826

Journal of Food Protection, Vol. 72, No. 4, 2009, Pages 826836

Copyright , International Association for Food Protection

Microbiological and Sensory Suitability of a Novel Raw

Material from Porcine Blood and Collagenous Rind Protein as
an Ingredient in a Fermented Raw Salami-Type Sausage
BERNHARD NOWAK* AND THEDA VON MUEFFLING

Institute for Food Quality and Food Safety, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Bischofsholer Damm 15,
30173 Hannover, Germany

MS 08-374: Received 25 July 2008/Accepted 23 October 2008

ABSTRACT
The aim of this investigation was to develop a treatment for combined porcine blood corpuscle concentrate (BCC) and
porcine collagenous connective tissue (rind) so as to make more use of these slaughter by-products as an ingredient in a high-
quality product such as salami-type sausage. For this study, BCC was preserved, standardized (sBCC) (15% NaCl and 25%
protein content), and then added (proportion of sBCC to rind, 15:85) to rind subjected to different treatments designated A,
B, and C (A, 2 h at 90C; B, 5 min at 90C; and C, 2 h at 3C). One half of each mixture was again heated (designated A1,
B1, and C1; F70, 15), and the other half was only cooled (designated A2, B2, and C2). The now colored, highly proteinaceous
rind mixtures (A1 to C2) were then cooled and granulated (designated GBR-A1 to GBR-C2). Three of the granulates (GBR-
A1, -B1, and -B2) proved to be promising new raw materials: their aerobic plate counts were log 4.0 CFU/g, and their color
was appealing (L* values, 23.9 to 25.9; a* values, 17.7 to 22.2; b* values, 11.5 to 12.7). These granulates were then substituted
for part (5%) of the meat in the production of fermented raw salami-type sausages. Two of the sausages (SA1 and SB1) were
microbiologically stable (containing mainly lactobacilli) and had positive sensory, chemical, and physical properties (e.g.,
protein, 21%; water activity, 0.90; pH, between 5.3 and 5.4 on day 36) meeting all standards for commercially produced raw
sausages. Our investigation yielded a practicable way to treat and combine two slaughter by-products for use in a high-quality
meat product.

Blood corpuscle concentrate (BCC) is a high-quality
nutrition resource with a total protein content of 33% cre-
ated by the mechanical compartmentation of porcine blood
(23, 34, 41). While there is a considerable market for blood
plasma in the food industry, no intensive use is yet made
of whole blood or BCC (12), due to a number of prejudices
against these substances: their potentially high perishability,
the intense red coloring, and a strong taste have prevented
their utilization as a human food (33, 43). Consequently,
blood has been applied mainly in the production of animal
feed, or in blood sausages and black pudding, or as a col-
oring agent in bologna-type sausages (6, 14, 2527, 38, 43).
However, in recent years ecological and economical factors
have led to reconsideration of this waste (6, 27). Further-
more, there has been a marked decrease in public accep-
tance of the application of slaughter by-products and waste
materials in animal feed (27). Immense quantities of ex-
cessive slaughter by-productsover 12 million tons in Eu-
rope (7) and 50 billion pounds in North America (29)
have to be stored and disposed of at enormous expense,
despite the fact that there are no current scientific reasons
for discontinuing the use of animal by-products as ingre-
dients for food production (26, 28). It is thus necessary to
find uses in human nutrition for slaughter by-products like
the BCC and collagenous tissue.
* Author for correspondence. Tel: 49-511-856-7319; Fax: 49-511-856-
827319; E-mail: Bernhard.Nowak@tiho-hannover.de.
There are a number of conditions that must be fulfilled
if such by-products are to be incorporated in the human
food chain. First, the BCC, which is highly perishable, has
to be preserved as economically as possible; second, it has
to be maintainable for a long period without losing its ideal
technological-processing properties. These conditions can
be fulfilled by simply adding high amounts of table salt to
the porcine BCC (22, 23, 34, 41). Furthermore, the fun-
damental conditions under which the preserved BCC can
be used in the production of food must be determined. It
has been shown that BCC can be successfully substituted
for whole blood in the cooked-sausage technology, that the
new raw material is well qualified for the production of
blood sausages, and that these products fulfill all require-
ments concerning edibility and trading (34). In addition,
microbiological analysis showed the new products to be
superior to conventional blood sausages (22, 34). It can be
assumed that it is not only possible to use BCC for human
nutrition but also practicable and profitable (22, 23).
Rind consists of high amounts of collagen, which in
itself is not a source of high-quality protein or amino acids
for nutrition (24, 25, 28). Rind is used in different cooked
sausages (25, 26) and in the Thai fermented Nham sausage
(39). But this slaughter by-product has more potential for
use (39). It should be possible to use a highly concentrated
product such as BCC to upgrade the protein status of rind
and give it a red color. At the same time, the strong taste
J. Food Prot., Vol. 72, No. 4 BLOOD CELL CONCENTRATE AND RIND IN A SALAMI-TYPE SAUSAGE 827

