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Article history: In the recent years, there have been increasingly tremendous demands for lightweight automotive parts,
Received 21 February 2017 in the quest for better energy efciency. These parts are produced using Ultra High Strength Steel (UHSS),
Received in revised form for reasons of high strength and rigidity. However, for the parts blank to have increased strength and
6 June 2017
hardness, the forming process has to be carried out under elevated temperatures, achieved through
Accepted 3 July 2017
Available online 4 July 2017
preheating and quenching. In addition, to ensure an effective quenching, High Thermal Conductivity
Steel (HTCS), having a high thermal conductivity and a high wear resistance, is used as the forming die,
Handling Editor: Yutao Wang possibly resulting in impaired machinability. Therefore, an effective coolant-lubrication technique is
required to ensure improved productivity. A cryogenic cooling technique, such as, the use of supercritical
Keywords: carbon dioxide (SCCO2) was reviewed in the machining processes. SCCO2 was selected over the more
Supercritical carbon dioxide cooling commonly used liquid nitrogen (LN2), as the cryogenic substance, due to its low gas expansion value,
Sustainable machining environment thus ensuring lower environmental hazards to the workers. In short, the non-toxic SCCO2 promotes a
Cleaner manufacturing healthier, safer and more sustainable working environment. In this study, a milling process of HTCS was
High thermal conductivity steel (HTCS)
performed, where the effectiveness of SCCO2 coolant was compared with that of Near Dry Machining and
Cryogenic cooling
Dry Machining techniques, in terms of cutting temperature, cutting force, tool wear and wear mecha-
Wear mechanisms
Tool wear nism. Two methods of SCCO2 cooling conditions were analyzed, with and without lubricant. Both of the
cooling conditions were applied under three different input chamber pressures. In comparison with Dry
Machining, SCCO2 with lubricant was found to have signicantly improved the cutting force and cutting
temperature, up to 60% and 55% respectively. In comparison with Dry Machining and Near Dry
Machining, meanwhile, the cutting tool life increased to 150% and 87%, respectively. More importantly, it
was observed that, adhesion, attrition and abrasion were the dominant wear mechanisms, when HTCS
was milled under various coolant-lubricant conditions. The overall results revealed that, cryogenic
cooling, using carbon dioxide gas under supercritical state, was the best option for a better control and
improvement of tool wear. The prolonged tool life will ensure a highly sustainable production, with less
tool wastage and more efcient machining process. From the environmental point of view, the use of
SCCO2 as a cryogenic substance is advantageous, as it fullls the increasing demands for a cleaner
manufacturing of HTCS.
2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.07.019
0959-6526/ 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
T. Mulyana et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 164 (2017) 950e962 951
and tunnel. However, forming of boron steel needs to be done at an electronics, manufacturing, aerospace, and automotive industries
elevated temperature to avoid the springback effect, which occurs (Pusavec et al., 2010). This particular cooling technique commonly
during the cold forming. In the hot forming process, the die used is uses liquid nitrogen as its cooling medium, although, consider-
equipped with a cooling system, which helps drastically in pro- ations may also be given for other gases, such as, carbon dioxide,
ducing nal products of excellent properties and a high tensile helium, nitrogen, hydrogen, neon, oxygen and argon.
