2.

1 INTRODUCTION

Solar cells are the basic components of photovoltaic panels. Solar cells take
advantage of the photoelectric effect. The ability of some semi conductors to convert
electromagnetic radiation directly into electrical current. The charged particles
generated by the incident radiation are separated conveniently to create an electrical
current by an appropriate design of the structure of the solar cell, as will be
explained in brief below. For further details, the reader can consult references [4].

2.2 OPERATION

A solar cell is basically a p-n junction which is made from two different
layers of silicon doped with a small quantity of impurity atoms: in the case of the n-
layer, atoms with one more valence electron, called donors, and in the case of the p-
layer, with one less valence electron, known as acceptors. When the two layers are
joined together, near the interface the free electrons of the n-layer are diffused in the
p-side, leaving behind an area positively charged by the donors. Similarly, the free
holes in the p-layer are diffused in the n-side, leaving behind a region negatively
charged by the acceptors. This creates an electrical field between the two sides that is
a potential barrier to further flow. The equilibrium is reached in the junction when
the electrons and holes cannot surpass that potential barrier and consequently they
cannot move. This electric field pulls the electrons and holes in opposite directions
so the current can flow in one way only: electrons can move from the p-side to the n-
side and the holes in the opposite direction. A diagram of the p-n junction showing
the effect of the mentioned electric field is illustrated in Figure 2.1.

Metallic contacts are added at both sides to collect the electrons and holes so
the current can flow. In the case of the n-layer, which is facing the solar irradiance,
the contacts are several metallic strips, as they must allow the light to pass to the
solar cell, called fingers.

The structure of the solar cell has been described so far and the operating
principle is next. The photons of the solar radiation shine on the cell. Three different

5
cases can happen: some of the photons are reflected from the top surface of the cell
and metal fingers. Those that are not reflected penetrate in the substrate. Some of
them, usually the ones with less energy, pass through the cell without causing any
effect. Only those with energy level above the band gap of the silicon can create an
electron-hole pair. These pairs are generated at both sides of the p-n junction. The
minority charges (electrons in the p-side, holes in the n-side) are diffused to the
junction and swept away in opposite directions (electrons towards the n-side, holes
towards the p-side) by the electric field, generating a current in the cell, which is
collected by the metal contacts at both sides.

Fig 2.1 working principle of p-n junction diode

This can be seen in the figure below, Figure 2.1. This is the light-generated
current which depends directly on the irradiation: if it is higher, then it contains more
photons with enough energy to create more electron-hole pairs and consequently
more current is generated by the solar cell.

2.3 TYPES OF SOLAR CELLS

Over the past decades, silicon has been almost the only material used for
manufacturing solar cells. Although other materials and techniques have been
developed, silicon is used in more than the 80% of the production [5]. Silicon is so
popular because it is one of the most abundant materials in the Earths crust, in the
form of silicon dioxide, and it is not toxic. Mono crystalline and polycrystalline

6
silicon solar cells are the two major types of silicon solar cells. There is a third type,
amorphous silicon, but the efficiency is worse than with the previous types so it is
less used. Other new solar cells are made of copper indium gallium (di) selenide
(CIGS) or cadmium telluride (CdTe). Much research and development (R&D) effort
is being made to develop new materials, but nowadays there are no commercial
substitutes to the above types of solar cells. In this section these different solar cells
are reviewed.

One of the most important characteristics of solar cells is the efficiency,

which is the percentage of solar radiation that is transformed into electricity. It is
measured under Standard test Conditions (STC), irradiance of 1000 W/m, air mass
coefficient (it characterizes the solar spectrum after the solar radiation has travelled
through the atmosphere) A.M 1.5, and a cell junction temperature of 25C. The
higher efficiency, the smaller surface is needed for a given power. This is important
because in some applications the space is limited and other costs and parameters of
the installation depend on the installed PV surface.

2.3.1 Monocrystalline solar cells

Mono crystalline solar cells are the most efficient solar cells. They are made
from wafers (very thin slices) of single crystals obtained from pure molten silicon.
These single crystal wafers have uniform and predictable properties as the structure
of the crystal is highly ordered. However the manufacturing process must be really
careful and occurs at high temperatures, which is expensive. The efficiency of these
cells is around 15-18% [6] and the surface needed to get 1 kW in STC is about 7m2.

