous clastic Upper Fars facies. The Lower Fars is well defined

formation in the northern parts of the country only. In that area the problem of the relations of the

basinal Lower Fars to the clastic so called Undifferentiated Fars remains open. In South Iraq,

however (mainly in the oil areas along the Iranian border), many problems are connected with the

Lower Fars stratigraphy Thorough paleontological, facial, and sedimentological studies should be

carried out in order to solve the stratigraphical position, facies development, and regional

correlation of the south Iraqi atypical Lower Fars Formation. These studies are of great interest

due to the extreme economic importance of the formation.

1.6.1.6 SIGNAL OF CYCLICITY AND IDEAL CYCLES

The signals of the cyclicity are very strong and clear in the Fatha Formation. The studied area forms

the proximal part of the basin of the formation, during Middle Miocene. The signals of the cyclicity

are regular repetition of the packages of lithologies for several times in each outcrop section. Each

package consists of red claystone, marl and gypsum beds with or without limestone and sandstone.

Each outcrop sections have the thickness of (10 40) m, which ends with sandstone and red

claystone of Injana Formation. According to (Amin, 2009), the cycles of the Fatha Formation

19
consist of sandstone, green marl with laminated gypsum or anhydrite from the bottom to the top,

these cycles also observed in the study area. The cycle mentioned by is ideal cycle, which belongs

Stratigraphic column of Kirkuk section which shows the type of cycles and their interpretation

to upper part of Fatha Formation in the Kirkuk area. As shown in fig() In the studied area, the ideal

cycle consists of red claystone (or sandstone), green marl and gypsum (or limestone). This ideal

cycle can be seen in many places, but in most cases many incomplete cycles could be seen, which

consists only of two lithologies such as red claystone - marl, marl- gypsum and red claystone-

gypsum (Amin, 2012).

20
 2 Chapter Two

2.1 zonation
Theoretically to divide distinguished formation into zones and subzones, tracts, unites, according

to the existing evidence and outcrop characteristics, in order to define any particles of the

formation, data from logs, cores, cuttings required and must be accumulated and studied in the Lab

to know the sedimentology of the formation such as age, lithology, lithofacies, fossils, beds and

environmental deposition etc. The fig (6) is about lower Fars formation locate near Mosul. This

formation is very complicate for reading and analyzing by reservoir modeler, so we need to

subdivide to small units and zonation for this formation to show beds and constituent about porosity

and permeability in detail the following steps are required:

2.1.1 Aspects of Porosity units

The term Porosity is refer as percentage of void to the bulk volume of rock. Porosity of commercial

reservoirs may range from about 5% to about 30% of bulk volume.in carbonate reservoir accordint

to lusiaThe porosity has two type primary and secondary porosity. The primary porosity is

developed at deposition, but secondary porosity is developed by geologic process after deposition.

For zonation of Lower Fars, we can use the logs to aspect the porosity of each beds because porosity

has effect on rock classify and zonation. The logs which can determine the porosity of each unit

that we want and the logs that can be used for these purpose mainly are sonic log, and gamma ray.

21
Core sample is another way to get information about aspects of porosity so it is used to help and

accurate zonational classification of the formation .According to the data taken from the wells and

graphed on the bellow section. fig (11), unit (3) contain Upper Red beds and seepage beds has very

low porosity and permeability due to very low amount of marl limestone and more anhydrite, marl

and claystone. Unit (2) is saliferous beds also has small porosity but higher than unit (3) it contains

22
salt rock, marl and anhydrate. Unit (1) is transition beds which has average porosity due do exist

of limestone at bottom with anhydrate and salt rock.

2.1.2 Outcrop data

In order to get further details of the lithology's, outcrop section is taken, then the correlation

between the outcrop section and subsurface sections attempted in order to show the nature of the

strata because the subsurface sections are represented basically by logs and core data but outcrop

sections is elucidated by watching and previous decision of geologists. The succession in each well

must be divided into units according to the logs. The units in the wells are correlated with the outcrops. The

established units are analyzed into their nesting order to establish the cyclicity. According to the cyclic

nature, the Lower Fars Formation is divided again into new units. Fig(6) outcrop of lower Fars near Kirkuk

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 Figure 5 Lower Fars outcrop near Kirkuk (Anon., n.d.)

From the fig (6) we see that The Lower Fars Formation of Iraq can be divided into a number of

informal units, which might be partly recognized throughout the all area of the Lower Fars

distribution in Iraq, also the exception of the more northeasterly marginal Facies belt can be

recognized.

24
2.1.3 The signals of the cyclicity

After color, lithology, age and succession of the formation has been used, another guide to the

zonation is signals of the cyclicity of the depositional environment of (Sabkha). It must has been

taken into consideration in order to help understand deformations and to be used as a guide line to

zonation.

