Chapter 10: Scattering and Diffraction

10.1 Scattering at Long Wavelength

Assume that a plane electromagnetic wave in free space
n0 n
Einc = 0 E0e ikn 0 x
Einc Esc (10.1)
H inc = n 0 Einc Z 0 [[Z0 0 / 0 ] Hinc Hsc
is incident on an object of dimension d  , where
0 can be real (linearly polarized) or complex [e.g. p, m scatterer
for circularly polarized wave, 0 = 1 ( x i y )].
2 d 

Einc
i and H inc i will induce multipoles on the object, which in turn
generate scattered radiation (E sc , H sc ). For  d , only the induced
p and m are important. From (9.19) & (9.36), we have
E = k 2 eikr [( n p ) n n m c ]
sc 4 0 r [in far zone] (10.2)

H sc = n E sc Z 0
Hence, to find E sc and H sc , we need to find the induced p and m.
 10.1 Scattering at Long Wavelength (continued)

For
o scattering
sc e g problems,
p ob e s, a useful
use u figure
gu e ofo merit
e iss thee scattered
sc e ed
power ralative to incident power. Furthermore, it is often important
to know the polarization state of the scattered radiation. Thus we
define a differential scattering cross section (with dimension m 2 ) as
radiated power in n -direction with -polarization
d ( n, ; n , ) unit solid angle
d 0 0 incident power in n0 -direction with 0 -polarization
n0
n unit area
2
r 2 2 1Z * E sc The meaning of will
r/ = 0
become clear in ((10.11). (10.3)
d 1 0 * Einc
2 )
2 Z0 i
Note: (i) For a circularly polarized state, an be written
= 1 (1 i 2 ), here 1 2 .
) where
2
(ii) 0 and 0 * n 0 ; and * n; 0 0 * = 1; * = 1
(iii) is
i not necessarily il the di i off E sc . * E sc gives
h direction i
the -component of E sc .
 10.1 Scattering at Long Wavelength (continued)

2
r 2 2 1Z * E sc
Rewrite (10.3): dd ( n, ; n 0 , 0 ) = 0
2
1
2 Z0
0 * Einc

Sub. Einc = 0 E0e ikn 0 x

and E sc = k 2 eikr
4 0 r [( n p ) n n m c ]
i t (10.3)
into (10 3)
d ( n, ; n , ) = k4 2
d 0 0 2 * p + ( n *) m c (10.4)
( 4 0 E0 )
n0
n
* [( n p ) n ]
r/ = * [p n ( n p )]
d = * p ( * n) (n p)


= * p 0
 10.1 Scattering at Long Wavelength (continued)

Example 1 1:: Scattering by a small ((aa << ), uniform

dielectric sphere with =0 and arbitrary
a
= 0 m = 0 Einc = /
r 0
r = / 0 (relative permitivity) = 0
total
o a electric
e ec c field
ed
From (4.56), we obtain the electric dipole moment p induced on
the scatterer byy Einc = 0 E0eikn0 x

( )
1
p = 4 0 r + 2 a3Einc
r
= 0 by assumption (4.56) & (10.5)
d k4 2
Sub. (10.5) into d
= * p + ( n *) m c (10.4)
( 4 0 E0 )2
2
4 6 r 1
d
d ( n, ; n0 , 0 ) = k a r + 2 * 0
2
(10.6)
Question: (4
(4.56)
56) is derived for a dielectric sphere in a static field.
field
Why is it valid for the time-dependent field here?
 10.1 Scattering at Long Wavelength (continued)
We define the n-n 0 p plane as the scatteringg pplane. Let n 0 be alongg
the z -axis and n lie on the x-z plane. The orientations ( , ) of unit
vectors 0 , (1) , and (2) are specified
p g y as follows
accordingly
= ( , ) polarization of z
0 2 0 incident wave
n n0
polarization state direction
(1) = ( + , 0) of scattered wave of incident
2 2 +
& to scattering plane x wave n 0

(2) polarization state (1) 0 (2)
= ( 2 , 2 ) of scattered wave 0 y
to
t scatttering l
t i plane
where 0 is on the x - y plane making an angle 0 with the x -axis, (1)
is on the x - z (scattering) plane, (2) ( = e y ) is to the scattering plane,
and n, (1) , and (2) are mutually orthogonal. Polarization vector ( 0 )
of the incident wave and polarization states [ (1) , (2) ] of the scattered
wave are all assumed to be real, representing linear polarization.
 10.1 Scattering at Long Wavelength (continued)
z
Applying the relation:
n n0
cos = sin sin cos ( ) + cos cos direction
+ of incident
[ : angle between ( , ) and ( , )] 2
(1) x wave n 0
to 0 = ( 2 , 0 ), = ( 2 + , 0), and 0 (2)
(1)
(2) = (2 , 2 ), we find
0 y
(1) 0 = sin ( + ) sin cos ( 0 0 ) + cos ( + ) cos
2 2 2 2

