Bahan Ajar Eap 2

PREFACE
Students of English Education Study Program, Post Graduate Program, UNDIKSHA, are
expected to produce essays, papers, journal articles and theses in English during the two-
year period of their study. Prior to their candidacy, a special training on academic writing
in English is provided in the form of 20-hour matriculation course. In addition to guided
writing practices in the course, this module is expected to provide more opportunities for
the students to improve their writing ability at their convenient time. This module can
anticipate students expectation for intensive editing of their written work from their
academic advisors. The material coverage includes plagiarism and how to avoid that. I
do hope that this module will be useful for English-major students and any others who
are learning to write in academic English. Any constructive comments and criticism are
the most welcome.
Author
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TABLE OF CONTENT
CHAPTER 1: WRITING AT TERTIARY LEVEL 4

What is academic writing? 5
Characteristics of an academic writing 8
Requirements for academic writing 9
Structure of an academic writing 10
Developing academic writing 11
Techniques in developing academic writing 13
CHAPTER 2: DEVELOPING PARAGRAPHS 18

Facts and opinions 19
Characteristics of a good paragraph 21
Kinds of paragraph 23
The use of cohesive devices in building a paragraph 29
CHAPTER 3: PARAPHRASING 36
What is paraphrasing? 37
What do you need to paraphrase? 37
Why do you paraphrase? 38
When do you do paraphrasing? 38
How to paraphrase a text? 38
The importance of paraphrasing 41
Additional information 42
Paraphrasing, summarizing, annotating, and quoting 43
CHAPTER 4: SUMMARIZING 44
What is a summary? 45
What can be summarized? 45
The importance of summarizing 47
What should the student do in writing a summary? 47
How to summarize? 49
Some common mistakes found when summarizing 52
Things we need to do when summarizing 52
CHAPTER 5: WRITING FROM DATA, CHARTS AND DIAGRAMS 54

Writing from data 55
Definitions of chart, diagram, graphic and table 55
Kinds of chart 57
Considerations before drawing chart of graph 66
Transforming data into chart 68
How to describe a chart 71
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CHAPTER 6: CRITICAL REVIEW 73
What is critical review? 74
Structure of a critical review 74
How to write critical review 76
How to write a review 77
General criteria of a critical review 77
Language features of a critical review 78
Differences among critical, evaluation and analysis 80
CHAPTER 7: LITERATURE REVIEW 82

Notion of literature review 83
Citing and referencing 84
Direct and indirect citation 86
The importance of source materials 87
Basic sctructure of a literature review 89
How to write a literature review? 90
Sample of a literature review 92
CHAPTER 8: WRITING AN ABSTRACT 95

What is an abstract? 96
Types of abstract 96
Characteristics of a good abstract 97
Some considerations before writing an abstract 99
Sample of an abstract 99
References 102
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1
Chapter
WRITING AT TERTIARY LEVEL
In this chapter, you will learn:

1. What is academic writing?
2. What are characteristics of academic writing?
3. What are types of academic writing?
4. Why is academic writing different from other kinds of writing?
1.1 WHAT IS ACADEMIC WRITING?

Academic writing is a type of writing which is based on structured analysis of
ideas to be presented for improvement of ones knowledge (Jones, 2008). In an academic
writing, the writer usually uses deductive reasoning, that is, breaking down general ideas
into specific points and then concludes them at the end of the discourse. Another feature
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of an academic writing, which we will discuss in the next chapters, is the presence of
literature review. Literature review is critical and reasonable judgments of previously
shared research, theories or ideas in the scope of their weaknesses and strengths. The
judgment is used to support or strengthen a course of argument in the academic writing.
Academic writing is different from other genres of writing, at least for three
reasons. First, it is commonly expository, or in other words, it is a kind of elaborative
judgment or analysis of a phenomenon viewed from a particular objective viewpoint of
the writer. In order to formulate objective perspective or judgment, the writer must
provide his/her writing with credible references and citations from previously related
research or books about the topic, which either support or deny the phenomenon. So, an
academic writing can either merely analytical or persuasive. However, an academic
writing can also aim to give detailed descriptions of a phenomenon or clarify vivid
chronological events.
Second, as mentioned previously, it is characterized by objectivity. An academic
paper should present a balanced discussion from different point of views and avoid
subjectivity of judging if an idea from a quote is right or wrong, good or bad. One of the
ways to maintain objectivity is by avoiding the use of personal pronoun. According to
Smyth (1996), the use of personal pronouns is unnecessary, and can lead to biases or
unsupported assumptions (p.2).
Third, it is a concise writing which involves the use of carefully selected words,
technical terms or specific genres so that the idea is effectively expressed without too
many words. Thus an academic writing is usually to the point, using effective
sentences and technical terms and avoid lengthy and unnecessary utterances.
Academic writing plays a major role in the field of higher education and is the
primary form of communication within individual subject disciplines. In recent years
however, concerns have arisen regarding student ability in this area. Many researchers and
academics are now investigating the current and future role of academic writing within
21st century educational institutions. This chapter will therefore discuss the current
theories implemented by practitioners and the practical ways in which such debates can
be developed.
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Academic writing is used to express acquired knowledge in a specific subject area.
Such writing tends to be serious in nature and often demonstrates particular theories or
arguments in relation to a specified discourse. Academic writing is mainly undertaken for
learning development or course assessment purposes and the same principles apply to
publication of academic papers.
Internationally, academic writing and its theories are evident in Australia, South
Africa, and Northern Europe however it is the United States that has developed most
substantially in the field. American institutions have been providing their students with
writing support since the late 19th century. In response, theories and developments in
academic writing have been discussed and published in the USA since the 1960s (Grabe
and Kaplan, 1996).
Consequently academic area also needs to implement a range of approaches to
academic writing to reflect the increased size and diversity of the student population.
Academic writing plays a major role in higher education, both in student understanding of
course content and the consequent assessment of student knowledge. Recent studies have
highlighted that academic staff are aware of the importance of writing, with one survey
highlighting that almost 90% of staff felt that it was necessary to teach writing skills to
university students (Ganobscik-Williams, 2004. p.28). Maintaining standards of academic
writing has significant implications for both teaching, and learning in higher education.
From teaching perspectives, students academic writing could be considered as a measure
for teaching excellence because a successful teaching should bring an impact to students
motivation and enthusiasm to develop knowledge and skills. This could be achieved
through socialization of the teaching objectives and also through systematic and multi
tasking. From learning perspectives, quality academic writing could be an indication for
self-directed learning outcome as guided by the tasks assigned by the teacher/lecturer. An
academic writing produced by a student, therefore, can be considered a demonstration of
achievement a course. Students learn from the lectures and enrich their learning through
reading recommended or suggested readings and finally demonstrate their understanding
through an academic writing (in the form of papers, essays, articles, or reports).
The ability to express ideas effectively is very important for students. This ability
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can be expected to develop throughout their university education. In order for students to
learn and progress in academic writing ability, they should have good language
proficiency. Experience in academic language use and ability to use or communicate
in a language academically, contribute to ability in academic writing. It is not unusual to
see introvert students who do not seem to involve much in friendly conversation with
classmates could actually produce a quality academic paper. This is probably caused by their
experience of reading and their subject field, an understanding of the language used and
the ability to communicate in such dialogue is essential. From a practioners viewpoint,
marking becomes far less laborious when the work is well written and displays arguments
clearly and concisely. It consequently falls to the role of teaching staff to initiate students
into their discipline and to support them during their academic progress. The development
of effective academic writing support clearly offers reciprocal benefit to both students and
staff. Nevertheless, the ways in which it is integrated into subject disciplines creates a
challenge for the higher education sector.
Key thinkers involved in the field of academic writing come from a range of
disciplines and many have taught and are still teaching in a higher education environment.
As academics themselves, writers in this field have documented their attempts to
negotiate a path between the limited resources of the education sector and the escalating
demands placed upon them.
Most of the current research undertaken tends to focus primarily on small scale
projects that examine individual experiences as opposed to a whole institution approach to
academic writing. Consequently, the findings of such small scale research cannot be
easily applied on a national scale. The skills model (often referred to as the deficit model),
involves the teaching of study skills, (including writing) through individual one to one
support sessions or group workshops. Such classes are usually based in the student
support centre and are conducted by non-academic staff. Sessions focus on generic based
support outside of the subject discipline and tend to focus on individual projects or
assignments with which students may be struggling. Due to the nature of such support it
is often viewed as a service provided for students experiencing academic difficulties and
therefore has a relative level of stigma attached. In previous years the thinking behind
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student writing and study support has identified academic writing as a student centred
problem (Lea and Street, 1998). Consequently the skills model offers practical solutions
in line with this notion. This model identifies the responsibility for the problem of
academic writing as lying primarily with the student. This approach identifies the issue as
a personal failing and offers minimal support to students who may be struggling. Whilst,
some study support centres are attempting to provide a service that is, non stigmatised
and which has a non-deficit model (Orr and Blythman, 1999. p.203 ), it remains to be
seen just how the role of student study support will develop with regard to generic
academic writing skills.
The skills model also has the advantage of being power neutral and anonymous and for
some students this may make the service a less intimidating activity. The skills model,
although imperfect, does have an important role to play with regard to students who may
be struggling with generic writing skills and therefore is maintained by most institutions
as a vital area of support.
1.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF AN ACADEMIC WRITING

Jones (2008) stated that there are some characteristics of academic writing. Some of the
most important are:
(1) Purposeful
An academic writing must have some purposes to fulfill. The purpose of an academic
writing should reflect the requirement of further knowledge or problem solving. In the
other words, an academic writing does not aim to entertain or merely to report something.
(2) Objective
To write academically is different from writing short stories or novels. An academic
writing is objective. It means that any arguments in the writing must have their academic
basis, for instance, previous research or results of authentic investigations. When an
academic writer is to state his/her own argument, the argument must be supported with
sufficient theories or facts. So, an academic writing is not a kind of fantasy or fiction.
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(3) Formal
In the scope of its language and style, an academic writing follows formal criteria. For
example, the language of an academic writing must be standard and not casual. For the
style of the writing, an academic writing uses formal or semi formal style. Many
academic writers avoid using first or second person pronouns; rather, they prefer using
third person pronouns. The plot, or the sequence of ideas in academic writing is set
deductively, or general-to-specific style.
(4) Critical
An academic writing views a phenomenon critically, in the other words, it has reliable
and credible supports for any arguments presented in it. An academic writing is not a
series of imaginative escapes for a problem, but it is a compilations of arguments based
on reliable facts and valid research.
1.3 REQUIREMENTS FOR ACADEMIC WRITING

Before starting to compile an academic writing, some requirements are essentially needed
(Jones, 2008):
(1) Knowing range of knowledge

To start compiling an academic writing is not as easy as giving comments on facebook.
When someone gives comments on a motion picture, for example, he does not need
detailed information about it. What he needs is just to watch the plot and utter what he
likes and dislikes according to his own judgments. However, to write academically, one
needs further information about the subject being written. So, when one want to write
something academic about a motion picture, what he needs is to explore all features of the
film such as the theme, the crew, the sequel, the relationship with other movies and
directors, and the meaning behind it. In the other words, to write academically means to
talk about something within objective and logical connections with other related things.
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(2) Considering objectiveness
Sometimes in academic writing someone inserts his own opinion about the topic. It is
actually acceptable but within some limits. A good opinion is known as an informed
argument, and it must be logical and analytical. Logical means that the argument is in
coherent relation with the topic or evidence supporting the topic. Analytical means that the
argument is free from personal motives and judgments. Instead, analytical argument means
that the argument posed must be supported by sufficient evidence or theories.
(3) Summarizing
Before starting to write, any suitable references must be summarized. Summarizing enables
the writer to see clearly the main ideas and details of a piece of writing. Also, summarizing
helps a writer to quote important and related points for supporting his arguments.
(4) Evaluating
To evaluate the topic being discussed in an academic writing means that the writer selects
which points should be risen. A topic might be too narrow or too large, and evaluating the
topic may help the writer to determine average scope of topic and its elaboration for the
writing.
(5) Analyzing
Analyzing the topic and the details can help the writer to find out connections between a
particular detail and the others and how they are connected each other. In analyzing stage,
the writer can develop new details or omit some redundant points.
(6) Synthesizing
Actually, analyzing and synthesizing may run together. When analysis is complete, the
writer can synthesize ideas from any other sources in relation to the supporting ideas of the
topic. This is actually the most interesting work. The more connections are made, the better
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the writing. Certainly, the writer must limit the amount of supporting arguments and
references in his writing so that the writing is sufficient to read and representing clearly the
ideas the writer wants to convey.
1.4 STRUCTURE OF AN ACADEMIC WRITING

There are basically three parts of an academic writing. A piece of writing commonly
consists of an introduction, body and conclusion. Academic writing also consists of these
three parts.
(1) Introduction
The introduction, or the opening paragraph(s) basically accomplishes two goals. The first
purpose is to attract readers attention. There are many techniques in gaining readers
attention, for example by starting the discussion with a story, an excerpt of a poem or a
fact about daily life. Opening the essay with a series of questions about the topic is also a
good way to start readers attention.
The second purpose is to identify the focus, or thesis, that is developed in the main part
(body) of the essay. The topic of the essay is commonly implied on the thesis statement,
which represents the whole scope of the essays topic.
(2) Body
The body of an essay is also called developmental paragraphs (body paragraphs), and it
serves as the most important part of an essay. The whole body of the essay must clearly
and logically support the thesis statement in the introduction. They must be arranged in
the best possible way, e.g. chronologically, order of importance, etc. Also, the paragraphs
should flow smoothly from one to the next, e.g. the first sentence in each new paragraph
serves as an effective link to the preceding paragraph. In addition, minor supporting ideas
are linked together within the paragraphs in a smooth manner.
(3) Conclusion
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After elaborating ideas in the body of an essay, the writer has to remind the readers again
about the thesis statement of the essay by paraphrasing it. The paraphrased thesis should
be completed with brief summary of the ideas presented in the body of the text. Then, a
final conclusion can be drawn out of those summary.
1.5 DEVELOPING ACADEMIC WRITING

Jones (2008) argued that an academic writing must be written in forward sequence. It
means that the topic is stated in the beginning of the writing, then any details supporting
the topic follow. To develop academic writing, some considerations should be taken into
account:
An academic writing follows deductive style of writing. The topic sentence should be the
first sentence in a paragraph. The topic sentence is a general statement introducing the
paragraph and is followed by specific details that expand, explain, or illustrate the topic
sentence.
(1) Unity
Unity means that all the sentences should relate to one topic. Therefore, the topic should
not too broad or too narrow to be elaborated. For example, vegetables is not a good topic
because it si too broad for an average essay. However, good vegetables for cancer is a
good topic because it represents reachable details.
(2) Completeness
Supporting ideas should be developed enough to cover the topic. Too many supporting
ideas will bewilder an essay writer with floods of references and quotations. In contrast,
if the supporting ideas are too narrow, the writer will not have sufficient space to
elaborate his/her writing into a quite rich piece of academic essay.
(3) Coherence
Coherence means connection between ideas in an essay and consistency of the sequence.
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All sentences in a paper should be related logically and grammatically to make a whole
that allows the reader to follow the writers train of thought step by step. Body
paragraphs should flow smoothly from one to the next, e.g. the first sentence in each new
paragraph functions as an effective link to the preceding paragraph. In addition, minor
supporting ideas are linked together within the paragraphs in a smooth manner. Within a
paragraph, there are three major ways to develop coherence through related sentences:
a) Repetition of important words and pronouns. Repetition of key words helps the
reader follow from sentence to sentence as important terms are defined and the
relationship between them is explained.
b) Synonyms and substitutions. Synonyms are two or more words that have nearly
the same meaning to describe something. Meanwhile, substitution is a word that
describes the subject.
c) Transitional expressions. Transitional expressions are words and phrases that
point out the exact relationship between one idea and another, one sentence and
another, e.g. therefore, however, for example, finally, etc.
Just as the sentences within a paragraph should flow smoothly, so the paragraphs within
an essay should be clearly linked one to the next. The first sentence of each new
paragraph is linked to the thesis statement or to the paragraph before. The following are
four ways to link paragraphs:
a. Repetition of key words or ideas from the thesis statement
b. Reference to words or ideas from the preceding paragraph
c. Use of transitional expressions
d. Use of transitional sentences
1.6 TECHNIQUES IN DEVELOPING ACADEMIC WRITING