After collecting data we come to the generalized columnar section of the lower Fars formation

modified after (Dunnington, 1968), which is our objective in this thesis includes details about

Lower Fars lithology and units fig (7)

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 Figure 6 Generalized columnar section of the lower fars formation (Nazhat, 2017)

This column shows the Lower Fars formation which is subdivide into four beds. In the areas

around Kirkuk structure the Lower Fars formation has been subdivided into upper red beds,

26
seepage beds, saliferous beds, and transition beds. The lower fars located in the cap rock, in this

column and from bottom it is reservoir rock. The members are divided to zones and subzone, first

member is Upper Red beds which divided to (R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8) each letter means

different specification while Upper Red beds consists reddish mudstones and siltstones with

relatively frequent limestones and some anhydrites. Second member is seepage beds, it divided to

(B1, B2, B3, B4) composed anhydrites interbedded with siltstones and mudstones and with

limestone beds. Third zone is Saliferous Beds (S1, Y) composed rock salt and anhydrite with some

siltstones. Mudstones and with less frequent limestone intercalations. Forth zone is transition beds

also divided to (T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, Z, T6, T7, T8, T9, T10, T11, T12, T13) are composed mostly

of anhydrites separated by frequent but relatively thin limestones and mudstone. The transition

members rest usually on the so called Basal Fars Conglomerate. Which however is now included

into the Jeribe Limestone formation.

27
 3 Chapter three

3.1 Discussion
In this study, theoretical zonation of Lower Fars Formation members is done depending on

collected data of logs from published works, outcrop evidence and color, as the formation is

characterized and zoned, seems that it has four major members and five lithofacies namely upper

red beds, seepage beds, saliferous beds and transition beds, the major lithofacies are namely

Greenish grey marl lithofacies Carbonate lithofacies, Gypsum and/or anhydrite lithofacies Halite

Lithofacies, Reddish brown mudstone lithofacies. The depositional environment of formation and

sabkha described to knew the basin of the formation and its age fossil, location, and area of

distribution, from that the Foothill and Mesopotamian Zones are the main areas of the formations

distribution, the formation correlation is easy to be recognized in Iraq, and also the imbricated zone

is dominated by limestone and basically terrigenous clastic red beds. And include some parts of

the clastics in the synclines of the Northern High Folded Zone. It might be supposed that the

Govanda Limestone Formation shows an equivalent of the Jeribe Limestone Formation. In that

case part, we can say that, the overlying Merga Red Beds might be contemporaneous with the

Lower Fars. The same holds good for parts of the Undifferentiated Fars in the synclines of the

Northern High Folded Zone. The evaporitic formation age of Lower Fars is Miocene and there are

different between Lower Fars appearance in Iraq and Iran because Lower Fars of Iran is

subcutaneously older than that of Iraq, previous study on Lower Fars correlated the formation with

the Gachsaran and claiming the Lower Miocene age of the former in Iraq too but in fact the

Gachsaran formation of Iran does not represent in same group with lower fars of Iraq. During our

studies about environmental deposition of Lower Fars we recognized Sabkha, the term describes a

28
salt flat and it is supratidal forming along arid coastlines and characterized by evaporate-carbonate

deposits with some siliciclastics. After we discussed the environmental origin of Lower Fars, some

important features which has important effects on zonation are recognized such as: Color,

Lithology, Age, Contact, Regional Correlation and Lithofacies. Further details of color from

outcrop section noticed such as Greenish grey marl (lees yellowish grey) generally massive with

conchoidal fractures, occasionally thickly laminated marl or salty marl. Another different color that

separate from another part is creamy greyish white, brownish grey and yellowish grey, thin to thick-

bedded and well-bedded limestone.

Another part recognized from outcrop is gypsum or anhydrate which is white to shades of grey

laminated to thick bedded, and field observation from the theoretical studies shows that outcrop

always seems like nodules and nodular structure also it is most dominant feature.in general the

nodules show chicken-wire texture. There is another part which presence in subsurface sections

only and found in middle of Lower Fars formation succession at the studied oil wells. Last part of

the formation is reddish brown mudstone, which comprises reddish brown and pale brown color.

So, in order to get further details of the lithologies, outcrop section is taken, then the correlation

between the outcrop section color and subsurface sections color attempted in order to show the

nature of the texture and cyclones. The subsurface sections are represented basically by logs and

core data but outcrop sections are elucidated by watching and previous decision of geologists.

Theoretically the members of Lower Fars formation are divided to zones and subzones by porosity

aspects from and collected features from outcrop section. First member is Upper Red beds which

divided to (R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8) each letter means different specification while Upper

Red beds consists reddish mudstones and siltstones with relatively frequent limestones and some

anhydrites. Second member is seepage beds, it divided to (B1, B2, B3, B4) composed anhydrites

interbedded with siltstones and mudstones and with limestone beds. Third zone is Saliferous Beds

29
(S1, Y) composed rock salt and anhydrite with some siltstones. Mudstones and with less frequent

limestone intercalations. Forth zone is transition beds also divided to (T1, T2, T3, T4, T5, Z, T6,

T7, T8, T9, T10, T11, T12, T13) are composed mostly of anhydrites separated by frequent but

relatively thin limestones and mudstone. The transition members rest usually on the so called Basal

Fars Conglomerate.

30
3.2 Conclusions

Porosity and permeability in Lower fars formation variable from one bed to another bed.

By well log we can determine the porosity of each bed, transition beds have higher porosity

and permeability because the transition beds have more quantity of limestone than other

beds and its located in the bottom of lower fars and maybe some of hydrocarbons migrate

to this bed.

All the rock types and descriptions in addition to colors and age has been taken into

consideration and used as a guide to explain the formation and subdivide into units based

on the Sabkha cycles.

Subdividing the formation into Zones and units help out in modeling the reservoir.

By correlating subsurface data and outcrop, a perfect zonation can be achieved.

31
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