= cos 0 cos
(2)
0 = sin 2 2 (2 0)
sin cos + cos cos
2 2
i 0
= sin

2
d (n, ; 4 6 r 1 2
Rewrite (10.6): d
n0 , 0 ) = k a r + 2 * 0
d & 4 6 r 1
2
(1) 2 4 6 r 1
2
2 2
d = k a r +2 0 = k a r +2 cos 0 cos
2 2
d 1 2 1
= k 4
a 6 r (2)
= k 4
a 6 r sin 2
0
d r + 2 0 r + 2
 10.1 Scattering at Long Wavelength (continued)
Assume that the incident radiation has a fixed direction n 0 , but
is unpolarized (i.e. 0 is random). We take the average over 0 :
d & 1 2 d & 4a 6 r 1 2 2
d = 2 0 d 0 d = k
2 r +2 cos n0
n

0
(10.7)
4a 6 r 1 2
d 1 2 d

= 2 0 d d0 = 2 + 2
k
d 0 r
d
r/
d d &

d d
0 sin 2 100% linearly
( ) 0
d &
= (10.9)
d
d
+ d
1 + cos polarized at = 2
2
0 0
where ( ) gives the degree of polarization of the scattered radiation.
d
d 0
=
d
d
0
+
d &
d
0
r 1 2 1
r
(
= k a + 2 2 1 + cos 2
4 6
) (10.10)
(10 10)
2
d 8 k a
4 6 1 2
0 = d 0
d = 3
r
r +2  a [ka  1]] ((10.11))
Question 1: In (10.10), why add powers before adding fields?
 10.1 Scattering at Long Wavelength (continued)

Q
Question 2: ((10.11)) gives
g  a 2 . This implies
p that onlyy a
0
small fraction of the incident radiation (over the cross section of the
dielectric sphere) is scattered. Is this because most of the incident
radiation has penetrated through the sphere? (See next example.)
Example 2: Scattering by a small perfectly conducting sphere
The incident radiation will induce both electric and magnetic
dipole moments (p and m) on the conductor. p and m are given by
p = 4 0 a3Einc [See Sec. 3.3 of lecture notes.] (10.12)
m = 2 a3H inc [See p. 460 for an outline of derivation.] (10.13)
Einc = 0 E0eikn0 x
(10.1)
H inc = n 0 Einc Z 0 [Z0 0 / 0 ]
F
From i i
d = k4 p + ( n ) m c
2
(10.4)
d ( 4 0 E0 )2
d 4 6 1 2
we obtain d
=k a 0 2 (n ) (n 0 0 ) (10.14)
 10.1 Scattering at Long Wavelength (continued)

As in example
p 1,, for unploarized
p incident radiation,, ((10.14)) yields
y
n0
&d
=
4 6
k a (cos 1 ) 2 n
d 0 2 2
d 4 6
(10 15)
(10.15)
d = k 2a (1 12 cos ) 2 r/
0 d

d d & d
d 0
= d
+ d
= k 4 a 6 [ 85 (1 + cos 2 ) cos ] (10.16)
0 0

3sin 2
( ) = 2
[peak at = 60] (10.17)
5(1 + cos ) 8 cos
= d d = 10 k 4 6
a  a 2
k  1]
[ka
0 d 0 3
Again, we find  a 2 . Since the scatterer (a conductor) is
0
opaque to the incident radiation, by geometric optics, the incident
radiation would have been totally blocked [ = a 2 ]. This example
0
demonstrates that geometric optics completely breaks down for  a.
Instead, diffraction effects (discussed in Sec. 10.5) dominate.
 10.2 Perturbation Theory of Scattering
General Theory: Conside a slightly non non-uniform
uniform medium with
( x) = 0 + ( x) In Sec. 10.1, of the scatterer can be
of anyy value,, but the solution is more
( x) = 0 +
(x) restricted by the scatterer geometry.
where 0 and 0 are independent of x and ( 0 and 0 are not
necessarily the free space values.)
E = Bt 0 E + 0 t B = 0 (1)
2
H = D 0 t 0 H =
0 0 2 D (2)
t t
( )=
2
(1) (2) 0 E + 0 t B 0 H
0 0 2 D (3)
t
D = ( D ) D = D
2 2
(4)


= free = 0 Th
The purpose off the
h above
b manipulation
i l i
is to obtain this small quantity, which
(3) (4) can be treated as a perturbation.
  