strength (Chang et al., 2011). The required rapid cooling during the A cryogenic cooling system in any machining process is mainly
hot stamping process could be achieved with a greater thermal classied into four categories, namely, cryogenic workpiece pre-
conductivity of the die material, such as, High Thermal Conduc- cooling, cryogenic indirect cooling, cryogenic jet cooling and
tivity Steel (HTCS). This steel was patented in 2013 and its cryogenic cutting tool treatment. In the rst category, the work-
machining process must be highly accurate to produce stamped piece or chip is cooled to have its properties changed, from ductile
components of a high quality (Angles, 2013).This hot work tool steel to brittle. Lowering the material temperature causes the originally
has very high thermal conductivity values (up to 66 W/mK) and a ductile chip to become brittle (Hong and Ding, 2001). However, this
high wear resistance. It is specially designed to be used as dies of method negatively increases the cutting force and has been proven
hot stamping on coated sheet and plastic injection mould, where to be very impractical in the production line. Furthermore, this
the plastic material is reinforced with abrasive bre materials and method requires a high LN2 consumption and causes a dimensional
closed die forging. HTCS acquires its optimized mechanical and change to the workpiece (Ahmed et al., 2007). In cryogenic indirect
physical properties through a corresponding heat treatment of the cooling method, the cooling is restricted only to the cutting insert,
material, prior to the nal machining process. whereby cryogenic gases do not come in contact with and inict
The development of the hard milling and high-speed machining signicant changes to the workpiece properties, thus providing
of dies and moulds has led to enhanced capabilities in the forming better machining performances (Wang and Rajurkar, 1997). As for
industries. The resulting increase in the availability of this highly the cryogenic jet cooling, the consumption of LN2 is high, because it
efcient machining method, has in turn, caused higher demands easily evaporates, due to high cutting temperatures and atmo-
for the use of forming steel for hot forming dies and moulds (Jiang spheric pressures (Fratila, 2010). Nevertheless, this method could
et al., 2013). The machinability of hardened materials totally de- enhance the tool hardness and reduce the tool face temperature,
pends on the machining parameters, as well as, the cooling stra- thus potentially resulting in a prolonged cutting tool life. In the
tegies. Machining materials with a hardness value higher than 45 cryogenic cutting tool treatment, the cutting tool is cooled down
HRC requires a drastic increase in the cutting force, to reduce and maintained at the cryogenic temperature for a long time,
which, a rigid and absolute process has to be provided. The use of a before it is heated back to the room temperature to improve its
large corner radius of the tool and a negative rake angle contribute wear resistance and dimensional stability (Yong et al., 2006).
to a higher passive force during a machining process (Davim, 2011). However, the effects of cryogenic treatment on cutting perfor-
As the cutting force increases, the cutting energy and temperatures mance are not stable for all cutting conditions and machining
also increase during the machining process. Recent studies showed applications.
that, the cutting temperature rises, as the cutting speed increases, The most recent studies in cryogenic cooling techniques utilized
during machining. The material machined was high-carbon chro- liquid nitrogen (LN2) as a coolant. Despite the high demand for LN2
mium AISI 52100 bearing steel, with the highest hardness and low- as the cryogenic liquid, its high gas expansion value could seriously
content of CBN (60% vol.). During the machining process, a tem- deplete the oxygen content in the machining area, thus potentially
perature of approximately 800 C was recorded at a cutting speed causing breathing difculties to the operators. A solution was found
of 100 m/min. The temperature increased up to 950 C, as the by having the machining process conned once LN2 was applied
cutting speed was increased to 300 m/min (Abukhshim et al., (Grifths, 1985). A study by Pereira et al. (2016), which compared
2006). On the other hand, other inuences, such as, depth of cut between LN2 and CO2 as cryogenic gases, revealed that, their main
and feed rate were found to be less rigorous, compared with that of differences were in their production process, rather than in their
the cutting speed (To nshoff et al., 2000). use during machining. In terms of power consumption, they both
The selection of cooling strategy is essential to reduce the were equally economical. However, CO2 was found to be much
machining temperature and subsequently prolong the cutting tool better than LN2, as far as global impact, ozone depletion and res-
life. A recent study proved that, ood cooling is ineffective as a piratory effects are concerned. In particular, 17% less kilograms of
means of lubrication and cooling for a high-speed machining range benzene equivalent was obtained with CO2, compared with LN2.
for hardened materials. It was found that, it caused an increase in Also, more importantly, the use of CO2 as cryogenic gas avoids the
material removal rate (MRR) in the machining process, which needs for a conned working environment, thus ensuring a more
resulted in the formation of various surface defects, including sustainable machining process. On the other hand, mainly due to
groove, microparticle deposits, material side ow, and smeared the LN2 liquefaction process, the use of this gas spilled out 43%
layers. Machining environment, combined with MRR, signicantly more in quantity, compared with CO2.
