Implication

Implications
Logic:
Logical Implication as regarded in
mathematical logic.
Material conditional as regarded in
philosophical logic.
Adriano Joaquim de O Cruz
Semantic entailment between two sets of
2002 statements.
NCE/UFRJ
adriano@nce.ufrj.br
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Logic
Logical implication is a logical relation that
holds between a set T of formulas and a formula
B when every model (or interpretation or
valuation) of T is also a model of B. In symbols,
Without using the language of models, the
material conditional formed from the
conjunction of all the elements of T and B is
valid. That is, it is valid that
A1 An B
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Definitions

A set of sentences logically implies a
sentence B if and only if it is impossible
that all the members of the set be true
while B false.

A peculiar feature of logical implication
is that a contradiction implies anything
and that anything implies a validity.
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 Implication Implication

If xA then yB.
An implication is a logical construction that
tell us if one condition is true, then another

P is a proposition described by the set A
condition must also be true.

Q is a proposition described by the set B
Implication is not if and only if.

PQ: If xA then yB
Implication P -> Q is true even if only Q is

P implies Q true.

Elephants can fly, therefore it is hot today.

This statement is true if it is hot today.

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Implication - uses Implication - uses

Kid, if you mown the grass then I will pay
Kid, if you mown the grass then I will pay
you $10.00. you $10.00.

Only one consequence is certain. It is not
Only one consequence is certain. It is not
well defined what will happen if the grass is well defined what will happen if the grass is
not mowed. not mowed.

If you do not eat all your broccolis then you
This is the mathematical sense of the
will not have dessert.
implication

Two consequences are understood. The
other one is dessert as a consequence of all
If the proposition A is true then B is too.
broccolis eaten.
Nothing can be said about B when A is false.
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 Implication Implication Truth table

If I am elected I will decrease taxes A B A -> B

I was not elected, I did not decrease F F T
taxes F T T

I was not elected, I did decrease taxes T F F

I was elected, I did not decrease taxes T T T

I was elected, I did decrease taxes
A->B=(not A) or B
A->B=(not A) or (A and B)
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Families of Implication Families of Implication

Generalization of Material Implication
Propositional Calculus
A B = A B

A B = A (A B)
R(x,y)= (1 A(x))(B(y)/(x,y)
(x,y)
R(x,y)= (1 A(x))(A(x) B(y) /(x,y)
(x,y)
R(x,y)= 1(1 A(x)+B(y))/(x,y)
(x,y)

min(1,a+b)
There are over 40 implication relations

reported in the literature
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 Interpretations of Implication Interpretations of Implication

A -> B as A entails B
There are fuzzy ways to interpret the

Entailment is a relation between sets of fuzzy rule if then else
formulae such that, if A and B are sets of
formulae of a formal language, then A entails
B if and only if every model (or interpretation)
First: A -> B as A entails (coupled) with
that makes all the members of A true, makes B
at least one of the members of B true. R(x,y)= T(A(x),B(y))/(x,y)

Entailment differs from implication, where the (x,y)
truth of one (A) suggests the truth of the other
(B), but does not require it.
Where T is a T-norm operator
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A coupled with B Implication Relation

Commonly used T-norms are:
Implication can be described as a
relation

Mamdani: R(x,y)= A(x) B(y)/(x,y)
The relation is defined by the T-norm
(x,y)

Larson R(x,y)= A(x)B(y) /(x,y) R(xi , yi )= (x, y )/(x , y )

i i i i
(x,y)
(xi ,yi )

Bounded Product R(x,y)= (x,y)/(x,y)
R(x,y)= 0(A(x)+B(y) 1) /(x,y) (x,y)
(x,y)

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 Inference
Inference
Fuzzy inference refers to computational
procedures used for evaluating fuzzy
rules of the form if x is A then y is B

There are two important inferencing
procedures
Generalized modus ponens (GMP) - mode
that affirms
Generalized modus tollens (GMT) mode
that denies

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Modus Ponens Fuzzy Modus Ponens

If x is A then y is B

We know that x is A then we can infer
that y is B

All men are mortal (rule)


Socrates is a man (this is true)


So Socrates is mortal (as a
consequence)