2 D 0 0 2 D = ( D 0 E ) + 0 t ( B 0 H ) (10.22)
2

t
 10.2 Perturbation Theory of Scattering (continued)

Assume D, E, B, H e it , ((10.22))
( 2 + 0 0 2 )D = ( D 0E ) i 0 ( B 0 H ) (10.23)

 

k2

2 2
( + k )G (x, x) = 4 (x x) G (x, x) = eik x x . Hence,
x x

(0) 3 ( D 0E )
ik x x
D = D + d 1 x x x
e
+i B H (10.24)
4
0 ( 0 )
Note: (i) D(0) is an incident plane wave which satisfies the homo homo-
geneous Helmholtz eq. [i.e. the RHS of (10.23) = 0]
((ii)) (10.24)
( ) is an integgral relation,, not a solution.
n
Let the integrand in (10.24) be of
d x x
dimension d and r  d , then x x
 r n x and we can write D as ik x x ik ( r nx)
e r nx for r  d
e
D  D(0) + A sc e r with
ikr
xx N
neglect
3 iknx ( D 0 E )
A sc = 4 d xe
1
+i B H (10.26)
0 ( 0 )
 10.2 Perturbation Theory of Scattering (continued)

3 iknx
d x e a [a is
i any vector function
f i off x.]]
3 iknx a z a y a x a z a y a x
= d xe e x ( y z ) + e y ( z x ) + e z ( x y )
i t
integration
ti

by parts
= d 3 xeiknx ie x (k y a z k z a y ) e y (") + e z (")
= d 3 xe iknxi ( k a ) = d 3 xe iknxik ( n a )
[n ( D 0E )] n
ikknx
k2
(10.26) A sc = d xe 3
(10.27)
4 0
k n ( B 0 H )
2 : polarization
l i i
d * A sc
From (10.3), we obtain = vector of the (10.28)
d D(0)
2
scattered wave

Note: (i) Asc gives the scattered field amplitude Dsc = Asceikr/r
[h
[hence Dsc through
th (10 2)] sc is
h (10.2)]. i NOT a vectort potential.
t ti l
(ii) (10.27) is an integral equation for Asc, NOT a solution.
 10.2 Perturbation Theory of Scattering (continued)

Born Approximation: Rewrite (10.27)

A sc = k2
4 d 3
x e {
iknx
[n ( D 0 E )] n 0
k }
n ( B 0 H ) (10.27)
For a linear medium,
D( x) = [ 0 + (x) ] E(x) D 0E = ( x)E
(10 29)
(10.29)
B( x) = [ 0 + ( x) ] H ( x) B 0 H = ( x) H
We see fromo (10.29)
( 0. 9) that
t at the
t e integrand
teg a d of
o (10.27)
( 0. 7) iss co
composed
posed of
o
small quantities E and H. To first order in and , we only
need to use the zero order (or unperturbed) E(0) and H (0) for E and
H in E and H. Thus, we write
(x) (0) This
Thi approx., called th
ll d the
D 0 E = ( x ) E  D
0 Born approx., turns the
integral eq (10.30)
B 0 H = ( x) H  ( x) B (0)
eq. (10.27)
(10 27) into

0 a solution for A sc .
 10.2 Perturbation Theory of Scattering (continued)

Let the unperturbed fields be those of a plane wave,

wave
(0) ikn 0 x (0) 0 (0)
D (x) = 0 D0e ,B ( x) = n
0 0
D ( x)

Sub. D(0) (x) and B (0) (x) into (10.30), n0

then sub
sub. (10
(10.30)
30) into (10.27),
(10 27) and finally
multiply the result by * D0 n

* 0 ( x)
* A ((1)
)
k 2
3 iqx 0
=
sc
d x e (10.31)
D0 4 ( x
+ (n *) (n 0 0 ) 0
)

where q k (n 0 n). The absolute square of (10.31) gives the

differential scattering cross section through (10.28). (10 28)
2
d * A sc
= ((10.28))
d (0) 2
D
 10.2 Perturbation Theory of Scattering (continued)

Example:
E l Scattering
S tt i by b a uniform
if di l t i sphere
dielectric h withith
= 0+ and = 0
q[ k (n 0 n)]
3 iqx
d x e
y y
2
P P
d 0 d 1 d cos eiqrcos
a 2 1
= 0 r dr x n 0
y =1 vacuum