2.3.2 Polycrystalline solar cells

These cells are also made from wafers of pure molten silicon. However, the
crystal structure is random: as the silicon cools, it crystallizes simultaneously in
many different points producing an irregular structure: crystals of random sizes,
shapes and orientation. These structures are not as ideal as in the mono crystalline
cells so the efficiency is lower, around 11-15% [6]. However the manufacturing

7
process is less expensive, so the lower efficiency is compensated in some way. The
surface needed to obtain 1 kW in STC is about 8m2

2.3.3 Amorphous and Thin-Film solar cells

Amorphous silicon is the non-crystalline form of the silicon and it can be

deposited as thin films onto different substrates. The deposition can be made at low
temperatures. The manufacturing process is simpler, easier and cheaper than in the
crystalline cells. The weak point of these cells is their lower efficiency, around 6-8%
[6]. This efficiency is measured under STC. However, the performance under weaker
or diffuse irradiation, such as that in cloudy days, can be higher than in crystalline
cells and their temperature coefficient is smaller [24]. Amorphous silicon is also a
better light absorber than crystalline, so despite having low efficiency, the thin film
is a competitive and promising technology. The first solar cells were of thin-film
technology. They have been used since the 1980s in consumer electronics
applications, such as calculators. In recent years it has also begun to be used in high
power applications due to the characteristics mentioned above. One common use
nowadays is as building cladding, for example in facades, as its price is competitive
compared with other high quality cladding materials and it offer the advantage of
electricity generation.

The main advantages of thin film technologies are the ease of manufacturing
at low temperatures using inexpensive substrates and continuous production
methods, avoiding the need for mounting individual wafers and the potential for
lightweight and flexible solar cells. These advantages are common to most of the
thin-film solar cells, not only the ones made from amorphous silicon.

Over recent years, one more type of silicon has been developed,
microcrystalline silicon [5]. It can also be deposited as thin-films onto different
substrates, minimizing the quantities of crystalline silicon needed and improving the
efficiency of amorphous silicon. However, the light absorption of microcrystalline
silicon compared to amorphous silicon is poor. The solution can be an effective light

8
trapping to keep the incident light within the film. This type of silicon is not a
commercial technology yet and more R&D is needed.

There are other materials apart from silicon that can be used for
manufacturing solar cells. These compounds are also thin-film deposited, so they
have the same advantages as the silicon thin film solar cells but with a better
efficiency. Among these compounds, two are already used in commercial solar cells.
They are CIGS and CdTe. The efficiency is around 10-13% [6] and it will rise in the
following years as the technologies are improved. It is commonly said that thin film
technology is the way to achieve the grid parity, i.e. the point at which the cost of
generating electricity is equal, or cheaper than grid power [6].

The main disadvantages of these technologies are the toxicity of some of the
compounds and the shortage of some of the elements used. In the case of the CIGS,
indium is used. This element is not as abundant as silicon in the Earths crust and it
is in high demand for other electronics products such as liquid-crystal display (LCD)
monitors, which has generated a shortage and consequently a high price rise in the
recent years. Moreover, to create the p-n junction, CIGS is interfaced with cadmium
sulphide (CdS), another semiconductor. The problem is that cadmium is a heavy
metal which is cumulatively poisonous. In the case of CdTe, the other compound
used in commercial thin film solar cells, it is not as toxic as its individual
components, but some precautions must be taken during the manufacturing process.

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) has been used for space applications mainly for
two reasons: firstly, it is less susceptible to suffer damage from the space radiation
than silicon, and secondly, due to its direct band gap of 1.42 eV, it can take
advantage of a greater part of the solar spectrum. Despite being a more expensive
material, space projects can afford it as cost is not the most important factor to
decide the components. Nowadays it is being investigated to be used in terrestrial PV
applications using light concentrators (mirror or lenses) to focus the light onto small
cells, reducing the price as less material is required. Triple junction GaAs cells have
already passed 40% efficiency in the laboratory using light concentrators [5]. The

9
main handicap at present for this technology is that concentration systems are
expensive as they have to track the Sun along the day.

One other technology that is being actively researched is dye-sensitized cells

[5]. These cells are made from artificial organic materials and are seen as part of the
third generation of solar cells. The efficiency of these cells is above that of
amorphous silicon and within the thin-film ones. The main advantage is that they
work well under low and diffuse light and their temperature coefficients are lower.
The materials used are non-toxic and abundant and their manufacturing processes
are relatively simple. Flexible modules can easily be made using flexible substrates
and they can be used for building integrated PV: roofs, windows, as they can be
manufactured in many shapes, sizes and design criteria.

