more equidistant hollows produce a wavy surface. As the frequency of Surface texture is not a measurable these waves increases, (i.e., as the quantity; it is not possible to assign a space between them decreases), the unique texture value to every different resulting surface would be considered surface. However, it is possible to flat but rough. In fact, surfaces having measure some of the intrinsic Ra is the arithmetic average deviation characteristics, or parameters, of the same height of irregularities from the mean line within the surface texture. are regarded as curved, wavy, or assessment length (L). rough, according to the spacing of Surface parameters are generally these irregularities. defined using profile data developed Roughness and waviness can using stylus-based measurement originate during manufacturing, and systems. Stylus profilers, such as the each process may tend to produce Dektak Series profilers from Veeco one texture or the other. Waviness, Instruments Inc., use a variety of the more widely spaced repetitive diamond-tipped styli to detect minute deviations, can usually be attributed to surface variations in surface individual machining processes or to topography. In a profiler, the stylus is external environmental factors. Factors mechanically coupled to the core of Rq is the RMS value of roughness. such as vibration, chatter, heat an LVDT (Linear Variable Differential treatment, or warping strains can Transformer). A precision stage moves induce waviness. Roughness, the finer, the sample surface across an optically random irregularities of surface texture, flat reference surface beneath the more frequently results from chemical stylus. As the stage moves the sample, or mechanical polishing, grinding or the stylus rides over the surface, finishing processes. detecting roughness variations as small as ten angstroms in height. The LVDT In addition to roughness and produces an analog signal waviness, surface texture may exhibit corresponding to the vertical stylus directionality. The predominant movement. This signal is amplified, Rp is the maximum height of the direction of surface irregularities is conditioned, digitized and stored for highest point of roughness above the referred to as lay. Lathe turning, manipulation, analysis and display. mean line. milling, drilling, and grinding typically produce surfaces with pronounced lay. Defects are also considered a High and Low Pass Filters component of surface texture and may Dektak stylus profilers include a wide range from pitting and marring to range of analyses for measuring scratches, warping, etc. particular surface parameters. They The surface of a manufactured may refer to roughness (designated as component typically exhibits roughness R parameters) or waviness (designated superimposed over waviness and as W parameters). As mentioned Rv is the maximum depth or the may also include lay and/or defects earlier, a typical surface exhibits lowest point of roughness below the mean line. as well. roughness superimposed over waviness. To accurately measure surface CLA (Center Line Average) in the roughness, the more widely-spaced United Kingdom. It is defined as the waviness deviations must be factored arithmetic mean of the departures of out of the calculations. Dektak profilers the profile from the mean line. An employ a user-selectable waviness approximation of average roughness (high pass) filter, in accordance with (Ra) is obtained by adding the Y the ANSI B46.1 specification, to values without regard to sign and Rt is the sum total of the maximum delineate roughness from waviness. dividing the sum by the number of valley and maximum peak of High frequency signals above the samples taken. roughness. selected cutoff value are passed to the Ra is used to detect general variations roughness algorithms. In this manner, in overall profile height. A change in analytical functions such as Ra Ra typically signifies a new variation (average roughness) are calculated in the process. It could be a change using only high frequency roughness in the tool, the coolant, the material, data. Similarly, a low pass filter or any other machine related factor. removes roughness components from However, Ra cannot detect differences the waviness calculations. in spacing and its distribution, or the The rule of thumb for selecting the high presence or absence of infrequently pass filter value is 1/100 the length of occurring high peaks and deep valleys. Rz is the average height difference the scan. It is recommended that the between the five highest peaks and Rq (or also known as RMS) is the root- scan length be five to ten times longer the five lowest valleys of roughness. mean-square average of the departures than the low pass cutoff wavelength. of the roughness profile from the mean Once the desired filters have been line. Rq has statistical significance programmed, they are automatically because it represents the standard applied whenever a roughness or deviation of the profile heights and waviness analysis is performed. The it is used in the more complex scan data is conditioned by the cutoff computation of skewness, the measure filters and stored. The original, of the symmetry of a profile about the unfiltered profile remains unaffected mean line. and can be displayed simultaneously with the filtered roughness and Dektak profilers include both the Ra R3z is the distance between the third waviness profiles (as in Figure 1). and Rq standard analytical functions, highest peak and the third lowest as well as other widely used valley of roughness within a sampling parameters for analyzing roughness length, usually averaged over several Average Roughness and waviness. The accompanying sampling lengths. figures provide descriptions of several The one parameter that is standardized of these parameters. Note that in each all over the world and is specified of the figures showing roughness and measured far more frequently than parameters the scans are divided any other is the arithmetic average into five consecutive and equal roughness height, or Roughness portions representing the waviness Average. Universally called Ra, it was filter cutoff length. formerly known as AA (Arithmetic Average) in the United States, and