Academic writing follows a series of sequence or order. The order of the ideas can be
arranged according to the following categories:
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(1) Comparison and Contrast
There are two ways to present similarities and differences between two things. Things
can be compared or contrasted. If two or more things are to be compared, the writer lists
similarities between those things. However, to contrast means to figure out differences
between two thing or more .
The following example is a short passage about the difference between Asian and African
elephants:
ASIAN AND AFRICAN ELEPHANTS
Asian and African elephants have differences as well as resemblances although they are
from the same family. Their differences are mainly in their anatomy because they have
adapted to different condition of habitats. For one thing, the foremost dissimilarity between
these two species can be seen in their ears. Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) have ears
which do not cover their shoulders because their ears are small. Meanwhile, African
elephants (Loxodonta africana) have large ears that coat their shoulders. This condition
gives more protection for them to survive in hot African climate. Another difference
between these giant mammals can obviously be observed in their trunks. As a matter of
fact, Asian elephants have single muscular lobe (flexible lip to pick something up) on the
tip of their trunks, while African elephants have two lobes which are more useful to pick
up smaller food. These two lobes also increase African elephants sensitivity to recognize
odours in their wild habitat. Apart from having difference in trunks, both of the species
also have unlikeness in their toes. Two front feet with five toes belong to Asian elephants.
Although African elephants do too, some of them tend to have only four toes rather than
five. Their rear feet are also different in the amounts of the toes. Asian elephants walk on
rear feet with four toes, unlike African elephants which have only three.
In several instances; however, both of the species have some resemblances. Either Asian
elephants or African elephants are from one single ancestor which lived about 65 million
years ago in northern Africa. During that period of time, moeritheriums (all elephants
ancestors which resemble pigs in shape and size) were spread in Asia and Africa. They
then had a long evolution which at last formed species of Asian and African elephants.
Their similarity can also be seen in their habit of covering their bodies with mud. They do
this activity to moisturize their skin since they live in hot and dry savannas. Covering their
skin with mud is also useful to remove fungi from their bodies. Shortly stated, Asian and
African elephants are quite different in terms of their anatomy, but they also have
similarities in several cases.
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Taken from http://pitasantana.multiply.com/journal/item/18/Task-5-Comparison-and-
Contrast-FINAL-WRITING
There are two techniques in writing comparison-contrast essay:
1. Block (whole vs. whole)

This method presents all the information about A and then provides parallel information
about B.
First all A: Point 1

Point 2
Point 3
Then all B: Point 1
Point 2
Point 3
This pattern is good for short compositions. The reader can easily remember what was
said about A by the time he or she gets around to B.
(2) Point-by-point (topic by topic)

This method moves back and forth between A and B, presenting one point about A and
then going to the parallel point about B. Then, it moves to the next point and does the
same.
First A, Point 1 Then B, Point 1
This pattern is better for longer papers, where it might be hard for the reader to remember
what the writer said about A by the time he or she gets to B a few paragraphs later. By
going back and forth, the writer makes it easier for the reader to keep the contrasts or
comparisons in mind.
(3) Extended Definition

There are five basic methods to expand a definition:
1. Comparing it to something else
2. Telling what it is not
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3. Describing it in detail
4. Classifying it by explaining the different kinds
5. Using exemplification
This kind of essay is also called class relationship. Consider this example:
BALINESE DANCES
Balinese dances are classified into three categories based on their functions. First of all is
called Wali dance, which is regarded to be sacred by Balinese. This type of dance is
performed inside a temple for religious purposes because this kind of dance is believed to
be holy for the Gods. Commonly, Wali dances are performed in the middle of the rituals
together with the offerings for the Lord. Rejang dance, Sanghyang dance, and Topeng
Siddhakarya dance are examples of Wali dances. The second category is Balih-Balihan,
or dances for public entertainment such as drama gong, Pendet dance, Puspanjali dance,
and Cendrawasih dance. Unlike the former category, this kind of dance is only for
entertaining purpose and is usually performed outside a temple. Also, Balih-Balihan
dance has no relationship with any religious rituals. The last category is a combination of
both Wali and Balih-Balihan dance which is called Bebali. Bebali dance is related to
rituals but there is also purpose of entertaining. That is why Bebali dance is also called
semi-sacred dance. This kind of dance is usually carried out after the rituals in a special
open-stage where people can gather and watch it together called tetaring. One of the most
popular Bebali dance is Calonarang, a mystical dance which performs a fight between
the Rangda and the Barong as symbols of holy and evil spirits. In short, Balinese dances
are various, but they are classified into three categories based on their functions.
Taken from: http://pitasantana.multiply.com/journal/item/11/Task-2-Class-Relationship-

FINAL-WRITING
Process
There are two kinds of process essays:
1. The how-to essay gives readers directions on how they can do something, e.g. perform a
chemistry experiment. This process is generally written in the passive voice.
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2. The explanation essay tells readers how something develops, e.g., photosynthesis,
plasmodium, the life cycle of the malarial parasite, etc. This process is generally written
in the active voice and uses simple present.
This is an example of an essay which explains a process.
MUMMIFICATION PROCESS
Most people know that the Ancient Egyptians were experts of mummification,
preserving dead bodies so that it is not easy to decompose. They preserved the corpses
before burial because they believed that the spirits of the dead would need their physical
body to maintain their existence. For the Egyptian mummies, they are extremely well-
preserved that even though time has passed by thousands of years, people are still able to
recognize the body structures of the mummy and even reconstruct the face. In fact, it must
be out of your considerations that Ancient Egyptians had several incredible steps of
making a mummy as well as maintaining it indecomposable.
The first step is called cleaning process. As well as a person died, the body was brought
to a special room that resembled operating room. Then, well-trained embalmers would cut
off the corpses body hair all away, but sometimes they remained the hair on the head and
face for unknown purposes. After this was clear, the process was continued towards the
cleaning of inner parts of the body. The embalmers then tore the left side of the corpses
abdomen and took out all inner organs such as liver, heart, lungs, intestines and the
stomach. This was purposed later to avoid inner decomposition. The most disgusting step
of the cleaning process was when at last the brain of the corpse was removed. This organ
was the last organ which was taken out for its difficulty. The embalmers used a sharp-
ended metal spoon which was inserted into the cephalic cavity through the nasal cavity.
The brain was then cut into small pieces and was taken out bit by bit through the same
way. Then, as soon as the inner organs were removed, some wooden jars painted with
images of gods were prepared to contain them.
Just after the embalmers had finished the cleaning process, it was the time to conduct
preservation. In this stage, the corpse with hollow chest and empty skull would be covered
with natron (sodium bicarbonate) powder to keep its durability, and the inner cavities of
the bodyespecially the hollow cephalic cavitywere filled with resin (white substance
coming out of a plant) and sawdust. The natron powder and the resin were the secrets of
why the mummy can be well-preserved in centuries. Then, the body was left for days until
it turned dry. Several days later, it was then covered with sharp-smelled herbs to reduce
bad odor before it was ready to be covered with linen (pieces of cloth made from Linum
usitatissimuma plant with blue flower that also produces oil for paints and ink). The linen
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coverage would remain as fawn cloth after years.
Finally, when the corpse was thoroughly covered with linen, the burial ceremony was
prepared. If the dead used to be a king or queen, people would build a pyramid to store the
corpse as well as all his/her possessions. The kings corpse would be placed in a golden
coffin decorated with gemstones and amulets. If the corpse used to be a commoner, people
would just put it in a hot-barren desert.
Perhaps you will never know how the mummy was actually made until you have read this.
Now, do you have unique burial process in your region?
(Excerpted from Encarta Reference Library, 2009)
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Chapter
2
DEVELOPING PARAGRAPHS
What you will learn in this chapter?

1. Distinguishing between facts and opinions.
2. Characteristics of a good paragraph.
3. Kinds of paragraph.
4. Developing a good paragraph.
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2.1 FACTS AND OPINIONS
Before you start writing academic composition, you should firstly be able to distinguish
between fact and opinion. Now, please read the following passage carefully and try to
distinguish between facts and opinions in it:
Most scientists today do not believe that there is any life on the surface of Mars.
Conditions at the surface are extremely hostile to life as we know it. Temperatures are
usually well below the freezing point of water, and the atmosphere is extremely thin and
dry. Without a protective ozone layer like Earths, ultraviolet radiation bathes the surface
and would destroy any organic molecules exposed there. However, a growing number of
scientists believe that some form of life could exist on Mars today, underground or inside
pores and cracks in rocks, where there is protection from the extreme conditions of the
surface and where liquid water could exist even at very low temperatures. This new
appreciation for the possibility of life on Mars has been driven by the discovery, only in the
last decade or so, of simple life forms on Earth tenaciously surviving and in some cases
even thriving in what used to be considered inhospitable conditions. On Earth, life has
been found at great depths on the ocean floor, deep underground in volcanic rocks, in
highly acidic cave waters, in near-boiling hot springs, and in almost permanently frozen
tundra sediments. If life can maintain a foothold in even these extreme environments on
Earth, then it may also be able to exist on Mars.
Excerpted from: Encarta Reference Library 2009.
What are then the differences between opinion and fact? An opinion is the viewpoint
somebody takes about an issue, especially when it is based on personal jugdment (Mueller,
2007). In the other words, an opinion is an estimation someone makes based on personal
and subjective judgments. An opinion could also mean a view of the value of something
which is estimated based on personal subjectivity. Mueller (2007) also defined public
opinion, or poll, which constitues to general jugdment made by people in common which
can also become a strong basis to determine peoples trend, tendencies and points of view
regarding public events, facts or figures. Meanwhile, a fact is something that can be shown
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to be true, to exist, or to have happened. A fact is distinguished from opinion because a fact
comprises the actual existence of something. So, a fact is not a belief (Grover, 2007).
Similarly, another definition clarify that a fact is a statement that can be proven by direct
experience or objective verification. This evidence may be in the form of the testimony of
witnesses, agreed-upon observations, the written records of such testimony and
observations, or the result of research or investigation. A statement of fact can theoretically
be checked for accuracy. In contrast, An opinion is a statement of belief or judgment that
cannot be objectively proven true or false. Opinions usually express the feelings,
preferences or biases that a person has about a subject.
A fact is not the opposite of an opinion but they are simply types of statements. If a fact
is untrue or false, it does not turn into an opinion. By the same logic, if an opinion is
believed by everyone, it does not turn into a fact. Opinions cannot be proved, however they
can be supported with facts and other knowledgeable opinions. This is the function of
references and citations in academic writing. Facts can be proved with evidence, statistics,
records, photographs, data, etc. Facts are not better than opinions, or vice versa. There
is no hierarchy. They are simply types of statements, so even though an opinion cannot be
proved, opinions are every bit as important as facts.
Now, we will further examine facts and opinions. Read the following text taken from an
internet site:
1
Indonesia is the worlds fourth most populous country after China, India, and the United
States. More than half the people live on Java, where Jakarta, Indonesias capital and
largest city, is located.
2
In the mountains south of Medan lies Lake Toba, a peaceful and beautiful volcanic crater
lake. If you plan to go by bus southward through Sumatra, rest up at Toba before the long
trip. During your visit, take a trip out to Samosir Island at the lakes center to explore the
villages.
3
Studies have shown that people who eat large amounts of tomatoes or tomato products
may be at lower risk of some kinds of cancer, especially cancer of the prostate gland,
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lung, and stomach.
4
Although often called a vegetable, tomato is actually a true berry, a type of fleshy fruit
characterized by its soft pulp, thin skin, and many seeds. Cut in half, the tomato displays
distinct sections, each representing a separate ovary compartment, or carpel, with many
seeds.
5
What's more, dolphins seem capable of developing ties with human beings. To many, the
familiar bottlenose dolphin has come to be cherished. Increasingly we find ourselves
fascinated with the prospect of having kindred spirits in the alien sea. Our knowledge of
these dolphins is their protection. You cannot wantonly kill what you come to know and
love.
Put O if the sentence is opinion, F for fact, and B if the sentence contains both fact
and opinion. Pay attention on adverbs and adjectives.
1. The core of the earth has a temperature of nearly 5,000 degrees centigrade. _____
2. The Iditarod, Alaskas famous sled race, dates back to 1925. _____
3. In 1969, Apollo 11 landed on the moon. _____
4. Edward James Olmos is more than an extraordinary actor; he is also a dedicated
political activist. _____
5. The song It Dont Mean a Thing If It Aint Got That Swing was written by the
one and only Duke Ellington. _____
6. Thomas Edisons second patented invention, a stock market ticker, sold for
$40,000 in 1869. _____
7. In 1940, Franklin Delano Roosevelt defeated his Republican opponent, Wendell
Wilkie. _____
8. The record Rocket 88, recorded by Ike Turner and Jackie Brenston on Sun
Records is widely considered to be the very first rock recording. _____
9. Its a sign of the times that salsa now outsells ketchup. _____
10. The Fugitive Slave law of 1850 required the return of all runaway slaves; it did
not matter if they had reached states that had abolished slavery. _____
Source: http://users.dhp.com/~laflemm/RfT/Quiz2.htm
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2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD PARAGRAPH
In this section we will examine what a good paragraph looks like. A good paragraph must
firstly contain a topic sentence. A topic sentence is a sentence that bears the topic of the
paragraph (Smalley and Ruetter, 1982). A good topic sentence states the idea of the
paragraph either explicitly or implicitly. This idea is called controlling idea. The
controlling idea plays a role to limit the scope the paragraph will discuss. All sentences in
the paragraph should relate to and develop the controlling idea. In a paragraph, there is
only one topic sentence which is usually placed in the beginning of the paragraph
(deductive) or at the end of the paragraph (inductive). In academic writing, deductive
reasoning is preferred.
The second criterion of a good paragraph is that it must contain sufficient supporting
ideas. Supporting ideas are those which give elaborations to the controlling idea, or the
main idea. To make this clear, study the following example:
Topic sentence : Smoking cigarettes can be an expensive habit.

Supporting ideas : 1. Cigarettes cost about seventy-five cents.
2. The average smoker smokes two packs a day.
3. The annual expense for this smoker is $547.50
4. The smoker must also pay for extra cleaning of carpets,
furniture, and clothes.
(Smalley, et.al., 1982, p.15)
So, supporting ideas contribute to the elaboration of the topic sentence. Supporting ideas
should also be elaborated with sufficient details which strengthen the position of the
supporting ideas. For example, the above supporting idea no. 1 can be elaborated by
adding some details:
Supporting idea 1 : Cigarettes cost about seventy-five cents.