These last two paragraphs illustrate technologies that are being currently
investigated. They are non-commercial technologies yet, but it is expected that in the
following years they will become competitive and will be also used, increasing the
possibilities of PV power generation. The silicon and thin film solar cells described
before are currently the technologies used in commercial PV applications.
Nevertheless, what is important for this work is that all the different solar cells
presented above have similar non-linear voltage-current characteristics and are
affected by irradiation and temperature in a similar way. The only difference is that
different type of cells have different levels of sensitivity, nevertheless the same
algorithms can be used to track the MPP.

2.4 PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS

A Photovoltaic (PV) system directly converts sunlight into electricity. The

basic device of a PV system is the PV cell. Cells may be grouped to form panels or
arrays. The voltage and current available at the terminals of a PV device may
directly feed small loads such as lighting systems and DC motors. More
sophisticated applications require electronic converters to process the electricity
from the PV device. These converters may be used to regulate the voltage and
current at the load, to control the power flow in grid-connected systems, and mainly

10
to track the maximum power point (MPP) of the device. The mathematical model of
the PV device may be useful in the study of the dynamic analysis of converters, in
the study of MPP tracking (MPPT) algorithms, and mainly to simulate the PV
system and its components using circuit simulators.

2.4.1 Benefits

Solar electric systems offer many advantages, including the following:

They are safe, clean and quiet to operate

They are highly reliable

They require virtually no maintenance

2.4.2 Limitations

You should also be aware of the practical limitations of PV systems

Grid-connected systems are rarely economical, primarily because the current

cost of the PV technology is much higher than the cost of conventional
energy.

Since these systems can be expensive, choosing a solar electric power system
often comes down to a personal lifestyle decision-just like the type of house
or car you might own.

2.5 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A SOLAR CELL

The solar cell can be represented by the electrical model shown in Fig 2.2. Its
current-voltage characteristic is expressed by the following equation (1):

q ( V IRS )
(
I =I L I 0 e AKT )
1
V IR S
RSH
(2.1)

where I and V are the solar cell output current and voltage respectively, I 0 is the
dark saturation current, q is the charge of an electron, A is the diode quality

11
(ideality) factor, k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the absolute temperature and RS
and RSH are the series and shunt resistances of the solar cell. RS is the resistance
offered by the contacts and the bulk semiconductor material of the solar cell. The
origin of the shunt resistance RS H is more difficult to explain. It is related to the
non-ideal nature of the pn junction and the presence of impurities near the edges
of the cell that provide a short-circuit path around the junction. In an ideal case RS
would be zero and RSH infinite. However, this ideal scenario is not possible and
manufacturers try to minimize the effect of both resistances to improve their
products.
2.6 MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF PV ARRAY AND ITS
CHARACTERISTICS
The PV array is made up of number of PV modules connected in series called
string and number of such strings connected in parallel to achieve desired voltage
and current. The PV module used for simulation study consists of 36 series
connected polycrystalline cells.

2.6.1 PV Model
The electrical equivalent circuit model of PV cell consists of a current source
in parallel with a diode as shown in Fig. 2.2.

Fig 2.2 Electrical Equivalent Circuit Model of PV Cell

From the electrical equivalent circuit of the PV cell, PV output current (IPV) is given
by

I PV =I PhI DI Sh
(2.2)

12
 q ( V PV +I PV RS )
Where I D =I O (e KT
1 )
(2.3)
V PV + I PV RS
And I Sh=
RSh
(2.4)
As the value of Rsh is very large, it has a negligible effect on the I-V characteristics
of PV cell or array. Thus (2.2) can be simplified to
q ( V PV +I PV RS )

I PV =I Ph I ( e
O
KT
1 )
(2.5)
For PV array consisting of Ns series and Np parallel connected PV modules, (2.5)
becomes,

{ )}
q ( V PV +I PV RS )

I ( e
KT N s
I PV =N P I Ph O 1

(2.6)
The parameters q, , k and T denote the electronic charge, ideality factor of
the diode, Boltzmann constant and temperature in Kelvin respectively. Iph is
photocurrent, I0 is diode reverse saturation current, IPV and VPV are the PV output
current and voltage respectively.

2.6.2 PV Characteristics
The simulated I-V and P-V characteristics of the Solar ex PV module at
constant temperature and varying insolation are shown in Fig. 2.3(a) and Fig. 2.3(b)
respectively. It can be seen from Fig. 2.3(a) that the decrease in insolation reduces the
current largely but voltage fall is small. Fig.2.3 (b) shows that the reduction in
isolation reduces the power largely as both voltage and current are decreasing.