and intense color of the BCC could be diminished by mix-

ing it with the collagenous tissue.
The aim of this investigation was to create a new raw
material from two slaughter by-products which could be
used in high-quality meat products such as salami-type sau-
sages. For this, microbiological safety and technological us-
ability of the new raw material are essential prerequisites.
As raw-sausage technology differs fundamentally from
cooked-sausage technology, it was essential to develop spe-
cial techniques for treating the rind and the blood cell gran-
ulate and rind mixture in order to use them in a fermented
sausage. Another requirement was sensorial, physicochem-
ical, chemical, and microbiological comparability of the
new product with a control salami produced under com-
mercial conditions.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
All materials were collected hygienically from a regional
slaughterhouse and transported in less than 2 h to the Institute for
Food Quality and Food Safety, University of Veterinary Medicine
Hannover, for further processing. The material was centrifuged to
obtain blood plasma, and the red cell fraction of blood was stored
at 3C until further use. The BCC was also stored at 3C. The
protein content (Kjeldahl method AOAC, 1990) was determined,
which was necessary for later steps. Unlike the blood, the rind
was not transported under refrigeration, as transport time was 1
h, but it was also stored at 3C until manual degreasing. Conven-
tional potable water was used for the production of the granulated
mixture of standardized BCC (sBCC) and rind. FIGURE 1. Processing and production scheme of the three dif-
ferent treatments (A, B, and C) of the rind and the different mix-
sBCC. BCC was made to a protein content of 25% (25 g of
tures and treatments (A1 to C2) of the rind with standardized
crude protein per 100 g of blood cell concentrate) and preserved
blood corpuscule concentrate (sBCC); the granulation of the
with 15% NaCl as described by Nowak et al. (22). This sBCC
blood and rind granulates (GBR-A1 to GBR-C2); and production
was stored at 3C until further use.
of fermented sausage with three promising GBRs (SA1, SB1, and
Rind (manually degreased). Rind was manually degreased SB2) and a control sausage.
and chopped (13-mm-diameter breaker plate; meat chopper Type
WD 114, Seydelmann, Aalen, Germany) and preprocessed ac-
cording to one of the following three procedures (Fig. 1): (i) pro- and C) and the two filling techniques (1 and 2), resulting in batch-
cedure A consisted of heating for 2 h at 90C (Korimat KA200, es A1 and A2, B1 and B2, and C1 and C2, which were produced
Wagner, Esslingen, Germany); procedure B consisted of heating six times (n 6). The sBCC and rind sausages were frozen for
for 5 min at 90C (Korimat KA200), followed by 115 min in a 1 h at 22C and then comminuted to a granulation size of 2
water bath at 3C; and procedure C consisted of cooling for 2 h mm, resulting in granulates GBR-A1, GBR-A2, GBR-B1, GBR-
in a water bath at 3C. B2, GBR-C1, and GBR-C2 for further use.
Rind from all three preprocessing variations underwent com-
minution to a granulation size of 2 mm (meat chopper Type WD Raw sausages with granulates. In order to test the practical
114, Seydelmann). Each processing variation was prepared six applicability of the selected GBR, it was used in the production
times (n 6). of a raw sausage technology meat product, a type of salami. On
the basis of the results of the analyses of the different GBRs,
GBR. To obtain the granulated mixture of sBCC and rind granulates from procedures A1, B1, and B2 were selected for use
(GBR), the preserved sBCC and the prepared rind after treatment in further experiments with salami-type sausages designated SA1,
A, B, or C were mixed in the proportion of 15% sBCC to 85% SB1, and SB2 (Fig. 1). The granulate sausages were compared to
rind. The mixture was again preserved with 10% NaCl. This pro- a granulate-free control sausage (control). All sausage variations
cedure was followed by fine comminution through a colloid mill were produced six times (n 6) according to the following rec-
(PUC Viskosator JV10, Probst & Class, Rastatt, Germany). These ipe: control, 52.8% lean ham, 23.3% lean shoulder meat, and
three BCC and rind preprocessing mixtures (A, B, and C) were 23.9% bacon; experimental sausages, 52.8% ham, 20% shoulder
then processed by one of two procedures (Fig. 1): (i) procedure meat, 22.2% bacon, and 5% granulate of GBR-A1, GBR-B1, and
1, consisting of placing the mixture in low-density polyethylene GBR-B2. The following spices and additives were also used (all
tubular film (Europlast Kunstdarme, Mudder, Osnabruck, Ger- from Gewurzmuhle, Hannover, Germany): pepper (0.4%), ginger
many), with refrigeration at 3C; or (ii) procedure 2, which con- (0.05%), cardamom (0.1%), pimento (0.07%), and garlic (0.02%).
sisted of placing the mixture in low density polyethylene tubular Other ingredients were saccharose (0.4%), ascorbate (0.06%), as-
film and heating it to an F70 value of 15, with refrigeration at 3C. corbic acid (0.02%), and curing salt (2.8%; 0.2% nitrite in salt)
In all, six variations of each GBR were prepared from each (Akzo Nobel Salz, Stade, Germany). Freeze-dried starter cultures
of the three sBCC and rind mixture processing variations (A, B, of the following microorganisms were also added (0.025%):
828 NOWAK AND VON MUEFFLING
TABLE 1. Fermentation conditions for granulate sausages (SA1,
SB1, and SB2) and granulate-free salami-type sausages (control)
Relative Air Smoking
Temp humidity movement time
Day (C) (%) (m/s) (min)
1 24 96 2 carried out as a descriptive analysis on a 6-point response scale
2 22 93 1.5
3 20 90 1.5
418 16 8580 1 itive and negative quality variations: appearance and color (as well
19 16 80 0.5 195
20 16 80 0.5 195
2136 16 75 0.5
Staphylococcus carnosus MIII, Staphylococcus xylosus K4, and
Lactobacillus curvatus Lb3 (Bactoferm F-RM-7, Chr. Hansen,
Pohlheim, Germany). All sausages (control, SA1, SB1, and SB2)
were ripened for 36 days under the conditions given in Table 1;