2 0 r dr iqr ( 0 , 0 )
a 2
= 1 e iqr y
i y =1
a cos qa sin qa n
4 a r sin(( q
= q 0 q 2 + q3
qr )dr = 4
Thus, from (10.31) (let = 0)
*A sc sin qa qa cosqa
= k 2
0 ( * )
0
D0
q3 3
sin x x 16 x , x 0
qa 0
k 2 a3 3
2
( * 0 )
cos x 1 12 x , x 0
0
 10.2 Perturbation Theory of Scattering (continued)
2
*A sc 2 3 d * A sc
Sub. = k a 3 ( * 0 ) into = (10.28)
D0 qa 0 0 d D (0) 2

2

qa 0
( )
lim dd
Born
 k 4 a 6
3 0
* 0
2
(10.32)

d r 1 2
4 6 2
in agreement with d
= k a + 2 * 0 (10.6) in the limit
r
r = 0 1.
1
Question: (10.6) and (10.32) both give the differential scattering
cross section (d/d) of a dielectric sphere with radius much
smaller than the wavelength. (10.6) is valid for arbitrary values of
r (= /0). (10 32) in the limit r 1.
) It reduces to (10.32) 1 A physical
effect in included in (10.6) [but not in (10.32)] that keeps d/d at
a finite value in the limit r ? What is it? Explain why it keeps
d/d finite.
 10.2 Perturbation Theory of Scattering (continued)

Blue Sky: Scattering by gases (explanation of the blue sky)

D = 0E + P (4.34) D = 0E + Np = 0 E + N mol 0E = E
Macroscopically, we have p: dipole moment per molecule
= 0 (1 + N mol ) p = mol 0E
Microscopically, we may write mol : molecular polarizability
[see (4.72)
(4 72) & (4.73)]
(4 73)]
 0 , when spreaded over
the size of the molecule N : no of molecules/unit volume

(x) = 0 + mol 0 (x x j )
(x) = 0 mol (x x j ) (10
(10.33)
33)
j j
Since (x) fluctuate microscopically with a weak variation (x ),
we may apply the perturbation theory just developed.
Sub. (x) into (10.31), then sub. (10.31) into (10.28), we obtain
d 4 2 2
d
= 2
k mol * 0 F (q), [assume = 0]
16
2
for randomly distributed molecules
iq( x j x j )
=
iqx j total no of molecules
where F (q) = e = e (10.19)
j j j
(incoherent radiation)
 10.2 Perturbation Theory of Scattering (continued)

We now relate mol to the macroscopic quantities , n, and N .

1
0 n 2 1 2( n 1)
= 0 (1 + N mol ) mol = N
= N N
index of
4 2 2 refraction
d = 2
k mol * 0 F (q)
d n= 1
16 0
k4 2 2
= n 1 * 0 F (q)
4 2 N 2
Total scattering cross section per molecule is given by
= F 1(q ) dd d [F (q) : total number of scatterers] 0

k4 2 2 1 2 n
= n 1 0 d 1 d cos * 0
4 2 N 2   

= 2k 4 n 1
2
(10 34) * 0 = cos ( 2 ) = sin
(10.34)
3 N 2
1 2 is on the 0 -n
1 sin d cos = 43 plane for dipole
scatterer
tt ((p.458).
458)
 10.2 Perturbation Theory of Scattering (continued)

Let I be the intensityy (p(power/unit area)) of the incident wave,, then

dI (10.34) and (10.35) describe what
= IN = I ,
dx is known as Rayleigh scattering.
4
2k 2
where = N  n 1 [attenuation coefficient] (10.35)
3 N
Discussion :
4 Violet light (  410 nm) is scattered more than
(i) k 650 ) 4  6.3.
red light (  650 nm) by a factor of ( 410
(ii) In (10.35), n 1  12 N mol (see last page). Hence, N if
atoms (or molecules) of the same type are added or taken out.
(iii) The
Th atoms
t in
i a gas radiate
di t incoherently,
i h tl but
b t the
th charges
h within
ithi
an atom radiate coherently. Suppose there are 10 electron-ion
pairs in each atom and we were able to split all the atoms into
a gas of single electron-ion pairs, each with the same p. Then, the
macroscopic n remains the same, but the split pairs no longer
radiate coherently, resulting a scattered intensity 10 times weaker.
This explains the factor N1 in (10.35) (See discussion on p. 468).
 10.2 Perturbation Theory of Scattering (continued)
inclination 2
atmosphere, is a
In the earth atmosphere angle: 23 5o
l 23.5
function of x. Then,
dI ( x)
= I ( x) ( x)
sun
dx
0 ( x ) dx
x from "Atlas of
I ( x) = I 0e the
h Solar "
S l System",
S
Royal Astro. Soc.
1 1 Questions:
0.8 0.8
(i) Why is the sky blue
instead of violet?
06
0.6 06
0.6 (ii) Why
Wh is i it more likely
lik l
I / I0