affect the magnitude and occurrences of the defects on machined After thorough reviews, it was concluded that, the application of
surfaces. Furthermore, ood cooling produces a high quantity of an alternative cooling technique, based on the use of carbon dioxide
waste, thus detrimental for the environment (Kadam and Pawade, at supercritical state (SCCO2), was the most suitable (Clarens et al.,
2017). Minimal Quantity of Lubricant (MQL) is one of the preferred 2006). Other than being non-toxic and easily recyclable, the gas has
techniques that could improve machinability and provide good a low energy recirculation. Besides, it provides a low-cost alterna-
economical returns. Moreover, in terms of life cycle assessment, it tive, with low environmental impacts. At the supercritical state,
causes less environmental impacts, compared with aqueous carbon dioxide was expended, resulting in nely dispersed and
metalworking uids (MWF) (Fratila, 2010). Despite the emissions homogenous spray of dry ice and frozen oil particles (Tom and
caused by the use of MQL, this lubrication method has only little Debenedetti, 1991). It was reported that, this technique improved
pollution effects, thus drastically reducing the consumption of lu- the surface quality by 5%, compared with the MQL technique, thus
bricants and minimizing negative environmental impacts (Fratila, minimizing the nishing works (Rahim et al., 2015a,b). It was
2009). Taking machining temperature in the process into account, concluded in a related study, that SCCO2 spray would be a potential
cryogenic cooling has shown to exhibit great cooling performances, substitute for aqueous emulsions and straight oils (Supekar et al.,
and its wide range of applications include those in clinical, 2012). From the aforementioned reviews, it was noticed that, very
952 T. Mulyana et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 164 (2017) 950e962
few studies investigated the use of SCCO2 in machining hardened carbide was left for the cooling process and the temperature
materials, especially in machining mould steel, such as, HTCS. HTCS divergence was recorded.
has been developed recently, mainly as forming steel in hot press
forming processes, although its machining is still very much being Cooling Rate T2 T1=t2 t1 (1)
studied. Therefore, it was decided in this study to introduce SCCO2
cooling in the machining process for HTCS. The machining perfor- where:
mances, in terms of cutting force, cutting temperature, tool life and
tool wear thus obtained were compared with those achieved by dry T2 Final temperature (After cooling)
machining and MQL techniques. T1 Initial temperature (During heating, before cooling)
t2 Final time (After cooling)
t1 Initial time (Before cooling)
2. Experimental setup
Table 1
Cutting uid properties.
Table 2
Cooling parameters.
Table 4
Physical and mechanical properties of HTCS.
Properties Value
Table 3
Machining parameters.
Parameter Levels
Fig. 6. Value of ow rate for MQL at input pressure, P 0.4 MPa and those for
SCCO2with lubricant at input chamber pressures, Pc 7.58, 8.96 and 10.4 MPa. Fig. 8. Cooling rate for each cooling technique.
T. Mulyana et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 164 (2017) 950e962 955
spraying pressure dropped, the effectiveness in reducing the ma- machining surfaces increased with the use of cryogenic gases,
terial temperature also reduced. This was due to the fact that, a which adversely affected the cutting forces (Giasin et al., 2016).
higher pressure reduced the size of cutting uid droplets and in- The results of SCCO2 with lubricant depicted that, increasing the
crements of uid droplets quantity (Rahim et al., 2015a,b). A larger input chamber pressure caused a cutting force reduction, due to the
quantity of droplets led to the increase in cooling efciency, increased ow rate and cooling rate, caused by the increase in the
because these droplets acted as a temperature transporting me- input chamber pressure. The increased lubricant ow rate
dium. Furthermore, the higher value of ow rate within a higher contributed to the higher quantity of lubricant being supplied to-
pressure also helped in increasing the cooling rate and subse- wards the machining region. This resulted in higher lubricity in the
quently, improving the cooling efciency. This was because, as the process and subsequently, reduced cutting forces. As the lubricant
ow rate increased, the splashing of the lubricant became more was continuously supplied and penetrating towards the machining
prominent. The efciencies of chemical containment and spray region, the reduced friction thus caused within the machining
impingement in heat transfer processes are greatly inuenced by interface resulted in enhanced cutting tool ability to withstand the
the quantity of liquid splattered (Bhunia and Lienhard, 1994). extreme force and pressure during machining. However, the
lubricant decomposed faster due to the amount of heat and
extreme friction developed.