smoke was generated from beech wood shavings.
The following analyses were carried out with the raw mate-
rials, granulates, and/or sausages.
Microbiological determinations. The aerobic plate count
(APC) (72 h, 30C) was determined on plate count agar (Merck,
Darmstadt, Germany). The following bacteria were also identified
and enumerated: Enterobacteriaceae (24 h at 37C; violet red bile
dextrose agar [Oxoid, Wesel, Germany]) and aerobic lactic acid
bacteria (72 h at 25C; modified DeMan Rogosa Sharpe agar
[VWR, Darmstadt, Germany]) followed by microscopic identifi-
cation of gram-positive rods. Yeasts and mold fungi were detected
on yeast extract glucose chloramphenicol agar (YGC agar; Oxoid)
(72 to 120 h at 25C), and coagulase-positive staphylococci were
identified and enumerated on Baird-Parker agar (Oxoid) (48 h at
37C) followed by confirmation of coagulase in rabbit coagulase
plasma (Bactident-Coagulase, VWR). Bacilli were detected after
dilutions were heated at 80C in a water bath for 10 min and then
streaked onto standard plate count agar prepared with 1% D()
glucose monohydrate (pH 7.0; Merck) (48 h at 37C). Peroxidase
was confirmed with 3% H2O2 and by Gram staining with identi-
fication of gram-positive rods. All microbiological determinations
were made in duplicate for each batch.
Physicochemical analyses. A battery-powered pH meter
(Portamess 651-2, Knick, Elektronische Messgerate, Berlin, Ger-
many) was used to measure pH; each sample was measured in
five places on each investigation day. The water activity (aw) was
determined with an aw cryometer, type AWK-10 (Nagy Messsys-
teme GmbH, Graufelden, Germany). The samples were analyzed
in duplicate from each batch (n 6) according to the AOAC
procedures (1997) for the following chemical parameters: fat con-
tent (by the adapted Soxhlet method no. 948.22); protein (Kjeldahl
nitrogen, no. 991.30); moisture (oven air-drying method no.
925.10); ash (the samples were ashed in a muffle furnace [Heraeus
W. C. GmbH, Hanau, Germany] after addition of magnesium ac-
etate-4-hydrate [art. no. 32316, Riedel-de Haen, Seelze, Germa-
ny]).
Sensory attributes. The shear force (in newtons) of the gran-
ulates was evaluated with a TA-XTplus Texture Analyzer (Stable
Micro Systems, London, UK) with a Kramer Shear Cell. Thirty
grams of the granulates was placed into the cell; a five-bladed
knife was plunged into the cell to measure the shear force. Each
sample was tested 10 times on every investigation day.
Sensory analysis was performed in the laboratory of the In-
J. Food Prot., Vol. 72, No. 4
stitute for Food Quality and Food Safety, University of Veterinary
Medicine Hannover. The sensory panel consisted of five trained
persons, of whom three were specialized expert assessors and two
were selected assessors (according to Organization for Standard-
ization [ISO] 6658:2005, ISO 4124:2003, and ISO 8586-1). Anal-
ysis was performed according to the given standards. The test was
according to ISO 6658:2005 and ISO 4121:2003. Three different
attributes of the sausages were described by product-specific pos-
as color preservation and composition), consistency, and odor and
taste. Each attribute was judged on a 6-point scale, 5 being the
highest score and 0 being the lowest. The final points were then
divided by 3 (for the attributes), so that a sausage with a final
rating of 0 points showed unacceptable nonconformity to the usual
quality of the product and a product with a final rating of 5 points
was of prime quality without deviations.
The color attributes of the granulates were determined using
a spectrophotometric device (CM-2002, Minolta Camera, Osaka,
Japan). The granulates were placed onto a plastic dish 1 cm deep;
10 evenly distributed areas of each granulate were measured on
each investigation day. The method of the Commission Interna-
tionale de lEclairage was used, which expresses the impression
in terms of three parameters: L* (white and black), a* (red and
green), and b* (yellow and blue). Measurements were taken with
a xenon lamp after calibration to a white and red standard at a
wavelength of 400 to 700 nm with a resolution of 10 nm and a
measuring sequence of 3 s. The adjustments were as follows:
Commission Internationale de lEclairage norm light, D65, 10 ob-
server, and measurement with gloss capture.
Statistical analysis. The statistical evaluations were per-
formed by the SAS program, version 8.2, 2003 (SAS Institute Inc.,
Cary, NC). The data with Gaussian distribution were tested with
SAS procedures using t tests or Wilcoxons signed-rank test for
linked samples or using t tests or Wilcoxons two-sample test for
unlinked samples.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Basic materials. Intake control of all basic materials
is essential for the production of all high-quality meat prod-
ucts (20), especially when novel raw materials are used in
a raw product. The results of the analyses of the basic ma-
terials are given in Table 2.
The BCC used in this production process had a total
protein content of 32.9 g/100 g (standard deviation [SD],
1.8), a hemoglobin content of 28.8 g/dl (SD, 1.8), and
an aw of 0.994 (SD, 0.0014). This total average protein
content of 33% confirms reports that BCC is a high-quality
nutrition resource (22, 34, 41). Other investigators (32)
have even found a total average protein content of 38% in
BCC. The different amounts of protein (and hemoglobin)
are mainly due to the setting (in rotations per minute) of
the plates inside the centrifuges. In the investigation of
Sperveslage (32) the centrifuge plates rotated at approxi-
mately 6,000 to 7,000 rpm, thus resulting in very high pro-
tein contents of the BCC. In our investigation, the centri-
fuge was mainly set at about 2,000 rpm. However, there
also was considerable variability in the BCC total protein
content (minimum, 30.6%; maximum, 35.2%), which de-
pended on the differently set speed of the centrifuge. The
lower rotations per minute setting was used if blood plasma
J. Food Prot., Vol. 72, No. 4 BLOOD CELL CONCENTRATE AND RIND IN A SALAMI-TYPE SAUSAGE 829