Details - They reduce smokers savings.
- They should have been used for something more useful.
- They cost as high as a pack of healty vegetables.
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By providing some details to the supporting ideas, you can start writing your
paragraph at ease within the limitation of the details. This brings us to the third criterion:
unity. A unified paragraph means that all supporting ideas and details support one main
idea, or topic. In the other words, every sentence in the paragraph, which is built from
details of the supporting ideas, should reflect the elaborations of the main idea. If any
sentences do not support the main idea, the paragraph is not united. This is the reason of
why in a paragraph there should only be one main idea.
Besides being unified, a paragraph should also be coherent. Coherence of a paragraph is
seen by logical connections between sentences, for example by looking at the flow of the
ideas and the use of cohesive devices (see the last part of this chapter). Coherence is
important. It serves as important as unity in the paragraph. Coherence of the paragraph
helps the readers follow information being conveyed in the paragraph.
Here we have two different paragraphs. Tell how the first paragraph is different from the
later in terms of unity and coherence.
There are some differences between Ulam Segara Cafe and Warung Be Pasih Caf in
Renon, Denpasar. The differences of them can be seen in the efficiency of service and the
taste of the food. The efficiency of the service in Warung Be Pasih Caf is better than in
Ulam Segara Caf. As an illustration, in Ulam Segara Caf the customers should wait the
food for about 30 minutes or more but in Warung Be Pasih Caf, the food will be served
in 15 minutes. Another difference is in term of menu of the food. In Ulam Segara Caf,
the customers are offered with the appetizer first, then the main course, and the last they
are offered with the dessert. For the dessert, it is according to the customers order. Also,
in this caf the menu is more modern than in Warung Be Pasih Caf. It can be seen in
some dessert foods which are completed by chocolate, cheese or milk. In Warung Be
Pasih Caf, the customers will not find these kinds of foods and they will not be offered
appetizer or dessert because in the menu table there is no such kind of that food.
Original passage by Tisna Endirianti,

an undergraduate student in English Education Department, Undiksha, 2008.
http://sweetytizna.multiply.com/journal/item/41
Bamboo is very useful today and Balinese use it with special flair in architecture and to
make domestic tools, musical instruments, and many ritual objects. For one thing,
Balinese make building with bamboo. Traditional architectures take advantages of
bamboos strength as building materials for roof and rafters. Bamboos composition with
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its hard skin, long and vertical structure, makes it easy for weaving bedeg. Villagers who
live in the mountains of Bali still use roof of bamboo for their buildings. Balinese also
make some domestic tools from bamboos trunk. There are a lot of basketries made from
this kind of plant, such as rice basket, kukusan, and penarak. Rice basket or sok asi is
used to store steamed rice and is also used for offerings. Besides, kukusan is also used for
steaming rice. Penarak is designed for carrying heavy loads on ones head. Many
Balinese people use traditional tools in their daily life. Many traditional kukusans are still
found today used in rural areas in Bali, especially traditional farmers. If compared,
kukusans and modern magic jars have some interesting differences.
Original passage by Nopi Suardani

http://blueneosack.multiply.com/journal
2.3 KINDS OF PARAGRAPH

Different authors have listed different types of paragraph, but here we will see seven
common types of paragraph proposed by Grow (1999). The seven types of paragraph are
narration, exposition, definition, description, comparison-contrast, process analysis, and
persuasion. Some other authors added three more types of paragraph: sequential
paragraph (including narration and process analysis), spatial relationship paragraph, and
class relationship paragraph. We will discuss them one by one.
(1) Narrative paragraph

A narrative paragraph has the following characteristics:
a) Normally chronological (even though sometimes it uses flashbacks).
b) A sequential presentation of the events that add up to a story.
c) Usually contains characters, a setting, a conflict, and a resolution.
d) Time and place and person are normally established.
e) Narrative paragraph usually serves as the opening anecdote that illustrates the topic of
the story.
Around 2 a.m. something woke Charles Hanson up. He lay in the dark Across the distant
forest floated two muffled hoots from a barred owl. It was too quiet. At home in New
Jersey, the nights are filled with the busy, comforting sounds of traffic. You always have
the comforting knowledge that other people are all around you. And light: At home he
can read in bed by the glow of the streetlight. It was too quiet. And much too dark. Even
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starlight failed to penetrate the 80-foot canopy of trees the camper was parked beneath. It
was the darkest dark he had ever seen. He felt for the flashlight beside his bunk. It was
gone. He found where his pants were hanging and, as he felt the pockets for a box of
matches, something rustled in the leaves right outside the window, inches from his face.
He heard his wife, Wanda, hold her breath; she was awake, too. Then, whatever, was
outside in the darkness also breathed, and the huge silence of the night seemed to come
inside the camper, stifling them. It was then he decided to pack up and move to a motel
(Grow ,1999 p.1).
(2) Expositive paragraph

An expositive paragraph has the following characteristics:
a) It can be both analytical and persuasive.
b) It can also be explanatory.
c) Exposition can be an incidental part of a description or a narration, or it can be the
heart of an article
d) Aside from clarity, the key problem with exposition is credibility, or what makes
your explanation believable. Normally, writers solve this problem by citing
authorities who have good credentials and good reason to be experts in the subject.
e) This kind of paragraph also happens to serve as the justifier for the little article: the
paragraph that, after an indirect opening, specifies the topic of the article, why it is
important, and what is to come.
Study the example below to understand what expositive paragraph is like:
This family was a victim of a problem they could have avoided - a problem that,
according to Florida park rangers, hundreds of visitors suffer each year. "Several times a
month," ranger Rod Torres of O'Leno State Park said, "people get scared and leave the
park in the middle of the night." Those people picked the wrong kind of park to visit. Not
that there was anything wrong with the park: The hikers camped next to them loved the
wild isolation of it. But it just wasn't the kind of place the couple from New Jersey had in
mind when they decided to camp out on this trip through Florida. If they had known about
the different kinds of parks in Florida, they might have stayed in a place they loved.
Taken from: http://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-exposition.html
(3) Definition paragraph
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Definition paragraph is used to define a term, phenomenon or a situation. It is commonly
descriptive andquite similar to descriptive paragraph. Study the following example:
"Park" is difficult to define in Florida, because there are so many kinds of parks. Basically, a
park is a place to go for outdoor recreation-to swim, picnic, hike, camp, walk the dog, play
tennis, paddle your canoe, and, in some places take rides in miniature trains or swish down a
waterslide. Florida has a rich variety of parks, ranging from acres of RVs ringed around
recreation halls, to impenetrable mangrove wilderness. To make things more complicated,
not all of them are called "parks," and even the ones called "parks" come in several varieties.
Taken from: http://www.newsroom101.com/longleaf/ggrow/modes.html
(4) Descriptive paragraph

Descriptive paragraphs have distinctive characteristics as follows:
a) Description means what readers need to see in order to imagine the scene, person, object,
etc.
b) Description requires records of a series of detailed observations.
c) The success of a description lies in the difference between what a reader can imagine
and what the writer actually saw and recorded; from that gap arises a spark of
engagement.
d) Descriptive paragraph uses sensory language.
The following is an example of a descriptive paragraph:

O'Leno is a good example of a state park in Florida. Surrounded by the tall, shaded woods of
a beautiful hardwood forest, the Santa Fe River disappears in a large, slowly swirling, tree-
lined pool. After appearing intermittently in scattered sinkholes, the river rises three miles
downstream in a big boil, then continues on to meet the Suwannee and the sea. Nearby,
stands of cypress mirror themselves in the still waters, walls of dense river swamp rise
before you, sudden sinkholes open in the woodlands-rich with cool ferns and mosses.
Farther from the river, expanses of longleaf pinelands stretch across rolling hills. In the
midst of this lovely setting, you find 65 campsites, 18 rustic cabins, and a pavilion for group
meetings. A diving platform marks a good place to swim in the soft, cool waters of the Santa
Fe, and canoeing up this dark river is like traveling backwards in time in the direction of
original Florida.
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(5) Comparison-contrast paragraph
This type of paragraph aims to conpare or contrast two or more things (see chapter 1 for
more details).
Forest and river dominate O'Leno State Park. By contrast, Lloyd Beach State Recreation
Area, near Fort Lauderdale, is dominated by the oily bodies of sun-worshippers who
crowd into it every summer weekend. Where O'Leno gives you so much quiet you can
hear the leaves whispering, Lloyd Beach is a place of boisterous activity. You can walk a
few yards in O'Leno and pass beyond every sign of human civilization. When you walk
at Lloyd Beach, you have to be careful to step over the picnic baskets, umbrellas, jam
boxes, and browning bodies. At night, O'Leno wraps itself with the silence of crickets
and owls. Lloyd Beach is busy with fishermen till well past midnight. If you want to fish
near town, or dive into the busy bustle of an urban beach, Lloyd Beach is the place to go.
But if you want to stand at the edge of civilization and look across time into an older
natural world, O'Leno is the park to visit.
(6) Process analysis

The main characteristic of this type of paragraph is the existence of relational process
which cannot be reversed. There is a pecific goal to be accomplished which usually
becomes the topic of the paragraph.
Forest and river dominate O'Leno State Park. By contrast, Lloyd Beach State Recreation
Area, near Fort Lauderdale, is dominated by the oily bodies of sun-worshippers who
crowd into it every summer weekend. Where O'Leno gives you so much quiet you can
hear the leaves whispering, Lloyd Beach is a place of boisterous activity. You can walk a
few yards in O'Leno and pass beyond every sign of human civilization. When you walk
at Lloyd Beach, you have to be careful to step over the picnic baskets, umbrellas, jam
boxes, and browning bodies. At night, O'Leno wraps itself with the silence of crickets
and owls. Lloyd Beach is busy with fishermen till well past midnight. If you want to fish
near town, or dive into the busy bustle of an urban beach, Lloyd Beach is the place to go.
But if you want to stand at the edge of civilization and look across time into an older
natural world, O'Leno is the park to visit.
(7) Persuasive paragraph
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This type of paragraph contains techniques to persuade readers to follow what the writer
thinks or does. It is similar to expository paragraph, but it is not merely analytical.
When you find the park you are looking for, you will need to make camp. One person can
set up the Family Proof Tent, though it is easier with two, yet almost impossible with
three or more. Here's how: First, clear a 9 by 9 foot area of snags, limbs, and anything
that might pierce the bottom of the tent. Unfold the tent so that the corners of the
waterproof bottom form a square. Peg down the corners of the bottom. Next, snap
together all four external tent-poles (they are held together by shock cords to ake sure you
get the pieces matched up). Place a pole near each of the pegs. Thread each pole through
the two loops leading toward the top of the tent. After you have all four poles in place, lift
one of the poles. While holding the pole up, pull its guyrope tight and peg the guyrope
down, so that the pole is held up by the guyrope and the pegs on opposing sides of the
tent bottom. Lift the pole on the opposite side of the tent in the same way, but this time,
fit it into the upper end of the standing pole before securing its guywire. Assemble the
two remaining tent poles in a similar manner. Finally, unroll the front flap to form an
awning. Prop up the awning with the two remaining poles and secure them with
guyropes. Now you are ready to move in.
(8) Spatial relationship

Spatial relationship paragraph is a kind of descriptive paragraph which contains
descriptions of a spatial object, for example, a park, a hotel, a room or somebodys house. This
type of paragraph describes one part of a room, for example, in relation to another part, and so
on. Sometimes, this kind pf paragraph could be persuasive.
My boarding house is a strategic place for university students. I can say like that because I have
two reasons, first, my boarding house is near to many food stalls and shops. I can find food stalls
along the Tasbih Street and it is just 150 meters to the west from my boarding house. Also, about
300 meters to the east there is another place of people selling food on the Anggrek Street.
Besides, I can find shops near my boarding house easily, for less than 5 minutes I can reach the
shops on foot because the shops just 100 meters to the north from my house. The second reason,
my boarding house is near to students favourite places. If I want to go to the internet and
computer rentals I can reach those place just for a few minutes, for only about 100 meters from
my boarding house I can reach those places. Besides, there is also a play station rental 100
meters to the north. For the sporty students, they can reach Bhuana Patra field only for a couple
of minutes because there is a shortcut from my boarding house. In conclusion, my boarding
house is the right choice for the university students to stay.
Original passage by Julista Putra,
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http://irreplaceable88.multiply.com/journal/item/21
(9) Class relationship

This type of paragraph elaborates definitions of something, chronology or things to be
prepared in a party, for example. Also, it is called classification. This kind of paragraph
describes classifications to several things based on a certain category.
Active students, good listeners and passive students are types of student based on their
characteristics. In fact, each type has its own distinctive characters. First, active students
are students who understand the lecture quickly because of their excellent intelligence.
The active students always ask question about the material that they do not understand
yet because they want to know and understand the material clearly. Beside that, they are
very interested in the lecture which is given. Furthermore, they also pay attention to the
lecturers explanation seriously, so that they are not missing the explanation of the
lecture. Then, the active students are confident of themselves. Therefore they are very
active in the class without being embarrassed if they make a mistake. Second, good
listeners are students who have ordinary intelligences. The good listeners are rarely in
asking question if they do not understand about the material which is given because they
do not have any questions which will be asked. They pay attention to the lecture but
interspersed by imagination during the learning and teaching process. Beside that, the
good listeners do not want to make a mistake in front of their classmates because they are
shy people. As the result, they prefer be good listeners to active students. Finally, passive
students are kind of students who have less abilities or intelligences to compete with their
classmates. They never ask an explanation about the material that is not understood easily
because they do not care about it. However, they always imagine and chat with other
friends in the class. They do that to remove their feel bored and sleepy. Actually, these
kinds of students do not like to be active in the class because they are lazy and
unconfident. They are like to keep silent more and does not participate the learning and
teaching process. In short, those are 3 types of student based on their own characteristics
which are able to classify the kinds of student in the class.
Original passage by Santi Oktarina,

http://ranee63schatzy.multiply.com/journal
2.4 THE USE OF COHESIVE DEVICES IN BUILDING A PARAGRAPH
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In this section we will further discuss many kinds of cohesive devices to build coherence
of a piece of writing, either paragraph or longer essays. Cohesive devices are a set of
linking words or phrases that can help connect one idea and another idea within a
paragraph or between paragraphs.
2.4.1 LOGICAL DEVICES
(a) Addition
This kind of logical device functions to give additional information to an idea.
again equally in fact also furthermore

moreover and in addition (to...) too
and then indeed what is more besides
Examples: The house faces north, so it never gets the sun. Also, it is rather damp. The
children do not like one another.Moreover, they often quarrelamd start to fight She hardly
ever goes to the theatre. In fact, she has not been for months.
(b) Comparison
Comparative device functions to compare two or more things.
compared with in the same way similarly

in comparison with likewise
Examples: I used to work fifteen hours a day. In comparison with that, my present job is
more like holiday! The doctor advised him to give up smoking. Similarly, he
recommended him to eat much less and take plenty of exercise.
(c) Contrast and concession

Unlike comparative device, this contrasting devices serve as contrasting two ideas.
besides
naturally
still
but
nevertheless
whereas
however
ofcourse
while
in contrast
on the contrary
yet
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instead
on the other hand
Examples:
He did not show anyone the papers. Instead, as soon as he got a chance, he burnt them.
She is not as pretty as she used to be. Nevertheless, she is still a very attractive girl.
His first novel took him only a few weeks to write, while his next one took over a year.
(d) Enumeration
first(ly)
second(ly)
last
on top of (that)
finally
next
to begin with
in the (first) place
more important
then
Examples:
His job involves a number of things. First, he is responsible for general administration in
the office. Secondly, he has to look after the financial side of the business... Finally, he has
been asked to build up outside contacts.
There were several good reasons for changing the plan. To begin with, it involved a lot of
money. On top of that,it needed too many people.
(e) Exemplification
as (evidence of...)
such as for example
thus for instance
to show what (I mean)
let us (take the case of...)
Examples:
Most countries do not grow enough food for their needs. Let us take the case of the United
Kingdom.
Most people are superstitious in some way. Thus, a lot of people believe that
the number 13 is unlucky...
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(f) Inference
If not,...
otherwise
then
In (that) case
that implies
Examples:
He left the country the same day. In that case, he must have had his passport with him.
You must get some more petrol. Otherwise, we will not have enough to get us to the next town.
(g) Summarizing
in all in short on the whole

in brief in conclusion to sum up
to conclude briefly speaking
Examples:
She spends a lot of money on clothes. She is also fond of buying expensive jewellery. In
short, she is extremely extravagant.
The car is not new but it is in good condition. The price too is very reasonable. On the
whole, I think it is quite a good bargain. The film has a very unusual plot, with plenty of
action. Both the acting and photography. To sum up, this is a film you should not miss.
(h) Sequence or temporal relationship
after (a while) before (that time) since (then) afterwards

finally so far at first in the end then
at last meanwhile (up to) then
at (the same time) next
Examples:
He tried to open one of the small windows. At first it remained firmly closed but, in the
end, after a great deal of effort, he managed to open it a few inches.
... and the fire has finally been brought under control. Several men are still missing.
Meanwhile the causes of the explosion are still being investigated.
Note: This is a very open-ended group of devices, as the number of bracketed item shows.
For example, instead of at the same time, we may have: at that time/at that moment.
(i) Result
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accordingly
for that reason
then
as a result
hence
therefore
consequently
the (consequence) of that is...
thus
Examples: Most people were opposes to the scheme on the grounds that it was too
expensive. Accordingly, it is now being re-examined to see if costs can be reduced. Seven
inches of snow fell during the night, blocking most main roads. As a result, traffic
conditions have been chaotic. In the past, no one has taken his advice very seriously.
Hence, it is very probable that he will not be inclined to help on this occasion.
(j) Reformulation
in other words
that is (to say)
rather
to put it more (simply)
Examples:
Towards the end of the party he got up and danced on the table. In other words, he made a
complete fool of himself.
Most people felt that the project was not worthwhile in proportion to the amount of time it
would take to complete it and equally the financial expenditure involved. To put it more
simply, it was a waste of time and money.
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THE USE OF COHESIVE DEVICES IN
BUILDING A PARAGRAPH
1. Logical Devices
(j) Reformulation
in other words
that is (to say)
rather
to put it more (simply)
Examples:
It is very likely that we shall go by car, even though it is a long drive, because we shall
need some means of transport while we are there. Alternatively, we might fly out and
hire a car when we arrive. If things get any worse, we might have to arrange apublic
meeting to discuss the matter. Better still, we could even organise a demonstration.
(l) Transition
As far as...is concerned

now
As for...
to turn to...
Incidentally
with (reference) to...
Examples:
We can leave most of the details of the proposal until the next meeting. Now, as far as
money is concerned, this needs careful consideration. In the end, he decided to sell his car.
This, incidentally, proved to be a mistake.
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2.4.2 GRAMMATICAL AND LEXICAL LINKING DEVICES
(a) Use of pronominal forms to replace noun phrases
Example:
Napoleon was a great soldier. He was also a great administrator.
John bought a new car. It cost a lot of money, but it goes a lot better
than his old one.
John and Mary are going on holiday to brazil. Their friends are very
envious.
He decided to take some heavy shoes with him. He thought that these
would be useful in case he went walking.
(b) Use of pronominal forms to replace adverbials (noun phrases of time and place)
Example:
He left the following day. He knew then that he was not coming back.
We called on them soon after breakfast.. We should have realised that this was a bad
time for a visit.*
(* Noun phrases are also used as replacives. For example: John was born just before the
war. At that time his parents lived in London)
I decided to take my books back to the library. When I got there, I found it was closed.
(c) Use of pronominal forms to replace clauses or sentences.
Example:
Some students work all night just before an exam. This is a great mistake.
John has just resigned. It was quite unexpected.
Notice that in the examples above the pronominal forms all refer back to something
previously mentioned. They may also refer forward. For example: This is what you
should do. You should be very frank. My advice is as follows. Be very frank.
(d) Use of determiners (the, this, that, etc.) to refer back to a previous noun phrase
Example:
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Thieves broke into a jewellers shop in North Street last night. The thieves entered the
shop through a small back window.
I bought a pocket calculator last year. That calculator has proved very useful.
Former and latter are used to refer back to one of two previous noun phrases:
John and Tom both took part in the play. Only the former has had any real experience of
acting. The latter had never even been on the stage before.
(e) Repetition of key words
Example:
These particular train services are not used very much by commuters. As a rule, commuters
tend to travel much earlier.
(f) Use of synonyms to avoid repetition
Example:
These cars were first made in 1972. When they were first produced, they were not very
popular. If you have any thoughts onthe subject,please let me know. I shall be interested to
hear your ideas.
(g) Use of a construction implying whole part or part-whole relationship
Example:
You will need to take some tools with you. You can get a hammer, a saw and a
screwdriver from most big department stores.
Large cars and lorries are not advised to use this route. These vehicles should take the
other road.
(h) Use of related word forms
Example:
Seven people have been arrested so far. The arrests were made late last night.
(i) Use of parallel structures
Example:
It is possible that the plan will succeed. It is equally possible that it will fail.
***
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Chapter
3
PARAPHRASING
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1. What is paraphrasing?
2. What do you need to paraphrase?
3. Why do you paraphrase?
4. When do you paraphrase?
5. How do you paraphrase?
3.1 WHAT IS PARAPHRASING?