13
 Fig 2.3 (a) I-V characteristics and (b) P-V characteristics of the Solar PV module
at constant temperature T=300C and varying irradiation.

The effect of temperature on I-V and P-V characteristics of Solar PV module

is shown in Fig. 2.4(a) and Fig. 2.4(b) respectively. It can be seen from Fig. 2.4(a)
that the increase in temperature reduces the open circuit voltage largely but rise in
current is very small. Fig. 2.4(b) shows that the increase in temperature reduces the
PV output power as the reduction in the voltage is larger than the increase in current
due to temperature rise.
Sometimes, to simplify the model, as in, the effect of the shunt resistance is
not considered, i.e. RSH is infinite, so the last term in (4) is neglected. A PV panel is
composed of many solar cells, which are connected in series and parallel so the
output current and voltage of the PV panel are high enough to the requirements of the
grid or equipment.

14
 Fig 2.4 (a) I-V characteristics and (b) P-V characteristics of the Solar PV module at
constant irradiation =1000W/m2 and different temperature.

Taking into account the simplification mentioned above, the output current-
voltage characteristic of a PV panel is expressed by equation (6), where n p and ns are
the number of solar cells in parallel and series respectively.

2.7 SPECIFICATIONS OF PV CELL

Two important points of the current-voltage characteristic must be pointed
out: the open circuit voltage VOC and the short circuit current ISC. At both points the
power generated is zero. VOC can be approximated from (7) when the output current
of the cell is zero, i.e. I=0 and the shunt resistance RS H is neglected. It is represented
by equation (8). The short circuit current I SC is the current at V = 0 and is
approximately equal to the light generated current IL.

I
V OC
AKT
q ( )
ln L +1
I0

(2.7)
I SC I L
(2.8)

15
 The maximum power is generated by the solar cell at a point of the current-
voltage characteristic where the product VI is maximum. This point is known as the
MPP and is unique, as can be seen in Fig 2.5, where the previous points are
represented.

Fig 2.5 Important points in the characteristic curves of a solar panel.

Using the MPP current and voltage, IMPP and VMPP, the open circuit
voltage (VOC) and the short circuit current (ISC), the fill factor (FF) can be defined
as:
I MPP V MPP
FF=
I SC V OC
(2.9)
It is a widely used measure of the solar cell overall quality. It is the ratio of
the actual maximum power (IMPPVMPP) to the theoretical one (ISCVOC), which is
actually not obtainable. The reason for that is that the MPP voltage and current are
always below the open circuit voltage and the short circuit current respectively,
because of the series and shunt resistances and the diode depicted in Fig 2.2. The
typical fill factor for commercial solar cells is usually over 0.70.

16
 Two important factors that have to be taken into account are the irradiation
and the temperature. They strongly affect the characteristics of solar modules. As a
result, the MPP varies during the day and that is the main reason why the MPP must
constantly be tracked and ensure that the maximum available power is obtained from
the panel. The effect of the irradiance on the voltage-current (V-I) and voltage-power
(V-P) characteristics is depicted in Figure 2.3, the voltage and current are normalized
using the VOC and the ISC respectively, in order to illustrate better the effects of the
irradiance on the V-I and V-P curves. As was previously mentioned, the photo-
generated current is directly proportional to the irradiance level, so an increment in
the irradiation leads to a higher photo-generated current. Moreover, the short circuit
current is directly proportional to the photo-generated current; therefore it is directly
proportional to the irradiance. When the operating point is not the short circuit, in
which no power is generated, the photo-generated current is also the main factor in
the PV current, as is expressed by equations (2.1) and (2.2). For this reason the
voltage-current characteristic varies with the irradiation. In contrast, the effect in the
open circuit voltage is relatively small, as the dependence of the light generated
current is logarithmic, as is shown in equation (2.4)
As the effect on both the current and voltage is positive, i.e. both increase
when the irradiation rises, the effect on the power is also positive: the more
irradiation, the more power is generated. The temperature, on the other hand, affects
mostly the voltage. The open circuit voltage is linearly dependent on the temperature,
as shown in the following equation:
STC KV,
V OC ( T )=V OC + ( T 273.15 )
100
(2.10)
According to (2.10), the effect of the temperature on VOC is negative,
because Kv is negative, i.e. when the temperature raises, the voltage decreases.
The current increases with the temperature but very little and it does not
compensate the decrease in the voltage caused by a given temperature rise. That is
why the power also decreases. PV panel manufacturers provide in their data sheets
the temperature coefficients, which are the parameters that specify how the open
circuit voltage, the short circuit current and the maximum power vary when the