All values are counts of microorganisms in log CFU per gram SD (n 6). Microbiological results for fresh BCC, fresh sBCC, and sBCC after 7 days showing significant (P 0.05)
TABLE 2. Microbiological contamination of the raw materials blood corpuscle concentrate (BCC), standardized BCC (sBCC), and rind used for differently treated sBCC-rind mixtures and
was being collected at the slaughterhouse for industrial pur-
poses. This variation is seen as a problem by the meat pro-

2.24 0.55
2.28 0.51
1.80 0.25
2.36 1.05
2.40 0.67

2.18 0.64
2.04 0.54
2.07 0.30
2.55 0.75
2.12 0.83
4.39 0.20
cessing industry because of difficulties in standardizing this

2.00
2.00
2.00
Molds
raw material. However, if BCC could be sold continuously,
the centrifuges would remain at a certain rotations per min-
ute setting, which would reduce the variability in protein
content. Tarnowski (34) has suggested standardizing the
raw material for the manufacture of products containing
BCC. For this study we implemented standardization of the
2.03 0.43
1.97 0.43

4.11 0.32
2.08 0.66

2.23 0.32
2.02 0.64
2.65 0.54
3.59 0.89
2.38 0.16
raw material for the manufacturing of BCC-containing
2.00

2.00
2.00
2.00

2.00
Yeasts

products. In the context of this work a standardization of

the BCC to a total protein content of 25% following the
method described by Tarnowski (34) and Nowak et al. (22)
was used.
Due to its high total protein content, BCC is also a
highly perishable material (34, 41). In accordance with both
2.05 0.52

2.10 0.55

4.87 0.21 legal demands (2, 3) and the recommendations of Nowak

2.00
2.00
2.00

2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00

2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
Bacilli

and von Mueffling (23) and Stiebing (33), we cooled the

BCC immediately after its production to 3C and col-
lected it within a closed system in order to inhibit bacterial
contamination and growth.
The BCC was found to have a total APC of log 4.62
Coagulase-positive

0.36, which was reflected in subsequent microbiological

1.98 0.37
1.75 0.12
1.95 0.39
1.75 0.12

2.02 0.33
staphylococci

examinations (Table 2). These findings support those (log

2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00

2.00
2.00

4.92 and log 4.43) reported by other authors who have col-
lected BCC (22, 24, 35) and who also detected a similar
spectrum of bacterial species. Others (23, 34, 41) found
some variations in the degree of bacterial contamination
between batches. This variability in the bacterial quality of
the raw material and its resulting high perishability require
2.64 0.89
2.29 0.81
1.75 0.12
4.01 0.64

1.96 0.47
3.06 0.44
1.87 0.29
2.06 0.31
Lactobacilli

immediate processing or preservation. The most efficient

2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00
2.00

preservation can be achieved with addition of 15% table

salt (22, 23). Here, the bacterial status was determined 16
h or 7 days after salting. von Mueffling (41) has reported
on bacterial counts of BCC 7 days after salting, but those
results did not refer to sBCC. Differences of those findings
might be due to different protein contents and aw values. It
Enterobacteriaceae

3.84 AB 0.64
2.67 A 0.23
2.10 B 0.50
4.27 0.31

2.05 0.23

2.67 0.54

3.56 1.00
3.63 1.04
2.50 1.20
1.95 0.22

was also not possible to make definitive comparisons be-

2.00
2.00

2.00

2.00

tween bacterial counts in other investigations (22, 34) be-

cause these referred to BCC that were analyzed only 6 days
after preservation and standardization and not after 7 days,
as in our study. Nevertheless, it is clear that reduction of
raw materials used for salami-type sausage productiona

the total APC mainly occurs in the first 90 min after salting.
Our results confirm that there is a statistically significant
reduction of bacterial contents from that of the fresh BCC
differences are indicated with the same letter.
0.36
0.46
0.46
1.25
0.59
0.36
0.93
0.59
0.69
0.42
1.04
0.76
0.22
0.15

to that of the freshly standardized sBCC and the sBCC

b APC, total aerobic mesophilic plate count.

stored for 7 days for the APC (P 0.0207 and 0.0123,

APCb

respectively) and Enterobacteriaceae (P 0.0067 and

4.27 A
4.62 AB

4.18 B
6.77
2.75
1.69
3.77
1.33
5.22
1.81
4.64
4.52
3.39
5.41

0.0070, respectively). There were no significant (P 0.05)

differences between the two standardized sBCCs (fresh and
stored for 7 days), nor were there for all other bacteria
investigated here.
sBCC after 7 days at 3C

sBCC-rind mixture A1
sBCC-rind mixture A2
sBCC-rind mixture B1
sBCC-rind mixture B2
sBCC-rind mixture C1
sBCC-rind mixture C2