When you read a passage and you want to put the idea on to your paper, you do not need
to copy paste all the contents of passage. What you are going to do is that to do paraphrasing in
order to avoid plagiarism. Paraphrase is that you put someone elses words, restating the ideas
without changing their meaning. In this case you need to look up to the essential of the passage
itself and try to restating the idea with another form and expressing it wit your own word without
changing the meaning. You may elaborate the main idea of passage in order to make the new
expression of a paraphrase. The idea itself should not be elaborate too much and it should be
compiled well with your own word. (www.dlsweb.rmit.edu.au)
Other sources give more elaboration of the definition:
Paraphrasing is your own rendition of essential information and ideas expressed by
someone else, presented in a new form.
Paraphrasing is one legitimate way (when accompanied by accurate documentation) to
borrow from a source.
Paraphrasing is a more detailed restatement than a summary, which focuses concisely on
a single main idea.
Paraphrasing is to restate a portion of a text with the purpose, usually, of clarifying it.
(http://www.bridgewater.edu/WritingCenter/manual/paraphrase)
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Paraphrase is a re-expression of someone else's ideas in your own words.
Paraphrasing presents a spoken, written or visual text, keeping the same meaning, but
using different words. (http://boothcollege.salvos.org.au)
Paraphrasing is the use of anothers ideas to enhance your own work.
Paraphrasing means putting persons ideas into your own words in a manner that echoes
the structure of the original text. (http://factstaff.bloomu.edu).
3.2 WHAT DO YOU NEED TO PARAPHRASE?

(1) Text.
Sometimes, a friend may ask about the content of a book he has not read, and you need to
explain the main ideas of the book. In this case, you need to state in brief what yu have read from
the book by using your own sentences.
(2) Speech and dialogues.

In a dharma wacana (religious seminar), there must be important points among all the speaker
says. You can paraphrase his talk by retelling it to your parents directly to the main focus.
(3)Literary works.
You can tell what a poem means to someone who is not used to understand literary language.
You will retell the poem in daily sentences rather than reciting the poem.
3.3 WHY DO YOU PARAPHRASE?

There are some purposes of why you do paraphrasing:
a. To master content of a text, speech, or literary work. You do paraphrasing is
meant to make sure that you fully understand what the text says.
b. To discuss someone's argument. When you quote someones arguments, you
cannot just copy it without taking the essence of the quotation. This is a
plagiarism. To avoid it, you need to restate the idea or statement in your own
words.
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c. To enforce your arguments. Paraphrasing someones ideas or statement can
enrich your deposit of knowledge in arguing about a certain topic, to elaborate it,
or to support it. This is useful in debate or writing an argumentative essay.
3.4 WHEN DO YOU DO PARAPHRASING?

a) If you find that your text or paper needs a lot of quotations, you had better paraphrase
some of them. Paraphrasing is one alternative of direct quotations.
b) If you need to tell someone about a book you have read, an interesting article, or a
tragic drama you have watched, you do not need to tell all details, only the main
things. In this case, you need to use your own words,that is paraphrasing.
3,5 HOW TO PARAPHRASE A TEXT?

(1) Begin working on your text the day that it is assigned. This is good advice to follow
even if your text doesn't involve any paraphrasing.
a. If you know that you will be making use of outside sources, start reading them as
soon as possible. As you are reading and thinking about your topic, you will likely
come across some passages that you realize you may well want to make use of in
your paper. At this point you should begin making notes for your first draft. Take
note of the author, the book or article, the publisher, and the page(s) the passage
appears on. One reason for doing this now is so that you can return to this
material later.
b. Do not write out the passage. Instead, simply find the main ideas of a paragraph.
Avoid the use of sentences so that you can supply your own sentence structure
later. Even as you are making these point-form notes you should begin the process
of expressing yourself in your own words. Avoid using the same words or phrases
that the author uses.
c. After a day or two, return to your notes. Try to turn them into complete sentences
of your own. If you avoided using the author's words when you first made your
notes, it will be easier for you to express the author's ideas in your words.
Deliberately avoid checking the original source at this point.
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d. Next, you should begin writing your first draft.
e. After your first draft is finished, go back to the source material. Check to ensure
that your paraphrase accurately reflects what the author said and that you really
have expressed things in your own words.
(2) Change the structure of a paragraph:

a. Write down only the main ideas and concepts.
Do not copy text. Read the paragraph and write down only the main points or key
words. Do not write down entire sentences.
b. Put the original away so you cant see it.
After you have read your information, put the book away and write down your
paraphrase from memory. This means you are not copying out the text word for
word.
c. Check your version against the original.
Look back at the original text. Check that you have not accidentally written
exactly the same words. Check that you have not left anything out. Check to see if
you have captured the meaning of the writer (as closely as you can do).
(3) Change the words.

Peoples writing styles and the words they use are very distinct. It is generally easy to tell
when someone has copied straight out of a textbook because the language changes and the
words used are not normally part of the writers style and vocabulary. Follow these steps:
a) Read the sentence to be paraphrased a number of times.

You cannot paraphrase until you understand the meaning of the text. Once you
understand, write down the meaning in your own words. If you do not understand the
meaning of the text, do not try to paraphrase it.
b) Circle the specialized words.
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Specialized words carry the main meaning. You will need to include them in your
paragraph; otherwise you will change the meaning completely. So make sure that these
specialized words are still in your paraphrase.
c) Underline keywords that can be changed.

Identify the key words that can be changed without changing the meaning.
d) Find alternative words for the keywords

Find other words and phrases that have similar meanings that you can use to replace the
words in the text. Use a dictionary to help you.
e) Check your version against the original.

Look back at the original text. Check that you have not accidentally written exactly the
same words. Check that you have not left anything out. Check to see if you have captured
the meaning of the writer (as closely as you can do).
EXAMPLES:
The following example is taken from IMPROVING READING SKILL (Spears, 2002).
This is the original passage:
In captivity elephants best display their great intelligence in shows of various types,
rapidly learning complex acts where it seems the trainer is constantly at risk and never
harm, or in the heavy often difficult tasks they perform in India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka,
and Thailand. But elephants have a devilish side. One of the oldest bits of conventional
wisdom about them is that they have long memories, and while many of the stories about
elephants killing men who as small boys put a hot chestnut or paper corns in their trunks
are exaggerated, some elephants do hold grudges against people who have hurt them, or
whom for some reason they dislike.
Paraphrasing of the passage:

Elephants kept in captivity show their intelligence by learning complicated acts very
quickly yet not harming the trainer who is in a dangerous position. In countries like India
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and Bangladesh, elephants are used as a source of power and perform difficult tasks. But
elephants can be devilish, as well. Elephants long memories are legendary, although the
stories about an elephant seeking retribution against a man who, as a boy, caused the
animal harm in some way are probably overstated. Nonetheless elephants do hold
grudges or take a dislike to some people.
3.6 THE IMPORTANCE OF PARAPHRASING

Since excessive use of direct quotations is not acceptable, paraphrasing allows us to
express the information of others using our own writing style. Paraphrasing is perfectly
acceptable as long as we document our sources and paraphrase correctly.
When an idea from one of the sources is important to our writing, we can quote that idea
but then do a different wording. Paraphrasing correctly takes skill. Improper paraphrasing
and poor documentation of our sources can cause inadvertent or accidental plagiarism
and will eventually detract from the quality of our paper. However, in paraphrasing we
have to think about how much of the detail from your source is relevant to your
argument.
A paraphrase is a kind of translation. If we are going to translate something into our own
words, we must know and understand it.
Paraphrasing is a valuable skill. There are some reasons that support that statement. These
are the reasons (www.owl.english.perdue.edu):
a) Paraphrasing is better than quoting information from an undistinguished passage. It is

because when we do paraphrasing, we just not put someone sentence in our paper. We do
some analysis toward our source. After that we try to write down that idea into our word,
rather than just take someone sentence and put it in our paper (doing quotation)
b) When we do paraphrasing it is possible if we do quotation in it, but it done just to prove if
our sentence has the same meaning with the original one. So, paraphrasing helps us to
control the temptation to quote too much.
c) The mental process required for successful paraphrasing helps you to grasp the full
meaning of the original. It is because when we do paraphrasing; we read the text deeply
in order to understand the meaning of the main idea of the text.
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3.7 ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
After knowing the way how to do paraphrasing, the readers will be given some extra
information about how summarizing, paraphrasing and quoting are different from each other
( www.unsw.edu.au).
To paraphrase means to restate a portion of a text with the purpose, usually, of clarifying
it. A paraphrase is about the same length (has about the same number of words) as the original
passage. A paraphrase should not include the wording of the original passage, nor should it
follow the same sentence structure as the original passage. Paraphrased information must be
accompanied by a citation, or in-text reference to the source from which you took the
information, just as quoted material must be. Failure to provide citation will be interpreted by
others as plagiarism, even if we list the source in your bibliography. A paraphrase may result in a
longer, rather than shorter, version of the original text. It offers an alternative to using direct
quotations and helps students to integrate evidence/ source material into assignments.
Paraphrasing is also a useful skill for making notes from readings, note-taking in lectures, and
explaining information in tables, charts and diagrams.
To summarize means to restate a portion of a text in a shortened form. A summary
should bring out the main ideas of the passage, but it does not need to follow the same order as
the original text. A summary should be clear, concise, and accurate in representing the original
text. Like paraphrased information, summarized information must be accompanied by a citation,
or in-text reference to the source from which you took the information, just as quoted material
must be. Failure to provide citation will be interpreted by others as plagiarism, even if we list the
source in your bibliography. A summary is an overview of a text. The main idea is given, but
details, examples and formalities are left out. Used with longer texts, the main aim of
summarizing is to reduce or condense a text to its most important ideas. Summarizing is a useful
skill for making notes from readings and in lectures, writing an abstract/synopsis and
incorporating material in assignments.
To quote means to copy exactly a portion of a text, with the purpose of presenting the
author's actual words. A quotation is an exact reproduction of spoken or written words. Direct
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quotes can provide strong evidence, act as an authoritative voice, or support a writer's statements.
Quotations must be identical to the original, using a narrow segment of the source. They must
match the source document word for word and must be attributed to the original author.
3.8 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PARAPHRASING, SUMMARIZING,

ANNOTATING, AND QUOTING
When you quote what someone else has written, you reproduce word for word the relevant
material you are using (Spears, 2002). You should use quotations only when you believe that
something significant turns upon the exact words that were used in the original piece. It might
be the case, for example, that the author has defined certain terms in a specific and deliberate
manner and your aim is to show that he or she is guilty of a kind of internal inconsistency
given those very definitions.
When you paraphrase, you put someone elses words into your own words, restating the ideas
without changing their meaning.
When you summarize, you condense the original to convey only the essential I nformation.
Annotating is done by making brief notes in the margin of the text. Careful annotating allows
you both to read actively and to pull out the essential ideas at the same time. When you
annotate, you use your own words as much as possible.
***
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Chapter 4
SUMMARIZING

1. How is summary different from paraphrasing?
2. How to summarize?
3. Common mistakes in summarizing
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4.1 WHAT IS A SUMMARY?
A Summary is a short statement that gives only the main points of something, not the
details (Oxford Advanced Genie).
Summarizing involves putting the main idea(s) into your own words, including only the
main point(s). Once again, it is necessary to attribute summarized ideas to the original
source. Summaries are significantly shorter than the original and take a broad overview
of the source material.
When we think of a summary, we typically think of the end of something such as the end
of a textbook chapter, article, the end of a year, etc. In fact, a summary is a wrap-up a
general picture of the information much like TV networks produce at the end of the year.
In textbooks, summaries provide a quick overview of a subject without having the reader
wade through a lot of facts and details. Summaries help readers and writers boil
information down to its most basic elements. Encyclopedias, almanacs, and digests
provide good examples of summaries.
Effective summary reading and writing are important study strategies. Yet, summarizing
is often quite difficult for us. It requires them to categorize details, eliminate
insignificant information, generalize information, and use clear, concise language to
communicate the essence of the information. With practice, students can use
summarizing to support their reading and learning. The next two strategies can be used
to help young readers comprehend informational writing.
4.2 WHAT CAN BE SUMMARIZED?

(1) Book, Novel, Article, Text
Summarizing a book or an article is the most common type of summarizing which is
usually done by the students or by those who are mostly in charge in education. Students
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mostly make a summary about the content of their book for the sake of making them
more easily in understanding the whole content of the book.
4.2.1 How to write a summary of a book/an article/ a text

a) Read the book/article/text
b) Formulate the main statement
c) Reread the book/article/text and underline important ideas and arguments according
to the main statement
d) Introduce the author and title of the work in the opening sentence
e) Mention the important facts in chronological order
f) Check that your summary reflects the original conclusion
4.2.2 How to write a summary of a novel

Summarizing a novel is commonly said as the process of making a synopsis about the
novel that we have read. There are some steps that you can follow in order to make a
summary (synopsis) of a novel.
Read the novel carefully while considering these WH questions below:

a) What is the story about,
b) What is the introduction, the conflict, and how is the main problem resolved
(resolution),
c) Who are the characters involved,
d) When does the story happen (setting of time),
e) Where does the story take place (setting of place),
f) How is the end of the story (Happy ending or sad ending)
Then, write it into a summary.
(2) Movies, TV Series, Documentary Movies
It has seemed to be a trend in which people are very enthusiastic in talking about the
movie or TV series that they have just watched. When we tell the story of the movie or
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TV series to anyone else, we also make a summary, in this case an oral summary. In
school, some of the teachers have used the activity of making a summary of a movie (in
English) which is commonly done for English subject. This activity aims to train
students comprehension. How well they can comprehend the content of the movie is
very much rely on their ability in listening, vocabulary mastering, grammar
comprehension, and ability in analyzing the scene which is related to the ability of
recognizing the setting of the movie. Since in a movie or TV series there is a story, so the
process of making its summary is quite the same with the process of making summary
(synopsis) for a novel. Although the process is the same, making a summary to what has
been watched is a bit difficult than making a summary to what has been read. It is
because in summarizing a novel, for example, we can look in every detail more easily
and we can go back to the first page then another page when we have not got the idea of
what is the novel talking about. However, making a summary for a movie will turn into
an easy job since we can see what the story is about through audio-visual.
4.3 THE IMPORTANCE OF SUMMARIZING

Effective summary reading and writing are important study strategies. Yet, summarizing
is often quite difficult for children. It requires them to classify details, remove
insignificant information, and generalize information. With practice, students can use
summarizing to help them comprehend informational writing. The importance of
summarizing can be described as follows:
a) Since textbook chapter summaries provide a big picture of the chapter, it is often
useful for a student to read the chapter summary first.
b) Summarizing while reading can also help students monitor their understanding of the
information they have read. They can read a few paragraphs and put the information
they've read in their own words.
c) Summarizing allows both students and teachers to monitor comprehension of
material.
d) Summarizing helps students understand the organizational structure of lessons or
texts.
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e) Summarizing is a skill at which most adults must be proficient to be successful.
Summarizing and reviewing integrate and reinforce the learning of major points...these
structuring elements not only facilitate memory for the information but allow for its
apprehension as an integrative whole with recognition of the relationships between parts (J.
E. Brophy and T. L. Good, 1986).
4.4 WHAT SHOULD THE STUDENT DO IN WRITING A SUMMARY?

