COMPUTER MEMORY

INTRODUCTION
Computer storage can be divided into primary storage and secondary storage. Primary
storage or main memory in the computer provides fast access storage. The processor can access it
directly for data and instructions. Frequently used files and programs are stored in the primary
memory. Since primary storage is expensive, only a limited amount can be stored therein. Cache
memory is another memory device. CPU can access it much faster than main memory. But it is very
expensive. The secondary storage is used for bulk storage of data and instructions. Large files and
databases are stored on secondary storage devices. These devices include hard disk, optical disks,
magnetic tapes and floppy disks. Data and instructions from secondary storage devices are
transferred to main memory and cache memory in small measures for the CPU to access them for
processing.
Magnetic core technology and semiconductor technology have been used to make the main
memory of a computer system. But today semiconductor technology is widely used for it. The main
memory is made up of memory cells. Each of them can store one bit of data. This memory consists
1f electronic components called semiconductor chips. Each chip contains several hundred thousand
transistors; each transistor represents the binary state of a bit; on or off. Since a bit can store only
one value either l' or 0, the bits are grouped into sets of eight bits called bytes. One byte can store
one character of data.
Memory locations are numbered 0,1,2,3, ...; the unique number assigned to each location is
called its address. Memory is measured in terms of kilobytes (KB) (that is, 210 or 1024 bytes, roughly
taken as 1000 bytes) and megabytes (MB) (that is, 2 20 or roughly 1,000,000 bytes). Gigabytes (GB)
and Terrabytes (TB are the other units of measure of storage. The main memory of a computer is
measured in terms of two characteristics viz., capacity and speed of access.

MAIN MEMORY
The main memory is used to store data and instructions currently required for processing.
Main memory can be divided into Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM).
These memories are manufactured by using integrated electronic circuits .. Both RAM and ROM are
random access memories and both can be used for reading purposes. The distinguishing feature is
RAM's ability to alter data stored in it, which is not possible with ROM. Typically ROM is used to
store system instructions which are relatively permanent in nature. RAM is volatile; that is, it loses its
contents if the device is electrically disconnected.
RAM describes the way computers store and retrieve data and instructions from memory. It
means that the processor has direct access to each memory cell. Once the address of the location is
given the processor can write one character in that location or read one out from it into memory from
that location without reference to other cells in the memory.
Contents of some memory chips cannot be modified or rewritten. These memory chips are
used to store data and instructions that are relatively permanent. This memory is called Read Only
Memory and is used to store programs that are essential for the proper operations of computer
system. ROM is non-volatile. Many computers especially microcomputers come equipped with ROM
chips that contain the operating system and application programs. Programs stored in ROM chips
are often called firmware; that is, software built into the hardware.
RAM
The word 'random' means that the computer can access any memory cell without accessing
all cells sequentially. That is, a memory is said to be random access memory if any part of it can be
accessed directly (randomly) for reading or writing data in the same time irrespective of its location.
In other words, access to this memory is independent of physical storage location of information on
the medium. RAM is volatile as any interruption in power supply results in loss of data in RAM. The
contents of the memory remain there as long as electrical current is available to sustain the
memory's pattern of positive and negative charges which represent the two bits 1 and O. lf power
fails, all the contents in the memory will be lost.

TYPES OF RAM
Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM)
It is one of the least expensive RAMs. But it requires frequent power refreshing to retain
memory contents.
SDRAM
SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory) is a generic name for the types of
DRAM that are synchronized with the clock speed of the processor. The speed of SDRAM is
measured in terms of Megahertz. If the speed of the SDRAM and processor is optimized, the
processor can improve its performance.

Static RAM
Static RAM does not need frequent power refreshing as is required for DRAM. Hence, it is
much faster than DRAM. But, it is more expensive than DRAM.

Video RAM
It is used to storE: data for the video display monitor. It is actually a buffer between the
processor and the monitor.

Flash RAM
Flash RAM or flash memory is a non-volatile memory. It can be erased and reprogrammed. It
is used in PC cards of notebook computers, digital camera, cell phones, embedded controllers etc.

ROM
This memory uses Metal Oxide Semiconductor Technology. RAM is read-write memory
whereas ROM is Read-Only-Memory. This memory is used to store frequently used programs in the
system. ROM can be further divided into PROM, EPROM and EEPROM.