As a raw material, rind can also be highly contami-

nated microbiologically, and it is especially threatened by
Sample

bacterial increase if not produced hygienically and kept un-

Shoulder meat

Spice mixture
Fresh sBCC

der controlled cooling temperature during further process-

Fresh BCC

Fresh rind

ing steps (20, 24). The examinations showed a variation

Bacon

between the degree of contamination of the manually de-

Ham

greased rind that ranged from a minimum APC of log 4.89

a
830 NOWAK AND VON MUEFFLING
to a maximum of log 8.71, with a mean value of log 6.77
(Table 2). This is in agreement with the total APC for pro-
cessed rind of up to 108 CFU/g given by Haack and War-
necke (13). The fact that coagulase-positive staphylococci
were found in the rind could possibly support the infor-
mation given by Troeger (36) that Staphylococcus aureus
survives the brewing process in the depth of the hair fol-
licles. Admittedly there is also a risk of contamination with
S. aureus after the brewing process. The high lactobacillus
content (log 4.01 0.64) supports the statement of Gill
and Bryant (9) that lactobacilli are part of the flora of
slaughter animals, so that contamination to a greater or less-
er extent is usual.
As the microbial examinations showed the rind to be
highly contaminated, subsequent heating played a decisive
role. The further processing of the rind in the heating cham-
ber caused the bacterial count to decrease by 99.9% (pro-
cesses A and B; Fig. 1), whereas processing without a heat-
ing step (process C) unsurprisingly did not have a signifi-
cant bacterium-reducing effect (data not shown). Most veg-
etative microorganisms can be inactivated after heating at
75C (16, 19), resulting in APCs of log 0.1/g in rind if it
is heated for 4 to 5 h (34). We tested shorter heating times
(2 h and 5 min), so that temperatures of at least 90C were
needed to inactivate the microorganisms in the rind. Most
of the nutritive values of the proteins are preserved during
a heating period of 5 min (38).
It was possible to achieve chemical consistency of the
processed rind, especially the total protein content, which
was adjusted to averages of 18.5 g/100 g (A, 2 h at 90C;
SD, 2.2), 31.1 g/100 g (B, 5 min at 90C; SD, 1.8),
and 30.9 g/100 g (C, 2 h at 3C; SD, 1.3). Careful manual
degreasing and the subsequent processing led to a fat con-
tent of between 5.9 g/100 g (A) and 6.7 g/100 g (C) (data
not shown). Similar analytical results for cooked, defatted
pork skin were found by Visessanguan et al. (39): 22.8 g
of protein per 100 g and 2.1 g of fat per 100 g. Abiola and
Adegbaju (1) reported an average of 27.0% protein for the
pork rind. Differences with our results are mainly due to
different treatments of the materials: for example, Vises-
sanguan et al. (39) boiled their rind without giving a pro-
cessing time.
Further raw materials. Further raw materials such as
lean shoulder meat, ham, and bacon showed considerable
variation in their bacterial contents (Table 2), which were
comprised mainly of Enterobacteriaceae, lactobacilli, and
yeasts and molds. Variations were due to different batches
of meat used and the associated different slaughter and pro-
cessing hygiene. None of the raw materials was contami-
nated with Salmonella. Various authors indicate that the
mixed herbs used in sausage production are a considerable
source of contamination (18, 22). We found a total APC of
log 5.41 CFU/g in these ingredients. Others (22, 34) have
found the spices to have total APCs of as much as log 6.95
CFU/g. Our findings support the examinations of others (8,
18) indicating that the main microflora of mixed herbs con-
sisted of aerobic spore-forming bacteria. Our microbiolog-
J. Food Prot., Vol. 72, No. 4
ical examination of the mixed herbs showed a significantly
high amount of catalase-positive Bacillaceae and of molds.
Contamination with catalase-positive Bacillaceae can be
log 5.00 (8, 18, 34). Our raw materials complied with all
official benchmarks and warning levels (24), with the ex-
ception of the total number of Bacillaceae in the spice mix-
ture, which exceeded the benchmark of log 4.0 for Bacillus
cereus (4); however, this particular species was not identi-
fied here.
Mixture of sBCC and rind; granulates. The only ref-
erences in the literature on the use of a combination of BCC
and rind to color the rind were found in Tarnowski (34)
and Nowak et al. (22), who have shown that it is possible
to produce blood sausages for human consumption with
standardized BCC without additives. It was thus thought
reasonable to follow their basic methods and principles.
However, their guidelines could be applied only to a limited
extent, as completely different conditions apply to raw sau-
sages and to blood sausages, which are cooked.
Janitz et al. (17) discovered that common table salt
decreases the degree of thermal degradation of rind. Their
recommendation to add common salt after the heat treat-
ment has been followed in the present study. One of the
most important microbiological barriers within the raw sau-
sage production is the aw value, which indicates water ac-
tivity. In our investigation the use of salt in the processing
lowered the aw of the granulates to as little as between 0.88
and 0.91 (Table 3). Differences were statistically significant
between granulates subjected to heating during rind treat-
ment (GBR-A and GBR-B) and those without a heating
step at this point (GBR-C). Due to the dwelling and restruc-
turing of the collagen, the water absorption in processes A
and B might have been expected to be somewhat higher.
However, the overall differences in aw values between the
treatments were low (0.03). Some authors (19, 37) indi-
cate that a decrease in aw levels to as low as 0.90 leads
to inhibition of reproduction of most microorganisms,
thereby achieving a greater microbiological stability.
Our findings also confirm the information given by
Tarnowski (34) that the coloring of the mixture of BCC and
rind is controllable. Ideal coloring effects have been
achieved by including between 12 and 18% standardized
and salted blood cell concentrate (sBCC) in the mixture (22,
34). The specified optimized ranges for blood sausages are
L* values of 34 to 38 and a* values of 17 to 18, which
Tarnowski (34) achieved by the addition of 13.8% sBCC.
We therefore used 15% sBCC with 85% rind for our GBR,
which led to L* values of between 21.7 4.7 and 29.1
1.4; to a* values of between 10.4 2.2 and 27.5 5.4;
and to b* values of between 7.5 1.3 and 15.5 4.5
(Table 3). It must be noted that consumers prefer raw sau-
sages to be lighter in color than blood sausages, although
redness is the most important color impression. The GBRs
made by processes A1 and B1 showed particularly high a*
values, followed by GBR-B2 with slightly lower values.
The color of the GBRs with lower a* values seemed ar-
tificial to our sensory evaluators. There were also signif-
TABLE 3. Comparison of differently treated mixtures of sBCC and rind after granulation (GBR-A1 to GBR-C2) on the day of productiona
J. Food Prot., Vol. 72, No. 4