The purpose of writing a summary for the students, is that to help them to clarify the
meaning behind the text they are reading and to complite the information of that reading
text. Before writing summary the students should consider these things:
(1) Read the material.

After reading the material, the students may go head to the main ideas of the text. Here
they can see how the text is organized, in time order or the other strategies. Headings,
subheadings, and topic sentence are the components of the text which may help the
students to recognize the main ideas of the text.
(2) Introduce the author and the title.

In the opening sentence the students should write the author and the title of the
summary.
(3) Retell with your own words. The information in each paragraph should retel in
own words.
(4) Eliminating the unnecessary details

We should remember that a summary is a miniature version of the original text. In this
case, miniature version means that the information contained in the summary should be
more solid than the contents of the original article. In order to make our summary so, we
should remove the repetitious and unimportant information.
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(5) Use the original organizational.
The strategy which is used in summarizing should has the same organizational with the
original text. For example, if the original text use time order in presenting the
information, so the students should use chronological order to the summary.
(6) Integrate the information

After choosing the important information, the next step to do is that combining the
information into a coherent piece of writing. Coherence is the way the detail relates to
one another in order to smooth our summary. In the same way, the flow of thought from
sentence to sentence must be logical or make sense for the reader. For example, a
strategy to make our summary coherent is through connecting the idea using appropriate
linking (transitional) words. Here are the examples of linking words and the function.
Function Linking Words

As a result, consequently, hence, then,
To indicate cause-effect
therefore, thus, etc.
However, nevertheless,
To show contrast
notwithstanding, on the other hand, still
In a like manner, in similar case, in the
To show likeness
same way, likewise, similarly, etc.
To indicate addition and First, furthermore, moreover, in
continuation addition, again, also, first, second, etc
Admittedly, certainly, indeed, in fact,
To show emphasis
truly, etc.
As an illustration, for example, for
To give example instance, in other words, in particular,
etc
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In conclusion, in short, in summary, to
To conclude
sum up, in nut shell, etc
(7) Check and polish the summary

After doing all the steps above, we can not say that our summary is finished. There is one
more thing that should be done to make a good summary. It is to reread and rethink whether
our summary presents the original text in brief form. Moreover, the summary should be clear
enough for the reader. If it has not so, we have to revise the incorrect part of the summary.
4.5 HOW TO SUMMARIZE?

Summarizing is actually not a difficult thing to do. It is just like retelling a book in its original
order, but you only recall the core information required. You will not tell any details in the
summary.
This is an example of a short passage and how to summarize it:
Elephants communicate with each other through touch, sound, scent, and body language.
Touching is done mainly with the trunk, and can range from a cow's gentle caress of her calf to a
disciplinary slap delivered by a matriarch to an unruly young male. Shoving, kicking, and
rubbing against each other are other ways that elephants communicate.
Elephants also raise their voices to communicate, trumpeting as a warning or greeting to
other elephants nearby. These animals also produce low-frequency rumbling sounds, which can
travel over great distances, reaching the ears of elephants several kilometers away. Recent
research indicates that elephants also communicate with infrasound, sounds inaudible to human
ears.
Elephants may use the secretion of different pheromones in urine or dung. These chemical
scent signals can be detected by nearby elephants, or carried by the breeze to elephants at a
distance. The secretions of the glands during musth also convey scent messages. In addition,
information is shared through various body poses. A savanna elephant, for example, spreads its
ears wide and may flap them while holding its trunk against its body to signal it is about to
charge.
(Source: Microsoft Encarta 2007. 1993-2006 Microsoft Corporation)
Step 1: Read And Notice The Main Ideas.

Elephants communicate with each other through touch, sound, scent, and body
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language. Touching is done mainly with the trunk, and can range from a cow's gentle
caress of her calf to a disciplinary slap delivered by a matriarch to an unruly young male.
Shoving, kicking, and rubbing against each other are other ways that elephants
communicate.
Elephants also raise their voices to communicate, trumpeting as a warning or greeting
to other elephants nearby. These animals also produce low-frequency rumbling sounds,
which can travel over great distances, reaching the ears of elephants several kilometers
away. Recent research indicates that elephants also communicate with infrasound,
sounds inaudible to human ears.
Elephants may use the secretion of different pheromones in urine or dung. These
chemical scent signals can be detected by nearby elephants, or carried by the breeze to
elephants at a distance. The secretions of the glands during musth also convey scent
messages. In addition, information is shared through various body poses. A savanna
elephant, for example, spreads its ears wide and may flap them while holding its trunk
against its body to signal it is about to charge.
Elephants may use the secretion of different pheromones in urine or dung. These
chemical scent signals can be detected by nearby elephants, or carried by the breeze to
elephants at a distance. The secretions of the glands during musth also convey scent
messages. In addition, information is shared through various body poses. A savanna
elephant, for example, spreads its ears wide and may flap them while holding its trunk
against its body to signal it is about to charge.
Step 2: List The Main Ideas

i. Elephants communicate with each other using several ways.
ii. They do so by touching mainly with trunk smoothly or harsly.
iii. They also kick and shove each other.
iv. They use voice to interact, either by high sound, low, or even infrasound.
v. Elephants use scent of their secretion process which can be smelled nearby
or in distance.
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vi. Lastly, they communicate by gestures, such as flapping their ears and raise
their trunks.
Step 3: Maintain The Order

The order, or the sequence of the summary should resemble that of the original
passage.
Step 4: Rewrite Into A Paragraph

Elephants communicate with each other using many devices. They touch, kick, and
shove each other to indicate that they are in contact. Also, elephants produce voice
to convey signals. The sounds might be in high pitch as a warn, low, or even in
infrasound mode. Another thing elephants can do to deliver messages is through
scent of their secretion process. The scent can be smelled by other elephants nearby
or in distance. For the last thing, they indeed use body movements mainly their
trunks and ears to indicate their readiness to attack.
Step 5: Smoothen Your Paragraph

Elephants communicate with each other using many devices. For one thing, they
touch, kick, and shove each other to indicate they are in contact. Another thing is
that elephants produce voice to convey signals. The sounds might be in high or low
pitch, and even in infrasound mode. Elephants can also deliver messages through
scent of their secretion process which can be smelled nearby or in distance. Lastly,
they indeed use body movements mainly their trunks and ears to indicate their
readiness to attack.
4.6 SOME COMMON MISTAKES FOUND WHEN SUMMARIZING

(1) Writing down everything
This mistake usually happens because we want our summary to be as detailed as the original
text. Sometimes we consider every point found in the text as an important item that should not be
left in our summary.
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(2) Writing down next to nothing
If some people write everything in their summary, some other people do it in the opposite way.
They write many words which provide no important information at all. This may happen because
the person who does summarizing has no comprehension or does not understand the content of
the original text.
(3) Using complete sentences

Sometimes, especially when we have no idea on what to write in our summary, we will simply
quote the sentences in the original text. A summary contained too many quotation is not
considered as a good summary.
(4) Writing too much

Some people sometimes write too many things in their summary. They add some additional
information which is not really needed or not needed at all.
(5) Don't write enough

Considering the term, a summary, some people write their summary in a very short form. They
even eliminate some main points of the original text because what they have in their mind is that
a summary should be as short as possible.
(6) Copying word for word

A bit different from quoting, copying word for word means that in summarizing some people use
words in the original text and reconstruct the sentences.
4.7 THINGS THAT WE NEED TO DO WHEN SUMMARIZING
a) Pull out main ideas

Before we make a summary, we should find the main idea of each paragraph in the
original text. Those main ideas are the raw material of our summary which will be
arranged in some way to make a shorter passage called a summary.
b) Focus on key details
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Being focus on the key details will keep us away from putting unneeded additional
information in our summary.
c) Use key words and phrases

Before we make a summary, we should identify key words and phrases which indicate
main idea or important point of the original text. Those will be beneficial to help us in
constructing our summary.
d) Break down the larger ideas

If in the original text you find an idea which is too broad, then you will need to break
down the large idea into the smaller one.
e) Write only enough to convey the gist

When you write a summary, it is not necessary to put more information. As long as our
summary contains the essential content, then it has met one of its characteristic of a good
summary.
f) Take succinct but complete notes

A summary should be brief but contains complete information. Being brief does not mean
that the important points omitted from the summary.
***
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Chapter 5
WRITING FROM DATA,
CHARTS AND DIAGRAMS
In this chapter you will see:

1. What is chart and graph?
2. Kinds of charts.
3. How to transform data into chart?
4. How to interpret a chart and graph?
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5.1 WRITING FROM DATA
An academic piece of writing usually needs to be supported by data or to be

supplemented with reliable sources of information. The data is not only described but
also presented in the body of the writing in the forms graphics drawings, diagrams,
photographs, illustrations of all sorts, tables, pie, charts, bar charts, line graph, flow charts
and so on. Once these are inserted into an academic paper, the writer should have a
capability to write based on the data (graphs, charts, tables, etc.) presented. It is very
common that a student is capable of creating colorful and interesting graph but has lack
of ability to write based on the data presentation.
In this chapter, you are introduced to different types of data presentation and strategies to
write based on a diagram, chart, table and graphics. Before going further, you must
understand the notion of each form of data presentation.
5.2 DEFINITIONS
Below are definitions of a diagram, chart, graphic, and tables.
(1) Diagram
Diagram is a drawing or plan that uses simple line rather than realistic details to explain
or illustrate machine a structure a process etc. (Oxford Dictionary). From the definition
above we can see that a diagram is a worth thing to express a data process or works. The
purpose of it is that to make simple explanation about something.
(2) Chart
Chart is an illustration or giving the clear information especially about something that
change over a period of time (Oxford dictionary). Charts are often used to make it easier
to understand large quantities of data and the relationship between different parts of the
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data. Chart can usually be read more quickly than the raw data that they come from. They
are use in wide vaiety of fields, and can be created by hand or by computer using a chart
tool in office excel.
(3) Graphics
Graphic is a thing written or drawn, etc in a specified way to show progress of something.
Graphics are actually just another way of presenting the same data that is presented in
tables although more dramatic and interesting one. At the same time however you get less
detail or less precision in a chart or diagram than you do in the table. Imagine the
different between the tables of sales figures for a ten year period and a line graph for the
same data. You get a better sense of the overall trend in the graph but not the precise
dollar amount.
(4) Tables
Tables are rows and columns of numbers and works, mostly numbers. They permit rapid
access to and relatively easy comparison of information. If the data is arrange
chronologically (fro example, sales figure of a trend year period), the table can show
trend- pattern of rising or falling activity. Of course tables are not necessarily the most
vivid or dramatic means of showing such trends or relationship between data- that is why
we have chart and graph.
5.3 ELEMENTS DESCRIBED IN GRAPHICS

In a certain situation, when making a report of your research for example, you will need
to insert certain graphics within your writing. There are many kinds of graphics to
choose, but you need to consider what kind of graphic that is suitable to be used to
represent the information. Below are some explanations about the elements of scientific
writing which are described by graphics, as cited from
http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/Dr_Zaghloul/Documents/Elements%20of%20Scientific%20writi
ng3.ppt.
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(1) Objects
If you are writing about the procedures of how to graft a fruit tree, you will need some
illustrations, the step by step process to have the task done successfully. This kind of
information can be put into photographs, drawings, diagrams, and schematics.
(2) Graphics
Numerical data usually are presented in the form of tables, bar chart, pie chart, and line
graphs, As an example, if you are writing about the rising price of housing in Singaraja
during the last five years, you could use a table with the columns are for the time, while
the rows could be for different tyoes of housing.
(3) Concepts
If your writing is about how certain company is organized, the relationship of the
different department and officials, you could set up an organization chart-boxes and circle
connected with lines that show how everything is hierarchically arranged and related.
This would be an example of a graphic for a concept which depicts nonphysical,
conceptual things and their relationships.
(3) Words
Scientific writing usually contains graphic which represent data about things found
during the research. If we represent the graphic into words, the elaboration or explanation
certainly will spend more than a page of paper. In brief we could say that graphics are the
shorter forms of words.
Using graph in your scientific writing helps you to describe a data without long
elaboration. A chart can tell the readers more than you can tell it in words. In a chart, all
things (variables, values, and so on) are represented by sym-bols and colors so you can
see them and connect them at once without any unnecesarry elaborations.
5.4 KINDS OF CHART
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For an overview of some standard chart types and their subtypes, click any or all of the
following:
(1)|Column Chart|
A column chart shows data changes over a period of time or illustrates comparisons
among items. Column charts have the following chart sub-types:
(a) Clustered-column chart. This is the most comon chart you can find. This type of
chart compares values across categories. It is also available with a 3-D visual effect.
As shown in the following chart, categories are organized horizontally, and values
vertically, to emphasize variation over time.
(b). Stacked-column chart. This type of chart shows the relationship of individual
items to the whole, comparing the contribution of each value to a total across
categories. It is also available with a 3-D visual effect.
(c) 3-D column chart. This type of chart compares data points along two axes. For
example, in the 3-D chart beside, you can compare four quarters of sales performance in
Europe with the performance of two other divisions.
(2)|Bar Chart|
A bar chart illustrates comparisons among individual items. Bar charts have the following
chart sub-types:
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(a). Clustered Bar.
This type of chart compares values across categories. It is also available with a 3-D
visual effect. In the following chart, categories are organized vertically, and values
horizontally, to place focus on comparing the values.
(b). Stacked Bar

This type of chart show the relationship of individual items to the whole. It is also
available with a 3-D visual effect.
(c). 100 % Stacked Bar This type of chart compares the percentage each value contributes
to a total across categories. It is also available with a 3-D visual effect.
(3)|Line Chart|
A line chart shows trends in data at equal intervals. Line charts have the following chart sub-
types:
(a). Line. This type of chart displays trends over time or categories. It is also
available with markers displayed at each data value.
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(b) . Stacked Line This type of chart displays the trend of the contribution of each
value over time or categories. It is also available with markers displayed at each
data value.
(c). 100% Stacked Line This type of chart displays the trend of the percentage each
value contributes over time or categories. It is also available with markers displayed at
each data value.
(d) 3-D Line This is a line chart with a 3-D visual effect.
(4)|Pie Chart|
A pie chart shows the size of items that make up a data series proportional to the sum of
the items. It always shows only one data series and is useful when you want to emphasize a
significant element in the data. Pie charts have the following chart sub-types:
(a) Pie. This type of chart displays the contribution of each value to a total. It is also
available with a 3-D visual effect, as shown in the following chart.
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(b). Exploded Pie. This type of chart displays the contribution of each value to a total
while emphasizing individual values. It is also available with a 3-D visual effect.
(c). Pie of Pie This is a pie chart with user-defined values extracted and combined into
a second pie. For example, to make small slices easier to see, you can group them
together as one item in a pie chart and then break down that item in a smaller pie or bar
chart next to the main chart.
(d). Bar of Pie

This is a pie chart with user-defined values extracted and combined into a stacked bar.
(5)| (Scatter) Chart|