3.3. Cutting force
In general, the resulting cutting force for SCCO2 without lubri-
cant was found to be higher than that for MQL technique, and this
Fig. 9 shows the results of average cutting force under various
contradicted with results for SCCO2 with lubricant technique. This
coolant-lubricant conditions. The results showed that, a dry cutting
could be explained in terms of the heat generated during the
condition recorded the highest cutting force, compared to the other
machining process, which increased the material temperature, and
conditions. In dry machining, the cutting tool was used in the
under rapid cooling, the machined surface hardened (Yildiz and
machining operation, without any aids of cutting uid. It was found
Nalbant, 2008). The increased material hardness caused an in-
that, the cutting force value under the dry condition was 57.3%
crease in cutting energy and cutting forces. Furthermore, friction on
higher than that under the MQL condition. This led to a higher value
the cutting tool-workpiece interfaces also increased due to the dry
of friction during machining, thus increasing the cutting force.
process.
Generally, energy consumption in the machining operation was
As for SCCO2 without lubricant, the resulting cutting force
associated with friction and cutting force. Hence, it was more sig-
recorded was found lower, compared with that for the dry con-
nicant to obtain a lower cutting force to improve machining
dition. Even if the material was hardened during the cooling
productivity and reduce the production cost. It was obvious that,
process, the feed force, closely related to frictional force of the
SCCO2 with lubricant was much more effective than dry and MQL
chip acting on the cutting tool, decreased. With the reduced cut-
conditions. If MQL were considered as the benchmark condition,
ting temperature, the friction within the machining process also
the cutting force for SCCO2 with lubricant was reduced by 28%,
reduced. The reduction of cutting forces by the cooling technique,
35.2% and 64.3%, relative to the MQL for the input chamber pres-
especially for MQL and SCCO2 with lubricant, was mainly attrib-
sures of 7.58 MPa, 8.96 MPa and 10.4 MPa, respectively. In contrast,
uted to the formation of the thin lubrication lm, subsequently
the cutting force value gradually increased for SCCO2 without
reducing the shear strength of material during the machining.
lubricant, as the input chamber pressure was increased with
Furthermore, the micro-droplets of synthetic ester (SE) formed on
respect to MQL condition. The cooling technique which did not
the machining surface ensured the reduction in friction. These
incorporate lubricants showed that, it possessed a high cutting
micro-droplets, under high pressure and with high velocity, were
force, explaining how lubricity really helped in reducing the friction
able to reach the cutting zone, and played the role of minimizing
and decreasing the cutting force. The application of lubricant
friction and providing lubrication effects. Besides, the cooling ef-
reduced the friction coefcient between the tool chip interfaces
fects caused by SCCO2, reduced adhesion between the workpiece
(Sapian et al., 2010). Furthermore, the extremely low temperatures
material and the tool faces. This resulted in lower frictional forces,
of SCCO2 on the cutting tool and the workpiece during the
thus minimizing the cutting forces and saving the energy (Zhang
machining process brought about changes in their mechanical
et al., 2012).
properties within the cutting zone. The microhardness of the
3.4. Temperature
also inuences other response values in cutting conditions. For was also observed to signicantly reduce the tool wear progression,
example, the less energy consumed in the machining process and especially ank wear in the nose region, in comparison with dry
the much better surface quality contribute to tool life maximization conditions.
(Kuram et al., 2013). It was shown in this study that, the dry cutting condition
The input chamber pressure of SCCO2 also played a signicant recorded the highest wear progression rate. This was due to the
role in improving tool life. As seen in Fig. 11, the highest tool life was high cutting force (Fig. 9) and high cutting temperature (Fig. 10)
achieved at the highest input chamber pressure of 10.4 MPa. This developed during the machining process, which subsequently led
could be correlated with the highest lubricant ow rate and cooling to rapid wear of the cutting tool. The bonding of adhered material
rate when a high input chamber pressure was applied. The lowest on the cutting tool edges became weaker at a high cutting tem-
cutting temperature and cutting force were recorded at the same perature, thus rendering the cutting tool unable to withstand the
pressure. In terms of tool life, SCCO2 with lubricant recorded an high compressive stresses. This caused a tendency to cause
improvement of up to 22%, at the highest input chamber pressure, breaking and plucking of the substrate particles of the cutting tool,
as compared with SCCO2 without lubricant. Since the rate of heat along with the moving chips, which resulted in severe tool wear
diffusion was related to temperature and time, it was expected that, and chipping. The second highest wear progression value was
the cutting conditions with the highest tool life experienced the recorded under the MQL. The presence of mist lubricant helped in
lowest cutting temperatures (Bermingham et al., 2011; Poulachon reducing the cutting force and temperature during the process.