Attribute (unit) GBR-A1 GBR-A2 GBR-B1 GBR-B2 GBR-C1 GBR-C2

No. of microorganisms
(log CFU/g)
APCb 3.48 ABC 0.59 2.60 AD 0.64 3.97 D 0.89 2.82 B
0.98 5.32 ABCD 0.59 2.85 C 0.59
Enterobacteriaceae 1.80 0.26 2.00 1.87 0.41 2.00 2.01 0.63 2.00
Lactobacilli 2.00 1.75 0.12 1.98 0.34 1.83 0.21 1.90 0.25 2.00
Bacilli 2.00 1.92 0.53 2.00 2.00 2.05 0.62 1.90 0.49
Yeasts 1.82 0.32 1.80 0.16 3.23 0.54 1.85 0.25 2.31 0.37 1.75 0.12
Molds 0.94 0.40 0.91 0.53 1.32 1.12 0.75 0.12 2.52 0.69 2.00 0.53
Color
L* value 25.0 ABC 3.5 28.3 AD 2.5 23.9 D 3.8 25.9 D 2.7 29.5 ABCD 2.2 27.8 C 2.2
a* value 18.2 ABC 4.4 15.9 AD 1.8 22.2 DEF 4.8 17.7 BE 2.9 9.0 ABCDE 1.3 13.7 CF 1.9
b* value 12.1 A 2.6 13.4 B 2.1 11.5 C 4.2 12.7 D 2.9 7.6 ABCD 1.1 10.6 C 1.7
Consistency
Shear force (N) 2,590 A 1,069 4,109 B 1,839 2,312 B 295 2,727 CD 921 15,519 ABCD 252 9,506 BCD 2,686
Chemical analysis (g/100 g)
Dry matter 32.5 AE 1.2 32.9 BF 1.4 32.3 CG 1.0 32.4 DH 1.2 43.9 ABCD 1.8 43.5 EFGH 1.3
Ash 10.1 0.1 10.1 0.1 10.1 0.1 10.1 0.1 10.2 0.1 10.2 0.0
Total protein 18.2 AE 1.3 18.7 BF 1.7 20.0 CG 1.0 20.2 DH 1.1 28.3 ABCD 1.3 28.2 EFGH 1.2
Fat 4.5 1.7 4.4 1.7 3.3 0.6 3.4 0.7 5.6 1.1 5.6 0.5
Water activity (aw) 0.910 AE 0.005 0.907 BF 0.004 0.912 CG 0.002 0.913 DH 0.002 0.889 ABCD 0.005 0.880 EFGH 0.004
a Values are means SD (n 6). Results showing significant differences (P 0.05) are indicated by the same letter.
b APC, total aerobic mesophilic plate count.
BLOOD CELL CONCENTRATE AND RIND IN A SALAMI-TYPE SAUSAGE
831
832 NOWAK AND VON MUEFFLING
icant color differences in L* and a* values between the
batches without heat processing (A1, B1, and C1) and with
heat processing (A2, B2, and C2) (P 0.05); there were
also significant differences between the a* values of gran-
ulates GBR-A1 and GBR-B1 and those of all others.
The total protein content of the mixture of sBCC and
rind was between 18.2 g (GBR-A1) and 28.3 g (GBR-C1)
protein per 100 g. It is not unusual for cooked rind to be
used in the production of sausages as a meat substitute, but
this mainly applies to lower-quality products (12). Pure rind
(collagenous tissue protein) cannot replace high-class pro-
tein sources like muscle meat (28). The quality of rind pro-
tein is lower because of its amino acid configuration (25,
28). However, it is possible to upgrade collagenous protein
by combining it with a high-quality raw material such as
BCC (22, 23, 32, 41, 43). Although there were significant
(P 0.05) differences in total protein between batches
from processes A and B and batches from process C, there
was no statistically significant difference between the dif-
ferent process batches in fat content (Table 3). There was
a considerable loss of total protein after process A and
somewhat less after process B. These losses could have
been caused by a more intense dwelling of the heated rind
which went into the granulates. Rind from process A was
subjected to longer heating, while B was heated only brief-
ly. This more intense dwelling in process A would then
result in lower percentages of dry substance, total protein,
and fat than in the rind mixtures made by process C. Fur-
thermore, differences may have been due to rearrangement
of the nonsoluble collagenous tissue structures (collagen)
into water-soluble structures (gelatin) after longer heating
(2, 3, 13, 25, 26).
The heating process and associated rearrangement of
soluble fibers also are the reasons for the significantly dif-
ferent consistency (shear force) of the blood rind granulates
after processes A and B and process C. This difference was
also evident for process C; the variant that included a heat-
ing step, C2, resulted in lower consistency values than did
variant C1, which held no heating step whatsoever. It can
be assumed that the three-dimensional structure of the col-
lagen was significantly changed by heating (2, 3, 13, 25,
26).
Heating the mixture of BCC and rind in order to de-
crease the microorganism load was carried out on the basis
of the so-called F value analysis, which is an interna- ably originated from the fresh material used in the recipe,
tional term for the rate of death achieved, evaluated, cal-
culated, and compared under different temperature-time
combinations, as described by Incze et al. (16) and Reichert
and Poggoda (31). According to those authors, heating to
70C ensures that the appearance, odor, and taste of the
products stay ideal while most of the microorganisms are
killed. On the other hand, it is necessary to heat to F70
values of 15 to 20 in order to kill vegetative microorgan-
isms with certainty (31).
It was demonstrated that even though the fresh BCC
and rind showed high APCs and contained high numbers
of Enterobacteriaceae and yeasts, our treatments (standard-
ization of BCC and heat treating of the rind) decreased the
microbial load markedly in mixtures A2, B2, and C2 and
J. Food Prot., Vol. 72, No. 4
substantially in A1 and B1. Only mixture C1, with no heat
treatment in the entire process, still contained high amounts
of bacteria.
The pH values were taken following comminution of
the prepared sBCC rind sausages to granulates. Leistner
(19) indicates that pH values of less than 5.0 or more than
8.0 are necessary for the inhibition of microorganism
growth. As the pH values of the sBCC and rind mixtures
ranged between 7.6 and 7.8 (data not shown), it can be
assumed that the degree of acidification of the BCC and
rind mixture did not play a role as a microbiological barrier,
especially because microorganisms are particularly aug-
mentable at pH 7.0 (19).
According to Gissel (10), bacterial contamination and
reproduction increase with the degree of comminution. Our
results support this, because after transfer of the produced
sBCC and rind sausages into the granulate (2 mm), we ob-
served a slight increase in total APC from batches A1 to
C2 (Table 2) in relation to their corresponding granulates
(GBR-A1 to GBR-C2) (Table 3). However, the total APC
and the bacterial spectrum detected prove that the granulate
stayed microbiologically stable during 4 weeks storage at
3C.
Furthermore, the color remained stable under the de-
scribed storage conditions. Comparable sausages produced
by Tarnowski (34) were shown to maintain their color sta-
bility for at least 6 days under the same storage conditions.
Raw-sausage production. As described above, six
versions of granulate were produced. Of these six, only
three (GBR-A1, GBR-B1, and GBR-B2) were suitable for
processing by raw-sausage technology. The selection pa-
rameters were as follows: (i) microbiological safety, (ii) ap-
pealing red coloring, and (iii) specific chemical and phys-
ical properties.
Table 4 shows the results of the analyses of the differ-
ently produced raw sausages and the control sausages.
There were no significant (P 0.05) differences in levels
of lactobacilli, bacilli, yeasts, and molds between raw sau-
sages with and without granulate (Table 4). The lactobacilli
mainly originated from starter cultures, while the bacilli and
molds were probably from the spices in the recipe, and the
yeasts were from the rind, which had shown rather high
levels of those organisms. The Enterobacteriaceae presum-
although there were significantly higher amounts in the
granulate-free raw sausages (control) than in experimental
sausages SA1 (P 0.0212), SB1 (P 0.0415), and SB2
(P 0.0378). These differences disappeared during the fer-
mentation process, and by the end of processing (day 36)
there was no difference in the amounts of Enterobacteria-
ceae. These microorganism dynamics have also been de-
scribed by other authors (5, 11, 21), who report that it is
common to detect Enterobacteriaceae at the beginning of
the fermentation process and that these decrease within the
first hours or at the latest during the first days after the start
of the fermentation process. This process can be taken as
an indication of the successful use of raw-sausage technol-
ogy. At no time were coagulase-positive Staphylococcus or
J. Food Prot., Vol. 72, No. 4 BLOOD CELL CONCENTRATE AND RIND IN A SALAMI-TYPE SAUSAGE 833