An xy (scatter) chart shows the relationships among the numeric values in several data
series or plots two groups of numbers as one series of xy coordinates. Scatter charts are
commonly used for scientific data and have the following chart sub-types:
(a). Scatter. This type of chart compares pairs of values. For example, the following
scatter chart shows uneven intervals (or clusters) of two sets of data.
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When you arrange your data for a scatter chart, place x values in one row or column, and then
enter corresponding y values in the adjacent rows or columns.
(b). Scatter with Data Points Connected by Lines This type of chart can be displayed with
or without straight or smoothed connecting lines between data points. These lines can be
displayed with or without markers.
(6)|Area Chart|
An area chart emphasizes the magnitude of change over time. Area charts have the
following chart sub-types:
(a). Area. This type of chart displays the trend of values over time or categories. It is
also available with a 3-D visual effect. By displaying the sum of the plotted values, an
area chart also shows the relationship of parts to a whole. For example, the following
area chart emphasizes increased sales in Washington and illustrates the contribution of
each state to total sales.
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(b). Stacked Area This type of chart displays the trend of the contribution of each
value over time or categories. It is also available with a 3-D visual effect.
. 100% Stacked Area This chart type displays the trend of the percentage each
value contributes over time or categories. It is also available with a 3-D visual effect.
(7)|Doughnut Chart|
Like a pie chart, a doughnut chart shows the relationship of parts to a whole; however, it
can contain more than one data series. Doughnut charts have the following chart sub-types:
(a). Doughnut. This type of chart displays data in rings, where each ring represents a
data series. For example, in the following chart, the inner ring represents gas tax
revenues, and the outer ring represents property tax revenues.
(b). Exploded Doughnut. This chart type is like an exploded pie chart, but it can contain
more than one data series.
(8)|Radar Chart|
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A radar chart compares the aggregate values of a number of data series. Radar charts
have the following chart sub-types:
(a). Radar. This type of chart displays changes in values relative to a center point. It can
be displayed with markers for each data point. For example, in the following radar chart,
the data series that covers the most area, Brand A, represents the brand with the highest
vitamin content.
(b). Filled Radar. In this type of chart, the area covered by a data series is filled with a
color.
(9)|Surface Chart|
A surface chart is useful when you want to find optimum combinations between two sets of
data. As in a topographic map, colors and patterns indicate areas that are in the same range
of values. Surface charts have the following chart sub-types:
(a). 3-D Surface This type of chart shows trends in values across two dimensions in a
continuous curve. For example, the following surface chart shows the various
combinations of temperature and time that result in the same measure of tensile strength.
The colors in this chart represent specific ranges of values.
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Displayed without color, a 3-D surface chart is called a wireframe 3-D surface chart.
(b). Contour This is a surface chart viewed from above, where colors represent specific
ranges of values. Displayed without color, this chart type is called a Wireframe Contour.
(10)|Bubble Chart|
A bubble chart is a type of xy (scatter) chart. It compares sets of three values and can be
displayed with a 3-D visual effect. The size of the bubble, or data marker indicates the value of a
third variable. To arrange your data for a bubble chart, place the x values in one row or column,
and enter corresponding y values and bubble sizes in the adjacent rows or columns. For example,
you would organize your data as shown in the following picture.
The following bubble chart shows that Company A has the most products and the greatest
market share, but not the highest sales.
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(11)|Stock Chart|
This chart type is most often used for stock price data, but can also be used for scientific
data (for example, to indicate temperature changes). You must organize your data in the
correct order to create stock charts. Stock charts have the following chart sub-types:
(a). High-Low-Close The high-low-close chart is often used to illustrate stock prices.
It requires three series of values in the following order (high, low, and then close).
(b). Open-High-Low-Close This type of chart requires four series of values in the
correct order (open, high, low, and then close).
(c). Volume-High-Low-Close This type of chart requires four series of values in the
correct order (volume, high, low, and then close). The following stock chart measures
volume using two value axes: one for the columns that measure volume, and the other
for the stock prices.
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(d). Volume-Open-High-Low-Close This type of chart requires five series of values
in the correct order (volume, open, high, low, and so on).
(12)|Cylinder, Cone, Or Pyramid Charts|

These chart types use cylinder, cone, or pyramid data markers to lend a dramatic effect to
column, bar, and 3-D column charts. Much like column and bar charts, cylinder, cone, and
pyramid charts have the following chart sub-types:
(a). Column, Stacked Column, or 100% Stacked Column The columns in these
types of chart are represented by cylindrical, conical, or pyramid shapes.
(b). Bar, Stacked Bar, or 100% Stacked Bar The bars in these types of chart are
represented by cylindrical, conical, or pyramid shapes.
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(c). 3-D Column The 3-D columns in this type of chart are represented by cylindrical,
conical, or pyramid shapes.
5.5 CONSIDERATIONS BEFORE DRAWING CHART OR GRAPH

To describe objects, place, people and relationships between them, you can use
illustrations such as photos, drawings, and schematics. When you use an illustration in a report,
there are several requirements to keep in mind:
(1). Labels
Label, a piece of paper, fabric, or plastic attached to something to give instruction about it
or identify it. Labels may be required on products to provide warnings or to enable
consumers to compare similar products. (Microsoft Encarta 2007. 1993-2006
Microsoft Corporation) In this case, any illustration should contain labels words and
phrases with pointers to the parts of the things being described.
(2). Keys
If the illustration has certain shading, colors, line styles, or other such details that have a
special meaning in the illustration, these should be indicated in a key an area in an
unused corner of the illustration that deciphers their meaning.
(3). Titles
Generally, any illustration should have titles, and these titles should be numbered (figure 1,
figure 2, and so on). In special cases, if you have lots of illustrations (for example, in
certain instruction, there are illustrations practically after every paragraph) and if there is
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no benefit from the title; if you only have one or two illustrations and they are not cross-
referenced. In some of these cases, you might want to keep the title but remove the word
Figure and the number following it.
(4). Cross-references
A cross-reference directs a reader to related information in another portion of a document.
Often proceeded by see or see also, cross-references are commonly inserted into text,
notes, and indexes. (Microsoft Encarta 2007. 1993-2006 Microsoft Corporation).
Almost all illustrations should be referred to from the relevant point in the discussion. And,
do more than just tossing in a ( ), discuss the illustration a bit focus readers attention
on the key details of the illustration. Cross-references provide some explanation of what is
going on in the graphic, how to interprete, what its basic trends are, and so on.
(5). Location within the report

Theoretically, you place illustrations just after the point where they are needed. However,
sometimes because of the way the text falls in the pages and the size of the illustration, this
close placement is not possible. In this case, just put the illustration at the top of the next
page.
(6). Placemet within margins

Make sure that your illustrations fit neatly within standard margins. What you need to do is
to give space at least two blank lines above and below the illustration.
5.6 TRANSFORMING DATA INTO CHART

To transform data into chart, you must consider six things:
(1). Determine what kind of data you are going to transform. If the data are about a
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progress trend, you cannot transform it into pie chart. Instead, line chart will be suitable.
Moreover, if your data is about the amount of students in a class categorized by economic
status, you had better use bar chart. Pie chart in this case can be used, but you need to
calculate the percentage as well.
(2). Determine the variables of your data. For example, you want to make a chart of the
progress of a student in reading based on five tests. The variables (x and y) must be test 1
until test 5, and score grade.
(3). Group and match the data based on the variables. For example, in test 1 a student
gets 85, in test 2= 78, test 3=90 etc.
(4). Go on transforming! Link the x and y variables to form a chart.
(5). Give title and legend. Do not forget to give your chart title and legend. Legend means
the colour, grids, or shapes in your chart that represents certain meaning. The legend must
be as clear as possible. Moreover, if you want to photocopy your chart, you had better not
to use colour in the original one. Instead, use horizontal, diagonal, or vertical grids.
For clearer understanding, study the following example:
EXAMPLE:
A student joined three kinds of test: Listening, Reading, and Speaking. From four times tests, he
got scores as below:
LISTENING READING
SPEAKING
TEST 1 80 87 85
TEST 2 75 80 80
TEST 3 75 89 87
TEST 4 90 75 90
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How to transform it into chart?
STEP 1: DRAW TWO LINES FOR PLACING THE VARIABLES
STEP 2: PLACE THE VARIABLES AND THE RANGE OF THE DATA
90
SCORES
85
80
75
70
65
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TESTS
STEP 3: MATCH!
STEP 4: TITLE AND LEGEND
THE IMPROVEMENT OF STUDENT X

IN LISTENING, READING, AND SPEAKING COMPREHENSION TESTS
These are simple steps of how to make a chart based on a series of data. A kind of data
can be transformed into several types of charts, but you have to be careful because a certain type
of data cannot be transformed into certain charts. For instance, the example above cannot be
transformed into pie and doughnut charts.
HOW TO DESCRIBE A CHART
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To know how to describe a chart, you need to read the following information as cited from
Alyona (2011).
1. Identify the purpose of the chart. The purpose of the chart is usually shown in the title of
the chart. In other words, a reader must know what the chart is about first. For example;
the title of the chart is The progress of students achievement. From the title in the chart
you know the purpose of the chart itself is to communicate or illustrate or present the
progress of each students achievement in a particular subject area during a certain period
time.
2. Determine which specific pieces of information are the most significant. You have to
attract the attention of the reader by presenting the most interesting data first. But do not
forget the other data. It means there must be relationship between one data to another for
example; there is a chart about the progress of marketing improvement. You may start
describing from the most significant change in the marketing to the common ones.
3. In what order you would present that information. You can describe the chart
chronologically. For example, the chart contains the scores of a student in five years. You
can describe the data from earlier year to latest year. The second way is that you can
present it from the most significant to the less significant ones or vice versa. for instance,
you present the data of that students score from the highest to the lowest, regardless the
time.
It generally improves the ambiguity of your description and chance of the viewer or reader
understanding your intended meaning if you start it by explaining the relationships
represented. A brief explanation of the relationships provides a kind of frame for the
following information (categories, media) you describe and thus makes an accurate
interpretation of the image more likely. As with the bigger picture to which we might
refer when piecing together a puzzle, viewers or readers are able to understand correctly if
they comprehend the various relationships in terms of the frame.
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***
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Chapter
6
CRITICAL REVIEW
In this chapter you will see:

1. What is critical review?
2. What are the purposes of making it?
3. How to write a critical review?
4. What are the structures of a critical review?
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WHAT IS CRITICAL REVIEW?
At university, to be critical does not mean to criticize in a negative manner. Rather it
requires you to question the information and opinions in a text and present your evaluation
or judgment of the text. To do this well, you should attempt to understand the topic from
different perspectives. Read related texts and in relation to the theories, approaches and
frameworks in your course. On the other word, critical review is something can give the
reader clear information about book, journal, article or text. The information can be
explained in the right way and all the information in the critical review should be balance
between positive and negative. By giving the evaluation or critics to something such as
book, article, journal and etc, it will give clear understanding to the reader and also it will
lead the reader not only view something from one side.
Purpose of critical review

The critical review is a writing task that asks you to summarize and evaluate a text. The
critical review can be of a book, a chapter, or a journal article. Writing the critical review
usually requires you to read the selected text in detail and to also read other related texts
so that you can present a fair and reasonable evaluation of the selected text. The purpose
of critical review here is that to expand and to relate what has been written in the form of
article, book, or journal with other theory, book, article or journal. By seeing this relation
we will able to find out something from different side, and we will able to see something
not only from one side.
STRUCTURE OF A CRITICAL REVIEW

The structure of critical review is usually the same for both short critical review which
only consist of one page, and long critical review which consists four page or more.
There are five elements that should be put in critical review, namely introduction,
summary, critique, conclusion, and references. Those five elements will build the structure
of the critical review.
1. Introduction
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Introduction is the first element that should be in the critical review, and even for any kind
of text. The length of an introduction is usually one paragraph for a journal article review
and two or three paragraphs for a longer book review. This includes a few opening
sentences that announce the author(s) and the title, and briefly explain the topic of the text,
which is usually called as preview. Introduction functions to present the aim of the text
and summarize the main finding or key argument. In introduction, you will also find out a
conclusion which contains a brief statement of your evaluation of the text. This can be a
positive or negative evaluation or, as is usually the case, a mixed response.
2. Summary
In making a summary, you have to present the key points along with limited number of
examples. You can also briefly explain the authors purpose/intentions throughout the text
and you may briefly describe how the text is organized. The summary should only make
up about a third of the critical review.
3. Critique
Critique does not only contain negative comment towards something. The critique should
be in the form of a balanced discussion and evaluation of the strengths, weakness and
notable features of the text. Remember to base your discussion on specific criteria. Good
reviews are also include other sources to support your evaluation (remember to reference).
The following list shows you how to arrange your critique:

1. You can take note from the most important to least important conclusion of the text.
2. If the critique is more positive than negative, you can present the negative points first and
the positive points at last.
3. If the critique is more negative than positive, you can present the positive points first and
the negative points at last.
4. If the weaknesses and the strengths are equal, you can present your critical review by
giving overall judgments, and then followed by giving comment on both positive and
negative points.
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5. For a long review, you can make the positive and negative points into one paragraph.
While for a short paragraph, you had better put the positive and negative points of your
critical review in different paragraph.
6. Any kinds of recommendation can be included for the improvement of the text in terms
of its ideas, research approach, also including theories or frameworks used.
4. Conclusion
Conclusion is commonly presented in a very short paragraph. It contains three mains points.
They are:
Restatement of an overall opinion for the text.
Presentation of a brief recommendation.
Presentation of some further qualification or explanation of the judgements in order to
make fairness and reasonable reason for the text being reviewed (it is optional; you can
make it if it is necessary).
5. References
It is always a must for us to put any source we use in the form of references if we take or
quote another source in making our review. It is used to avoid plagiarism and maintaining
academic honesty. References are always put at the end of the critical review.
HOW TO WRITE CRITICAL REVIEW

In this part, you will learn how to write a good review. The most important thing in
reviewing a text is that how you will view the text, whether you are supporting it or not. For
example, there will be some points in the text which you need to support because they are
relevant or good for the society, or there may be some other points which you do not think
advantageous and needs to be opposed.
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The purpose of reviewing is not a matter of accusing the original writer that he/she is
wrong or right, but it is something more to be a presentation of different points of view about a
certain issue in the text. You should allow the readers of your review to choose whether they
agree more with the good side or the bad side of the text. Another thing to consider is that your
review should be provoking. It means that you can recommend some good points to the readers
or provoke them not to follow the negative points. This must be supported by strong arguments
from valid sources.
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The purpose of reviewing is not a matter of accusing the original writer that he/she is wrong or
right, but it is something more to be a presentation of different points of view about a certain
issue in the text. You should allow the readers of your review to choose whether they agree more
with the good side or the bad side of the text.
Another thing to consider is that your review should be provoking. It means that you can
recommend some good points to the readers or provoke them not to follow the negative points.
This must be supported by strong arguments from valid sources.
HOW TO WRITE A REVIEW

1. Start your writing with brief introduction about the text, the author, and where you get the
text. Also, state the purpose of the author and your point of view about the text, whether
it is good or bad.
2. Summarize your text and get the main idea of what your text is about. Present this brief
summary in the second paragraph.
3. Since you are going to review it, you need to list the main points of the text.
4. Decide whether you will oppose the text or support it. If you think the text will be useful
for many people, you had better write supporting review, but if you think people will not
tend to get along with the ideas of the text, you had better to write an opposing review.
5. List sources that will support your statement towards the text. If your review is opposing
the text, you need to find valid sources that are also in contrast the text.
6. You can present some recommendations for the readers.
7. Do not forget to list references or quotations from the sources you have got.
GENERAL CRITERIA OF A CRITICAL REVIEW

In writing critical review you need some general creteria as our guideline for evaluating
texts. This guideline can be inform of some lists of criteria and focus questions. These are
the examples of criteria and possible focus questions:
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Criteria Possible focus questions
What is the purpose of the author?
To what extent has this aim been achieved?
In what terms of knowledge this text belongs to? (This
could be in terms of theory, data and/or practical
Si Significance and application)
contribution to the field
Is there any relationship between the text to other works
in the field?
What is missing/not stated?
Is this a problem?
In what methodology this text is done? (for examples,

quantitative or qualitative, analysis/review of theory
or current practice, comparative, case study, personal
Methodology or approach reflection etc)
(This usually applies to
more formal, research- How objective the text? Is it based on the approach?
based texts) Are the results valid and reliable?
What analytical framework is used to discuss the results?
Do you find any clear problem, statement or hypothesis

in the text?
Is there any claim made by the author?
Is the argument consistent?
What kinds of confirmation does the text rely on?
AArgument and use of proof
How valid and reliable is the evidence?
How effective is the evidence in supporting the
argument?
Is there any conclusion written in the text?
Do these conclusions give good reason for the readers?
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Does the writing style fullfill the expectation
Style and sstructure of the intented audience? (For examples,
of the text writing expert/non-expert, academic/non- academic)
In what way this text organised?
LANGUAGE FEATURES OF CRITICAL REVIEW

This part of report will give a brief explanation of language features which are commonly
found in every critical review. The language features of critical review which will be
presented in this report are: reporting verbs and phrases; modals and expressions of
certainty and possibility; and concessive clauses.
1. Reporting verbs and phrases