et al., 2001). The higher lubricant ow rates mainly focused on Subsequently, it decelerated the progression of wear rate compared
the cutting zone, improved the lubricity effect on the contact re- with dry cutting. The lowest wear progression rate was achieved by
gion, between the cutting tool and workpiece surfaces. As a result, the SCCO2 incorporated with lubricant, at the highest input
there was a reduction in the values of friction coefcient between chamber pressure of 10.4 MPa. This condition effectively helped in
the two surfaces and hence, lower cutting temperature and cutting minimizing the generated heat and cutting force during machining.
force (Aoyama, 2002). Patil and Shinde (2013) stated that, a cooling Flank wear within the cutting tools was observed in all cutting
system involving the use of high pressure jets was recommended to conditions, the earliest at 200 mm cutting length. In general,
achieve effective lubrication and cooling during a machining pro- cryogenic cooling techniques, such as, SCCO2 outperformed dry and
cess. In the case of SCCO2 cooling, an improved tool life is achieved MQL conditions, in terms of tool wear performance and as a result,
through enhanced chip breakability during the machining process. tool ank wear was reduced.
Chip entanglement is avoided within the machining region, thus Fig. 13 shows the evidence of tool failure modes at the end of the
ensuring a good surface quality and an improved tool life. The high cutting tool life under the SCCO2 without lubricant. It was observed
entanglements of chips were proven to be more hazardous and that, the cutting tool progressively had to withstand wear at the
complicated to be handled by the operator (Bordin et al., 2017). ank face. As the value of ank wear increased, the value of chip-
ping also seemed to increase. In most coolant-lubricant conditions,
3.6. Tool wear the ank wear was the pre-dominant tool failure mode in the initial
stage of the machining process. However, the development of
Fig. 12 shows the ank wear progression under various cooling cutting tool wear was very crucial as the machining time and dis-
techniques. In the early stage of HTCS milling, uniform ank wear tance prolonged. In addition, the formation of cutting tool ank
and micro-chipping were found to dominate the cutting tool wear wear was also associated with the excessive heat generated during
patterns, under all coolant-lubricant conditions. Besides, strong the machining process, especially under dry conditions.
adhesion of workpiece materials on the cutting tool edges was also It was observed in Figs. 13 and 15 that, the combination of
noticed, and it may cause problems, especially when dealing with fracture and catastrophic failure was the dominant failure modes in
interrupted cutting processes, such as, a milling (Rahim and Shariff, all tested conditions. High cutting force and energy were required,
2006). The chipping, cracking and tool breakage at the cutting tool especially when machining highly alloyed tool steels, such as, HTCS.
edge occurred, due to the collision between the adhered material It was suggested that, the mechanical properties of the material
and the workpiece during the re-entry of cutting tools towards the itself accelerated the progression of wear, thus initiating the for-
cutting region, during the machining process (Sun et al., 2015). mation of fracture as shown in Fig. 14. In general, once the induced
According to Kaynak et al. (2013), progression of tool wear rate stress reached its critical point value, failure with fracture forma-
under dry cutting conditions was more aggressive, when compared tion on the cutting tool occurred. It could be suggested that, the
with that under MQL and cryogenic conditions. Nevertheless, MQL induced tensile stress during machining caused the initial forma-
tion of cracks at the cutting edge. The cracks drastically propagated
under high machining loads, which subsequently led to the rapid
tool failures, which occurred usually in brittle tools that were
interrupted during a milling process. However, in the early stage of
Fig. 13. Flank wear and chipping region in cutting tools; (a) new cutting tools and (b)
Fig. 12. Progression of tool wear under various cooling conditions. SCCO2 Without Lubricant (Pc 8.96 MPa).
958 T. Mulyana et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 164 (2017) 950e962
Fig. 14. The evidence of fracture under SCCO2 with lubricant at the input chamber
Fig. 16. Types of chipping modes on the cutting tool; (a) strip chipping and (b)
pressure of 10.4 MPa.
shellsh-like chipping under MQL condition.