17
temperature changes. As the effect of the temperature on the current is really
small, it is usually neglected.
As was mentioned before, the temperature and the irradiation depend on
the atmospheric conditions, which are not constant during the year and not even
during a single day; they can vary rapidly due to fast changing conditions such as
clouds. This causes the MPP to move constantly, depending on the irradiation and
temperature conditions. If the operating point is not close to the MPP, great power
losses occur. Hence it is essential to track the MPP in any conditions to assure that
the maximum available power is obtained from the PV panel. In a modern solar
power converter, this task is entrusted to the MPPT algorithms.

2.8 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING ALGORITHMS

Under uniform solar irradiation conditions, PV panels exhibits a unique

operating point where PV power is maximized. The PV power characteristic is
nonlinear considering a single PV cell, which varies with the level of solar
irradiation and temperature. In order to track the continuously varying Maximum
Power Point (MPP) of the solar array, the Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)
should be applied in PV systems. The MPPT scheme ensures the operation of system
at Maximum Power Point regardless of environmental conditions and load
conditions. Since the existing solar cell technology does not allow appreciably high
conversion efficiencies, it is always endeavoured to have the high conversion
efficiencies using MPPT capability embedded with the solar PV system. Thus, in
order to overcome this problem, several methods for extracting the maximum power
have been proposed in the literature and a careful comparison of these methods can
result in important information for the design of these systems. Some of the popular
and important MPPT techniques are presented.

While the IV curve for a photovoltaic cell, module, or array defines the
combinations of voltage and current that are permissible under the existing ambient

18
conditions, it does not by itself tell us anything about just where on that curve the
system will actually be operating. This determination is a function of the load into
which the PVs deliver their power.

As shown in Fig.2.5 the same voltage is across both the PVs and load, and
the same current runs through the PVs and load. Therefore, when the I V curve for
the load is plotted onto the same graph that has the I V curve for the PVs, the
intersection point is the one spot at which both the PVs and load are satisfied. This is
called the operating point. Since power delivered to any load is the product of
current and voltage, there will be one particular value of resistance that will result in
maximum power. The operating point of the module varies throughout the day
depending on intensity of solar radiation, temperature etc.

Fig. 2.5 shows, the characteristic curves with a fixed resistance and it can be
seen that the operating point slips off the MPP as conditions change and the module
becomes less and less efficient. The purpose of MPPT is to keep the PVs operating at
their highest efficiency point at all. MPPT is an electronic instrument that extracts
maximum power available from PV array at any given instant. It ensures that
maximum amount of power that generated by PV array is transferred to load.

2.8.1 Perturb and Observe Method

Perturb & Observe (P&O) is the simplest method. In this we use only one
sensor, that is the Voltage sensor, to sense the PV array voltage and so the cost of
implementation is less and hence Easy to implement. The time complexity of this
algorithm is very less but on reaching very closes to the MPP it doesnt stop at the
MPP and keeps on perturbing on both the directions. When this happens the
algorithm has reached very close to the MPP and we can set an appropriate error
limit or can use a wait function which ends up increasing the time complexity of the
algorithm..

19
 Fig 2.6 The flowchart of P&O algoritham

However the method does not take account of the rapid change of irradiation level
(due to which MPPT changes) and considers it as a change in MPP due to
perturbation and ends up calculating the wrong MPP. To avoid this problem we can
use incremental conductance method.

The P&O algorithm is also called hill-climbing, but both names refer to the
same algorithm depending on how it is implemented. Hill-climbing involves a
perturbation on the duty cycle of the power converter and P&O a perturbation in the
operating voltage of the DC link between the PV array and the power converter. In
the case of the Hill-climbing, perturbing the duty cycle of the power converter
implies modifying the voltage of the DC link between the PV array and the power
converter, so both names refer to the same technique.