to get a sunburn in
0.4 violet red 0.4
the summer?
0.2 high
noon sunrise, 0.2 (iii) Hot summer/cold
sunset winter results mostly
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 f
from a different
diff t cause.
in Atmosphere What is it?
 10.5 Scalar Diffraction Theory
pplane wave

lowest-order approximation
d
ray tracing (geometrical optics)

next-order approximation
plane wave diffraction theory (physical optics)
r Assume r  d such that these
d
2 lines are almost parallel
First minimum (complete cancellation)
i = d if d  .
occurs att d sin
Nature of the diffraction problem: Physically, the diffraction
problem here is not separable from the scattering problem.
problem However,
However
the treatments are different. The scattering problem treated in this
p assumes >> d. The scalar diffraction theoryy is most valid
chapter
when d >>, for which it gives the next-order correction to the
geometrical optics (see p. 478).
 10.5 Scalar Diffraction Theory (continued)

Justification of the Scalar Diffraction Theory: Physically,

Physically
electronic responses (J, ) of the aperture material to the incident
wave generate electromagnetic fields in addition to dissipating some
of the incident wave. Far from the edges of the aperture, J and
principally result in reflection of the incident wave, while J and
near the edges produce fields that pass to the right of the aperture
g
together with the incident wave. The superposed
p p fields form the
diffraction pattern. In the far zone of the diffraction region ( >a few
from the aperture), the fields take the form of an EM wave, which
obeys
E = Z 0 H n [see (9.19)]
where Z0 = (0/0)1/2 is the impedance
of vacuum, and n is the direction of
wave propagation.
 10.5 Scalar Diffraction Theory (continued)
Thus, E, H, and n are mutually orthogonal, and the amplitudes of
E and H have a known ratio Z0. Therefore, one component of the
fields gives the most of the information (phase and intensity, but not
the polarization) about the far fields. This justifies a scalar theory for
the diffraction phenomenon and explains why it has been the basis of
most off the
h workk on diffraction.
diff i
The Kirchhoff Integral Formula: In the scattering problem, we
calculate the scattered fields due to J and associated with the dipole
moments induced by the incident fields. In the diffraction problem,
the fields are produced in part by the induced J and on the aperture
material, but J and do not appear explicitly in field equations. They
are implicit in the boundary conditions. The Kirchhoff integral
formula expresses the diffracted fields in terms of the boundary fields.
Determination of the near fields requires accurate handling of the
b.c.s (very few cases can be solved completely). However, the far
fields can be fairly accurately determined with crude b.c.s.
 10.5 Scalar Diffraction Theory (continued)

Refer to the figures to the right.

right S1 is an
opaque surface with aperture(s) on it. The
diffraction region (Region II) is the volume
enclosed by S1 and S2 .
Let (x, t ) = (x)e it be a scalar field
(a component of E or B), then
( )
2 + k 2 (x) = 0,
0 k = c (10.73)
(10 73)
Note: gives the phase and intensity, but not
the
h polarization,
l i i off the
h fields.
fi ld
Below, we will express in Region II in terms
of and n
on the boundary
bo ndar ssurfaces
rfaces by
b making
use of Green's thm.

(2 2 3
)
v d x = v s
n
da
n
(1.35)
 10.5 Scalar Diffraction Theory (continued)

Introduce a Green's function G (x, x) satisfying

( )
2 + k 2 G (x, x) = (x x) ((10.74))
Apply Green's thm. to the volume enclosed by
S1 and S2 (Region II) and let = and = G
k 2 ( x) k 2G ( x,x) ( x x)
  
3 2 2
v d x [G ( x , x ) ( x ) ( x ) G ( x, x)]
= v s + s da[G (x, x)n (x) (x)n G (x, x)]
1 2