RAM and ROM

In Case of RAM it is possible to randomly select and use any Location of this memory. Each
memory Location can be as easily and speedily accessed as any other Location in memory, that is, it
takes the same access time wherever the Location in the memory. It is possible to read from and
write into this memory and hence this memory is also called read/ write memory.
A Read-Only-Memory is one in which information is permanently stored. This memory cannot
be written into. It can only be read. When power is switched off, the contents of ROM remain
unchanged. The manufacturers supply ROM chips along with the programs therein. A variation of
ROM chip is PROM. The PROM can be programmed to record information using a special facility
known as PROM programmer. But, once it is programmed using this facility, it becom,2s a ROM.
PROM is also non-volatile. However, there is another type of memory chip called EPROM which can
be reprogrammed several times. It is possible to erase information stored in E:'ROM chip by
exposing it to ultraviolet light and reprogram it using a special PROM programmer facility.

PROM
Programmable read-only memory can be programmed once. Special circuitry is used for
programming it. Once programmed, this becomes read-only memory (ROM).

EPROM
Erasable programmable read-only memory can be erased repeatedly and reprogrammed by
the user. Erasing is done by exposing EPROM to ultraviolet light of a specific frequency.
Reprogramming requires special EPROM Programmer kit.

EEPROM
Electrically erasable programmable read-only-memory can be erased electrically and
reprogrammed repeatedly.

Cache Memory
110 operations are very slow. CPU speeds are quite high compared to the access time of
main memory; thus the processor performance is limited by the slow speed of the main memory.
To speed up fetching of instructions to CPU, a buffer or cache (pronounced as cash) is used. Normal
RAM is expensive and is not fast enough to match the speed of CPU. To reduce the processing time,
certain computers use costlier and higher speed memory devices to form a buffer or cache. This
technique uses a small memory with extremely fast access speed close to the processing speed of
the CPU. This memory is called cache and it stores data and instructions currently required for
processing. Cache memory thus makes main memory appear much faster and larger than it really is.
It improves the memory transfer rates and thus raises the effective processor speed.
 The CPU searches cache before it searches main memory for data and instructions. Cache
is physically located close to the CPU and hence access to cache is faster than to any other
memory.
Often used instructions are kept in this cache to speed up the fetching of instructions. Some
processors use the cache as a work area also for temporary storage of intermediate results.
Restricted use of cache memory can increase processing substantially without increasing
cost significantly. Cache memory is of two types: L 1 and L2. One is built into the new
microprocessor chip and the other is placed close to the CPU so that it can access it faster and more
efficiently. This high-speed memory increases the speed of processing by making data and
programs available to CPU at a rapid rate.

Internal Processor Memory

The internal processor memory is made up of a number of registers used for temporary
storage during processing. Register is a special storage unit. A typical computer has ten to twenty
registers that are located in ALU and CU. They hold data, instructions and memory addresses. They
are volatile and are designed to improve the efficiency of CPU.

Registers
The computer uses a number of special memory units called registers to speed up the rate of
information transfer between various units of the computer. They are not treated as part of main
memory and are used to retain information on a temporary basis. The number of registers varies
from computer to computer. Most computers use several types of registers each designed to perform
a specific function. These registers can receive information, retain it temporarily and pass it on as
directed by the control unit. The length of a register depends on the number of bits it can store. Thus
a register which can store 16 bits is normally referred to as 16-bit register. Although the number of
registers varies from computer to computer, some registers are common to all computers such as
instruction register, program counter register, etc.

Types of registers
1. Memory address register. This holds the address of the active memory location. When an
instruction is read from memory, the address is loaded from the program into this register.
2. Memory buffer register. It holds the contents of the memory word read from or written in memory.
A word to be stored in memory location must first be transferred to this register from where it is
written in memory.
3. Program counter register. It holds the address of the next instruction to be executed by the
computer.
4. Accumulator register. It holds the initial data to be operated upon, the intermediate results and
also the final results of processing operations.
5. Instruction register. It holds the current instruction that is being executed.
6. Input - output register. This holds all input information to be passed to the memory and also the
output information to be transferred to an output device.

Virtual storage
Primary storage imposed a constraint on program size of Earlier computers. Large programs
that required greater memory than the available main memory could not be run on the machine.
Virtual storage was the technique developed to get around this problem.
This operating system technique divides the program into pages or segments and each page
or segment is loaded into memory in turn. At any given time only the page actually required is read
into the memory from the backing store or secondary storage. Another segment is loaded into
memory when the program instructions required are larger then the currently loaded. So, this
software technique treats secondary storage as an extension of the main memory and parts of a
program are swapped in and out of the main store. Thus, it enables a computer to run a program
that is larger than its available memory size and it gives an illusion to the programmer or user that
the computer possesses practically unlimited memory.

Virtual Storage and Virtual Disk

In case of virtual memory, the backing store is made to function virtually like internal memory
through software. On the other hand, virtual disk is part of internal memory (RAM). Using operating
system software RAM is divided into main memory and virtual disk. This speeds up CPU's access to
memory.