TABLE 4. Microbiological and chemical analysis of fermented sausages produced with a granulated mixture of standardized blood
cell concentrate and rind treated differently and of a high-quality salami-type control sausagea
Attribute (unit) SA1 SB1 SB2 Control

No. of microorganism(s) (log CFU/g)

APC on day 0 6.76 0.20 6.70 0.34 6.77 0.15 6.77 0.07
APC on day 36 8.30 0.26 8.28 0.28 8.12 0.47 8.25 0.44
Enterobacteriaceae on day 0 2.50 A 0.54 2.76 B 0.65 2.31 C 0.42 3.62 ABC 1.00
Enterobacteriaceae on day 36 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 0.25
Lactobacilli on day 0 5.96 0.24 5.88 0.50 6.09 0.13 5.92 0.25
Lactobacilli on day 36 8.61 0.20 8.53 0.16 8.57 0.07 8.61 0.15
Bacilli on day 0 3.40 0.23 3.30 0.19 3.36 0.13 3.25 0.24
Bacilli on day 36 3.11 0.16 3.29 0.37 3.11 0.30 3.07 0.37
Yeasts on day 0 2.62 0.26 2.77 0.26 2.57 0.14 3.16 0.86
Yeasts on day 36 2.00 2.00 0.16 2.00 0.12 2.00 0.12
Molds on day 0 2.04 0.29 2.23 0.27 2.14 0.27 2.56 0.77
Molds on day 36 2.03 0.16 2.12 0.17 2.04 0.12 2.13 0.26
Chemical content (g/100 g)
Dry matter 59.83 0.55 59.98 0.45 59.80 0.58 60.15 0.71
Ash 5.43 A 0.35 5.40 B 0.32 5.28 C 0.12 4.77 ABC 0.20
Fat 30.33 0.74 30.52 0.24 30.40 0.49 30.33 3.14
Total protein 24.03 A 0.37 24.00 B 0.25 24.07 C 0.35 23.73 ABC 0.22
CTP 2.88 A 0.15 2.92 B 0.15 2.88 C 0.10 1.98 ABC 0.12
Protein without CTP (absolute) 21.15 A 0.30 21.08 B 0.29 21.18 C 0.40 21.75 ABC 0.33
Protein without CTP
(relative to total protein) (%) 88.00 A 0.52 87.85 B 0.66 88.02 C 0.50 91.65 ABC 0.72
Water activity (aw value) on day 0 0.961 0.002 0.961 0.002 0.962 0.001 0.965 0.002
Water activity (aw value) on day 36 0.903 A 0.007 0.902 B 0.008 0.905 C 0.004 0.913 ABC 0.003
pH value on day 0 5.76 0.14 5.72 0.10 5.78 0.17 5.73 0.13
pH value on day 3 5.18 0.08 5.08 0.08 5.23 0.17 5.14 0.16
pH value on day 36 5.34 0.07 5.29 0.07 5.37 0.06 5.34 0.04
a Values are means SD (n 6). Results showing significant differences (P 0.05) are indicated by the same letter.