For an observation point x inside region II,

(x) = v s + s da[ ( x)n G (x, x) G (x, x)n (x)] (10
(10.75)
75)
1 2

Note: n is inwardly directed into the volume instead of outwardly

di
directedd as in
i (1.35).
(1 35)
 10.5 Scalar Diffraction Theory (continued)
ikR
Solution of (10 74): G (x, x) = 4e R with R = x x.
(10.74): (10 76)
(10.76)
Green function with R
outgoing wave b.c. (note: R = R )
RP
G (x, x) = ( d G R
) = eikR
4 R
ik (1 + kR )R
i R


dR
eikR eikR
ik 4 R
Hence, 4 R 2

v s1 + s2 da e R n (x) + ik (1 + kRi ) RR (x) (10.77)

ikR
( x) = 41
We assume that on S2 is transmitted through S1. Then, S 1r
2
and the contribution to the integral g in ((10.77)) from S2 vanishes as the
inverse of the radius of the sphere. Assume further that the radius goes
to infinity and hence neglect the contribution from S 2 . (10.77) then
gives the Kirchhoff integral formula
n (x) + ik (1 + kR )R
i R ( x)
ikR
( x) = 41 s1 da R
e
(10.79)
( )
in Region II is now expressed in terms of and on S1.
n
 10.5 Scalar Diffraction Theory (continued)

Kirchhoff Approximation
pp : Rewrite ((10.79), ),
(x) = 4 s da R n (x) + ik (1 + kR )R
i R ( x)
ikR
1 e (10.79)
1
(10.79)
(10 79) is
i an integral
i t l equation f . It becomes
ti for b a solution f
l ti for
under the Kirchhoff approximation, which consists of
1 and
1. n
vanish everywhere on S1 except in the openings.
openings
2. and n
in the openings are those of the incident
wave ini the
h absence
b off any obstacles.
b l
There are, however, mathematical inconsistencies with
the Kirchhoff approximation:
1. If and n
vanish on any finite surface, then = 0 everywhere
(t
(true for
f both
b th Laplace
L l and
dHHelmholtz
l h lt equations).
ti )
2. (10.79) does not yield on S1 the assumed values of and n
.
A
Approximations
i ti made
d here
h workk best f  d , and
b t for d ffail
il badly
b dl for
f
~ d or > d (d : size of the aperture or obstacle). See p.478.
 10.5 Scalar Diffraction Theory (continued)

Case*:: Diffraction of spherical waves originating

A Special Case
from a point source at Ps.
(x) = eikRs (by Kirchhoff approximation) (5)
Rs

(x) = R
e ikRs

s
(
ik 1 + kRi
s
) Rs
Rs
(6)
Sub. (5), (6) into (10.79), assume kRs & kRs  1 and hence neglect
O ( )
1
kR
and O ( ) terms, we obtain
1
kRs

n ( )
eik ( R + Rs ) Rs R
( P ) = ik s da
4
(7)

( )
1 RRs Rs R
observation
observation
Ps (point source) P point
point
R
Rs
Rs n
x
* More cases can be found in Marion & O (origin of coordinates)
Heald, Classical Electromagnetic
Radiation, following Eq. (12.14).
 10.5 Scalar Diffraction Theory (continued)

As we will see from the following g examples,

p , the scalar diffraction
theory agrees with observations, although it is highly artificial.
Example 1: Diffraction by a circular disk. For simplicity, we assume
(i) Ps and P are on the axis of the disk.
(ii) Ps and P are at equal distance from the disk.
n
Rs r R
d
Ps P
b d
b
Rs = R
R = r + b r dr = RdR
2 2 2
da = 2 r dr
Hence, da = 2 RdR
(8)

Rs
n R = cos = R , n R = cos = R
b R b

s
 10.5 Scalar Diffraction Theory (continued)

t ( P) =
S b (8) iinto
Sub. 4 s1
ik d
da e
ik ( R + Rs )
RRs (
Rs
n R
s
R
R ) (7)

e 2ikR
( P ) = ikb 2 2 2 dR (9)
d +b R
dv = e 2ikR dR ]
a a a
Integrating by parts [ a 2 udv = uv a2 a 2 vdu , u = 1 ,
1 1 1 R2
e 2ikR e 2ikR
( P ) = ikb + 2ik d 2 + b 2 dR
1
2 3
2ikR d 2 +b2 R

(integrating by parts again)

2ikR 2ikR 2ik d 2 +b 2
e e be
= ikb 2 3 +"  (10)

2
2ikR d 2 +b2 4k R d 2 +b2
  

2 d 2 + b2

( )
negligible,
since kR  1
 10.5 Scalar Diffraction Theory (continued)
Q
Questions:
2 2 2
(i) Intensity at P: I ( P ) ( P ) = b /[4 d + b ] 2 2
( (11) )
Since I ( P ) > 0 for all b, there is always a bright spot (Fresnel
bright spot) at any point on the axis. What is the physical reason?
((ii)) lim ( P ) = e 2 ikR ((12))
d 0 2b
In the limit of no obsticle (d 0), ( P) reduces to the exact
solution for a point source at Ps , i.e. the approximate solution in (10)
becomes the exact solution in (12). What is the mathematical reason?

