1.

1 LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL

The load on the power system is dynamic. Both active and reactive power demands are never
study and continuously change with the rising and falling trend.
1.1.1 WHAT HAPPENS WHEN THE LOAD ON THE SYSTEM INCREASES?
In a single area uncontrolled system whenever a load increase takes place, the system has
following the three ways.
1. Borrowed kinetic energy from the rotating machines of the system that is initially the increase
in load is supplied from the stored energy of the synchronous generators. As a result of the
speed in the machine go down on system frequency decreases.
2. Released customer load that is the reduction in the effective old load since the frequency of the
system decreases the speed of the various motors decreases and hence the effective old load
decreases. Thus allowing the already available generation is partly to meet the load demand.
3. Increased generation: The reduction in the system frequency actuates the speed governing
system of generating units which increases the input to the prime movers causing increased
generation which subsequently arrests the further drop in frequency. The units behave
coherently, maintaining there by equal frequency deviations among them. However it is to be
noted that the contribution due to the first two factors is very small and the major contribution is
due to the increased generation due to governing action.
1.1.2 WHAT HAPPENS WHEN LOAD ON THE SYSTEM DECREASES?
Let the system load demand decrease by some amount. The prime mover does not respond to the
load change instantly as it is ignorant of the load change. Current supplied by the generators,
which results in decrease in electro mechanical torques in all generators. Every generator would
experience a small surplus accelerating torque, which results in increasing in speed of generators
and thus increase the frequency. All the motors, which are fed by the network would experienced
increasing speed and thus their torque would be increased.
As the torque developed by the motor increase the power drawn by motors from the network
increases.If the prime mover remains ineffective during this period, the frequency would level off
at a higher value.
1.2 NEED FOR CONSISTANCY OF FREQUENCY
There are many applications in real world which use electrical energy. All the applications are
designed to a particular frequency. All most all the equipment is designed to a particular tolerance
in frequency in those issues. Since they work in limits of a particular tolerance band we have to
keep the frequency in those limits only. The following are the reasons for keeping strict limits on
the system frequency variations.
1. AC Motors: The speed of the A.C motors are directly related to the frequency. Even though
most of the A.C drives are not much affected for a frequency variation of even 50to1.5kHz but
there are certain applications where consistency speed must be of higher order.
2.Electric Clocks: The electric clocks are driven by synchronous motors and the accuracy of these
clocks is not only a function of frequency error but is actually of the integral of this error.

3.Turbines: If the normal frequency is 50Hz and the turbines are run at speeds corresponding to
frequency less than 47 Hz or more than 52.5Hz. The blades of the turbine are likely to get
damaged; hence a strict limit on frequency must be adhered to as stalling of the generator will
further causes the problem if the system is operating at the lower limit of frequency.
4. Power Transformers: The under frequency operation of the power transformer is not
desirable. For constant system voltages if the frequency is below the normal value the flux in core
increases. Since we design these transformers corresponding to the knee point on the B-H curve
a small increase in B drives the transformer into saturation region.
As a result magnetizing current even exceeds the normal full current the sustained under frequency
operation of the power transformer results not only in low frequency but it may even damage the
transformer winding due to overheating. The problem is further caused by the fact that to transmit
one MW of power from the generating station to the consumer end 4 MW equivalent capacity
transformers are installed. Hence a strict limit on frequency operation of power system is
desirable.

5. Thermal Power Plants: The most serious effect of normal frequency is on the operation of
thermal power plants with reduced frequency the blast by ID and the FD fans decreases and thus it
becomes a cumulating and may result in complete shut down of plant is corrective measures like
load shedding is not resorted to load scheduling is done with the help of under frequency relay is
so adjusted that the least important load is disconnected at relay higher frequency and vice-versa.
 The overall operation of the power system can be better controlled if a strike limit on
frequency deviation is maintained. The frequency is closely related to the real power balance is
the overall network. Under normal operating conditions the generators run synchronously and the
generated power equals the load demand plus the losses at any instant of time when a generated is
connected to a grid, its speed gets locked to grid system. Now it we want to control the real power
output from its generator, we must control the torque from its prime mover.
By opening the stream value and thus increasing the stream pressure on the turbine blade
greater torque can be applied to the generator there by tendency to accelerate the generator.
However, its speed is tied to the grid and hence the motor advances its torque angle by few degrees
depending upon the load increases requirements. These results increased delivered current and
power. The increased current thus develops a decelerating torque within the machine, which
exactly balances the increase in the accelerating torque. Unfortunately the counter balancing
electromagnetic torque is not developed instantly.
The duration for which the unbalance exists depends upon the change in load and the total
inertia of the system.If the change in load is small as compared to the total inertia of the system.
The frequency remains almost constant through out the operation of the system. However, the load
fluctuations are entirely random and hence it is impossible to obtain, a perfect instant - by - instant
match between generation and load. There will always be a surplus or deficiency in the generation
and hence this even - present mismatch will cause frequency fluctuation.