20
 In this method, the sign of the last perturbation and the sign of the last
increment in the power are used to decide what the next perturbation should be. The,
left of the MPP incrementing the voltage increases the power whereas on the right
decrementing the voltage increases the power. If there is an increment in the power,
the perturbation should be kept in the same direction and if the power decreases,
then the next perturbation should be in the opposite direction. Based on these facts,
the algorithm is implemented [3]. The process is repeated until the MPP is reached.
Then the operating point oscillates around the MPP. This problem is common also to
the In Cond method, as was mention earlier. A scheme of the algorithm is shown in
Figure 2.6

2.8.2 Incremental Conductance Method

The incremental conductance algorithm is based on the fact that the slope of the
curve power vs. voltage (current) of the PV module is zero at the MPP, positive
(negative) on the left of it and negative (positive) on the right

Incremental conductance method uses two voltage and current sensors to

sense the output voltage and current of the PV cell.

At MPP the slope of the PV curve is 0.

dP d (VI )
[ ] =
dV MPP dV
(2.11)

dI
0=I+ V[ ]
dV MPP
(2.12)

dI
[ ] = - I/V
dV MPP
(2.13)

21
 Incremental conductance method uses two voltage and current sensors to
sense the output voltage and current of the PV array. At MPP the slope of the PV
curve is 0.

The left hand side is the instantaneous conductance of the solar panel. When
this instantaneous conductance equals the conductance of the solar then MPP is
reached. Here we are sensing both the voltage and current simultaneously.

Fig 2.7 Incremental conductance flow chart

Hence the error due to change in irradiance is eliminated. However the

complexity and the cost of implementation increase. As we go down the list of
algorithms the complexity and the cost of implementation goes on increasing which
may be suitable for a highly complicated system. This is the reason that Perturb and

22
Observe and Incremental Conductance method are the most widely used algorithms.
Owing to its simplicity of implementation we have chosen the Perturb & Observe
algorithm for our study among the two.
2.8.3 Ripple Correlation Control Method

Ripple correlation control (RCC), is a recently proposed and attractive MPPT

technique that is currently under research [7] to track the maximum power of a
single array. The main advantages of RCC include the asymptotic convergence to the
MPP and the utilization of the ripple available in the power electronic converter
instead of using external perturbation [6, 7].

The main operation concept of the RCC is that it correlates the time varying
PV array power with the time varying PV array current or voltage. From the basic
PV array P-I curve shown in Figure 2.8 it is clear that if the current (i) of the array is
increasing and the power (p) is increasing then the time derivatives of (p) and (i),
(p) and (i), are both positive, and thus their product is positive.

Fig 2.8 P-I characteristics of solar Array

Therefore, if we know these time derivatives we could notice that the operating point
on the curve is before the MPP (Region A of the curve in Figure 2.8). On the other
hand, if (p) is decreasing, then the product of (p) and (i) is negative and the
operating point is after the MPP (Region B of the curve in Figure 2.8).

23
 2.8.4 Fuzzy Logic Control

Microcontrollers have made using fuzzy logic control popular for MPPT over
last decade. Fuzzy logic controllers have the advantages of working with imprecise
inputs, not needing an accurate mathematical model, and handling nonlinearity [12].

2.8.5 Neural Network control

Another technique of implementing MPPT which are also well adapted for
microcontrollers is neural networks. Neural networks commonly have three layers:
input, hidden, and output layers the number nodes in each layer vary and are user-
dependent.

MPPT PV True Analog Periodic Conve Implementa Sensed

Technique dependent MPPT or Tuning rgence tion parameters
? ? digital Speed Complexity

Hill- No YES Both No Varies Low Voltage,

climbing/P&O current

Inc Cond No YES Digital No Varies Medium Voltage,

current

Fractional Voc Yes No Both Yes Mediu Low Voltage

m

Fractional Isc Yes No Both Yes Mediu Medium Current

m

Fuzzy logic Yes Yes Digital Yes Fast High Varies

control
Neural
network Yes Yes Digital Yes Fast High Varies
RCC No Yes Analog No Fast Low Voltage,
current

24
 Table 2.1 Comparison of MPPT Techniques

The input variables can be PV array parameters like V OC and I SC ,

atmospheric data like irradiance and temperature, or any combination of these. The
output is usually one or several reference signals like a duty cycle signal used to
drive the power converter to operate at or close to the MPP [4].
2.9 CONCLUSION
This chapter describes the principle of working and characteristics of the PV
cell. The mathematical model of PV cell is presented. Different techniques has been
presented for maximum power point tracking (MPPT), such as Incremental
conductance method, fractional open circuit voltage, fractional short circuit current,
Perturb and Observe (hill-climbing) method. The majority of these methods are
based on the perturbation and observation (P&O), which has the advantage of simple
operation and easy to implemented.

25