The diffraction
Th diff ti pattern
tt off a disk
di k (from
(f
Halliday, Resnick, and Walker). Note the
Fresnel bright spot at the center of the
pattern. The concentric diffraction rings are
not predictable by (11),
(11) which applies only
to fields on the axis.
 10.5 Scalar Diffraction Theory (continued)
A historical anecdote about the Fresnel bright spot: (The following paragraphs
are taken from Halliday,
Halliday Resnick,
Resnick and Walker.)
Walker )
Diffraction finds a ready explanation in the wave theory of light. However, this
theory, originally advanced by Huygens and used 123 years later by Young to explain
double-slit interference, was very slow in being adopted, largely because it ran counter
to Newtons theory that light was a stream of particles.
Newtons view was the pprevailing g view in French scientific circles of the earlyy
nineteenth century, when Augustin Fresnel was a young military engineer. Fresnel, who
believed in the wave theory of light, submitted a paper to the French Academy of
Sciences describing his experiments and his wave-theory
wave theory explanations of them.
them
In 1819, the Academy, dominated by supporters of Newton and thinking to
challenge the wave point of view, organized a prize competition for an essay on the
subject of diffraction. Fresnel won. The Newtonians, however, were neither converted
nor silenced. One of them, S. D. Poisson, pointed out the strange result that if
Fresnels theories were correct, then light
g waves should flare into the shadow region
g of
a sphere as they pass the edge of the sphere, producing a bright spot at the center of the
shadow. The prize committee arranged a test of the famous mathematicians prediction
and discovered that the predicted Fresnel bright spot,
spot as we call it today,
today was indeed
there! Nothing builds confidence in a theory so much as having one of its unexpected
and counterintuitive predictions verified by experiment.
 10.5 Scalar Diffraction Theory (continued)

Example 2: Diffraction by a circular aperture

Rs n R
d r
Ps P
b b

The solution can be obtained from ((9)) with a change

g on the
limits of integration
d 2 +b 2 e 2ikR
( P ) = ikb 2
dR (13)
b R
Integrating by parts and neglect O ( kR )
1 terms, we obtain

b e2ik d 2 +b2 e2ikb

( P) = 2 2 2 (14)
2 d +b b

As in example 1, lim ( P ) = e2 ikb becomes an exact solution.

d 2b
 10.5 Scalar Diffraction Theory (continued)

2 + b2 2ikb1+ d 2 2b2 Rs n
2 ik d R
lim e =e d r (15)
b d d 2 +b 2 b2 Ps P
b
Sub. (15) into (14) b

1
( P ) b  d 2b [ e
(
2ikb 1+ d 2 2b 2
2ikb )
e ] = 2b e ( e
1 2ikb ikd 2 b
1)
1 2ikb ikd 2 2b ikd 2 2b ikd 2 2b
= 2b e e (e e )
1 2ikb ikd 2 2b 2
= 2b e e (2i sin 2b )
kd

I ( P) ( P) =
2 1 sin 2 kd 2 (b  d ) (16)
b2 2b
Intensity pattern alternates between bright and dark spots
as one moves along the axis.
axis
Question: In example 1, there is always a bright spot on the
axis But in example 2,
axis. 2 the bright and dark spots
appear alternatingly on the axis. Why?
 10.8 Babinets Principle
Rewrite (10
(10.79):
79):
(x) = 4 s da R n (x) + ik (1 + kR )R
i R ( x)
ikR
1 e (10.79)
1
no diffraction screen, imagimary surface
Ps ( P ) = 41 dashed
d h d surface
f
(")

diffraction screen
Ps a ( P ) = 41 dashed surface (")

complementary diffraction screen

Ps b ( P ) = 41 dashed surface (")

By Kirchhoff approx., (P) = a(P) + b(P) [Babinets principle]