The nature of critical review of an article is to tell readers what is good and bad in the
article, the writer of critical review should give the reader well understanding toward the
selected articles author thinks and do in the text. In this case the critical reviewer should
use the reporting verbs and phrases.
For example: Anderson claimed that illegal logging raised many conflicts in a country.
Another reason for using reporting verb and phrase is that the requirement of writing a
critical review is to criticize, to evaluate, and to analyze writing; the reviewers should
view the selected article from different perspective. Hence, they have to read or find many
sources related to the selected article. After that, of course, any opinions from other
sources that support or against the article being reviewed should be reported in his/her
critical review.
Other examples of reporting verbs: say, claim, state, argue, etc.
2. Modals and expression of certainty and possibility (from high to low)

One thing to keep in mind about critical review is giving opinion whether certain criterion
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in the writing being reviewed is strength or weak, (certain criteria here mean the authors
idea, research approach, or theories of framework). Critical review is more likely to show
opinion rather than fact, for that reason, in the critical review, the writer can use modals
such as can and may. Moreover, expressions of certainty and possibility are also can be
used.
Fo For example: The word theory has an honorific status. The same could
probably be said for practice.
3. Concessive clauses
Concessive clauses are adverbial clauses that can be used to describe a circumstance that
is in contrast or unfavorable to another circumstance, or to give reason on ones opinion.
In academic writing, concessive clauses are one way to acknowledge the strength/ validity
of an idea before presenting an alternative view. This does not weaken the critical
reviewers critique rather it can show balance and fairness in his/her analysis.
For example: Though by no means the first empiricist among the Greek philosophers,
Aristotle stood out among his contemporaries for the meticulous care with which he
worked (adapted from Hymans Contemporary Thought on Teaching).
DIFFERENCES AMONG CRITICAL, EVALUATION, AND ANALYSIS

1. Critical
To be critical does not mean to criticize in a negative manner. To be critical means that
you are required to:
a) Ask questions about the ideas and information presented in the text.
b) To comment thoroughly by engaging in a process of evaluating.
c) Making judgement about the validity or relevance of the text to your research or field
of study.
Part of the process of being critical is to use the information gathered from questioning to
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understand the topic from different perspectives and in relation to relevant critical
framework in the field. Furthermore, asking the right questions will help you to make
links with previous information, develop a position and arguments to support it.
2. Evaluation or judgment
Wikipedia defines evaluation as a systematic determination of merit, worth, and
significance of something or someone using criteria against a set of standards. Here you
decide the strengths and weaknesses of a text. Evaluation refers to the process which
encourages you to show an understanding of the text content by analyzing the purpose and
the structure of the text, assessing and making judgements about its appropriateness
according to various academic criteria.
3. Analysis
According to Wikipedia dictionary, analysis is the process of breaking a complex topic or
substance into smaller parts to gain a better understanding of it. To approach a topic
analytically is to examine the content, issues and structure by separating them into
component parts and how they interrelate.
***
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Chapter
7
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LITERATURE REVIEW

1. What is primary, secondary and tertiary source?
2. What is the basic structure of a literature review?
3. How to write literature review?
4. How to cite properly?
5. What is direct and indirect citation?
NOTION OF LITERATURE REVIEW

Literature review is an integral part in academic writing. Without literature review, you
writing cannot be reorganized as academic, but fiction. By literature review, you can proof that a
topic that you are discussing is a part or a continuation of someones previous discussion. Also,
by including literature review, you are stating to the readers that you are doing something
realistic and it can show you how far a certain topic has been discussed by previous researchers.
Provided by literature review, your arguments pro and against something is strengthened by other
researchers, writers or authorities who are more advanced.
In terms of a literature review, the literature means the works you consulted in order to
understand and investigate your research problem. Before you start with literature review, you
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need to understand the term primary, secondary and tertiary literature. Primary source is
original manuscript, documents or records used in preparing a published or unpublished work.
Meanwhile, secondary source means a published or unpublished work that relies on primary
source(s). In the other hand, tertiary source comprises a published or unpublished work that is
based on secondary sources. There is also a term called Gray (=grey) literature, which refers to
source material(s) not available through the usual systems of publication (e.g. books or
periodicals) and distribution, for example military document or medical record in a hospital.
Another definition is provided by University of Pittsburgh (2003): Primary Source is a
first-hand contemporary account written by an individual who experienced or witnessed it.
Primary sources allow you to examine the evidence first-hand without the opinions, analysis, and
interpretations of others. Primary sources are original documents, such as: diaries, letters,
memoirs, speeches, autobiographies, interviews and manuscripts. They may also include
published articles in newspapers or magazines, as long as they are written soon after the event
and are not historical accounts. Audio and video recordings, photographs, original literary and
theatrical works, and research reports in the natural and social sciences may also be primary
sources.
Secondary Source is a second-hand account or observation at least one step removed from
the event described. Secondary sources interpret, offer commentary, analyze and draw
conclusions about the events described in primary sources. Secondary sources make the
information more accessible to the public by assembling and interpreting information from a
variety of primary sources. The most common secondary sources are published works, often
found in books and scholarly journal articles.
Some important questions to ask when deciding if a source is primary or secondary include:
a) How does the author know these details?
b) Was the author present at the event?
c) Does the information come from the authors personal experience, or is it based on
accounts written by others?
CITING AND REFERENCING
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Sometimes your paper or theses looks less significant only because you cannot quote
properly or you cannot write correct reference. Here we have some examples how to cite
and make reference properly. There are two common styles in citing and referencing: the
American Psychological Association (APA) Style and Modern Language Association
(MLA) style. In most cases, the APA Style is widely used, so here we are going to see
examples based on this style.
Citations in the Text

ONE WORK BY SINGLE AUTHOR:
Smith (1983) compared reaction times ..
In a recent study of reaction times it was found that . (Smith, 1983)
In 1983, Smith compared reaction times .
ONE WORK BY THREE OR MORE AUTHORS: Cite all authors the first time the
reference occurs; in subsequent citations include only the surname of the first author
followed by "et al." (not underlined and with no period after "et") and the year. Citations
apart of the text, use and , when citing in parentheses use & symbol.
Williams, Jones, Smith, Bradner, and Torringon (1983) found (first citation) Researchers
(Williams, Jones, Smith, Bradner, & Torringon, 1983) found (first citation) Williams et al.
(1983) found (subsequent citations)
CITING MULTIPLE ARTICLES AT ONE TIME

Separate two or more citations with semi-colon, and list in alphabetical order.
Several studies have shown that monozygotic twins tend to be more similar than dizygotic
twins on this dimension (Dunn & Plomin, 1986; Plomin, DeFries, & Fulker, 1988). (first
citation)
INCLUDING A PAGE NUMBER WHEN USING A QUOTE

As Rose (1995) stated how genetic effects are modulated (p. 627).
Temperament, defined as constitutionally based individual differences in reactivity and
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self-regulation (Rothbart & Ahadi, 1994, p. 55).
REFERENCING A STUDY READ IN ANOTHER SOURCE

You should attempt to obtain any study that you are referencing, as descriptions of studies
may be interpreted differently person to person. In the case that you are unable (or do not
need) to get the original source, then the citation should include both sources (one referring
to and the one where information was found). For example: Consequently, experts can
devote more working memory capacity to using recalled information to reason and solve
problems (Bjorklund & Douglas, 1997, as cited in Berk, 2003). In the references you
would only list Berk, 2003, not the original paper.
References at end of paper

a) Arrange entries in alphabetical order by last name of the first author.
b) General format: Author last name, first initial (year). Title. Journal, issue,
pages.
c) Use a hanging indent for the second line of reference
(Format>Paragraph>Special select hanging.
d) When your reference list contains multiple works by the same author:
Single author entries precede multiple-author entries beginning with the same
last name.
References with the same first author and different second or third authors
are arranged alphabetically by the last name of the second author, etc.
References with the same authors in the same order are arranged by year of
publication, earliest first
Examples of references
JOURNAL ARTICLE, ONE AUTHOR
Baumrind, D. (1967). Child care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool
behavior. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 75(1), 43-88.
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JOURNAL ARTICLE, MULTIPLE AUTHORS: Ahadi, S. A., Rothbart, M. K., & Ye, R.
(1993). Children's temperament in the US and China:
Similarities and differences. European Journal of Personality, 7(5), 359-377.
ENTIRE BOOK
Harris, J. R. (1998). The nurture assumption: Why children turn out the way they do. New
York: The Free Press.
ARTICLE OR CHAPTER IN EDITED BOOK

LeVine, R. A. (1988). Human parental care: Universal goals, cultural strategies,
individual behavior. In R. A. LeVine & P. M. Miller & M. M. West (Eds.), Parental
behavior in diverse societies (pp. 3-12). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
WEBSITE
Try to use the format above with the information you have available on the website. If
you do not have an author, use website name at beginning. For example:
Babycenter.com (2005). Back up childcare plans.
http://www.babycenter.com/refcap/baby/babychildcare/5935.html
DIRECT AND INDIRECT CITATION

Fournier (2004) defined direct quotation as using the exact words the person used in the
text, presentation or interview. When you cite using direct quotation, your writing will
look like this:
The report stated clearly, Every department agrees with the proposed will work to meet
its deadlines.
In Crazy Mans Creek, Jack Boudreau wrote, Before radios came on the scene, people
often spent months in the wilderness living in complete silence, something that is virtually
unknown in todays world.
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When you quote more than 40 words, the passage whould be indented in a separate paragraph
without quotation marks. You must use a colon to introduce the quotation (Fournier, 2004).
In To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee, Atticus made his feelings known to the children:
What Mr. Radley did was his own business. If he wanted to come out, he would. If he wanted
to stay inside his own house, he had the right to stay inside free from the attentions of
inquisitive children, which was a mild term for the likes of us. (p. 53)
Indirect quotation, as Fournier stated (2004), means that you are paraphrasing an idea (see our
previous chapter). In the other words, you are integrating someones idea into your own work.
For example:
The report stated clearly that every department agreed with the proposed schedule and would
work to meet its deadlines.
Stanley Coren says in his book, the Intelligence of Dogs, that the most intelligent breed of dog
is the Border Collie and the least intelligent breed is the Afghan Hound.
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Reporting verbs used in citation
When introducing references into the text (citing) you should choose suitable 'reporting' verbs.
Reporting verbs are special verbs used to show that what you write after the verbs comes from
other sources. In most cases, you will need to mention the source (i.e. authors, institutions,
document, etc. first followed by a reporting verb and then the paraphrase of the original idea
(indirect quotation) or the exact words used by the author with the quotation marke (direct
quotation. Consider the following examples:
The main functions of a reporting verb are (1) to strengthen the argument you are making, and
(2) to show the readers your reason for using someone elses idea. Strengthening your ides can
be done by supporting them with what other people have done. The cited ideas may be an
argument for or argument agaist toward your original idea, or may also be just an additional to
your idea. The choice of appropriate reporting verbs will be able to show these to your reader.
Some verbs are neutral, or in other words, you just want to restate someone elses ideas, some
others may emphasize the viewpoint of the authors. There are also verbs that informs the readers
about what the original authos have done or what their viewpoints are about a phenomenon or
issue. The followings are the types of reporting verbs and their examples.
NO TYPES OF VERBS EXAMPLES

1 verbs which are neutral Smith (2004) describes...
Jones (1999, p 3) states...
Green (2002) defines...
2 verbs which draw attention Harris (2001) argues...

to the author's viewpoint O'Neill (1997) disputed...
Jackson (2003) conceded...
3 verbs which give Holmes (2000) investigated...

information about the Church (1998) evaluated...
author's work McColl (2002) estimated...
4 verbs which highlight the Page

Brown (2001) believes...
author's viewpoint 93
McAllister (1996) recognised...
Smith (2004) predicted...
THE IMPORTANCE OF SOURCE MATERIALS
Here we have some source materials for academic writings, rated from the most reliable and
up-to-date to the least (http://library.concordia.ca, 2010).
Journal articles
Journal articles are good especially for up-to-date information. Bear in mind, though, that it
can take up to two years to publish articles. They are frequently used in literature reviews
because they offer a relatively concise, up-to-date format for research, and because all
reputable journals are refereed (i.e. editors publish only the most relevant and r eliable
research).
Books
Books tend to be less up-to-date as it takes longer for a book to be published than for a
journal article. Text books are unlikely to be useful for including in your literature review as
they are intended for teaching, not for research, but they do offer a good starting point from
which to find more detailed sources.
Conference proceedings
These can be useful in providing the latest research, or research that has not been published.
They are also helpful in providing information on which people are currently involved in
which research areas, and so can be helpful in tracking down other work by the same
researchers.
Government/corporate reports
Many government departments and corporations commission periodically carry ou t
research. Their published findings can provide a useful source of information,
depending on your field of study.
Newspapers
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Since newspapers are generally intended for a general (not specialized) audience, the
information they provide will be of very limited use for your literature review. Often
newspapers are more helpful as providers of information about recent trends,
discoveries or changes, e.g. announcing changes in government policy, but you should
then search for more detailed information in other sources.
Theses and dissertations

These can be useful sources of information. However there are disadvantages: 1) they can
be difficult to obtain since they are not published, but are generally only available from
the library shelf or through interlibrary loan; 2) the student who carried out the research
may not be an experienced researcher and therefore you might have to treat their findings
with more caution than published research.
Internet
The fastest-growing source of information is on the Internet. It is impossible to
characterize the information available but here are some hints about using electronic
sources: 1) bear in mind that anyone can post information on the Internet so the quality
may not be reliable, 2) the information you find may be intended for a general audience
and so not be suitable for inclusion in your literature review (information for a general
audience is usually less detailed) and 3) more and more refereed electronic journals (e-
journals) are appearing on the Internet - if they are refereed it means that there is an
editorial board that evaluates the work before publishing it in their e-journal, so the quality
should be more reliable (depending on the reputation of the journal).
CD-ROMS
At the moment, few CR-ROMs provide the kind of specialized, detailed information about
academic research that you need for your own research since most are intended for a
general audience. However, more and more bibliographies are being put onto CD-ROM
for use in academic libraries, so they can be a very valuable tool in searching for the
information you need.
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Magazines
Magazines intended for a general audience (e.g. Time) are unlikely to be useful in
providing the sort of information you need. Specialized magazines may be more useful
(for example business magazines for management students) but usually magazines are not
useful for your research except as a starting point by providing news or general
information about new discoveries, policies, etc. that you can further research in more
specialized sources.
BASIC STRUCTURE OF A LITERATURE REVIEW

There are four main elements of a literature review, according to
(http://library.concordia.ca, 2010):
An overview of the subject, issue or theory under consideration, along with the objectives of
the literature review.
Division of works under review into categories (e.g. those in support of a particular
position, those against, and those offering alternative theses entirely).
Explanation of how each work is similar to and how it varies from the others.
Conclusions as to which pieces are best considered in their argument, are most convincing
of their opinions, and make the greatest contribution to the understanding and development
of their area of research.
1. The introduction should include:
a) the nature of the topic under discussion (the topic of your thesis)
b) the parameters of the topic (what does it include and exclude)?
c) the basis for your selection of the literature
2. The conclusion should include:

a) A summary of major agreements and disagreements in the literature
b) A summary of general conclusions that are being drawn.
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3. A summary of where your thesis sits in the literature (Your review could become
one of the future texts on the subjecthow will later research students describe your
work in their literature reviews?)
a) The body paragraphs could include relevant paragraphs on:

b) Historical background, including classic texts;
c) Current mainstream versus alternative theoretical or ideological viewpoints,
including differing theoretical assumptions, differing political outlooks, and
other conflicts;
d) Possible approaches to the subject (empirical, philosophical, historical,
postmodernist, etc);
e) Definitions in use;
f) Current research studies;
g) Current discoveries about the topic;
h) Principal questions that are being asked;
i) General conclusions that are being drawn;
j) Methodologies and methods in use;
HOW TO WRITE LITERATURE REVIEW?

http://www.canberra.edu.au (2012) proposed some steps in writing literature review:
1. The literature search

Find out what has been written on your topic. Use as many bibliographical
sources as you can to find relevant titles. The following are likely sources:
Bibliographies and references in key textbooks and recent journal articles. Your
supervisor or tutor should tell you which are the key texts and relevant journals.
Abstracting databases, such as PsycINFO, Medline, etc.
Citation databases, such as Web of Science, Scopus.
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1. Noting the bibliographical details
Write down the full bibliographical details of each book or article as soon as you find a
reference to it. This will save you an enormous amount of time later on.
2. Finding the literature
Once you have what looks like a list of relevant texts, you have to find them in libraries or
internet.
a. Reading the literature

Before you begin to read a book or article, make sure you written down the full details (see
note bibliographical 2 above). Take notes as you read the literature. You are reading to find
out how each piece of writing approaches the subject of your research, what it has to say
about it, and (especially for research students) how it relates to your own thesis. Here are
some important questions as guidance for you:
Is it a general textbook or does it deal with a specific issue(s)?