Salmonella organisms found in the raw sausages (data not
shown).
Within a few hours to a few days there was growth of
lactobacilli (108/g), which had been added to the formula-
tion as starter cultures (5, 21, 40). This growth was indi-
cated by the presence of around 1.0 106 CFU of lacto-
bacilli per g in SA1, SB1, SB2, and the control on the
production day. This rose to around 5.0 108 CFU/g on
the 5th day (data not shown) which was also the level on
the last, 36th day of the fermentation process. These find-
ings conform exactly to the objectives for raw sausages
given by other authors (35, 40). Starter cultures of lacto-
bacilli (for acidification) and staphylococci (for aroma) are
commonly added to fermented sausages to ensure stability
and good sensory results (35). As in our case, the APC of
stable and correctly fermented sausages must primarily con-
sist of lactobacilli (35, 40).
Physicochemical results for raw sausages. Depend-
ing on processing conditions, the pH values of fermented
raw sausages are between 5.0 and 5.6 within the first to
third days of ripening (15, 33, 39). Thereafter, the pH value
drops steeply to around 4.3 to 5.0 (5, 15, 35, 39, 40) and
rises again in sausages fermented for a long time, to slightly
higher levels of 5.0 (5) or 6.3 (21). Our sausages fulfilled
these conditions (Table 4): the pH was between 5.1 and 5.2
on day 3 and between 5.3 and 5.4 on day 36 (final day) of
ripening.
Product stability depends on (higher) pH values in
combination with very low aw values (e.g., between 0.81
and 0.83 (24)). On the production day aw was 0.96 in all
sausages, a fairly common level for fresh fermented sau-
sages (15, 19). However, at the end of the fermentation
process aw was significantly lower in the granulate-contain-
ing products than in the controls. The mean aw value of the
controls was 0.913, while it was 0.903 in experimental sau-
sage SA1 (P 0.0256), 0.902 in SB1 (P 0.0237), and
0.905 in SB2 (P 0.0012). Generally these differences
were consistent, although fairly small (0.01 unit). A rea-
son could be that even though the water content of the
processed rinds was high, after further processing, mixing
with blood, salting, and freezing these aw values (0.91;
Table 3) of the GBRs were lower than those of the fresh
meat and/or fat for which they were substituted. This ac-
counts for the fact that the aw values of the control sausages
were slightly higher than those of the experimental sausag-
es. There were only small differences in water content be-
cause only 5% of the meat and/or fat was replaced with
granulate. These differences also conform to the results of
Weber et al. (42), who produced raw sausages (easy to
spread) with the addition of 2% of processed collagen,
834 NOWAK AND VON MUEFFLING
which led to a decrease in aw value of between 0.03 and
0.16 units.
Although the granulate produced here had variable de-
grees of microbial contamination, this had no negative in-
fluence on the bacterial content of the different raw sau-
sages. Other authors (20) have also not been able to show
any correlation between the amount of connective tissue
originating from pig skin added to a meat product and the
microbiological stability of the product. The hygienic con-
ditions of all the raw materials used for the production of
a meat product are the main factor influencing its micro-
biological stability and safety (20).
The granulate-containing raw sausages (SA1, SB1, and
SB2) were found to have significantly (P 0.05) higher
concentrations of total protein, connective tissue protein (P
0.0001), and ash (P 0.05) than the control (Table 4),
even though the overall differences were rather low. Hence,
both the absolute and the relative (to total protein) concen-
trations of protein calculated without the connective tissue
protein (CTP) were significantly lower in the granulate-con-
taining raw sausages than in the granulate-free control sau-
sages (P 0.001). The significantly higher total protein
content of the granulate-containing raw sausages was a re-
sult of the replacement of some of the basic raw sausage
material (meat) with a corresponding amount of granulate
protein. The increase in the total protein content led to a
rise in the physiological-biological, nutritional value of the
meat products produced in this way. As mentioned above,
both the absolute and relative protein contents without CTP
were lower in the experimental granulate sausages than in
the granulate-free raw sausage. These levels are usual, as
the granulates consisted of 78.4% processed rind, corre-
sponding to 77% connective tissue (30). Altogether, total
protein values of about 21 to 25% are normal for dry fer-
mented sausages (e.g., (11, 35, 39)); the results of the
chemical analyses of our sausages therefore are in compli-
ance with the aim of producing high-quality salami-type
products.
The weight loss of approximately 33% for all our sau-
sages is common for fermented sausages dried longer (35);
furthermore, there were no significant differences in the dry
matter during the fermentation process between the sausag-
es with and without granulate. These findings do not agree
with those of others (12, 33, 39) indicating that water fix-
ation in sausages increases when cooked rind is added. Vi-
sessanguan et al. (39) added various amounts of cooked
rind to fermented Nham sausages and found no significant
differences between day 0 of production and the last days
of ripening; however, the sausages with higher amounts of
rind lost less weight and water than the Nham sausages with
lower amounts of added rind. This was due to the higher
moisture content of cooked rind after dwelling in the water.
As described above, we added a fairly low amount (5%) of
an aw-reduced sBCC-rind granulate, whereas Visessanguan
et al. (39) used between 20 and 60% dwelled rind. The
major reason why there were no measurable differences in
water content between our experimental and control sau-
sages was the small amount of granulate used.
J. Food Prot., Vol. 72, No. 4
FIGURE 2. Overall sensory scores of the three fermented sau-
sages (SA1, SB1, and SB2) produced with different granulates
(GBR-A1, GBR-B1, and GBR-B2) and a control salami-type sau-
sage without granulate for the attributes of appearance and color,
consistency, and odor and taste on a 6-point scale (from a score
of 5 indicating prime quality to a score of 0 indicating unac-
ceptable quality) (sensory panel; mean values SD).
Sensory evaluation of raw sausages. The granulate-
containing raw sausages were judged to be the best, espe-
cially the SB1 batch (Fig. 2). The raw-sausage aroma of
granulate-free sausages (control) was not as strong as that
of the granulate-containing sausages, and the color in the
cross section of the controls was too pale. The worst score
was given to the SB2 batch, which was therefore statisti-
cally significantly different (P 0.05) from those of the
other sausages. Evaluators objected to dark brown particles,
which are atypical for raw sausages, that were visible on
the sliced sausages. In addition to the sensory evaluation
by the trained experts, a texture analysis with a Kramer
Shear Cell was conducted that showed slight, but no sig-
nificant (P 0.05) differences in consistency (shear force;
data not shown).
We found that raw sausages comparable to standard
salamis can be produced by the production process for sau-
sages SA1 and SB1, both of which had good sensory prop-
erties. Notably, the assessors never had the feeling of biting
on granulates when eating those two experimental sausages.
The fact that granulate-containing raw sausages SA1 and
SB1 were judged better than the granulate-free ones pro-
vides impressive counterevidence to the statements of
Stiebing (33) that the use of blood as a human nutrition
resource is not possible because of its high coloring con-
tent and its strong taste. On the other hand, Hazarika and
Biro (14) have stated that the addition of between 1.5 and
2% of BCC to meat products does not have a negative
influence on the sensory properties of the end product. Our
sausages, admittedly with low amounts of added blood,
were judged to have a more balanced flavor and color than
the controls.
Part of the aim of this investigation was to produce a
high-quality salami that fulfills all edibility and commercial
requirements. The rind did not undergo a drying step, and
its application was in conformance with commercial stan-
dards. Furthermore, the salami consistently fulfilled all le-
J. Food Prot., Vol. 72, No. 4 BLOOD CELL CONCENTRATE AND RIND IN A SALAMI-TYPE SAUSAGE
gal chemical parameters for meat and meat products, so it
could be labeled as a high-quality salami. All raw materials,
as well as the granulates and the final sausage varieties,
fulfilled the microbiological criteria for safe products. Our
results thus show a way of including in raw sausage tech-
nology a granulated mixture of standardized and stabilized
BCC and heat-treated rind. This is a step toward more sus-
tainable meat production.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Our special thanks go to the Fritz-Ahrberg Foundation, Hannover,
Germany, for their generous financial support. We also thank the slaugh-
terhouse of B. & C. Tonnies Fleisch, Rheda-Wiedenbrueck, Germany, for
excellent help. Special thanks also go to Dr. Meike Pioch and Dr. Nicolai
Tarnowski and to the former head of our institute, Professor Dr. Siegfried
Wenzel.
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