 10.8 Babinets Principle (continued)

Example: a light beam of finite width

no screen
( P) = 0

finite width

a ( P) b ( P)

complementary
screen
screen

Babinet's principle ( P) = a ( P) + b ( P ) = 0
a ( P ) = b ( P )
 Fresnel and Fraunhofer Diffraction: (see p.491)
There is a clear diffraction pattern only
when r  d . So, In integrals such as (10.77), P
d r r
R (=| x x |) can be approximated
pp byy r (=| x |)
everywhere except in eikR , where the phase r=x
angle kR must be evaluated more accurately. r = x
Consider three length scales: r , d , and . n
2 2 1/ 2 x x
R = x x = (r 2rr cos + r )
1/ 2
2n
= r 1 ( r )x r2 1 2nx r 2
= r 1 2 ( r 2 ) 8 ( r 2 ) + "
1 2n x r 2 2
r2 r r
nx 1 r2 ( nx)2
= r 1 r + 2 ( 2 2 ) + " = r n x + 2r r ( n x ) + "

1 2 2

r r
2
kR = O(kr ) + O (kd ) + O( r ) +"
kd
If the 3rd and higher terms are neglected, we have the Fraunhofer
diff i (far
diffraction (f field). h 3rdd term is
fi ld) If the i kept,
k but
b higher
hi h order d terms
are neglected, we have the Fresnel diffraction (near field).
 Appendix A. Relevant College Physics Topics
(Ref : Halliday,
(Ref.: Halliday Resnick,
Resnick and Walker,
Walker Fundamentals
Fundamentals of Physics
Physics))
Huygens Principle: (proposed almost
200 years before Maxwell
Maxwellss theory)
All points on a wave front serve as point
sources of spherical secondary wavelets.
After a time t, the new position of the wave
front will be that of a surface tangent to these
secondary wavelets .
Interference and Diffraction:
Both interference and diffraction can
be interpreted on the basis of Huygens
principle
i i l andd the
th principle
i i l off superposition.
iti
Interference: superposition of two Huygens wavelets.
Diffraction: superposition of a continuous distribution of
Huygens wavelets.
 Coherence: an illustration with Youngs interference experiment
1. A monochromatic (single frequency) source [sin(t+)] is temporally
coherent if its phase constant ( ) does not change in time.
2. Two sources of the same frequency [sin(t+1), sin(t+2)] are
temporally coherent if their phase difference (12) remains constant
in time (1 and 2 may or may not be constant in time, see Example 1).
3. An extended source (such as a laser beam) is spatially coherent if
different points of it are temporally coherent (see Example 2).

Example 1: Young's
g experiment:
p
S1
ordinary
p 2:
Example light
g source S0

poor temporal S2

coherence, poor wavefront

laser spatially
b
beam spatial coherence coherent
S0, S1, and S2 individually are all temporally
good temporal coherence, incoherent. But S1 and S2 are temporally p y
good spatial coherence. coherent with each other, because the wave
front of S0 is spatially coherent.
 10.A Relevant College Physics Topics

Superposition of Diffracted Waves:

Total destructive interference

at point P1 occurs when
a sin = or a sin =
2 2
If is small, we have
a
The larger the antenna size
(from Halliday, Resnick, and Walker)
and/or the shorter the wavelength
wavelength,
the narrower the beam width.
 10.A Relevant College Physics Topics

G
Geometrical
t i l Optics
O ti vs Physical
Ph i l Optics:
O ti
incident diffracted
wave wave

a a a

6.0 3.0 1.5

screen (from Halliday, Resnick, and Walker)

Geometric optics: EM waves travel in approximately straight lines if

dimensions of the obstacle (such as mirrors and lenses) or aperture
are much greater than the wavelength.
Physical optics: EM waves are diffracted if the dimensions of the
obstacle or aperture are comparable or smaller than the wavelength.
 10.A Relevant College Physics Topics
A Qualitative Look at the Diffraction/Interference Pattern:
Huygens' wavelets origi- Light intensity at point P on the screen is the
nating from the wavefront
of a pplane wave superposition of all Huygens wavelets originating
screen ffrom the
h wavefront
f off a plane
l wave off infinite
i fi i
extent. If there is no obstacle, point P is no
different from any other point on the screen
screen. So,
So
by symmetry, the screen is uniformly illuminated.
If the wavefront is blocked by obstacle(s)
obstacle(s), the
symmetry is then broken. So, for example, point
P is different from ppoint Q in their relative
screen positions with respect to the obstacle(s). Hence,
the superposition of Huygens wavelets will be
different form point to point, some constructively
obstacle and some destructively. This is the reason for the
appearance off ffringes
i in
i the
h double-slit,
d bl li single-slit,
i l li
or circular aperture experiments.