Is it an empirical report, a theoretical study, a sociological or political account, a
historical overview, etc? All or some of these?
Does it follow a particular school of thought?
What is its theoretical basis?
What definitions does it use?
What is its general methodological approach? What methods are used?
What kinds of data does it use to back up its argument?
What conclusions does it come to?
Other questions may be relevant. It depends on the purpose of the review.
3. Writing the review

Having gathered the relevant details about the literature, you now need to write the review.
The kind of review you write, and the amount of detail, will depend on the level of your
studies. Make sure that you can differentiate between a literature review with an annotated
bibliography. An annotated bibliography deals with each text in turn, describing and
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evaluating the text, using one paragraph for each text. In contrast, a literature
review synthesises many texts in one paragraph. Each paragraph (or section if it is a long
thesis) of the literature review should classify and evaluate the themes of the texts that are
relevant to your thesis; each paragraph or section of your review should deal with a different
aspect of the literature.
SAMPLE OF LITERATURE REVIEW

The following example is a short literature review on language and gender, reviewed by a
student named Alastair Pennycook, as cited from an internet site (http://www4.caes.hku.hk)
LANGUAGE AND GENDER: A brief Literature Review

by Alastair Pennycook (http://www4.caes.hku.hk, 2012)
With the general growth of feminist work in many academic fields, it is hardly surprising
that the relationship between language and gender has attracted considerable attention in
recent years. In an attempt to go beyond "folklinguistic" assumptions about how men and
women use language (the assumption that women are "talkative", for example), studies
have focused on anything from different syntactical, phonological or lexical uses of
language to aspects of conversation analysis, such as topic nomination and control,
interruptions and other interactional features. While some research has focused only on the
description of differences, other work has sought to show how linguistic differences both
reflect and reproduce social difference. Accordingly, Coates (1988) suggests that research
on language and gender can be divided into studies that focus on dominance and those that
focus on difference.
Much of the earlier work emphasized dominance. Lakoff's (1975) pioneering work
suggested that women's speech typically displayed a range of features, such as tag
questions, which marked it as inferior and weak. Thus, she argued that the type of
subordinate speech learned by a young girl "will later be an excuse others use to keep her
in a demeaning position, to refuse to treat her seriously as a human being" (1975, p.5).
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While there are clearly some problems with Lakoff's work - her analysis was not based on
empirical research, for example, and the automatic equation of subordinate with `weak' is
problematic - the emphasis on dominance has understandably remained at the Centre of
much of this work. Research has shown how men nominated topics more, interrupted
more often, held the floor for longer, and so on (see, for example, Zimmerman and West,
1975). The chief focus of this approach, then, has been to show how patterns of interaction
between men and women reflect the dominant position of men in society.
Some studies, however, have taken a different approach by looking not so much at power
in mixed-sex interactions as at how same-sex groups produce certain types of interaction.
In a typical study of this type, Maltz and Borker (1982) developed lists of what they
described as men's and women's features of language. They argued that these norms of
interaction were acquired in same-sex groups rather than mixed-sex groups and that the
issue is therefore one of (sub-)cultural miscommunication rather than social inequality.
Much of this research has focused on comparisons between, for example, the competitive
conversational style of men and the cooperative conversational style of women.
While some of the more popular work of this type, such as Tannen (1987), lacks a critical
dimension, the emphasis on difference has nevertheless been valuable in fostering
research into gender subgroup interactions and in emphasizing the need to see women's
language use not only as subordinate but also as a significant subcultural domain.
Although Coates' (1988) distinction is clearly a useful one, it also seems evident that these
two approaches are by no means mutually exclusive. While it is important on the one
hand, therefore, not to operate with a simplistic version of power and to consider language
and gender only in mixed-group dynamics, it is also important not to treat women's
linguistic behaviour as if it existed outside social relations of power. As Cameron,
McAlinden and O'Leary (1988) ask, "Can it be coincidence that men are aggressive and
hierarchically-organized conversationalists, whereas women are expected to provide
conversational support?" (p.80). Clearly, there is scope here for a great deal more research
that
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is based on empirical data of men's and women's speech;
operates with a complex understanding of power and gender relationships (so that
women's silence, for example, can be seen both as a site of oppression and as a site of
possible resistance);
looks specifically at the contexts of language use, rather than assuming broad gendered
differences;
involves more work by men on language and gender, since attempts to understand male
uses of language in terms of difference have been few (thus running the danger of
constructing men's speech as the norm and women's speech as different)
aims not only to describe and explain but also to change language and social
relationships.
It is obvious that the writer has gone through intensive reading to relevant literature to the
topic he was writing. He develops current of thought through reading and presents supports to his
standpoints by using quotations or citations. He synthesizes ideas, points out and even judges
those ideas to strengthen his points like in Although Coates' (1988) distinction is clearly a
useful one, it also seems evident that these two approaches are by no means mutually exclusive.
This indicates that the writer has developed deep understanding to his reading and has used his
critical thinking ability to make judgment.
***
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Chapter 8
WRITING AN ABSTRACT
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1. What is actually an abstract?

2. What does an abstract contain?
3. How to write an abstract?
WHAT IS AN ABSTRACT?
An abstract is a short summary of a completed research. If done well, it makes the reader
want to learn more about the research (http://research.berkeley.edu, 2012). As cited from
this site, abstract writing is a highly specialized form of academic writing. It requires a
clear and concise writing style that conveys complicated information in a limited amount
of space. Abstracts reach a more broad audience than almost any other form of academic
writing. Approximately 10 to 500 times more people will read an abstract than the
associated article or attend a presentation.
There are some basic components of an abstract in any discipline as listed below:
1) Motivation/problem statement:
This includes short background of the importance of the problem to be taken into
consideration, what practical, scientific, theoretical or artistic gap the research fills.
2) Methods/procedure/approach:
This includes the way the research is conducted, who the subject are, how the data are
collected, and analyzed.
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3) Results/findings/product:
This presents the results of the analyses and brief discussion of the findings. In other
words, this presents what has been found through the research or the answers to the
research questions.
4) Conclusion/implications:
This contains the implication of the research findings in relation to the identified
practical, scientific, theoretical or artistic research gaps.
TYPES OF ABSTRACT
As cited from http://www.cameron.edu, (2012): there are two types of abstract as
mentioned below:
Informational Abstracts
This kind of abstract mainly presents the most important information from a report. This
abstract contains the purpose, methods, scope, results, conclusions, and recommendations
that allow the readers to whether or not they want to continue reading the complete
report.
Descriptive Abstracts
This kind of abstract mainly describes the content of the report in a concise way. It
includes the purpose, methods, scope, conclusions, and recommendations. In this abstract
the results are not mentioned in the purpose to attract readers to read the full report to
find the results.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD ABSTRACT

Some qualities of a good abstract as presented in http://www.zcomb.com, (2012) are as
follows:
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Word limit
This can be considered as the most important characteristics of an abstract. The use of
words is carefully decided so that not many words are used to help the readers, writers,
publishing organizers and conferences executives to save time when reading it. Usually,
the number of words in an abstract is approximately between 100 to 300 words.
Correct structure and sequence

An abstract represents the quality of the full report therefore, it must be well written.
Apart from carefully selected words, it must use correct structure or grammar, presented
in a good order of ideas or sentences and in a balanced proportion of components of the
report. Key information should be given preference to important information. Mostly, an
abstract has such information essentially, statement of problem, objectives, procedures,
findings and recommendations.
No new information
An abstract is short but complete in nature. In other words, it is the brief version of a
longer paper or article or report. An abstract is a brief description of a longer paper. Thus,
it is not acceptable to insert new information that is not in the complete version or real
document.
No definitions
No definition can be included in an abstract, reader can read the full text or document if
he wants to know the definition of a term.
Well-written
An abstract should be well-written, or in other words, written in an appropriate academic
way or style, well structured and use accurate grammar, correct structures and spellings.
When reading it, the reader can easily understand without any misinterpretation.
No references
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There is no need to cite or present quotation in an abstract, but only the summary of the
paper or report so that to keep the abstract short and effective.
Key words
The most important keywords should be written in separate line to help readers to decide
whether the research is relevant to their work, or to help them search other relevant
sources from a library or on line resources.
Author details
Through abstract, a reader may also get better information about the author and may
continue searching for other relevant work from the same author. The reader can also learn
about a research topic and the appropriate methodology employed for that particular
research topic and what the objectives and findings are.
Preview of an article
An abstract is a starting point for the reader to expect what the full text will contain.
Through an abstract a reader may get comprehension of the whole paper or article.
Information source
A researcher usually searches for latest information about a particular topic through an
abstract collection. By reading abstracts, he can further read the full texts and update his
own literature review. Sometimes, a reader gets an idea for further reading and develops a
research plan after reading an abstract. A reader may as well get an idea for a topic for a
conference paper after reading an abstract. The conference organizer can save time for
selecting presenters by reading the short abstract. Similarly, a publisher may need to read
an abstract first to get the impression if the paper for publication worth to be further
considered. Thus, an abstract is very important part of an academic writing and tertiary
level students need special trainings for writing an abstract.
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SOME CONSIDERATIONS BEFORE WRITING AN ABSTRACT
As mentioned previously, an abstract should be clear and concise. To write a clear and
concise abstract, the writer should be careful with the choice of words and structures so
that the abstract presents only the most important points of the longer document (paper,
article or research report). First of all, there should be a statement about what the study is
about, and then, how the study is conducted (which includes research methodology in
brief), and finally what the findings are. The followings are some tips for writing an
abstract, taken from http://research.berkeley.edu/ucday/abstract.html.
Avoid extensive use of the passive voice, for example: Gasoline was sweetened by
iron bauxites in air. Iron bauxites sweetened gasoline in air. The level of sweetening
was measured by...
Convert sentences into the active voice can make an academic writing more concise.
Avoid abbreviations, acronyms and jargon If necessary, dene unfamiliar terms,
introduce acronyms E.g. ...rapid eye movement (REM).
SAMPLES OF ABSTRACT
Abstracts can be classified into two types: informative and descriptive abstracts. An
informative abstract contain representative information about the content of the whole
writing (or the whole study if it is an abstract of a research paper). It contains the research
problems, the procedures of conducting the research and finally the findings. In a descriptive
abstract, the writer describes every point clearly so that the reader can imagine the whole
content of the written work. To make an abstract clear, the writer should be careful with the
word choice and grammar use and should control the flow of ideas so that it wont exceed the
required length. To be concise means the abstract should be short but represent the whole
content of the written work. The followings are the examples of informative and descriptive
abstracts:
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1. Informative abstract
To learn about the meaning of an informative abstract, please read the following
example first.
This study investigated the role of "signaling" in helping good readers comprehend
expository text. As the existing literature on signaling, reviewed in the last issue of the
Journal, pointed to deficiencies in previous studies' methodologies, one goal of this study
was to refine prose research methods. Two passages were designed in one of eight
signaled versions each. The design was constructed to assess the individual and combined
effect of headings, previews, and logical connectives. The study also assessed the effect
of passage length, familiarity and difficulty. The results showed that signals do improve a
reader's comprehension, particularly comprehension two weeks after the reading of a
passage and comprehension of subordinate and superordinate inferential information.
This study supports the hypothesis that signals can influence retention of text-based
information, particularly with long, unfamiliar, or difficult passages.
(Houp & Pearsall, Reporting Technical Information, 7th edition, Macmillan Publishing
Co., 1992)
As seen in the paragraph above, the information is expressed with careful choice of
words and in high academic writing style. In a concise paragraph, the reader can get the
general sense of what the research article or a thesis is about so that they can make a
decision whether or not they would like to read the full text.
2. Descriptive abstract
Descriptive abstract is different from an informative abstract in the way that the former
provides a description of a topic while the latter gives information about the overall
content of a research report or research article. To give a clear understanding about
descriptive abstract, the following example is presented.
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This paper describes what students should consider in writing about literature review,
writing essay examinations, and writing reports. Sets of questions are proposed to help
students generate ideas for an analysis, interpretation, or evaluation of primary or
secondary sources. Practical advice is given about how to write satisfactory answers in
an essay examination. The special considerations and formats of informative and
persuasive reports are discussed, and special attention is paid to the writing of
descriptive and informative abstracts.
(adapted from http://www.pnc.edu/engl/writingcenter/descriptiveabstract.html)
The abstract above clearly demonstrates a description as when a reader reads it, s/he
can figure out what the content of the paper step by step. This kind of abstract is
common in a qualitative descriptive research article, especially phenomelogical
research in which the main purpose is to describe a phenomenon.
This chapter concludes that an abstract is an important part of an academic work such as
research paper or report and a thesis. A reader usually starts with reading an abstract
carefully before deciding whether or not continues reading the complete work. Therefore,
a student researcher should have enough practice in writing up an abstract to meet the
style, the appropriateness and quality academic language.
***
REFERENCES
Alyona. (2011). IELTS Academic Writings: How to Describe a Graph, a Diagram, and a
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Table?. http://elf-english.com/2011/04/ielts-academic-writing-1-how-to-describe-a-
diagram-a-graph-a-table/
Cameron.edu. (2012). http://www.cameron.edu/~carolynk/Abstracts.html
Canberra.edu.au. (2012). http://www.canberra.edu.au/studyskills/writing/literature
Fas.harvard.edu. (2012). http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~wricntr/documents/Outlining.html
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PREFACE

CHAPTER 1: WRITING AT TERTIARY LEVEL 4

CHAPTER 2: DEVELOPING PARAGRAPHS 18

CHAPTER 5: WRITING FROM DATA, CHARTS AND DIAGRAMS 54

CHAPTER 7: LITERATURE REVIEW 82

CHAPTER 8: WRITING AN ABSTRACT 95

WRITING AT TERTIARY LEVEL

In this chapter, you will learn:

1.1 WHAT IS ACADEMIC WRITING?

1.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF AN ACADEMIC WRITING

1.3 REQUIREMENTS FOR ACADEMIC WRITING

(1) Knowing range of knowledge

1.4 STRUCTURE OF AN ACADEMIC WRITING

1.5 DEVELOPING ACADEMIC WRITING

1.6 TECHNIQUES IN DEVELOPING ACADEMIC WRITING

ASIAN AND AFRICAN ELEPHANTS

There are two techniques in writing comparison-contrast essay:

1. Block (whole vs. whole)

First all A: Point 1

(2) Point-by-point (topic by topic)

(3) Extended Definition

Taken from: http://pitasantana.multiply.com/journal/item/11/Task-2-Class-Relationship-

This is an example of an essay which explains a process.

(Excerpted from Encarta Reference Library, 2009)

What you will learn in this chapter?

Excerpted from: Encarta Reference Library 2009.

Topic sentence : Smoking cigarettes can be an expensive habit.

(Smalley, et.al., 1982, p.15)

Supporting idea 1 : Cigarettes cost about seventy-five cents.

Original passage by Tisna Endirianti,

Original passage by Nopi Suardani

2.3 KINDS OF PARAGRAPH

(1) Narrative paragraph

(2) Expositive paragraph

Study the example below to understand what expositive paragraph is like:

Taken from: http://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-exposition.html

(3) Definition paragraph

(4) Descriptive paragraph

The following is an example of a descriptive paragraph:

Taken from: http://www.newsroom101.com/longleaf/ggrow/modes.html

Taken from: http://www.newsroom101.com/longleaf/ggrow/modes.html

(6) Process analysis

Taken from: http://www.newsroom101.com/longleaf/ggrow/modes.html

(7) Persuasive paragraph

Taken from: http://www.newsroom101.com/longleaf/ggrow/modes.html

(8) Spatial relationship

Original passage by Julista Putra,

(9) Class relationship

Original passage by Santi Oktarina,

2.4 THE USE OF COHESIVE DEVICES IN BUILDING A PARAGRAPH

2.4.1 LOGICAL DEVICES

again equally in fact also furthermore

compared with in the same way similarly

(c) Contrast and concession

in all in short on the whole

(h) Sequence or temporal relationship

after (a while) before (that time) since (then) afterwards

As far as...is concerned

(a) Use of pronominal forms to replace noun phrases

(c) Use of pronominal forms to replace clauses or sentences.

(e) Repetition of key words

(f) Use of synonyms to avoid repetition

(g) Use of a construction implying whole part or part-whole relationship

(h) Use of related word forms