(A and (A -> B)) -> B

If x is A then y is B

We know that x is A then we can infer
that y is B

Tall men are heavy (rule)


John is tall (this is true)


So John is heavy (as a consequence)


(A and (A -> B)) -> B

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 Fuzzy Modus Ponens proof - I Fuzzy Modus Ponens proof - II

(A(AB))B start AB B
(A(A B))Bimplicatio
n ( AB)B implicatio
n
(A A) (AB))B distributi
vity ( A B)B DeMorgan
((AB))B ( A( BB))Associativ
ity
ABB ( A X)
X
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Modus Tollens Fuzzy Modus Tollens

If x is A then y is B
If x is A then y is B

We know that y is not B then we can
We know that y is not B then we can
infer that x is not A infer that x is not A

All murderers owns axes (rule)

All rainy days are cloudy (rule)


John does not own an axe (this is true)

Today is not cloudy (this is true)


So John is not a murderer (as a
So Today is not raining (as a
consequence)
consequence)


(not B and (A -> B)) -> not A
(not B and (A -> B)) -> not A
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 Fuzzy Modus Tollens proof ? Reasoning Methods

Backward Chaining: the reasoning engine is
presented with a goal and asked to find all the
relevant, supporting processes that lead to this goal.

Forward Chaining: data is collected and and a

sustainable problem state and, eventually a solution
state is built.

Fuzzy Reasoning: rules are run in parallel. Every rule

contributes to the final shape of the consequent
solution. When all rules are evaluated the resulting
fuzzy sets are defuzzified.

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How to find the consequent Example

If x is A then y is B
Consider the fuzzy set A

This rule is a relation R(x,y)
1.0
uA(3)

If x is A, we want to know whether y is 0.5

B 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

B= A R(x,y)

and the fuzzy set B

B (y)=x[A(x) R(x,y)] 1.00 uB(y)
0.67
0.33

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
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 Example 1 Example 2

We will use the Mamdani implication function
10
(xi , yi ) = A(xi ) B (yi )
A = A(xi ) / xi = 0.5/ 2+1.0/ 3+0.5/ 4

(x, y )/(x , y )
i=0
10 R(xi , yi )= i i i i
B = B (yi ) / yi = 0.33/ 5+0.67/ 6+1.0/ 7+0.67/ 8+0.33/ 9 (xi ,yi )
i=0
R(xi , yi )= 0.33/( 2,5)+0.5/( 2,6)+0.5/( 2,7)+
0.5/( 2,8)+0.33/( 2,9)+0.33/( 3,5)+0.67/( 3,6)+
1.0/( 3,7)+0.67/( 3,8)+0.33/( 3,9)+0.33/( 4,5)+
0.5/( 4,6)+0.5/( 4,7)+0.5/( 4,8)+0.33/( 4,9)
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Example 3 Example 4
R(xi , yi )= (x , y )/(x , y )
i i i i
Consider the rule if x is A then y is B
(xi ,yi )
B
Consider the statement x is A, what is
5 6 7 8 9 the conclusion?
A 2 0,33 0,50 0,50 0,50 0,33 1.00 uA(4)=1.0
3 0,33 0,67 1,00 0,66 0,33
4 0,33 0,50 0,50 0,50 0,33
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

10
A' = A(xi ) / xi = 1.0 / 4
i=0

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 Example 5 Example 6
uA(3)
1.0

0.5
10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A = A(xi ) / xi = 0.5/ 2 +1.0 / 3+ 0.5 / 4
i=0
10
1.00 uB(y) B = B (yi ) / yi = 0.33/ 5+ 0.67/ 6 +1.0 / 7 + 0.67 / 8+ 0.33/ 9
0.67 i=0
0.33 10
A' = A(xi ) / xi = 1.0 / 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
i=0

1.00 uA(4)=1.0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
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Example 7 Example 8

B(yi)=A(xi)oR(xi,yi)

B' (yi )= [ 0 01]0.33 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.33 1.00 uB(y)
0.67

0.33 0.67 1.00 0.66 0.33 0.33

0.33 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.33 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

B' = 0.33/ 5+0.50/ 6+0.50/ 7+0.50/ 8+0.33/ 9 uB(y)

0.50
0.33

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

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