For small changes active power is dependent on internal machine angle () and is independent of
the bus voltages. While bus voltage is dependent on the machine excitation
And therefore on reactive generation (Q) and is independent of the machine angle (). change in
the internal angle () is caused by momentary Speed change in the generator speed.
Further, excitation voltage is fast acting in which the major time constant encountered is that of the
generator field, while the power frequency control is slow acting with major time constant
attributed by the turbine and the generator moment of inertia this time constant is much larger than
that of the generator field. Thus, the transients in excitation voltage control vanish much faster and
do not affect the dynamics of power frequency control.
Changes in load demand can be identified as:

1. Slow varying changes in the mean demand and

 2. Fast random variations around the mean.
The regulators must be designed to be insensitive to fast random changes. Otherwise the
system will be prone to hunting resulting in excessive wear and tear of rotating machines and
control equipment.
1.3 TYPES OF FREQUENCY REGULATION
If the system consists of a single connected to a group of loads the speed and the frequency
changes in accordance with the governor characteristics as the load changes. The frequency
normally would vary by about 5% between light load and full load conditions. On the other hand
if constant frequency is required the operator can adjust the speed of turbine by changing the
governor characteristic as desired.
If any change in load is taken care by two machines running in parallel. The complexity of the
system is increased the possibility of the sharing the load by two machines is, for example there is
two stations S1 and S2 inter connected through a tie line. If the change in load either at S1 or at S2

and if the generation of S1 alone is regulated to adjust this change. The constant frequency, the

method of the regulation is known as Flat Frequency Regulation (FFR). Under such situation
station S2 is said to operate on the base load.

The major drawback of flat frequency regulation is that S1 must absorb all the load changes for the

entire system there by the tie line between the two stations would have to absorb all load changes
at station S2 since the generator S2 would maintain its output constant.

The operation of generator S2 on base load has the ac voltage. When S2 is much sufficient than

the other station and it is desirable to obtain the maximum output of S2.

The other possibility of sharing the change in load is that both S1 and S2 would regulate their

generations to main the frequency constant. This is known as parallel frequency regulation (PFR).
The third is that the change in particular area is take care by the generator in that area thereby the
tie line loading remains constant. This method of regulating the generation for keeping the constant
frequency is known as Flat tie line loading control.
1.3.1 FLAT FREQUENCY REGULATION
If the changes in load are either at S1 or S2 and if the generation of S1 alone is regulated to adjust

this change so as to have constant frequency the method of regulation is known as Flat Frequency
Regulation.
The major drawback of flat frequency regulation is that S1 absorb all load changes of the entire

system there by tie-line between the two stations would have to absorb all load changes at station
S2, since the generator S2 would maintain its output constant.

1.3.2 PARALLEL FREQUENCY REGULATION

The other possibility of sharing the change in load is that both S1 and S2 would regulate their

generators to maintain the frequency constant. This is known as Parallel Frequency Regulation.
1.3.3 FLAT TIE LINE CONTROL
The third possibility is that the change in a particular area is taken care of by the generator in that
area there by the tie line loading remains constant. This method of regulation the generation for
keeping constant frequency is known as Flat Tie Line Loading Control. This arrangement has
the advantage that load swings on station S1 and the line would be reduced as compared with the

flat frequency regulation. Automatic equipment permits various types of system control. The
various methods discussed above can be performed with the help of automatic control equipments.
Besides, these two other types of controls are widely used in automatic arrangements.
They are:
1. Selective Frequency Control
2. Tie Line Load Bias Control
The most commonly used is the tie line load-bias control in which all power systems in the
interconnections aid in regulating frequency regardless of where the frequency change originates.
The equipment consists of a master load frequency controller and a tie line recorder measuring the
power input on the tie line as per selective frequency control. The tie line instrument biases the
load frequency controller by changing the control point until the desired relationship exists
between tie loading and system frequency.