Fig. 15. The evidence of chipping under (a) dry, (b) MQL, (c) SCCO2 without lubricant (input chamber pressure of 10.4 MPa) and (d) SCCO2 with lubricant (input chamber pressure of
10.4 MPa).
T. Mulyana et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 164 (2017) 950e962 959
Fig. 17. Adhesion, attrition and abrasion wear mechanism on the cutting insert under Fig. 20. Combination of chipping, attrition and adhesion on the cutting tool under
dry cutting conditions. SCCO2with lubricant cooling condition.
Fig. 18. Magnied view of adhesion region (from Fig. 17) on the cutting insert under
dry cutting conditions.
Fig. 21. Magnied region from Fig. 20 (Region A).
Fig. 19. Adhesion and abrasion wear mechanism on the cutting insert under SCCO2
with lubricant cooling condition. Fig. 22. Magnied region from Fig. 20 (Region B).
960 T. Mulyana et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 164 (2017) 950e962
Fig. 23. Combination of aking and attrition on the cutting tool under MQL cooling Fig. 25. Magnied region from Fig. 24.
condition.
Figs. 17, 19 and 24e27 revealed that, the cutting tool grains were
due to the tearing of adhered workpiece material. This type of wear abraded in the form of grooves, paralleled with the cutting direc-
was known as attrition wear mechanism. The plucked substrates tion. This wear mechanism was known as abrasion wear mecha-
during the machining of HTCS workpiece were mainly due to the nism. It could be suggested that, the cutting tool lost its materials,
cyclic adhesion and removal of workpiece material from the cutting due to hard particles that it was forced against, as it moved along a
tool. The cooling produced from the MQL and SCCO2 caused the solid surface. Abrasion wear was one of the dominant types of wear
hardening of adhered surfaces, which nally resulted in the for- mechanisms encountered in machining HTCS workpiece, under
mation of attrition wear mechanism in the cutting tool. The various coolant-lubricant conditions and thus, it diminished
continuous cycle of heating and cooling during milling contributed machinability. Under all tested cooling conditions, the cutting tool
to excessive thermal stresses, which subsequently broke up the wear rate was seen to be progressively increasing in the initial
adhered material. In most cases, attrition wear mechanism began stages, due to the abrasion wear mechanism. Rahim and Sasahara
with an adhesion of HTCS workpiece on the cutting tool, followed (2011) and Zhao et al. (2002) claimed that, the formation of abra-
by breakaway of tiny particles of the cutting tool substrates. This sion wear mechanisms was due to the high strain rate which
sudden removal of substrates promoted the formation of chipping occurred during the deformation process, which subsequently
and a rapid tool failure. The combination of adhesion and attrition caused the crushing of workpiece particles on the cutting tool
wear mechanisms on the rake and ank face of the cutting tool is surfaces. In addition, as displayed in Figs. 25e27, the existence of
shown in Fig. 20, which displays the entire cutting edge, causing parallel grooves was due to the ow of the workpiece material
prominent chipping and fracture. Rahim and Sasahara (2009) also during the milling process. Khrais and Lin (2007) stated that, the
suggested adhesion and attrition wear mechanism as the major coating hardness of the cutting tool deteriorated, due to the high
contributors to the occurrences in chipping of cutting tools. This cutting temperature generated, during the machining process.
was due to the plucking of the instable cutting edge fragment, Under those circumstances, the cutting tool was prone to the
which eventually gave rise to chipping and fracture within the abrasion wear mechanism. Additionally, a study by de Oliveira and
cutting edge (Bordin et al., 2015).
Fig. 24. Abrasion wear mechanism under dry cutting condition. Fig. 26. Abrasion wear mechanism under MQL condition.
T. Mulyana et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 164 (2017) 950e962 961
Acknowledgement
Fig. 27. Abrasion wear mechanism under SCCO2 with lubricant condition. The authors would like to thank the Ministry of Higher Educa-
tion of Malaysia and Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, for their
nancial support, under the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme
Diniz (2009) reported that, the high strain rate of workpiece during (Vote 1594).
the deformation process, caused material to be crumbled and ow
between the tool-workpiece interfaced. The formation of abrasive References
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